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THE LIBRARIES

4 K

BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY.

COMMITTEE.

Chairman — The Rt. Hon. LORD BROUGHAM, F.R.S., Mem. of the Nat. Inst, of France.

Vice- Chairman — The Right Hon. EARL SPENCER.

Treasurer — J OWN WOOD, Esq.

W. Allen, Esq., F.R. and R.A.S.

Captain Beaufort, R.N., F.R. and R.A.S.

George Burrows, M.D.

Professor Carey, A.M.

John ConoUy, M.D.

William Coulson, Esq.

The Rt. Rev. the Bishop of St. David's, D.D.

J. F. Davis, Esq., F.R.S.

Sir Henry De la Beche, F.R.S.

The Right Hon. Lord Denman.

Samuel Duckworth, Esq.

The Rt. Rev. the Bishop of Durham, D.D.

T. F. Ellis, Esq,, A.M., F.R.A.S.

John Elliotson, M.D., F.R.S.

Thomas Falconer, Esq.

John Forbes, M.D. and F.R.S.

Sir L L. Goldsmid, Bart., F.R. and R.A.S.

Francis Henry Goldsmid, Esq.

B. Gompertz, Esq., F.R. and R.A.S.

Professor Graves, A.M., F.R.S.

G. B. Greenough, Esq., F.R. and L.S.

Sir Edmund Head, Bart, A.M.

M. D. Hill, Esq., Q.C.

Rowland Hill, Esq., F.R.A.S.

The Rt. Hon. Sir J. C. Hobhouse, Bart., M.P.

Thomas Hodgkin, M.D.

David Jardine, Esq., A.M.

Henry B. Ker, Esq.

Professor Key, A.M.

Sir Denis Le Marchant, Bart.

Sir Charles Lemon, Bart., M.P.

George C. Lewis, Esq., A.M.

James Loch, Esq., M.P., F.G.S.

Professor Long, A.M.

Professor Maiden, A.M.

A. T. Malkin, Esq., A.M.

JMr. Serjeant Manning.

R. I. Murchison, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S.

The Right Hon. Lord Nugent.

W. Smith O'Brien, Esq., M.P.

Professor Quain.

P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. R.S., F.R.A.S.

R. W. Rothman, Esq., A.M.

Sir Martin A. Shee, P.R.A., F.R.S.

Sir G. T. Staunton, Bart, M.P.

John Taylor, Esq., F.R.S.

Professor A. T. Thomson, M.D.

Thomas Vardon, Esq.

Jacob Waley, Esq., B.A.

James Walker, Esq., F.R.S., Pr. Inst. Civ.

Eng.
Henry Waymouth, Esq.
Thomas Webster, Esq., A.M.
Right Hon. Lord Wrottesley, A.M., F.R.A.S.
J. A. Yates, Esq.

THOMAS COATES, Esq., Secretarij, 59. Lincoln's Inn Fields.

London :

Trintpd by A. Spottiswoode,

Ni!w-Street- Square.

THE

BIOGRAPHICAL
DICTIONARY

OF THE

SOCIETY FOR THE DIFFUSION OF
USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

VOL. L PART IL

LONDON:
LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS,

PATERNOSTER-ROW.

1842.

THE FIRST VOLUME.

In completing the First Volume of this Work, the Committee
think it only just towards those engaged in it to express their
satisfaction that a task so extensive and difficult as that which the
Society has undertaken has hitherto been accomplished with a far
greater share of success than they had reason to hope for.

The labour of preparing a Biographical Dictionary according
to the plan laid down in the Editor's Preface may be estimated
by the fact that in tliis volume are contained 1661 Memoirs. To
each, with scarcely an exception, are added the authorities on
which it is founded. And when it is observed that many of these
Memoirs, whether from the inadequacy of materials or from the
want of interest in the personal incidents of the life, occupy only
a few lines, the preparation of which must have cost, in almost
aU cases, much research and required the exercise of discretion,
the Committee think it not unfitting that they shoidd express how
deeply they feel indebted to those Gentlemen who have assisted
them in this undertaking, and of whose names they now give
a list.

By order of the Committee.

THOMAS COATES,

Secretary.

59. Lincoln's Inn Fields,
1st November, 1842.

17708S

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.

INITIALS. NAMES.

S. B. Samuel Birch, British Museum.

G. L. C. George L. Craik, A.M.
W. B. D. William Bodham Donne.

D. F. Duncan Forbes, A.M., M. As. Sees. London and Paris ;

Professor of Oriental Languages, King's College, London.

P. de G. Pascual de Gayangos, Late Professor of Arabic at the

Athenaeum of Madrid.

Hunter Gordon, A.^I.

William Alexander Greenhill, M.D., Trinity College,

Oxford.
C. PouLETT Harris.

R. H. HoRNE, Author of Cosmo de' Medici, Stc. &c.
George Murray Humphry, M.R.C.S.L.
The Reverend Joseph Hunter.
David Jardine, A.M.
J. Winter Jones, British Museum.

Benjamin JowETT, A.B., Fellow of Baliol College, Oxford.
Charles Knight.
Edwin Lankester, M.D., F.L.S.
W. H. Leeds.
A. Loewy.
George Long, A.M., Professor of Latin in University

College, London.
Arthur Thomas Malkin, A.M.
The Reverend Joseph Calrow Means.
De M. Augustus De Morgan, of Trinity College, Cambridge:
Professor of Mathematics in University College, London.
John Narrien, F.R. and R.A.S.
Charles Newton, British Museum.

Rev. Alfred Towek Paget, A.M., of Caius College,
Cambridge; Mathematical Master of Shrewsbury School.
J. P. James Paget, Demonstrator of Morbid Anatomy at St.

Bartholomew's Hospital.
W. P. William Plate, LL.D., 'SI. R. Geographical Soc. of Paris.

L. S. Leonhard Schmitz, Ph. D., late of the University of Bonn.

. A. G.

P. H.

H. H.

M. H.

W. J.

H.L.

T. M.

CM.

De M

J.N.

T. P.

Vlil LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.

INITIALS. NAMES.

P. S. The Rev. Philip Smith, A.B.

A. S. Aloys Sprenger, M.D.

J. T. S. John Tatam Stanesby.

E. T. Edward Taylor, Gresham Professor of Music.

F. H. T. F. H. Trithen, Member of the Odessa Society for History

and Antiquities.
A. V. Andre Vieusseux, Author of History of Switzerland in

Library of Useful Knowledge.

G. W. The Very Reverend George Waddington, D.D., Dean

of Durham.
J. W. Joshua Watts.

T. W. Thomas Watts, British Museum.

W. W. William Weir.
C. W. Charles W'est, M.D.

R.W. jun. Richard Westmacott, junior.
R. W— n. The Reverend Robert Whiston, A.M., Fellow of Trinity

College, Cambridge.
W. C.W. W.C. Wimberley.
R. N. W. Ralph Nicholson W^ornum.

AGATHOCLES,

AGATHOCLES.

AGATHOCLES ("AyaeoKX^s), a Greek
historian. He was a native of C'yzicus, and
appears to be the same person as the Aga-
tJiocles -nhoin Athenscus in two passages calls
a Babylonian ; for each is called the author
of a history of Cyzicus (Jlspl KvQkov), of which
the third book is mentioned by Athcnaeus.
Cicero and Pliny were well acquainted with
this work, but we now possess only a few
fragments of it preserved by Athenscus and
some other writers, who are mentioned below.
The time when Agathocles lived is uncertain.
The scholiast on ApoUonius mentions Me-
moirs {vTrofivrifioiTa) by one Agathocles, who
is generally believed to be the same as the
author of the histoi-y of Cyzicus. (Athe-
mcus, i. .30. ix. .375. xii. 51.5. xiv. 649. ;
Stephanus Byzant. v. BeV^i/coj ; Schul. ad
Hesiod. Tlicoy. 485. ; Etymol. Mag. v. Ai'kttj;
Schol. ad Apollonium Rhodium, iv. 761. ;
Cicero, De Div. i. 24. ; Plmy, HiM. Nat.,
Elenchus of books iv., v., and vi. ; Solinus,
Pohjhist. 1. ; Festus, v. Honutm.)

There are several other ancient writers of
the name of Agathocles, of whom nothing is
known beyond the name and the titles of '
some of their works. One Agathocles, a
native of Chios, is mentioned by Pliny and
Varro as a writer on agriculture ; another, of ;
Miletus, wrote, according to Plutarch, a book
on rivers ; a third wrote a work on the con-
stitution of Pessinus ; and a fourth, a native
of Atrax, is mentioned by Suidas as the
author of a work on fishing (aAieuTjKo).
(Fabricius, Bihliuth. GrcEca, iii. 456. 459.
vi. 354.) L. S.

AGATHOCLES ('A7a0oKAf/j) was tyrant
of Syracuse from d.c. 317 to 2S9. In this,
as in many other cases, legends have been
invented to embellish the humble origin of a
powerful man. The early history of Aga-
thocles is thus told by Diodorus. He was
the son of Carcinus, a llhegian, and was bom
in the Carthaginian town of Thermi in Sicily.
Warned by omens that the boy about to be
born would be the caiLse of great evils to
Carthage and Sicily, Carcinus exposed him
in the fields. His mother however succeeded
in preserving his life, and intrusted him to
an uncle, by whom he was brought up to the
age of seven ; at which he was made known
to, and adopted by, his father. Accounts
differ as to the date of his birth : the state-
ment of Diodorus, that he died at the age of
seventy-two, would fix it about B.C. 360.
After the battle on the Crimissus, B.C. 339,
in which Timoleon defeated the Carthagi-
nians, both father and son, with all others
who wished, were admitted to be citizens of
Syracuse, where they thenceforth resided, and
where Agathocles was bred to the trade of a
potter. Being remarkable for bodily strength
and beauty, he gained the favour of a rich man
named Damas, by whose interest he obtained
t1ie military rank of chiliarch. Damas dying,
Agathocles married his widow, gained pos-

VOL. I.

session of his fortune, and thus became one
of the wealthiest citizens of Syracuse. He
had been remarkable as a soldier for strength
and skill in military exercises ; as an officer
he was distinguished, not only for bravery,
but for readiness and impudence in public
speaking. In an expedition against Crotona,
he quarrelled with Sosistratus, who then had
the lead in Syracuse ; and he retired in con-
sequence to Italy. After various adventures
as a soldier of fortune, he returned to Syra-
cuse on the expulsion of the party of Sosis-
tratus ; and in ensuing contests with the
exiles, who were backed by Carthage, he
gained both credit and influence as a brave
soldier, and one fertile in resources. During
the generalship of Acestorides the Corinthian,
a plot was laid against his life, as dangerous
to the commonwealth. Having escaped how-
ever, and fled to the interior, he raised a
force strong enough to render himself fonni-
dable both to the Carthaginians and to his
own countrymen : and he was in consequence
invited to return to Syracuse ; where he had
not long been before he destroyed, by a mili-
tary massacre, all the men of note, and made
himself, in the Greek phrase, tyrant (b.c. 317).
It is observed by Polybius (ix, 23.), that
having gained his power most cruelly, he
was afterwards, in the use of it, most mild
and gentle : a statement singularly at variance
with the atrocious cruelties recorded of his
after life. See Diodorus, xix. 107. xx. 42.
71, 72. for particulars.

It appears, without the facts being clearly
related, that by the year 314 Agathocles had
extended his power so far over the minor
states of Sicily, as to induce Agrigentum.
Gela, and Messene, to ally themselves against
him, Acrotatus, the son of Cleomeues king
of Sparta, came to help the league ; but no-
thing of consequence was done, and peace
was concluded by the mediation of Hamil-
car, the Carthaginian general, on condition
that Carthage should retain Heraclea, Seli-
nus, and Himera, and that all other cities
should be independent, Syracuse still retaining
the Hegemonia (jiyafiovia), a word capable
of being stretched into anything. Accord-
ingly Diodorus adds, that Agathocles, finding
Sicily now clear of hostile armies, readily
reduced most of it under his power. At this
time, besides the native force of citizens, he
had of armed mercenaries 10,000 foot and
3050 horse. In B.C. 311 the Carthaginians
sent over a powerful army under Hamilcar,
to contest the supremacy. A great battle
was fought near Gela, which Agathocles lost.
He then retired into Syracuse, finding that
the Carthaginian force was too strong, and
their cause too popular, to be resisted in the
open field ; and he then conceived and exe-
cuted the bold design of transporting the war
into the enemy's country, a resolution avow-
edly imitated by Scipio Africanus, when
he invaded Africa in the second Punic war,

G G

AGATHOCLES.

Leaving Syracuse well provisioned and gar-
risoned, under his brother Antandrus, he put
to sea with a large army, the destination of
which was kept profoundly secret ; and having
baffled the pursuit of the Carthaginian fleet,
he landed safely in Africa. He then addressed
the army to the effect that, while in danger
from the enemy's fleet, he had vowed to
burn his own ships in honour of Ceres and
Proserpine, the tutelary goddesses of Sicily,
if by their means he might obtain delivery
from that urgent peril ; and he exhorted the
soldiers to discharge the obligation, himself
meanwhile applying the first torch. The
example was followed with acclamations. All
hope of retreat however being thus cut off, as
had been the object of the general, a gloomy
despondency ensued ; which Agathocles has-
tened to counteract by marching through a
rich and pleasant country towards Carthage,
to which he laid siege after gaining a battle,
and reducing, with little trouble, the open
country and most of the towns. Meanwhile
he sent an embassy to Ophelias, formerly one
of Alexander's officers, then prince of Cyrene,
promising to resign Africa to him as the price
of his help. Ophelias consented, and crossed
the deserts with an army more than 20,000
strong : when, having been at first kindly
received, he was unexpectedly attacked by
Agathocles on a forged charge of treachery,
overcome, and slain, b. c. 308. His army was
then incorporated with that of the victor.
Syracuse meanwhile held out ; but of the
other Sicilian cities, most had taken advantage
of Agathocles' absence to assert their inde-
pendence. Feeling his presence necessary at
home, he left his son Archagathus to com-
mand in Africa ; and returning to Sicily, at
first gained some important successes over
the revolted cities. But Dinocrates, a Syra-
cusan exile, collected a force too great to be
resisted in the field ; and while fortune proved
adverse in Sicily, things went worse in Africa,
where the Carthaginians had recovered their
spirit during his absence, and had defeated
Archagathus, enclosed him in his camp, and
reduced him to. difficulty for provisions.
Agathocles returned to Africa ; but even his
presence was unavailing to regain his former
superiority. Unable for want of a sufficient
fleet to withdraw his army by sea, he himself
attempted to fly ; but the intention being dis-
covered, he was seized and put in chains by his
troops. lu the confusion which ensued, how-
ever, he escaped on board ship, leaving in
the camp two of his sons, Archagathus and
Heraclides. His sons were immediately pvit
to death by the exasperated soldiers, who
then made terms with the Carthaginians, by
which a settlement was granted to them in
the city of Selinus in Sicily. Here Diodorus
remarks on the Divine vengeance, by which
Agathocles lost both his sons and his army,
on the same day and month in which he had
treacherously murdered Ophelias, and got
442

possession of his troops, the year before, (xx.
70.)

He landed at Egesta (b. c. 307), where, to
raise money, he practised such horrible bar-
barities as wholly to depopulate the city,
which he assigned to new-comers. At Syra-
cuse, to revenge himself on the citizens who
had composed his African army, he exter-
minated their whole families and connections ;
so that no one dared even to bury the dead,
lest they should be suspected of friendship or
relationship to the mutineers. Meanwhile
Dinocrates again collected an army, and re-
duced Agathocles to such difficulties, that he
offered to resign the tyranny, on condition of
having two fortresses, with the lands thereto
attached, assigned to him. But Dinocrates
merely attempted to gain time by the nego-
tiation ; until Agathocles, perceiving, as he
should at first have known, that he had no
safety but in sovereignty, concluded peace
with the Carthaginians, at the expense of re-
storing to them all their Sicilian cities. He
then marched against Dinocrates, and with
inferior forces (5000 foot and 800 horse)
gained a decisive victory (b. c. 305). Of the
defeated army, several thousand surrendered
on promise of being dismissed to their several
cities ; and were then slaughtered, unarmed,
and in cold blood. Dinocrates himself, by a
singular instance of confidence, Agathocles
received into his friendship, and employed
him thenceforth in the most important af- ]
fairs. 1

Of the rest of his life we have only scat-
tered notices. He made war, with various
results, on the southern nations of Italy ; and
he meditated a second invasion of Africa, on
the plan of raising his naval power to a height
sufficient to ensure the dominion of the sea,
and to stop the supplies of corn which the Car-
thaginians drew from Sicily and Sardinia. His
death cut short these schemes, and the circum-
stances of it, as told by Diodorus, are singular.
His grandson Archagathus, son of him who
was slain in Africa, a young man of courage
and great bodily prowess, aspired to the suc-
cession ; which, however, Agathocles destined
to his own son, named also Agathocles. Sus-
pecting this, Archagathus put his uncle, the
younger Agathocles, to death, and corrupted
a favourite of his grandfather, named Ma;non, .
who after supper, handing to him as usual I
a tooth-pick, gave him a poisoned one, by
the use of which his mouth was incurably
gangrened. Being past speech, he was
placed on the fimeral pile, and burnt, yet
alive, B. c. 289, in his seventy-second year.
The story inclines to the mai-vellous, and is
quoted by Diodorus as an instance of the
just judgment of Heaven ; Vulcan, the fire-
god, being a deity whom Agathocles had spe-
cially offended by certain sacrilegious trans-
actions in the Lipari islands. Justin gives a
different account of the circumstances of his
death.

AGATHOCLES.

AGATHON.

Polybius (xv. 35.) has recorded that Scipio
Africanus, being asked whom he considered
to be most remarkable for skill in the conduct
of business (irpaKTiKondrovs) and for mental
daring, replied, Agathocles and Dionysius.
(Diodorus, xix. xx. &c. ; Justin, xxii.)

A. T. M.
AGA'THOCLES. [Agathoclea.]
AGATHOD^MON {'AyaeoSaifiaiv).
There are several MSS. of the Geography
of Ptolemy which are particularly remarkable
for the maps which they contain : one of these
i\lSS. is at Vienna, and the other at Venice.
The MS. of Vienna is of a large form, and
of parchment ; the maps with few excep-
tions occupy a double leaf, with a space
equal to about a finger's breadth between
them. There are twenty-seven maps : one
is a general map, there are ten maps of
Europe, four of Africa, and twelve of Asia.
The maps are coloured ; the water is green,
the mountains dark yellow, the land white,
and the direction of the mountains is in-
dicated by lines : the names are carefully
written. On the east side of the margin are
marked the climates, parallels, and the hours
of the longest day ; on the north and south
sides of the maps the meridians are marked.
The outline of the land is rude, but tolerably
accurate ; the writing of the names is ge-
nerally correct. At the end of the MS. there
are the following words : 'Ek rS.'U KKavoiov
VlToXinaiov r^oiypacptKwv Pi§\iwv oktu t7]v
o'lKov/j-evriv ira(rav 'AyaBodaliJ.an' 'A\e^avSpevs
inriTvncoa-e (From or according to the eight
books of geography of Claudius Ptolemseus
the whole habitable world Agathoda;mon of
Alexandria delineated). There are said to
be exactly the same words at the end of the
Venice MS. ; and it is also said that the name
of Agathodffimon occurs in other ISISS.

Nothing is known of this Agathodsemon ;
and there is no evidence either that he was a
contemporary of Ptolemy, as Heeren con-
jectures, or that he was the Agathodscmon
tlie grammarian to whom Isidore of Pelu-
sium addressed certain letters that are ex-
tant. Heeren however has some small
foundation for his hypothesis in the fact that
Ptolemy appeal's to have had maps to accom-
pany his Geography, for he mentions (lib.
viii. c. 1, 2.) tables or maps {irivaic^s) which
he had designed to accompany the parts that
treat of Europe, Libya (Africa), and Asia,
and these tables are the same in number and
distribution as those in the MSS. (Heeren,
Commentatio de Fontibus Geograph. Piolemai
Tabularumque iis annexarum, Sfc. ; Fabricius,
Biblioth. GrcBC. v. 272.) G. L.

• A'G ATHON {'Aydetvv), a native of Athens,
and a distinguished tragic poet. He was a
contemporary and friend of Plato, Euripides,
Aristophanes, and other eminent men. The
last investigations of Ritschl render it highly
probable that he was born about 448 b. c, and
that he died at the age of forty-seven, about
44.3

401 B.C. Agathon thus lived at the time

when Athens reached the summit of her
greatness, but, at the same time, sank rapidly
in public and private morality. The sophists,
whose doctrines were injurious to philosophy
and poetry, had their iufiuence upon Agathon.
He was a handsome and wealthy man, and
rather notorious for his luxurious mode of
living. He was a disciple of the sophists,
and spent much time upon the study of ora-
tory, the consequences of which were suffi-
ciently visible in his tragedies. Aristophanes,
in the " Thesmophoriazusse," ridicules him
severely for his affected grandiloquence,
his sophistical niceties, and his fondness for
antitheses. The justice of this censure is
warranted by several other writers, and espe-
cially by the manner in which he is intro-
duced in the " Symposium " of Plato, and by
the words put into his mouth by the philoso-
pher, who lays the scene of the " Symposium"
in the house of Agathon. Notwithstanding
these defects, Agathon was a tragic writer of
no mean order, for Plato, Aristotle, and
Aristophanes in his " Frogs," speak highly
of him, and in 417 B.C. he gained the prize
in tragedy at the festival of the Lenasa. It
is on this occasion that he is represented by-
Plato as having given the entertainment de-
scribed in the " Symposium." The time sub-
sequent to this event he spent at the court of
Archelaus, king of Macedonia. Aristotle and
Plutarch mention some innovations which he
introduced into tragedy, from which it ap-
pears that he intended to strike into a new
path ; but we are not able to form an exact
idea of his innovations, as none of his pieces
are preserved. There are only a few frag-
ments of some of his tragedies extant, and
the titles of five, — Acrope, Anthus, Thyestes,
Mysi, and Telephus. His fragments are
found in all the collections of the remains of
the Greek dramatists. Some writers have
thought that Agathon also wrote comedies, or,
at least, that there was a comic writer of this
name ; but this opinion has been refuted by
Bentley. (Athenaeus, v. 187. 211. x. 445. xiii.
584. xii. 528. x. 454. ; Plutarch, Sijmpos.
iii. 1.; Plato, Si/mpos. 195, &c., Protag. p. 220.;
Aristotle, Poet. 18., Rhetor, ii. 24.; iElian,
Var. Hist. xiv. 1.3. ; Aristophanes, Tliesmoph.
58, &c. ; Ran. 83, &c. ; Lucian, Rhetor. Prce-
cept. 11.; Fabricius, Biblioth. Grac. ii. 281,
&c. ; Bentley, Dissertation upon the Epistles
of Euripides, p. 417. ; F. A. WolflF, Proleg. in
Plat. Si/mpos. p. xliv. &c. ; and more espe-
cially Fr. Ritschl. Commentatio de Agathonis
Vitu, Arte et Traga:diarum reliquiis, Hala;,
1829, 8vo.)

From Agathon the dramatist we must dis-
tinguish Agathon the Saniian, of whom no-
thing else is known, except that he wrote a
work on Scythia, and another on rivers, of
which a few fragments are preserved in Plu-
tarch and Stobseus. (Plutarch, Parallela, p.
314, &c.; De Fluv. p. 1156. 1159, &c. ed.

G G 2

AGATHON.

AGAZZARI.

Frankf. ; Stohaeus, Florileg. tit. llio. 10 ed.
•Gaisford.) L. S.

A'GATIION, a native of Sicily and a
monk, was raised to the pontificate on the
26th of June, a. d. 679. It is asserted that
chiefly through his influence the sixth gene-
ral council, or the council in Trullo, was
assembled by Constantine Pogonatus. It is
certain that his legates, having been pre-
viously well instructed in their duties, as-
sumed a prominent position in the conduct of
that great meeting, and displayed the most
ardent zeal for the purity of the orthodox
faith. The council met in 680, and, after
many deliberations, pronounced its condemna-
tion of the heresy of Eutyches. It closed in
September, 681 ; but scarcely had the good
pope achieved his triumph when he died.
The Roman church celebrates his memory
on the 10th of Jauuarj-, the day of his sepul-
ture. It appears that an agreement was made
at that time between the emperor and the
legates, according to which the fees due to
the former at the ordination of a pope were
reduced, on condition that such ordination
should thenceforward, in every instance, be
preceded by the imperial consent ; an ar-
rangement destructive, so long as it lasted,
of the independence of the Roman see.
(Fleury, Hist. Eccles. 1. 40. s. ii. xxviii.)

G. W.

A'G ATHON, a priest of the church of St.
Sophia at Novgorod, who in the year 1540
compiled a complete table of the times at
which Easter would fall for 8000 years, ac-
companied with explanations which show a
considerable knowledge, for his time, of ma-
thematics and ecclesiastical chronology. A
copy of it is preserved in the library of St.
Sophia. (Grech, Opuit hratkoy Istorii Btts-
koy Uterafiiriii, p. 59.) T. W.

AGAZZA'RI, AGOSTINO, a noble Sie-
nese, and a musician of eminence. He stu-
died under Viadana, at Rome, upon whose
model his style of church music was formed.
After visiting the court of the emperor Mat-
thias, he returned to Rome, and was appointed
director of the Capella ApoUinaria. The
later years of his life were spent at Siena,
where he died about 1640. His composi-
tions — consisting of Madrigals for five and
six voices ; 44 Latin Motets for four, five, six,
seven, and eight voices ; Masses for four, five,
and eight voices ; and Psalms for eight voices
■ — were printed at Venice, and reprinted at
Antwerp and Frankfort on the Main. His
principal, probably his only, published the-
.oretical work was printed at Siena, in
1 638, entitled " La Musica Ecclesiastica dove
■SI contiene la vera diflinizione della Musica
-come Scicnza non piu veduta, e la sua No-
bilta." He was one of the first writers who
used a figured bass in music ; concerning
which he thus speaks : —

" It is not enough that a performer on
.a bass instrument understand counterpoint,
444

without he have some signs affixed to his
pnrt, from which he may learn the hamiony
that is to accompany it. In order to indicate
this in the simplest manner, the following
plan may be adopted ; — place above the bass
line, figures, whenever the chords are not
natural to the note" [naturali del tono].

" The bass instrument being much used at
Rome, in the new mode of singing called re-
citative, a score or tablature will be rendei'ed
unnecessary if the bass be thus marked. The
player will be freed from the necessity of
reading a score, which often occasions his
giving incorrect harmonies «//' improviso ; and
the use of this system will also supersede the
necessity of multiplying the number of
scores." (Gerber, Lexicon der Tonkiinstler.)

E. f
AGE'L AD AS ('AysAaSas, TeAdSas), a sculp
tor of Argos, especially celebrated as having
been the master of Myron, Polycletus, and
Phidias. His own works, several of which were
seen by Pansanias, appear to have been held in
high estimation, and justly place him among
the most eminent artists of Greece. He
seems to have worked exclusively in bronze,
as no mention occurs of statues by him in any
other material. At .^gium, in Achsea, there
were two statues by Ageladas : one was of
Jupiter as a child; the other, of a beardless
Hei-cules. He also made a statue of Jupiter,
which was placed in the citadel at Ithome.
This work was executed for the Messenians
of Naupactus. At Delphi, there were some
fine statues of horses by Ageladas, which had
been presented to the temple by the inhabit-
ants of Tarentum ; likewise some statues of
captive women. A muse, by this sculptor, is
honourably mentioned in the " Greek Antho-
logy." Ageladas is stated also to have made
the statue of Anochus, who conquered in the
games of the sixty-fifth Olympiad ; and the
votive chariot dedicated in commemoration of
the victory of Cleosthenes of Epidamnus, in
the sixty-sixth Olj-mpiad. He likewise made
the statue of Timasitheus, a conqueror in the
games, who was condemned to death by the
Athenians in the second year of the sixty-
eighth Olympiad, or B.C. 507. The date at
which these three last-mentioned works are
supposed to have been executed, namely,
soon after the success of the different victors,
and that assigned to Ageladas by Pliny, who
places him in the eighty-seventh Olympiad,
and by those who would attribute to him a
statue of Hercules after the plague of Athens,
have occasioned considerable difficulty in fix-
ing the age of Ageladas. The seeming dis-
crepancy has led to the supposition that there
were, at least, two sculptors of the name, who
were living nearly at the same time. This
is the opinion of Thiersch, although Mijller
and others dispute it. It may be urged in
favour of there being only one artist so called,
that the three earlier works referred to. and
which chiefly occasion the difl[iculty that oc-

AGELADAS.

AGELET.

ours, niny not have been executed till some
time after the victories they were intended to
commemorate ; and tliat Ageladas may have
been the author of them, and still living at
the advanced date at which we find him men-
tioned by Pliny. The second difficult}' arises
out of the fact of Ageladas having made the
statue of Hercules which, according to the
scholiast on Aristophanes (Frogs, 504.), was
placed in the temple at Melite, in Attica, after
the great plague. If this work were made
expressly for this purpose, and after, or even
during, the plague, there cannot be any other
way of reconciling the difficulty of date than
by admitting a second Ageladas. But the
statue may have been executed previously, and
placed there either in gratitude for the ces-
sation of the pest, or with the hope of arrest-
ing its further progress in that part of Attica.
From the sixty-fifth to the eighty-seventh
Olympiad, there are at least eighty-eight
years. If the statues of the victors were
erected soon after their triumph, and Ageladas
allowed to have been only twenty years old
when he executed the first, he would be, in
the third year of the eighty-seventh Olmypiad
(the date of the plague at Athens), 111 years
old. Miiller suggests that Ageladas lived
only till the eighty-second, instead of the
eighty-seventh Olympiad. The scholiast al-
luded to gives Eladas as the name of the
sculptor of the Hercules of Melite ('EAaSou
ToG 'Afiy^iov') ; but as these words "master of
Phidias," (rod SiSair/cdAoi/ rov *ei5iou,) are
added, there can be no doubt that Ageladas
is meant. (Pausanias, iv. 33. vi. 10. vii. 24.
X. 10.; Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxxiv. 8.)

R. W. jun.
AGELET, JOSEPH PAUTE D', a
French astronomer of talent and activity,
who perished with La Perouse ; born near
Montmedy, November 25. 1751. His two
uncles, under the name of Le Paute, (and
the article is generally added to D'Agelet's
baptismal name) were celebrated watch-
makers at Paris, and the wife of one of them
was the auxiliary of Lalande in the com-
putations by which he assisted Clairaut iu
the determination of the positions of Halley's
comet. This lady recommended her nephew
to Lalande as an assistant, an office which he
commenced in February, 1768. In March,
1 773, he accompanied Kerguelen in his voyage
to the Southern Seas. He returned at the
end of the following year, and was made
professor of mathematics at the Ecole Mili-
taire in 1777. From this time till 1785 he
was fully occupied with his pupils and his
observations : according to I^alande, six hours
a day with the former, and seven hours at night
with the latter, was his usual allotment. He
began that immense catalogue of stars which
Le Fran^ais Lalande (Lalande's nephew)
completed, and which is now (1842) in course
of reduction at t!ie expense of the British

Association.
445

In 1785 he sailed with La

Pi'rouse, and all that is known of his subse-
quent labours is contained in a few letters to
Lalande. He sent home no observations :
La Perouse strictly forbade any communica-
tion of the kind, and consequently his labours
are lost. This is the more to be regretted
as Lalande had intrusted him with an inva-
riable pendulum, which iiad been already
used by La Condamine in America, and by
others in Africa and Siberia. September 4.

1787, he wrote thus to Lalande, off Kam-
tchatka : " Since our departure from Manilla,
we have surveyed with exactness more than
six hundred marine leagues of coast : all our
geographical points are rigorously laid down.
We have got so accustomed to lunar distances,
that we verify the chronometers without un-
certainty. We are a little proud of correct-
ing the English ; we find that the successors
of Cook made mistakes, like other people,
notwithstanding the to?i doctoral which they
assume." His last letter is dated March 1.

1788, from Botany Bay, where he had made
acquaintance with the English astronomer
Dove. Of course neither the time nor man-
ner of his death can be stated.

He was elected member of the Academy
of Sciences in 1785, and his works consist of
scattered papers in their Transactions, and iu
the " Journal des Savans." Fidl references
are given by Lalande {BiMiographie Astro-
nomique, pp. 708' — 7 13.), from whence the pre-
ceding is taken. A. De M.

AGELLI, or AJELLI, ANTONIO,
bishop of Acerno, and one of the most
learned men amongst the Theafins, was born
at Sorrento, in the year 1532. When nineteen
years of age he put on the habit of his order,
and in the following year, 1552, made his
profession in Venice, where he had passed his
novitiate. Having displayed singular ability
in the study of theology and languages, he
was sent by the superiors of his order to
Rome, and placed under the tuition of the
celebrated Gulielmo Sirleto, who at that time
superintended the theological studies of the
young members. Here he speedily distin-
guished himself, and became thoroughly
versed in the Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and
Chaldee languages. On the introduction of
his order into Genoa, he was chosen the first
preposito, in 1572, in the Casa di S. Mad-
dalena, which office he held for three years.
The Council of Trent having recommended
a revision of the Sacred Scriptures, Agelli
was one of the learned men selected by Pius
V. to whom this important work was confided.
Their attention was first directed to the Septua-
gint version, on which Agelli was principally
employed, and for which he collated a vast
number of Hebrew and Greek manuscripts.
This revised version was afterwards pub-
lished at Rome, in 1587, in folio. He like-
wise had a great share in the Latin version
of the Septuagint published by Flaminio
Nobili, in 1588, in folio ; and aided much in
G c 3

AGELLI.

the completion of the correction of the Vul-
gate published in 1592, in folio. He was
also one of the six persons, called "scolastici,"
■who presided over the Vatican press, and
examined the works to be printed there, by
comparing them with good manuscripts. In
the midst of these literary labours he per-
formed the duties of visitor in Rome and
Naples, and the other places comprised within
this district. Clement VIII. held him in such
high esteem, that he entrusted to him the
education of his grand nephew, Ippolito Al-
dobrandini, made him consultore of the
Congregazione dell' Indice, and in the year
1593 bishop of Acerno, in the Campagna
Felice. This dignity he retained until the
year 1604, when, the service of the church
requiring his constant residence in Rome,
he resigned his bishopric, receiving from
the pope for his maintenance an abbej',
and apartments in the episcopal palace at
Rome. Hei-e he died, in the year 1608. In
addition to his editorial labours mentioned
above, he wrote the following works, which
are described by Ughelli as most accurate,
copious, and valuable: — 1. " Commentarium
in Lamentationes Hieremise ex Auctoribus
Grsecis coUectum, cum Explicatione e Catena
Grrecorum Patrum ex ejusdem Versione;
Romse," 1585, 4to. 2. "In Habacuc Pro-
phetam; Antverpia?,"' 1597, 8vo. 3. "Com-
mentarii in Psalmos et Divini Officii Can-
tica; RomEC," 1606, fol. It is said that Car-
dinal Bellarmino, who had written upon the
Psalms, declared, in allusion to the commen-
taries of Agelli, that he never would have
published his own work, unless compelled so
to do by the general of his order, as Agelli
had forestalled all the praise, and carried off
the palm of honour. 4. " In Proverbia Salo-
monis Commentarius ; " published by Nova-
rini, in his "Varia Opuscula; Veronoe," 1649,
fol. Part III. p. 109. 5. " Cyrilli Alexandrini
Libri XVII. de Adoratione in Spiritu et Veri-
tate, e Grceco in Latinum translati et Scholiis
illustrati ; Romse," 1588, folio. 6. " Cyrilli
Alexandrini adversus Nestorii Rlasphemias
Contradictionum Libri V., e Grfeco in Latinum
translati, cum Scholiis ; Romte," 1607, fol.
This work of Cyrillus had never before
been published. 7. " Procli Patriarchte Con-
stantinopolitani Epistola de Fide ad Armenos
Antonio Agellio interpi'ete," published in
vol. xi. of the " Bibliotheca Patrum," Paris,
1654, fol. In addition to the above, the
following works are preserved in manuscript in
the Quirinal Library of the Regular Clerks: —

1. " Opusculum de Ponderibus et Men-
suris."

2. " In Isaiam Prophetam, a cap. xxi. ad
finem."

3. " In Danielem Expositio."

4. " In Duodecim Prophetas Expositiones."

5. " In Epistolas Pauli et Catholicas An-
notationcs, Gra;ce et Latine."

6. " In Tria Priora Capita Apocalypsis."

446

7. " Selecta ex Rabbinorum Commen-
tariis in Job."

8. " Rabbi Bravatellus in Habacuc, Latine."

9. "Scholia in Dionysium Areopagitam,
Greece."

10. " Phraseologia Demosthenis et Nazi-
anzeni, Grsece."

He likewise assisted Mario Altieri in the
correction of the Galilean Psalter, and by
oi-der of Clement VIII. made a strict criti-
cism of the Talmud. Neither the corrections
nor criticism have been published. The Jews
endeavoured to induce him to abandon the
latter work by the offer of large pecuniary
bribes. (Ghilini, Theatro cV Huomhii Lctterati,
ii. 23. ; Ughelli, Italia Sacra, vii. 450. ; Maz-
zuchelli, Scrittori d'ltalia.) J. W. J.

AGELLIO, GIUSEPPE, an Italian
painter, born at Sorrento, the scholar of Ron-
calli, excelled in landscape. He lived at
Rome in the early part of the seventeenth
century, and worked principally as an as-
sistant to Roncalli and others, wliom he
greatly assisted in the figures as well as the
landscapes of their pictures. He painted also
from his own designs. He executed some of
the frescoes in the churches of Santa Maria
delle Grazie, and San Silvestro delle Monache ;
and Villamena has engraved a San Carlo
Borromeo, from him. (Dominici, Vite de'
Pittori, &c.) R. N. W.

AGE'LLIUS. [Gellius, Aulus.]

AGELNOTH, the twenty-ninth in the
series of archbishops of Canterbury, lived in
the time of King Canute, one of whose prin-
cipal advisers he was. He appears to have
been a popular prelate, as the epithet "the
Good" has descended with his name. But
little is known of him, and that little has
been collected by Godwin, who is disposed to
reject what Malmesbury has related of him,
that he was at one time connected with the
monastery of Glaston. Godwin's notion of
his course of life is, that he was the son of a
Saxon earl named Agehnar, and was in the
earlier part of his life dean of the church of
Canterbury. \Mien elected archbishop, he
went to Rome to obtain the pall, and while
there he became possessed, for the sum of
100 talents of silver, of a remarkable relic.
It was nothing less than one of the arms
of St. Augustine, which he brought to Eng-
land and presented to the church of Coventry.
He took great care in rebuilding the church
of Canterbury, which had been burnt by the
Danes. He was archbishop for seventeen
years, and died on October 29. 1038. (God-
win, De PrcFstifi/jus.) J. H.

AGER, NICOLAS, born at Isentheim in
Alsace, in 1568, was professor of medicine
and botany at Strassburg. He was contem-
porary and intimate with the two Bauhins,
the most celebrated botanists of that time.
He has left the following works: — " Theses
jMcdic£8 de Dysenteria, Argentorati," 1593,
4to. " Exercitatio Medica, Argentorati,"

AGER.

AGESANDER.

1024, 4to. " De Infractibus MesaraM, Ar-
gentorati," 1G29, 4to. These three are on
medical subjects, and were printed as theses
at the jTradiiation of students of medicine,
lie publislied two other Avorks, on the de-
partment of natural history, -which were also
probably theses. These M-ere entitled : " Dis-
putatio de Zoophytis, Argentorati," 1625, 4to.
" De Aninia Vegetativa, Argentorati," 1629,
4ta. He also edited an edition of an old Ger-
man Pharmacopeia. He died in 1634. An ex-
tinct genus of plants, Pcrdervta, had a species
named after him, P. Ayerki. Adanson also
gave the name Ac/cria to the genus now called
Prinos, and Ager'ni is one of De Candolles'
subgeneric divisions of this genus. (Jocher,
Allgem. Gclchrtin- Lexicon ; Biog.Univ.} E. L.
AGESANDER, of Rhodes, a sculptor
commemorated by Pliny as one of the three
artists (" Agesander, et Polydorus, et Athen-
odorus, Rhodii,") who executed a much ad-
mired group of Laocoon and his sons, which
was in the palace of Titus at Rome. The
well-known group of the same subject now
preserved in the museum of the Vatican, in
Rome, corresponds so exactly with that de-
scribed by Pliny, that there scarcely can be
a doubt that they are identical. The only
difference is, that Pliny declares that the
figure of Laocoon, the sons, and the serpents,
are all made of a single block of mai'ble, while
the Vatican group is composed of various
pieces. The position of the work, and the
point from which it was viewed, may ac-
count for this slight inaccuracy ; and, the
other evidence considered, it need not affect
our belief that the existing group is that which
is recorded by the historian. Pliny states that
it was in the house of the emperor Titus. The
group now in the Vatican was found in the
immediate neighbourhood of the ruins of the
baths of Titus, at Rome. It was accidentally
discovered, in the year 1.506, by some work-
men who were digging in a vineyard which
occupied a portion of the ground on which
this palace formerly stood. There is a
curious letter extant, describing the circum-
stances attending this fortunate discovery;
and which, from the celebrity of the artists
mentioned in it, and the valuable testimony
of their opinion, may with propriety be intro-
duced here. It is from Francesco di San
Gallo, son of the famous architect, to Monsig-
nore Spedalengo, and is dated 1567. "It being
told to the pope that some fine statues were
found in a vineyard near S. Maria Maggiore,
he sent to desire Giovanni di San Gallo to
go and examine them ; Michel Angelo Bona-
rotti being often at our house, San Gallo got
him to go also ; and so," says Francesco, " I
mounted behind my father (in groppa a mio
padre), and we went. We descended to
where the statues were. My father imme-
diately exclaimed, ' This is the Laocoon
spoken of by Pliny.' " There has been much
difference of opinion as to the date of the
447

artist to whom this group is attributed. Winc-
kelmau considered it to be of the time of
Lysippus, that is, between three and four
hundi-ed years B.C. A much later date is
now assigned to it ; and Agesander and his
assistant sculptors are placed by Visconti,
Sillig, and others, in the first century of our
sera, and contemporary with the earlier Ro-
man emperors. (Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxxvi. 5.)

R. W. jun.

AGE'SICLES (more correctly Hegesicles)
('Hyna'K\ris), or AGASICLES ('Ayaa-tKAfis),
the son of Archidamus, was one of the kings of
Sparta, and the fourteenth in order, including
the first king Aristodemus. He was of the
house of the Proclids, and lived about c.c,
600. His colleague was Leon. Pausanias
(iii. 7. 4.) records of him that his reign was
one of peace ; but it appears from Herodotus,
that during his lifetime the Lacedaraonians
waged an unsuccessfid war against the people
of Tegea in Arcadia. (Herodotus, i. 65. ;
Mliller, Dorians. Appen. IX. ; Clinton, Fast.
Hellen. vol. i. p. .339.) R. W— n.

AGESILA'US {'Ay-naiKaos), a Greek his-
torian whom Plutarch mentions among the
writers on the early history of Italy ('IraAi/ca).
From this work a considerable fragment is
quoted by Plutarch {Parallela, p. 312. ed,
Frankf.), and some smaller ones are pre-
served in Stobseus. (Florileg. tit. ix. 27.
liv. 49. Ixv. 10., ed. Gaisford.) L. S.

AGESILA'US ('AyrjaiKaos). There were
two kings of this name. Agesilaus I. was the
seventh Spartan king in order, including
Aristodemus. Little is known of him except
that, according to Pausanias, (iii. 2, 3.) the
legislation of Lycurgus fell within his reign.
It is probable, however, that Pausanias con-
founded the time of the legislation of Lycur-
gus with that of his regency during the first
years of the minority of Oharilaus, which
might have coincided with the close of the
reign of Agesilavis I. The legislation took
place about 30 years afterwards (b.c. 817.),
when Oharilaus was grown up, and adminis-
tering the government with Archelaus the
son of Agesilaus I. as his colleague. (See
authorities quoted by Clinton, as below.)
The same author also states that Agesilaus I.
reigned a very short time, contrary to the
more probable account of Apollodorus, ac-
cording to which he reigned forty -four years.
He was of the house of the Agids, the kingly
office at Sparta being in the hands of two
persons, the successive representatives of
the royal houses of the Agids and Proclids,
as they were respectively called, from Agis
and Procles, two of their members. (Pau-
sanias, iii. 9. 4. ; Clinton, Fast. Hellen. i. 143.
336. ii. 408.) R. W— n.

AGESILA'US II., one of the most distin-
guished of the Spartan kings, was of the house
of the Proclids, and the twentieth in order, in-
cluding Aristodemus. He became king in b. c.
398, and reigned for thirty-seven years in the

G G 4

AGESILAUS.

most eventful period of the history of Sparta.
In the second year of his reign he was sent
into Asia, ostensibly for the purpose of aiding
the Asiatic Greeks in asserting their inde-
pendence of Persia, but in reality with a view
of anticipating an invasion of Greece, which
was threatened by the Persians. The Per-
sian satraps were completely beaten by him
in generalship and address ; and so satisfied
was the Spartan government with his conduct
that they honoured him with an unexampled
mark of confidence, by placing a fleet at his
disposal, and empowering him to nominate an
officer to command it. In making the appoint-
ment, he consulted private feelings rather
than the public interest, and nominated his
wife's brother Pisander ; an act of which he
afterwards had reason to repent, when the
Spartan fleet was defeated by the Athenians
off the island of Cnidus (b. c. 392.)

The success which Agesilaus gained over
the Persians was so great and so easily won,
and the influence he had obtained among
their subjects in Asia so extensive, that he
was induced to form the design of overthrow-
ing the Persian empire, by marching into the
interior of the kingdom and detaching the
different nations on his line of march from
tlieir allegiance to the Persian king. He had
already, with much address, negotiated an
alliance with Cotys, a prince of Paphla-
gonia at that time in rebellion against the
Persian king, and was engaged in prepara-
tions for carrying his plan into execution,
when he was siunmoned home to fight the
battles of his country against a hostile con-
federacy of the Athenians, the Argives, the
Corinthians, and the Thebans, formed at the
instigation of Persian agents, and by the
influence of Persian gold. His patriotism
and fortitude were thus severely put to
the test. A most brilliant career lay before
him in Persia : in the language (perhaps
somewhat overstrained) of his friend and
biographer Xenophon, who accompanied
him, " many nations were sending ambas-
sadors ; many were revolting ; he was
already ruler of many Orientals as well as
Greeks ; and everything promised success ;
still he obeyed the call of his country, just as
if he had been at home, and in the council-
cliamber of the state." According to the same
author, he had so won the hearts of the
Asiatic Greeks by his courtesy and kindliness
of disposition, that " they parted from him as
a father and a friend, and some of them so-
licited to serve under his command in Greece."
After crossing the Hellespont he marched to
Thessaly in less than a month, by the same
route which had taken Xerxes a year. He
met and defeated the forces of the confede-
racy at Coroneia in Boeotia (b. c. 394),
where he was severely wounded in the battle.
He offered at Delphi atithe of his Asiatic spoils,
amounting to no less than 100 talents, a very
great sum for tliose davs. From this time to
448

the death of Epaminondas (b.c. 362), a period
of thirty-two years, he continued to possess the
chief direction of affairs at Lacedajmon.
Shortly after making his offering at Delphi,
he undertook an expedition into Acarnania,
where he displayed his usual skill, and obliged
the people of that country to submit to his
own terms. In b.c. 386, we find Agesilaus
enforcing upon the Thebans the treaty of
Antalcidas, one consequence of which was the
restoration of Platsea. In b.c. 378 he was
intrusted with the command of an expedition
against Thebes, then at war with Sparta ; and
again in b. c. 377. On both these occasions,
he ravaged BcBotia, but neither expedition
was foUowed by any remarkable^ results,
Agesilaus being baffled in his attempts to
bring about a regular engagement. The
Thebans, indeed, in one respect, profited by
it. They gained military experience, and
learned to shake off their terror of the Spar-
tan discipline and courage, so that Agesilaus
was even reproached by his countrymen
for the lessons he had given them. On
his return home from the second expedi-
tion, he ruptured a blood-vessel at Megara,
a misfortune which laid the foundation of a
long illness, and for some time kept him
to his bed. After the battle of Leuctra
(b.c. 371), in which he was not pre-
sent, probably on account of ill health, his
services were called into request, in defence
of his country, against the Thebans, who had
invaded Laconia, and advanced as far as
Sparta (b. c. 369). The Theban forces were
much superior in number and discipline to
any which Sparta could bring against them,
and the danger of the crisis was increased
by disaffection among her citizens. In this
emergency, all eyes were turned to Agesi-
laus ; and his prudence and energy saved his
country from foreign enemies and domestic
conspiracy. When advancing years disabled
him from service in the field, he went out as
ambassador instead of general, and by his
influence and address materially advanced
her interests, both in other respects and also
by procuring supplies of money for her use.
It is probable that he was present at the
battle of Mantineia (b. c. 362) as commander
of the Lacedremonian forces ; though Xeno-
phon makes no mention of his presence there.
( Thirlwall, ///s<. o/' G/-eece, v. 149.) In the
same or early in the following year, when
more than eighty years of age, he undertook
an expedition to Egypt, at the request of
Tachos, who had made himself king of
that countrj-, and who was meditating a
war against Persia, the direction and com-
mand of which he promised to Agesilaus. But
on his an'ival, a rebellion broke out among
the king's subjects : the king himself was
obliged to fly ; and two rival candidates
having appeared for the throne, Agesilaus
felt himself compelled to take part with one
or the other. He did so; and, after aiding

AGESILAUS.

AGESIPOLIS.

Nectanabis, one of the two competitors, in gain-
ing the throne, he set out on his return home
in the middle of winter, and died on the
passage, at a place called the harbour of
Menelaus, on the coast of Africa.

The character of Agesilaus has been made
the subject of unqualified eulogj' by his friend
and biographer Xenophon ; but there were
two incidents in his life to prove that he was
not altogether deserving of it. The first was
his justification of the seizure and retention
of the Cadmeia or citadel of Thebes by the
Spartans, not on the ground that it was right
or just, but simply because it was advan-
tageous to Sparta. Another, and in some
respects similar case, was his protection of
the Spartan general Sphodrias, when accused
of having made an unauthorised attack on the
Athenians. On this latter occasion, indeed,
the interests of his country were sacrificed
by him to private feelings. His own son
Archidamus was on terms of affectionate in-
timacy with the son of Sphodrias ; and hence
Agesilaus, whose disposition seems to have
been more amiable than that of most of his
countrymen, was prevailed upon to inter-
cede on behalf of the father. He did so suc-
cessfully, and Sphodrias was acquitted.

His colleagues of the other house were
Agesipolis I., Cleombrotus I., Agesipolis II.,
and Cieomencs II., in the tenth year of whose
reign he died. He was succeeded by his son
Archidamus III. (Xenophon, Life of Agesi-
laus, and Hellenica, lib. iii. — vii. ; Plutarch,
Agesilaus ; Diodorus, xv. ; Cornelius Nepos,
Agesilaus; Polyanus, ii. 1.; Pausanias, iii.
c. 9, 10. ; Thirlwall, Hist, of Greece, vol. iv.
and V. ; Clinton, Fast. Hellen. ii. 213.)

R. W— n.

AGESIPOLIS I. QKy-nffiiroXis), the son of
Pausanias, was the twenty-second king of
Sparta of the Agidline, Aristodemus included.
His accession to the throne took place in
B.C. 394, when he was a minor, and he
reigned fourteen years. The first remark-
able event of his reign was a great victory
gained, near Corinth (b. c. 394), by the La-
cedaemonians and their allies, over the Argives
and their confederates, the Thebans, the
Athenians, and the Corinthians. Agesipolis
being still a minor, the Spartan troops were
commanded by his guardian, Aristodemus,
his next of kin. On obtaining his majority,
B.C. 390, he was intrusted with the com-
mand of an expedition against Argos. He
was apprehensive that the Argives would
avail themselves of a religious pretext to
stop his march, and plead the celebration
of some sacred festival (the time of which
they could fix to suit their purpose) as a bar
against hostile invasion. Accordingly, before
setting out on his march, he consulted the
oracles of Delphi and Olympia on the validity
of such a plea. He received satisfactory an-
swers, and then set out on the expedition.
On crossing the borders of Argolis, he was
449

met by two heralds, who annoimced to him
the commencement of the sacred season,
during which, as they alleged, their country
had always been free from invasion. Being
fortified with the answers of the oracles, Age-
sipolis paid no attention to their demands,
but marched on, plundering and laying waste
the Argive territory, till he had advanced
further than Agesilaus had done on a simi-
lar expedition, and had driven the Argives
within their walls. He had also intended to
occupy permanently a post on the borders,
as Agis, a former king of Sparta, had done
at Deceleia, near Athens, but he was deterred
by the unfavourable appearance of the vic-
tims, and returned home without gaining any
other advantage than a considerable amount
of plunder. In b. c. 38 1 he was appointed to
conduct the war in which the Lacedaemonians
were then engaged against Olynthus, in Ma-
cedonia, with a council of thirty Spartans to
advise and assist him. He invaded the Olyn-
thian territory, and took Torone by storm.
But shortly aJfterwards he was seized with a
violent fever, of which he died (b. c. 380) in
seven days. His body was steeped in honej-,
and so conveyed to Sparta for a royal burial.

Agesipolis was a colleague of the great
Agesilaus, but diflfered much from him in
his views and general principles. He was
of a more peaceful and less enterprising dis-
position, and averse from the schemes of
conquest by which Agesilaus sought the ag-
grandisement of his country, sometimes at
the expense of justice. Still Agesilaus is
reported to have sincerely regretted his death.
Agesipolis appears to have been a man of
considerable merit. He died without issue,
and was succeeded by his brother Cleom-
brotus. (Diodorus, xiv. 89. xv. 19. 23.
Xenophon, Hellen. iv. 7. 2. v. 3. 19.; Pau
sanias, iii. 5. 7. 8. ; Clinton, Fast. Hellen
ii. 212. ; Thivlvidili, Hist, of Greece, iv. 429
V. 21. R. ^Y— n

AGESIPOLIS IL, the son of Cleombrotus I.,
and the twenty-fourth king of Sparta of the
Agid house, Aristodemus included, performed
nothing worthy of record. He reigned only
one year, and died b.c. 370. He also was a
colleague of the great Agesilaus. (Diodorus,
XV. 60. : Pausanias, iii. 6.) R. W — n.

AGESIPOLIS III., thegrandson of Cleom-
brotus IL, was the thirty-second king of Sparta
of the Agid house, Aristodemus included.
He was a minor when declared king (b.c. 2 19)
by the ephors, and his uncle, of the same
name, was appointed to act as his guardian.
The Spartans were at that time in a state of
anarchy ; and a usurper, named Lycurgus,
though not even of royal blood, was, through
bribery, nominated as his colleague. He
soon deposed Agesipolis, and drove him from
Sparta, and the latter prince aftei'wards joined
the Roman general Quintius Flamininus
(B.C. 195) in his attack upon Sparta, when
under the tyranny of Nabis. Agesipolis was

AGESIPOLIS.

AGGENUS.

murdered by pirates, about b. c. 183, on a
vo}-age to Rome, as an ambassador on behalf
of his brother exiles, -when he was probably
forty years of age. Pausanias does not include
him among the Agid princes of Sparta, pro-
babl}^ because he did not think him entitled
to be considered as king. (Polybius, iv. 35. ;
and Leqat. 49. ; Livv, xxxiv. 26.) R. W — n.

AGESrSTRATE. [Agis.]

AGE'TOR, a famous mechanician of By-
zantium, lived probably in the first century
before the Christian sera. A^itruvius has de-
scribed a tcstudo or tortoise of extraordinary
size and povrer, which was constructed by
Agetor. Its length was 60 feet, its width
18, and it was of a great height ; it contained
a ram 106 feet long, which was worked by
100 men ; it contained also a floor for ba-
ILstsc and catapultEC, and was furnished with
a parapet and battlements for storming. This
immense machine was supported by eight
wooden wheels, six feet and three quarters
in diameter, and three in thickness, protected
by cold wrought iron ties, and could be moved
in six directions ; it weighed 4000 talents,
and, according to Vitruvius, was capable of
knocking down a wall 100 feet in height.
(Vitruvius, x. 21.) R. N. W.

AGGAS, RADULPH. [Agas.]

AGG AS, ROBERT, commonly called An-
gus, an English landscape painter who lived
in London during the reigns of James I. and
Charles I. Graham, in his " English School,"
terms Aggas a good landscape painter,
both in oil and in distemper, and skilful
in architecture, in which he painted many
scenes for the playhouse in Covent Garden,
or rather the theatre in Dorset Gardens, which '
Walpole supposes to be meant. Aggas died
in London, in 1679, aged about 60 ; he was
probably descended from Radulph or Edward
Aggas. Few of his works are extant ; the
best is a landscape presented by him to the
Painter-stainers' Company, in whose hall it
is still preserved. (Vralpole, Anecdotes of
Painting in England.') R. N. W.

AGGENUS U'RBICUS, a Latin writer
whose works are contained in the collection
entitled " Rei Agraria; Auctores Legesque
Vai'ife, &c. cura WUlelmi Goesii," Amster-
dam, 1674, 4to. The works in this collection
which are attributed to Aggenus are — " Ag-
geni L'rbici in Julium Frontinum Commen-
tarium," which is a commentary on the
treatise " De Agrorum Qualitate," which is
attributed to Julius Frontinus ; '• Commen-
tariorum De Controversiis Agrorum Pars
Prior et Altera ; " " In Julium Frontinum
Commentariorum Liber Secundus qui Diazo-
graphus dicitur," which consists only of plans
and sketches pertaining to the science of the
agrimensor, and intended to illustrate the
first book of his commentary- on Frontinus,
" De Agrorum Qualitate."

It is not known when Aggenus lived. He
mentions the emperors Vespasian and Domi-
450

tian, and he calls Vespasian by the appellation
Divus, but Domitian by his name simplj- ;
whence one might infer that he wrote
under Domitian. It is collected from an
expression (" cum diviao prsesidio ") in the
Introduction to the first part of the com-
mentary " De Controversiis Agrorum," that
he was a Christian. He also says that " in
Italy many persons, during the progress
making b}- the most sacred Christian religion,
have occupied and are cultivating profane
groves or the grounds of temples (lucos pro-
fanos sive templorum loca)." There are
other expressions from which it is collected
that Paganism and temples still existed ;
whence it is inferred that Aggenus lived
before Theodosius I., who reigned from a. d.
379 to 395. If the Frontinus on whom
Aggenus commented is Sextus Julius Fron-
tinus, who was curator of the aquseducts in
the reign of Nerva, Aggenus was not earlier
than the time of that emperor (a. d. 96-98),
But all the works which pass under the name
of Aggenus may not be by the same hand ;
and there appears to be no certain conclusion
as to his time.

The commeutan,- on Frontinus " De Agro-
rum Qualitate" appears to be very corrupt,
but it is not without value. The commenta-
ries " De Controversiis Agi'orum " are in a
better state, and throw much light on the
Roman system of fixing the boundaries of
lands, and on the legal questions connected
with it. Aggenus describes the qualities of
a good measurer (mensor) : though his art is
ditierent from that of the lawyer (advocatus),
he ought to have equal wisdom and integrity.
His business is to asceitain facts bj- means of
his art ; and to maintain its integrity, and the
boundaries of the old assignments of lands
(ordo veteris adsignationis) : but he could
make no assignment, except by the order of
the emperor. It appears that many questions
were decided in a smnmary way by the
mensores ; and sometimes it was a question
whether the decision of a dispute as to
boundaries (alluvio, and the like matters)
belonged to them or to the courts of law ; or
whether it should be decided by the principles
of the lawyer's or the measurer's science,
Florentinus {Dig. 41. tit. 1. s. 16.) says that
in his time there was no " jus alluvionis," no
right to acquire by alluvio, in the case of
agri limitati, and that this question was
settled by Antoninus Pius ; the lawyers, it
may be presumed, would be in favour of the
acquisition by alluvio, and the mensores
against it. It is supposed that this is the
dispute to which Aggenus refers in a passage
in the second part of his treatise " De Con-
troversiis ; " and as he says nothing of the
emperor's decision, it has thence been con-
eluded that he wrote before the time when it
was made, which must fall somewhere be-
tween A. D. 138 and A. D. 161. G. L,

AGHLABITES is the name given to an

AGHLABITES.

AGIER,

African dynasty founded by Ibrahim, the
son of Agiihib, who, having been appointed
governor of Eastern Africa by the Klialif
Han'in Ar-rashid, made himself independent
in A. II. 284 (a. D. 897), and transmitted his
dominions as an inheritance to his son Abu-
l-'abbas 'Abdullah. [Ibra'hi'bi Ibn Agh-
LAB.] The dynasty of the Aghlabites lasted
until A. H. 296, when ZiyadatuUah, the tenth
prince of the race of Aghlab, was put to
death by Abii 'Abdillah the Shiite, and their
vast possessions, extending from the frontiers
of Egypt to the regency of Algiers, fell to
the share of the Fatimites. [Anu' 'Abdil-
lah, the Shiite.] (Ibnu-1-athir, 'Ihratu-l-
oiiali-l-abssdr, MS. ; Casiri, Bib. Arab. Hisp.
Esc. ii. 192. ; Conde, Hist, dela Dom. i. 390.)

P. de G.

A'GIAS ('Ayias), a native of Troezen and
author of an epic poem entitled " Nostoi"
(Noo-Toi), that is, an account of the return of
the Achffians from Troy, in five books. He
was sometimes called Augias or Hagias. No
particulars are known about him, but his
work appears to have been of great import-
ance for the mythical history of Greece ; it
is frequently referred to by ancient writers,
but in most cases without the author's name.
Fragments of it, and several statements de-
rived from it, are contained in the " Chresto-
mathia" of Prochis, and in a great many
other ancient authors. (Thiersch, Acta Phi-
lolog. Monacensia , ii. 583. ; Bode, Gesckichte
der Epischen Dichikunst der Hellenen, p. 388,
&c., who has endeavoured to give an outline
of the contents of the Ni^trroi of Agias.)

A comic poet of the name of Agias is men-
tioned by Pollux (iii. 15.). Athenceus (xiv.
626.) speaks of a musician of the same name,
and in another passage (iii. 86.) he mentions
Agias as the author of a work on the history
of Argos ('Ap7oAi.«ca). L. S.

AGIER, CHARLES GUY FRANCOIS,
a French jurisconsult, bom in the year 1753.
In 1789 he was elected deputy to the States
General by the Tiers Etat of the province of
Poitou, and distinguished himself by his
labours in the various committees. Although
a reformer, he earnestly endeavoured to
maintain the monarchy, while he urged the
abolition of those institutions only- which were
opposed to civil libertJ^ He voted for the
suppression of monastic orders, and procured
the term " parish " to be altered to that of
" commune." On the return of Louis XVI.
from Varennes, in 1791, Agier successfully
opposed Robespierre's proposition, that the
king should be put upon his trial. His
public labours ended with those of the As-
semblee Constituante. During the reign of
terror he was thrown into prison, having
vigorously opposed the sanguinary measures
of the revolutionists in Poitou, but he subse-
quently regained his liberty, and was ap-
pointed commissary of the government at the
civil tribunal of Niort, and afterwards pro-
451

cureur du roi, at the same place. He died in
June, 1828. (Rabbe, Biogruphie Universelle
des Coiiiemporains ; Le Moniteur, 1828, p.
805). J. W. J.

AGIER, PIERRE JEAN, president of the
second chamber of the Cour Royale at Paris,
was bom in that city, in the year 1748, and
was sent as one of the deputies to the Na-
tional Assembly in 1789. In the month of
December, 1790, he was elected judge of the
second arrondissement of Paris ; and in Ja-
nuary, 1795, president of the revolutionary-
tribunal. Under his presidency, Fouquier-
Tinville and his accomplices were con-
demned to death. By a consular decree,
dated in April, 1800, he was appointed judge
of the Criminal Tribunal of Paris, which
office he declined, but accepted that of judge
of the Tribunal of Appeal. He died on the
24th of September, 1823. M. Agier was the
author of several works, theological as well
as legal ; the principal of which are — 1.
" Le Jurisconsulte National ; on, Principes
sur les Droits les plus importants de la Na-
tion ; " 1789, 8vo. 2. " Vues sur la Reforma-
tion des Lois Civiles ; " 1793, 8vo. 3. " Du
Manage, dans ses Rapports avec la Religion
et avec les Lois nouvelles de la France ; "
Paris, 1801, 8vo. 4. " Vues sur le Second
Avcnement de Jesus Christ ; ou. Analyse de
rOuvrage de Lacunza, Jesuite, sur cette im-
portante Matiere ; " Paris, 1818, 8vo. 5. "Les
Propheties concernant Jesus Christ et
I'Eglise, eparses dans les Livres Saints, avec
Explication et Notes ;" Paris, 1819, 8vo. 6.
" La France justifiee de complicite dans
I'Assassinat du Due de Berry;" Paris, 1820,
8vo. 7. " Commentaire sur 1' Apocalypse ; "
Paris, 1823, 8vo. 8. "Les Propheties, nou-
vellement traduites de I'Hebreu ; " Paris, 1 820,
8vo. 9. " Les Pseaumes, nouvellement tra-
duits de rHcbreu ;" Paris, 1809, 8vo. {Bio-
graphie des Homines viva?}s ; Querard, Ea
France Litieraire; Le Moniteur, 1823, f.
1136.) J.W.J.

A'GILA, or AGILAN, one of the Gothic
kings of Spain in the sixth century. He was
c'nosen by the nobles a.d. 549, to succeed
Theudisel, who had been murdered at Seville
by his nobles for his cruelty^ and lust. The
reign of Agila, which lasted five years and
three months, was marked by constant revolts
and disturbances. His first expedition was
against the inhabitants of Cordova, who re-
fused to acknowledge his authority. They
made an unexpected sally on his camp, routed
his arm}% kiUed his son, and were only pre-
vented from seizing him by the rapidity of
his flight to Merida. The disaster is ascribed
not only by St. Isidore, but by Mariana, to
his having made use of the church of St.
Ascisclus, near Cordova, as a stable for his
horses. From Cordova the rebellion spread,
and Athanagild, who placed himself at the
head of a party in Seville, applied for assist-
ance to the emperor JustiniaUj and received

AGILA.

it on condition of putting into his hands a
portion of Spain. The united armies of
Athanagild and Liberius, tlie imperial general,
met and defeated that of Agila on his mareh
to Seville, and, to conciliate the conquerors,
the unfortunate king was put to death by the
chiefs of his own party immediately after at
Merida, a. d. 554. (Mariana, Historia de
Espana, libro v. cap. 9. ; Masdeu, Historia
Critica de Espaha, x. 115.) T. W.

AGILES, RAYMOND D', lived in the
eleventh century. He accompanied Raymond
de St. Gilles, Count of Toulouse, and Adhe-
mar, bishop of Le Puy, the pope's legate, in
their expedition to the Holy Land, which
formed part of the first crusade. He was
chaplain to the Count of Toulouse, and
was the intimate friend of Poince de Baladun
(Pontius de Baladuno), a man of rank, and
one of the friends of the Count of Toulouse.
He was one of the chosen few present at the
discovery of the holy lance. He was ordained
priest in the course of the expedition, and
on his return became canon of Le Puy. He
wrote a history of the crusade, or rather of
that part of it with which he was connected,
being desirous, as he says in his preface, to
make known v,'hat God had done for them,
and to counteract the impression of the stories
spread by those who forsook the expedition.
This history is inserted in the collection
entitled " Gesta Dei per Francos," 3 vols. fol.
Hanovia; (Hanau), a.d. 1611. It is headed,
" Raimondi de Agiles, Canonici Podiensis
Historia Francorum qui ceperunt Iheru-
salem," and is inscribed to the Bishop of
Viviers. It commences with the march of
the division under Count Raymond through
Slavonia, in the winter of 1096, and ends
with the return of the crusaders to Jeru-
salem, after their victory near Ascalon, 12th
Avig. 1099. The Latin of Raymond is very
good for the age in which he lived, and his
descriptions lively and clear. (Notice of
Raymond, in the preface to the first volume
of Gesta Dei per Francos; and Raymond's
own work.) J. C. M.

AGILULFUS was the Longobard duke
of Turin under the reign of King Autaris,
or Autarich. He is said to have been hand- ,
some, brave, and wise. After King Auta- .
rich's death (a.d. 590), the Longobard chiefs '
agreed to leave the regency in the hands of
his young widow Theudelinda, a woman of
great prudence, and suggested that she might
associate with her any of the Longobard
dukes. Theudelinda fixed her choice upon
Agilulfus, whom she sent for, and having
met him at Lomello, a few miles distant from
Pavia,the queen ordered one of her attendants
to pour out wine in a cup, and after sipping
some, she gave the cup with the remainder to
Agilulfus, signifying to him, at the same
time, her selection of him as a husband.
Paulus Diaconus, in his history of the Longo-
bards, relates in a simple but affecting manner
452

AGILULFUS.

the particulars of this interview. Theude-
linda was a princess of Boioaria, now Bavaria,
and had been brought up in the Catholic or
Nicene creed, whilst some of the Longobards
were Arians, and part of them still heathens,
and she induced Agilulfus to embrace the
Catholic faith. This example was followed
by the chief men among the Longobards, and
by degrees the greater part of the nation be-
came Catholic. Agilulfus, during his reign,
restored many churches and monasteries,
which had been stripped of their property by
his Arian predecessors, and it was under him
that Columbanus founded the afterwards cele-
brated monastery of Bobbio.

About the year 594, Romanus, the Byzan-
tine exarch of Ravenna, being intent upon
recovering for his master some of the terri-
tories which the Longobards had seized, pre-
vailed upon Mauritius, Longobard duke of
Perusia, to acknowledge the Eastern emperor,
after which the exarch went to Rome, where he
was received with the honours due to the lieu-
tenant of the emperor, as the duchy of Rome
was still under allegiance to the Byzantines.
On his return to Ravenna, he took Sutrium,
Orta, Tudertum, Ameria, and other towns of
Umbria and Etruria, in the name of his
master.

Upon hearing this, Agilulfus commenced a
war against both the exarch and the Romans,
and in the following year besieged Perusia,
which he took, after an obstinate defence,
when he put to death Mauritius, and ad-
vanced towards Rome, to the great alarm of
Pope Gregory I., who, in one of his homilies,
forcibly describes the terror occasioned at
Rome by the approach of the Longobards.
However, through the intercession of his
wife, Theudelinda, Agilulfus concluded a
peace with the pope and the duchy of Rome.
Paidus Diaconus gives two letters of thanks
from the pope, one to Theudelinda. and the
other to Agilulfus, for the restoration of
peace. In 599, Agilulfus concluded a truce
with Callinicus, exarch of Ravenna, who
had succeeded Romanus. Zoto, first duke
of Beneventum, having died, Agilulfus ap-
pointed in his place Arechis, a relative of
Gisulfus, duke of Forum Julii, or Friuli.
He also put to death the Duke of Verona
and the Duke of Bergamo, who had revolted ;
and after the death of Ewin, duke of Trent,
he put in his place Guidobald, who was of
the Catholic faith. In 603, Theudelinda was
delivered of a son, called Adaloaldus, who
succeeded to the crown of the Longobards.
Shortly after, Callinicus, exarch of Ravenna,
broke the truce with the Longobards, and a
party of his men seized a daughter of Agi-
lulfus (probably by a former wife), and her
husband, at Parma, and carried them off
prisoners. The Byzantines seem to have
retained dominion, north of the Po, over
part of the Venetia, and as far as Mantua
and Cremona. Agilulfus having obtained a

AGILUI.FUS.

AGILULFUS.

reinforcement of troops from his ally, the ]
kakun or king: of the Avars, a Slavonian
tribe, -which had settled in Pannonia, at- j
tacked Cremona, took it, and destroyed the
walls. He then attacked Mantua, the garri- ,
son of which capitulated on condition of
being allowed to retire to Ravenna. Padua j
was also taken, and partly burnt. Agilulius ^
ravaged Istria, which belonged to the Eastern
emperor, and he took also Brixellum, south
of the Po, and other towns. In the year
606, the exarch Smaragdus, who had suc-
ceeded Callinicus, receiving no assistance
from Phocas, who had usurped the throne of
Constantinople, concluded a truce with the
Longobards, which was renewed yearly dur-
ing the reign of Agilulfus, the exarch paying
a tribute to the Longobards of 12,000 golden
solidi. Phocas himself sanctioned this agree-
ment, and sent ambassadors to Agikdfus with
presents. During the remainder of the reign
of Agilulfus, there was peace between the
Byzantines and the Longobards, and Italy
enjoyed tranquillity, with the exception of
an irruption of the Avars into Friuli, which
was accompanied by fearful atrocities, ac-
cording to the account of Paulus Diaconus ;
but his narrative is too confused, and his
chronology too uncertain, to enable us to fix
upon the precise date of this event, in which
Agilulfus is not even mentioned.

Theudelinda fixed her residence on the
site of the present Monza, which was then
called Modicia, or Modoetia, according to
some, though Calco, the historian of Milan,
derives the modem name of 3Ionza from
that of Oppidum Moguntiacum, found in an
ancient inscription. She built there a splen-
did church, which she dedicated to St. John
the Baptist, and a palace for herself, in which
she caused several victories and other deeds
of the Longobards to be painted, and it was
from these pictures that Paulus Diacopus,
nearly two centuries after, took his descrip-
tion (b. iv. ch. 2.3.) of the costume and ap-
pearances of his ancestors, which were in
his time greatly changed. The collegiate
church of Monza, built by Theudelinda,
remains, and forms one of the most interest-
ing monuments of the middle ages. In the
treasury -room, among other curiosities, is a
kind of toilet of Queen Theudelinda, con-
taining her crown, her fan of red parchment,
her cup made of sapphire, her comb, and
other articles. In the same treasury was also
kept the golden crown of Agilulfus, with an
inscription, in which he was styled a glorious
prince and king of all Italy. This crown, of
which Frisi has given a description in his
" Memorie della Chiesa Monzese," was car-
ried off, with other valuables, by the French
in 1799, and placed in the cabinet of medals
annexed to the national librai-y at Paris ; but
in 1804, it was stolen and melted down by
some common thieves. The famous iron
crown, however, remains at Monza. In a
45.3

series of medallions painted round the vault
of the church of ^lonza, are the portraits of
all the kings of Italy that have worn the
iron crown, from AgUulfus to Charles Y.,
who was the last emperor crowned with it,
previous to Napoleon. It would appear, how-
ever, that the iron crown was introduced for
the coronation of the Longobard kings, at a
later period than the reign of Agilulfus. Fon-
tanini has written an historical dissertation
concerning the iron crown, "De Corona Ferrea
Longobardorum." VaK'ry, in his " Voyages
Historiques et Litteraires en Italic," 1833, has
given the latest account of the church of
Monza.

About the year 616, King Agilulfus died,
after a reign of twenty-five years, and his
son Adaloaldus was proclaimed king in his
place, but being only thirteen years of age,
he was placed under the guardianship of his
mother, Theudelinda. The reign of Agikdfus
constitutes a remarkable period in the history
of the Longobards and of Italy. The Longo-
bards became Catholic : they also began to ac-
quire a certain polish of civilisation ; the resi-
dence of their kings assumed the appearance
of a princely court, and their administration
a greater degree of regularity. It was then
that they first concluded diplomatic treaties
with the Byzantine emperors, the popes,
and the Prankish kings ; it was then that the
Italian populations were restored to some-
thing like tranquillitj' and security, to which
they had been strangers for more than a quar-
ter of a century, ever since the first invasion of
the Longobards under Alboin. It seems un-
doubted that much of this happy change was
due to the influence which Queen Theudelinda
retained over the husband of her choice.
(Paulus Diaconus, iJe Gestis Longobardorum ;
Sigonius, De Regno Italia.) A. V.

AGINCOURT. [Seroux d'Agincourt.]

A'GIS {"Ayis) of Argos, a Greek poet and a
contemporary and flatterer of Alexander the
Great. Q. Curtius says that the poems of
Agis were, next to those of Chcerilus (of
lasus), the worst extant. This judgment
however appears only to refer to the senti-
ments, and not to their poetic merits. There
is one epigram by him in the " Anthologia
Graeca " (vi. 152.). (Comp. Q. Curtius, viii.
5. ; Arrian, Erpedit. Alex. M. iv. p. 262.)

Another person of the name of Agis is
mentioned by Athenaeus (xii. 516.), as the
author of a work on cookery (Ji^afniniKo).

L. S.

AGIS ('A71S). There were four kings of
this name at Sparta. Agis I. was the third
king of Sparta in order, including the first king
Aristodemus and the second of the house of
the Eurysthenids, or Agids as they were called
from him. He became king about b. c.
1060, and is supposed by Eusebius to have
reigned only one year ; but there are good
reasons for assigning to him a reign of thirty ■;
one years. The historian Ephoms, as quoted

AG IS.

AGIS.

by Strabo, relates of him that he reduced the
Achseans, the old inhabitants of Laconia,
from a state of political equality -with the
Spartans to the condition of vassals, de-
priving them of their rights of citizenship, and
making them subject to Sparta. (Clinton,
Fast. Hellen. i. 334. ; Pausanias, iii. 2. 1. ;
Strabo, viii. 364.) R.W— n.

AGIS II. was of the younger house, or
that of the Eurypontids, as they were soine-
times called instead of Proclids, from Eurypon
the grandson of Procles. He was the nineteenth
Spartan king in order, including Aristodemus,
and became king b. c. 427. He died b. c. 399,
after a reign of more than twenty-eight years,
continued through nearly the whole of the
Peloponnesian war. He commanded the
Spartan armies on several expeditions into
Attica ; once in b. c. 426, and again in b. c.
425. In B.C. 418 he invaded the territory
of Argos, and so completely surrounded the
Argive forces, that their situation was almost
desperate. But instead of availing himself of
the opportunity of reducing Argos to sub-
jection, he made a truce on his own authority,
and drew off his forces. This mismanage-
ment was greatly condemned by the con-
federates, and also by his own countrymen,
who imposed upon him a fine, and decreed
that his house should be pulled down. The
execution of this sentence was in the first in-
stance deferred, and eventually remitted, on
the earnest entreaties of Agis, that they would
give him an opportunity of making amends
by future services. But they passed a law by
w-hich a new council of war was appointed,
consisting of ten Spartans, without whose
sanction and authority he was no longer per-
mitted to take the field. Shortly afterwards
he redeemed his character by defeating the
Argives, and their allies the Mantineans
and Athenians, in a pitched battle at Man-
tineia, one of the greatest ever fought
between Grecian states. In b. c. 413 he
again invaded Attica at the head of the
Spartan forces, and, after ravaging the plain
of Athens, proceeded to fortify Deceleia, an
eminence about fifteen miles north-east of
that city. Its occupation by a Spartan force
reduced Athens to the situation of a besieged
town, and materially contributed to her ulti-
mate subjection ; Agis himself, acting as
commandant, and directing the operations of
the Spartan troops, according to his own
judgment and discretion. In fact, his posi-
tion at Deceleia enabled him to exercise an
almost independent authoritj% especially
with the Boeotians and other neighbouring
states, who applied to him, in preference
to sending so far as Sparta. (Thucy-
dides, viii. 5.) From various passages
in Thucydides and Xenophou's " Hellenics,"
it appears that he remained there till the
end of the Peloponnesian war, laying
waste the Athenian territory, and cutting off
the supplies of the city, as opportunity of-
4!)4

fered. Shortly afterwards (b. c. 401), the
Lacedaemonians were engaged in a war with
the Eleans, which lasted three years. Agis
was entrusted with the command of the
Spartan forces ; and after he had made two
expeditions into the Elean territory, and
garrisoned a strong position near Elis, the
Eleans were glad to sue for peace (b. c.
399). On his return from Delphi, whither he
had gone to offer up the tithe of the spoil
which he had taken in the war, he fell iU
at Heraja in Arcadia, and was conveyed to
Sparta, where he died. Leotychides, who
had previously passed for his son, was ex-
cluded from the succession on the ground of
illegitimacy ; Agis having once declared
that he did not believe he was his own child.
The general belief of his queen's infidelity
strengthened the suspicion thus raised ; and
although on his deathbed he had recognised
Leotychides as his son, still Agesilaus IL,
his half brother, was declared his successor.
(Pausanias, iii. 8. ; Thucydides, iii. 89. v. vii.
and viii. ; Xenophon, Hellen.i. c. 1. iii. 1 — 4. ;
Plutarch, Lysander, c. 22., Agesilaiis. c. 3. ;
Diodorus, xii. 35.) R. W — n.

AGIS III., the elder son of Archidaraus
III., was of the house of the Proclids, and the
twenty-second king of Sparta, including Ari-
stodemus. He was a contemporary of Alex-
ander the Great ; b. c. 338 being the year of
his accession to the throne, and B.C. 331 of
his death. He is chiefly known from his
connection with the attempt which the Spar-
tans and their allies made to overthrow the
Macedonian supremacy in Greece, during
the absence of Alexander in Asia. With
this view, and for the purpose of obtaining
supplies for the war, Agis with a single
trireme visited the Persian commanders in
the iEgsean about the time of the battle of
Issus (b. c. 333). Two years afterwards,
when the Spartans took the field against the
Macedonians, Agis was invested with the
command, and gained a decisive victory over
some troops which were brought against
them by Corragus, a Macedonian general.
He then laid siege to Megalopolis in Arcadia,
and was on the point of taking it, when he
was obliged to raise the siege by the approach
of Antipater, whom Alexander had left as
viceroy in Macedonia, with a superior army.
The king endeavoured to compensate for his
deficiency in numbers by taking up an ad-
vantageous position ; but the Macedonians,
after a hard-fought battle, were finally vic-
torious. Agis himself was wounded early in
the action, and carried out of the field ; but
when he found that his pursuers were on the
point of capturing him, he gave orders that
he should be set down, and then, resting on
one knee, he fovight to the last with true
Spartan spirit. The battle of Arbela took
place about the same time. (Diodorus, xvi.
63.68. xvii. 62.; Arrian, ii. 13. iii. 198. ;
iEschines, Against Ctesiphon, 77 ; Quintus

AG IS.

AGIS.

Curtius, vi. 1, 2. ; Justin, xii. 1. ; Thirlwall,
Hist, of Greece, vol. vi. c. 51.; Clinton, Fast.
IlcUen. vol. ii. p. 215. R. W — n.

AGIS IV., son of Eudamidas II., was the
last king of the house of the Proclids, and the
twenty -sixth king of Sparta, including Aristo-
demus. He became king in b. c. 244, and
reigned four years, his colleague, during the
first part of his reign, being Leonidas the Agid.
He was not distinguished by any military
achievements, though engaged in some expe-
ditions, in one of which he was defeated by
Aratus, the general of the Acha?an league, pro-
bably in n. c. 243. Subsequently, in a war be-
tween the Achaean league, then in alliance
whh Sparta, and the /Etolians, he joined his
forces with Aratus, the Achrean general. His
reign, however, was in other respects remark-
able. The Institutions of Lycurgus, the Spar-
tan lawgiver, had become obsolete, and were
altogether disregarded : luxury and wealth, the
introduction of which into Spaita he had
studiously provided against, prevailed to a
great extent, with the accompanying vices of
cupidity and meanness. The law which had
secured to every Spartan head of a family an
equal portion of land had been repealed, and
the whole landed property of the country had
accumulated in the hands of a few indi-
viduals, chiefly females. Agis IV. had shown
from his very boyhood a predilection for the
plainness and simplicity of the ancient Spar-
tan discipline ; and when he came to the
throne he resolved to reform the evils of his
time, in the hope of regenerating Sparta by a
return to the institutions and habits of former
ages. For this purpose, it was necessary to
make very sweeping changes ; and accord-
ingly he resolved upon proposing to the
Spartan senate a plan for the abolition of all
debts, and an equal distribution of the landed
property of the state. This was at that time
possessed by one hundred citizens only, and
therefore the scheme was favourably received
by the great majority of the citizens, but op-
posed by the richer and older members of the
community. Agis, however, succeeded in
gaining over to his cause three of the most
influential persons in the state, Lysander,
Mandrocleides, and AgesOaus, the last of
whom was a great landowner, but deeply in
debt. He then laid before the council of
thirty elders, the Spartan senate, a measure
which provided for the abolition of debts
and the division of the Spartan territory
into two portions, one to contain 4500 and
the other 1 5,000 equal lots ; the latter for the
Perioeci or provincial subjects, the former ^
for the Spartan citizens, whose number was ;
to be increased, by admitting into their ranks
some of the Perioeci and respectable strangers. '
The measure was warmly contested in the
senate, and Lysander, who, through the in- ,
fluence of Agis, had been raised to the ephor-
alty, at that time the most important office
of the state, assembled the people and suh-
455

mitted it to them. After its other supporters
had spoken in its favour, Agis offered, in
proof of his sincerity, to present to the state
all his landed property, together with 600
talents of money, and said that his mother
and gi-andinother, relations and friends, the
richest persons in Sparta, would do the
same. His generosity was wannly ap-
plauded by the majority ; but the ratification
of the senate was necessary to the validity of
the decrees of the assembly of the people ; and
the opposite party, with Leonidas the other
king at their head, had so much influence
that this ratification was refused, only, how-
ever, by one vote. Leonidas was shortly
afterwards obliged to vacate the throne, on a
charge brought against him by Lysander, and
Cleombrotus, his own son-in-law, was ap-
pointed his successor. But the ephors of the
following year were opposed to Agis and
his measures, and accused Lysander and
his friends of attempting to overthrow the
laws. They took the alarm ; and, seeing that
there was no prospect of carrying their
measures peaceably, they prevailed upon Agis
and Cleombrotus to depose the ephors by
force. Others were appointed in their place,
and Leonidas fled to Tegea in Arcadia.
Agesilaus had laid men in wait to mui'der
him on the road ; but Agis, on hearing of
this, sent a trusty escort along with him,
which brought him safe to his journey's end.
Agis and his party thus gained the mastery ;
but he was persuaded by Agesilaus, that the
most effectual means for carrying his scheme
woidd be to commence with an abolition of
debts ; that in this way the landowners
would be conciliated, and readily consent
afterwards to the proposed division of their
lands. The debts accordingly were cancelled ;
but Agesilaus and the other landowners
found pretexts for delaying the division of
their lands till Agis was sent out at the head
of an army, to aid the Achaeans against an
invasion of the ^Etolians. The king had no op-
portunity of distinguishing himself in action ;
but the spirit which he had infused into his
troops, by precept and example, their willing
obedience, and their excellent discipline, were
the admiration of all who witnessed them.
On his return home, he found that Agesilaus
had mined all his plans. After gaining his
point bj- the abolition of debts, he had thrown
off the mask, and his insolent conduct
in the absence of Agis, coupled with the
non-distribution of the lands, had so disgusted
the people that they acquiesced in the recall
of Leonidas, and his restoration to the throne.
Agis fled to the sanctuary of the Brazen
House, a temple of Pallas ; and though
urged by the solicitation of Leonidas to re-
sume the kingly office, he refused to quit his
refuge. He was at last betrayed by the
treachery of pretended friends, and thrown
into prison, where the ephors and some of
the senators of the opposite party proceeded

AGIS.

AGIUS.

to go through the mockery of a trial. They
asked him M'hether he did not repent of what
he had done? He replied, that though he
should die for it, he could never repent of a
noble and glorious enterprise. He was then
condemned to death, and hastily executed,
the ephors being apprehensive of a rescue.
He met his death with the spirit which became
his noble character, (b.c. 240.) He observed
one of the attendants weeping at his fate, and
said, " Do not weep for me : thus unrighteously
and unjustly dying, I am superior to my mur-
derers." He was the first Spartan king who
was put to death by the ephors. His mo-
ther, Agesistrate, and his grandmother, the
two wealthiest persons in Sparta, who had
supported him in his plans of reform, were
also strangled at the same time. Pausanias
(viii. 10. 4.) gives a diiFerent account of the
death of Agis ; according to which he fell in
a great battle against the Achseans and Man-
tineans. This author also repeats the as-
sertion of his being slain in battle in another
passage (viii. 27. 9.), where he describes an
unsuccessful attack made by him on Mega-
lopolis in Arcadia. But this account of his
death is contrary to known facts. (Plutarch,
Agis and Chomenes, Aratus; Pausanias, vii.
7. 2. ; Clinton, Fast. Helleii. ii. 217.)

R. W— n.
A'GIUS DE SOLDA'NIS, GIOVANNI
PIETRO FRANCESCO, was born about
the beginning of the eighteenth century, at
Gozo. He took orders, and became aposto-
lic prothonotary and canon of the coUegiate
church of Gozo. From the dedication to his
Maltese grammar it may be gathered that he
visited Naples in 1750, in company with Lord'
Charlemont, and, from the preface to his dis-
sertation on the origin of the Maltese lan-
guage, that he went to Rome in the same
year, for the purpose of obtaining the in-
dulgences of the jubilee. He occupied his
leisure, while residing at Rome on this oc-
casion, in the composition of the grammar
already mentioned. In June, 1763, he was
chosen librarian of the public library of
Malta, then first established, by the liberality
of the Bailli Tencin, who purchased the
collection of Cardinal Portocarrero, and pre-
sented it to the public. In Borch's " Lettres
sur la Sicile," written in 1777, he is spoken
of as having been dead for some time. The
most important work of Agius is that on
the Maltese, or, as he calls it, the Punic lan-
guage, " Delia Lingua Punica presentemente
usata da Maltesi :" Rome, 1750, 12mo. It
contains two dissertations : the first on the
origin of the language, which he endeavours
to prove to have been introduced into Malta
by the ancient Carthaginians ; the second on
the advantage of cultivating it. These are
followed by a grammar, and a specimen of a
dictionary, Maltese and Italian, and Italian
and Maltese. The grammar was the first
attempt to reduce this language to rule, or
456

even to settle its orthography, and in neither
does Agius appear to have been very success-
ful. Vassalli, in his Maltese grammar and
lexicon, speaks of Agius's grammar as im-
perfect, and his system of spelling as both
imperfect and inconsistent ; but it may be
observed, that Vassalli himself, in the second
edition of his grammar, published at Malta
in 1827, found it necessary to make some
alterations in his own orthography. The vo-
cabulary furnished by Agius is very scanty ;
but he had projected and commenced a dic-
tionary on an extended scale, which he left
imperfect at his death, and the manuscript of
which is preserved in the public library of
Malta. Another work by Agius is his ex-
planation of the speeches, in Punic, put by
Plautus, in his " Posnulus," into the mouth of
Hanno : " Annone Cartaginese, cioe vera
Spiegazione deUa I. Scena dell' Atto V. della
Commedia di M. A. Plauto in Pcenulo, fatta
coUa Lingua moderna Maltese o sia I'antica
Cartaginese;" Rome, 1757, 4to. The line of
argument maintained by Agius on this sub-
ject appears to be only one degree less ridi-
culous than that of General VaUancey, who
endeavoured to prove that the language used
by Hanno was Irish. Gesenius observes, that
with the same sort of reasoning by which
Agius pretends to show that the language of
the speeches in the " Pcenulus " is Maltese, he
would undertake to prove it was German.
The same critic remarks, that in the compara-
tive criticism of languages, Agius shows him-
self utterly incompetent ; that his knowledge
of Hebrew appears to rest on some vague and
often quite erroneous recollections of early
instruction ; and that still less value must be
attached to his comparisons of the Maltese
with the ancient Etrurian and " something
that he caUs Egyptian." Gesenius admits,
however, that while his observations are of
no value, his collections are of the utmost
importance. Agius was also the author of a
controversial pamphlet, " Discours Apolo-
getique contre la Dissertation Historique et
Critique sur le Naufrage de Saint Paul dans la
Mer Adriatique," in which he attempts to
prove, in opposition to the Abbe Ladvocat, that
the Melita, on which St. Paul is mentioned
as landing in the Acts, was the island of
Malta. (Mifsud, Biblioteca Maltese, p. xxiv. j
Borch, Lettres sur la Sicile, i. 204. ; Vassalli,
Ktijb yl Klym Malti sine Liber dictionum Me-
litensium, p. 30. ; Gesenius, Versuch iiber die
Maltesische Sprache, p. vL ; article by Weiss,
in the Biographic Universelle, Supp. i. 95.)

T. W.
A'GL AOPHON CAy\ao<pwv). There were
apparently two painters of this name : the
elder, a native of Thasos, who lived about
B. c. 500; and the younger of uncertain coun-
try, who was contemporary with Alcibiadcs.
The elder Aglaophon was the father of Po-
lygnotus and Aristophon. Quintilian is the
only ancient writer who notices his style.

AGLAOPHON.

AGLIATA.

for, in the passage adverted to, it is very
improbable that he alhides to the younger,
■who was the contemporary of Zeuxis, Ti-
manthes, and Parrhasius ; but he somewhat
indiscriminately couples him with his son
Poh'gnotus. Quintilian saj-s that, notwith-
standing the simple colouring of Polygnotus
and Aglaophon, which was little more than a
mere foundation of what was afterwards ac-
complished, there were those who preferred
their style to the styles of the greatest painters
who succeeded them ; not, as he thinks, without
a certain degree of affectation. To this Agla-
ophon probably should be ascribed the Winged
Victory, spoken of by the scholiast on Ari-
stophanes ; the beautiful horse mentioned by
iElian was probably by the younger. The
J ounger Aglaophon is conjectured by Bottiger
to have been the grandson of the elder Agla-
ophon, and the son of Aristophon. We learn
from Athenaius, that Alcibiades, after his re-
turn as victor from Olympia, dedicated at
Athens two allegorical pictures of himself by
Aglaophon : the one represented him crowned
by Olympias and Pythias ; the other, sitting
or lying upon the knees of Nemea, with a
face of extreme beauty. The latter picture
is attributed by Plutarch to Aristophon, but
this is supposed to be an error. Cicero re-
marks that Aglaophon, Zeuxis, and Apelles,
though all different from each other, were yet
all perfect in their several styles. (Suidas,
'Ay\ao(pwv; Quintilian, Inst. Orator, x'n. 10.
3. ; Athenaeus, xii. 534. ; Plutarch, Alcibiades,
16. ; Cicero. De Orat. iii. 7.) R. N. AV.

AGLIATA, BERNARDI'NUS, an ad-
vocate, descended from a noble family in
Palermo, where he is said, by Mongitore, to
have practised with considerable reputation.
An argimient in defence of the right of pre-
cedence claimed by the regular over the
secular clergy, published at Palermo, in
1690, has preserved his name : the time at
which he lived is now known only from the
date of this work, which is entitled " Alle-
gationes in Causa Precedentise, ad Intellec-
tum Constitutionis LXXXIV. Gregorii XIII.,
aliorumque Apostolicorum Diplomatum ac
S. R. C. Decretorum, super Materia de qua
agitur emanatorum pro RR. PP. S. Marise
Angelorum, cseterisque Regularibus contra
Rev. Pat. S. Zita;. Panormi ex typographia
Jacobi Epiro, 1690," fol. (Mongitore. Bib-
Uotheca Sicula. Panormi, 1708-14.) W. W.

AGLIATA, DA'ZIO, a Jesuit, of a noble
family of Palermo. He joined the society in
his seventeenth year, taught rhetoric at Pa-
lermo for several years, and was ultimately
appointed rector of the Jesuits' college at
Malta, where he died on the 21st of Januarj',
16.57. He published " Oratio in solemni
Studiorum Lustratione habita in Aula Colle-
gii Panormitani Soc. Jesu. Panormi apud
Decium Cyrillum, 163G," 4to. " Gemina Portus
Sapientiae ad Illustris. Senatum Panormita-
num ipsius renascentis Anni literarii Feriis,

VOL. r.

Oratio altera. Panormi, apud Decium Cy-
rillum, 1040." (Mongitore, Bibliot/wcu Si-
cula.) W. W.

AGLIATA, GERARDO, was born at
Palermo, in 1420. After obtaining his de-
gree of Doctor of Laws, he practised as an
advocate in his native town. King Alphonso
appointed him protonotarj' of Sicily in 1450 ;
and King John, at Agliata's request, con-
ferred the reversion of the office on his son
Mariano, in 1468. Cumia, in his " De Feudis,"
and Muta, in his " Consuetudines Panormi-
tanse," repeatedly quote the pleadings (aUe-
gationes) of Gerardo Agliata. The year of
his death is rmknown. (Mongitore, Biblio-
theca Sicula.) W. W.

AGLIATA, GERARDO, son of Antonio
Agliata, a Palennitan noble. The year of
his birth is unknown ; he was several times
elected a member of the town council of
Palermo ; and died there, on the 30tli of Au-
gust, 1590. He composed Italian verses,
some of which are preserved in the two
volumes of the " Rime degli Accademici
Accesi di Palermo," (of which society he was
a member,) published in 8vo. at Palermo, in
1571 and 1573. (Mongitore, Bibliotheca
Sicula.) W. W.

AGLIATA, GIOVANNI, an eminent
lawyer, a native of Palermo, who after rising
to be at the head of the Sicilian bar (in Sicilia
primarius causarum patronus), was appointed,
successiveh", judge in the supreme municipal
court of Palermo ; assessor in the royal
court, and in the Court of Consistory ; advo-
cate of the royal treasury ; president of the
Court of Consistory ; and president of the
treasury. He died at Melazzo, (to which
city the vice-regal court had transferred itself,
on account of the war with France,) on the
6th of April, 1675 ; and was buried at Pa-
lermo, on the 29th of June following. He
composed poems both in Italian and in the
Sicilian dialect, some of which are printed in
Galeano's collection. Mazzuchelli mentions
having seen some of his verses in a MS. col-
lection of Sicilian poetry belonging to Dr.
Baldassarre Zamboni, professor of theology
in the seminary of Brescia. (Mongitore,
Bibliotheca Sicula ; Mazzuchelli, Scrittori
dltalia.) W. W.

AGLIATA, JA'COPO, a senator of Pa-
lermo, who lived about the beginning of the
seventeenth century. He compiled, with the
assistance of Filippo Paruta, a chronological
table of the magistrates of Palermo from 1282
to 1626 ("Notamento di tutti Capitani Pre-
tori, Giurati e Governatori della Tavola della
Citta de Palermo, dall' Anno 1282, per tutto
r Anno 1626"), which has been printed by
Auria, at the end of his Chronological History
of Sicily. When the plague ravaged Palermo,
in 1624, Agliata was a member of the board
of health appointed on the occasion, and wa-s
indefatigable in the discharge of his duty.
He also held for some time the office of city

H H

AGLIATA.

AGNEAUX.

treasurer (Panomiitana; tabula? nummu-
laria; pra?fuit). Neither the jear of his hirth
nor that of his death is known. (Mongitore,
Bibliothcca Sicula ; Historia Cronolitgica delli
Signori Vicere di Sicilia, dalV Anno 1409 sino
al 1697 prescnte, ooniposta dal Dottor Don
Vincenzo Auria Palermitano, in Palermo,
per Pietro Coppola, 1G97.) W. W.

AGLIATA E PARUTA,FRANCESCO,
a native of Palermo, horn 25th April, 1629,
son of the Prince of Villafranca and Sala, by
Giovanna Lanza. He succeeded early in
life to his father's title, but is best known by
his Christian and surnames. He has the re-
putation of a respectable poet in his native
dialect. Giuseppe Galeano has printed some
of his verses in the second edition of his
" Muse Siciliane overo Scelta di tutte le Can-
zoni della Sicilia," published at Palermo, in
1662. (Mongitore, Bibliotheca Sicula.)

W. W.
AGLIO. [Corradi'no dall' Aglio.]
AGNEAUX, DEVIENNE. [Devienne.]
AGNEAUX, ROBERT and ANTOINE
LE CHEVALIER D', two brothers who are
celebrated as the first translators of Virgil
into French verse. They were born at Vire
in Normandy, in the former half of the six-
teenth century, and studied together, the one
law, and the other medicine, at Paris, Poic-
tiers, Montpellier, and Toulouse. After tra-
velling together over great part of France,
they retired to their native province, and
gave themselves up to literature. In 1582
they produced their translation of the whole
works of Virgil, which gained them a high
reputation. It appeared at Paris, (4to.) with
a dedication to Henry III., and was shortly
after reprinted, accompanied with the Latin
text. Modern critics have reversed the flat-
tering judgment of their predecessors ; but
they attribute the defects of the work eliiefly
to the haste with which it was produced, the
■whole having occupied not more -than two
years. Vauquelin so greatly admired it, that
he exclaims, in his " Art Poetique,"

" Apo'.lon iiieine avniie
Qu'en eux se reconnolt le Cigne de Mantoue."

The success of their first production en-
couraged the brothers to undertake a version
of the Odes of Horace, which appeared in
1588 (Paris, 8vo., also with a dedication to
Henry III.) ; but their translation is distin-
guished only for its literal correctness, and
is destitute of the beauties of the original.
They must have died shortly after this
period, as a volume of their posthumous
poems was published by Pierre Lucas Sal-
liere in 1591. From this work it appears
that Robert, the elder brother, died first, at
the age of forty -nine, and that Antoine sur-
vived him a very short time. The dedi-
cation to this volume is by Andre le Cheva-
lier, the son of Antoine, and the poems which
it contains are all originals : a passage in one
of them, on the assassination of the poet's
45S

patron. King Henry III., is spoken of by
Goujet as "energetic and full of fire." Be-
sides their published works, the i)' Agneaux
composed a manual called "Le Gentilhomme
Francois," on the rules of behaviour to be ob-
served at court, and other points of etiquette.
(La Croix du Maine and Duverdier, Bihliu-
thiques Francoises, edit, of Juvigny, i. 32.
ii. 380. iii. 104. v. 416. ; Goujet, Bibliotheque
Frangoise, xv. 10.; Monfalcon, CEuvres com-
pk'fh's d'Hoi-ace, edit. Polyglotte, pref. p.
clxxvi.) J. W.

AGNELLI, FEDERICO, a Milanese
engraver who lived in the beginning of the
seventeenth century. He engraved por-
traits, architecture, and emblematical sub-
jects. He engraved the cathedral of MUan,
on several large plates, which he marked

FRIDERICUS AGNELLUS SCULP. CAROLUS BU-

Tius ARCHITECT. ^DiFic. (Heineken, Bic-
tionnaire des Artistes, cVc) R. N. W.

AGNE'LLI, GIUSEPPE, an Italian Jesuit,
the author of several works of ascetic theo-
logy, was born at Naples, in 1621. He en-
tered the order of Jesuits in 1637, at Rome ;
was for five years teacher of moral theo- •
logy, and was afterwards rector of the col-
leges of Montepulciano, Macerata, and
Ancona. In 1076, when Father Southwell
published his corrected edition of the " Bib-
liotheca Scriptorum Societatis Jesu," he was
living at Rome. Neither Mazzuchelli nor
Afflitto was aware of the date of his death,
but it has been stated that he died in 1706.
His principal work is " II Catechismo An-
nuale," or " Annual Catechism," an exposition
of the gospels, epistles, &c. read in the
church service during the year. It was first
published at Macerata, in two volumes, quarto,
in 165 7, and again at the same place in 1671 ;
but in the third edition, which was printed at
Rome in 1677, the title was changed to " II
Parrocchiano Istruttore," under which name
it has passed through several editions. His
other works are — " La Settimana consecrata
a S. Giuseppe," or " The Week consecrated
to St. Joseph," published anonymously, Ma-
cerata, 1671, 12nio. ; four volumes on the
" Arte di goder TOttimo," or " Art of enjoy-
ing the better Part, contained in the Spiritual
Exercises of St. Ignatius," Rome, 1089 — 1695,
4to. ; and " Verisimile finto nel Vero," or,
" The Probable imaged in the True," thoughts
suggested to a nun in her novitiate, who was
discontented with her spiritual director, a
work in two volumes. Rome, 1703, 4to.
(Ribadeneira, Bibliotheca Scriptorum Societatis
Jesu opus recognitum a Sotvello, p. 519. ; Maz-
zuchelli, Scrittori d' Italia, i. 193, &c. ;
Afliitto, Scrittori del Regno di Napoli, i. 129,
&c.) T. W.

AGNE LLI, JA'COPO, was born of a
noble family at Ferrara, in August, 1701.
His father was Giovanni Agnelli, and his
mother Lodovica JMarchesini, of Modena.
He was educated under the care of the

AGNELLI.

AGNELLL

Jesuits, and in very early life gained great
credit by the ability with which he sustained
a philosophical disputation. He studied me-
dicine, in which many of his ancestors had
practised with success, and obtained the
highest prize for proficiency in his seven-
teenth year. By the advice of his friends, he
applied himself also to the classical languages,
and obtained the professorship of Greek and
Latin eloquence in the university of Ferrara.
He also published a dissertation on Isocrates.
He afterwards exchanged the chair of elo-
quence for that of medicine, and in both dis-
tinguished himself for the excellence of his
official addresses. His philosophical judg-
ment was not of the highest order ; in his
published dissertations on the systems of
Descartes and Newton, he gives a decided
preference to the former. It is however as
a poet that he is most advantageously known.
In accordance with a custom of the time, he
wrote no less than three hundred Petrarchan
sonnets to " an unknown Laura," who in
reality, as was well enough known, was the
Marchesa Fulvia Visconti Clerici. To these
he added another series, on " the Wonders of
Rome." His chief poems, however, are of a
more serious cast, and were written as an oc-
cupation for his mind, when recovering from
the blow inflicted by the death of his wife,
Angela Paganelli, to whom he was deeply
attached, and whom he lost in the prime of
her life. The " Dio Redentore," and the
" Dio Giudice," (" God the Redeemer," and
" God the Judge,") are poems of great, but
not of the highest merit. Each is in six cantos.
Most of the Italian critics concur in praising
them for harmony of versification and dig-
nity of tone, but they pronounce them de-
ficient in the highest requisites of invention
and imagination. Besides his poems, Agnelli
published various lives of saints, and disserta-
tions on sacred subjects ; among others, " His-
torical Notices of St. George ; " the " Life of
St. Clara of Assisi ; " " Reflections on the Holy
Passion;" on the "Assumption of the Virgin,"
the " Beheading of St. John," &c. He founded
an academy of poetry and polite literature
in his own house, which did much to pro-
mote the difi'usion of a taste for letters among
the Ferrarese ; and he was also perpetual
secretary of the Academy of the " Intrepidi,"
and a member of several others. He con-
tinued to practise medicine throughout his
life, and filled various civic offices with
credit. He died of fever, on the 3d of March,
1798, having attained the age of upwards of
ninety-six years. He had four daughters
and one son, but lost the latter at an
early age, though not before he had shown
that he inherited considerable poetical ta-
lents. (Life by G. B. Baseggio, in Tipaldo,
Biografia degli Italiani Illustri del Secolo
XV III. iii. 133, 134. ; Lombardi, Staria
delta LelteraUira Italiana nel Secolo XVIII.
iii. 245, 241).) J. W.

459

AGNE'LLI, N., an Italian painter and
native of Rome, lived in Turin about the be-
ginning of the eighteenth century, where he
was painter to the court. His style was com-
pounded of the styles of Pietro di Cortona
and Maratta. A saloon which he painted in
the palace at Turin is designated by his name.
(Lanzi, Storia I'ittorica, &c.) R. N. W.

AGNE'LLO, GIOVANNI DELL', a mer-
chant of Pisa, was sent, in 1363, by that re-
public, then at war with Florence, as envoy
to Barnabo Visconti, lord of Milan, to ask
for assistance. Barnabo aspired to extend
his dominion over Tuscany, and it was agreed
between him and Agnello that Barnabo
should assist Agnello in usurping the supreme
power at Pisa, whilst Agnello should favour
the interests of Barnabo, to whom he per-
suaded the Pisans to give up the town of
Pietra Santa. Having received money from
Barnabo, Agnello, on his return to Pisa,
being supported by the faction of the Raspanti,
who wished to keep out the rival family of
Gambacorti, who had been exiled as friendly
to the Florentines, was proclaimed, in 1364,
doge of Pisa, a new title in that state. In
the mean time, peace was concluded at Pescia,
through the mediation of the pope, between
the rival republics of Pisa and Florence.
Agnello abused his power, and became odious
to his countrymen. When the emperor
Charles IV. came into Italy with an
army, in 1368, Agnello sent him envoys
with presents, and invited him to come to
liucca, which was then under the dominion
of Pisa, and he put into the emperor's hands
the castle of L'Agosta, which commanded
the town. Agnello repaired to I-ucca to
visit the emperor ; but while he was, with
others of the imperial party, on a balcony or
scaffolding, looking at some games which
were going on, the scaffolding gave way, and
Agnello broke his leg by the fall. A report
having reached Pisa that he was killed, the
citizens rose in arms at the cry of " liberty,"
drove away the sons of AgneUo, and restored
the republican government. Shortly after,
the emperor, by a diploma dated 8th of April,
1369, restored Lucca to its former inde-
pendence, on payment of a large sum by the
citizens. In 1370, Barnabo Visconti made an
attempt upon Pisa, with a view of restoring
his friend Agnello, and driving away the
powerful family of Gambacorti, who were
friendly to the Florentines, the enemies of
the Visconti. Bamabo's men scaled the walls
of Pisa in the night, near the church of
St. Zeno ; but, being discovered, they were
driven back with loss. Agnello afterwards
died an exile from his country. (Pignotti,
Storia della Toscarut; Bossi, Storia d' Italia.)

A.V.

AGNE'LLUS, A'NDREAS, a presbyter

of Ravenna, and an abbot, who lived in the

second half of the ninth century, wrote a

chronicle of that see, which was first pub-

H H 2

AGNELLUS.

ished by the learned Father Bacehini, a
Benedictine, at Modena, in 1708, under the
title " Agnelli qui et Andreas Abbatis S.
Marise ad Blachernas et S. Bartholomaii Ra-
vennatis Liber Pontificalis, sive Vita; Ponti-
fieum Ravennatum ; D. Benedictus Bacchinus
Abbas S. Maria; de Lacroma, Congregationis
Casinensis, ex Bibliotheca Estensi eruit,
Dissertationibus et Observationibus, nee non
Appendice Monunientorum, illustravit et
auxit, ac Serenissinu) Raynaldo Estensi, Mu-
tina;. Regit etc. Duci, dedicavit." The see of
Ravenna was at the time of Agnellus, and
had been for a long time before, in a state
of schism from the see of Rome concerning
points of jurisdiction. The archbishops of
Ravenna would not acknowledge the supre-
macy claimed by the bishops of Rome, who
asserted their right of investing with the
"pallium" the archbishop elect. The long
dependence of Ravenna upon the Eastern
empire had strengthened the alienation be-
tween it and Rome. Agnellus, in his book,
supports the independence of his see, and
speaks in a disparaging manner of several
Roman pontiffs. It appears that Sergius,
archbishop of Ravenna, and others of his
clergy, among whom was an ancestor of
Agnellus, about the middle of the eighth
century, were taken prisoners to Rome, and
detained by Pope Stephen II., whose power
was supported by the strong arm of Pepin,
king of the Franks, after Pepin had defeated
the Longobards. Pope Paul I., who suc-
ceeded Stephen, a. d. 757, released the arch-
bishop of Ravenna, who returned to his see,
where he died in 759, but the ancestor of
Agnellus is said to have died in pi-ison at
Rome.

The Latin of Agnellus is barbarous, and
his credulity great. Still the work is valu-
able, as treating of a very important and very
obscure part of ecclesiastical as well as civil
history. This was the opinion of Father
Bacehini, who, having found the manuscript
in the Este library at Modena, took great
pains in preparing it for publication, by
adding an interesting preface concerning the
ancient church of Ravenna, and several his-
torical and critical dissertations illustrative
of the text, in which he refutes various state-
ments and opinions of Agnellus concerning
the Roman see. But the Inquisition of Rome,
having heard of the intended publication,
ordered the inquisitor at Modena to seize
the manuscript, as dangerous, and likely to
revive the ancient controversy about supre-
macy. Bacehini was obliged to go to Rome
in 1705, and by showing Pope Clement XI.
his own refutation of the obnoxious state-
ments of Agnellus, and his defence of the
rights of the Roman see, he obtained leave to
publish his work, with some corrections. Ag-
nellus the abbot has been often confounded
with another Agnellus, archbishop of Ra-
venna, who lived in the sixth centurv, and
460

who was the author of an epistle " De Ra-
tione Fidei."

Muratori has inserted the " Liber Pontifi-
calis" of Agnellus in his great collection of
" Rerum Italicarum Scriptores," ii. 1. Amadesi
speaks at length of Agnellus and his chronicle,
in his dissertation on the church of Ra-
venna, published at Faenza, in 1783. {Bio-
yntphi) of Baccliini, in AfFo's Scrittori Parmi-
yiani, vol. v. ; Tiraboschi, Storia della Lette-
ratura Italiana, vol. iii. part 1. b.3. c. 2.)

A. V.

AGNES, a German empress, was the
daughter of Duke William of Aquitaine,
who appears to have given her an excellent
education. In 1043, Chunelinde, the wife of
King Henry III. of Germany, died, and he
chose Agnes for his second wife ; and in
1047 she together with her husband re-
ceived the imperial crown at Rome from the
hands of Pope Clement II. By this marriage
she had two sons, Henry and Conrad, and
three daughters, Judith, Matilda, and Itta.
Henry III. was anxious to consolidate the
empire, for which purpose he did not fill up
several duchies which had become vacant ;
and in 1056 he gave the duchy of Bavaria
to his wife Agnes, whereby he intended to
make it hereditary in his own family. His
great plans, however, were frustrated by his
death, which happened in the same year,
and by the consequences that followed it.
His son Henry, who had been appointed his
successor, was now only five years old, and
his mother Agnes was intrusted by the
princes of the empire with the regency
during the minority of her son, and with the
superintendence of his education. The states
of the empire even took the oath of allegiance
to her. Agnes is generally praised for the
manner in which during several years she
discharged her duties, and it cannot be de-
nied that her intentions were good ; but her
position required more. She wished to
settle affairs of state by mild and gentle
means, when nothing but manly vigour
could prevent mischief, and maintain peace
in the empire. For some time past, the
bishops had exercised great influence in
public affairs : to secure herself against their
assumptions and usurpations, Agnes thought
it necessary to place dukes in several duchies
which had been left vacant by the late em-
peror ; and she gave these duchies to men
who had been hostile to her husband, in the
hope of conciliating them. This policy of
Agnes had important consequences ; for in
proportion as she contributed to establish
the hereditary character of the German dukes,
she diminished the possibility of making the
empire hereditary, an object at which her
predecessors had always been aiming, and
towards the accomplishment of which her
husband had done much. The manner in
which she acted towards Coixnt Rudolph of
Rheinfelden is particularly remarkable. Soon

AGNES.

after the emperor's death, Rudolph carried
oif her daughter Matilda, then only eleven
years old, who was receiving her education
under the superintendence of the Bishop of
Constanz. Agnes not only consented to the
count marrying her daughter, but gave him
the hereditary possession of the duchy of
Swabia, and the administration of the king-
dom of Burgundy. In Carinthia, Bavaria, and
Lorraine, dukes were likewise restored. Otho
of Nordheim, one of the most gallant and
distinguished Saxon princes, who had re-
ceived the duchy of Bavaria, instead of being a
support to the empress, formed a conspiracy
with Anno or Hanno, archbishop of Cologne,
in 10G2, for the purpose of getting the young
king and the administration of the empire
into their own hands. Agnes conducted the
education of her son with great indulgence,
and his character was spoiled from his in-
fancy. None of the higher clergy were
allowed to exercise any influence upon him,
except Henry, bishop of Augsburg, who, al-
though he was a haughty and ambitious man,
enjoyed the confidence of the empi'ess. The
weakness which she displayed in the education
of her son, as well as in the administration of
the empire, while several of the provinces
were suffering from famine and epidemic dis-
eases, diminished the esteem of many princes,
and some persons even ventured to spread
a report that she had a criminal connection
with the bishop of Augsburg ; but this was
done with a view to deprive this bishop of
his influence. The young king himself was
generally liked ; but those who were not
allowed to have any influence over him, such
as Archbishop Siegfried of Mainz, Mar-
grave Ecbert of Weimar, and Duke Gott-
fried of Lower Lorraine, determined to take
the young king from the hands of his mo-
ther, and accordingly they joined the con-
spiracy of Anno. At Whitsuntide, in the year
1062, Agnes, with her son and the great
personages of the empire, was celebrating a
feast in an island of the Rhine, now called
Kaiserswerth. Anno and his associates were
of the party. During the dinner. Anno con-
trived to gain the confidence of the boy, and
talked to him about his beautiful ship. Henry
expressing a wish to see it. Anno and his
friends accompanied him on board ; and no
sooner were they there, than the rowers
pushed from shore into the middle of the
river. The terrified boy jumped into the
Rhine, and would have been drowned, if
Ecbert had not, at the risk of his own life,
brought him back to the ship. He was con-
veyed to Cologne. [Henry IV. ; Anno ;
Adalbert of Bremen.] On this event,
Agnes resolved to withdraw from public
aifairs ; but she yielded to the entreaties of her
friends, and for a time she continued in the
administration. Finding, however, that even
the princes who had taken no part in the con-
spiracy would not assist her in recovering the
461

guardianship of her son, and that Anno had
\ the real power, she retired to a monastery in
I Italy, where she spent the last years of her
life. She died in 1077. (Otto Frisingensis,
vi. 32. ; Adamus Bremensis, iv. 1, &c. ; Lam-
bertus Schafi"naburgensis, ad annum 1056,
&c. ; Pfister, Geschidite der Teutsclien, ii. 197,
&c.) L. S.

AGNES OF AUSTRIA was the daughter
of Albert I., duke of Austria, (afterwards king
of Germany,) and his wife Elizabeth. She
was married to Andreas III., the last king of
Hungary who belonged to the ancient family
of Arpad. Her husband died in 1301, and she
continued a widow. Agnes has acquired a
name in history only through the savage
cruelty with which, in conjunction with her
mother and her brother Leopold, she revenged
the death of her father, who was murdered
in 1308, by a conspiracy which was headed
by his nephew, Johannes Parricida. [Albert
I. ; Johannes Parricida.] After the body
of Albert I. had been placed in the imperial
tomb at Spire, in 1309, and King Henry VII.,
the successor of Albert, had put the mur-
derers under the ban of the empire, Agnes
and her mother proceeded to Switzerland,
and made the most rigid search to discover
the assassins of Albert. But only one of the
five conspirators fell into their hands, and
was condemned to the wheel. This was
Rudolph von Wart, the least guilty, who had
himself taken no active part in the murder.
His wife Gertrud in vain implored Agnes, on
her knees, to inflict at least a less cruel death
on her husband ; but Agnes, instead of
having him put to death in the usual way,
ordered his limbs to be broken on the wheel
in such a manner as not to cause immediate
death. The unhappy man lived for three
whole days after this torture, during which
his wife was kneeling by his side in prayer.
After his death she went to Basel, where she
soon after died of grief. This is, however,
only one of the innumerable instances of
cruelty of which Agnes was guilty. The
slightest connection which any person had
with the conspirators or their families, and
the slightest suspicion of having been accom-
plices in the crime, was a sufficient reason for
Agnes to inflict a cruel death. At Fahr-
wangen, sixty-three knights, all of whom
were probably innocent, were beheaded in
her presence ; and during the execution, she
is said to have exclaimed, '' Now we bathe in
the dew of May." Above a thousand inno-
cent persons, men, women, and children, were
put to death by the order of Agnes ; many of
the noblest families in Switzerland became
extinct, their castles were burnt, and their
property confiscated. At last, when Agnes
was satiated with blood, she and her mother
built with the spoils of their victims the con-
vent of Konigsfelden, on the spot where King
Albert had been murdered. In this convent
Agnes herself spent the remaining fifty years

H H 3

AGNES.

of her life. She died in 1.359. During this
long period, she never ceased to lament the
death of her father, and she constantly sub-
jected herself to the severest ascetic discipline.
The monastery in which Agnes was buried,
and from which her remains were subse-
quently removed to Vienna, still exists, but
it has been converted into a lunatic asylum.
(J. Midler, Gescliichte der Schweizerischen
Eidgenosscnschaft, ii. p. 18, &c. ; Tlie History
of Switzerland, in the Library of Useful
Knowledge, p. 49.) L. S.

AGNES. [Philippe Auguste.]

AGNES SOREL, SUREL, SOREAU,
LA BELLE AGNES, MADEMOISELLE
DE BEAUTE', was born in 1409, at the
village of Fromenteau, in Touraine. Her
father was the Seigneur de St. Gerand, a gen-
tleman attached to the house of the Count
de Clermont. At the age of fifteen, she was
placed as maid of honour to Isabel of
Lorraine, duchess of Anjou, and accom-
panied this princess when she went to Paris
in 1431.

At this period, Agnes Sorel was consi-
dered to be the most beautiful woman of her
day. Her conversation and wit were equal to
her beauty. In the " Histoire des Favorites "
(part i. p. 103.) she is said to have been
uoble-minded, full of generosity, with sweet-
ness of manners, and sincerity of heart. The
same writer adds, that everybody fell in love
w ith her, from the king to the humblest officers,
('harles VII. became passionately attached to
her ; and in order to insure her constant pre-
s'ince at court, he placed her as maid of honour
to the queen. The amour was conducted with
secrecy ; but the fact became manifest by the
favours which the king lavished upon the
relations of Agnes, while she herself lived in
great magnificence amidst a very poor court.
She was fond of splendour, and has been
quaintly described by Monstrelet as " having
enjoyed all the pleasures of life, in wearing
rich clothes, furred robes, and golden chains
of precious stones, and whatever else she
desired." When she visited Paris, in at-
tendance upon the queen, the splendour and
expense of Agnes were so excessive that
the people murmured greatly ; whereupon
the proud beauty exclaimed against the
Parisians as churls.

During the time that the English were ac-
tually in possession of a great part of France,
it was in vain that the queen (Mary of Anjou)
endeavoured to rouse her husband from his
lethargy. That the king was not deficient in
energy and physical courage is evident from
the manner in which he signalised Imnself on
various occasions. At the siege of Monte-
rcau in 1437, (according to the Chronicle de
Charles \l\. par M. Alain Chartier, Nevers,
1594), he rushed to the assault, now thrust-
ing with the lance, now assisting the artillerj-,
now superintending the various military
engines for heaving masses of stone or wood ;
4G2

but during the period above mentioned he
was lost to all sense of royal glory, and had
given himself up entirely to hunting and ail
sorts of pleasures.

He was recalled by Agnes to a sense of
what was due to his kingdom. She told him,
one day, says Brantome, that when she was
a girl, an astrologer had predicted that she
would be loved by one of the most valiant
kings of Christendom; that when His Majesty
Charles VII. had done her this honour, she
thought, of course, he was the valiant king
who had been predicted ; but now, finding he
was so weak, and had so little care as to
what became of himself and his affairs, she
saw that she had made a mistake, and that
this valiant prince could not be Charles, but
the King of England. Saying these words,
Agnes rose, and, bowing reverentially to the
king, asked leave to retire to the court of the
English king, since the prophecy pointed at
him. " Charles," she said, " was about to
lose his crown, and Henry to unite it to his."
By this rebuke the king was much af-
fected. He gave up his hunting, left his
gardens for the field of battle, and succeeded
m driving the English out of France. This
circumstance occasioned Francis I. to make
the following verses, which it is said he wrote
imder a portrait of Agnes : —

" Plus de louange et d'lionneur tu mcrite,
La cause ctant c'e France recouvrer.
Que ce que peut dedans un cloitre ouvrer,
Close nouiiain, ou bien dOvot hermite."

The king lavished gifts and honours upon
Agnes. He built a chateau for her at Loches;
he gave her, besides the comte de Penthievre,
in Bretagne, the lordships of Roche Sei-viere,
of Issoudun, in Berri, and the Chateau de
Beaute, at the extremity of the wood of
Vincennes, that she might be, as he said,
" in deed and in name the Queen of Beauty."
It is believed that she never made a bad use
of her influence with the king for any political
purposes or unkind private feelings ; never-
theless the Dauphin (afterwards Louis XL)
conceived an implacable jealousy against her,
and carried his resentment so far, on one
occasion, as to give her a blow.

She retired, in 1445, to Loches, and for
nearly five years declined appearing at court ;
but the king's love for her still continued, and
he took many journeys into Touraine to visit
her. But eventually the queen, who had never
forgotten her noble counsels to the king,
which had roused him from his lethargy,
persuaded her to return to court.

The queen appears to have felt no jealousy,
but to have had a regard for her. It seems,
also, that Agnes had become very popular,
partly from her beauty and wit, partly be-
cause she was considered in a great measure
to have saved France, and partly because she
distributed large sums in alms to the poor,
and to repair decayed churches.

After the taking of Rouen, and the entire
expulsion of the Englibh from France, the

AGNES.

king took up his winter quarters in the Abbey
of Juniiege. Agnes hastened to the Cha-
teau de Masnal la Belle, a league distant from
this abbey, for the purpose of warning the
king of a conspiracy. The king only laughed
at the intelligence ; but the death of Agnes
Sorel, -which immediately followed, gives
some grounds for crediting the truth of the
infornuition which she communicated. At
this place Agnes, still beautiful, and in per-
fect health, was suddenly attacked by a dy-
sentery, which carried her oif. It is be-
lieved that she was poisoned. Some affirm
that it was etiected by direction of the Dau-
phin ; others accuse Jacques CcDur, the king's
goldsmith (as the master of the treasury was
then called), and others attribute it to female
jealousy.

The account given of her death by Mon-
strelet is to the following effect : Agnes was
suddenly attacked by a dysentery, which
could not be cured. She lingered long, and
emploj'cd the time in prayer and repentance:
she often, as he relates, called upon Mary Mag-
dalen, who had also been a sinner, and upon
God and the blessed Virgin, for aid. After
receiving the sacrament, she desired the book
of prayers to be brought her, in which she had
written with her own hand the verses of St.
Bernard, and these she repeated. She then
made many gifts, which were put down in
writing ;. and these, including alms and the
payment of her servants, amounted to 00,000
crowns. The fair Agnes, the once proud
beauty, perceiving her end approaching, and
now feeling a disgust to life proportioned to
the fulness of her past enjoyment of all its
gaieties, vanities, and pleasures, said to the
Lord de la Tremouille and others, and in the
presence of all her damsels, that our insecure
and worldly life was but a foul ordure. She
then requested her confessor to give her ab-
solution, according to a form she herself dic-
tated, with wliich he complied. After this, she
uttered a loud shriek, and gave up the ghost.
She died on IMonday, the 9 th day of February,
1449, about six o'clock in the afternoon, in
the fortieth year of her age.

This account, though bearing every ap-
pearance of probability, is yet open to some
doubts, from the manifestation of a tendency,
on the part of Monstrelet, to give a colouring
to the event, and to the character of Agnes
Sorel. He even attempts to throw a doubt
upon her having been the king's mistress,
treating the fact as a mere scandal. He says
that the affection of the king was attributable
to her good sense, her wit, her agreeable
manners, and gaiety, quite as much as to her
beauty. This was, no doubt, the case ; but it
hardly helps tlie argument of the historian.
Monstrelet finds it difficult, however, to dis-
pose of the children that she had by the king :
he admits that Agnes had a daughter, which
s'ne said was the king's, but that he denied it.
The compilation by Denys Godefroy takes the
403

same view, but nearly the whole account
is copied verbatim from Monstrelet, without
acknowledgment.

The heart and intestines of Agnes were
buried at Jumiege. Her body was placed
in the centre of the choir of the collegiate
church of the Chateau de Loches, which she
had greatly enriched.

Her tomb was in existence, at Loches, in.
1792. It was of black marble. The figure
of Agnes was in white marble ; her head
resting upon a lozenge, supported by angels,
and two lambs were at her feet.

The writer of the life of Agnes Sorel in
the " Biographie Universelle " having access
to printed books and MSS. of French history
which are not in the public libraries of this
country, the following statements are taken
from that work : the writer does not give his
authorities.

The canons of the church pretended to be
scandalised at having the tomb of Agnes
placed in their choir, and begged permis-
sion of Louis XI. to have it removed. " I
consent," replied the king, " provided you
give up all you have received from her
bounty."

The poets of the day were profuse in their
praises of the memory of Agnes. One of the
most memorable of these is a poem by Ba;f,
printed at Paris in 1573. In 1789 the library
of the chapter of Loches possessed a manu-
script containing nearly a thousand Latin
sonnets in praise of Agnes, all acrostichs, and
made by a canon of that city.

A marble bust of her was long preserved
at the Chateau de Chinon, and is now placed
in the Museum des Augustins.

Agnes Sorel had three daughters by
Charles VII., who all received dowries, and
were married at the expense of the crown.
They received the title of daughters of
France, the name given at that time to the
natural daughters of the kings. An ac-
count of the noble families into which they
married, together with the honours bestowed
upon the brother of A gnes, will be found in Mo-
reri's"Dictionnaire Historique." (Monstrelet,
Chro7iic/iics, Yo\. in. -p. 25. Paris, 1595; Bran-
tome, Alcm.des Vies des Dames Galantes,t.n.
p. 310. ; Hist, de Charles VII. Ikoy de France,
par Jean Chartier, sous-chantre de St. Denys,
et autres Auteurs du temps ; mise en luraiere
par Denys Godefroy, pp. 191. 349. 859, SCO.
Paris, 1001; Diog. Universelle; Allgemeine
Enci/clopcidie, von Ersch imd Gruber ; His-
toire des Favorites, Amsterdam, 1700, par. i.
pp. 103. 157. R. H. H.

AGNES, ST., is said to have been a
Roman virgin of noble family, who was put
to death in the great persecution under Dio-
cletian, A. D. 303 or 304. Her legend makes
her to have been only thirteen when she suf-
fered, but to have already by her beauty
attracted numerous suitors, all of whom she
rejected that she might devote herself to
H u 4

AGNES.

AGNESI.

religion. On her refusal to offer sacrifice to
the ancient gods, she was condemned in the
first instance to suffer prostitution ; but her
demeanour overawed all who approached her,
with the exception of one audacious young
man, designated the son of Simphronius,
whose rudeness was pimished by his being
instantly struck blind and stretched half dead
at her feet. She was prevailed upon, how-
ever, by the intercessions of his companions
to restore him both to life and to the use of
his eyes, which she did by praying to Heaven
to have mercy on him. This incident has
furnished the subject of a celebrated picture
by Tintoretto, as her subsequent execution
by being stabbed through the heart has that
of another by Domenichino. There are two
churches at Rome dedicated to St. Agnes ;
one without the walls, where she was buried,
on the site of one originally erected by Con-
stantine ; the other in the place where she is
said to have been prostituted, built in the time
of Innocent X. St. Agnes is repeatedly
mentioned by St. Ambrose, who was born
within thirty years after her martyrdom ; but
a life of her which used to be attributed to
Ambrose, and which is printed under the
title of " Acta Saneta; Agnetis," in most of
the collections of lives of the saints, appears
to be the work of a later writer. Her passion
is celebrated hy Prudentius (of the same age
with Ambrose) in a poem of about 130 lines,
written in Alcaic verse, being the fourteenth
and last hjnnn of his " Peristephanion Liber."
The old Latin martyrologies assign to St.
Agnes both the 21st and 28th of January ;
the Greek, the 14th and 21st of January, and
also the 5th of July. The 21st of January is
now reckoned her day in the Roman church.
(Bollandi et alionmi Acta Sanctorum Jayiuarii,
torn. ii. (Antwerp, 1 643), pp. 350 — 364. ; Sancti
Ambrosii Mediolanensis Episcopi Opera, 8
torn. 4to. Venice, 1781-2, p. 10-, &c. and viii.
192, &c. ; Aurelii Prudentii Opera, 2 torn.
4to. Parmse 1788, i. 296., where references
are given to several additional sources.)

G.L.C.
AGNE'SE, abbess of Quedlinburg, was
one of the most distinguished artists of her
time, both in miniature painting and in em-
broidery. Some of her works are still extant.
In one of her pieces of tapestry she worked
the following Latin verses : —

" Alnie Dei vates, decus hoc tibi contulit Agnes,
Gloria Pontilicum, famularum suscipe votum."

She died a. d. 1205. (Fiorillo, Geschichte
der Zeichnenden Kiinstein Deutschland.)

R. N. W.
AGNESI, MARI'A GAETA'NA, one of

those prodigies of whom an ordinary biogra-
phical account is hardly credible. The Pre-
sident de Brosses, in his Letters on Italy,
(where he travelled about 1740,) gives an
account, which was translated in the " Monthly
Review," (vol. xxxiii.) and thence copied into
the translation presently noticed, to the fol-
464

lowing effect : — At Milan, he met a young
lady, about eighteen or twenty years of age,
the Signorina Agnesi, who understood a large
nimiber of languages, and would maintain a
thesis in any one of the sciences against any
one who would dispute with her. At a con-
versazione to which the traveller was invited,
he found about thirty persons of different
countries, and the young lady, with her sister,
seated under a canopj-. She was not hand-
some, but had a fine complexion, and an air
of great simplicity, softness, and feminine
delicacy. " I had conceived," says De
Brosses, " when I went to this conversation
party, that it was only to converse with this
young lady in the usual way, though on
learned subjects ; but instead of this, my in-
troducer made a fine harangue to the lady in
Latin, with the formality of a college decla-
mation. She answered with great readiness
in the same language." Several disputations
then took place on subjects of philosophy
and mathematics ; and the conversation after-
wards becoming general, she spoke to every
one in the language of his own country.
" She is much attached to the philosophy of
Sir Isaac Newton ; and it is marvellous to
see a person of her age so conversant with
such abstruse subjects ; yet I have been
much more amazed to hear her speak Latin
with such purity, ease, and accuracy, that I
do not recollect to have read any book in
modem Latin that was written in so classical
a style as that in which she pronounced these
discourses."

Maria Agnesi was bom at Milan, March
16. 1718. Her father, though sometimes
stated to have been a tradesman at Milan,
(which maj' have been the case when she
was born,) was in 1750 a professor at Bo-
logna. His daughter certainly acquired
something like the knowledge which might,
without much magnifying, produce the pre-
ceding account ; for in 1738, when she was
twenty years of age, appeared at Milan her
" Propositiones Philosophies;, quas crebris dis-
putationibus domi habitis coram clarissimis
viris explicabat extempore et ab objectis
vindicabat M. C. de Agnesiis." This work
contains 191 heads of theses, on every branch
of science, natural and moral ; and, from the
first words of the preface, it appears that
much of the contents had been for some time
in circulation. In point of rarity of early
attainment, and sufficiencj' of evidence for
it, this instance may rank with that of
Clairaut. In 1748, Maria Agnesi published,
at Bologna, her " Instituzioni Analitiche
ad uso della Gioventu Italiana," (2 vols.
4to.), a well-matured treatise on algebra and
the differential and integral calculus, inferior
to none of its day in knowledge and arrange-
ment, and showing marks of great learning
and some originality. This work was partly
translated into French in 1775, (by D'An-
telmy, with notes by Bossut, says the " Bio-

AGNESI.

AGNODICE.

graphie Universelle," but neither party is
named in the translation,) and a complete
English translation was made by Colson (died
1760), and was published in 1801 by Hellins,
at the expense of Baron Maseres. Long as
■was the interval from 1748 to 1801, the
authoress nearly survived it. In 1750 she
obtained permission, during the illness of her
father, to occupy his chair in the university
of Bologna ; and hence she is sometimes
styled professor at that place. Shortly after
this, but when we do not find, she retired into
a convent of Blue Nuns, at Milan, in which
she passed the rest of her life : in pur-
suance, apparently, of an early wish for such
a life, for De Brosses says, in the letters above
quoted, " I was sorry to hear that she was
determined to go into a convent and take the
veil, which was not from want of fortune (for
she is rich), but from a religious and devout
turn of mind." She died Januarj- 9. 1799.
In the " Biographie Universelle" is men-
tioned an eloge of her by Frisi, translated
by M. Boulard, which we have never seen.
{Biographie Universelle ; Preface to Colson's
translation of the Analytical Institutions.')

Perhaps some of our readers may wish to
judge of the Latin style of Maria Agnesi for
themselves, and the following (Thesis No. 3.)
will be an appropriate specimen : " Optime
etiam de vmiversa philosophia infirmiorem
sexum meruisse nullus inficiabitur ; nam
praeter septuaginta fere eruditissimas muli-
eres, quas recenset Menagius, complures alias
quovis tempore floruisse novimus, quae in
philosophicis disciplinis maximam ingenii lau-
dem sunt assecutse. Ad omnem igitur doctri-
nam, eruditionemque etiam muliebres animos
Natura comparavit : quare paulo injuriosius
cum feminis agunt qui eis bonarum artium
cultu omnino interdicunt, eo vel maxime,
quod haec illarum studia privatis, publicis-
que rebus non modo baud noxia futura sint,
verum etiam perutilia." A. De M.

AGNO'DICE (^ Pi.yvoZ'i.Kri), an Athenian
woman, who, if we may trust a very suspi-
cious-looking storj- in Hyginus, {Fab. c. 274.
p. 201.) was the earliest midwife among the
Greeks. He tells us that the ancients had at
first no midwives, and that the Athenians
had passed a law forbidding slaves or women
to study medicine. Agnodice, however,
having disguised herself in man's clothes, and
studied under a physician named Hierophilus,
got so much practice in this branch of the
profession, that the other practitioners ac-
cused her before the Areopagus of being a
corrupter of the morals of her patients. The
discoverj' of her own sex refuted this charge ;
upon which she was accused of having violated
the law, but she escaped this second danger
by the wives of the principal persons in
Athens, whom she had attended, coming
forward to assist her, and procuring the re-
peal of the law. This story is (as far as the
writer is aware) mentioned by no other
465

ancient author, and bears evident marks of
being fabulous. It has also no date attached
to it ; for though it seems at first sight easy
to alter Hierophilus into Herophilus, (as
Sprengel has done,) yet Hyginus would hardly
have called that celebrated anatomist "a
certain Herophilus " (Herophilus quidam) ;
besides, there does not seem to be any reason
for supposing that Herophilus was ever at
Athens, or Agnodice at Alexandria.

W. A. G.
A'GNOLO ANIE'LLO FIO'RE, a Nea-
politan sculptor of the fifteenth century. He
was very superior to most sculptors of his
period ; his works are not numerous, but
there are two of considerable pretensions in
design, in San Domenico Maggiore at Naples ;
a basso rilievo, with the date 1470, of the
Annunciation, in the chapel of St. Thomas
Aquinas, with the following inscription :

" HUIC \aRTUS GLORIAM GLORIA IMMORTA-
LITATEM COJIPARAVIT. MCCCCLXX."; and One

on the monument of Mariano Alaneo, count
of Buchianigo, representing the Virgin and
Child with two angels, which are well
drawn. (Cicognara, Storia delta Scultura.)

R. N. W.
A'GNOLO, B ACCIO D', bom at Florence
in 1460 or 1461, was originally a cars'er in
wood, in which branch of art he displayed
great ability, and some of his productions of
that kind, including the stalls of the choir of
Santa Maria Novella, are spoken of by Vasari
in terms of high commendation. The precise
time of his visiting Rome is not known ; but
while there, he applied himself chiefly, if not
entirely, to the study of architecture, and re-
turned to his native city with such reputation
for skill that he soon began to be employed
on various important occasions. One of the
first was the erection of several temporary
triumphal arches to adorn the public entry of
Leo X. into Florence. "When Piero Soderini
was gonfaloniere, Baccio was consulted, to-
gether with Cronaca, Giuliano da Sangallo,
and other eminent architects, as to improving
the great hall of the Palazzo Vecchio, but it
does not appear that he did more than exe-
cute some of the carved work and embellish-
ments, Cronaca's design (afterguards greatly
altered by Vasari) being the one carried
into execution. Among the private mansions
erected by him at Florence, are the Palazzi
Taddei, Lanfredini, Borgherini, and Cocchi.
But his most celebrated production of the
kind is that which he built in 1520 for Gio-
vanni Bartolini, in the Piazza Santa Trinita,
and which was greatly criticised at the time,
on account of what was then considered a
very bold innovation, namely, the tabernacle
windows ; that is, windows composed after
the manner of small altars or tabernacles, with
columns supporting an entablature and pedi-
ment. So far, that fa9ade is now not at all
remarkable ; while in other respects it ex-
hibits nearly as many blemishes as beauties :

AG NOLO.

if the niches and panels between the windows
of the upper floors had not been so large,
there would have been, with the same degree
of variety and richness, more elegance and
simplicity in the design. The cornicione, or
principal cornice, on the contrary, notwith-
standing that it is censured by Milizia, as
extravagant in size, is hardly of sufficient im-
portance, when compared with the two sub-
ordinate ones, or small entablatures, which
divide the principal floors.

Baccio began the campanile of Santo
Spirito, but left it unfinished. It was completed
according to his designs, and is esteemed a
masterpiece of its kind. He also began that
of S. Miniato di Monte. He was employed
to finish Brunelleschi's cupola of the Duomo,
or Santa Maria del Fiore, by adding a gallery
to its tambour ; but in consequence of an-
other design being made by Michael Angelo,
who severely censured that of Baccio, and
of the disputes and perplexities which took
place, the work was discontinued altogether.
Baccio was generally esteemed for his abili-
ties, and his house was for a long time the
rendezvous of the most eminent artists who
cither resided at or visited Florence. He died
in 1543, with his faculties still unimpaired,
though he had nearly completed his eighty-
third year. He left three sons, Filippo,
Giuliano, and Dominico, the last of whom
died young. (Vasari, Vite de' Pittori; Mi-
lizia, Vite degli Architetti ; Famin et Grand-
jean, L' Architecture Toscane'). W. H. L.

A'GNOLO, GRTLIANO D', son of
Baccio d'Agnolo, followed his father's pro-
fession, both as carver, or sculptor in wood,
and architect, and succeeded him in carry-
ing on various buildings which Baccio had
commenced. The principal architectural
works designed by himself were — a house
built for Francesco Campana, at Montughi,
near Florence ; another for the same indi-
vidual, at Colle ; a palace at San Miniato, for
Monsignor Grifoni ; and one at Florence, for
Giovanni Conti, which last is censured by
Vasari, as partaking of " la maniera Tedesca,"
on account of the multiplicity of parts, and
the manner in which they are crowded to-
gether. He was engaged by Baccio Bandi-
nelli, to assist him in the alterations and em-
bellishments which, on his return from Rome,
he had prevailed upon the young Duke Co-
simo to make in the great hall of the Pa-
lazzo Vecchio ; but, owing to a defect in the
original structure, one of the ends being out
of square, a fault for which Giuliano did
not propose any remedy, the work did not
give satisfaction, and was left incomplete,
after being in hand many years. It was also
at the instance of Bandinelli that he made a
model and other designs for the principal
altar and choir of Santa Maria del Fiore. He
executed a great deal of carving and orna-
mental work of different kinds in many
churches and convents, and a very mag-
466

nificent ciborium for the high altar of Sanfa
Nunziata, whicli last he completed just before
his death, in 1555. (Vasari, Vite de" Pittori,
Ifc.) W. H. L.

A'GNOLO of Siena. f-A-GOSTiNo.]
AGNO'NIDES ('Ayi'coi'iStjs), an Attic ora-
tor, who was a contemporary with Phocion.
The earliest event of his life on record is,
that he brought a charge of impiety against
the philosopher Theophrastus ; but he was so
unsuccessful in this attempt, that he very
nearly drew the same charge upon himself.
When Alexander, son of Polysperchon, took
possession of Athens, Agnonides, who had
been opposed to the Macedonian interest, and
had called Phocion a traitor, was expelled ; but,
through the mediation of Phocion himself,
he afterwards obtained from Antipater per-
mission to return to his country. Agnonides,
however, still continued to pursue the same
course as before in regard to the Macedo-
nians and Phocion, and at last he induced
the Athenians to pass a measure by which
Phocion and his friends were condemned to
death, and executed, *£ov having delivered
Pirajus into the hands of Nicanor. (b. c. .317.)
But the Athenians repented of the death of
Phocion, and condemned Agnonides, and put
him to death also. Quintilian, adopting a
variation in the name not uncommon among
the ancient writers, calls this orator Agnon,
and ascribes to him a work against rhetoric
(" Rhetorices Accusatio"), of which, however,
nothing is now extant. (Diogenes Laertius,
V. § 37. ; Plutarch, Phocion, .33, 34, &c. 38. ;
Cornelius Nepos, Phocion, iii. ; Quintilian, ii.
17. s. 15. ; compare Historia Critica Oratoruni
Grcecorum, in Rhunken's edition of RutUius
Lupus, p. Ixxxix.; Fabricius, Biblioth. Graca,
ii. 873. vi. 121.) L. S.

AGOBARD, ST., archbishop of Lyon
in the ninth century. The year and country
of his birth are unknown. On the abdica-
tion of the see of Lyon, by Leidrade, a.d. 814,
Agobard, who was at that time a chor-
episcopus, or rural bishop, in that diocese,
was appointed to succeed him. In the revolt
of the sons of Louis le Debonuaire against
their father, Agobard warmly embraced the
cause of the young princes, and addressed to
Louis a letter, in which he exhorted him to
abide by the arrangement which he had made
when he divided his territories among his
three sons, Lothaire, Pepin, and Louis, and
associated Lothaire, the eldest, with himself
in the imperial dignity. Dupin assigns this
letter, which is commonly entitled " the
mournful letter " (" flebilis epistola "), to
the year 833, in which year Louis was de-
posed by his sons, at an assembly held at
Compiegne, and compelled to make public
acknowledgment of his sins. Agobard wrote
a brief account and justification of the trans-
actions at this assembly ; he also drew up a
" Defence of the Sons of the Emperor Louis "
("Liber Apologeticus pro Filiis Ludovici Im-

AGOBARD.

AGOCCHI.

peratoris ") ; and a short tract on the relation
of the civil and ecclesiastical powers (" Liber
de Coniparatioue utriusque Kegiminis"), in
reply to the summons -which, before his de-
jwsition, Louis had issued, enjoining the
nobility and higher ecclesiastics to support
his cause.

When the deposed emperor, soon after-
wards, regained his power, Agobard was
summoned to answer for his conduct in an
assembly at Thionville, a.d. 835 ; and, delay-
ing to aiipcar, was deposed. Another assem-
bly was held, very shortly after, at Creniieu,
near Lyon, at which the vacancy in his see,
as well as in the neighbouring see of Vienne,
(the archbishop of which, having been con-
cerned in the revolt, had fled,) was brought
under consideration. Nothing, however, was
done, " owing to the absence of the bishops ; "
an expression which some understand of the
absence of the accused ; others, of the absence
of the prelates generally, to whom the con-
sideration of such matters properly belonged.

On the reconciliation of the emperor and
his sons, Agobard, who had fled into Italy
to Lothaire, was restored to his see, and
assisted (a. d. 838) at an assembly at Kiersy,
near Aix-la-Chapelle. He died in a.d. 840,
at Saintes, where he appears to have been
engaged in some affairs of state, about a fort-
night before the death of Louis le Debon-
naire, near Mentz.

The writings of Agobard are numerous,
but none of them are very long. Those on
the political events of his day have some his-
torical value. Of his theological writings
the principal is the " Liber adversum Dogma
Felicis." It was designed to refute the errors
of Felix, bishop of Urgel in Spain, who died
in exile at Lyon, during the episcopate of
Agobard. In another of his writings (" Liber
de Imaginibus ") he attacked the worship of
images, and even their use in the services of
religion. He remonsti'ated against judicial
combats and the employment of the ordeal.
He wrote several letters and other pieces
against the Jews, desiring to procure more
stringent laws and enactments against them.
Others of his works have relation to the per-
formance of public worship, or to the func-
tions, rights, and property of the clergy.
Agobard's style is characterised by Dupin as
" simple, intelligible, and natural ; but with
little elevation, and no ornament." His works
were first published by Papirius Masson, at
Paris, A.D. 1605, in one vol. 8vo. ; and again
by Baluze, with some additional pieces by
Agobard, and some by Leidrade his pre-
decessor and Amnion his successor in the
see of Lyon, in two vols. 8vo. Paris, a. d. 1666.
(Bouquet, liecueil des Historiens des Gaules et
de la France, vol. vi. ; Dupin, Bibliotheque des
Autcurs Ecclesiastiques; Masson and Baluze,
Sancti Agobardi Opera.) J. C. M.

AGOCCHI, or AGUCCHIO, GIOVANNI
BATISTA, titidar archbishop of Amasia,

•ic:

was born at Bologna, of a noble family, on
the 20th of November, L570. His progress
in learning was remarkably rapid, and on the
election of his uncle. Cardinal Sega, to the
bishopric of Piacenza, Agocchi Mas taken
under his care. In the space of nine months
he had displayed so much ability in ecclesias-
tical alTairs, that when at the end of that
period the cardinal was sent as vice-legate to
France, he confided his bishopric to his ne-
phew's care. On the cardinal's return from a
second mission to France, during which Agoc-
chi had watched over his interests at the court
of Rome, he conferred upon him a canonry in
Piacenza, and made him his vicar in that
city. In 1600 Cardinal Aldobrandini, being
deputed to assist at the marriage contract
entered into at Florence between Henry IV.
of France and Maria de' Medici, chose
Agocchi for his secretary, and likewise car-
ried him into France in a similar capacity on
his being sent there to settle the disagree-
ments between the French king and the Duke
of Savoy. His conduct on these several occa-
sions had been so satisfactory to the pope,
that during the seven following years he
was constantly employed in public duties,
and during a part of that time served the
Cardinal Aldobrandini as maggiordomo and
secretario delle lettere di complimento. In
1607 he obtained permission to retire from
the court, and lived in privacy until 1615,
when, at the earnest solicitation of Aldobran-
dini, he accompanied him on a mission to
Naples, and afterwards continued about him
during six years, when, the cardinal dying,
Gregory XV. made him secretary De' Brevi,
and principal minister to his nephew. Cardi-
nal Lodovico Lodovici. Urban VIII. ap-
pointed him his nuncio to Venice, with the
title of Archbishop of Amasia. In this capa-
city he took up his residence at Venice in
1624, and continued there, to the mutual satis-
faction of the pope and the republic, vmtil
his death, in the year 1632. The following
is a list of his printed works ; — 1. " L'antica
Fondazione e Dominio della Citta di Bologna ; "
Bologna, 1638, 4to. 2. " Orazione di Nerone
per la Colonia Bolognese abbrucciata . . .
Volgarizzata da Graziadio Maccati " (a feigned
name assumed by Agocchi); Bologna, 1640,
4to. 3. " Relazione del Viaggio in Francia
del Cardinal Pietro Aldobrandini Legato ; "
mentioned by Vincenzio Armanni in his
" Apendice alia Storia Capisucca," p. 147.,
No. 233. 4. " Lettere," inserted in various
works. He also left behind him several works
in MS., a list of which, amounting to twenty-
six, is given by Fantuzzi, who mentions fire
of them, principally of a diplomatic nature,
as preserved in the library of the Institute of
Bologna. (Tomasini, Elogia Virorum Illus-
trium, p. 14 — 28. ; Erythrseus, Phuicotlieca,
p. 734 — 737.; Orlaudi, Notizie degli Scrittori
Bolognesi ; Fantuzzi, Notizie dctjli Scrittori
Bdoynaii.) J. W. J.

AGOP.

AGORACRITUS.

AGOP, JOANNES, an Armenian writer
of the latter half of the seventeenth cen-
tury, of -whom little is known. In the
title-page to his Latin Grammar, in Arme-
nian, he calls himself an Armenian priest
and of Constantinople, and he appears to have
resided at Rome ; but no further particulars
of him are furnished, even by authors -who
have written expressly on Armenian litera-
ture. His works are — 1. A Grammar of
Armenian, in that language; Rome, 1674,
4to. 2. A Latin translation of the preceding
work, entitled " Puritas Haygica;" Rome,
1675, 4to. 3. A Grammar of Latin, explained
in Armenian ; Rome, 1675, 4to. 4. An
Italian translation of the Correspondence of
Constantine the Great and Pope Sylvester
with Tiridates, king of Armenia, and St.
Gregory the illuminator of the Armenian
nation; Venice, 168.3, 4to. (Adelung, Fort-
setzung zu Jocher's Gelehrten-Lexico, i. 316.;

Agop's Grammars.)

T. W.

AGORACRITUS (' Ay opdKpnos), a cele-
brated sculptor, a native of Paros, who lived
in the fifth century B. c. He was a scholar
of Phidias, by whom he was so much be-
loved that it is said the master allowed many
of his own works to appear as the produc-
tions of his favourite pupil. Agoracritus
practised his art both in bronze and marble.
Among the works executed in bronze,
Pausanias mentions two statues which were
in the temple of Athena Itonia in Bceotia:
one represented the goddess, and the other
Jupiter. He also made a statue, probably of
Cybele, which stood in her temple ("matris
magnae delubro") at Athens. Another and
more celebrated work by Agoracritus was
the statue of Nemesis, which was at Rham-
nus, and respecting which the following
anecdote is recorded by Plinj-. Agoracritus
and Alcamenes, likewise a scholar of Phidias,
executed two statues of Venus, which were
submitted to the judgment of the Athenians.
That by Alcamenes obtained the preference ;
not, as it is said, for its superior merit, but
from the favour and partiality shown to the
sculptor, who was an Athenian. Agoracritus,
feeling indignant at this treatment, sold his
■work on the condition that it should not
remain in Athens ; and, in revenge, changed
its title from Venus to Nemesis. It was
taken to Rhamnus, a small town of Attica.
It obtained great celebrity, and was con-
sidered one of the finest productions of art.
Pausanias says the statue of the Rhamnusian
Nemesis was by Phidias, and repeats the
tradition that it was made out of a block of
Parian marble brought into Attica by the
Persians, on their landing at Marathon, with
the intention of erecting it as a trophy.
Strabo says the statue of Nemesis at Rhamnus
was by some attributed to a sculptor called
Diodotus, and by others to Agoracritus; but
the opinion of its being the work of Dio-
dotus is unsupported by any ancient testi-
468

mony. (Pausanias, i. 33. ix. 34. ; Pliny,
Hist. Nat. xxxvi. 5. ; Strabo, ix. 296. ed.
Casaub.) R. M'. jun.

AGOSTI, GIULIO, a dramatic poet,
was bom at Reggio, in the duchy of ilo-
dena, in the latter half of the seven-
teenth century. The notices respecting him
are very slight, owing, probably, to his
having died young, as appears from the
letters of Apostolo Zeno, who speaks of him
as " snatched away by Heaven too soon."
He died in the year 1704. His works are —

1. "Artaserse, tragedia;" Reggio, 1700, 8vo.

2. " Cianippe, tragedia ; opera posthuma, in
verse ;" Reggio, 1709, 12mo. There can
be little doubt but that the first act only of
this tragedy is by Agosti. Zeno, in a letter
to Antonio 'S'allisnieri, dated 24th of No-
vember, 1704, says, "I shall see with pleasure
that work of Agosti's ;" and in the following
letter, dated 1 6th of December, he says, " I
have read that first act of Agosti's tragedy,
which really is written very well, promises
much, and leaves a great desii-e for the con-
clusion For two reasons I would not

venture to put my hand to it: first, on ac-
count of my many occupations ; and secondly,
because, in finishing it, I should have the
greater part of the labour and reap the least
of the glory." 3. " Le Lagrime di ilaria
nella Passione di Cristo, oratorio per mu-
sica." (Tiraboschi, Biblioteca Modenesc ;
Zeno, Leitere, 1785, i. 297. 300.) J. "W. J.

AGOSTINI, GIOVANNI PA'OLO. A
picture bearing this name, with the date A. d.
1400, is mentioned by Rosetti as forming part
of the collection of the Covmts Obizzi at
Padua, This painter is otherwise unknown.
(Fiissli, Allgem. Kiinstler Lejricon.) R. N. W.

AGOSTINI, LIONARDO, was born at
Siena, and early enjoyed the patronage of
the ducal house of Tuscany, which he ex-
changed for that of the popes. From the
commencement of the pontificate of Ur-
ban ^'III. in 1623, he resided at Rome, in
the sers'ice of the Cardinal Francesco Bar-
berini, nephew of the pontiff, and was en-
gaged in collecting statues, pictures, medals,
and gems for the Barberini palace. Alex-
ander VII., who had a high esteem for him,
appointed him pontifical antiquarian and
commissary of the antiquities of Rome and
Latlum. In a dedication, dated in November,
1669, he speaks of himself as of very- ad-
vanced age ; and from the manner in which
his death is alluded to in the edition of his
" Gemme Antiche," published in 1686, it
may be supposed that he did not long sur\-ive
the date of the dedication.

Agostini is connected with two works of
great merit. The first is, "La Sicilia di
Filippo Paruta, con la Giunta di Lionardo
Agostini," (Rome, 1649, fol.) a new edition
of an excellent work on the medals of
Sicily, published at Palermo in 1612. Paruta,
the original collector, had promised a second

AGOSTINI.

volume, with explanations, -which never ap-
peared. Agostini in his edition added repre-
sentations of about 400 medals, hut -without
a -word of illustration. The impressions of the
original series are taken from the plates used
by Paruta, -which Agostini had purchased at
Rome. In a subsequent edition, by jNIarc
Major, or Maier, published at Lyon in 1697,
annotations -were added ; but Havercamp
speaks of them with the utmost contempt, in
the preface to his excellent Latin edition, which
has superseded all the preceding, published at
Leyden, 172.3, folio, both separately and in the
great collection entitled "Thesaurus Antiqui-
tatum Sicilian." The second work of Agostini
is entitled " Gemme Antiche Figurate," and
consists of a description of his collection of
ancient gems, illustrated with admirable en-
gravings. It has often been said that the
first edition of the first part was published
in 1636; but this is probably a mistake, as in
the preface by Marinelli to the edition of
1686, Rome, 2 vols. 4to., it is distinctly stated
that the first edition was of the date of 16.57;
and Agostini, in his own preface, alludes to
his edition of the Sicily of Paruta as a pre-
vious publication. The annotations, which
are of value, have often been attributed to
Agostini, but in his preface he allows Gio-
vanni Pietro Bellori a great share in their
composition ; and in Marinelli's preface, pub-
lished after Agostini's death, Bellori is directly
mentioned as the author. The engravings
are attributed to Agostini by Gandellini, but
this also appears a mistake ; so far from lay-
ing claim to the exercise of that art, Agostini,
in his publications, repeatedly speaks of the
trouble he had experienced in getting the
engravings executed. Agostini's share of
the work appears to have consisted in form-
ing the collection of gems which is its basis ;
and it is singular enough that this, the only
merit he appears to have had, is the only one
which has been denied him. WTiile Mari-
nelli speaks of him as having " perpetuated
his famous cabinet by the work on gems,"
Bossi takes occasion to observe, incorrectly,
that " Agostini and Causeo collected antiques
with diligence, and composed very useful
works, but they took from various cabinets
and from printed books ; and thus their
series, besides being out of order, and but
scantily illustrated, can never be held in
the same esteem as private individual col-
lections." Both parts of Agostini's work on
gems (the second of which was first published
in 1670) were reprinted at Rome in 1686, in
two volumes, with improvements in the ar-
rangement : but this edition is in less esteem
than the former, on account of the plates
having been unskilfully retouched. The same
objection applies to the much augmented
edition published in 1707, at Rome, in four
volumes quarto, by Domenico de Rossi, with
annotations by Paolo Alessandro Maffei, and
to the Latin translation bv Gronovins, pub-
469

lished at Amsterdam, in two parts, quarto, in
1685. (Prefaces, &c. to the works of Agos-
tini ; Gandellini, Notizie Ixtoriche (h'(/li Inta-
cjliatori, i. 2. ; Bossi, Spiegazione di una liac-
colta di Gemme indue, i. p. ix. ; Mazzuchelli,
Scrittori d' Italia, i. 214.) T. W.

AGOSTINI, NICCOLO' DEGLI, born
at Venice, about the end of the fifteenth cen-
tury, was an Italian poet of some note in his
time. He wrote a romantic poem entitled
" Lo Innamoramento di Lancilotto e di Gine-
vra, nel quale si trattano le orribili Pro-
dezze e le strane Venture di tutti i Cavalieri
erranti," Venice, 1521-6. He also wrote
an historical poem on the Italian wars of his
own time, " I Successi bellici nelF Italia
dal Fatto d' Arme di Ghieradadda (1509)
fino al Presente " (1521), published at Venice,
in 1521. His Italian verse translation of the
" Metamorphoses " of Ovid was soon after
superseded by the superior translation of
Anguillara. Agostini also wrote a continua-
tion of Bojardo's poem, " Orlando Innamo-
rato," in three books, containing thirty-three
cantos. The first book was printed at Venice
in 1506, the second in 1514, and the third in
1515, and the three were afterwards reprinted
saveral times, conjointly with Bojardo's text.
(Zeno, Note alia Biblioteca dell' Eloquenza
Italiana di Fontaniiii ; Tiraboschi, Storia della
Letteratura Italiana.) A. V.

AGOSTI'NO and A'GNOLO of Siena.
These were two brothers, distinguished in their
time as sculptors, architects, and engineers.
They were descended from ancestors who
also were artists, and by whom the famous
fountain called La Fontebranda, in the public
piazza in Siena, was executed, in or about
1190. Agostino, the most celebrated of the
brothers, was born at Siena, in the middle
of the thirteenth century. At the early age
of fifteen he began to show a strong dis-
position for sculpture, and Giovanni da Pisa,
being then emplojed at Siena upon the de-
coration of the facade of the Duomo, or
cathedral, young Agostino was placed under
him, in order to learn the rudiments of his
art. His progress was so satisfactory, that
Giovanni, after some time, allowed his pupil
to work with him. Agnolo appears to have
joined his brother at this period, and he
afterwards was associated with him in almost
every work on which he was employed.
Among their productions in sculpture were
some statues of prophets at Orvieto, with
which Giotto was so much struck, that he
declared their authors to be the most ac-
complished sculptors of the time, and imme-
diately recommended them to be employed
to execute a design he had made for a
sepolcro, or tomb, which was to be erected
in the church of the S. Sacramento in
Arczzo, in memory of Guido, lord and
bishop of that city. In this elaborate work,
which occupied the sculptors three years,
there were, in addition to other enrichments,

AGOSTINO.

sixteen compartments illustrating the life and
most important acts of the deceased. The
subjects of these reliefs are described by
Vasari ; and it alTords a curious picture of
the times, and of the occupations of a dig-
nitary of the church, that, with two or three
exceptions, representing his presentation,
coronation, and his funeral procession, all
these sculptures represented battles, sieges,
sacking of towns, and other scenes of war
and violence. When finished, it was thus
inscribed : hoc . opvs . fecit . magister

. AVGVSTINVS . ET . MAGISTER . ANGELVS .
DE . SENIS .

The brothers afterwards decorated the
table of the high altar of S. Francesco
in Bologna with figures and ornaments.
Among these was a group of Christ crown-
ing the Virgin ; with small statues of saints,
and bassi rUievi illustrating their lives. One
writer says that this was the performance of
Jacopo and Pietro, Veneziani. While in
Bologna, they were engaged upon various
public works of importance. Among these
was the construction of a castle, or fortress,
which was buUt in accordance with a con-
dition made by the pope, who promised, if
such a place of security were provided for
him, to visit and reside in Bologna, with his
court. This was soon completed ; but in con-
sequence of the pope not fulfilling his promise,
the Bolognese razed to the ground Avhat had
cost them so much pains and money. Agos-
tino and Agnolo also showed themselves
able engineers, by the skill which they ex-
hibited in reducing, and confining within its
proper limits, the river Po, which had burst
its banks, and, besides overflowing and doing
the greatest damage to the country for many
miles, caused, it is said, the death of more
than 10,000 persons. In addition to other ad-
vantages which they acquired, the sovereigns
of Mantua and D'Este, whose territories had
suffered considerably by the inundation,
honoured them with the most distinguished
marks of their approbation. From Bo-
logna, it appears they returned, in 1338, to
their native city, where they had long be-
fore established so high a reputation by the
erection of the Palazzo de' Novi, that they
had been appointed public architects, or
rather, architects to the state.

In noticing the two brothers as sculptors
first, we have been led away from the chro-
nological series of their architectural de-
signs, to which it will now be proper to re-
vert. In 1308 Agostino designed the palace
above alluded to, of the Novi, in Malbor-
ghetto. In 1317 the brothers were employed
upon the north front of the cathedral of
Siena. From 1321 to 1326 they were engaged
upon two of the great gates of the city ;
one called the Porta Romana, and the other
Tufi. In the latter year they began to erect
the church and convent of S. Francesco.
Their first work at Siena, after their return
470

from Bologna, in 1338, was a church dedi-
cated to S. Maria. Upon the successful
completion of this, the Sienese determined to
carry into eti'ect a desire that had long been
entertained, to erect a handsome fountain
in the great piazza opposite the public
palace. This work was confided to Agostino
and his brother. Vasari tells us it was
finished in 1 343, " to the great satisfaction of
the whole city, as well as to the honour of
the two artists." About the same time they
completed the grand staircase in the public
palace ; and in 1344 they finished the tower
of the same edifice. Agnolo now went alone
to Assisi, to execute the sculpture for a tomb
to be erected in the church of S. Francesco
there, in memory of one of the Orsini
family, a cardinal, who was also a brother
of the Order of S. Francis. From this time
nothing further is known of Agnolo.

Agostino remained at Siena, being occupied
in making designs for the decoration of the
fountain above mentioned. The precise year
of his decease is not stated ; but this event
occurred at Siena, and he was buried, with
great honour, in the cathedral. (Vasari,
Vite dei Pittori, Scultori, ed Architefti, &;c. ;
Serie degli Uomini i piu illustri in Piiticra,
Scultura, ed Architettura ; and supplement
of 1776.) R. W. jun.

AGOSTI'NO, GASPARE D', a painter
and sculptor employed in the cathedral of
Siena in 1450. (Recci, Ristretto delle Cose
piu notahili della Ciita di Siena ; Fiissli, AUge-
meines Kiinstler- Lexicon. ) R. N. W.

AGOSTI'NO, LUDOVI'CO, originally
educated for the priesthood, was born at Fer-
rara in 1534. His musical acquirements re-
commended him to the notice of Alphonso II.,
duke of Este, who first appointed him his
own maestro di capella, and afterwards gave
him the same office in the cathedral of Fer-
rara. He died in 1590. Besides his " Discorsi
sopra il Santo Sacramento dell' Eucaristia,"
twice printed at Venice after his death, he
published at Ancona a set of madrigals as
well as some compositions for the church.

E.T.
AGOSTI'NO, PA'OLO, an eminent dis-
ciple of the school of Palestrina at Rome,
and successively organist of Santa Maria
Trastevere, Santo Laurentio in Damaso, and
St. Peter's ; finally he succeeded Soriano
in his office of maestro di capella. Liberati
speaks of him as a musician of high attain-
ments and profound knowledge, and Padre
Martini has inserted in his work on Har-
mony a composition by Agostino, which he
justly styles a wonder of art. Here three
canons are united, each so free and melodious,
that the consummate art by which so intricate
a texture of harmony is woven is scarcely
recognised by the ear. According to La-
borde, he died about 1660. (Laborde, E.ssai
sur la Musique ; Martini, Sar/gio di Contra-
punlo; Liberati, Lettera scritta, tSr.) E. T.

AGOSTINO.

AGOSTINO DALLE PROSPETTI'VE,

an Itulian painter, noticed by Masini in his
" Bologna perlustrata," who was so skilful in
both lineal and aerial perspective, that he
could deceive men and animals by bis imi-
tations of steps, doors, windows, and the like.
He painted in Bologna about 1525, but is
supposed by Lanzi to have been a native of
Milan, and the same person as the Agostino
di Braniantino of Milan, mentioned by Lo-
mazzo, who was distinguished for his great
skill in perspective and foreshortening. Lo-
mazzo mentions a painting in the church
Del Carmine by this painter, which, with
respect to foreshortening, he compares with
the celebrated cupola at Parma, by Cor-
reggio. Agostino was the scholar of Bar-
tolonmieo Suardi, called Bramantino, from
having been the favourite scholar of Bra-
mante, whence his own surname Di Bra-
mantino. (Lomazzo, Trattato dell' Arte della
I'ittura; Lanzi, Storia Pittorica, Sfc.')

R. N. W.

AGOSTINO DI SANT AGOSTI'NO,
an Italian engraver of uncertain age. He
engraved, in folio, the Virgin and Child, by
Correggio, which is known as the Gipsy, or
La Zingara, of Correggio ; he engraved also,
by the same master, the St. John the Evan-
gelist which is in the church of St. John at
Parma. (Heineken, Dictionnaire des Artistes,
^x.) R. N. W.

AGOSTINO VENEZIA'NO, or AU-
GUSTINUS DE MUSIS, a Venetian, and
one of the most celebrated of the early Italian
engravers. He was the pupil of Marcantonio
Raimondi, for whom he principally worked
at Rome, in conjunction with jMarco di Ra-
venna, until the death of Raphael, in 1520,
when they separated. There are prints
bearing Agostino's initials, A. V., with dates
from 1509 until 1536. Vasari says that
Agostino and Marco di Ravenna engraved
nearly all the designs of Raphael. After the
death of Raphael, Agostino went to Florence,
and applied to Andrea del Sarto for employ-
ment, but that painter was so dissatisfied
with a plate of a dead Christ supported by
angels which Agostino had engraved for
him in 1516, that he had resolved not to
allow any more of his pictures to be engraved.
Any one who has seen this engraving will
approve of Andrea's decision, for it is ex-
tremely hard in the outline , and perfectly
flat : there is an impression of it in the
British Museum print-room. Vasari says
that this plate was engraved after Raphael's
death, but the date is four years before it.
Agostino engraved much in the style of his
master, but he was very inferior to him in
design ; his outline is also generally very
hard, and his chiaroscuro bad : he was sur-
passed also by Marco di Ravenna in design,
and was inferior to Bonasoni in chiaroscuro.
Original prints bj- Agostino are very scarce :
1 s plates were often copied and retouched,
471

Strutt terms him the inventor of stipple en-
graving. The years of his birth and death
are unknown. His portraits are superior
to his other pieces. The following prints,
many of which are in the British Museum,
are among his best works. Portraits : — A
large portrait of pope Paul III., marked

" PAULUS III. PONT. BIAX. MDXXXIV. — A. V. ; "

drawing correct, character grand. One also
of Francis I. of France, marked " fran-

CISCUS GALLORUM REX CHRISTIANISSIMUS.

A. V. 1536," in which the character of the
head is remarkably fine. Also a large portrait
of Barbarossa with a turban, marked " aria-

DENUS BARBARUSSA CIRTHiE TUNETIQ. REX.

GTOMANiciE CLASsis PR^F. ; " the Counte-
nance is singularly savage : and one of
Charles V. after Titian ; and some others.
Scriptural subjects and other pieces : — The
Benediction of Isaac, after Raphael, 1522 ;
there is one also, dated 1524, with some al-
terations in the chiaroscuro, badly drawn :
the Sacrifice of Abraham ; the Israelites ga-
thering the Manna, after Raphael, a grand
composition, on the whole finely drawn, but the
chiaroscuro is bad, and the print is quite flat ;
some have supposed that this plate was com-
menced by Marcantonio : the Four Evange-
lists, after Julio Romano ; a Nativity after the
same, dated 1531, in which an effect of light
and shade is attempted with some success,
but the drawing is bad: the Last Supper,
after a woodcut by Albert Diirer, dated
1514; the copy is faithftd to the original in
feeling, but superior to it in execution : he
engraved also from Diirer, a Nativity, and
a Christ bound to a Pillar : Elymas the sor-
cerer, after Raphael's cartoon, very indif-
ferent ; Hercules strangling the Serpents,
after Julio Romano, finely drawn ; a large
and admirably executed plate of the " Skele-
tons, or Burying-place," after Baccio Bandi-
nelli, containing many emaciated figures, two
skeletons, and the figure of Death holding a
book, marked with his name in fall, " au-

GUSTINUS VENETUS DE 3IUSIS. FACIEEAT

1518; also a Cleopatra, and a Massacre of
the Innocents, very large, after Bandi-
nelli ; Vasari terms it the largest plate that
had been then engraved. A very interesting
plate of the school of Baccio Bandinelli at
Rome, marked "academia di bacchio

BRANDIN. IN ROMA. IN LUOGO DETTO BEL-
VEDERE. M.D.xxxi. — A. V. ; " the Battle of
the Sabre, a large plate, badly drawn ; part of
the "Cartoon of Pisa," by Michelangelo,
called "the Climbers," dated 1523, very
hard : a large plate of a group from the
School of Athens by Raphael, in which there
is some fine character ; a Bacchanalian dance,
consisting of six figures after drawings from
the antique by Raphael, finely drawn, dated
1516; the benefit of Raphael's inspection is
here very apparent, especially in the fii-st
group : he made also a copy of Marcantonio's
print of the Slaughter of the Innocents, after

AGOSTINO.

AGOUB.

Raphael ; and many others. Heineken and
Bartsch have given very copious lists of
Agostino's works. (Vasari, Vite de' Pittoi'i,
i^'c. in the Life of Marcantonio ; Heineken,
Dictionnaire dcs Artistes, S(c. ; Bartsch, Le
Peintre Graveur.) R. N. W.

AGOSTI'NO, ZOPPO, a good Italian
sculptor of the sixteenth century. He was
employed with others, in 1555, on the monu-
ment to Alessandro Contarini, general of the
republic, in the church of Sant Antonio at
Padua, (Cicognara, Storia della Scultura.)

R. N. W.

AGOTY. [Gautier d'Agoty.]

AGOUB, JOSEPH, was born at Old
Cairo, on the 20th of March, 1795, of an
Arab father and a Syrian mother. His
parents having given assistance to the French
army during the invasion of Egypt, found it
expedient to emigrate when the French were
driven out of the cotmtry, and settled at
Marseille in 1802. Agoub remained in that
city, pursuing his studies, till 1820, when he
removed to Paris, where, by frequent con-
tributions to the periodical publications, he
acquired some reputation as an orientalist
and a poet. He was appointed by the go-
vernment professor of modern Arabic at the
college of Louis le Grand, where, under the
direction of Jomard, he took an important
part in the education of several yoimg
Egyptians who were sent to France for in-
struction by Mohammed Ali, the Pasha of
Egypt. Of this professorship he was unex-
pectedly deprived in 1831, by the then minis-
ter for foreign affairs. General Sebastiani,
and, being unable to bear up against the de-
struction of his prospects, he died on the
3d of October, 1832, of a broken heart, at
IMarseille, at the house of his brother, a
merchant of that city.

Agoub was in person remarkably small
and delicate, and in disposition very sensitive.
His writings show much more enthusiasm
than judgment; his eulogies of the Arabic
language, and of the " glory of France," his
two favourite subjects, are extravagant, and
expressed in inflated language. His writings
are numerous, but small in amount. Almost
all of any interest were collected after his
death, in a single volume, entitled " Melanges
de Litterature Orientale et Fran(;aise, par J.
Agoub," Paris, 1835, 8vo. This volume
comprises " Maouals Arabes," a series of
spirited translations of a class of short poetical
composition peculiar to the Arabic language ;
" The wise Heycar," an Arabian tale, which
had previously appeared in a translation of
the " Thousand and One Nights," published
by E. Gautier ; an " Historical Discourse
on Egypt," originally prefixed to Mengin's
History of Egypt under Mohammed Ali ;
a " View of Ancient and Modern Egypt,"
first published in the "Revue Encyclope-
dique," as a criticism on the second edition of
the great French work on that country ; and
472

several short pieces of poetry. One of these,
the " Broken Lyre " (" La Lyre brisce"),
is of striking merit, and was translated into
Arabic verse by the Sheikh Refaha, one of
Agoub's Egyptian pupils at the college of
Louis le Grand. The remainder of Agoub's
writings must be sought for in the numerous
periodicals to which he was a contributor, in
the " Revue Encyclopedique," the " Journal
Asiatique," and Ferussac's " Bulletin L^ni-
versel." He had completed a translation of
the fables of Bidpay, which has not yet been
published. (Notice by M. de Pongerville, pre-
fixed to the Melanges; article by Fortia
d'Urban and ViUenave, in Biograpliie Uni-
verselle, suppl. i. 99 ; Rabbe, &c. Biographie
des Contemporains, v. 6.) T. W.

AGOULT, CHARLES CONSTANCE
CESAR LOUP JOSEPH MATTHIEU,
bishop of Pamiers, was born at Grenoble, in
the year 1749. He became bishop of Pamiers
in 1787, having previously filled the ofiice of
grand vicar of Rouen, with the title of arch-
deacon of the French Vexin. In 1789 he
emigrated from France to Switzerland, but
returned secretly for a short time, towards
the end of the following year, by order of
the king, Louis XVI., whose confidence he
enjoyed. He again retired, before the king's
flight, and took up his residence in England,
where he became acquainted with Edmund
Bui'ke. He returned to France in the year
1801, and, having resigned his bishopric, at
the request of Pope Pius VII., lived in pri-
vacy until his death, which took place at
Paris, in the month of July, 1824. The fol-
lowing is a list of his printed works, which
are on matters religious and political : —
1. " Avertissement Pastoral au Clerge et aux
Fidcles poiu- les premunir contre le Schisme,"
1791. 2. " Ouvrez done les Yeux," 1798,
8vo. 3. " Ordonnance sur I'Election de
Bernard Font, Cure de Serres au Siege de
I'Arriege," 1791. 4. "Conversation avec
E. Burke, sur I'lnteret des Puissances de
I'Europe," Paris, 1814, 8vo. 5. " Projet
d'une Banque Nationale," Paris, 1815, 4to.
6. " Eclaircissement sur le Projet de Banque
Nationale," Paris, 1816, 4to. 7. " Lettres a
un Jacobin ; ou. Reflexions svu* la Constitu-
tion d'Angleterre et la Charte Royale,"
Paris, 1815, 8vo. 8. " Principes et Re-
flexions sur la Constitution Fran9aise," 8vo.
9. " Essai sur la Legislation de la Presse,"
Paris, 1817, 4to. 10. " Des Impots indirects
et Droits de Consommation," Paris, 1817, 8vo.
Agoult took an active part in politics during
the reign of Louis XVI., and assisted at the
deliberations which ended in the flight of the
royal family to Varennes and its subsequent
destiniction. (^Biographie Univcrselle, en six
volumes, 1838; Le Moniteur, 1824, p. 1039. ;
Rabbe, Biographie des Contemporains, vol. v. ;
Querard, La France Litteraire.) J. W. J.

AGOULT, GUILLAUME D', a poet who
lived m the fifteenth century, but whether a

ACPULT.

AGRATE.

native of Provence or Toulouse is not cer-
tain. His real name was Montagnagout ; and
Millot, in his " llistoire Litteraire des Trou-
badours," supposes that he may have pos-
sessed the fief of Puiagout in Provence, and
hence the name of Montagnagout, " pui "
signifying, in the dialect of that district,
" mountain." He is described as " excellent
in wisdom and conduct," as the chief and
father of troubadours, and was surnamed
L'Heureux, from the circumstance of his
uniting virtue with the possession of wealth.
He composed several poems in honour of
Jausserande de Lunel, a lady of whom he
was deeply enamoured, whi-ch he addressed
to Alphonso X., king of Castile, of whose
household he was " premier et principal
gentilhomme." His pieces are twelve in
H umber ; four referring to the political events
of his time, and the others principally of an
amatory character. They are not printed in
a collected form, but specimens are given by
Ka}nouard ; and there is an analysis of the
principal of them in Millot's work. The
time of his death is differently stated. Ac-
cording lo Nostradamus, it took place in 1181 ;
but the subjects of several of his poems, par-
ticularly that of the league effected by Piay-
mond VII., count of Toulouse, against Louis
IX., which took place in 1241, and the
panegyric on Alphonso X., who ascended
the throne of Castile in 1252, show indis-
putably that he must have lived nearly a
century later. Everic David, in his article
upon him, in the " Histoire Litteraire de la
France," places it about the year 1260.
(Millot, HiMoire Litteraire des Troubadours,
iii. 92—106. ; Nostradamus, Vies des plus
celihrcs et anciene Puetes Provensaux, p. 35. ;
Raynouard, Choix des Poesies originales des
Troubadours, iv. 212. 333— 336. v. 202.;
Histoire Litteraire de la France, xix. 486 —
492., 1838.) J. W. J.

AGRiE'CIUS. [Agrce'cius.]
AGRA'TE, ANTO'NIO, a Milanese ar-
chitectural painter, of the latter half of the
last century. He painted one of the chapels
of the church of Santa Maria del Carmine,
at Milan, and the architectural decorations of
the church of Santa Maria, of the Augustine
nunnery at Brescia, for which Carlo Carloni
painted the figures. (Latuada, Descrizione
dclla Citta di Milano.) R. N. W.

AGRA'TE. MARCO FERRE'RIO, called
Agrate, an Italian sculptor who lived towards
the end of the fifteenth century. He made
the celebrated statue of St. Bartholomew
flayed which is in the cathedral of Milan : it
is worked in marble with extreme care and
anatomical precision, but is devoid of taste.
Cicognara calls it a mere anatomy, with-
out mind or action. Its base bears the
inscription, " non me Praxiteles sed Mar-
cus FiNXiT AGRATES." There are some
works in the chapel del Albero of the same
cathedral, also by Agrate ; and others in the
VOL. r.

Ccrtosa di Pavia, executed about 1480. He
was certainly a distinguished sculjjtor for his
age ; he is commonly called Agniti', but
Torre, in the " Ritratto di Milano," calls him
Ferrerio. (Cicognara, Storia della Scultura.)

R. N. W.
AGRAZ, ANTO'NIO, a noble Sicilian,
of Spanish parentage, was born at Palernui,
on the 25th of May, 1640. He wa.s distin-
guished as a writer of Latin and Italian
poetry, and for his knowledge of civil and
canon law. Having entered the church, he
became Abbot of San Salvatore della Placa
in Sicily, in 1653, at the age of thirteen ; and
in 1658, at the age of eighteen, he was chosen
one of the deputies of the kingdom. In 1671
he accompanied to Rome Don Pedm -de
Aragon, ambassador from Charles II. of
Spain to Pope Clement X. The favour he
enjoyed with this and the preceding pope,
to both of whom he was appointed one of the
honorary chamberlains, raised a general ex-
pectation that he would be created cardinal ;
but his hopes were suddenly extinguished
by death, on the 27th of May, 1672, at
Naples, m the thirty-second year of his age,
and, it was generally reported, by poison. His
published works were — " Oratio Caroli II.
Regis nomine ad Clementem X. habita
Roma; 4 kal. Februarii, 1671;" a Latin
oration to the pope, delivered in the name of
Charles II. of Spain, and published at Rome,
in 4to. in the same year ; and " Donativum
voluntarium Politicum, Diatribe" (" The
voluntary Political Donation"), published
also at Rome, in 4to. in 1672. The projects
of Agraz were much more extensive. Nico-
las Antonio, who inserted him in his cata-
logue of Spanish writers, on the ground of his
parentage, mentioned that he had in prepara-
tion a new edition of Panvinio's " History of
the Popes and Cardinals," with notes and
illusti'ations ; a " MusaEum Siculum," or ac-
count of the ancient authors of Sicily ; a col-
lection of the Sicilian chroniclers, and other
works, none of which have ever appeared.
(N. Antonius, Bibliotheca Hispaiui Nora, fol.
1672. Appendix, p. 316. The same notice is
reprinted in the edition of 1783, vol. i. p. 94.,
with no mention of Agraz's death, &c.
Mongitore, Bibliotheca Sicula, L 53. ; Pirro,
Sicilia Sacra, edit, of Mongitore, p. 1056. ;
Mazzuchelli, Scritlori d' Italia, i. 220.)

T. W.
AGRE'DA, MARIA DE, or MARIA
DE JESU, a Spanish nun, born at Agreda,
in Old Castile, near the Aragonese frontier,
A. D. 1602. Her father, Francis Coronel, and
her mother, Catherine of Arena, in conse-
quence of a supposed direction from Heaven,
founded in their house, a. d. 1619, a Fran-
ciscan nunnery, called the Convent of the
Immaculate Conception, which Maria, her
mother, and sister immediately entered.
Maria and her mother made their profession
I both on the same day, a.d. 1620: but the pro-
' II

AGREDA.

AGRESTI,

fession of the younger sister was deferred on
account of her youth. Her father took the
monastic habit in another convent of the
same order, in which two of his sons were
ah-eady monks. The whole family thus em-
braced the monastic life. In a. d. 1627, Maria
became superior of the convent ; and, ac-
cording to her own account, received, in the
course of the following ten years, from God
and the Virgin Mary, repeated command-
ments to write the life of the latter, which,
after long resistance, she began, a.d. 1637.
After having finished it, she burned it by
the direction of a confessor who had charge
of her conscience during the absence of her
ordinary confessor ; but, by the direction of
the latter and of her ecclesiastical superiors,
as well as in consequence of reiterated in-
junctions, as she supposed, from Heaven, the
work was resumed a.d. 165.5, and finished
in three parts. It was entitled " Mystica
Ciudad de Dios" (" Mystical City of God "),
and was published, a.d. 1670, at Madrid,
in three vols, folio, with notes by Juan
Ximenez Samaniego, afterwards general of
the Franciscans. It was reprinted at Lisbon,
Perpignan, and Antwerp ; and the first part
was translated into French by Thomas Cro-
set, a French RecoUet friar, and published
at Marseille, a.d. 1695, in one vol. 8vo. :
this translation incurred the censure of the
faculty of theology at Paris ; several pro-
positions taken from the work were con-
demned by the faculty as false, rash, scan-
dalous, erroneous, contrary to the doctrine
of the Scriptures, and to the rules of the
church. Croset's translation has been re-
peatedly reprinted. The work of Maria
had been previously censured in Rome, but
the censure was suspended in Spain. She
wrote two or three other works. Maria
died A.D. 1665 ; her canonization was warmly
but vainly solicited at Rome. (^Journal des
Savans, 1696; Bayle, Dictionnaire Critique;
Moreri, Dictionnaire Historique ; Nicolas An-
tonius, Bibliotheca Hispana Nova.) J. C. M.
AGRESTI, LI'VIO, an Italian painter of
great merit, of the sixteenth century, called
da Forli, from the town of Forli, in the
Roman states, the place of his birth. He
became the scholar of Perino del Vaga, and
assisted that master in his works in the
Castel Sant' Angelo, and in other places in
Rome, in the pontificate of Paul IIL Agresti
found a patron in the Cardinal d' Augusta,
and accompanied that dignitary into Germany.
He returned afterwards to Rome, and was
employed on many great works in fresco by
Gregory XIII. He painted also many altar-
pieces in oil. The ceilings and altar-pieces
of three chapels of the church of Santo
Spirito were painted by him : they consist
exclusively of stories from the Scriptures,
were his last works, and obtained him great
reputation. Lanzi, however, says that his
best works, which he terms RafiFaellesque,
474

are those which he painted at Forli, consist-
ing of some stories from the book of Genesis,
in the town-hall, and a Last Supper, in a
chapel of the cathedral. There is an origi-
nal drawing of the last subject, by Agresti,
in the British Museum, in the " Cracherode
Collection of Italian Drawing.s," vol. i. He
died about 1580. Both Vasari and Baglione,
who mention several of his works, speak of
the style of Agresti as grand and universal,
and term him a bold and a masterly designer.
Many of his works have been engraved.
The Last Supper was one of the last plates
engraved by Cornelius Cort ; it bears the
date of the year of his death, 1578. The
following were engraved by Cavalleriis : —
The Elevation of the Cross ; the Resurrec-
tion of Christ ; the Virgin and Child, sur-
rounded by Angels, of the church of the
Consolazione ; the Discovery of the Cross
by St. Helena ; and the Martyrdom of St.
Catherine. (Baglione, Vite de' Pit tori, §-c. ;
Orlandi, Abecedario Pittorico ; Heinelsen,
Dictionnaire des Artistes dont nous avotis des
Estampes.) R. N. W.

AGRI'COLA, ALEXANDER, an emi-
nent composer of the Flemish school, during
the period of its highest elevation. That he
studied under Ockenheim may be inferred
from the following lines of Crespel, a con-
temporary : —

" Agricola, Verbonnet, Prioris
Josquin de Prds, Caspar, Brumel, Compere,
Ne parlez plus de joyeulx chantz ne ris,
Mais composez un ' Ne recorderis,'
Pour lamenter uostre bon maistre et bon pSre."

His epitaph thus records the principal
events of his life : —

" Musica quid defies ? Periit mea cura decusque.
Estne Alexander is meus Agricola ?
Die age, qualis erat ? Clarus vocuni manuumque.

Quis locus hunc rapuit ? Valdotetanus ager.
Quis Belgam hunc traxit ? Magnus Rex ipse Phi-
lippus.
Quo morbo interiit ? Febre furente obiit.
MtAS quae fuerat ? Jam sexagesimus annus.
Sol ubi tunc stabat ? Virginia in capite."

(^Verhandelingen over de Vraag ; Kiesewetter
and Fetis.) E. T.

AGRICOLA, CHRISTOPH LUDWIG,
an excellent German landscape painter, born
of a good family in Augsburg, in 1667, or,
according to another account, in Regensburg.
He lived long in Naples, and painted many
fine landscapes there, from the beautiful
scenery of the vicinity. He painted also
portraits, and etched a landscape of Actaeon
and Diana. His works are very much scat-
tered ; there are some of his finest in the
gallery of Salzdahlum. Zingg has engraved
some beautiful plates after the works of
Agricola, He died in Augsburg, in 1719.
(Heineken, Dictionnaire des Artistes, Sfc. ;
Fiissli, AUyemeines Kiinstler Lexicon ; Fiorillo,
Geschichte der Zeichnenden Kilnste in Deuisch-
land, Sj'c. ; Nagler, Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler
Lexicon.) R. N. W.

AGRICOLA, CNiEUS JULIUS, was

AGRICOLA.

tx)rn on the 13th of June, a. d. 37, at the
ancient colony of Forum Julii (Frojus), on
the Gulf of Lyon in France. His father,
Julius GrsBcinus, a senator, famed for his
learning and eloquence, was put to death by
the emperor Caligula, for refusing to conduct
the prosecution of Marcus Silanus. Agricola
was brought up under the immediate care of
his mother, Julia Procilla, a woman of excel-
lent character, and from his early years he
had the advantage of studying at Massilia
(Marseille), a city distinguished for its learn-
ing and the orderly habits of the people. In
his youth he entered with great ardour on
the study of philosophy, but his mother's
prudence prevented him from devoting him-
self to this pursuit more than was con-
sidered suitable to a Roman and a man of
senatorial rank. He received his military
education in Britain, under Suetonius Pauli-
nus, whose tent he had the honour to share.
It is most probable tliat he accompanied Pau-
linus to Britain, as military tribune, in the
year a. d. 60, and remained there till that
general's recall, in the year 62. He now re-
turned to Rome to become a candidate for
the usual honours, and married Domitia De-
cidiana, a lady of high rank, with whom he
lived in great harmony. In the next year
(a. d. 63) he went as quaestor to Asia, under
the proconsul Salvius Titianus, and gained
the praise of resisting the temptations to cor-
ruption which were presented by the wealth
of the province and the rapacity of the pro-
consul. Here he had a daughter, and lost a
son who had been born before he went to
Asia. As tribune of the people (a. d. 65),
and prsetor (a.d. 67), and in the interval be-
tween his magistracies, he remained quiet,
that he might not incur the suspicion of
Nero. He was appointed by Galba (a.d. 68)
to inquire into the state of the treasures of
the temples, which had been plundered to a
great extent in the reign of Nero, and he
succeeded in recovering much of what had
been seized by other persons than Nero him-
self. In March of the following year (69),
his mother was murdered on her estate
at Intemelii (Vintimiglia) in Liguria, by a
predatory party from Otho's fleet. On his
road to perform her funeral rites, he received
news of Vespasian's claiming the empire, and
at once joined his party. He was appointed
by him to raise levies ; and, in the beginning
of the year 70, he received the command of
the 20th legion, then stationed at Deva
(Chester) in Britain, which had been slow
in taking the military oath. On his arriving
in Britain, he secured the obedience of the
legion. Vettius Bolanus was then governor
of Britain, a man of no enterprise ; and Agri-
cola, being in command under him, had little
opportunity of exercising his great abilities.
The appointment of Petilius Cerealis, who
was an active general, to the government of
Britain (a.d. 71), gave Agricola an oppor-
475

tunity to display his military talents, and to
gain considerable reputation.

On his return to Rome (a.d. 73), Vespa-
sian raised him to the patrician rank, and
gave him the government of Aquitania, which
he administered with distinguished ability
for somewhat less than three years (a. d. 74
— 77). At the end of that period he was
recalled to Rome, to receive the consulship,
on which office he entered, as Consul Suf-
fectus, with the future Emperor Domitian for
his colleague, on the 1st of July, a. d. 77, and
held it for three months. Soon after the
expiration of his consulate, he was appointed
to the government of Britain, and received
the honour of the pontificate. At the same
time he gave his daughter in marriage to
the historian Tacitus, to whom he had be-
trothed her while consul.

By this time the successive Roman go-
vernors of Britain (from the expedition of
Claudius, in the year a.d. 43, when Vespa-
sian and Aulus Plautius subdued most of the
nations south of the Thames and Severn)
had reduced to subjection almost the whole
of the island south of the Solway Firth, with
the exception of North Wales. The people
of this district, the Ordovices, just before the
arrival of Agricola, had cut oft' a division of
Roman cavalry, and other tribes were ready
to revolt. Agricola had the opportunity of
commencing his government by a decisive
blow, and upon his arrival, in the middle of the
summer of the year 78, when the campaign
of the season was supposed to be at an end,
he led his army into the mountains of North
Wales, and almost destroyed the Ordovices.
He followed up his success by invading
Mona (the Isle of Anglesey), the people of
which, in alarm at the energy of his move-
ments, sued for peace, and surrendered the
island. This great success he modestly ab-
stained from magnifying in his letter to the
senate and emperor.

He now applied himself to eradicate the
causes of the war, by checking the excesses
of the Romans, who had oppressed the in-
habitants, especially by compelling them to
sell their com at less than its value, and to
buy it again at a high price ; and he promoted
Roman civilisation, aits, and letters among the
conquered people. The winters of this and the
following year were spent in the reform of his
own retinvie, the enforcement of military dis-
cipline and of strict obedience to the laws, and
in encouraging the natives to erect temples,
forums, and houses, to educate their children
in Roman learning, and to wear the Roman
dress. From the government of Agricola we
may date the destruction of the military
spirit of the ancient Britons, and the com-
mencement of that improvement in the arts
of peace which they attained under the Ro-
man government.

In the mean time Agricola advanced the
Roman arms to the Firth of Tav. (a. d. 80.)
I I 2

AGRICOLA.

AGRTCOLA.

The fourth summer of his command (a.d. 81)
■was spent in securing the conquered territory
by the erection of forts, some of which still
exist, and especially by a chain of forts across
the istlmiiis between the Firths of Clyde and
Forth, on the line of which the Vallum An-
tonini (Graham's Dyke) was afterwards built
by LoUius, in the reign of Antoninus Pius.

In the next summer (a.d. 82) Agricola
crossed the Firth of Clyde, and subdued the
tribes in that part of Britain opposite to Ire-
land (Carrick, Galloway, &c.) with a view to
a future expedition to Ireland, which, how-
ever, he never accomplished.

The people of that part of the island called
Caledonia, north of the Firth of Forth, now
began to take the alarm. Anticipating their
expected attack, Agricola opened his sixth
campaign (a. d. 83) by advancing into their
country, while his fleet sailed along the
eastern coast to examine the harbours, and
to support the army ; and at the close of
the next campaign (a. d. 84) he completely
defeated the foi-ces of the Caledonians under
Galgacus, at the foot of the Grampian moun-
tains. The season being too far advanced
to allow of his followmg up this suc-
cess, Agricola led back his army into Fife-
shire, while he sent his fleet to circumnavi-
gate the island, an enterprise which had been
accomplished for the first time the year be-
fore, by a body of deserters. (Tacitus, Agri-
cola, 28.)

Domitian, who had succeeded Titus a. d.
81, received these tidings with apparent
pleasure, but real pain, or, in the striking
words of Tacitus, " fronte la;tus, pectore
anxius." His jealousy was heightened by
the contrast between the exploits of Agri-
cola and his own recent mock triumph over
the Germans. While he recalled Agri-
cola from Britain, he ordered the senate to
decree to him all the honours which, under
the emperors, were substituted for a triumph,
and held out a hope that he would be re-
appointed to the administration of the pro-
vince of Syria, the accomplishment of which,
however, he contrived by a manoeuvre to
evade. (Tacitus, Agricola, 40.) Agricola re-
turned to Rome, which, by the emperor's
command, he entered in the night ; and hav-
ing been received at the palace with a slight
welcome, resigned himself to a quiet life, and
thus escaped falling a victim to the frequent
accusations which were brought against him
by the ministers of Domitian's cruelty.

" On the arrival of the time (probably about
89 or 90) when the government either of
Asia or of Africa would have fallen to him,
according to custom, he was induced by
those who knew the emperor to petition to
be excused. Domitian granted his prayer
with afFected reluctance, but withheld from
him the usual proconsular salary. In the
mean time, however, disasters had befallen
the Roman arms in Moesia, Dacia, Germany,
476

and Pannonia, and the popular voice called
for the services of Agricola. The efi^ect of
such a state of things on the jealous tem-
per of Domitian cannot be doubted ; and
other groundswere not wanting for suspecting
that the emperor had a share in Agricola's
death. (Tacitus, Agricola, 4.3.) Tacitus,
though he expresses himself with caution,
evidently believed the common rumour, that
Domitian had caused poison to be adminis-
tered to his suspected rival. Agricola died
at the age of fifty-six, on the 23d of August,
A.D. 93.

It had been his policy to conciliate the
tyrant Domitian, and carefully to avoid doing
anj^hing that might give him offence. To
secure his wife and daughter in the posses-
sion of his property, he gave one third of it
by his testament to Domitian, who appeared
pleased at this mark of Agricola's good opin-
ion of him ; not seeing, says Tacitus, that
a good father never bequeaths his property
to any but a bad prince.

His person was rather pleasing than ma-
jestic. " You woidd easily," says Tacitus.
" have taken him for a good man, willingly
for a great man."

He left one daughter, the wife of Tacitus
the historian, who wrote his life, and has
commemorated his virtues in terms of the
strongest affection. (Tacitus, Jul. Agricolce
Vita.) P. S.

AGRI'COLA, FRANCISCUS, (the La-
tinised form of his name), an ecclesiastical
writer of the sixteenth and seventeenth cen-
turies. He was born near Aldenhoven, in
the duchy of Juliers, between Juliers and
Aix-la-Chapelle, and was canon and parish
priest of Rodinen, and afterwards of Sit-
tard in the same duchy, and arch- presbyter
or president of the council of the adjacent
district of Susteren. Sweerts describes him
as " a man of eminent piety, uprightness,
faith, wisdom, and kindness, and the scourge
of heretics," against whom his principal
writings were directed. He died at Sittard,
" worn out with age and by his labours in
the cause of religion," a.d. 1621. His works
are numerous : the " Bibliotheca Belgica "
of Valerius Andreas, enumerates eighteen,
chiefly in Latin ; and the list given by
Sweerts in the " Athena Belgica; " includes
a work not given by Andreas. Some few of
his works are of a practical character ; but
most are polemical. He wrote in defence of
Scripture and tradition, or, as he expresses it,
"the word of God, written and unwritten ;"
of the celibacy of the clergy ; of the worship
of saints and of images ; of relics ; of the de
scent of Christ into hell ; and of St. Peter's
claim to be the apostle and first bishop of the
church at Rome : he also wrote against the
Anabaptists and the Calvinists. His works,
so far as our authorities give the dates, were
published between a.d. 157.5 and a.d. 1616.
(Valerius Andreas, Bibliotheca Belgica ; Jo. Fr.

AGRICOLA.

AGUICOLA.

Poppens, Bibliothcca Behjica ; Franc. Sweer-

tius (Sweerts), Aiheita: Belgica.') J. C. M.

AGlircOLA, GEORG, was born at Glau-

cha in INIeissen, on tlie 24th of March, 1490.

tHe studied medicine at Leipzig, and in 1522
left that place to finish his studies in Italy.
" In 1529 he returned to his native country,
and commenced the practice of his profession
at Joachiinsthal in Bohemia, He had, how-
ever, during his travels in Germany and
Italy, contracted a taste for the study of geo-
logy and mineralogy, and spent his leisure in
writing on these subjects ; but finding that
his sphere of observation -was too contracted,
he removed in 1531 to the mining district of
Chemnitz in Saxony. Here he diligently
availed himself of the opportunities which
the mines aiforded, of pursuing his favorite
sciences, and for this purpose he almost en-
tirely lived with the miners in their subter-
ranean abodes. From a study of the rocks
of Saxony, and the existing veins of metal,
he became convinced that it possessed further
mineral treasures, and proposed to Maurice,
the then reigning duke of Saxony, a plan for
opening other mines. To this ISIaurice did
not accede, but gave Agricola permission to
take up his residence at Chemnitz, and
granted him also a pension. This he spent,
and likewise the greater part of his own pro-
perty, in following his mineralogical studies.
He was afterwards made physician to the
city, and a biirgermeister.

Previous to his removing to Chemnitz he
gave to the world a little work on metals and
minerals with the title " Georgii Agricolse
Medici Bemiannus sive de re Metallica.
Basilese, 1530." 8vo.

In 1546 he published the result of his fur-
ther study and observation, at Chemnitz,
with the title "De Ortu et Causis Subter-
raneorum. BasUea;." folio. In this work,
the formation of rocks and minerals, through
the agency of water and fire, is fully con-
sidered ; the various theories then existing
are examined ; and principles are laid down
very much in advance of previous writers on
these subjects. This work was accompanied
by two others relating to the same subjects.
The one entitled "De Natura eorum qua;
efiBuunt e Terra," treats of those bodies
which pass from the internal parts of the
earth to its surface, whether as waters im-
pregnated with various agents, as semi-fluid
matters, or as hardened masses once fluid
through the agency of heat. The other work,
" De Natura Fossilium," is a description of
the various mineral bodies found in the earth.
These works are written in elegant Latin,
and display a great acquaintance, not only
with the writings of the Greeks, but also with
the labours of the alchemists. There is a
great amount of original observation in them,
and they entitled Agricola, not only to be
considered as the first mineralogist of his day,
but as the first who appeared after the dark-
477

ness of the middle ages to draw attention to
mineralogy as a science. " What Conrad
Gesner," says Cuvier, " Avas to zoology, Agri-
cola was to mineralogy."

In 1549 he published a book on animated
beings that inhabit the earth, entitled " De
Animantibus Subterraneis," 8vo. Basle, 1549.
He enumerates here the various animals that
live in or take up their abode in the earth,
as well as the fossil remains of animals he
had found. The descriptions of the characters
and habits of the animals are frequently
minute and accurate ; but it is worthy of re-
mark, that he devotes a chapter to the
damons of the mines, and describes with an
evident conviction of the reality of their
existence the " Daemon subterrtlneus tru-
culentus " or Bergteufel, and the " Da-mon
subterraneus mitis " or Bergeneulen, Kobel
or Guttel of the Germans.

This latter work appeared again at Basle
in 1556, in folio, with the addition of another
on metallurgy, " De Re Metallica." In this
book is given a very accurate account of all
that concei-ns the art of mining. The posi-
tion of the various metallic veins, the modes
of working, with the machinery used, and
the subsequent processes of the prepara-
tion of the metal, are described, and the
whole is copiously illustrated with engravings
on wood. This work has been translated
into Italian, and with the previous works
has also appeared in German. The latest
edition of his mineralogical works in Ger-
man is by E. Lehmann, entitled " Agri-
cola's Mineralogische Schriften. Freyberg,
1806-10." 3 vols. 8vo.

Pi-evious to the publication of any of his
works on metallurgy or mineralogy, Agri-
cola had turned his attention to classical
literature, and in 1533 published a work on
the weights and measures of the Greeks and
Romans, with the title "Libri Quinque de
Mensuris et Ponderibus," 8vo. Paris. In this
work he opposed the views and statements of
Budaeus, Fortius, and Alciati ; the last of
whom defended himself, but was not equal
to his antagonist, who replied in a small
work, " Ad ea, quae Andreas Alciatus denuo
disputavit de Mensuris et Ponderibus brevis
Defensio." This, with some other smaller
works on weights and measures and moneys,
and the first work, was published in folio at
Basle in 1550. All these works have gone
through many editions, the principal of which
have appeared at Basle. He did not how-
ever confine himself to mineralogical writings.
A work entitled " De hello Turcis in-
ferendo," published at Basle in 1538, is at-
tributed to him. He also wrote a treatise
on the plague, " De Peste Libri tres. Ba-
siliese, 1554," 8vo. Melchior Adam also says
that he wrote on the controversial subjects
of his day.

Agricola, though protected by a Protestant
prince, died in the Roman Catholic faith.
H 3

AGRICOLA.

AV^heii young his tendencies were thought
to be towards the Reformed religion, and he
■vvas the author of a -well-known epigram
reflecting on the practices of the Roman
Catholic church. The misdirected zeal and
intemperance of the Protestant party, and
his attachment to the pompous service of the
church of Rome, were, according to M. Adam,
the causes of his not joining the Protestants.
He was however quite alive to a sense of his
duty as a citizen, and -when Maurice the
elector of Saxony went to join Charles V. in
Bohemia, Agricola insisted on joining his
prince, leaving behind him his wife, who was
at the time pregnant, and his family. He died
of a fever said to have been brought on by a
dispute on divinity, in the sixty -first year of
his age. On his body being carried to the
church of Chemnitz, on account of his attach-
ment to the Catholic faith it -was denied the
rite of Christian burial for upwards of five
days, when it was removed to Zeitz, a village
in the neighbourhood, where it -was allowed
to be deposited. (Adam, M., Vitee Medicorum
(Jermanorum ; Bayle, Diet. Gen. ; Jiicher,
Allgem. Gel. Lexicon, and Adekmg's Supple-
ment; Erech & Gruber, AUgem. Enci/c.) E. L.
AGRFCOLA, GEORG ANDREAS, was
a physician at Ratisbon in the beginning of the
eighteenth centcu-y. He became generally
know"n by having pi"etended to have discovered
a plan by which plants might be much more
rapidly grown than ordinarily. He an-
nounced this disco^■ery with great pomp, and
required 4000 gilders for making known the
process. Not succeeding with this, he ofi'ered
to sell it to 160 persons, at 25 guilders each.
Whether he obtained the money docs not
appear; but he shortly after published a work,
in which he made known his plan, under the
title " Versuch der Universal- Vermehning
aller r>aume Stauden und Blumen Gewachse.
Regensburg, folio. 1716-17, 2 Biinde." In
this work there was really much interesting
and valuable matter with regard to the culture
and propagation of trees, but nothing to sup-
port many of the previous statements of the
author. The principal merit of the book
consists in its pointing out a variety of ways
in which the operations of layering, budding,
&c. may be effected. For these purposes he
always had recourse to a compost of gum
copal and other things, which he called plant-
wax or mummy. The book is written in a
very inflated style, and in many places is
evidently at variance with facts. It was
translated into English by Richard Bradley,
F.R.S., in 1721, under the title " A Philo-
sophical Treatise of Husbandry and Gar-
dening, &c. London, 4to." A translation into
French appeared at Amsterdam, in 1 720,
under the title " L' Agriculture Pai-faite." In
addition to this volume, he published the fol-
lowing works on the same subject: — "Nach-
richt von seiner Universal- Vermehrung.
Leipzig, 1716, 4to."" " Erofnetes Geheimniss
478

von der Universal- Vermehrung, Regensburg,
1716, 4to." " Neu erfundone Kunst von der
Universal- Vermehrung, Th. 1 — 3. Regens-
burg, 1716, 4to." He also published the follow-
ing treatises on medical subjects: — " Disser-
tatio de Salubritate fluxus Haemorrhoidalis,
Halaj Magdeburgicffi, 1708, 4to." "De Succi
Nutricii per Nervos Transitu, Vitembergae,
1695, 4to," The last was the thesis which he
presented on the occasion of his graduating.
These works possess little merit.

Although the name of Agricola will be
handed down to posteritj- as connected with
the improvement of horticulture, his evident
misrepresentation of many of the results of
his researches, for the sake of gain, must
always subject him to just censure. (Ersch
& Gruber, Allgem. Encyc; G. A. Agricola's
Works.) E. L.

AGRICOLA, GEORG LUDWIG, ka-
pell-meister to the Duke of Saxe Gotha, was
born at Grossen Furra, a village near Son-
dershausen, Oct. 25. 1643. His father, who
was the minister of this place, sent him first
to school at Eisenach, and afterwards to the
imiversities of Leipzig and Wittenberg ; in
the latter he gi-aduated. Here he also studied
the works of the best Italian musicians, and
qualified himself for the situation above men-
tioned, which he obtained in 1670. His
promise of musical excellence was terminated
by his early death in 1676. His prin-
cipal published compositions are — 1. Pe-
nitential and Sacramental Hjnnns for five or
more voices. Gotha, 1675. 2. Sonatas, Pre-
ludes, AUemands, &c. 1675. 3. " Musical
Leisure Hours," consisting of a collection
of similar pieces, with accompaniment for
stringed instruments. Miihlhausen. 4. Ger-
man Sacred Melodies, for two and six voices.
Gotha, 1675. (Gevhev, Lexicon der Tonkilnst-
hr.) E. T.

AGRI'COLA, JOHANN. His real name
was Johann Schnitter, Schneider, or Sneider,
which, according to the general custom of the
time, he changed into Agricola. He was bom
on the 20th of April, 1492, at Eisleben, in
the county of Mansfeld, whence he after-
wards sometimes called himself " magister
Eisleben," or, in Latin, " magister Islebius."
He studied theology and philosophy at Wit-
tenberg, where he formed an intimate friend-
ship with Luther, who found in Agricola a
most active and powerful supporter. It is
probable that at the time when Luther pub-
lished his theses against indulgences, Agri-
cola was a lecturer in the university of Wit-
tenberg, and held the same opinions as Luther,
who, in 1519, took him to Leipzig, to the
great meeting of German divines, which is
known by the name of the "Leipziger Re-
ligionsgespriich." Agricola acted as secre-
tary of the meeting, and on that occasion the
university of Leipzig conferred upon him and
Melanchthon, who was likewise present, the
degree of baccalaurcus. Henceforth he ex-

AGRICOLA.

oi^ted himself for several years, and in perfect
harmony with liUther, to accomplish the work
which they had undertaken. In 1525 the
city of Frankfurt on the Main requested
Luther to send over an able man to assist
them in settling their ecclesiastical affairs.
Luther sent Agricola, but he does not appear
to have stayed there more than one month.
On his return from Frankfurt, he Mcnt to his
native place, Eisleben, where he was ap-
pointed preacher to the Nicolai Kirche, and
to some extent also intrusted with the ma-
nagement of the gymnasium, while his wife
employed herself in instructing young females
in the principles of the reformed religion.
Soon after his arrival at Eisleben he was
made court preacher to John, Elector of
Saxony, and it was in this capacity that, in
1526, he was present at the diet of Spire,
and took a part in the presentation of the
Augsburg Confession. In the year 1530 he
was appointed court preacher to Count Albert
of Mansfeld. Agricola was also one of the
divines who signed the Schmalkalden articles
of faith. In 1537 he again went to Wit-
tenberg, but he now began to differ from
Luther and Melanchthon, and commenced
the well-known antinomian disputes. He
asserted, against his former friends, that
obedience to the Mosaic law was not ne-
cessary for the salvation of man, which
solely depended upon the Gospel, penitence,
and faith, while Luther contended for the
necessitj- of obeying the Ten Command-
ments. The former friendship between him
and Luther now became changed into bitter
animosity, and Luther in his indignation
usually called him " magister GrickeL" Agri-
cola found many supporters of his views
among the Protestant divines, who, from
their opposition to the law of Moses, were
called Antinomians ; but these disputes in-
volved hiin in such troubles, that at last
he was obliged to fly to Berlin, where he
found protection. The Elector of Branden-
burg conferred upon him the offices of
court preacher and superintendent general,
(archdeacon), which he held until his death
on the 22d of September, 1566. During
his residence at Berlin, Agricola changed
his opinions respecting the Mosaic law, but
his enemies said that he had done so against
his conscience. These changes of opinion
have drawn upon Agricola very severe
censure, and some have even charged him
with a design to overthrow Protestantism,
and to return to the church of Rome. These
accusations, however, are wholly imfounded,
and are unwarranted constructions put upon
his words and actions by implacable enemies.
John Agricola is the author of a great
number of theological works, some of which
are in Latin, but the greater part are in
German. They are partly of an exegetical
and partly of a dogmatical or controversial
character, and among them are also several
479

sermons, some catechisms, and several Ger-
man hymns. Most of them are now only
literary curiosities, and his theological works
have been thrown into the shade by what he
has done for the German language and
literature. In this respect his merits are
second only to those of Luther. He was the
first who made a collection of German pro-
verbs. This collection contains 750 speci-
mens, to which he added a commentary, and
various illustrations by way of examples.
His introduction shows that he knew the
value of the proverbial sayings of a nation,
and that they indicate its character better
than anything else. Agricola, moreover,
intended, by these examples of the practical
wisdom of the earlier Germans, to rouse the
national spirit of his countrymen, and to in-
duce them to abandon their imitation of every
thing foreign ; a weakness which has been
peculiar to the Germans at all times. His
commentary also merits high praise : his
remarks are always rational and ingenious,
and are expressed in a lively and very con-
cise manner. He breathes a truly national
spirit. Some strange expressions, which to
us appear coarse and vulgar, were common
to him and the greatest writers of his time.
These proverbs appeared in two diff'erent
collections ; the first was published in Low
German, and a few months after in High
German also. The Low German edition,
which is extremely scarce, has the title
" Dre hundert gemener Sprekworde, der wy
Diidschen uns gebruken, unde doch nicht
wetten wohar se kamen, dorch D. Johann
Agricolam von Islewe," Magdeburg, 1528,
8vo. The High German edition appeared at
Eisleben, 1528, 8vo. The second collection,
which contains 450 proverbs, appeared with-
out the name of the place of publication, in
the year 1529, 8vo., imder the following
title : " Das ander Teyl gemeiner deutscher
Sprichworter mit yhrer Auslegimg, hat fiinift-
halbhundert newer Worter." These two col-
lections were afterwards frequently printed
together, as at Hagenau, in 1537 and 1584 ;
at Eisleben, 1548 ; at Wittenberg, 1582. The
most correct edition is that of Wittenberg in
1592, under the title " Siebcnhundert und
funtfzig deutscher Spriichworter, ernewert
und gebessert durch Johann Agricola. Mit
vielen schonen, lustigen und niitzlichen His-
torien und Exempeln erkleret und ausgelegt."
(M. Adami, Vita Theologorum, in the collection
of Vitce Eruditorum, p. 195, &c. ed. 3. Frank£
1706, fol. ; J. G. Unger, Dissertatio de J. Agri-
cola, antesignano Antinomorum, Leipzig, 1732.
4to. All the earlier works on Agricola,
however, have been superseded by Berend
Kordes " J. Agricola aus Eisleben, Schriften
mijglichst vollstdndig verzeichnet, zur dankbaren
Erinnerung an das dritte Jubelfest der Luther-
ischen Kirche," Altona, 1817, 8vo. The com-
plete list of all the works of Agricola, given
in this work, is reprinted in Mohuike's article
II 4

AGRICOLA.

" Johann Agricola," in Erscli & G ruber's
Alhjem. Enojr. For a general account see
Meister's Beitrage zur Gesch. dcr deutscheti
Sprache mid NalionaUiteratur, i. 303 — 307. ;
Chanicteristik deutscher Uichter, i. 103. ;
Jijrden's Lexikon Dciitscher Dichter, i. 25 —
28.; the Dictionary of Jocher -with Adelung's
supplements; and Mohnike, in Ersch nnd
Gruber.) L. S.

AGRICOLA, JOHANN, a German com-
poser of the 16th century, and musical pro-
fessor in the Augustine college at Erfurt. He
published a set of Motets for fonr, five, six,
and eight voices, 1601, and a collection of
" Oantiones de prsecipuis Festis per totum An-
num," both printed at Niimberg. (Draudius,
BibUotheca Classka.) E. T.

AGRICOLA, JOHANN, a native of
Naumburg, where he was born in 1589. He
styles himself doctor of medicine and philo-
sophy, and professor of medicine and surgery,
but his further history is unknown.

He wrote some medical dissertations, and
likewise " Deutliche und wohl gegrlindete
Anmerkung ueber die Ch}Tnische Arzneyen
Johannis Popii," Niirnberg, 1686, 4to. ("A
plain and careful Commentary on Popius on
Chemical Remedies,") 1686, 4to. It contains
a great number of chemical processes, and
many medical observations. He is reproached,
however, with giving too pompous titles to
his remedies, with speaking of very trivial
preparations as though there were something
in them exceedingly mysterious, and his me-
dical formula; are overloaded with ingredients.
(Mangetus, BibUotheca Scriptoruin Mcdi-
conim.') C W.

AGRICOLA, JOHANN FRIEDRICH,
a Gennan composer in the employ of Frede-
rick the Great, for whose theatre at Potsdam
he composed several Italian operas. He
published a translation of Tosi's celebrated
work on Florid Song, and was a contributor
to Adlung's "• Musica Mechanica." He pub-
lished a set of chorals. He was born in 1720,
and died in 1774. (Gerber, Lexicon der
Torikibhstler ; Rellstab, State of Music in
Berlin.) E. T.

AGRICOLA, JOHANNES AMMO'-
NIUS, a professor of medicine and of the
Greek language, at Ingoldstadt, and a man
of great learning. He died in 1570. He wrote
principally commentaries on Hippocrates and
Galen. His chief works are — 1. " Hippo-
cratis Coi Medicinae et Medicorimi omnium
Principis, Aphorismorum et Sententiarum IVIe-
dicorum Libri Sex." Ingoldstadt, 1537. 4to.
In this book, X\\2 aphorisms of Hippocrates
are arranged according to their subjects ; and
to the whole is appended a Latin translation
of the sixth book of epidemics, by Leonard
Fuchs, with original notes and observations.
2. " MedicinsB Herbariae Libri Duo." Ba-
sel, 1539, 12mo. The first book contains an
account of the plants used hy the ancient
j'liysicians, the second of those employed by
480

tlie moderns. (Mangetus, BibUotheca ScripL
Medic, where a catalogue of his works is
given ; and Biographic Mc'dicale.) C. \V,

AGRI'COLA, LUIGI, a Roman painter,
and the keeper of the academy of St. Luke
at Rome. He died in 1821.

There was another painter of the name of
Agricola, who lived at Berlin about the
middle of the eighteenth century. He
painted landscapes, battles, birds, fruit, and
flowers, in water colours. (Nagler, A'eiies
Alhjemeines Kiinstler Lexicon ; Fiissli, Allge-
meines Kiinstler Lexicon.) R. N. W.

AGRI'COLA, MARTIN, professor of
music and cantor in the college of Magdeburg,
was born at Sorau in Silesia about 1486. His
parents were poor, and be owed the pro-
ficiency he attained as a scholar and a
musician principally to his own love of the
art and his unwearied industry. He went to
Magdeburg in 1510, and supported himself
by giving private lessons in music and lan-
guage. In 1524 he received his collegiate
appointment ; but even this scarcely afforded
him a maintenance. In one of his publications
he thus addresses his pupils : " I have now
been an instructor in Magdeburg for twenty-
five years, living in poverty that I might
promote your knowledge of music. Will
you request of your parents and those who
manage the affairs of the school some aug-
mentation of my means, for it is written,
' The labourer is worthy of his hire.' " He
continued to labour in his avocation with
unceasing diligence to the end of his life, his
last Avork being published less than three
years before its termination* He died June
10. 1556.

George Rhaw, of Magdeburg, a learned
printer, and the most profound musical critic
that Germany had produced, in his " Enchi-
ridium " speaks of him as "a learned musician
and his especial friend, who wrote most
elegantly on music ;" and he adds, " that if
his works were written in Gennan, as they
are in Latin, nothing further on the subject
could reasonably be required." (" Libellos qui,
si sic, in Latino scrmone ut simt, Gennanice
seripti extarent," &c., which seems to be the
proper punctuation of the passage.) Rhaw
printed all Agricola's works, which may be
reckoned the first of their kind that appeared
in Germanj'. They also form an epoch in the
histoiy of music in that country, from the
substitution of notes for the tablature before
in use. But the principal feature of his
character was that unshaken devotion to his
art which no difficulties could daunt and
no discouragement subdue. His works, of
which the following is a list, were written in
Latin, and for the use of his pupils : —
1 . " IMelodiae Scholasticaj sub Horarum Inter-
vallisdecantanda?, 1512." 2. " A Collection of
Songs, in four parts. 1528." 3. "Musica In-
strumentalis. 1529." This curious work con-
tains a wood engraving of every instrument

AGRICOLA.

then in use, witli a description in verse. The
list is inserted here as containing the best in-
formation that we possess on this point. It
comprises the flute, cornet, shawm, reedpipe, j
bagpipe, bcmihart, trumpet, trombone, clarion,
tiiru\er horn (the horn sounded by -watchmen >
from the church towers), organ (fixed and
portable), regal, clavichord, clavicembalo,
virginal, lyre, keyed cittern. Keyed violin,
lute, quintern ; treble, alto, tenor, and bass
violins; dulcimer, harp, psaltery, drum. An-
other, much altered, edition of this work was
published in 1545. 4. " Musica Figuralis. '
15.32." 5. " De Proportionibus ]\Iusicis." 6. |
'•Rudimenta INIusices, quibus canendi Arti-
ficiuni conipendiosissime complexum, Pueris
vma cum Monochordi Dimensione traditur,
&c. 1539." 7. "Quaestiones vulgariores in
ilusicam. 1543." 8. "Scholia in Musicam
pl«nam Wenceslai Philomatis de nova Domo
ex variis Musicorum Scriptis, &c. 1540." 9.
Libellus de Octo Tonorum regularium Com-
positione." 10. Cantiones cum Melodiis Mar-
tini Agricola?. 1553." This work gives its
author a place among the earliest German
composers for the church. After his death
his fi-iend Rhaw published (1561) " Duo Libri
Musices, continentes Compenditim Artis, et
illustria Esempla." (Forkel, Litteratur dcr
Mttsik; 'SlaXXh.eson, Ephorus ; Gerher, Lexicon
der Tonkiinsder.') E. T.

AGRICOLA, MICHAEL, one of the
early Swedish reformers. He was bom at
the village of Torsby, in the parish of Pemd,
in Nyland, about the beginning of the six-
teenth century. He had already imbibed the
doctrines of the reformation from the preach-
ing of Peter Serkilax, when, in 1529, the last
Roman Catholic prior of Sigtuna and first
Protestant bishop of Abo, Martin Skjtte, re-
nounced his obedience to the pope, and swore
allegiance to King Gustavus Vasa, receiving
in return all the revenues of the bishopric
unimpaired, except by the condition of main-
taining eight Finnish students at foreign uni-
versities, especially at ^^'ittenberg. Agricola
was one of the eight students, and was sent to
Wittenberg, whence he returned in 1539, with
a letter of recommendation from Martin Lu-
ther, in which he was spoken of as a youth
of excellent learning, manners, and capacity,
who might be made of great use. In the
same year he was appointed rector of the
school at Abo ; and it is stated by Rhyzelius
that, shortly afterwards, but in what year is
not known, he was sent by the king as mis-
sionary to Lapland. This disagrees, how-
ever, with the statement of Justen, who had
the best opportunities of knowing, and says
that he remained master of the school at Abo
for ten years, and resigned the charge un-
willingly, at the royal command, in 1548. He
■was at the same time appointed assistant to
Bishop Skytte, whose infirmities disabled him
from the performance of his duties. The
bishop died in 1554, and the king summoned
4S1

the members of the ancient chapter to Stock-
holm, where he informed them that he had
resolved on dividing the bishopric into two,
Abo and Wiborg. Agricola was appointed
to Abo, and Justen to the other, not much to
the satisfaction of Agricola, as Justen infonns
us. The king delivered them an exhortation
on the duty of obedience to the crown, which
was the more necessary as at the time it was
gradually absorbing the revenues of all the
canonries, as the old occupants died ofiF. Gus-
tavus was highly indignant at hearing that
Agricola celebrated divine service at Abo, on
his return, with Romish ceremonies, and sent
him sharp messages on the subject. In the
jear 1556, Agricola accompanied the arch-
bishop of Upsal, Laurentius Petri, [Petri]
on an embassy to the grand duke of Mus-
covy, Ivan "N'^assilevich, who was at war with
Sweden ; and on his way home, after con-
cluding a peace, sickened and died, in the
village of Kyroniem, in the parish of ^'ikyr-
kio, on the 7th of April, 1557.

Agricola translated into Finnish the New
Testament, in the preface to which he states
that the version was made from the original
Greek, with the assistance of the Latin
Vulgate and the German and Swedish trans-
lations. It was printed at Stockholm, in
quarto, in 1548, at which time, according to
Henderson, Agricola was bishop of Abo ;
but this is evidently a mistake. He is stated
bj- Justen to have published a Finnish prayer-
book, and by Gezelius, a Finnish psalm-
book ; but as Justen does not mention the
psalm-book, nor Gezelius the prayers, the
same work is probably intended. He is also
sometimes mentioned as the translator of
David's Psalms into Finnish ; but Justen in-
forms us that the version had a different
origin. " The rector Justen," he says, speak-
ing of himself in the third person, " com-
manded that the scholars in the school of
Abo," where Justen succeeded Agricola,
" should translate the Psalms by way of ex-
ercising their style, and corrected and im-
proved the version himself, when their exer-
cises were brought up to be examined in
school hours, or oftentimes in his own room,
after dinner." The work was, however,
revised by Agricola, and published by him at
Stockholm, in the year 1551. It contains a
rhj-ming address to the reader, in which a
description is given of the pagan idolatry of
the Finns, and this is supposed to be the
oldest printed specimen of Finnish poetry.
In the course of the same year, several por-
tions of the Old Testament were published
by Agricola, who promised to proceed with
the translation of the remaining books, if he
met with sufficient encouragement. This
desideratum was not, however, supplied to
the Finns till the year 1646, when an entirely
new version was issued. Agricola also
translated into Swedisti the " Sea Laws." or
maritime code, of Wisby ; but the work was

AGRICOLA.

not published till 1689, when it appeared at
Stockholm, under the editorship of John j
Hadorph. (Rhyzelius, Episcoposcopia Svio-
gothica, eller en Sweaguthisk Sticht och Bis-
kops-Chrunika, i. 344, &c. ; Justen, Ca-
taloyus Episcoporiun Finlandensium, in Net- ■
telblad's Schwedische Bibliothec, i. 86, &c. ;
Gezelius, Bwgraphiskt Lexicon ofver Svenske |
Man, i. 10, &c. ; Henderson, Biblical Be- ,
searches in Bussia, p. 7.) T. W.

AGRICOLA, RUDOLPH, (properly Ro- ]
k'f Huysmann,) sometimes with the addition
Frisius, in order to distinguish him from
other persons of the same name ; sometimes
he is also called Rudolphus a Groningen.
He was born at Baffle (Latinized Bafflo), a
village near Groningen, in Friesland, in the
month of August, 1443. A\Tien a youth he '
studied imder Thomas a Kempis, in the
gymnasium of ZwoU, and thence went to '
Louvain, where he commenced the study of
philosophy and theology. After spending
some time at Louvain, where he made him-
self master of the French language, he went
to Paris. From France he proceeded to
Italy, where letters were then reviving, and
where he hoped to gratify his taste and his
love of sound philosophy. He spent the
years 1476 and 1477 partly at Ferrara and
partly at Pavia, and became acquainted with
the most distinguished men of the time,
among whom was Theodoras Gaza. In Italy,
Agricola became acquainted with Greek.
He devoted himself chiefly to the study of
Greek philosophy, and soon saw how far the
scholastic philosophy had degenerated from
the ancient model. Agricola equalled the
best Italian scholars in his knowledge of
antiquity and philosophy, a fact which they
themselves acknowledged. He also distin-
guished himself as a painter and a musician :
he composed several songs, which he used
to sing, and which were favourites even of
the Italians. It is said that the Italians, who
hitherto had looked on the Germans as barba-
rians, were struck with admiration at the learn-
ing and elegant accomplishments of Agi-icola.
After his return to Friesland, he is said to
have been appointed sjiidic of Groningen ;
but the fact is very doubtful : thus much only
is certain, that on one occasion the city of
Groningen sent him on a mission to the
court of the Emperor Maximilian I. Here
he remained for about six months, and several
very honourable ofiers were made to him,
but he could not be prevailed upon to change
his independent position for the brilliant
offices at the court of the emperor, for he
was very fond of ease and independence, and
he never accepted any office (though many
were offered to him) which might in the
least disturb his studies. This was probably
also the reason why he never married.
However, he exerted all his powers, especially
through the influence which he exercised
o\cr his former fellow students, to raise
482

philosophy, eloquence, and learning in Ger-
many to the same level which they had
attained in Italy ; and Germany justly re-
gards him as the reviver of a genuine philo-
sophy, and as having introduced a taste for
Greek literature and the fine arts. During
his residence in Italy, Agricola formed au
intimate friendship with John von Dalberg,
who subsequently became bishop of Worms,
and chancellor of the elector palatine. In
1483, Dalberg invited Agricola to live with
him. Agricola accepted the offer, and hence-
forth he passed his time with his friend,
partly at Heidelberg, and partly at Worms.
In the former place he occasionally delivered
a course of lectures on philosophy, ancient
history, and on the study of the ancients.
The elector palatine, Philip, himself attended
several of his lectures, and it was at his re-
quest that Agricola wrote a book called
" De Quatuor INIonarchiis," or an abridgment
of universal history, interspersed with various
political reflections. His influence upon the
study of Greek, which was then just com-
mencing in Germany, was so great that
Vossius justly remarks that he diffused a
taste for Greek learning all through Ger-
many (Graecas literas tota Germania exci-
tavit), and that in fact the study of Greek
among the Germans may be dated from
his time. In the year 1483 he also began
the study of Hebrew, under the tuition of
a Jew, whom Dalberg kept for this pur-
pose in his house ; but Agricola does not
appear to have made any great progress in
this language. He had at all times a great
partiality for Italy, and in 1484, when Dal-
berg was sent on a mission to Rome, Agri-
cola accompanied him ; shortly after his
return he died, at Heidelberg, on the 28th of
October, 1485, and was at his express wish
buried there, in the dress of a Franciscan
monk, in the church of the Minorites.

Agricola was considered by the best judges
of the time, such as P. Bembo and Erasmus,
a profound and elegant scholar. His works
are aU written in Latin. That by which he
gained most reputation as a philosopher, and
in which he explained the method of reason-
ing according to the principles of Aristotle,
is his "De Inventione Dialectica," Cologne,
1474, 4to. : it has often been reprinted. He
also wrote a life of Petrarch, and another, in
verse, of St. Anna. With the view of pro-
moting the study of the Greek writers, he
translated several works into Latin, such as the
" Axiochus," incorrectly attributed to Plato,
Isocrates' " Exhortation to Demonicus,"
some works of Lucian, the " Progymnas-
mata" of Aphthonius, and the work of
Dionj'sius Areopagita. The last of these,
however, was not completed, the work
being interrupted by his death. He also
wrote a commentary on Boethius " De Con-
solatione Philosophise," and on some de-
clamations of Seneca. His other works con-

AGRICOLA.

AGRIPPA.

sist of orations, epistles, and poems. All his
■works, -vrith the exception of a few of little
importance, ■were collected by Alardus of
Amsterdam, in " Rudolphi Agricola; Lucu-
brationes aliquot nusquam prius edita?, Sec.
ceteraque eiusdem Yiri omnia, Colonite,
1539, 2 vols. 4to." (P. Melanchthonis, Oratio
de Vita R. Agricolce ; Brucker's Ehrentempel
der teulschen Gelehrsamkcit ; Heeren, Ge-
schichte des Stttdiums der classischcn Literatur,
ii. 147. 152, &c. and 277. ; Vossius, De Hist.
Lat. p. 566. ; Jocher, Allgem. Gehhrt. Lexic.
■voc. " Agricola," and Adelung"s supplement,
p. 332. ; Saxius, Onomast. Lit. ii. 270, &c. ;
F. ^loiter in Ersch und Gruber's Allgem.
Encyclopad, roc. " Agricola.") L. S.

AGRICOLA, ST., Bishop of Chalons sur
Saone, in the sixth centurj', according to
Gregory of Tours, besto^wed much attention
upon architecture and the embellisliment of
the churches -within his diocese. The ca-
thedral of Chalons, ■which ■was built by him,
was one of the handsomest buildings of its
period, and -was equally remarkable for its
beauty and its solidity. It was richly orna-
mented in the interior ■with columns, marble
facings, mosaic ■work, and paintings. (Feli-
bien, De la Vie, &jC. des plus ceUbres Arcki-
tectes.) R. N. W.

AGRIPPA ('Ayp'nrTras), a sceptic of ■whom
■we kno^w nothing more than that he lived
after iEnesidemus and before Sextus Em-
piricus. iEnesidemus is sometimes considered
as the inventor or discoverer of the ten
gi'ounds of doubtmg ; but these grounds of
doubting were acknowledged by the older
sceptics, and iEnesidemus must be regarded
only as the first person who enumerated
them. Agrippa went a step further : he re-
duced the number of ten to five. Diogenes
Laertius mistakes the matter when he speaks
of Agrippa or his followers as simplj- adding
five to the ten grounds of doubting. Two of
the grounds of doubting enumerated by
Agrippa relate to the matter ; the other three
are formal. Of the first two, one is founded
on the fact of the different judgments which
men make about the same thing ; and the
second on the fact of the contradictions 'in
our sensuous perceptions, and the impossibility
of concluding from appearances what is the
real nature of things ; and these two in fact
comprehend the ten old groimds of doubt.
The other three seem to be original, and they
are these : It is objected to those who main-
tain that they can prove a thing from certain
fundamental principles, that those principles
must be proved ; for if not proved, they are
mere hypotheses. But if an attempt is made
to prove these fundamental principles, then it
is objected that they can only be proved by
the assumption of other principles, and so on
indefinitely (ei's iweipov') ; and thus proof is
impossible. These are two of the three
formal grounds of doubt. The third ground
of doubt (6 5iaA\ijA.os rpoitos), the vicious
483

circle, occurs ■when the thing which is in-
tended to prove a proposition requires to be
proved from the thing which is proposed to
be proved ; and thus, as we cannot use either
thing for the confirmation of the other, we
must doubt about both. The later sceptics,
among whom are Menodotus and his school,
simplified the grounds of doubt still further
by rejecting those which related to the mat-
ter, and reducing to two those which related
to the form. For they argued correctly that
as a thing cannot be comprehended by itself,
it must be comprehended by means of some
other thing ; and consequently the proof, or
in other words the ground of doubt, may
belong either to the indefinite class of doubts
or to the vicious circle ; but these two are
one.

The foundation of the sceptical system
rests on the assumption or the admission of the
universal necessity of proof ; and it originates
in not discriminating the differences in the
nature of the evidence which is applicable to
different things. (Ritter, Geschickte der
Philosophie, 4er Theil, 2d ed. ; Ritter &
Preller, Hist. Philosoph. Graco-JRomance, §-c.
p. 453, &c. ; Diogenes Laertius, ix., Pi/rrho.')

G. L.

AGRIPPA. An astronomer of this name
is known to have been alive a. j). 92, by an
observation of that date made in Bithynia,
which Ptolemy makes use of. {Syntax.
lib. vii. cap. 3.) Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa,
the son-in-law of Augustus, is sometimes put
down in lists of astronomers, we know not
for what reason (by Riccioli and Lalande,
for instance). A. De M.

AGRIPPA, CAMILLO, an Italian ar-
chitect of the sixteenth century, respecting
whom so few particulars have been recorded,
that neither the year of his birth nor that of
his death can now be ascertained. He is
not even mentioned by Milizia, and Nagler
also omits him, notwithstanding that Tira-
boschi speaks of him, not only as a philosopher
and mathematician, but a distinguished ar-
chitect, "architetto insigne;" and as he also
calls him a Milanese, we may conclude him
to have been a native, if not of the city itself,
of the territory of ^Milan. For his fame as
an architect, however, he would seem to be
more indebted to his theoretical knowledge,
and practical skiU in construction and en-
gineering, than to any architectural work
properly so called. No building is kno^wa
as having been designed or erected by him ;
but he is spoken of, chiefly, as having directed
the operations of removing, in the pontificate of
Gregorj- XIIL, the obelisk afterwards erected
in front of St. Peter's, by Domenico Fontana,
in that of Sixtus V. ; an undertaking of which
he published an accoimt, entitled " Trattato
di trasportar la Guglia in su la Piazza di
S. Pietro, Roma, 1583, 4to." The only other
known instance of his being professionally
employed, is that of his conveying the stream

AGRIPPA.

of the Acqua Vergine to the summit of the
Pincian Hill. His ■writings were numerous ;
a list of them is given by Mazzuchelli, and
we may here mention that which has for its
title, " Nuove Invenzioni sopra il Modo di
Navigare, Roma, 1595." 4to. All his works
are now exceedingly rare. (Tiraboschi,
Storia dclla Letkratura Ital) AV. H. L.

AGRIPPA, FONTEIUS. [Fonteius.]
AGRIPPA, HATE'RIUS. [Hate'rius.]
AGRIPPA, HEINRICH CORNELIUS,
was born at Cologne, in 1486, of a noble fa-
mily, which bore the title of Von Nettesheym.
Following the example of his ancestors, who
had for several generations served with ho-
nour under the princes and emperors of the
house of Austria, he early entered the ser\-ice
of the Emperor 3Iaximilian as one of his
secretaries. From this time to the year
1513, his life was spent in so irregular a
pvu'suit of honour in science, literature, the-
ology, war, and diplomacy, that it is im-
possible to affix the dates to many of the
services in which, according to his letters, he
was occupied. In 1507 and 1508 he was
engaged in France and Spain; and in 1509
he delivered public lectures at Dole in Bur-
gundy, on Reuchlin's treatise " De Verbo
Mirifico," which, though they gained him
great reputation, embroiled him in a quarrel
with the monks, which continued to his
death. In 1510 he was sent on some secret
mission to London, where his time was chiefly
occupied in studying the Epistle of St. Paul
to the Romans, under Dean Colet, and in
writing a commentary on it. From England
he went to Cologne, and lectured on various
theological questions : but he soon after joined
the Austrian army in Venice, and was engaged
in active military service tUl 1513, when he
was summoned, as a theologian, by the Cardinal
di Santa Croce to a coimcil at Pisa. At this
time he had been knighted for his gallantry
in the field, had received a letter from Leo
X. commending him for his zeal and skill in
the service of the church, had taken the
degrees of doctor of laws and doctor of medi-
cine, was thoroughly conversant with eight
languages, and with all the sciences of his
day, and was equally notorious as a theo-
logical disputant, an astrologer, and a searcher
after the secret of the mutation of gold.

But the same correspondence between him-
self and his friends, fi"om which we derive
this account of his learning and reputation,
proves that in pursuing them he had spent
nearly all his money. After havmg lectured,
for the two years following the council at
Pisa, upon theologj' and the works of Mer-
curius Trismegistus, at Turin and Pavia, he
was obliged, by the troubled state of the
country, to quit Pavia, and leave behind him
a great part of his small property. He re-
mained without emplojTnent, hardly main-
taining himself and his wife, to whom he had
been recently married, tiU 1518, when his
484

friends obtained him the appointment of
advocate and orator of Metz. He held this
office for about two years ; and during all
the time was engaged in a quarrel with his old
enemies the Dominican monks, who perse-
cuted him, he says, for maintaining that
Anna, the mother of the Virgin JNIary, was
only once married, and had only one child,
and for defending a poor peasant woman whom
they wished to put to the torture because her
mother had been burnt for sorcery. They
obliged him at last to quit Metz, upon which
he went to Geneva, and thence to Freiburg,
practising as a physician, but with little
pecuniary advantage. In 1524 he went to
Lyon and was appointed physician to Louisa
of Savoy, the mother of Francis I. of France ;
but in the following year she left him without
paying him his stipend. She was offended at
him, partly because he had expressed his dis-
like of being constantly employed in what he
deemed the unworthy task of calcvdating by
astrology the course of events in France, and
partly because she found out that, from the
calculations which he did make, he had prophe-
sied the triumph of her enemy, the constable
Charles de Bourbon. Enraged at being thus
treated, and deep in debt, he wrote virulent
letters against the princess to some of his
friends, the contents of which were indiscreetly
divulged. The consequence was, that when he
wished to go from Lyon to Antwerp, his
passport was reftised at Paris, the Due de Ven-
dome declaring he would never sign one for a
diviner ; and he did not arrive at his destina-
tion till 1528. In the following j'ear, how-
ever, fortune seemed once more to favour
him, and he received invitations to four dif-
ferent European courts, among which was
one from Henry VIII. of England. He ac-
cepted that of ^largaret of Austria, regent of
the Low Countries ; and she appointed him
historiographer to the Emperor Charles V.
In this capacity he wrote an accoimt of the
emperor's coronation, and was engaged in
other works, when, at the close of 1530, the
regent died. Her death, he says, was as good
as the pi'eservation of his own life, so much
had both she and the emperor been prejudiced
against him by the slanders of those about
their courts, who were now more than ever
enraged at him, because of the recent pub-
lication of his treatises, on the vanity of the
sciences, and on occult philosophy. Thus,
his seeming good fortune had only reduced
him to greater poveiiy, for the emperor re-
fused him even a pittance of his salary as
historiographer, and he was put in prison at
Brussels. On his liberation he went, in 1532,
to Cologne, where, though harassed by pe-
cuniary difficulties, he again engaged in an
angry dispute with the monks and the in-
quisitors, who strove hard, but unsuccessfully,
to prevent his publishing a second edition of
his " Occult Philosophy." From 1533 to
1535 he lived in poverty, at Bonn. In the

AGRIPPA.

latter year, as he was on his way to Lyon, he
was imprisoned for what he had written
against the Princess Louisa, and soon after,
being liberated on the petition of some friends,
he died at Grenoble, in deep distress.

The fortunes of Agrippa were not more
varied than his reputation. Successive bio-
graphers have described him as a man of
consummate learning, as one of the brightest
ornaments of his age, as a mere impostor
and magician, as a heretic and a dealer
with familiar spirits. The truth is, he de-
serves neither so much praise nor so much
abuse as he has received.

The stories that were current both before
and for some time after his death, to prove
that he practised sorcery, were of the most
absurd kind. None of them were more rea-
sonable than that which Paul Jovius re-
cords, and which has become popular, namely,
that a favourite black dog, which Agrippa
always led about with him, was his familiar
spirit, and that on his death-bed, having taken
the collar, which was covered with cabbalistic
signs, from the dog's neck, and cursed it, as
the author of all his evil lot, it fled, leaped
into the Saone, and was never seen again.
But in rejecting the slanders of Agrippa's
enemies, and the popular evidences of his
having committed these impossible sins of
sorcerj-, it is necessary to avoid the error into
which M. Naude and some others of his de-
fenders have fallen, of trj-ing to prove that
he denied or despised the arts of which he
was accused. There is ample proof, in
several parts of his writings, that he believed
in, and, as far as he could, practised astro-
logy and the various forms of magic, and
that he used both to gain favour by promising
to make gold, and to excite fear by threaten-
ing to obtain the aid of evil spirits. During
the early part at least of his life he was
at the head of a secret society, {Epist.
lib. 1. t ii.) of which the members were scat-
tered in every country, and were bound by
an oath to assist each other in acquiring for-
tunes by promising to aid kings and nobles,
by sending messages for them with the speed
of magic, by transmuting metals, and by
various occult arts. It was no doubt by
means of this society that Agrippa gained
the reputation, which he always had, of know-
ing what was going on in other parts of
Europe ; a knowledge which, to the ordinary
observers of those days, was inexplicable,
except on the supposition that his familiar
spirits conveyed it to him. Nor was he
careful to undeceive them ; for his professions
were often much greater than without super-
natural aid he could fulfil. He says, for in-
stance, in his " Occult Philosophy," that he
could make others, at the greatest distances,
acquainted with his most secret thoughts in
twenty-four hours ; and admits, as if with
some regi-et at the narrow limit of his art,
that it is not possible to convert any mass of
485

metal into a larger mass of gold. It is true that
in his " Vanity of the Sciences " he declaims
against all the arts of magic ; but he does so
in a milder tone than that which he assumes
against the study of many genuine sciences ;
and the evidence which even this might
afford of his having seen his errors, is com-
pletely neutralised by his saying, in 1531,
of his " Occult Philosophy," (a work contain-
ing the whole doctrine and practice of magic,)
that it is " the work not so much of our youth
as of our present days."

But there may be much deserving of praise
in the intellectual character of Agrippa, al-
though he did not discern the fallacy of these,
the ordinary errors of the tune in which he
lived. His profession of these arts was no
proof of unusual ignorance, for the perse-
cution which they brought upon him was
excited, not by his credulity, but by his sus-
pected criminality in practising what his
enemies were convinced was possible. In all
his works there is abundant evidence of ex-
tensive learning, and of a very powerful and
unfettered intellect. His greatest faults were
in his temper : he was rash, vain, and arro-
gant ; he delighted in being embroiled in
quarrels ; he generally chose a subject for
his lectures, or for his pen, which was sure to
bring trouble on him ; and he rarely wrote
without courting persecution, either by pic-
turing beforehand the rage of those whom he
opposed, or by uttering some virulent in-
vective against them.

The " Vanity of the Sciences," the work
by which Agrippa is now chiefly remem-
bered, is just such a book as might be ex-
pected from a conceited, clever man, who
having studied all kinds of learning, found
himself unable to earn his bread by any of
them. Its professed object is to prove the
" rashness and arrogant presumption of pre-
ferring the schools of the philosophers to the
church of Christ, and of putting the opinion
of men before or on a level with the word of
God." But this is only one of its subordi-
nate purposes ; the main scope is to throw
bitter reflections upon every art and science,
from dancing to astronomy. There is very
rarely any attempt at a scientific refutation
of error ; but each subject is taken in suc-
cession, and both the study of it, and those
who profess to teach it, are placed in the
most odious light. The satire, however,
though too violent, is marked by a character
I of truth, which could onlj- be attained by a
' man like Agrippa, who had experience and
a clear knowledge of every subject on which
he wrote.

All Agrippa's writings, though devoid of
charity, show a remarkable earnestness in
the defence of religion ; and it could only be
by the most indefinite use of the term that,
after writing his " Vanity of the Sciences"
and his " Occult Philosophj," he was pro-
scribed as a heretic. He lived in eommimloa

AGRIPPA.

vrith the church of Rome, but, as might be
expected from the temper which he showed
in other matters, he vas opposed to both the
Roman Catholic and the Protestant parties.
He calls Luther an obstinate heretic; the
inquisitors, bloodthirsty vultures ; the theo-
logians of the schools, depraved hypocrites
and rash sophists ; and he ridicules the cur-
rent popish legends, and the notion of the in-
fallibility of the pope.

Of his knowledge of medicine there is no
evidence beyond his own assei'tion of having
practised with great success, and an unim-
portant account of the means of preventing
the contagion of plague. The essays cited
by Carrere {Biblio'hique de Medecine),
Eloy {Bictiormaire Hist, de la Medecine),
and others, as his medical works, are his
satires upon the several classes of medical
practitioners, in the " Vanity of the Sciences."
They are, perhaps, the best of all his satirical
works.

All the works of Agrippa were published
at Lyon, in 1600, with the title " Henrici
Cornelii Agrippsc ab Nettesheym . . . Opera in
duos Tomos concinne gesta. .... Lugduni ;
per Beringos Fratres ; " and in subsequent
editions at other places. The first volume
includes the following essays : — " De Oc-
culta Philosophia Libri Tres," written in
1510, and first published at Antwerp, in
1531. " In Geomanticam Disciplinam Lec-
tura : " " De Occulta Philosophia Liber Quar-
tus ; " an essay which first appeared about
forty years after Agi-ippa's death, and of
which he was certainly not the author ( Wier,
De Magis, p. 108.) : some essays on magic
and similar subjects, by Pietro di Abano and
others. The second volume contains scarcely
any writings but those of Agrippa himself, and
includes the following: — " De Licertitudine
et Vanitate Scientiariuu atque Artium Decla-
matio invectiva, ceu cj-nica." " Apologia
pro Defensione Declamationis," &c. " In
Artem brevem Raymundi LuUii Commen-
taria." " Querela super Caliminia ob editam
Declamationem de Vanitate Scientiarum."
" Tabula abbreviata Comment, in Artem bre-
vem R. Liillii." " De Triplici Ratione cognos-
cendi Deum." " Dehortatio Gentilis Theo-
logise." " Declamatio de Nobilitate et Prse-
cellentia Fceminei Sexus -," an essay written at
Dole, in 1509, to gain the favour of the
Princess Margaret of Austria. He was pre-
vented from publishing it at that time by his
quarrel with the monks, and especially with
one named Catilinetus ; and it was not printed
till 1529. " De Sacramento Matrimonii."
" De Originali Peccato." " De Vita Monas-
tica." " De Inventione Reliquiarum B. An-
tonii Heremitse." "Contra Pestem Antidota."
" De beatissimae Annaj Monogamia ac unico
Puerperio Propositiones." " Defensio Pro-
positionum." " Epistolanma ad Familiares, et
eorum ad ipsum, Libri Septem." " Orationes
Decern ; " these are on various subjects, and
486

were for the most part delivered while lie
was orator of Metz. " Historiola de duplici
Coronatione Caroli V." "Epigrammata non-
nulla." (All the circumstances of Agrippa's
life may be collected from the Epistohe;
they are discussed at great length by
Ba}le, Dictionnaire Historiqtie et Critique.
Schelhorn, Amcenitates Literarice, ii. 513.,
and Goulon, Encyclopedie Metlwdique, " Medi-
cine," t. i., furnish much information respect-
ing the several editions of his " \'anity of the
Sciences," and other works.) J. P.

AGRIPPA, HERO'DES ('HpciSrjj 'Kypiiv-
Tras) I., called by Josephus "the Great,"
(Jewish Antiq. xvii. c. 2. s. 2.) was the grand-
son of Herod the Great, and the son of Aris-
tobulus and Berenice. The early part of his
life was a series of changes and dangers.
He was living at Rome shortly before the
death of Herod the Great, and was intimate
with Drusus, son of the Emperor Tiberius.
In consequence of his extravagance in pre-
sents and entertainments, he was compelled
to leave Rome, and he retired to a tower at
Malatha in Idumsea. By the intercession of his
wife Cypros, he obtained from Herod Anti-
pas, the tetrarch of Galilee and Pera?a, a
residence at Tiberias, where he was supported
by Herod, till, shortly afterwards, they quar-
relled at a feast at Tyre, and Agrippa betook
himself to Flaccus, the proconsul of Syria,
whose favour he again lost in consequence of
an act of corruption, which was made known
to Flaccus by Agrippa's own brother Aris-
tobulus. Soon after this, Agrippa went to
Italy, having more than once been almost
prevented from sailing by pecuniary diflB-
culties. Having landed at Puteoli, he was
received with gi"eat favour by Tiberius, who
was then at Caprese, and who gave him the
charge of educating his grandson Tiberius.
He soon formed an intimacy with Caius, the
son of Germanicus (afterwards the emperor
Caligula), in whose presence he one day
prayed that Tiberius might soon die and be
succeeded by Caius. These words were re-
peated to Tiberius, who committed Agrippa
to prison, where he remained till the em-
peror's death.

Very soon after the accession of Caligula
(a. d. 38), he set Agrippa at liberty, and
gave him the tetrarchy of Philip (who
had died in the year 33), which included
Batansca, Trachonitis, and Auranitis, with
the title of king, and also that of Ljsa-
nias, consisting of the district of Abilene,
which, however, though nominally conferred
on him now, he did not actually obtain till
the reign of Claudius. In the next year
Agrippa took possession of his kingdom.
His rise excited the envy of Herodias, the
wife of Herod Antipas, and, at her instigation,
Herod proceeded to Rome to petition the
emperor to convert his tetrarchy into a king-
dom. He was quickly followed bj' a letter
from Agrippa, accusing him of treasouabI»

AGRIPPA.

designs ; upon receiving which, Caligula de-
posed Herod, banished him to Lyon, and
added his tetrarehy of Galilee and Peraca to
the kingdom of Agrippa

At the time of Caligula's death Agrippa
happened to be at Rome ; and it was in a
great degree to his advice and management
that Claudius owed his succession to the
empire. His services were rewarded by the
addition of Judaea and Samaria to his king-
dom, which now extended over the whole of
Palestine, and included somewhat more than
all the dominions of his grandfather, Herod
the Great. With Judaea and Samaria, which
at the time when they were given to him
formed the Roman province of Judaea, he
received also the consular dignity. Besides
this, Claudius made a public league with
Agrippa in the forum, and bestowed on him
other marks of his favour. He also gave the
kingdom of Chalcis to his brother Herod,
and published an edict in favour of the
Jews.

Agrippa now proceeded to Jerusalem, and
having offered sacrifices, and suspended in
the treasury of the temple a golden chain
which had been given him by Caius, and
which was of the same weight as the iron
chain with which he had been bound by
Tiberius, he applied himself with vigour to
the settlement of the religious and civil af-
fairs of his kingdom. He began to surround
Jerusalem with fortifications, which, in the
opinion of Josephus, would have been im-
pregnable, had not their completion been
prevented by his death. He showed especial
favour to Berytus, where he built a theatre
and amphitheatre, and exhibited contests of
gladiators. His friendship was courted by
the neighbouring kings of Commagene,
Emesa, and Lesser Armenia, as well as by the
Roman proconsul of Syria, all of whom were
at one time assembled at Tiberias as his
guests. To increase his popularitj^ with the
Jews, he persecuted the Christians, putting
to death the apostle James (the brother of
John), and imprisoning Peter, who was, how-
ever, miraculously released. (Acts, xii., where
he is called Herod.) This was about the
time of the Passover, in the year a. d. 44. In
the same year he was exhibiting games at
Caesarea in honour of the emperor, and on
the second day of the festival he had shown
himself to the people in a robe made of silver,
and pronounced an oration to them, when the
rays of the sun fell on his silver robe, and
the people shouted that he was a god, and not
a man. In the same hour he was seized with
a loathsome disease, which St. Luke and
Josephus both ascribe to the immediate ven-
geance of God for his impious acceptance of
the people's flatterj-. The former says that
" immediately the angel of the Lord smote him,
because he gave not God the glory ; and he
was eaten of worms, and gave up the ghost."
(Acts, xii. 23.) Josephus repeats the words
487

of Agrippa himself, acknowledging the
justice of his punishment. {Jewish AntUj. xix.
c. 8. s. 2.) He lingered for five days, and died
(a. d. 44) in the fifty-fourth year of his age,
and the third of his reign over all Palestine.

He left by his wife Cypros a son, named
Agrippa, and three daughters, Berenice,
jNIariamne, and Drusilla. Berenice was the
wife of her father's brother, Herod, king of
Chalcis. {iosf^-p'hns, Jeu-iah Antiq. xvii. c. 1,
2. ; xviii. c. 5. s. 4., c. 6, 7, 8. xix. c. 4 — 8 :
Jewish War,\. c.28. s. l.,ii. c. 9. s. 5,6., c. IL ;
Dion Cassius, Ix. 8. ; Eusebius, Hist. Eccles.
ii. 10.) P. S.

AGRIPPA, HERO'DES IL, son of
Agrippa Herodes I., was only in his seven-
teenth year when his father died. He was
then at Rome, under the care of the Emperor
Claudius, who, on account of the youth of
Agrippa, kept him with himself, and sent
Cuspius Fadus to act as procurator of the
kingdom, which thus again became the
Roman province of Judaea.

Upon the death of Herod, king of Chalcis
(a. d. 48), Claudius gave his dominions to
Agrippa, and with them the privilege which
Herod had possessed, of appointing the high-
priest, and managing the business and treasures
of the temple. In the year .53 this kingdom
was exchanged by Claudius for another, com-
posed of the tetrarchies formerly held by Phi-
lip and Lysanias. to which Nero added a part
of Galilee, including Tiberias and Taricheae,
together with Julias, a city of Peraea, and
fourteen villages in its neighbourhood, (a. d.
55.) Agrippa did not succeed in pleasing
either his own subjects or the Jews. The
former were displeased at his transferring his
residence and the wealth of his kingdom to
Berjtus ; and he offended the Jews by his
ft-iendship for the Romans, as well as by the
erection of rooms in the royal palace at Jeru-
salem in such a position as to overlook the
temple. Just before the Jewish war com-
menced, Agrippa made a vain attempt to dis-
suade the Jews fi-om rebellion, in a speech
which is preserved by Josephus. "When the
war broke out, he took the side of the
Romans, and was wounded at the siege of
Gamala. At the close of the war he retired
to Rome, with his sister Berenice, where he
died, at the age of nearly seventy, in the third
year of Trajan's reign.

This Agrippa was the king before whom
the Apostle Paul made his celebrated defence
in A. D. 60. (Acts, xxv. xxvi.)

He was on terms of intimacy with the his-
torian Josephus, who asserts that the king
wrote him sixty-two letters, of which he has
preserved two, which speak highly of his
history of the wars. This fact will accoimt
for the evident partiality which Josephus
displays for both the Agrippas. (Josephus,
Jewish Antiq. xvii. c. 5. s. 4., xix. c. 9. s. 2.,
XX. c. 1. s. 3., c. 5. s. 2., c. 7. s. 1., c.8. s. 4. 11.,
c. 9. s. 4. ; Jewish War, ii. c. 11. s. 6., c. 12.

AGRIPPA.

S. 1., C. 16, 17. s. 1. iv. c. 1. s. 3. ; Life, s. 04, ; !
Photius, Mi/riubi/A. cod. 3.3.) P. S.

AGRIPPA, M. ASI'NIUS. [Asi'nius.]

AGRIPPA, MARCUS VIPSA'NIUS,
the son of Lucius, was of mean parentage.
He was born in b. c. G3, the same year as
Octavius, afterwards the Emperor Augustus,
with whose career the events of Agrippa's
life are inseparably connected. The Gens
Vipsania, to which Agrippa belonged, was
obscure, and lie generally dropped this de-
signation, and simply called himself the son
of Lucius.

At the time when Julius Csesar was assas-
sinated (b. c. 44), Octavius was studying
oratory at Apollonia in Illyricum under
ApoUodorus, and also waiting with the forces
there for the arrival of Cfcsar to prosecute the
war against the Dacians and Parthians.
Salvidienus Rufus, and Agrippa, who were
then also at Apollonia, and the intimate
friends of Octavius, advised him to proceed
immediately to Italy. Octavius came to
Rome, probably accompanied by Agrippa,
and took possession of the property be-
queathed to him by his uncle the Dictator,
and assumed the name of C. Julius Csesar
Octavianus. [Augustus.] In the year b. c.
43, Cffisar, now in the twentieth year of his
age, was elected consul, and his colleague
Pedius proposed and carried a law for the trial
of the assassins of his uncle, most of whom,
however, had escaped from the city. Caesar
named Agrippa as the prosecutor of C. Cassius,
a measure which was well calculated to secure
him to the party of Csesar, if he was not already
inclined to embrace his cause.

The next occasion on which we hear of
Agrippa is during the war between Ca?sar
and Lucius, the brother of Marcus Antonius,
in which Agrippa commanded a force as a
legatus of CtEsar. Agrippa succeeded in
frustrating the design of Lucius Antonius,
who was attempting to prevent a junction
between Csesar and his legate Salvidienus ;
and with Salvidienus, Agrippa blockaded
L. Antonius in Perusia, to which he had re-
treated, in the hope of being able to join his
legates Ventidius and Asinius PoUio (b. c. 41).
Perusia was taken in the following year ;
and Agrippa brought over to his side two
of the legions which L. Plancus had left at
Cameria. About the end of b. c. 40, Agrippa
was sent by Ca?sar to Sipontum in Southern
Italy, which had fallen into the hands of M.
Antonius. The old soldiers A^ho had ob-
tained grants of lands in Italy joined Agrippa
in this expedition ; but on discovering that it
was designed against M. Antonius as well as
Sextus Pompeius, with whom Antonius had
then allied himself, many of them left
Agrippa and returned to their homes. Csesar,
however, persuaded these veterans to follow
him to Brundisium, where Antonius had
fortified himself ; but in the mean time
Agrippa succeeded in recovering Sipontum,
483

and peace was made between Csesar and
Antonius. In the year b. c. 39, Csesar and
Antonius came to terms of peace with Sextus
Pompeius.

Agrippa is not mentioned in the war of
the year b. c. 38 between Coesar and Sextus
Pompeius, in which Caesar's fleet was twice
defeated. In b. c. 37 he was consul with
L. Caninius Gallus : he suppressed a rising
in Gaul, led an army across the Rhine, being
the first Roman, except Julius Csesar, who
had ventured into the country of the Ger-
mans, and he defeated the Aquitani. He
was recalled by Caisar, who offered him the
triumphal honours, which he declined ; but be
accepted the commission to form a fleet and
train the men to naval manoeuvres, for the
purpose of opposing the maritime force of
Sextus Pompeius, who now commanded the
seas. The western coast of Italy was defi-
cient in good harbours : Agrippa obviated
this difficulty by constructing a new port.
The Lucrine lake on the coast of Campania
was separated from the Tuscan sea by a
narrow embankment, about a Roman mile in
length, the work of Hercules. Agrippa re-
paired the embankment, and connected it
with the sea by two cuts, and by other cuts
he connected the Lucrine with the neigh-
bouring lake of Avemus. Thus, as Virgil
says, the waves of the Tuscan sea were
let into the Avernus. (^Georg. ii. 163, and the
commentators on the various passages relat-
ing to the work of Agrippa). With that
prudence which characterised Agrippa during
aU his connection with Csesar, he gave the
honour of this great work to his master, and
called the new harbour the Julian port. By
cutting down the sacred woods in the neigh-
bourhood of the lakes, for the purpose of
giving more easy access to them, he showed
that he despised old superstitions when they
interfered with his plans. Agrippa exercised
his troops during the whole winter in all the
necessary manoeuvres in the Julian harbour.
About this time he married Pomponia, the
daughter of T. Pomponius Atticus, the friend
of Cicero ; and Csesar gave him the com-
mand of all his naval forces, in place of
Sabinus, with whose conduct he was dissa-
tisfied.

Agrippa commanded the fleet of Coesar in
the battle of Mylse on the coast of Sicily, in
which Sextus Pompeius lost thirty ships
(B.C. 36) ; and in the same year he defeated
Pompey in a decisive naval battle near
Naidochus on the coast of Sicily. This
blow destroyed the party of Pompey, and
freed Caesar from one of his most dangerous
enemies.

Csesar did not grudge his general the re-
wards that were due to his signal services ;
and though not particularly mentioned, it
must be assumed that Agrippa was enriched
by his master out of the confiscated property
which was at his disposal. He also received

AGRIPPA.

the honour of a naval crown, a distinction
for the first time conferred on him ; or, ac-
cording to some authorities, it was first given
by Ponipey the Great to M. Varro. (Velleius
Patercuiiis, ii. 81. ; Pliny, Hist. Nat. xvi. 4.)
Agrippa accompanied Casar as his legatus
in the expedition into Illyricum (b. c. 35)
against the lapyda?, Dalmatians, and Panno-
nians.

In the year b. c. 33, in the second consul-
ship of Ca;sar, Agrippa, though he had been
consul, voluntarily accepted the sedileship,
and his nmnificent expenditure in that ofBce
was long remembered by the Romans : he
repaired roads and public buildings at his
own expense ; he restored the aqueducts
called the Appian, Marcian, and Anienian,
which were greatly dilapidated ; and he
brought to Rome a new supply of water from
the Tepula by an aqueduct fifteen miles in
length, to which, with his usual prudence, he
gave the name of Jidian. He made seven
hundred reservoirs (lacus), one hundred and
five running conduits (salientes), and one
hundred and thirty great heads of water (cas-
tella). Tliis abundant supply was still fur-
ther increased under the early emperors, and
Pliny might justly say that there was no-
thing in the world more worthy of admiration
than the hydraulic works of Rome. Agrippa
also swept away the rubbish that had ac-
cumulated in the great Cloacae of Tarquinius
Priscus, by driving seven streams of water
through them ; and he himself ventured to
navigate these subterraneous channels, and
to penetrate from beneath the foundations of
the city into the stream of the Tiber. (Fron-
tinus, De Aqueduct, c. 9. ; Pliny, Hist. Nat.
xxxvi. 15). Agrippa was a man of taste as
well as of grand conceptions : he adorned
his great works with numerous statues and
marble columns, and his adileship was the
beginning of the splendour of imperial
Rome. In addition to these works of public
utility, the people were gratified with exhibi-
tions of various kinds for fifty-nine days, and
one hundred and seventy baths were open
gratuitously during the year of his sedileship.

When the war broke out between Ca;sar
and yi. Antonius (b. c. 32), Agrippa was
again employed in the command of the fleet.
He took Methone in the Peloponnesus,
which contained a garrison on Antony's side ;
and he afterwai-ds captured Leucas with the
ships of the enemy which were stationed
there, and Patrse and Corinth. At the battle of
Actium (B.C. 31), Agrippa commanded the
fleet of CjEsar, with M. Lurius and L. Arrun-
tius under him. Ca?sar himself had no par-
ticular post, but went about where his
presence might seem necessary. The victory
was due to the skill of Agrippa and the
discipline of his troops, for in number and
magnitude of vessels the fleet of Antony
had the advantage. Shortly after the battle
the army of Antony surrendered to Cscsar,

VOL. I.

whom from this time we may designate by
the name of Augustus, a title which the
senate conferred on him four years later,
during the third consulship of Agrippa.
After the battle of Actium, Agrippa was sent
to Italy to keep things quiet, while Augustus
made a progress through Greece, and he does
not appear to have been in Egypt in the year
A. D. 30, when the triumph of Augustus was
completed by the death of Antony and Cleo-
patra.

In B. c. 28 Agrippa was the colleague of
Augustus in his sixth consulship, during
which a census was made. About this time
also he received in marriage Marcella, the
niece of Augustus and the daughter of his
sister Octavia. It does not appear whether
Pomponia was dead or was divorced on the
occasion. In n. c. 27 Augustus had again
Agrippa for his colleague in the consulship.
The third consulship of Agrippa was sig-
nalised by other works of ornament or utility,
among which the Pantheon still bears the
inscription which commemorates its muni-
ficent founder : " M. Agrippa L. F. Cos.
Tertium fecit." A statue of the dictator
Caesar was placed in the temple, and statues
of Augustus and Agi-ippa in the portico. The
construction of the piazza (porticus) in com-
memoration of his naval victories, which was
adorned with a picture of the Argonauts, be-
longs probably to the same period. Lepi-
dus had erected a place in the Campus
Martins with piazzas for the convenience of
holding the comitia : Agrippa cased it with
marble, or perhaps stucco, and adorned it
with statues and paintings : he bestowed on
it the name of Septa Julia, still adhering to
his old caution of giving all the honour of
his works to Augustus.

Agrippa was with Augustus in the Can-
tabrian war (b.c. 25), but he was not always
absent from Rome ; for, on the occasion of
Julia the emperor's daughter being married
to her cousin Marcellus, Agrippa represented
the emperor, who was not present. That
Agrippa might now aspire to succeed Au-
gustus, seems not improbable, for the Julian
house had nothing of the character of here-
ditary title, and Augustus had never afiected
to exercise any powers, except with the con-
sent of the senate. But MarceUus, the son
of Octavia, by his proximity of blood and
his recent marriage with Julia, seemed desig-
nated as his successor, and a jealousy arose
between him and Agrippa. This jealousy
was increased by the circumstance that Au-
gustus, in a severe illness, when he was
expected to die, had given Agrippa his ring,
which at least was a token of confidence in
his faithful friend. On the recovery of Au-
gustus, Agrippa was sent to the government
of Syria, which he considered only as an
honourable exile ; but he went no further
than 3Iitylene in Lesbos, and administered
the province by his legate. The death of
K K

AGRIPPA.

Marcellus, which soon followed (b. c. 23),
and the difficulty which Augustus felt in
keeping things quiet at Rome while he was
absent in the provinces, led to the recall of
Agrippa, and to his nearer alliance with
Augustus. Agrippa divorced his wife Mar-
cella, a matter to which the Roman law
gave every facility, and married Julia, the
widow of Marcellus (b.c. 21), who was then
about nineteen years of age. It is said that
Augustus was induced, by the advice of
Maecenas, to ally himself thus closely with
Agrippa : he had made Agrippa so power-
ful, observed Ma?cenas, that he must be
either the emperor's son-in-law, or must be
removed. Octavia, the mother of Marcella,
who was said to have advised or to have
consented to this match, soon found a new
husband for her daughter. Agrippa was also
made praefectus urbi, in which capacity he
set himself about restoring tranquillity with
his usual promptitude and success.

In the year b. c. 19 Agrippa was sent into
Gaul, where he speedily settled the disputes
among the leaders of the factions, and checked
the incursions of the Germans. An out-
break of the Cantabrians next required his
presence in Spain, and it demanded all the
activity and skill of the general to crush this
dangerous enemy. After slaughtering nearly
all their young men, depriving the rest of
their arms, and bringing them from the
mountains to the plains, Agrippa restored
tranquillity to Spain. But he still persevered
in his cautious policy : he sent no letters to
the senate to announce his victories, and he
refused the honour of a triumph. The aque-
duct, called the Aqua Virgo, now the Acqua
Vergine, and the best aqueduct of modern
Rome, was constructed in this year by
Agrippa, and received from him the name
of Augusta. Pliny refers this work to the
fedileship of Agrippa, in which he differs
from Frontinus and Dion Cassius.

In the following year (b. c. 18) Agrippa
was associated with Augiistus in the tri-
bunitian power for five years : and with the
assistance of his faithful adviser Augustus
accomplished the object which he had long
designed, of purging the senate, which he
reduced to the number of six hundred. In
the year b. c. 17 Augustus and Agrippa
celebrated the secular games with great mag-
nificence. Julia had already brought her
husband a son, Caius, and another was born
in this year and received the name of Lu-
cius. Both the boys were now adopted by
Augustus, who had no children by Livia,
and hence they are known in history by the
names of Caius and Lucius Caesar. The
legal effect of this adoption was to give the
two children of Agrippa the same rights
that a natural-born son of Augustus would
have, and consequently from this time Caius
and Lucius Caesar were (in the Roman
sense) heirs of whatever Augustus might
490

have to dispose of. At the close of this year
Agrippa was sent by Augustus into Asia,
while he himself went into Gaul. Herod
the Great, king of Judaea, had experienced
the good offices of Agrippa on several occa-
sions, and on hearing of his arrival in Ionia,
he came and invited him to visit his kingdom
of Judaea. Agrippa accepted the invitation,
and was entertained with great magnificence.
He visited the sacred city of Jerusalem,
where he offered a hecatomb to the Deity,
(toS dew, as Josephus expresses it,) and
feasted the people. It was probably during
this visit to Syria that Agrippa settled the
military colony of Berytus (Beyrout) in
Phoenicia, as appears from his medals.
Agrippa returned to Ionia, and in the fol-
lowing spring his friend Herod paid him
another visit. Herod expected to find
Agrippa in Lesbos, but he had sailed into
the Black Sea to settle the war between Pole-
mon and the Bosporani, and Herod found
him at Sinope. Agrippa compelled the Bos-
porani to restore the Roman standards taken
by Mithridates, and to accept Polemon for
their king, upon which he and Herod re-
turned to Ionia by land. On two occasions
Herod exerted his influence with Agrippa in
a manner that was honourable to both. Julia,
who had accompanied Agrippa into Asia,
had run some risk of being drowned in ford-
ing the Scamander by night, on her way to
Ilium, the river being swollen by the winter
rains. Agrippa imposed a heavy fine on the
people of Ilium for their alleged neglect in
this matter, but it was remitted at the inter-
cession of Herod. There were at this time
many Jews settled in the Ionian cities, who
complained that they were not allowed by
the Greeks to follow their own usages ; that
they were obliged to attend the courts on
their sacred days, and were plundered of the
money which they saved to send to Jerusa-
lem ; and that they were compelled to serve
in the army and discharge various duties,
from which they claimed exemption, as the
Romans had given them permission to lire
according to their own usages. Nicolaus of
Damascus, a friend of Herod, pleaded the
cause of the Jews before Agrippa, who de-
clared that in respect of Herod's friendship,
he would grant the Jews anything, that
their demands were just, and that he would
grant even more, if it could be done without
prejudice to the Roman state ; but now the
Jews only asked for the confirmation of what
had been already given, and accordingly he
confirmed their privileges. (Josephus,
Jewish Antiq. xvi. 2.)

Agrippa returned from Asia in the same
year in which Caesar returned to Rome from
Gaul (B.C. 13). As a reward for his ser-
vices, Agrippa's tribunitian power was pro-
longed for five years. He was sent in the
winter season to put down some disturbances
in Pannonia, which he easily effected. After

AGRIPPA.

his return, he visited Campania, where he
died after a short illness, in the month of
March, b. c. 12, in the fiftj--first year of his
age. Augustus, -vrho was celebrating the
games called Quinquatria at Rome in honour
of his two adopted sons, hastened to see liim,
but Agrippa died before he arrived.

The body of Agrippa was carried to Rome,
and a funeral oration was pronounced over
it in the forum by Augustus. His remains
were placed in the tomb which Augustus had
built for himself, and which already con-
tained the ashes of Marcellus. Agrippa be-
queathed to the people for their use the baths
which were called after his name, and to
Augustus certain estates for the purpose of
keeping them in repair. Of his immense
possessions the Thracian Chersonese came
to Augustus, but how Agrippa had become
possessed of this extensive tract is not clearly
explained.

Agrippa had by his first wife a daugh-
ter, Vipsania, who was married to Tiberius
Nero Caesar, the successor of Augustus ; on
being divorced from Tiberius, she married
Asinius Gallus. Suetonius says that he had
children by his second wife Marcella, but no
names are mentioned. By Julia he had
three sons, Cains and Lucius, and Agrippa
Postumus, born after his death ; and two
daughters, Julia and Agrippina. Julia mar-
ried L. JDmilius Paulus, and Agrippina mar-
ried Germanicus.

There are numerous medals of Agrippa :
sometimes he is represented with his head
bare, sometimes adorned with a corona ros-
trata, and sometimes both with a mural and
naval crown. Neptune and the dolphin ap-
pear on some of his medals, a sjTnbol of his
success by sea. On some of the coins of
Nimes (Nemausus) his head and that of Au-
gustus are on the same face of the medal.
One of his medals commemorates his third
consulship, and his tribunitian power. A
medal of Alabanda in Caria bears the heads
of his sons Caius and Lu<;ius, and that of
Agrippa decorated with a corona rostrata.
Agrippa is mentioned several times by
Horace, and in the sixth ode of the first
book, which is addressed to him, the name
of Agrippa is associated with that of Ca;sar.

If we possessed a life of Agrippa, like that
of Agricola by Tacitus, we might have the
means of estimating his character with more
certainty and less labour. But the events of
Agrippa's active life of thirty years must be
collected from numerous scattered passages,
and it is only by putting them together and
viewing them in relation to Augustus that
we can form a just judgment of Agrippa-
To his fidelity, energ}% and great abilities,
both military and administrative, Augustus
undoubtedly owed in a great degree the
establishment and the consolidation of his
power. The two youths began their career
together at the age of twenty, and their
491

friendship never sustained any material in-
terruption. Agrippa and Ca;sar well under-
stood each other. Caesar valued him for
his fidelity and abilities ; and Agrippa was
apparently attached to Ca;sar by motives
stronger than his own personal aggrandize-
ment. But he well knew his jealous temper,
that he would bear no rival near him ; and,
content with the real advantages of his posi-
tion, he avoided all cause of offence. Dion
Cassius (lib. 51.), in a long rhetorical ha-
rangue, makes Agrippa recommend Augustus
to restore the commonwealth, while Maece-
nas argues against it. These speeches are
worthless as materials for history ; but it may
be admitted that there is at least so much
foundation for them as a belief that Agrippa
had recommended this policy. But we have
not the slightest indication that Agrippa ever
thought of attempting a restoration of the
commonwealth, or trying the fortune of his
obscure family against that of the Jidian
house. The close alliance which Augustus
ultimately formed with him probably fidly
satisfied the hopes and wishes of Agrippa,
whose blood thus became mingled with that
of the Caesars. All his sons died childless ;
but his daughter Agrippina became the mo-
ther of another Agrippina, who was the
mother of the emperor Nero, and in him the
family of the Dictator became extinct. If
we view Agrippa with reference to his active
life, the circumstances of the times, and his
relation to the imperial family cf the Caesars,
his must be admitted to be one of the most
illustrious names in the annals of Rome. No
vice is imputed to him. His great works
attest his unboimded liberality and his en-
larged and magnificent conceptions, for which
we have the further testimony of Pliny
{Hist. Nat. XXXV. 4.), who says that he re-
commended that all statues and paintings
should be thrown open to the public, instead
of being shut up in the obscurity of country
residences. The rusticity of his manners,
which Pliny speaks of, is not inconsistent
with a refined taste in the arts and a love of
splendour.

The assertion that Agrippa published a
statistical survey of the empire is not
founded on sufficient authority. It is proba-
ble that he may have taken an active part in
the survey commenced in the time of Julius
Caesar, and completed under Augustus [jEthi-
cus] ; and we are informed that he designed
to make a representation of the world on a
portico, which was completed by Augustus
and his sister in the portico called Octavia.
This matter is further discussed under An-
toninus. (Dion Cassius, lib. 45 — 54. ; Livy,
Epitome, 117 — 136. ; Velleius Paterculus, ii. ;
Tacitus, Annul, i. ; Appian, Civil Wars.)

G. L.

AGRIPPA, MENE'NIUS LANA'TUS,
was consul in b. c. 503, in which year he ob-
tained a brilliant victory over the Sabines, and
K K 2

AGRIPPA.

his triumph was remarkable for the distinc-
tion made between his colleague Postumius
Tubertus and himself. Tubertus, who had
nearly sacrificed his army by a rash pursuit
of the enemy, was allowed only an ovation,
while Agrippa enjoyed the full honours of
a successful general. Agrippa is, however,
better remembered from the part he took in
reconciling the commons to the patricians ;
when the former, to avoid their debts and
the harshness of their creditors, had retired
to the Sacred Hill, and fortified the Aventine.
He was acceptable to the commons for his
lenient and liberal temper, the simplicity of
his life, and his abstinence from usury.
As the delegate of the senate he related to
the seceders the fable of the belly and the
members. The members, dissatisfied with
the appai-ent indolence of the belly, refused
to contribute any longer to its nourishment
and motion. But when they felt hunger and
exhaustion, they found that if they assisted
the belly, the belly was no less serviceable to
themselves in distributing aliment and warmth
to all parts of the body. The commons were
the members, the senate the belly. The
commons, however, whatever may have been
the effects of Agrippa's persuasions, gained
by their secession something more sub-
stantial than an apologue, since from this
period they had magistrates of their own,
the tribunes, whose persons were inviolable,
and whose restrictive and protective powers
were extensive. Agrippa died in B.C. 49-3,
and, according to the common account, in
such poverty, that the patricians and plebeians
vied with one another in defraying the cost
of his funeral. But a public funeral was
sometimes assigned as a recompence for
illustrious actions, or for eminent private vir-
tues, and does not necessarily imply the in-
digence of the deceased. (Dionysius Halicar-
nassus, v. 44. ; vi. 83 — 89. 96. ; Livy, ii. 16.
32,33.; Florus,i.23.; Aurelius Victor, Z>e Viris
Illusi. 18. ; Valerius Maximus, viii. 9. 1.)

The origin and meaning of the surname
Agrippa are explained, though with some
discrepancies, by Pliny, Solinus, and Aulus
Gellius. It signified a false presentation at
birth. In the mythical portion of Roman
history it occurs as the surname of an Alban
king, and in the later periods is annexed to the
gentile names, Furius, Menenius, Postumus,
&c. Cicero speaks of a Menenian tribe.
(Ad Div rsos, xiii. 9. 2.) W. B. D.

AGRIPPA POSTUMUS was a pos-
thumous son, as the name Postumus imports,
of M. Vipsanius Agrippa, by his third wife,
Julia, the daughter of Augustus. His father
Agrippa died b. c. 12. Agrippa Postumus
was adopted by his grandfather Augustus
on the same day with his step-son Tiberius,
the future emperor. Agrippa afterwards
incurred the displeasure of Augustus, and he
was banished by him, under the authority of
a Senatusconsultum. to the island Planasia.
492

Tacitus attributes his banishment to the in-
fluence of Livia over the aged emperor : it
is true that he was a youth of uncultivated
tastes, and prided himself absurdly on his
great bodily strength, but he had been guilty
of no flagrant oSence. For his vicious pro-
pensities we have the doubtful evidence of
Paterculus. There was a report that Au-
gustus secretly paid a visit a few months
before his death to Agrippa, now his only
remaining grandson, and that the emperor
and Agrippa were both deeply aSected at
the interview. This circiunstance led to
some expectation of his being recalled ; and
the fact of the visit became known to Livia.
On the death of Augustus (a. d. 14), the
first act of his successor, Tiberius, was to
order Agrippa to be put to death. Agrippa
was executed by a centurion, who despatched
him, not without difliculty, though he was
unarmed. Tiberius alleged that Augustus
left orders to the tribune who had him in
custody to put him to death as soon as he
himself expired ; and on the centurion (or
the tribune, according to Suetonius) report-
ing to Tiberius, in the usual form, that he
had executed his commands, the emperor
replied that he had given no orders for his
execution, and that the centurion must
answer for it to the senate. But it was the
opinion of Tacitus that the death of Agrippa
was due to the fears of Tiberius, and the
jealousy of his mother Livia. (Tacitus, An-
nal. i. 3, &c. ; Velleius Paterculus, ii. 104.
112, ; Suetonius, Augustus, 64,65., Tiberius,
22. ; Dion Cassius, lib. 54, 55. 57.)

About two years after the death of Agrippa,
an impostor appeared under his name. A slave
of Agrippa, called Clemens, on hearing of
the death of Augustus, had sailed to Planasia
with the intention of carrying oS" Agrippa to
the German armies ; but he came too late.
As he resembled Agrippa in person, and was
about the same age, he formed the design of
passing himself off as the grandson of Au-
gustus. With the aid of some associates he
spread about a report that Agrippa was alive,
and he contrived to strengthen the popular
belief by showing himself occasionally and
never staying long in a place. At last he
landed at Ostia, where he was received by
great crowds, and there were secret meetings
in Rome of his adherents. Tiberius, after
some hesitation how he should deal with such
a pretender, at last thought it wiser to employ
artifice than force. Clemens was seized by
two persons who had insinuated themselves
into his confidence, and carried into the
presence of Tiberius. On being asked by Ti-
berius how he came to be Agrippa, he an-
swered, " In the same way that you became
Csesar." Torture failed to extract from him
the names of his associates. The emperor
ordered him to be put to death in the palace,
and his body to be secretly disposed of.
Though many persons of high rank were

AGRIPPA.

AGRIPPINA.

said to be implicated in the afiFair of Clemens,
no further inquiry was made. Tiberius
judged it prudent to let the whole matter be
forgotten ; and his conduct on this occasion,
and on the death of Agrippa, makes it pro-
bable that he was guilty of the crime which
Tacitus imputes to him.

The name of Agrippa Caesar occurs on a
medal of Corinth. (Tacitus, Annal. ii. 39. ;
Dion Cassius, lib. 57.) G. L.

AGRIPPl'NA I., the daughter of M. Vip-
sanius Agrippa and of Julia, was bom some
time before b. c. 12. [Agkippa.] She mar-
ried Ciesar Germanicus, the son of Drusus
Nero Germanicus, and the nephew of Tibe-
rius, afterwards emperor. At the time of the
death of Augustus (a. d. 14) she had already
several children.

Augustus brought up his daughter and
grand-daughters with great strictness, and
even had them taught to spin wool. He re-
quired a register to be kept of all that they
did and said, and they only saw the members
of his own family. Agrippina appears to have
been a favourite with Augustus ; an affec-
tionate letter written to her a few months
before his death is preser\^ed in Suetonius
(Caligula, c. 8.) ; and in another, written at
some earlier date, in which he praises her
natural talents, he bids her be careful to avoid
obscurity and circumlocution both in writing
and speaking.

Agrippina was with her husband on the
Rhine when the German legions mutinied on
hearing of the death of Augustus (a. d. 14),
and wished to raise Germanicus to the im-
perial power. In these trying circumstances,
Agrippina showed herself worthy of her
illustrious descent ; and in the following year
her heroic spirit saved the honour of Rome.
A Roman force under Caecina, which Ger-
manicus had left behind him in an incursion
into Germany, fell in with Arminius, and
defeated him, but not without loss. A rumour
spread that the Roman army was surrounded,
and that the Germans wei-e marching upon
Gaul. In the alarm it was proposed to
destroy the bridge over the Rhine, which
would have cut off the retreat of the Romans,
who were on the east side of the river. In
the absence of her husband, Agrippina per-
formed the duties of the commander-in-chief.
She took her station at the head of the bridge,
and thanked the returning legions as they
crossed it ; and she distributed clothing and
dressings for their wounds among the soldiers.
The suspicious temper of Tiberius took alarm
at the influence which such a woman might
exercise over the legions ; but he concealed
his fears and jealousy, and wrote both to
Agrippina and her husband in friendly
terms. Germanicus was shortly after re-
moved from the command of the German
army, and sent into the East (a. d. 17), where
his wife accompanied him.

Germanicus died at Antioch (a. d. 19).
493

Tlie immediate cause of liis death is uncer-
tain, but he and his friends believed that he
fell a victim to the treachery of Piso. On his
deathbed he recommended to the Roman
people his wife and his six children ; and he
entreated Agrippina to tame her haughty
temper, to submit to her fortune, and not to
irritate her powerful enemies at Rome. He
alluded particularly to Livia, the emperor's
mother, who could not brook the proud bear-
ing of Agrippina.

On her return from the East, Agrippina,
with two of her children, landed at Brun-
disium in the sight of a great concourse
of spectators, holding in her arms the urn
which contained the ashes of her husband.
Tacitus {A?in. ii. 1.) has made the landing of
Agrippina and the funeral procession to
Rome the subject of one of his historical
pictures. The jealous emperor ordered all
due honours to be paid to the remains of'
Germanicus, and he sent two praetorian
cohorts to accompany them from Brundisium
to Rome. Drusus the son of Tiberius, and
Claudius the brother of Germanicus, with
the children of Germanicus who had remained
at Rome, met the procession at Tarracina ;
and the consuls, the senate, and the Roman
people crowded the approach to Rome. The
remains of Germanicus were placed in the
mausoleum of Augustus. Tiberius and his
mother did not show themselves during the
ceremony ; and the emperor, who is suspected
of being pleased to see Germanicus removed,
found fresh causes of jealousy in the occur-
rences of the funeral. The people addressed
Agrippina as the ornament of their country,
the sole remaining descendant of Augustus,
the only true model of an ancient Roman
matron ; they prayed that her children might
live and escape all dangers.

Tiberius for a time concealed his hatred of
Agrippina. On the occasion of Nero, the
eldest son of Agrippina, attaining the age of
puberty (fourteen years), the emperor went
through the form of asking permission of the
senate to allow Nero to become a candidate
for the quaestorship five years before the legal
time. Nero was also made a member of the
college of pontifices. On the first day of his
appearing in the forum, one of the usual
ceremonies on assuming the toga virilis, the
people received presents, and were delighted
to see the son of Germanicus arrived at man's
estate. Their satisfaction was increased by his
marriage with Julia, the daughter of Drusus,
though they looked with displeasure on the
intended marriage between a daughter of
Sejanus and Drusus the son of Claudius, the
brother of Germanicus. Drusus, the second
son of Agrippina, assumed the toga virilis
(a. d. 23), and received the same honours as
his brother. On this occasion, the emperor,
in his address to the senate, commended the
frateraal care which his own son Drusus
showed to the children of Germanicus, his
K K 3

AGRIPPINA.

AGRIPPINA,

■brother by adoption ; and it is said that
Drusus was in fact well disposed to his
nephews.

The first attack on Agrippina was made
through her cousin Claudia Pulcra, who was
accused of adultery and of a design against
the life of Tiberius. Domitius Afer was the
accuser. [Afer.] Agrippina told the em-
peror that the real guilt of Pulcra was her
intimacy with herself. Tiberius, though ac-
customed to dissemble, retoited by a Greek
verse, the import of which was, that he sus-
pected Agrippina of aiming at his power.
Pulcra and Furnius, the alleged adulterer,
were convicted. In a subsequent interview
with the emperor, Agrippina complained
of her lonely situation, and asked the em-
peror to give her a husband, which was
equivalent to asking his permission to marry;
but Tiberius feared to give the grand-daughter
of Augustus another husband, and he left her
without making a reply. Sejanus widened
the breach by persuading Agrippina that
Tiberius had a design to poison her ; and
Agrippina, who never concealed anything,
showed her suspicions by refusing some apples
at the table of Tiberius which the emperor
offered her with his own hand. Tiberius
remarked to his mother that it could not be
surprising if he took severe measures against
a woman who treated him as a poisoner ; and
it was soon rumoured that he designed to get
rid of her privately. Suetonius {Tiberius,
c. 53.) says that the whole was a scheme of
the emperor's to give him some handle against
her ; that he had contrived that she should be
warned of the danger of taking anything at
his table.

By the death of Livia, both Sejanus and
Tiberius were freed from the restraint which
that haughty woman exercised over them.
Tiberius addressed a letter to the senate, in
which he complained bitterly of Nero and his
mother Agrippina. He could not accuse the
youth of any rebellious designs ; the charge
aiainst him was his dissolute life. He did
not venture to attack the character of Agrip-
pina ; he accused her of pride and obstinacj'.
The senate house was surrounded on the
occasion by the populace, who carried the
effigies of Agrippina and Nero, and called out
that the letter addressed to the senate was
a forgery, and that the emperor was no party
to this conspiracy against his own family.
Agrippina, however, was banished to the
island of Pandataria, where her mother, Julia,
had died in exile. Suetonius adds, that as
she was heaping abuse on Tiberius, a cen-
turion gave her a blow and struck out one of
her eyes. Nero was banished by a Senatus-
consultum to the island of Pontia, where he
died either of starvation or by his own hand.
He had long been an object of hatred to
Sejanus and Tiberius ; he had been provoked
to utter some indiscreet expressions, which
had been carefully reported to the emperor,
494

and his own wife and his brother Drusus had
betrayed him. Drusus had none of the
virtues of his father or mother ; he was
jealous of his elder brother, and glad to see
him removed out of the way of his ambition.
But Drusus himself was imprisoned shortly
after in the palace, apparently before the
death of Sejanus, and in the year a. d. 33 he
was starved to death. All his actions and
expressions had for many years been re-
ported and registered, and the emperor did
not scruple to make public this record of his
own infamy, and with it the particulars of the
insults to which his dying grandson had been
subjected. Agrippina survived both her sons.
After the downfall of Sejanus (a. d. 31),
Tiberius did not relent, and Agrippina either
put an end to her life or was starved to death
by order of the emperor. Tiberius accused
her of adultery with Asinius Gallus ; but
" Agrippina," observes Tacitus, " who could
not bear an equal, and was most ambitious
of power, had divested herself of all the
vices of a woman when she assumed the
character of a man." The emperor took
credit for not strangling her and publicly
exposing her body ; and the senate made an
order that the day of her death, which was
also the anniversary of the downfall of Se-
janus, should be sacred to Jupiter.

Agrippina had nine children by Germani-
cus. Two died in their infancy. A third died
in his boyhood, a youth of singular beauty ;
his great-grandmother Livia dedicated a
statue of him in the character of a cupid in
the temple of the Capitoline Venus, and Au-
gustus had another statue in his bed-chamber.
Her other six children were, Nero ; Drusus ;
Caius, afterwards the Emperor Caligula ;
Agrippina, the mother of the Emperor Nero ;
Drusilla, who married L. Cassius, and after-
wards M. .S^^milius Lepidus ; and Livia, or
Livilla, whom Tacitus calls Julia, who mar-
ried M. Vinicius.

When Caligula became emperor, he brought
the ashes of his mother Agrippina and his
brother Nero to Rome. He also struck
medals in honour of her memory (Memoriae
Agrippinae). On some medals of the time of
Caligula the head of Agrippina and her son
are on the opposite sides of the same medal ;
and, what seems rather singular, we find also
the heads of Tiberius and Agrippina simi-
larly placed on the same medal. On some
Greek medals, which also belong to the reign
of Caligula, Agrippina appears with the in-
scription, 0EA (Diva). (Tacitus, Annul, i. —
vi. ; Suetonius, Augustus, Tiberius, CaJiyidaJ)

G. L.

AGRIPPI'NA n. was the daughter of
Agrippina and Germanicus. She was born
in the Oppidum Ubiorum (now Cologne)
while her father had the command of the
legions there ; and accordingly the year of
her birth is before a. d. 17. [Agrippina.]
She married Cneius Domitius Ahenobarbus,

AGRIPPINA.

who was of a noble family and allied to the
Caesars, in the year a. d. 28, according to
Tacitus. According to Suetonius, their son
Domitius (afterwards Nero) was not born till
the close of a. t>. 37, or the be>;inning of a. d.
38, and the date of Nero's birth is confirmed
by Tacitus. Domitius, who was an unprin-
cipled man, expressed a just judgment of him-
self and his wife, wlien he said that notliing
good could come from him and Agrippina.
Domitius died when his son was three years
old, and Agrippina, after attempting to get for
her husband Galba (the future emperor), who
was then a widower, married Crispus Pas-
sienus, who had been twice consul, and was a
distinguished orator. It has been sometimes
doubted if Crispus was the first or the second
husband of Agrippina ; but if Suetonius is
correct in calling Crispus the step-father of
Nero, he must have been her second husband ;
and this is consistent with the fact stated by
Suetonius, that Nero recovered his father's
property after Claudius became emperor, and
that he was also enriched by the inheritance
of Passienus, whom Agrippina is accused of
poisoning. Agrippina is said to have com-
mitted adultery with M. iEmilius Lepidus,
the husband of her sister Drusilla, and to
have had an incestuous intercourse with her
brother Caius Caligula, the emperor. Ca-
ligula afterwards banished his sisters Livilla
(Julia) and Agrippina to Pontia, on the
ground of their criminal intercourse with
Lepidus ; and when Lepidus was put to death
by the order of Caligula, he compelled
Agrippina to come to Rome, and to carry all
the way the urn which contained the ashes of
Lepidus. Agrippina was recalled from exile
in the beginning of the reign of Claudius.
Messalina, the wife of Claudius, hated Agrip-
pina, but she was too much occupied with
her passion for C. Silius to work Agrippina's
ruin. The death of Messalina opened the
way to the ambition of Agrippina, and, with
the assistance of Pallas, the favourite freed-
nian of Claudius, she persuaded her uncle
Claudius to marry her. Lollia PauUina was
her chief rival for the hand of the emperor,
but the influence of Pallas and the arts of
Agrippina, whose relationship to the emperor
allowed her ready access to him, prevailed
over all other competitors, (a. d. 50.)

Claudius and Agrippina had no scruples
about cohabiting, but they did not venture
to solemnize their marriage, for there had
never yet been an example at Rome of an
uncle marrying his niece. Vitellius under-
took to manage the matter. He addressed
the senate on the proposed marriage, to which
that body gave their sanction. The senate
even pretended that they would compel
Claudius to a union so advantageous to the
state ; and the emperor affected to yield : he
\)nly required a legal sanction to his marriage.
Vccordingly a Senatusconsultum was passed,
Y which marriages between uncles and their

> 495

brothers' daughters were declared legal.
Only one Roman at the time followed the
example, to please Agrippina, as it was said ;
and the Emperor Domitian afterwards mar-
ried Julia, the daughter of his brother Titus.
But the Romans looked on such unions as
incestuous ; and, keeping to the letter of the
law, their jurists never acknowledged the
validity of a marriage even between an uncle
and his sister's daughter. (Tacit. Ann. xii. 5. ;
Gains, i. 62.)

Agrippina's rapacity and ambition were
unrestrained by any scruples. She first
effected the ruin of L. Silanus, to whom Oc-
tavia, the daughter of Claudius, had been
betrothed, and Octavia was then betrothed to
Agrippina's son Domitius. She obtained the
recall of Seneca from exile, and his elevation
to the prsetorship, a measure which she sup-
posed that the literary reputation of Seneca
would make popular : she also made him the
preceptor of Domitius. But her real object
was to attach Seneca to her, and to use him
as her instrument in obtaining the empire for
her son. LoUia, her old rival, was accused
of treason to the emperor ; she was con-
demned by the senate to be banished from
Italy, and the greater part of her property
was confiscated. Agrippina sent a tribune to
her, who compelled her to commit suicide.
By the intrigues of Pallas, with whom
Agrippina carried on an adulterous inter-
course, Claudius was induced to adopt Do-
mitius as his son (a. d. 51), to the prejudice
of his own son Britannicus. The adoption
was effected in the usual legal mode by a
lex curiata. Domitius was received into the
Claudian house, and took the name of Nero ;
Agrippina was at the same time honoured
with the title of Augusta. To gratify her
pride, as Tacitus suggests, or from some other
motive, she obtained the establishment of a
colony of veterans at her birth-place, which
was thenceforth called Colonia Agrippina
(Cologne), from the name of the empress.
She steadily persevered in her design of
supplanting Britannicus by her son Nero.
Accordingly, some short time before the legal
age of fourteen, she obtained the toga virilis
for Nero. This was no idle ceremony, for
Nero was thus freed from all the legal in-
capacities which by the Roman law were
attached to minority. During the games of
the circus, which were celebrated on the
occasion, Britannicus, the emperor's son, ap-
peared in the prsetexta, the proper dress of
those youths who had not attained the age of
puberty, and Nero in a triumphal dress, an
indication of his future elevation. Agrip-
pina's next measure was to secure the
soldiers. She prevailed on Claudius to de-
prive Lusius Geta and Rufius Crispinus, who
were supposed to be attached to the children
of Messalina, of the command of the prae-
torian soldiers, and to give it to Burrus
Afranius, a man of high military reputation,
K K 4

AGRIPPINA.

but well aware to -whose influence be owed
his promotion. In the year a. d. 54, Nero,
being now sixteen years of age, celebrated his
marriage with Octavia. There was still one
obstacle in the way of Agrippina's ambition,
who aspired to exercise the supreme power
under the name of her son. This was Do-
niitia Lepida, her first husband's sister, a
woman of great wealth, and as licentious as
Agrippina, between whom and Agrippina
there was a contest for the first place in Nero's
affections. Domitia was condemned to death
on a charge of conspiring agaiast the em-
peror's wife, and disturbing the peace of
Italy. Agrippina was now determined to
rid herself of her husband, as the only means
of securing her own safety ; for Claudius, in
his drunkenness, had let drop expressions
which showed that he was aware of his wife's
irregularities, and was disposed to punish her.
She took advantage of the opportunity of his
retiring to Sinuessa for his health, where,
with the assistance of Locusta, a woman
experienced in such crimes, and of Xenophon
a physician, she poisoned Claudius. The
death of the emperor was not immediately
made known, and public praj'ers were offered
up for his recovery. Agrippina, in the
mean time, professed the greatest affection
for Britannicus and his sisters Antonia and
Octavia, but she kept them in the palace and
guarded the approaches. When all was pre-
pared, the doors of the palace were thrown
open, and Nero came out accompanied by
Burrus. The guards, at the word of com-
mand from their officer, received Nero with
favourable expressions, and he was placed in
a litter. Being carried into the camp, he
addressed the soldiers in a manner suitable to
the occasion, and promised them the usual
bounties ; on which he was saluted emperor.
The senators confirmed the choice of the
soldiers, and the provinces acquiesced. Thus
by a long train of enormities Agrippina at
last placed her son on the seat of the Caesars.
(a. d. 55.)

The first act of Agrippina after her son's
accession was to poison Junius Silanus, pro-
consul of Asia, who, she feared, might avenge
the death of his brother L. Silanus. SOanus
was a descendant of Augustus, being the
gi'andson of Julia, the sister of the first
Agrippina : this was his crime. Narcissus
also was removed out of the way, and other
murders would have followed, Lf Burrus and
Seneca, who now combined to resist the as-
sumptions of Agrippina, had not checked her
violence. The emperor still paid her external
tokens of respect, and the senate gave her
two lictors. Her ambition was shown by her
interfering with the legislation of the senate,
and her attempting to mount the imperial
seat to assist at the audience to the am-
bassadors of Armenia. Seneca, who perceived
what>she was going to do, had presence of
mind to tell Nero to prevent it. Nero's
496

passion for Acte, a freedwoman, prepared
the way for Agrippina's ruin. She was in-
dignant at having such a rival in her son's
affections, in which she foresaw the downfall
of her own influence. Finding that Nero
had now thrown aside all respect for her, she
resorted to other means, and even solicited
him to an incestuous intercourse. But his
friends, among whom were Burrus and
Seneca, warned Nero against his mother's
artifices. This drove her to fresh acts of
violence. She threatened to raise up Bri-
tannicus as a rival to her son, and to appeal
to the soldiers against the vile arts of Burrus
and Seneca. But Nero anticipated her
schemes by poisoning Britannicus at a ban-
quet where Agrippina was present. Nero,
now discovering that his mother was trying
to make a party against him, deprived her of
her guards and removed her from the palace.
She was immediately deserted by all her ad-
herents except a few women ; and her ene-
mies accused her to the emperor of a design
to marry Rubellius Plautus, and to raise him
to the supreme power. Nero, who well knew
his mother's character, was so alarmed that
he would have put her to death immediately,
if Burrus had not urged the justice of hearing
her defence, and promised that she should die
if she was guilty. Burrus was appointed to
charge her with the treasonable design, and
Seneca was present. She repelled the ac-
cusation with haughty indignation, and with
arguments sufficient to satisfy Burrus and
Seneca ; at least they affected to be satisfied;
and Agrippina, in an interview with her son,
prevailed on him to punish her accusers.

Nero was now captivated with Poppsea,
who, seeing no hope of his divorcing Octavia
and marrying her, while Agrippina lived,
used all her arts to irritate him against his
mother. Agrippina's death was at last re-
solved on ; the only difficulty was the mode
of accomplishing it, and treachery was thought
to be more prudent than violence. Attempts
were made to poison her, and to despatch
her in various ways. At last, Nero af-
fected a wish to be reconciled to his mother,
whom he invited to Baise on the coast of
Campania, and received at an entertainment.
A handsome vessel had been prepared to
convey Agrippina back, which was so con-
trived that part of it could be detached from
the rest, and thus Agrippina might be thrown
into the water. As she left the entertain-
ment, Nero kissed and embraced her. The
night was clear and tranquil. The vessel had
not gone far, when the signal was given, and
a heavy weight fell from above ; but the
vessel did not break in pieces, and it was then
heaved on one side, and Agrippina with her
attendant Acerronia was plunged into the
sea, Acerronia was killed by blows aimed
at her from the vessel, but Agrippina, thougbf
she received a wound on the shoulder, swai.]
till she got a boat, in which she made her wus,

AGKIPPINA.

AGRIPPINA.

into the Lucrine lake, and thence to her villa.
Her only chance of safety now was to pretend
to know nothing of her son's treachery, and
she sent Agerinus to Nero to inform him of
the accident and her lucky escape. Nero was
struck with terror at the news : he feared that
his mother would make some desperate
movement, and he sent for Seneca and Burrus.
Dion Cassius states that Seneca was privy to
the plot against Agrippina's life : Tacitus
leaves the matter doubtful. Seneca asked
Burrus if the prretorian soldiers could be
safely intrusted with the execution of Agrip-
pina ? Burrus replied that they could not,
and suggested that Anicetus should be em-
ployed, who had contrived the plot of the
ship. Anicetus readily undertook the busi-
ness, and Nero, overjoyed, told him to do it
promptly. Agerinus in the mean time came
with his message, and while he was deliver-
ing it, a dagger was dropped at his feet. He
was seized on the charge of being sent by
Agrippina to murder Nero, and thus a kind
of pretext was got for the murder. Anicetus
having surrounded Agrippina's villa with a
guard, broke open the doors and entered the
chamber. It was dimly lighted, and Agrip-
pina was lying on a bed attended by a single
female slave, who attempted to leave her.
" Will you too desert me ? " she said ; then
looking at the assassins, she told them that if
they had come to murder htr, she did not
believe that it was by her son's orders. One
of them struck her on the head, and when
she saw the centurion drawing his sword, she
bid him plunge it into a mortal part —
" Ventrem feri." It is said that Nero came
to see his mother's corpse and admired her
beauty ; but the story was not universally
believed, and it is inconsistent with other
facts as to which there is no dispute. Her
body was burnt the same evening without
the usual ceremonies. So long as her son
lived she had no tomb. A small mound
was afterwards raised to her memory near
the road to Misenum and the villa of Caesar
the Dictator, on an eminence which com-
manded a view of the sea. It is said that
Agrippina had been forewarned by the for-
tune-tellers that her son would one day
become emperor and would murder her : her
answer was, " Let him be my murderer ; only
let him reign."

The circumstances of Agrippina's death
(which occurred a. d. 60) are told by Dion
Cassius with some additions of rhetorical or-
nament.

The events of Agrippina's life form an
important part of the history of the latter
part of the reign of Claudius and the first part
of Nero's reign. It cannot be doubted that
she really aspired to the supreme power,
which she expected to exercise by her in-
fluence over her son ; and there is good
ground to believe that if Burrus and Seneca
had not supported the feeble resolves of
497

Nero, she would have wielded all the power
in his name, or given it to some new husband
of her choice. The historians impute to her
every vice. She had no virtues, unless we
reckon as such the indomitable spirit of lier
noble house. But she was a woman of
abilities and of literary tastes. She left com-
mentaries which Tacitus consulted, and " in
which she recorded for posterity her own
life and the history of her family ;" from which
expression of Tacitus and the passage in
which it occurs {Annal. iv. 53.), it appears
that her commentaries contained the life of
her mother AgrippLua.

The medals of the younger Agrippina are
distinguishable from those of her mother by
the title of Augusta, which never appears on
the medals of Agrippina the wife of.,Genna-
nicus. On some medals, the younger Agrip-
pina appears with her husband Claudius, and
on others with her son Nero. One medal
represents a quadriga of elephants with Nero
and Agrippina seated ; and on the other side
are the heads of Nero and his mother, face
to face. (Tacitus, Annul. ; Dion Cassius, lib.
59—61.) G. L.

AGRCE'CIUS , or AGR(ETIUS, a Ro-
man grammarian who is supposed to have
lived about the middle of the fifth century of
our sera. He is the author of a work " De
Orthographia, et differentia Sermonis," which
is still extant. It was designed to be a sup-
plement to a similar work written by another
grammarian. Flavins Caper. It is dedicated
to a bishop Eucherius.

The work of Agroecius is printed in Puts-
chius' Collection of the Latin Grammarians,
p. 2266 — 2275.; comp. Fabricius, Biblioth.
Lat. iii. 414. ; Saxius, Onomast. Lit. i. 508.

L. S.

AGUA'DO, FRANCISCO DE, a dis-
tinguished Spanish Jesuit, was bom at Tor-
rejon de Ardoz, near oMadrid, in the year
1572. His biographer, Andrade, takes up
the story of his life rather earlier than usual,
gravely informing us that his mother was
overtaken by the pains of labour while at
mass, having been induced to go to church
that day by an irresistible impulse, which he
as gravely attributes to the innate piety of
the infant in her womb. The circumstance
had great influence in determining Aguado's
parents to devote hun to the church, for
which he was educated accordingly, at the
university of Alcala de Henares. He was
received into the society of Jesuits at the
age of seventeen, on the 12th of April, 1589,
and soon acquired a high reputation for
learning, piety, humility, and self-mortifica-
tion. He is said to have been constant in
prayer ; to have abased himself so much
that he denied his high birth, although,
as his Spanish biographers are careful to
record, he came of the best blood in Biscay ;
and to have carried his self-imposed pe-
nances to such a height, that no part of

AGUADO.

AGUERO.

his body escaped the most cruel tortures.
He was held in great esteem by his bre-
thren, who elected him, at the early age
of twenty-six, to the mastership of the no-
vices in the noviciate of Villarejo. He
twice travelled to Rome on special missions
from the society, the second time in order
to take part in the election of a superior ;
he twice presided as rector over the college
of Alcala ; he acted as secretary under three
provincials, and was himself twice provincial
of Toledo. Notwithstanding we are told that
his exceeding humility led him to avoid pro-
motion if possible, he was compelled to be-
come confessor to the Count-Duke of Oli-
varez, which appointment he held for four-
teen years, and was also forced by Philip
IV. to accept the office of one of his preach-
ers. After a long series of services to his
order, in whose behalf he was always inde-
fatigable, he died on the 15th of January,
1654, at the age of eighty-two. Aguado was
a voluminous author ; he left behind him
twenty-five volumes of MSS., besides which
he wrote the following published works : —
1. " Del Perfecto Religioso," (" On the Per-
fect Religious Character,") fol. 1619. 2.
" Christiano Sabio," (" The Christian Philoso-
pher,") fol. 1638 ; second edition, 1653. 3.
" Sumo Sacramento de la Fe, Tesoro del
Nombre Christiano," (" The highest Sacra-
ment of Faith, Treasure of the Christian
Name,") a treatise on the Eucharist, fol. 1640.
4. " Misterlos de la Fe," (" Mysteries of
Faith,") fol. 1646. 5. " Exortaciones varias
Doctrinales," (" Doctrinal Exhortations,") fol.
1641. 6. " Adviento y Quaresma," (" Ad-
vent and Lent,") fol. 1653. 7. "Carta a los
Superiores de la Provincia de Toledo, en que
refiere la Vida y Muerte del P. Juan Gon-
dino de la misma Compaiiia de Jesus,"
(" Letter to the Superiors of the Province of
Toledo, containing the Life and Death of
Father Juan Gondino, of the Society of
Jesus,") 8vo. 1643. 8. " Apologos Morales,"
(" Moral Apologues,") a translation from the
Latin of Cyril of Alexandria or Jerusalem,
8vo. 1643. All these works were printed at
Madrid, and all are highly spoken of by
Roman Catholic writers. (Ribadeneira, Bib-
liotheca Scriptorum Societatis Jesu, opus
SfC. recoijnitum a Sotvello, p. 209, &c. ;
N. Antonius, Bibllotheca Hispana Nova,
edit of 1783, i. 397. ; Nieremberg and An-
drade, Varones Ilustres de la Compania de
Jesus, vi. 33—63.) J. W.

AGU'CCHIA, GIOVANNI, a Milanese
engraver, of the nineteenth century. He en-
graved a large view of the cathedral of
Jlilan, to which he put his name in full.
(Heineken, Dictionnaire des Artistes. Sfc.)

R. N. W.

AGU'CCHIO. [Agocchi.]

AGUERO, BENITO MANUEL DE, a
Spanish painter, born in Madrid, in 1626-
He was the scholar of the celebrated Mazo
498

Martinez, painter to Philip IV. Agilero
painted battles, but principally landscapes in
the style of his master, whom he imitated
with great success. He had the satisfaction
of seeing some of his own pieces placed by
the side of those of the great masters in the
palaces of Aranjuez and Buen-Retiro. He
attempted also some historical pieces ; but,
except in the colouring, he failed. He was
a wit, and well stored with anecdotes ; and
Philip IV., during his visits to the studio of
Mazo, delighted to converse with Agiiero.
He died at Madrid in 1670. (Bermudez,
Diccionario Historico, Sfc.) R. N. W.

AGUERO, MIGUEL DE, a Spanish
sculptor. He executed in 1699, jointly with
Fernando de Mazas, for Fray Sebastian de
Arevalo y Torres, bishop of Osma, the stone
statues of St. Augustine, St. Francis, and St.
Sebastian, which are placed at the principal
gate of the Hospital of St. Augustine at
Osma, In the province of Soria, Old Castile.
(Bermudez, Diccionario Historico, ^c.)

R. N. W.

AGUESSEAU, HENRI D', was the son
of Antoine d'Aguesseau, first president of the
parliament of Bordeaux, and was born
in that city about the year 1634. He was
bred to the bar ; but having attracted the
notice of Colbert, and acquired the esteem of
that minister, he was appointed by him in-
tendantof the province of Limousin, and after-
wards of Languedoc. The latter office he
held during the construction of the canal ;
and he had a principal part in the execution
of that great enterprise. D'Aguesseau was
intendant of Languedoc at the period of the
expulsion of the Protestants, who were nu-
merous in that province ; and his clemency
softened in some measure the cruelties exer-
cised on that body, when the revocation of
the edict of Nantes stripped them of their
privileges. He survived Louis XIV. and
became a member of the council of the re-
gency. He died in 1715. H. G.

AGUESSEAU, HENRI FRANCOIS D',
the celebrated chancellor of France, and son
of Henri D'Aguesseau, was born at Limoges
in 1668. D'Aguesseau received the principal
part of his education from his father, under
whose tuition he made great proficiency in
the authors of antiquity, and laid the found-
ation of his extensive knowledge of modern
languages and literature. His father was
also the guide of his legal studies ; and his son
accompanied him in his frequent and toll-
some journeys to Languedoc. The edu-
cation of D'Aguesseau was very extensive.
He applied himself to mathematics, and to
the writings of Des Cartes. Bolleau, ori-
ginally bred to the bar, and Racine, were his
companions ; and he himself composed both
Latin and French verses, which he called the
passion of his youth. Next to the knowledge
of his profession, he most assiduously culti-
vated the study of eloquence. The rapid

AGUESSEAU.

progress of the language and literature of
France, during the latter half of the seven-
teenth century, had hitherto acted less sensibly
on the oratory of the bar than on that of the
pulpit, then adorned by the greatest preachers
of modern times ; but still it had already pro-
duced a visible effect on forensic eloquence.
Patru, hitherto the most distinguished ad-
vocate of Louis XIV.'s reign, though he had
very limited practice, had introduced a better
style of oratoi-y, which formed a remarkable
contrast to the ambitious and rhetorical style
of the fragments which have descended to us
from the legal oratory of the French in
the age of Cardinal Richelieu. D'Aguesseau,
endowed with a fertile imagination and great
sensibility to the beauties of literature, had
laboured with unceasing industry to master
his own language, as well as to elevate it.
Of his models, and even of his progress in this
art, he has given some account in his second
and third discourses delivered at the opening
of the parliament of Paris. He very early
acquired a style, in some respects new, in
which declamation, which rejected no em-
bellishment derived from recent literature,
nor any aid supplied by a fertile imagina-
tion, was subdued to the practical purposes
of the bar. D'Aguesseau began his profes-
sional career in 1690, when twenty-one years
of age. The eloquence of his first essays
attracted the attention of the counsellors of
the parliament of Paris ; and being sup-
ported by learning and argument, and by
habits of severe application, he secured the
honours and emoluments of the law from the
commencement of his course. In January,
1 69 1, when Louis XIV. created a third avocat-
royal,he conferred that office on D'Aguesseau.
For this preferment he was indebted to his
father's influence.

The most critical and conspicuous events of
D'Aguesseau's official life arose out of those
disputes between the Galilean church and the
pope, which had their origin in the papal
censure of Jansen's doctrines, which were
partially revived by the condemnation of
Fenelon, in 1699, and which, bursting forth
again with augmented fiiry upon the pub-
lication of the bull Unigenitus, threw the
whole nation into combustion, and caused the
first great breach between the king and the
parliament of Paris. The occasion of this
fierce contest was the pope's censure of certain
publications of some French divines ; but the
real question was the limit of the papal power
and of the liberties of the Gallican church —
the right of the pope to. issue constitutions,
as his promulgated acts were called, within
the realm of France. The parliament of
Paris was the legal guardian of the French
church : by the constitutional law of the
kingdom, no bull was of authority until
registered by the parliament ; and the cri-
terion which that tribunal applied to the papal
instrimients was, their consistency with those
499

parts of the canon law received and acknow-
ledged in France. Hence the delicate and
difficult jurisdiction exercised by this secular
court in the case of the papal claims ; and
hence a capital branch of constitutional law,
which, under the arbitrary monarchy of
France, divided the nation into the partisans
and antagonists of the papal power. Fenelon,
in a work entitled " Explication des Maximes,"
had revived certain mystical doctrines of
inward illumination, first broached by Mo-
lina ; and, after an acrimonious controversy
with Bossuet, had incurred the papal censure,
which arrived in Paris from Innocent XII. in
March, 1699. Fenelon, who had resolutely
maintained his tenets against Bossuet, sub-
mitted to the sentence of the pope ; but the
registration of the papal brief was necessary
to its validity. The jealousy entertained by
the parliament of the apostolic see rendered
every interposition of the pope extremely
hazardous ; and though the dispute between
the Quietists, or partisans of Fenelon and his
brother prelate, had been free from the vio-
lent rancour which envenomed the Jansenist
controversy, the peace of the church was not
without danger from the possible resistance
of the parliament. On D'Aguesseau, as
advocate-general, devolved the duty of
moving the parliament of Paris to register
the brief of Innocent ; the first occasion of
his handling the uncertain and undefined
limits of papal power in France. In August,
1699, he pronounced that famous discourse
which Henault declares to be an immortal
monument of the solidity of the maxims of
the Gallican church. In this stately harangue,
worthy of Bossuet, D'Aguesseau expounded,
in a luminous manner, the relation of the
church and realm of France to the court of
Rome ; and while he enforced their sub-
mission in points of doctrine, he tacitly
guarded the temporal power of the crown
from the spiritual jurisdiction of the pope.
The papal censure, of which he appeared as
the minister at the bar of the parliament, he
generously tempered by insisting on the duti-
ful submission of Fenelon ; and he secured
the liberties of the Gallican church from
future encroachments by fovmding his prayer
for the registration of the papal brief on the
unanimous assent of the French bishops.
His praise of Innocent XII. is a model of
judicious panegyric. The brief was registered
without opposition, though not without inward
discontent ; and this success on the part of
the court of Rome stimulated it to encroach-
ments, in which D'Aguesseau was to act and
to suffer. In the year 1700 he was advanced
to the office of procureur-general, being then
in his thirty-second year, on the recommend-
ation of De Harlai, first president of the
parliament of Paris. The multiplied func-
tions of this high office, added to the pro-
fessional labours of D'Aguesseau, but opened
a new scene for his abilities. The care of

AGUESSEAU.

the royal domains, a vast and peculiar branch
of feudal jurisprudence ; the recovery of fiefs
and of jurisdictions ; the explanation of local
records and monuments, chiefly belonging to
that period -when a great part of France lay
under the dominion of the Anglo-Norman
kings ; these were employments for which
D'Aguesseau was well prepared by his pro-
found knowledge of history and antiquity.
Of his inexhaustible labours in this field, the
numerous memoirs respecting the royal
domains contained in his published works
exhibit a remarkable evidence. His office of
procureur placed him in communication with
every branch of the government. In 1709
France was visited by a consuming famine,
which, concurring with a disastrous war and
exhausted treasury, spread misery through
the provinces. D'Aguesseau, who attended
the council during that critical emergency,
had previously advised Des Marets, the con-
troller of the finances, to promote the ad-
mission of foreign grain ; and he made great
efforts to alleviate the sufferings of the people,
by bringing to light the corn which had been
collected by forestallers. This measure wUl
scarce surprise us in a lawyer bred in the
school of Colbert, and menaced by an insur-
rection from the starving population.

In 1713 tlie rage of theological faction
renewed tlie questions of the papal powers,
and exposed D'Aguesseau to trials in which
his integrity and resolution shone with great
lustre. The Jesuits had acquired an irre-
sistible sway during the latter part of the
life of Louis XIV. ; and being elated both
by the expulsion of the Hugonots and the
exaltation of the papal power in the censure
of Fenelon, they resolved to obtain from
Rome a final denunciation of their ancient
rivals the Jansenists. Upon the first pro-
mulgation of Jansen's doctrines, they had
been condemned by the then pope. Quesnel
had succeeded the celebrated Jansenist writer
Antoine Arnauld as the leader of that body,
and had reproduced, in a mitigated form, the
dogmas of Jansen with respect to grace and
predestination, which had been denounced
from Rome seventy years before. The Je-
suits, while they trampled on the other re-
ligious orders, groaned at this time under
the yoke of Le Tellier, the confessor of
Louis, whose furious intolerance rendered
him the terror of his own provincials. This
man's first exploit was the demolition of Port
Royal, with every circumstance of cruelty.
Encouraged by this success, he ventured on
a bolder measure. The Jansenists, who held
the principles of Quesnel, wei'e numerous in
France ; his doctrines were prevalent among
the regular clergy, and zealously embraced
by some of the monastic orders ; they had
even been imbibed by several dignitaries of
the French church ; and the parliament of
Paris, from maxims of ecclesiastical policy,
as well as regard to the law of the land, were
500

jealous of papal interposition. Regardless of
all consequences, Le Tellier pressed the
Court of Rome to launch its anathema against
the doctrines of Quesnel ; and Clement XL,
being also urgently entreated by Louis him-
self, at length issued that famous bull called
Unigenitus, 1713, which, under colour of
condemning 101 speculative propositions of
Quesnel, aimed a fatal blow at the temporal
power of princes, and at the fundamental
maxims of the church and monarchy in
France. This instrument no sooner arrived
in Paris than Louis and Le Tellier pressed
its registration in the parliament ; and
D'Aguesseau, on whom, as procureur-ge-
neral, the duty of moving this devolved, was
placed in a situation of unexampled difficulty
and danger. Resolute to resist the dangerous
principles of the bull, of which the direct
effect was to reduce France under the do-
minion of the Jesuits, he found himself op-
posed at once to papal claims and royal
prerogative, and compelled to brave the fierce
faction which then ruled France with absolute
sway. When the bull was promulgated, it
caused the utmost agitation among all ranks
of men, who regarded it not merely as a
flagrant usurpation on the part of Clement,
but as an instrument of vengeance flung into
the hands of Le Tellier, the object of ge-
neral detestation. The parliament of Paris,
on which the eyes of the nation were turned,
was not exempt from the general contagion :
but the magistrates and lawyers were divided
on the question of constitutional law involved
in the registration of the bull ; and such was
the power of Le Tellier and the reigning
faction, that, notwithstanding the danger of
the innovation, some of the leading jurists,
especially two of the advocates-general, were
imwilling to expose themselves to the fury
of the Jesuits by resisting its registration.
These fathers, remembering the eloquence
with which D'Aguesseau had maintained the
papal censure of Fenelon, were inflamed with
resentment against this strenuous champion
of the Gallican church, who now directed
the same energies against their usurpation.
A deputation fi-om the magistrates and law-
yers of the parliament, consisting of Des
Mesmes, first president, D'Aguesseau, Fleury,
and the three advocates-general, proceeded
to Versailles, and D'Aguesseau propounded
to Louis his insuperable objections to the
bull. The selection of the propositions from
the work of Quesnel, condemned by this in-
strument, was such as gave great scandal to
all men of discernment ; and nothing shocked
tlie laity more than the censure of the ninety-
first proposition, which was, " The fear of an
unjust excommunication ought not to deter
us from doing our duty." In vain did
D'Aguesseau insist on the difference between
such principles and the censure of Fenelon.
In despite of the remonstrances of the jurists
and the canonists, the royal authority pre-

AGUESSEAU.

vailed ; the bull was registered both by the
parliament and the Sorbonne ; and the vin-
dictive confessor endeavoured to persuade
Louis to deprive D'Aguesseau of his office.
Upon the death of Louis, which for a time
overthrew the authority of the Jesuits, and
freed D'Aguesseau from the dangers which
menaced him from that order, the chief power
fell into the hands of Du Bois, the tutor of
the regent Orleans ; and imder the adminis-
tration of that profligate statesman, D'Agues-
seau continued in his office of procureur-ge-
neral till the death of Voisin the chancellor,
when he received the seals fi-om the regent
Orleans, in 1717. In this his new dignity
his repose was of short duration. The rage
of speculation excited by the Bank and the
Mississippi schemes of Law had absorbed
every other passion : and Du Bois, who was
pressed by a dilapidated i-evenue and by his
own rapacity, had hearkened to the plans of
Law, and had adopted both of his schemes,
the stock bank and the company. D'Agues-
seau had resisted Law's first solicitations
while he was procureur ; and he continued
his opposition with his usual constancy and
with more authority as chancellor. The arbi-
trary temper of Du Bois coidd ill brook this
resistance from a man in whose promotion
he had acquiesced, at a moment when his
power was uncontrolled ; and he not only
deprived D'Aguesseau of the seals, but
banished him from the capital. D'Aguesseau
retired to Fresnes. He was now in his fiftieth
year ; and, for the first time in a life of con-
tinued action, found leisure and tranquillity.
In this retreat he continued for two years ;
and, returning to the studies of his youth,
deA'oted himself with ardour to those literary
pursuits which he had never abandoned.
Meanwhile the general impoverishment which
followed the explosion of Law's bubbles, with
the embarrassment of the finances, had raised
a storm about Du Bois ; and the regent,
■when he perceived that the issue of these
projects had verified the predictions of
D'Aguesseau, invited him to resume the seals
in 1720. Law himself was despatched to
Fresnes to request his return. New troubles
awaited him, and a fresh contest on that
question of long continuance, the papal power,
in which his name, hitherto unsullied, did
not escape reproach. "NMien Du Bois con-
cluded the treaty of peace with Spain, in
1719, he entered into a close correspondence
with Cardinal Albei'oni, the Spanish minister,
and with Aubenton, the Jesuit confessor of
PhUip V. ; and partly through their in-
fluence, chiefly by the prospect of a car-
dinal's hat held out to him by the court of
Rome, he had reinstated the Jesuits in their
former credit at the court of Versailles.
Meanwhile, the bull Unigenitus, which had
never ceased to cause a festering discontent,
bred daily new inquietude in the nation. In
1717, seven eminent members of the Sor-
501

bonne attempted, by a solemn act of appeal
against it, to annul the registration of the
bull. The Jesuits took fire upon this pro-
ceeding ; Du Bois, who now acted in the
temper and spirit of Le Tellier, insisted on
the registration of a royal declaration in
favour of the bull, in order to nullify the
appeal ; the parliament of Paris, fortified by
the active minority in the Sorbonne, was
resolute to resist, and the constitutional
struggle was recommenced. Such was the
situation of affairs when D'Aguesseau re-
sumed the seals in 1720. He found the na-
tion in a high ferment, and the parliaments
in the several provinces on the verge of in-
surrection, by reason of apostolic letters
issued by Clement, commanding the French
clergy to receive the bull. He saw the
hierarchy torn with a new schism, which the
disputed right of appeal had created, and in
which the appellants were led by the Car-
dinal de Noailles, archbishop of Paris, the an-
cient rival of Le Tellier, and his own ally ;
and as this great question of ecclesiastical
policy, as well as the former, respecting the
new registration of the bull, though not sub-
ject to his jurisdiction, were j'et much go-
verned by his authority, the nation awaited
with anxiety the issue of his deliberations.
The part which D'Aguesseau acted on this
occasion exposed him to the charge of cor-
rupt compliance with the court. He con-
sidered that though the constitution of the
Unigenitus was contrary to the established
maxims of the French law, and had en-
countered his own strenuous opposition, yet
being once registered, it had been incorporated
with the French law ; and he exerted all his
influence to procure the registration of the
royal declaration in favour of the bull. He
negotiated between Du Bois and the coun-
sellors of the parliament ; but no reasons
could allay the inflexible jealousy of the
counsellors ; they answered D'Aguesseau with
the arguments which he had addressed to
Louis XIV. Much popular clamour was
raised against D'Aguesseau ; and he incurred
the reproaches of the counsellors, who, when
he asked them where they found their argu-
ments, answered, " In the speeches of the late
M. D'Aguesseau."

The contest between the parliament and
Du Bois ran high ; and during the stormy
scenes which preceded the close of his admi-
nistration, the affairs of France assumed the
complexion of the Fronde. Du Bois banished
the contumacious parliament to Pontoise ; a
blow which he struck with such secrecy,
that the musqueteers appeared before the
counsellors were apprised of his intention.
D'Aguesseau, unable to control the intem-
perate zeal of Du Bois, and sharing all the
obloquy of his violent measures, was desirous
of resigning the seals. In this second
struggle, the court was again ultimately tri-
umphant ; the declaration in favour of the

AGUESSEAU.

bull Unigenitus, was registered ; and Du
Bois received a cardinal's hat as his recom-
pence. No sooner was the storm over, than
a rupture took place between D'Agues-
seau and Du Bois, proceeding from a dispute
with respect to the right of the cardinal to
take precedence of the chancellor in the
council of the regency. Du Bois, in imita-
tion of Cardinal Richelieu, who insisted on
taking precedence of the constable Lesdi-
guieres, claimed precedence of D'Aguesseau.
The chancellor, resolute as well as mild, con-
tested the right, and this quarrel ended in
D'Aguesseau being deprived of his high of-
fice, and in a second banishment (a. d. 1722).
He returned to Fresnes and to literarj' leisure,
which he now enjoyed for five years. In
1727, Cardinal Fleury, who on the death of
Du Bois came into power, drew him again
from his retreat. He was invited to return
to Paris, but several years elapsed before
the seals were restored to him. Under the
pacific administration of Cardinal Fleury,
the controversy between the Jesuits and
Jansenists again broke out. "When the Je-
suits withheld the sacraments from the ex-
piring Jansenists, all France was thrown
into convulsion : and the contest between the
Jesuits and parliament was revived for the
third time.

Cardinal Fleury was a prelate of an excel-
lent judgment ; and discerning the merits of
D'Aguesseau, he sought his assistance in al-
laying the dissensions which again menaced
the temporal power of the French king.
D'Aguesseau, who had already seen the spirit
of the nation fruitlessly wasted in an obstinate
struggle, resolved to withdraw altogether
from these disputes ; and though the Jesuits
now began to enforce the buU in a manner
which had not been foreseen by their most
zealous partisans, he had no longer either
influence or authority to temper their vio-
lence. Receding from ecclesiastical disputes,
he devoted himself to legal and literary spe-
culations, of which his published works are
an ample monument. In 1737 the seals were
again delivered to him by Fleury ; he was then
seventy years of age, but in the vigour of his
capacity. So much of D'Aguesseau's life
had been passed amid theological factions,
which exposed him alternately to the frowns
of the court and rage of the people, that he
betook himself exclusively to the assiduous
and peaceful discharge of his judicial duties ;
and although the parliament of Paris again
appeared in the front of the reviving contro-
versy, and as the champion of the Jansenists,
he now kept aloof from these disputes. During
the absolute monarchy of France, a principal
part of the chancellor's fimctions consisted in
reducing to form the ordonnances, which at
that period derived all the force of law from
the will of the king ; and as the chancellor
was also the adviser of the king, he had a
kind of legislative power. Among other plans
502

of legal reform contemplated by D'Aguesseau
in the exercise of this authority, was that
of an assimilation of the diversified laws of
France, and their consolidation. The dif-
ferent laws prevalent in the two great legal
divisions of France, " Pays de' droit ecrit"
and " Pays de coutumes," with the diversity
of local customs in the northern portion of
the kingdom, had from time immemorial
produced conflicts of laws, and by con-
tinually raising questions of jurisdiction, had
superadded, to the ordinary subjects of liti-
gation, points in the nature of international
disputes. As far back as the reign of
Henry III., Brisson, then one of the avocats
royaux, had formed a like project. D'Agues-
seau entered on this gigantic enterprise by
issuing circulars to each of the parliaments, in
which he propounded the leading parts of his
scheme of reform. The memoirs returned to
him by these learned bodies were analysed by
the most eminent lawyers of Paris, and their
substance extracted and submitted to the
chancellor. These reports D'Aguesseau sub-
mitted to the masters of requests and coun-
sellors of the parliament, and with their ad-
vice moulded the various projects of law as
thej' arose, with a view to the general and
uniform system which he contemplated.
When he had made some progress in his
arduous task, the magnitude of the under-
taking, and still more the hazard of subvert-
ing foundations so deeply laid, appalled the
circumspection which is the result of pro-
found knowledge and experience in the de-
cline of life. But his materials were not
useless : they were the foundation of a series
of ordonnances which throw lustre on the
inactive adniinistration of Cardinal Fleury,
and form the last great a;ra of legislation
under the absolute monarchy of France. Of
these celebrated ordonnances, the most im-
portant relate to the limitation and definition
of the power of testators with respect to the
substitution of heirs, a fruitful source of
litigation in France, and the simplification of
judicial procedure by dispensing with useless
forms. D'Aguesseau continued in the ex-
ercise of his functions as chancellor till the
year 1750. He had reached his eighty-
second year when the infirmities of age com-
pelled him to resign. Louis XV. granted
him a pension of 100,000 livres a year. He
died in 1751, and was buried at Auteuil.
D'Aguesseau married, in 1694, Mademoiselle
d'Ormesson, who died in 1735, leaving several
children, of whom one rose to considerable
eminence in the law.

D' Agiiesseau was not only the most learned
of French lawyers, but he added to a con-
summate knowledge of his profession, acquire-
ments more extensive and various than it
often falls to the lot of unbroken leisure to
attain. His powerful capacity had grasped
the immense system of French law, from the
customaries of the ancient Norman jurists, to

AGUESSEAU

AGUESSEAU.

tbe most recent criminal procedure ; and,
having been severely exercised in the im-
portant questions of canon and constitutional
law agitated during his judicial administra-
tion, he had pushed his researches into re-
gi'^ns far beyond the common sphere of pro-
fessional knowledge. His career, which was
crowned with distinguished success while he
was still a youth, may be traced in his
" Plaidoyers," the monument of his extra-
ordinary talents and early erudition. He is
venerated in France as the father of her
forensic eloquence. His oratoi"j% holding a
middle course between the severe and arid
simplicity of Patru, and the florid luxuriance
of Le Maistre, for the first time exhibited
in the lay tribunals of France that rich and
harmonious strain to which the great pulpit
orators of the seventeenth century had formed
the ears of that people. In his judicial ca-
pacity, his impartiality and penetration were
equal to his enlarged knowledge ; but his
despatch was inferior to his discernment, and
he is said not to have been exempt from that
infirmity of doubt and indecision which has
frequently attended profound learning. No
reproach has ever stained the memory of
D'Aguesseau, except his concession to the
court on the second registration of the bull
Unigenitus ; and when the animosities of
that fierce contest subsided, faction admitted
that he had legal grounds, as well as reasons
of state, on his side. WTiile procureur-gene-
ral, he opposed superstition and bigotry in
the person of Le Tellier, who was supported
by all the power of Louis XIV. His copious
writings, embracing all the business and
knowledge of his age, attest the prodigious
activity of his mind when exile relieved him
from official labours. He was master of the
Greek, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, English,
Hebrew, and Arabic languages. D'Aguesseau
was a pious man, and he held a middle course
amid the various extremes of religious fanati-
cism which present so singular a spectacle in
the domestic history of France at that period.
The harmless enthusiasm of the Quietists he
seldom mentions without a gentle sneer. The
violence of the contention between the Jesuits
and Jansenists, which during his administra-
tion tore in pieces the Gallican church, ex-
ceeded anything which we can now imagine;
and when the court of Rome, by the famous
bull Unigenitus, denounced one party as
heretic and schismatic, the peace of the realm
was exposed to imminent hazard. The na-
tural goodness of D'Aguesseau's temper was
never soured, nor his serenity clouded, by
the persecution and obloquy with which he
was continually assailed ; nor was the ardour
of his application relaxed by his misfortunes.
Though employed for sixty years in the first
offices of the state, he did not amass a large
fortune.

All the writings of D'Aguesseau were
published by his family, from his manuscripts,
503

after his death, except two essays on trade,
occasioned by Law's scheme, and some frag-
ments of his orations, which found their way
into the controversial tracts of the day. Of
the sixteen volumes which his writings fill,
more than one half are occupied by legal
arguments delivered by him in the exercise
of his profession, and by his official corre-
spondence while he held the seals. These
are followed by law tracts on the royal
domains and jurisdictions, of which the for-
mer had been encroached on in many pro-
vinces of France, the latter much obscured
by time in all parts. Some of the most
curious of these tracts relate to the devolution
of the rojal domains of France from the
house of Plantagenet to that of Valois, upon
the final expulsion of the English from the
Continent. The other volumes contain dis-
courses on eloquence, meditations on Des
Cartes and Malebranche, and a comparison
between the systems of Cudworth and New-
ton and that of Lucretius, probably sug-
gested by the "Anti-Lucretius" of Polignac.
There are several smaller tracts, relating
to the canon law and the limits of papal
power, which he treats with a grace and
perspicuity which adorn that rugged science,
and in the spirit of our great canonist Selden
in his dissertation on Fleta. His style is
evidently formed on the model of Pascal and
Bourdaloue, his favourite authors, as he in-
forms us ; but without the nerve of the Jesuit,
or the inimitable measures of the Jansenist.
It is deficient in vivacity ; and we sometimes
meet with that languor which Voltaire thought
he could discover in the later writings of
Cicero. Of his forensic efforts, the earliest
are the best. His " Memoires sur les Affaires
de I'Eglise," containing a full detail of the
great civil and ecclesiastical controversy, both
as regards Fenelon and the bull Unigenitus,
in which D'Aguesseau was the principal
actor, is the most valuable record extant of
that celebrated dispute. His delineations of
the two popes. Innocent XIL and Clement XL,
and of the leading statesmen and churchmen
of France at the close of Louis XIV. 's reign,
together with his account of his interviews
with that king, and of his character and
court, are full of historical interest, though
little known even to French writers. (St.
Simon, Mem. tom. vi. ; Bausset, Vie de Fe-
nelon; Mem. pour servir a VHist. Ecclesiast. ;
D'Aguesseau, Me'm. sur les Ajf'a ires de I'Eglise ;
D'Alembert, Sur la Destruction des Jesuites;
Duclos, 3fem. de la Kegcnce ; Notes His-
toriques sur I'Eloge de Thomas ; CEuvres de
D'Aguesseau.^ H G

AGUIAR, DON TOMAS DE, a Spanish
portrait painter, and a scholar of Velazquez,
enjoyed a good reputation at Madrid, about
the middle of the seventeenth century. He
painted small portraits in oil, which were
equally conspicuous for their strong re-
semblance, and their correct and masterly

AGUIAR.

AGUILAR.

execution. The poet Antonio Solis, -whose
portrait Aguiar painted, wrote a sonnet upon
the occasion, highly flattering to the painter ;
Bermudez has inserted it in his notice of
Aguiar, in his " Diccionario Historico " of
the principal artists of Spain. R. N. W.

AGUIAR I ACUNA, RODRIGO DE, a
senator of the supreme council of the Indies.
He died on the 5th of October, 1628, at an
advanced age, having held his appointment
upwards of twenty years. Antonio de Leon
gives him the credit of having introduced
greater order and precision into the pro-
ceedings of the council than had previouslj-
characterised them. He had been commis-
sioned to prepare a collection of the laws
relating to the Spanish colonies. The first
volume (afterwards published) was completed
before his death ; and the second so far ad-
vanced, that in 1629 Antonio announced it
might be ready for publication in the course
of six months. An abstract of these laws,
" Sumarios de la Recopilacion general de
las Leyes de las Indias," was prepared by his
direction and under his superintendence, and
published at Madrid a few months before his
death. Antonio de Leon says of this com-
pendium, that the arrangement and distribu-
tion of the materials were so excellent as to
give rise to a suggestion that it might super-
sede the necessity of publishing the larger
work. The praises bestowed upon Aguiar
by Antonio de Leon, who held a subordinate
oflBce under the council of the Indies, may
appear suspicious ; but they were uttered after
the death of his principal, and attributed to
him merit which some have insinuated be-
longed of right to the eulogist himself. (Ni-
colaus Antonius, Bihliotheca Hispana Nova ;
Antonio de Leon i Pinelo, Epitome de la
Bibliotheca Oriental i Occidental, cet.)

W. W.

A'GUILA, FRANCISCO DEL, a
Spanish painter, lived in Murcia towards the
end of the sixteenth century, where he painted
in the cathedral the tomb of Alonzo el Sabio,
or the Wise. R. N. W.

A'GUILA, LUIS DEL, a Spanish sculp-
tor, a native of Jaen, in Lower Andalucia,
and scholar of Pedro de Valdelviria. He
was employed, in 1553, by the chapter of the
cathedral of Seville, to estimate the works
on the sides of the great altar-piece of that
cathedral. (Bermudez, Diccionario Historico,
Sfc.) R. N. W.

A'GUILA, MIGUEL DEL, also a
Spanish painter, and a native of Seville.
His works, which are painted in the style
of Murillo, and well coloured, are much
esteemed. He died in Seville, in 1736.
(Bermudez, Diccionario Historico, Sfc.^

R. N. W.

AGUILAR, BARTOLOME' DE, a
Spanish sculptor of considerable merit. He
was appointed, in 1518, conjointly with Her-
nando de Sahagun, to make the festoons and
504

other embellishments of the paranymph, or
scholastic theatre of the university of Alcala
de Henares, in the province of Toledo, in
New Castile. (Bermudez, Diccionario His-
torico, §T.) R. N. W.

AGUILAR. [Jauregui.]

AGUILE'RA, DIEGO DE, a Spanish
historical painter, of Toledo, of considerable
reputation. Few of his works remain, many
of them having been lost through a fire.
He lived towards the end of the sixteenth
centurj\ Aguilera was appointed, together
with Sebastian Hermandez, by the chapter
of the cathedral of Toledo, to estimate the
price of the celebrated picture of the parting
of Christ's raiment, painted by II Greco, for
the altar of the sacristy of that cathedi-al.
[Theotocopuli.] (Bermudez, Diccionario
Historico, ^c. ; Quilliet, Dictionnaire des
Peintres Espagnols.) R. N. W.

AGUILE'RA, SEBASTIAN DE, organist
of Saragossa in the beginning of the seven-
teenth century. His most celebrated com-
position is a Magnificat on the eight ecclesi-
astical tones, for four, five, six, and eight
voices: published in 1618. (Nic. Antonius,
Biblioth. Hispana Nova.) E. T.

AGUILLON, FRANCOIS, a Jesuit, was
bom at Brussels in 1566. He entered the
order in 1586, and afterwards was professor
of philosophy at Douai, where he soon made
himself a name. He was afterwards ap-
pointed to a professorship in the Jesuits' Col-
lege at Antwerp, where he taught divinity, and
introduced the study of his favourite science
mathematics, which imtU that time had been
neglected by the Jesuits of the Low Coun-
tries. Subsequently, he became rector of the
college at Antwerp, and he retained his place
tUl his death. Aguillon is the author of a
treatise on optics, " Opticorum Libri VL,
Philosophicis juxta ac Mathematicis utiles,"
Antwerp, 1613, in folio, in which we first
find the term stereographic projection. It
has been said that this work was highly es-
teemed by Newton, which Smets states in so
many words. Feller simply says that per-
haps it might have been usefiil to Newton.
The name of AguUlon is not contained in
" Memoires pour servir a FHistoii-e Litteraire
des Pays-Bas." Aguillon was engaged in
another work on catoptrics and dioptrics, at
the time of his death, the 20th of March,
1617. (Alegambe, Bibl. Script. Soc. Jes.
ed. 1643, p. 112. ; Smets, Was that der Je-
suiten-Ordeii fiir die Wissenschaft? sub. voc. ;
Feller, Dictionnaire Historique, sub. voc. ;
Chaufepie, Nouveau Diet. Hist. sub. voc.)

W. P.

AGUIRRE, FRANCISCO DE, a Spa-
nish portrait painter, a scholar of Eugenio
Caxes. He professed also the art of of restoring
old pictures, and in 1646 he went to Toledo
for the purpose of restoring a very old paint-
ing of the German school of the fourteenth
century, which had been already once re-

AGUIRRE.

stored, in 1586, by Bias del Prado. The pic-
ture formed one of the collection of pictures
preserved in the winter chapter-house of the
cathedral of Toledo, all of which were re-
stored, and, according to QuUliet, spoiled, by
Aguirre. The canons, however, seem to have
been well satisfied with his restorations, for
he painted for them a portrait of the Infante
Don Fernando, which they placed among the
series of archbishops' portraits in that col-
lection. (Bermudez, Diccionario Historico,
^c. ; Quilliet, Dictionnaire des Peintres Es-
pagnols.) R. N. W.

AGUIRRE HORTES DE VELASCO,
DON JOSEPH MARI'A, marquess of
Montehermoso, and lieutenant-general in
the Spanish araiy, was elected, in 1756, a
member of the Royal Academy of Arts of
Madrid, on account of his excellence in paint-
ing, to which art he devoted much of his
time. He died at Vittoria, in 1798. His
uncle, Don Tiburcio Aguirre, vice-patron
of the academy, and his son, Don Ortuiio
Aguirre, both distinguished themselves as
amateurs. (Bermudez, Diccionario Historico,
Sfc.) R. N. W.

AGUIRRE, JOSEPH SAENZ (or
SAENS) DE, a Spanish ecclesiastical writer,
born at Logroiio, in Spain, 24th March, a. d.
1630. After finishing his studies he became
a Benedictine monk, and took (a.d. 1668)
the degree of doctor of divinity in the uni-
versity of Salamanca, and, after holding
several theological professorships, became
chief interpreter of Scripture in that univer-
sity. He aftei"wards became censor and
secretary to the Spanish Inquisition, and in
A.D. 1686 was made a cardinal by Pope
Innocent XL, in reward for a work which he
had published, three years before, in reply to
the declaration of the assembly of the Gal-
ilean clergy (a.d. 1682), who were embroiled
with the pope. Cardinal Aguirre died of
apoplexy, 19th August, 1699, aged 69. His
works were as follow: — 1. "Laurea Theo-
logise, sive Ludi Salmanticenses," folio, Sala-
manca, A.D. 1668. This work consists of
theological disquisitions, composed according
to the practice of the imiversity before re-
ceiving a doctor's degree. The author him-
self noticed several blemishes in it, in his sub-
sequent works. 2. " Philosophia Nov-anti-
qua," containing disquisitions on the physics,
metaphysics, and logic of Aristotle and of St.
Thomas Aquinas, 3 vols. fol. Salam. 1672-
3-5. 3. " Philosophia Monim," the first
volume containing a commentary on the
ethics of Aristotle, and the second several
dissertations on the same work ; 2 vols. fol.
Salam. 1675-77. 4. " S. Anselmi Archiep.
Cantuar. Theologia," 3 vols. foL Salam. 1679-
80-81. 5. Auctoritas Infallibills et Summa
Cathedrae S. Petri extra et supra Concilia
quEelibet," &c. ; fol. Salam. 1683. This is
the work in reply to the assembly of the
Gallican church, which obtained for him his

VOL. I.

cardinal's hat. It has been alleged by some
to have been really written for him by an-
other doctor of Saiamanca, but Aguirre always
maintained that it was really his own. 6.
" Notitia Conciliorum Hispaniae atque Novi
Orbis," 8vo. Salam. 1686. This was the
outline of the next work. 7. " CoUectio
Maxima Conciliorum omnium Hispania;
atque Novi Orbis," 4 vols. fol. Rome, 1693-4.
In this work he defends the authenticity of
the decretals of the first popes. He was a
contributor to the " Bibliotheca Hispana
Vetus " of Nicolas Antonio. Some of his
works came to a second edition in his life-
time ; and he appears to have projected many
new ones. Dupin characterises him as a stu-
dious and learned man, but deficient in genius
and discrimination. (Dupin, Bibliotheque des
Auteiirs Eccle'siastiques ; Niceron, Memoires ;
Nicolas Antonio, Bibliotheca Hispana Nova.
The last authority was published in Aguirre"s
lifetime, and does not give all his works.)

J. C. M.

AGUIRRE, JUANES, a Spanish sculptor,
a native of Segovia. He was the scholar and
son-in-law of Mateo Inverto, whom he as-
sisted in the ornaments of the great altar of
the parish church of Villacastin. He exe-
cuted alone ,the tabernacle, with the statues
of the evangelists, and other six saints, in
small, in 1594, which are of considerable
merit. (Bermudez, Diccionario Historico, §t.)

R. N. W.

AGUJA'RI, LUCREZIA, was with her
husband, Colla, an Italian composer of
secondary rank, in London in 1777, whose
compositions she almost exclusively sang.
From London she went to Parma, and died
there in 1783. Burney speaks of her as "a
wonderful performer. She had two octaves
of fair natural voice ; and Sacchini said that
in early youth she could go up to B flat in
altissimo. Her shake was perfect, her in-
tonation time, and her execution marked and
rapid." (Burney, Hist, of Music.) E. T.

AGUSTF, or AGU8TIN, MIGUEL, a
Spanish writer on agriculture, was born at
Bafiolas in Catalonia, in the last quarter of
the sixteenth century, and became a chaplain
of the order of Saint John, and prior of the
temple of that order in Perpignan. The
date of his death is unknown. His work, in
Catalan, on the secrets of agriculture,
" Llibre dels Secrets de Agricultura," was
published at Barcelona in 1617, in folio. The
author translated it into Spanish, with the
addition of a fifth book, and the work ap-
peared in that shape at Perpignan in 1626,
after which it ran through several editions,
mostly at Barcelona, but the last at Madrid
in 1781. The first book principally treats of
signs of the weather, and the proper times of
sowing and planting ; the second, of fruit trees
and manure ; the third, of vines ; the fourth, of
domestic animals ; and the fifth, of the chase.
A rural vocabulary is added, in six lan-

L L

AGUSTI.

AGYLEO.

guages — Spanish, Catalan, Latin, Portuguese,
Italian, and French. The work displays
great knowledge of the subject for the time,
and is still a favourite in the houses of Cata-
lan farmers. Nicolas Antonio mentions
that the fifth book was first added in the
Spanish edition, which is contradicted by
Amat, who affirms it was the fourth ; but a
reference to the Barcelona edition of 1626
shows that Antonio was right. (N. Antonius,
Bibliotheca Hispana Nova, edit, of 1783, ii.
131. ; Amat, l)iccionario de hs Escritores
Catalanes, p. 8. ; Agustin, Secretos de Agri-
culture.) T."W.
AGY'LEO, ENRICO, (Latinized Agy-
hrus,) the son of Antonio Agj^leo, an Italian
domiciled in Brabant, was born at Bois-le-
Duc about the year 1533. He received a
good education, and was looked upon as a
distinguished Greek scholar, and devoting
himself to the studj'of the law, came, whether
by his professional knowledge or his activity
as a political partisan is imcertain, to occupy
an important position. He attached himself
to the Protestant party, and was, in 1578,
the head of a plot for delivering his native
city into the hands of the Dutch. A preci-
pitate movement of the Dutch troops frus-
trated the enterprise ; but Agyleo and his
associates made themselves masters of the
principal gate, and, although unsupported,
maintained their position for a considerable
time. After the compromise of 1579, by
which the Protestant citizens, on condition
of their quitting Bois-le-Duc, were allowed
to carry their property along with them,
he appears to have resided i)rincipall}- at
ITtrecht; where, in 1586, he was appointed
by Leicester's party procurator for the trea-
sury, and a member of the Supreme Court.
He died in April, 1595, aged sixty-two.
There was published at Basel, in 1561 —
" Justiniani Principis NovelliC Constitu-
tioues. Latine ex Gregorii Haloandri et
Henrici Agylsei Interpretatione ad Graecum
Scrimgeri Exemplar, nimc primmn edita;.
Quibus suis Locis interseritur, quicquid
vetus Versio amplius habet, atque proximis
Editionibus, ex vetustis Libris ac Juliani
Epitome aspersum est. In qua Editione
Henrici Agylaei Opera diligentem tmn vari-
orum Lectionum Annotntionem, tiuu Haloan-
drise Versionis castigationem, invenire est.
Item, Ejusdem Justiniani Edicta, Justini,
Tiberii, Leonis Philosophi Constitutiones
et una Zenonis, quae ad Titulum Codicis de
privatls iEdificiis pertinet, Henrico Agj-laeo
interprete. Postremo, Canones Sanctorum
Apostolorum per Clementem in unum con-
gest i, Gregorio Haloandro interprete. Ba-
silea; per Joannem Hervagium, 1561, 4to."
The book is dedicated, by Agyleo, to Elizabeth,
queen of England, in a strain sufficiently
exaggerated, yet not unnatural in a Belgian
Protestant, when a Protestant had so recently
succeeded to the English crown by the death
500

' of a Roman Catholic, who was the wife of
Philip of Spain. Andrea, in his brief me-
moir, attributes to Agyleo an amended edi-
tion of Haloander's Latin version of the No-
vella; of Justinian, published at Paris, 4to.,
in 1560 ; and an edition of the Edicts of
that prince, and the Constitutions of Justin,
&c., printed there in Svo. in the same
year by Henry Stephens. The same author
states that Agyleo was the translator of the
compilation published at Basel in folio in
1561, under the title " Nomo-canon Photii
Patriarchs, sive ex Legibus et Canonibus
compositum Opus, cum Commentariis Theo-
dori Balsamonis." Verses, " ad Lsetum In-
troitvun Brabantise Philippi II. Regis Catho-
lici," first printed at Utrecht, in 1620, have
also been attributed to Agyleo. (Valerii
Andrese Bibliotheca Bclgica, Lovanii, 1643,
sub voce " Henricus Agylocus;" Historica
Narratio profectionis et inaugurationis Se-
reniss. Belyii Principuni Albeiti ct Isabella',
Austria Archiducum, Auctore Joanne Bochio,
Antverpiae, 1602, p. 488.) W. W.

AGY'RIUS, or ARGYRIUS, but more
correctly AGYRRHIUS ('Ayuppios), a native
of Collj-tus in Attica, who distinguished him-
self as a demagogue at Athens dm-ing the
period which followed the Peleponnesian war.
During the first period of his political cai'eer
he embezzled some part of the public money,
for which he was miprisoned : he was pro-
bably not released till shortly before the year
B.C. 395 ; for in this year he exerted his in-
fluence to get the theoricon (that is, the public
money given to the Athenian people for their
admission to the theatres,), which had for a
time been discontinued, restored to the people,
although the financial affairs of Athens were
then still in a bad condition. The system
of pandering to the wishes of the people, by
paying the services which they owed to the
state as citizens, and by enabling them, at the
public cost, to enjoy the luxuries of life, was
carried out by Agyrius to its full extent, and
in the year following (b. c. 394) he carried
a measure by which the pay for attending the
popular assembly (eK/cAijo-iacmKoV) was raised
to three oboli, or about 4| pence, for each
person. Some ancient writers represent him
as having introduced the system of pajing the
citizens for attending the assembly ; but this
is a mistake, for we know from the best au-
thorities that the sjstem originated with Peri-
cles. The comic poets of the day frequently
attacked Agj^rius for his conduct ; and it was
probably to revenge himself that he persuaded
the people to reduce the allowance which
had hitherto been given to the comic writers.
Nevertheless he appears to have gained great
popularity, for after the death of Thrasj bidus,
in B. c. 389, he was made commander of the
Athenian fleet at Lesbos, but he never gained
any distinction as a commander. (Demos-
thenes, Against Tinwcrales, 742. ; Harpocra-
tion, v. ©ioipiKa and 'Ayiippios, with the notes

AGYRIUS.

AHAB.

of Valesius ; Scholia ad Aristopk. Eccles. 102. ;
Suidas, V. 'EKKAriartaariKdv ; Diodorus, xiv. 09. ;
Xenophon, Helkn. iv. 8. 31. ; compare Meur-
sius, Lcct. Alt. vi. 4. ; Kiister, on Arlsfop/i.
Plut. 176. ;Hoekh, Public Econom;/ of Athens,
p. 220, &c. 228. 236, &c., second edit. Eng.
translation ; Schomann, Dissertation on the
Assemblies of the Athenians, 59, &c. Eng.
translation.) Ij. S.

A'HAB (Heb. ^NHX; in the LXX. 'AxaaS;
in Josephus, "Axa^oy ; and in the Vulgate,
Achab), second king of Israel of the dynasty
or house of Omri [Omri], whose son and
immediate successor he was. He reigned
twenty-two years, B.C. 931 — 909.

The reign of this prince is memorable for
the general introduction of idolatrous wor-
ship for the first time after the service of
Jehovah had been regulated by David and
Solomon. The golden calves of Dan and
Bethel had indeed been previously set up
by Jeroboam; but this act was, to borrow
an expression of later date, schisniatical
rather than idolatrous ; the purpose had been,
not to alter the object of worship, but to
alter the place and time of worship, so as to
avoid the necessity of the Israelites going
to Jerusalem, which still remained faithful
to the house of David. In the reign of
Ahab, the worship of the Tyrian Baal or Mel-
kart was introduced ; and to this violation
of the first duty of an Israelitish king may
be ascribed the declaration of the sacred
writer, that " Ahab did evil in the sight of
the Lord above all that were before him."
Ahab appears in history as a gallant soldier,
but destitute of sufficient moral principle to
withstand the superior energy and wicked-
ness of his wife, varying his conduct _ ac-
cording as he complied with her evil desires,
or was in turn overawed by the stern rebukes
of the prophet Elijah, and his fearful de-
nunciations of divine judgment.

Ahab married Jezebel (^QfiS! Iffa^e^
in LXX.; lefafeAT? in Josephus; Jezabel in
the Vulgate), daughter of Ethbaal or Itho-
balus, king of the Sidonians. Ethbaal before
he was king had been a priest of Astarte.
Ahab erected a temple for Baal, and offered
sacrifice to him in Samaria ; and " set up a
grove" (if indeed the Heb. nitJ'X he cor-
rectly translated grove), thus establishing
idolatry in his very capital. Idolatrous priests
and prophets were multiplied, and eight
hundred and fifty enjoyed the special favour
and support of the queen. It was probably
at this time that Jezebel persecuted unto
death the prophets of Jehovah, of whom
one hundred were concealed and so pre-
served by Obadiah, governor of Ahab's
house.

At this time the prophet Elijah was di-
rected to denounce as a judgment agamst
Ahab a drought of three years. Drought
came, and with it famine; and when the
appointed time of its continuance was nearly
507

at an end, the land was reduced to the ex-
tremity of distress, and Ahab with his minister
Obadiah went through the country in differ-
ent directions to see if there were any grass
left which might save the cattle from perish-
ing. In this journey Elijah presented him-
self to Ahab, and required him to assemble
at Mount Carmel the idolatrous priests and
the whole people of Israel, that in this great
convention it might be determined whether
the national worship should be paid to Je-
hovah or Baal. The account of this meeting
is one of the most striking narratives in the
Bible. Ahab was present, but took no active
part ; the miraculous descent of fire from
heaven determined the solemn controversy ;
the nation recognised by acclamation Jehovah
as their God ; the priests of Baal and of the
groves were, by order of Elijah, put to death ;
and the descent of a copious shower in-
dicated that the divine judgment was now
recalled. But Jezebel sent a message to
Elijah, threatening him with death, and the
prophet, panic-struck, fled into the wilderness
of Sinai or Horeb, to escape from the ven-
geance of the queen.

About this time the marriage took place
between Jehorara son of Jehoshaphat, one
of the best of the kings of Judah [Jehorasi ;
Jehoshaphat], and Athaliah daughter of
Ahab and Jezebel. [Athaliah.]

The close of Ahab's reign was marked by
warfare with Benhadad, king of the Syrians
of Damascus. The history of the Damas-
cene kingdom is obscure ; it had formed
part of the subject dominions of David and
Solomon, and had been established or re-
stored by the revolt of Rezon against Solomon.
During the following period it acquired
strength, and had, dm-ing the reign of Omri,
made some conquests in his territories, and
exercised some kind of supremacy over him.
Benhadad advanced with a mighty army to be-
siege Samaria (B.C. 913 ?). The king of Israel
would have yielded upon moderate terms ;
but the exorbitant demands of the Syrian
could not be complied with ; and Ahab, en-
couraged and directed by a prophet of Je-
hovah, sallied out at the head of a trifling
force, composed of " the young men of the
princes of the provinces," i. e. the personal
attendants or body-guards of his chief nobles
or governors, followed by the whole army
which he had with him, amounting to seven
thousand men. The attack was made at the
unusual hour of noon ; and Benhadad, little
anticipating such a movement in the heat of
the day, was surprised in the midst of a
drunken carousal with his subject princes. A
general panic seized the Syrians, and a com-
plete rout ensued, Benhadad with difficulty
making his escape on horseback.

He returned next year (b. c. 912 ?), with
an equal force to that which had been de-
feated ; and, ascribing a merely local power
to the God of Israel, thought to insure victory
LL 2

AHAB.

hy fighting in the plain instead of the hills.
Ahab gave him a second defeat at Aphek, in
the plain of Jezrecl or Esdraelon, 100,000
Syrians (unless there is some error in the
numbers) being slain in the field, and 27,000
buried under the ruins of the wall of Aphek.
Benhadad surrendered upon terms, promising
to restore all the cities that had been taken
from Israel in the reign of Omri, and to
render to Israel the same submission which
had previously been exacted from it. Ahab
released him with inconsiderate lenity, for
Benhadad (apparently for having challenged
the sovereignty of Jehovah) was devoted to
destruction; and judgment was threatened
against Ahab himself and his subjects for
having released him. Benhadad did not
fulfil the condition of restoring the previous
conquests of Syria, and this led to the re-
newal of the war.

It was perhaps in this, the most prosperous
period of liis reign, that Ahab executed those
great works which are briefly noticed in the
Bible, as building cities and erecting " an
ivory house " (a palace adorned with ivory),
and enlarging his grounds at Jezreel (where
he had a palace), by the addition of a kitchen
garden or " garden of herbs." To make this
addition, he proposed to buy the vineyard of
Naboth, a citizen of Jezreel ; but Naboth
refused to sell the inheritance of his fathers.
Though mortified by the refusal, Ahab did
not attempt to force him to seU ; but Jezebel
procured, by means of a false accusation, the
death of Naboth ; and her husband, though
not an active accomplice in the crime, readily
seized the desired possession. Elijah was
hereupon commissioned to denounce the judg-
ment of God upon both Ahab and Jezebel,
and the destruction of all their race, though
the execution of the latter part of the sentence
was, upon Ahab's repentance, deferred till
after his death.

This event was fast approaching. Ben-
hadad had never fulfilled the stipulations
of his capitulation at Aphek. Ramoth in
Gilead, a fortress of importance, east of Jor-
dan near the river Jabbok, was retained by
the Syrians ; and three years after the capi-
tulation, Ahab, with the aid of Jehoshaphat
king of Judah, determined to besiege it.
Ahab was surrounded by false prophets,
who, while professing to speak in the name
of Jehovah, flattered the passions and
wishes of the king. Encouraged by their
predictions, he undertook this fatal ex-
pedition, notwithstanding the warning of
the prophet Micaiah, whose faithfulness only
entailed captivity on himself. The king of
Syria came to the relief of Ramoth, and in
order to insure the destruction of Ahab,
commanded that every weapon should be
aimed at him. Ahab, either informed of this
design, or suspecting it, disguised himself;
but was, notwithstanding, mortally wounded
by an arrow shot at a venture. He remained
.508

in the field, and was supported in his chariot
till the evening, when he died (b. c. 909). The
battle appears to have been undecided, and
though the king's death caused the dispersion
of the Israelites, the Syrians do not seem to
have gained any advantage from it. Ahab
was brought to Samaria, and there buried.
He left two sons, Ahaziah and Jehoram, who
successively occupied the throne of Israel.
The Bible speaks of seventy other sons
(2 Kinys, X. i.) ; but these were perhaps
kinsmen or descendants generally. He had
at least one daughter, Athaliah, married to
Jehoram, king of Judah.

Jezebel survived her husband many years ;
but when the revolution which overthrew
the dynasty of Ahab was eS'eeted by Jehu
(B.C. 895), she was thrown out of her palace
window at Jezreel by some of her own
household, who wished to gain the favour of
the conqueror [Jehu], and her unburied
body was devoured by dogs in the possession
of Naboth, agreeably to the prediction of
Elijah. (1 Kings, xvi — xxii. ; 2 Chion.
xviii. ; Josephus, Jewish Antiq. viii. 13 — 15.)

J. C. M.

AHASUE'RUS, or more properly
ACHASVE'ROSH (tj'nibniS*), is the
Hebrew name, as used in the Bible, for several v
of the Persian and Median kings. In the
corresponding passages of the Septuagint the
names used are Assuerus ('Ao-croJTjpos, Ezra
iv. 6. ; Ao-ou7)poy, Dan. ix. 1.) and Artaxerxes
('ApToiep|7)s, Esther i. 1, &c.).

With regard to the form of the name, it is
most probably derived from the same Persian
word (whatever that was) which in Greek
takes the form " Xerxes." The true form of
this name has been lately ascertained from
the Persepolitan inscriptions. It is Khshershe,
Khshvershe, or Khshearsha, and means simply
" king," or " lion-king." (Gesenius's Lexicon,
s. V. ; Grotefend's Supplement to Heeren's
Ideen ; and the Review of Pott's Etymologische
Forschungcn in the Journal of Education, vol.
ix. p. 336-7.) Either of the above forms,
especially the second, with the addition of
the prosthetic Aleph of the Hebrew, gives
the name Achashverosh. This word might
also stand for " Artaxerxes," since the latter
is merely the word " Xerxes" compounded
with the word " arta," meaning " great " or
" noble." Now " Xerxes " and " Artaxerxes"
were at first (as is plain from their meaning)
royal titles, and not proper names. The same
remark applies to the other royal Median
name used in the Bible, namely, Darius.
Hence it may be inferred that the Hebrew
writers would use the name Ahasuerus for
any Persian or Median king. There is, how-
ever, some difficulty in determining who are
the kings that are mentioned by this name in
the Bible.

1. In Daniel ix. 1. "Darius the Mede,"
who reigned two years in Babylon after its
taking by the Medes and Persians, is called

AHASUERUS.

AHAZ.

the son of Ahasuerus. Those commentators
who suppose the scriptural narrative of these
times to agree with that of Xenophon in the
" Cyropaedia " identify Darius with the Cy-
eixares II. of Xenophon, and consequently
Ahasuerus with his father Astyages. [Asty-

AGES.]

2. In Ezra iv. 6. Ahasuerus, the successor
of Cyrus, must of course be Cambyses, as
indeed Josephus expressly calls him. {Jewish
Antiq. xi. 2.) The only circumstance related
of him by Ezra is, that the people of the
countries adjacent to Judsea wrote to him in
the beginning of his reign an accusation
against the Jews ; with what effect we are
not informed by Ezra ; but Josephus, who
professes to give a copy of the letter and of
the king's reply, states that he caused the
rebuilding of the temple at Jerusalem to be
suspended during his reign, (b.c. 529 — 522.)
The rest of his acts are related under Cam-
byses.

The opinion of Howes, quoted by Hales
{Analysis of Chronology, ii. 481.), that the
Ahasuerus of Ezra iv. 6. is Xerxes, and that
the passage, v. 6 — 23, is an historical antici-
pation, appears altogether untenable, as there
is no ground for taking that passage out of
the direct order; and also the supposed re-
sumption at V. 23. of the subject broken off
at V. 5. is exceedingly harsh and improbable.

3. The Ahasuerus of the book of Esther is
generally supposed to be Artaxerxes Longi-
manus, who reigned from 464 to 425 B.C.
[Artaxerxes Longimanus] ; but others sup-
pose him to be Xerxes I. (485 — 465 B.C.)
The former opinion rests on the authority of
the Septuagint, of the apocrj-phal additions to
the book of Esther, and of Josephus {Antiq.
xi. 6.), and has been followed by Prideaux
{Connection of the Old and New Testament,
pt. i. bk. iv. p. 361.) and Hales {Analysis of
Chronology, ii. p. 449.). The latter opinion is
that of Scaliger {De Emend. Temp. lib. vi.),
who is followed by Justi {Repertorium fUr
Biblisch. und Morgenldnd. Litteratur, xv. 1,
&c.), Eichhorn {Einleitung ins Alte Test. iii.
637, &c.), Jahn {Hebrew Commonwealth, i.
193. Eng. trans.), and Winer {Biblisches
Reulworterbuch, art. " Ahasverus "). A third
hypothesis — that of Archbishop Ussher {An-
nales, i. 160, &c.), who makes the Ahasuerus
of Esther to be Darius Hystaspes — is gene-
rally and properly rejected as quite irrecon-
cileable with the history of that king. On
the whole, Prideaux's arguments go very far
to determine the question in favour of Arta-
xerxes Longimanus. The biblical history
of this king is inseparably mixed up with that
of Esther. [Esther ]

4. In the apocryphal book of Tobit (xiv.
15.) the conquerors of Nineveh are called
Nebuchadnezzar {Jtia§uvxo^ov6<Top) and Aha-
suerus ('Atrvrjpos). This Ahasuerus must
have been Cyaxares I., king of Media.
[Cyaxares.] p. S.

509

A'lIAZ, (in Hebrew, THN; in the LXX
"Axaf; in Josephus, 'Pi-xdCns; and in the
Vulgate, Achaz;) son of Jotham, king of
Judah. He succeeded his father on the
throne at the age of twenty years, and reigned
sixteen years, according to the present
reading of the Hebrew text. These numbers,
according to which he died at the age of
thirty-six, do not admit of his leaving, as we
are informed he did, a son twentj-five years
of age. The reading of the LXX. in 2 Chron.
xxviii. 1. gives " twenty -five " years for his
age at his accession, instead of " twenty ; " but
the variations in the MSS. render the authority
of this alteration very doubtful, and it is hardly
consistent with the age at which Jotham the
father of Ahaz died. We must, then, leave
the difficulty unexplained. Ahaz succeeded
to the throne in an early period of the hosti-
lities which Pekah, king of Israel, and Re-
zin, king of Syria, carried on in alliance
against Judah. Ahaz distinguished himself
beyond all his predecessors by his idolatrous
propensities. He practised the revolting
worship of Moloch, of which the valley of
the son of Hinnom, south of Jerusalem, be-
came the seat ; and made his own son " pass
through the fire." Enemies now multiplied
against Ahaz, and his efifoi'ts to expel them
were xmsuccessful. The Edomites made an
inroad on the south, and carried off many cap-
tives; and in the same quarter the Syrians took
and retained the port of Elath, on the Red Sea.
The Philistines also captured and held, at least
for some time, several of the towns and vil-
lages of the western frontier. Pekah, king of
Israel, defeated the army of Ahaz with dread-
ful slaughter, killing 120,000 in one day, and
leading away into captivity 200,000 persons,
including women and children. Pekah was,
however, obliged to restore the captives, by
the intervention of the prophet Oded, sup-
ported by some of the nobles of Israel. Maa-
seiah, tenned " the king's son," but pro-
bably a kinsman, was slain in the battle just
noticed. Pekah and Rezin now approached
to besiege Jerusalem ; and thought of de-
throning Ahaz, and setting up another person,
" the son of Tabeal," in his stead. In this
distress, the prophet Isaiah was sent to assure
Ahaz of his safety, and of the approaching
ruin of his foes. The intimation that the
King of Assyria was to be the agent in their
overthrow, perhaps induced Ahaz to apply
for aid to that prince, who is called in Scrip-
ture Tilgath-Pilneser, or Tiglath PHeser.
Ahaz was forced to purchase his assistance at
a cost which led the sacred writer to say that
" he distressed him, but strengthened him
not." (2 Chron. xxviiL 20.) The temple of
Jerusalem, and the palaces of the king and
his nobles, were stripped of their treasure to
provide the needful supplies. The purpose
of the application was, however, attained.
Tiglath Pileser took Damascus, the capital
of Syria, carried the inhabitants captive, and

LL 3

AHAZ.

AHAZIAH.

slew Rezin : he then advanced against Israel,
and carried captive the inhabitants of Galilee
and Gilead, in the northern and eastern part
of the kingdom. Pekah was soon afterwards
slain by Hoshea, one of his subjects, who,
after a long interregnum, succeeded to the
throne. The death of Pekah, and all the
preceding events, seem to have occurred in
the first four years of the reign of Ahaz.
(Comp. 2 Khigs, xv. 27. 30. 33. xvi. 1.)

Ahaz, who had acknowledged himself the
vassal of the Assyrian, now went to Damas-
cus to meet him, and on his return was com-
pelled to remove or mutilate much of the
furniture of the temple, in order to satisfy
his further demands. Nor was this the only-
evil resulting from the visit : it led to the
introduction of a new variety of idolatry, the
worship of the gods of Damascus. Urijah
the high-priest joined with the king in his
idolatrous practices, which were diffused
through the land. The temple was closed ;
and among other objects of worship was the
brazen serpent, which Moses had set up in
the wilderness for another purpose.

The reign of Ahaz is fixed by Hales as
comprehending the years from b. c. 741 to
725. There is an apparent discrepancy in
the accounts of his burial. According to the
book of Kings (2 Khujs, xvi. 20.) he was
buried " with his fathers in the city of
David ; " while in Chronicles (2 Chron. xxviii.
27.) it is said that, though he was buried in
Jerusalem, he was not brought into " the
sepulchres of the kings of Israel." He was
succeeded by his son Hezekiah. The order
of events in the early part of his reign
is to a considerable extent conjectural, the
sacred writings affording few chronological
data. (2 Kingx, xvi. ; 2 Chron. xxviii. ;
Isaiah, vii. viii. ; Josephus, Jewish Antiq. ix.
12.) J. C. M.

AHAZI'AH (Heb. nnnX, or innnX ; in
the LXX. and in Josephus, 'OxoC^as}, son
and successor of Ahab, king of Israel. He
restored the idolatry which his father had in
his later years renounced [Ahab], adding
the worship of Baal to the schismatical
worship introduced by Jeroboam ; the re-
tention of which indicates that he regarded
Jehovah as one of the many gods which the
accommodating spirit of polytheism admitted.
He continued the alliance which his father
had formed with Jehoshaphat ; and attempted,
in conjunction with that prince, to revive the
trade by the Red Sea with Tarshish and
Ophir ; but this alliance drew upon Jehosha-
phat the divine displeasure, and the ships were
wrecked. Ahaziah proposed to renew the
attempt, but Jehoshaphat declined. The
Moabites, no longer awed by the warlike
qualities of Ahab, now revolted, and with-
held their accustomed tribute of sheep from
Ahaziah ; and before he could reduce them,
he had a severe fiill apparently from a lat-
ticed window or balcony, and was confined
510

by the consequences of the accident to his bed.
In this condition he sent messengers to in-
quire of the oracle of Beelzebub the god of
the Philistines at Ekron ; but Jehovah, to
manifest his displeasure at this perseverance
in idolatry, directed Elijah to meet the mes-
sengers, and to desire them to return with a
message to the king that he should die.
Enraged at this, Ahaziah sent an officer with
a body of soldiers to apprehend Elijah ; but
the troop, with their leader, were destroyed
by fire from heaven : the attempt was re-
peated with a similar result ; but the sub-
missive behaviour of the third officer who
was sent induced Elijah to go to the king,
not indeed as a captive, but to repeat in
person the divine denunciation. Ahaziah
accordingly died after an unfortunate reign
of two years (b.c. 909 — 907), and was suc-
ceeded by his brother Jehoram. [Jehorasi.]
(1 Kings, xxii. ; 2 Kings, i. ; 2 Chron. xx.
35. 37. ; Josephus, Ant. Jud. ix. 2.)

J. C. M.
AHAZI'AH (Hebrew and Greek forms as
above), the youngest but only surviving son
of Jehoram king of Judah by his wife
Athaliah, daughter of Ahab and Jezebel,
succeeded his father on the throne of Judah,
which he occupied for a year (b.c. 896-5).
He allowed his mother's influence to lead him
into cvi], and his short reign was marked by
crime. He was twenty-two years of age at
his accession, according to 2 Kings, viii. 26. ;
in the Hebrew text and the Latin Vulgate
of 2 Chron. xxii. 2., he is said to have been
forty-two ; but this reading is obviously in-
correct, and is not supported by the LXX.,
in most copies of which we read twenty
years ; or by the Syriac and Arabic versions
and some copies of the LXX., which give the
reading twenty-two years. Ahaziah went
with his uncle Jehoram or Joram, king of
Israel, to the Syrian war at Ramoth Gilead ;
whether to besiege that city (as the Vulgate,
2 Kings, ix. 14., and Josephus say) or to
make it their head-quarters, is not clear.
Jehoram, being wounded, returned to Jezreel
to be healed, and Ahaziah went to pay him a
visit. The absence of the two kings gave
opportunity for the revolt of Jehu [Jehu],
who proceeded with his army, or, as Josephus
says, with a select body of cavalry, to Jez-
reel. Jehoram and Ahaziah, ignorant of his
revolt, went forth to meet him : Jehoram was
slain on the spot ; Ahaziah fled, but being
wounded (with an arrow according to Jo-
sephus), died at Megiddo, where he had
taken refuge. An account, somewhat dif-
ferent from this, which is from the book of
Kings, is given in the book of Chronicles,
in which Ahaziah is said to have been
sought out in his hiding-place in Samaria by
the order of Jehu, before whom he was
taken, and by his command slain. The vari-
ous proposed ways of reconciling the two
accounts of Ahaziah's death may be seen in

AHAZIAH.

AIIENOBARBI.

Poole's Si/nopsis Criticorum, but none of thcni
are satisfactory.

The respect felt for the memory of his
grandfather Jchoshaphat, secured to Ahaziah
an lionourable burial in the royal sepulchre
at Jerusalem. Several of his kinsmen were
also put to death by Jehu ; and his children,
except one, perished by the act of his own
mother [Athaliah], who usurped the king-
dom.

Ahaziah is called in one place (2 Chron.
xxii. 6.) Azariah (liTlty) evidently by an
error, which is corrected or avoided in the
ancient versions ; and in another place he is
called (2 Chron. xxi. 17.) Jehoahaz, which
is merely a transposition of the elements
of his name Ahaziah, THX-IH'' for Tn'-'THS.
(2 Kings, viii. 9. ; 2 Chron. xxii. ; Josephus,
Jewish Antiq. ix. 6.) J. C. M.

AHE'NOBARBI. The Gens Domitia
contained two principal families, the Calvini
and Ahenobarbi (Suetonius, Nero, 1.). The
Ahenobarbi derived their surname, which
signifies Red-beard, from the colour of
their hair, and traced the appellation to a re-

mote pcripd. In b. c. 496, the Dioscuri
((■astor and Pollux), on their return from
the battle of the lake Rcgillus, announced to
one L. Domitius the victory of the Romans.
But, since he was incredulous, they stroked
his hair and beard, which were immediately
changed from black to red. (Plutarch,
jEmilius, 2.)., Coriolamis, 3. ; Dionysius
Halicarn. vi. 13. ; Cicero, De Natiir. Deoruin,
ii. 2., and the coins of the Domitii Aheno-
barbi in Eckliel, Doctrin. Num. Vet, 5.
p. 202.) The Ahenobarbi had only two
prsenomina, Cneius and Lucius ; and these
were given sometimes alternately, and some-
times three Lucii followed three Cneii. This
remark, however, (Suetonius, Nero, 1.) refers
to an earlier period than that embraced in the
following Stemma. Velleius Paterculus (ii.
10.) notes another peculiarity of the Aheno-
barban family, that they were mostly, up to
the year b. c. 16, only sons, all of whom be-
came consuls and pontifices, and several ob-
tained triumphs. The remark, as will be
seen below, requires some allowance.

AHENOBARBI
(Gens Domitia).

(I.) Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, L. F. L.N.

Cos. B. c. 192.

(2.) Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, Cn. F. L. N.
Cos. suffect. B. c. 1G2.

(3.) Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, Cn. F. Cn. N.

Cos. B.C. 122.

Censor, b. c. 115.

(4.) Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, Cn. F. Cn. N.

Cos. B. c. 96.

Censor. B.C. 92.

(5.) L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, Cn. F. Cn. N.
Cos. B.C. 94.

(G.) Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus.

Father uncertain, probably No. 4.

Slain B. c. 81 in Africa ;

married

Cornelia, daughter of

L. Cornelius Cinna.

Cos. B. c. 87.

(7.) L. Domitius Ahenobarbus.

Cos. B. c. .54.

Married Porcia, sister of

M. Cato Uticensis.

(8.) Ca Domitius Ahenobarbus, L. Fj Cn. N.
Cos. B. c. 32.

(9.) L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, Cn. F. L. N.

Cos. B.C. 16.

Married Antonia major

(Minor, Tacit. Annal. iv. 44. xii. 64.),

daughter of M. Antonius Illvir and Octavia.

(10.) Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, L. F. Cn. N.

Cos. A.D.32.

Married Agrippina, daughter of Caesar Germanicus.

(11.) L. Domitius Ahenobarbus,

afterwards, by adoption,

Nero Claudius Cassar Augustus Germanicus,

became emperor A. i). 54.

AHENOBARBUS, CNE'IUS DOMI'-
TIUS, I. He was plebeian sedile in b.c.
196, and with the fines levied on those who
exceeded their rights of pasturage on the
public lands, built, in conjunction with his
colleague C. Scribonius Curio, a temple of
511

(12.) Domitia.

Married

Crispus Passienus.

(13.) Domitia Lepida.

Married
M. Valerius Messala.

W. B. D.

Faunus in the district of the city called In-
sula Tiberina, which he dedicated in B. c.
194, the year of his praetorship. Ahenobar-
bus was praitor urbanus, and in that office
presided over the appointment of commis-
sioners for establishing colonies in the neigh-

L L 4

AHENOBARBUS.

bourhood of Thurii and in Bruttium. Towards
the close of b. c. 193, Ahenobarbus and L.
Quinctius Flamininus were elected consuls
in preference to Publius Cornelius Scipio
Nasica, the brother, and to Caius Lselius, the
friend of the elder African us. War with
Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, was
then imminent; and the consuls of B.C. 192
were therefore directed by the senate to take
Italy for their joint province. But, should
hostilities break out, one of them, to be de-
termined by lot or agreement, was to hold
himself in readiness to cross the sea, and
empowered to raise two fresh legions. The
war, however, was deferred until the year
following, and Ahenobarbus proceeded by
way of Ariminum to his province, the coxm-
try of the Boii, which lay between the Taro
and the Po to the west and north, and between
the Apennines and the Rubicon to the south.
After laying waste their lands he received
the submission of the Boian nation, and re-
mained beyond the Rubicon, as proconsul,
until superseded, in B.C. 191, by the consul
P. Cornelius Scipio. Ahenobarbus was one
of the lieutenants of L. Cornelius Scipio
Asiaticus in the war with Antiochus, and
commanded a reconnoitring party previous
to the decisive action near the city of Mag-
nesia on the Hermus. Plutarch, in his
" Anecdotes and Sayings of the Romans,"
ascribes to this Ahenobarbus an important
victorj' in the war with Antiochus, of which
other historians are silent. The ox, which
in B.C. 192 uttered the warning, "Rome,
beware I " was the property of Ahenobarbus,
and the prodigy^ was the more remarkable
from its occurring in his consulship. (^Fasti
Capitolini v. c. 561 ; Livy, xxxiii. 42. xxxiv.
42. 53. XXXV. 10. 20. xxxvi. 37. ; Plutarch,
Apopthegmata liomana, Reiske's edit., vi. 745.)

W. B. D.
AHENOBARBUS, CNE'IUS DOMI'-
TIUS, II., son of Cneius Domitius Aheno-
barbus I. In the year B.C. 172 one of the
pontifices, Q. Fulvius Flaccus, destroyed him-
self, and Ahenobarbus, although he had not
attained the legal age, was appointed to the
vacant priesthood. In B.C. 169 he was one
of a commission of three appointed by the
senate at the request of iEmilius Paullus II.
to examine and report the state and position
of the fleet and legions in Macedonia, and to
collect information respecting the forces,
movements, and alliances of Perseus, the
Macedonian king. After the defeat of Per-
seus, he was one of ten commissioners who
were sent in b. c. 167 to arrange with
.ffimilius Paullus and L. Anicius the future
division and administration of Macedonia.
In B.C. 162 the consuls P. Cornelius Scipio
Nasica and C. INIarcius Figulus, in con-
sequence of an oversight of Tiberius Sem-
pronius Gracchus, consul in b. c. 163, in
taking the auspices at their comitia, were
compelled to resign, and Ahenobarbus with
512

Lucius Cornelius Lentulus were substituted
in their place. (Livj-, xlii. 8. xliv. 18. 20. ;
Cicero, I)e Natura Deorum, ii. 4., De Divi-
natione, i. 17. ii. 35.; Valerius Maximus, i.
1. § 3.) W. B. D,

AHENOBARBUS, CNE'IUS DOMI'-
TIUS, III., son of Cneius Domitius Aheno-
barbus II. The dates of his sedileship and
of his admission into the pontifical college
are imknown ; but the former was com-
memorated bj- coins, still extant, bearing on
the reverse a head of Jupiter. Ahenobarbus
was consul with C. Fannius Strabo b. c. 122,
and in the following year, as proconsul,
defeated the Allobroges and their ally Bituitus,
or Bittus, prince of the Arvemi — the modem
Pays d'Auvergne — at Vindalium, near the
confluence of the Sulga with the Rhone.
His victory was owing in great measure to
the terror inspired by his elephants in the
cavalry of the Gauls. In b. c. 121 Aheno-
barbus was superseded in his province by Q.
Fabius Maximus, who acquired the surname
Allobrogicus from his successful termination
of the war. Valerius Maximus relates that
Ahenobarbus, incensed with Bituitus for re-
commending his own nation the Arvemi
and their allies the Allobroges to submit
themselves to his successor Fabius rather
than to himself, seized, under pretence of a
conference, the person of Bituitus, and sent
him prisoner to Rome. Livy, however, ac-
cording to his epitomist, represented Bituitus
as having gone voluntarily to Rome to treat
with the senate, by whom he was detained
in captivity at Aiba. Ahenobarbus was
however deeply mortified at being compelled
to resign his command before he had com-
pleted the war. To perpetuate the memory
of his own exploits he constructed the Do-
mitian Road in his province, and erected
towers of stone, on which the arms of the
Ai-verni and Allobroges were suspended — a
deviation from the ordinary practice of the
Romans, who seldom raised trophies. His
mode of travelling in his province, mounted
on an elephant and surrounded with almost
triumphal pomp, betrayed also a desire of
distinction or mortified vanity. Ahenobar-
bus triumphed at Rome for his victory over
the Arverni, and, according to Cicero, over
the Allobroges also, in b. c. 120. In their
censorship, b. c. 115, Ahenobarbus and his
colleague L. Ca;cilius Metellus Dalmaticus
prohibited all scenic exhibitions at Rome
except that of the Latin flute-players, and all
games of chance except chess or draughts,
and expelled from the senate thirty -two of
its members, and among them C. Licinius
Geta, who afterwards became himself censor,
B.C. 108. (Appian, De Eehus Gallicis, fragm.
xii. ; Cicero, Brutus, 26., Pro Fontelo, 4. 12.;
Florus, iii. 2. ; Velleius Paterculus, ii. 10.
39. ; Strabo, iv. 191. ; Valerius Maximus, ix.
6. ; Eutropius, iv. 22. ; Suetonius, Nero, 1,2.;
Pliny, Hist. Nat. ii. 32.) W. B. D.

AHENOBARBUS.

AHENOBARBUS, CNE'IUS DOMI'-
TIUS, IV., son of Cneius Doniitius Aheno-
barbus III. In his tribuneship (n. c. 104)
he brought forward and carried the Domitian
law (Lex Domitia de Sacerdotiis), by which
the election of the priests of the superior
colleges was transferred to the people, pro-
bably in their assembly of the tribes. By
this law the people made choice of a candi-
date, who then became by co-optation a
member of the college, and thus the people
really appointed the priesthood, and the co-
optatio, although still necessary, remained a
mere form. A similar attempt had been
previously made in B.C. 145, by the tribune
C. Licinius Crassus, but was frustrated, on
religious grounds, by the praetor C Laelius.
The Domitian law was repealed by the Lex
Cornelia de Sacerdotiis of L. Cornelius Sulla -,
revived at the instigation of Julius Caesar by
the tribune Labienus in b.c. 63 with certain
modifications, and again annulled by Marcus
Antonius, the triumvir. Ahenobarbus is
said to have proposed this law from a desire
to avenge himself on the pontifices, who had
refused to adopt him into their college in the
room of his deceased father. Soon after the
passing of the law, the people evinced their
gratitude to Ahenobarbus by electing him
pontifex maximus. As tribime, Ahenobar-
bus undertook several impeachments, princi-
pally of those who had oflfended him by their
neglect or opposition. Of these the most
remarkable were the prosecutions of M.
Junius Silanus, and of !M. iEmilius Scaurus.
Silanus in his consulship (b. c. 109) had
attacked the Cimbri in Gaul, without orders
from either the senate or the people, and
been defeated by them. This was the pre-
text of the impeachment ; but its true cause
was, according to Cicero, that Silanus had
wronged or insulted the Gaul iEgritomarus,
an hereditary friend of the Ahenobarbi. The
accusation of Scaurus had also a nominal and
a secret motive. Scaurus had neglected or
performed carelessly some of the more an-
cient sacrifices of the Roman people, v.^d,
among others, the worship of the Penates at
Lavinium. But he had also delayed or re-
fused the adoption of Ahenobarbus into the
college of augurs. Both Silanus and Scau-
rus were, however, acquitted. In connection
with the prosecution of Scaurus an instance
of forbearance is recorded of Ahenobarbus.
During the preparations for the trial a slave
of the defendant's offered to give evidence
against his master ; but Ahenobarbus sent
him back to his owner, unheard. Aheno-
barbus was consul in b.c. 96 with C. Cassius
Longinus, and censor in b. c. 92 with L.
Licinius Crassus the orator. Crassus and
Ahenobarbus disagreed on everj- point of
their official duties, except in regarding the
schools of the Latin rhetoricians as injurious
to public morals and in suppressing them.
In their frequent discussions, Ahenobarbus,
513

whose temper was vehement and irascible,
was the object of his colleague's more dex-
terous rhetoric and readier wit. In allusion
to his family name (Ahenobarbus), Crassus
said, " it was not extraordinary that his beard
was of brass, since his mouth was of iron
and his heart of lead." In return, he re-
torted upon Crassus his sumptuous mode of
life, his house on the Palatine with its
columns of Hymettian marble, his fish-ponds,
and his favourite lamprey whose death he
lamented as if his daughter and not his fish
were dead. Yet, if Crassus excelled him in
the art of eliciting laughter, Ahenobarbus,
from the gravity of his character, the force
of his invectives, and his experience in
speaking, enjoyed considerable reputation
among his contemporaries as an orator. Ci-
cero, indeed, says that he had eloquence
enough for his official and consular dignity ;
but, had Ahenobarbus refrained from attack-
ing the aristocracy, he would probably have
been mentioned with more respect by the
great orator and critic of Rome. Sigonius
(^Fasti, V. c. 662.) has collected the various
passages in which the disputes of Aheno-
barbus and Crassus in their censorship are
related. A characteristic anecdote is pre-
served by Valerius Maximus, ix. 1. § 4.
(For the nvmierous references to Ahenobar-
bus (IV.) in Cicero, see Ernesti, Clavis, or
Orellius, Onomasticon Ciceronianum, v. "Do-
mitius ;" Valerius Maximus, vi. 5. § 5. ix. 1.
§ 4. ; Suetonius, Nero, 2. ; Asconius, in Scau-
rianam, p. 21., in Comelianam, p. 80. ; Livy,
Epitome, 65. 67. ; Pliny, Hist. Nat. xvii. 1. ;
Aulus Gellius, Noctes Attica, xv. 11. ; Ma-
crobius, Saturnalia, ii. 11, &c.) W. B. D.
AHENOBARBUS, CNE'IUS DOMI-
TIUS, probably a son of Ahenobarbus IV.
He married Cornelia, daughter of L. Cornelius
Cinna, consul in b.c. 87, and with him em-
braced the Marian or popular party in the
first civil war, b.c. 87 — 81. When proscribed
by Sulla, Ahenobarbus fled to Africa, where,
I aided by the Numidian king Hiarbas, he as-
sembled a considerable army, to which many,
under similar proscription, attached them-
selves. On the appearance, however, of Cneius
Pompeius, as Sulla's lieutenant, in the neigh-
bourhood of Utica, Ahenobarbus was deserted
by 7000 of his soldiers. Pompeius attacked
the remainder during their retreat, and after
witnessing the defeat of his followers, Aheno-
barbus fell in the storming of his camp. He
was very young at the time of his death.
According to some accoimts he was not slain
in battle, but executed afterwards, together
with his ally, Hiarbas, by command of Pom-
peius, B.C. 81. (Plutarch, Pompeius, 10, 12. ;
Livy, Epitome, 89. ; Valerius Maximus, vi. 2.
§ 8.) W. B. D.

AHENOBARBUS, CNE'IUS DOMI'-
TIUS, VIII., son of Ahenobarbus VII., and
of Porcia, sister of Marcus Cato the younger.
In b. c. 59 he appeared, but on what grounds

AHENOBARBUS.

AIIENOBARBUS.

is unknown, as the prosecutor of Cneius
Saturninus. In the year following he was
captured with his father in Corfiuium
[Ahenobarbus VII.], and experienced Cae-
sar's clemency. Since, however, on the 8th
of March in the same year, he passed by
Cicero's Formian villa on his way to Naples,
he probably did not accompany his father to
Marseille, but proceeded at once to the Pom-
peian camp in Greece. After the defeat of
the Pompeians at Pharsalus, Ahenobarbus
laid down his arms, but did not repair to Italy
until Caesar's return from the East. He was
again pardoned ; but his father's and his
uncle Cato's death made a cordial recon-
ciliation with the dictator impossible. Yet it
does not appear that Ahenobarbus took part
in Cesar's murder ; nor does he seem to
have joined the conspirators afterwards in
the Capitol, when many flocked to them from
desire to be thought accomplices. Cicero
and Dion Cassius, indeed, affirm the participa-
tion of Ahenobarbus ; but the orator was
■wont to magniiy the number of the con-
spirators, in order that their act might seem
less that of individuals than of the senate ;
and the historian inferred the presence of
Ahenobarbus on the Ides of March, merely
from his having been proscribed by Octa-
vianus. Appian and Suetonius, however,
deny, on better evidence, the pai'ticipation of
Ahenobarbus ; the former of whom had be-
fore him the contemporary memoirs of Coc-
ceius Nerva, a mutual friend of both the
ti'iumvirs, Antonius and Octavianus. But
Ahenobarbus aided the principal conspirators
in building and equipping a fleet on the coast
of Tuscany, and, since he had an estate there,
probably with his own slaves and materials.
In the following September he accompanied
Brutus to Athens, and rendered the republi-
can party an important service in Macedonia
by inducing a portion of the cavalry of Dola-
bella, the proconsul of Syria, to desert. Ahe-
nobarbus was connected by marriage with
both Brutus and Cassius. Porcia, the wife
of M. Brutus, was his first cousin, and Cas-
sius was married to a sister of Brutus. Under
these circumstances, Ahenobarbus may well
have been suspected of taking part in Ca?sar's
destruction, and was thus included in the
prosecution of the conspirators in b. c. 43,
under the Pedian law. In b.c. 42, Ahe-
nobarbus, at the head of fifty galleys and one
legion, which he had himself collected and
organised, acted as lieutenant to Statins Mur-
cus in the Adriatic and Ionian seas. They
intercepted the communication of the trium-
virs with Italy, and threatened Rome with
famine by capturing the corn fleets. In an
engagement with Domitius Calvinus ofi" the
harbour of Brundisium, Ahenobarbus gained
the title of " Imperator." Yet, after the de-
feat of the republican party at Philippi, he
did not with Statins Murcus join Sextus
Pompeius in Sicily, but continued to cruise
514

with seventy galleys in the Adriatic Sea,
which he supported by plundering the coasts
of Italy and Epirus. In B.C. 41 the siege of
Perusia brought Marcus Antonius to Italy,
and Ahenobarbus seized the opportunity of
throwing up his independent and now dan-
gerous command, and securing for himself a
protector in the triumvir. He became one of
Antonius's lieutenants ; but since the ap-
pointment gave offence to Octavianus, who
regarded Ahenobarbus as one of his uncle's
murderers, he was sent, by the advice of
Cocceius Nerva, into an honorary exile, as
governor of Bithynia. Cocceius, however,
eventually persuaded Octavianus that Aheno-
barbus had no share in Caesar's death, and he
was accordingly absolved from the Pedian
law, and, at the celebrated congress of the
triumvirs and Sextus Pompeius off the pro-
montory of Misenum, he was nominated one
of the consuls elect for b. c. 32. Aheno-
barbus remained some time longer in the
East, and accompanied Marcus Antonius on
his disastrous expedition against the Par-
thians (b.c. 36) ; and when it became neces-
sary to recross the Araxes, he was deputed
by Antonius, who from grief and shame
dared not leave his tent, to inform the legions
of the order for retreat. On the 1st of
January, B.C. 32, Ahenobarbus, as had been
agreed, became consul ; but his colleague's
(C. Sosius) intemperate declaration in favour
of M. Antonius obliged both consuls presently
to quit Rome. Ahenobarbus found Antonius
at Ephesus, and Cleopatra with him. With her
he speedily quarrelled. He advised her dis-
missal to Alexandria, and refused to address
her by her assumed title " the queen of
kings." Just before the battle of Actium
(b. c. 31) Ahenobarbus sought a new pro-
tector in Octavianus. Antonius pretended
that his passion for Servilia Nais caused him
to desert, and sent after him his baggage and
slaves. But Ahenobarbus was of little ser-
vice to his last patron : sickness had already
enfeebled him, and he died of fever, aggra-
vated by anxiety and disappointment, a few
days after the defeat of Antonius at Actium.
A coin is extant with the inscription " cn .
DOMIT . AHENOBARBUS . IMP . anni 714" on
the reverse, which shows the orthography of
this family of the Gens Domitia to be Aheno
and not ^?io-barbus. The twenty-second
letter of the sixth book of Cicero's epistles
"Ad Familiares" is addressed to Ahenobar-
bus VIII. Suetonius calls him the best of his
race. (Cicero, Philippic, ii. 11. 27. x. 6, 13. ;
Ad Familiares, viii. 14. 1. ; Plutarch, Brutus,
25. and Antonius; Appian, Civil War, v. 55.
63. 65. ; Dion Cassius, xlvii. xlviii. 4. ; Vel-
leius Paterculus, ii. 72. 76. 84. ; Suetonius,
Nero, 3.) W. B. D.

AHENOBARBUS, CNEIUS DOMI'-
TIUS, L. F. CN. N., X., son of Ahenobar-
bus IX. and of Antonia (major) daughter
of the triumvir Antonius and of Octavia

AHENOBARBUS.

sister of Augustus. Ilis high birth recoiu-
ineiidfd Ahonobarbus in A. d. 28 to Tiberius
for the husband of Agrippina, daughter of
Gei-manicus Cfcsar. The Emperor Nero was
the offspring of this marriage. Ahenobarbus
was consul in a. d. 32, and afterwards pro-
consul of Sicily. His character was marked
by extreme profligacy and ferocity. He was
dismissed from the train of Caius Ca?sar for
the wanton murder of one of his own freed-
men ; and he tore out in the forum the eye
of a Roman knight who had offended him.
In his praetorship (the date of which is un-
kno^vn) he defrauded the auctioneers of the
produce of the public sales, and the winners
in the chariot-races of their prizes. To-
wards the close of the reign of Tiberius,
Ahenobarbus was convicted, as the accom-
plice of Albucilla, of the twofold crime of
adultery and murder, and on the graver
charge of incest with his sister Domitia
Lepida ; but the death of the emperor pre-
vented the execution of the sentence. When
congratulated on the birth of his son L. Do-
mitius (afterwards Nero), he replied that
nothing but what was monstrous and baneful
to the state coidd ever proceed from Agrip-
pina and himself. He died of dropsy at
Pyrgi in Etruria. (Suetonius, Nero, 5, 6. ;
Velleius Paterculus, ii. 10. 72. ; Tacitus,
Annal. iv. 75. vi. 1. 47., 12. 64.) W. B. D.
AHE'NOBARBUS, LU'CIUS DOMF-
TIUS, v., son of Cneius Domitius Aheno-
barbus III., and brother of Ahenobarbus IV.
He was propraetor in Sicily shortly after the
termination of the servile war in that island,
B.C. 99. The edicts of successive prators
had declared it death for a slave to be found
with weapons. A boar of unusual size was
brought to Ahenobarbus, who inquired in
what manner and by whom it had been slain.
A slave, armed with a hunting spear, pre-
sented himself, and expecting reward or com-
mendation for his prowess, boasted that he
had killed the animal with that weapon, and
was immediately ordered by the propraetor to
be crucified for his breach of the law. In
the first civil war (b.c. 87 — 81), Ahenobar-
bus espoused the party of the senate, and,
by order of the younger Marius, was put to
death at Rome by the praetor Damasippus,
B. c. 82. Lucius, as well as his brother
Cneius (IV.), was the friend of Q. Ccccilius
Metellus Numidicus, who wrote to them
during his exile. A fragment of his letter is
preserved by Aulus Gellius, " Noctes Atticae,"
XV. 1 3. (Cicero, Verrin. v. 3. ; Valerius
Maximus, vi. 3. § 5. ; Velleius Paterculus,
ii. 26. ; Appian, Civil War, i. 88.) W. B. D.
AHENOBARBUS, LU'CIUS DOMI-
TIUS, VII., son of Ahenobarbus IV. He
gave evidence against Verres (b. c. 70), and
was described by Cicero, on that occasion, as
the foremost and most illustrious of the
young men of Rome. The games which he
exhibited in his curale aedileship (b. c. 61)
515

were recorded in the annals of the city. "On
the 18th of September in the consulship of
Piso and Messala, Domitius Ahenobarbus,
curule aedile, brought into the circus one
hundred Nuniidian bears, and as many .Ethi-
opian hunters." Pliny, who has preserved
this extract from the Annals, remarks, how-
ever, that " the bear is not a native of Africa."
At these games began also the practice of
allowing a pause in the spectacles — (diliulium)
(Horace, Ep. i. 19. 47.), during which the
spectators withdrew to refresh themselves.
Cicero, in a letter to Atticus (b. c. 65), repre-
sents Ahenobarbus as at that time possessed
of considerable popular influence, and one
thei'efore whose interest in the comitia it was
necessary for him to secure in his own can-
vass for the consulship. Ahenobarbus also
supported Marcus Cato the younger, whose
sister Porcia he had married, in his measures
(b. c. 61) for the prevention or restraint of
bribery at elections, and thus drew on him-
self for a while the hatred of the aristocracy.
Ahenobarbus, however, soon lost his popu-
larity with the many, and acquired the con-
fidence of the senatorian party. Cicero looked
forward to his praetorship for protection
against Clodius ; and Caesar, regarding Ahe-
nobarbus as a formidable antagonist, probably
instructed his creature, the infonner Vettius,
to include his name in the pretended plot
against Cneius Pompeius, since the house of
Ahenobarbus was named as the place of
meeting for the conspirators. Ahenobarbus
was praetor in b. c. 58. But there is no trace
either of his protecting Cicero against Clo-
dius, or of his exertions in the repeal of
Cicero's exile. They belonged, indeed, to
the same political party, but were not per-
sonal friends. The Julian laws of b. c. 59,
the consulship of Caesar and Bibulus, were
rather the object of his attack, and Caesar
and Ahenobarbus mutually inveighed against
one another in the senate. With his colleague
in the praetorship, C. Memmius, he impeached
the validity of Caesar's acts, and attempted to
wrest from him his provinces the Gauls.
The senate, however, dared not encourage
Ahenobarbus, since Caesar, with his pro-
consular army was still in the suburbs.
Ahenobarbus was more successful in with-
standing the seditious and insidious bill of
the tribune Cneius Manlius, by which it was
proposed that freedmen, instead of being re-
stricted to the four city tribes, should vote
indifferently in all the tribes. Ahenobarbus
attacked also the farmers of the revenue,
and was distinguished at this period for his
professions of independence and rough de-
meanour. He would neither ask nor grant
favours ; reproached one of his colleagues,
Appius, for soliciting Cwsar ; and declared he
would recommend no one to office, not even
to the tribuneship of a legion. At Lucca, in
April, b. c. 56, the compact was made be-
tween Pompeius, Crassus, and Caesar, by

AHENOBARBUS.

which the consulship was secured to the two
former for b. c. 55, and, in return, the term
of Caesar's proconsulship was extended. Cato,
however, and the leaders of the senate, by
whom Ahenobarbus was now regarded as a
strenuous partisan, urged him to oppose this
illegal agreement, and to offer hunself as a
candidate for the consulship. Prompted by
hatred to Cajsar, and confident of success,
Ahenobarbus prematurely boasted " that he
would effect, when consul, what he could not
do when praetor, rescind Caesar's acts, and
recall him from his government." On the
morning of the comitia he was, however,
driven from the Field of Mars by an armed
band : the slave who carried the torch before
him was slain, and Cato wounded in the arm.
In the following year (b. c. 54) Ahenobarbus
was consul, but with him was associated
Appius Claudius Pulcher, a relation of Pom-
peius. His consulship was, however, in-
efficient. C. Cato, who as tribune in b. c. 56
had obstructed the consular comitia, and
Gabinius, the partisan of Pompeius, who had
disobeyed the senate in restoring Ptolemseus
Auletes, king of Egypt, were both impeached
by him, and both acquitted : and notwith-
standing his opposition, Julia, Caesar's daugh-
ter and the wife of Pompeius, was interred in
the Field of Mars without a previous decree
of the senate authorising a pubUc funeral.
The consular elections for b. c. 53 displayed
an open disregard of both law and principle
and, in procuring the return of his kinsman
Cneius Domitius Calvinus, Ahenobarbus
yielded to no one in effrontery and corrup-
tion. No province was assigned him on the
termination of his consulship, and as the
breach between Pompeius and Caesar was
now daily becoming more apparent, he at-
tached himself to the party of the former.
He presided at the trial of T. Annius Milo,
in B. c. 52, and when the news arrived at
Rome of Caesar's defeat by the Bellovaci
(Beauvois), Ahenobarbus zealously pro-
claimed his satisfaction and his hopes. On
the death of Hortensius the celebrated orator
in B. c. 50, Ahenobarbus was a candidate for
the vacant augurship. He had made, how-
ever, an enemy in M. Caelius by encouraging
Appius Claudius, censor in b. c. 50, in his
prosecution of Caelius ; and the latter, aided
by the tribune C. Curio and Caesar's gold,
procured the election of Marcus Antonius.

When in b. c. 49 the civil war at length
broke out, Ahenobarbus, animated probably
by the decree of the Pompeian senate ap-
pointing him successor to Caesar in Gaul,
displayed more firmness and sagacity than
either Pompeius or his lieutenants. At the
head of about twenty cohorts he seized on
Corfinium, a strongly fortified town in the
country of the Pelignians, and employed
every means to make good his defence. He
encouraged the garrison by promising from
his own estate four jugera of land to every
516

common soldier, and proportionable assign-
ments to the tribunes and centurions. He
planted engines in all parts of the walls, and,
properly supported, might probably have long
delayed Caesar's march on Rome. But Pom-
peius, either distrusting his own followers, or
determined to make Greece the seat of war,
wrote urgently to Domitius to abandon the
town before Caesar surrounded it, and to join
him at Brundisium. Cssar, however, had
already invested Corfinium, and his own
troops compelled Ahenobarbus, who had
made a fruitless effort to escape, to open the
gates. Despairing of the conqueror's cle-
mency, Ahenobarbus ordered one of his
slaves, a physician, to administer to him a
dose of poison. But Caesar dismissed unhurt
all the prisoners of rank ; and to Ahenobar-
bus he restored six millions of sesterces
(48,437/.) which that general had brought
with him to Corfinium. His dose of poison
proved to have been merely a sleeping
draught, and he was again free to prosecute
his enmity against Caesar. It was for some
time uncertain whither Ahenobarbus had
gone ; but in that interval he manned a fleet
of seven galleys with slaves, peasants, and
freedmen from his estates in Tuscany, and
proceeded to Marseille. He was appointed
governor of the city, and his active mea-
sures, although they did not delay Caesar's
march to Spain, made it necessary to detach
three legions, and to equip a fleet for the
siege of Marseille. But the city was even-
tually compelled to yield, and Ahenobarbus
made his escape, during a storm, with only
three vessels. Two of these were pursued
by Decimus Brutus, and obliged to return ;
the third alone, with Ahenobarbus on board,
cleared the harbour. In the following year
(b. c. 48) Ahenobarbus was with the Pom-
peian army in Thessaly. Here, as if the
issue of the war had been certain, he con-
tested fiercely with Lentulus Spinther and
Metellus Scipio for the reversion of the high
priesthood with which Caesar was invested.
He moved in council also, that after Caesar's
destruction a commission should be ap-
pointed to inquire into the conduct of the
senate generally, with reference to the war.
For those who had remained at Rome he
proposed the penalty of death ; for such as
had withdrawn into provinces under the
command of Pompeius, but had taken no
part in the war, a fine ; while those alone who
were present in the camp should be exempt
from punishment. To the second of these
classes belonged Marcus Cicero, whom Ahe-
nobarbus had publicly upbraided with cow-
ardice. At the battle of Pharsalus he led
the left wing of the Pompeians, and was slain
by Caesar's cavalry in his flight from the
camp. Cicero, in his second Philippic,
ascribed the death of Ahenobarbus to Marcus
Antonius, but the charge has no other found-
ation than the orator's assertion : and Ci-

AHENOBARBUS.

cero, at different times, wrote very differently
about Ahenobarbus. One while he was a
most illustrious citizen ; at another, no one of
the Pompeians was more foolish ; and the
author of the letter to Caesar " On the ad-
ministration of the Republic," usually in-
cluded in Sallust's works, describes him as a
man polluted with every vice. As a speaker,
Ahenobarbus is represented by Cicero as
uncultivated, but as expressing himself with
much freedom and in correct language. His
ffidileship, his promise of four jugera of -land
to each of the soldiers in Corfinium, and his
subsequent equipment of ships from his
estate at Cosa, show Ahenobarbus to have
been wealthy ; and Dion remarks that he pro-
fited by Sulla's proscriptions. Both in peace
and war he exhibited the character of an un-
scrupulous and relentless partisan. (Emesti
Clavis Ciceronia, or Orellius, Onomasticon
Ciceronianum, " Domitius Ahenobarbus ;"
Suetonius, Ccesar, 23. Nero, 2. ; Pliny, Nat.
Hist. viii. 54. ; Dion Cassius, xxxvii. 46.
xxxix. 41. 60. 62. xli. 11., and the various
references to Domitius Ahenobarbus in the
Index Historicus to Caesar's Bellum Civile;
Pseudo-Sallustius, in Gerlach's Sallust, p. 275.)

W. B. D.
AHENOBARBUS, LU'CIUS DOMI'-
TIUS, IX., son of Ahenobarbus VIII. In
his youth he was celebrated as a charioteer.
At the meeting of the triumvirs at Taren-
tum (B.C. 36) he was selected for the hus-
band of Antonia (Antonia major), eldest
daughter of Marcus Antonius and Octavia.
Tacitus, indeed, (Annal. iv. 44.) says, that he
married the younger daughter (Antonia
minor), but Suetonius represents Antonia
minor as married to Drusus Nero, brother of
the Emperor Tiberius. Ahenobarbus was
curule aedile in b.c. 22, and displayed in that
office the arrogance which Suetonius imputes
to him, by compelling L. Munatius Plancus,
censor in that year, to yield him precedence.
By a recent edict of Augustus, the public spec-
tacles had been placed under control of the
praetors, and a portion of their cost was de-
frayed by the treasury. But Ahenobarbus
so greatly abused his powers, that, after fruit-
less admonitions, Augustus was at length
compelled to restrain by edict the licence,
tumult, and bloodshed which he had intro-
duced into the city. Roman knights and
matrons were brought upon the stage ; com-
bats with wild beasts exhibited in every
quarter of Rome ; and the arena thronged
with an army of gladiators. Ahenobarbus
was consul in b.c. 16, and received the com-
mand of the legions of the Rhine. He
crossed the Elbe, and advanced the Roman
eagles farther into Northern Europe than
any former proconsul. For his services in
this campaign, Ahenobarbus received the
triumphal ornaments. He died in a. d. 25.
Suetonius describes him as proud, prodigal,
and pitiless. (Suetonius, Nero, 4, 5. ; Taci-
517

tus, AnnaJes, iv. 44. ; Velleius Paterculus,
ii. 72.; Dion Cassius, liv. 2. 19. Iv. 31.;
Dion confounds Ahenobarbus IX. with VIII.,
xlviii. 54.) W. B. D.

AHENOBARBUS, LU'CIUS DOMI'-
TIUS, XI. [Nero.]

AHI'J AH, (in Hebrew, riTIi* ; in the LXX.
'Ax'o or 'Axiay ; in Josephus, 'Axias ; in the
Vulg. A/lias;) a Hebrew prophet, of the age
of Solomon and his son Rehoboam. Perhaps
he was the same person as Ahijah the Levite,
to whom David, at the close of his reign,
gave charge of the dedicated or sacred things,
and other treasures of the house of God. He
was a native of Shiloh, and, at least in later
life, a resident there. He declared to Jero-
boam, while yet in a private station, the pur-
pose of God to give him the sovereignty of
ten of the tribes of Israel, as a punishment
for the idolatry into which Solomon had
fallen. This declaration coming to Solomon's
ears, excited his jealousy, and he sought to
slay Jeroboam, who fled into Egypt.

In the extremity of old age, Ahijah was
consulted by Jeroboam, now king of the ten
tribes, as to the recovery of his son Abijah,
who was ill. The inquiry was made by the
wife of Jeroboam, in disguise ; but her rank
and character were revealed by God to Ahi-
jah, who was now blind. The prophet was
commissioned to rebuke the apostasy of Je-
roboam, and to denounce ruin against his
dynasty and house ; and also to declare that
the child about whom the inquiry was made
should die as soon as his mother returned
home, which was fulfilled.

Ahijah was the author of a written pro-
phecy, in which many historical particulars
of Solomon's reign were given. It is referred
to by the author of the books of Chronicles,
to whose mention of it alone we owe our
knowledge that it ever existed. It is now
lost. (1 Kings, xi. xiv. ; 1 Chron. xxvi. 20. ;
2 Chron. ix. 29. ; Josephus, Jewish Anliq.
VIII. vii. 7, 8. xi. 1.) J. C. M.

AHI'MELECH. [Saci-.]

AHLE, JOHANN GEORG, a poet and
musician, the son of Johann Rudolph Able,
was bom at Miihlhausen, in 1650. He so early
and diligently devoted himself to scientific
studies, and especially to music, that while yet
a youth he was chosen to succeed his father
as organist of the church of St. Blasius in
that town, in 1673. He was one of the
most diligent writers of his time ; for during
a period of thirty years he annually published
some practical or theoretical work on his art.
Many of his labours were destroyed by the
great fire at Miihlhausen in 1689, and copies
of his works are now very rare. These were
of a varied kind, comprising songs, with and
without instrumental accompaniments, hymns
and sacred songs, and instrumental pieces.
(Gerber, Lexicon der Tonkiinstler.') E. T.

AHLE, JOHANN RUDOLPH, organist
at Miihlhausen, was born in that town, Dec

AHLE.

AHLI.

24, 1625. He studied successively at the
universities of Gottingeu and Eri'urt. At
Erfurt he was appointed cantor in the church
of St. Andrew, where he distinguished him-
self by his diligence and ability in the dis-
charge of his duties, and the publication of
some elementary and practical works. Ilis
reputation reached his native town, and on
the death of the organist of the church of St.
Blasius in 1649, he was appointed his suc-
cessor. He was afterwards elected a member
of the council, and finally burgomaster of
Miihlhausen : but his attachment to his art
remained unabated, as his frequent publica-
tions sufficiently evidence. He died in 1673.
Gerber gives a list of twenty of his published
works, which are chiefly motets and hymns,
with some instrumental compositions, and two
elementary works m the Latin language.
(Gerber, Lexicon der Tonkiiiistler.) E. T.

AHLI OF KHORA'SA'N, a Persian poet
who lived in the first half of the sixteenth cen-
tury. The author of the " A'tash Kada" gives
several extracts from his works, but a very
meagre account of the poet, which is in sub-
stance as follows : — " He was born in the town
of Tarshiz, and was the author of a Divan, or
collection of odes. For a considerable period
he sojourned in Hindustan. He also composed
a celebrated work with the title of " Saki-
nama," which, according to Fakir Hasan, is
not to be surpassed." We are not aware that
any of this poet's works are yet in print,
and we believe that the manuscripts of them
are very rare in this country. Von Hammer,
in his valuable work, " Geschichte der Schonen
Redekiinste Persiens," page 376, gives a brief
notice of this poet, with several extracts from
liis works, wliich may probably have been
accessible to that learned orientalist. (^Atush
Kadd, India House MS.) D. F.

AHLI SHI'RA'ZI, a celebrated Persian
poet, born at Shiraz, about the middle of the
fifteenth century. Of several Persian authors
who have given a brief account of Ahli, none
mentions the precise time of his birth, though
they all agree respecting the year in which
he died. He seems to have led a life of
religious retirement, being distinguished as
one of the luminaries of the Shiah sect. In
a biographical work called the " Haft Aklim,"
or "Seven Regions," it is stated that "in
clearness of understanding and purity of sen-
timent Ahli was superior to all the poets of
his own time. During his residence at Shi-
raz he produced many beautiful specimens.
He afterwards removed to Herat, the capital
of Khorasan, where he wrote his first book
of Kasidas (a peculiar kind of odes), which
he dedicated to 'All Shir, vizir of Sultan
Husain." After his return to Persia, he was
graciously received at the court of Shah
Ismail Sufi, to whom the third and last book
of his odes is dedicated. The Kasidas of
Ahli are greatl)' admired by his countrymen,
on account both of their natural and artificial
518

beauties. They are all so contrived as to
convey two different meanings. In common
copies, where only one kind of ink is used,
the reader would probably discover no more
than the plain and obvious signification ; but
in the finer copies of the poet's works, certain
letters are written in red ink, and others in
black, so that by reading the red letters
alone, there will result a new and condensed
ode, strictly accurate in language, metre, and
sentiment. Ahli states, in his preface, that
he composed his Kasidas in imitation of
Khaja Salman, a celebrated poet, who lived
at the court of Sultan Sanjar, of the Seljuki
dynasty, about the middle of the twelfth
century. For a complete list of Ahli's works,
the reader is referred to Stewart's " Catalogue
of Tipu Sultan's Library." In page 67. of
that work, there is described a beautifully
written copy of Ahli's whole works, presented
by the poet himself to Shah Ismail Sufi,
(a.d. 1514,) and stamped with the royal seal
of Persia. This rare work is now in the
possession of the East India Company. None
of Ahli's works has yet been printed, so far
as we know, nor are they often met with in
Europe. Perhaps the most common of thera
is his collection of odes under the title of
Diviin*, which is a favourite species of com-
position with most Persian poets, from An-
vari downwards. If Ahli is not entitled to
rank among the very highest of the Persian
poets, yet few, if any, of those who have
written since his time can be considered his
equals. He was the " prince of poets " of his
own age, a title which his contemporaries
elegantly bestowed on him after his death.
The numerical values of the letters compos-
ing the Persian anagram, " Eadshah i shu'ara
bud Ahli," that is, " Ahli was the prince of
poets," amount, when added together, to the
year of the Hijra 942, in which he died,
which corresponds with the Christian year
1535. (Atash Kadd; Stev,' art's Catalogue ;
and a beautiful copy of the poet's works, in
possession of the author of this notice.)

D. F.
AHLWARDT, CHRISTIAN WIL-
HELM, was bom at Greifswald, on the 23d
of July, 1760. He studied at the gymnasium
and the university of his native town, and
devoted himself principally to the study of
languages, both ancient and modern. After
the completion of his studies, in 1782, he ob-
tained a situation as private tutor in a family
at Rostock, but he did not remain long in
this situation : he preferred supporting him-
self by private lessons to being dependent
on the caprices of parents. In 1 792 he went
to Demmin, where he gained a scanty sub-
sistence as teacher. He remained, however,
in this place for three years ; and, as he con-
tinued his linguistic studies with unabated
zeal, and also began to be known as a writer,

• This work the author of the "Atash Kada" says
he had never scon.

AHLWARDT.

AIILWARDT.

chiefly as a translator of ancient poetry, he
was, iu 1705, invited to undertake the manage-
ment of the public school at Anklam iu
Pomerania. J. H. Voss entertained a very
liigh opinion of the talent of Ahhvardt, as well
as of his translations ; and it was through his
influence that, in 1797, he was appointed
rector and principal professor of the gym-
nasium of Oldenburg. Here he remained
till 1811, when his ovra native town, proud
of his growing fame, appointed him rector of
its gj-mnasium, in addition to which he was,
in 1818, honoured with the professorship of
ancient literature in the university of Greifs-
wald. Here he continued his favourite studies
with the most indefatigable zeal, except when
they were interrupted by a complaint in the
eyes, Irom which he suffered during the last
twenty-five years of his life. He died at
Greifswald on the 12th of April, 1830.

Ahlwardt's whole life was spent on the
study of languages, and on the best works
written in them. He was an excellent Greek
and Latin scholar, and knew most of the
languages of modern Europe. During the
earlier part of his life, he was principally
engaged in the study of the ancient writers,
and of the Portuguese and Gaelic languages.
His chief merit, however, is as a translator,
in which Voss's translation of Homer was his
great model. His first essays, which appeared
in several periodicals, were translations from
Pindar, Euripides, Virgil, Ovid, Catullus,
Juvenal, Claudian, Camoens, and Shakspere.
The first separate work that he published
was a German translation of the hymns and
epigrams of Callimachus, Berlin, 1794, 8vo.
This was followed by a translation of the
satires of Ariosto in the same year, and some
others of the same kind. In 1806 he pub-
lished a Portugxiese anthologj", in a German
translation : " Gedichte aus dem Portu-
giesischen iibersetzt," Oldenburg, 4to. A
new impulse was given to his studies by the
publication of the Gaelic original of Ossian's
poems, at London, in 1807. Ahlwardt im-
mediately took up the study of Gaelic ; and,
although there were already several German
translations of Ossian from Macpherson's
English version, Ahlwardt, who was ambitious
to do for the supposed Gaelic poet what Voss
had done for Homer, published a specimen of
a new translation of Ossian from the Gaelic
original, which appeared under the title
" Probe einer neuen Ueberset2amg des Ossian
aus dem Gaelischen Original," Hamburg,
1808, 4to. He now devoted several years of
uninterrupted study to Ossian, and in 1811
he produced his translation of all the poems :
" Die Gedichte Ossians, aus dem Gaelischen
im Sylbenmasse des Originals," Leipzig,
3 vols. 8vo. The translation is preceded by
a dissertation on the versification of Gaelic
poetry, and on the principles which he
had adopted in his attempt to nationalise
Ossian among the Germans. This subject of

."jig

Ossian's pooms is further discussed under
Macpherson. Another fruit of his study of
Ossian is a grammar of the Gaelic language,
which is printed in J. S. Vater's " Ver-
gleichungstafeln der Europaeischen Stamm-
sprachen," &c. Halle, 1822, 8vo. Besides
several other and less important translations,
Ahlwardt wrote a considerable number of
essays on ancient poetry, on grammar, on
prosody, and similar subjects, which are con-
tained in various periodicals. One among
them, of great interest, on the " Nibelungen-
Lied," is in the " Transactions of the Acade-
my of Greifswald," vol. i. p. 99, &c. ^Vhat
Ahlwardt has done for classical literature is of
little value, compai-ed with what he has done
for the nationalisation of foreign literature in
Gennany. He published two supplements to
Schneider's Greek Lexicon, one in 1808, at
Rostock, and the second in 1813, at Greifs-
wald. In 1820 he published a school edition
of Pindar, Leipzig, 8vo., which was to be
followed by a large critical edition, but it has
never appeared. Ahlwardt left in MS. ma-
terials and collations of several MSS. for a
new edition of Terentianus Maurus, a work
on the Greek tragic poets, and a Portuguese
dictionary for Germans. In two works
published by J. G. Hagemeister, " Gustav
Wasa ein historisches Gemiilde nach Vertot,"
Berlin, 1795, 2 vols. 8vo., and " Dom Joam
von Braganza, historisches Gemalde nach
Vertot," Berlin, 1796, 8vo., considerable por-
tions are written by Ahlwardt. {Zeitgenossen,
vol. iii. p. 55, &c., where a complete list of
Ahlwardt's works is given.) L. S.

AHLWARDT, PETER, was born on
the 14th of Februar>% 1710, at Greifswald,
where his father was a poor shoemaker, who,
by the assistance of some friends, was enabled
to give his son a good education. After
young Ahlwardt had gone through the gjm-
nasium of his native city, and also studied
for some time at the university, he went, in
1730, to Jena, to complete his philosophical
and theological studies. In 1732 he returned
to Greifswald, commenced lecturing on phi-
losophical subjects, and subsequently became
adjunctus to the philosophical faculty. In
1752 he was appointed professor of logic and
metaphysics. He died on the 1st of March,
1791, and left his large library to the uni-
versity of Greifswald.

Ahlwardt was not a man of any great
talent, but his diligence and good sense ren-
dered him a valuable teacher in the uni-
versity, and a useful writer, who contri-
buted to promote sound views in philosophy
and religion. His principal works are —
" Betrachtungen iiber die Augsburgische
Confession," 2 vols, in seven parts, Greifs-
wald, 1742-50. 4to. " Gedanken von der
Kraft des menschlichen Verslandes," Greifs-
wald, 1741, 8vo. "Gedanken von Gott xmd
wahrem Gottesdienst," Greifswald, 1742, 8vo.
•• Betrachtimgen iiber den Blitz und Donner,"

AHLWARDT.

AHMED.

Greifswald, 1745, 8vo. "Einleitung in die
dogmatische Gottesgelahrtheit," Greifswald,
1753, 8vo. " Einleitung in die Philosophie,"
Greifswald, 1752, 8vo. (SchlichtegroU, iVe-
krolog auf das Jahr 1791, i. 367 — 375.)

L. S.
AHMED, the favourite child of Sultan
Bayazid II. and the third of his eight sons,
was born about the year 1475. His father
conferred on him the government of Amasia
in Anatolia, and after the death of his two
elder sons acknowledged him as his successor
on the throne. This preference roused the
jealousy of the youngest brother, Selim, who
revolted against his father, now advanced in
years and enfeebled by disease. A battle
ensued, in which Selim was defeated. Kor-
kud, the sixth son, a prince naturally in-
dolent and unwarlike, but a lover of poetry
and music, followed the example of Selim,
who had now recovered from his defeat
and obtained considerable advantage over
the sultan's generals, pursuing them to the
very walls of Constantinople. At this crisis,
Ahmed, justly fearing that this twofold re-
bellion might bring about his own ruin as
well as the aged sultan's^ concerted his plans
with the grand vizir, 'Ali Makhdum Pasha
['Ali Makhdum Pasha], and secretly as-
sembled an army. The news soon reached
him that Selim had dethroned their aged
father Bayazid, strangled their brother, prince
Korkud, with five of their nephews, and had
been proclaimed sultan. It appears that the
corps of Janissaries and most of the great
men were devoted to Selim, whom they loved
for his brave and energetic character. Ba-
yazid died shortly after, and it was reported
that his end was hastened by Selim's orders.
To assert his right to the crown and avenge
his father's death, Ahmed declared war against
Selim, and seized the city of Brusa. The
new sultan crossed the Bosporus with a nu-
merous army, and encamped before Brusa.
Ahmed attacked and routed his vanguard,
and might have secured a victory if he had
known how to improve this advantage. The
two armies met on the 24th of April, 1513 ;
but before they joined battle, Ahmed, wish-
ing to prevent unnecessary bloodshed, chal-
lenged his brother to single combat, on the
condition that the survivor should be sultan.
Selim refused, and the battle began. It ter-
minated in the discomfiture of Ahmed, who
was taken prisoner and put to death by his
brother's orders, by the hand of the same
Sinan who strangled his brother Korkud.
The body of this unfortunate prince was in-
terred at Brusa, near the tombs of Miirad II.
and of his five nephews, whom Selim had
put to death. (Hammer, Geschichte des Os-
tnanischen Reiches, vol. ii. b. 21, 22. ; Knolles,
General History of the Turks, 6th edit. vol.
i. p. 330—350. ; 'Ali, Nddiret-el-Miihdrib,
" The Rarity of Battles.") W, P.

AHMED I., the fourteenth sultan of the
520

Osmanlis and third son of Mohammed III.,
was born a. d. 1590 (a. h. 998), and suc-
ceeded his father on the throne in 1603. This
young prince evinced considerable energy
in the beginning of his reign ; for when
the grand vizir, then on the eve of his de-
parture for the war in Hungary, made exor-
bitant demands on the imperial treasury, and
threatened that he would not move till he
was satisfied, the young sultan wrote him this
laconic answer : — " If thy head is dear to
thee, thou wilt move." But this energy was
only an ebullition of youthful passion.

Ahmed's armies had first to sustain the
attacks of his revolted subjects in Asia, at
that time supported by Shah Abbas of Persia
[Abba's I.], who beat the Turks in 1605.
During the same period, Ahmed assisted the
malcontents of Hungary and the prince of
Transylvania, then in arms against the Em-
peror Rudolph II., and the Turks took some
few towns, which, however, they afterwards
lost. Ahmed now listened to the emperor's
pacific proposals, and as early as 1 605 he sent
plenipotentiaries into Hungary to arrange the
terms of a definitive peace, which was con-
cluded at Sitvatorok on the 1 1th of November,
1 606, after long negotiations. This peace has
one important feature, which most diplomatists
and historians seem to have overlooked : it
was the first transaction in which the Turks
acknowledged the existence of an international
law. It is not, therefore, from the peace of
Carlowicz, as generally believed, that the
change in the Ottoman diplomatic system is
to be dated. Down to the peace of Sitvato-
rok, all treaties between the European powers
and the Turks, if short truces may be so called,
had only been verbally agreed upon, the
sultans having scarcely ever signed any docu-
ment. The peace they granted was only a
favour bestowed on the vanquished by a
haughty conqueror ; and they considered the
presents made them by powerfiil European
kings as tribute, treating the donors as their
inferiors, and not unfrequently as their re-
bellious subjects. But in the preliminary
proceedings at Sitvatorok, Ahmed's pleni-
potentiaries acted in another spirit. They
acknowledged the emperor as the sultan's
equal, renounced all claim to tribute, re-
serving for themselves, however, a consider-
able simi, under the name of an honorary
present, and finally they signed the treaty.
The celebrated Baron Herberstein was the
bearer of the imperial ratification to Constan-
tinople, whilst Ahmed Kiaya was despatched
with the sultan's to Prague, where the em-
peror then resided. In the following years
Ahmed was occupied with a dangerous
mutiny among his soldiers, with a rebellion
in Asia, which was suppressed in 1608, and
with a fresh but disastrous campaign against
the Persians in 1612. In the same year he
concluded the first treaty with the United
Provinces of the Netherlands, and he made

AHMED.

other treaties with England, Venice, France,
Poland, and Betlen Gabor, prince of Tran-
sylvania. In 1616 he confirmed hy the
peace of Vienna that which was concluded
ten years before at Sitvatorok. He died on
the 23 Zilk. a. h. 1026 (22d of November,
1617), after a short illness, in the twenty-
eighth year of his age and the fourteenth of
his reign. His successor was Mustafa I.
Ahmed was a weak and capricious prince,
always acting upon the advice, or rather the
orders, of his wives and favourites. His
want of vigour was manifested in his govern •
ment, especially by the peace of Sitvatorok,
which must have been most ofiFensive to the
haughty descendants of the old Turks ; by
that with Shah Abbas in 1613, which cost him
several provinces, and by the continual revolts
of his subjects and soldiers. He was fond of
music and poetry. He was greatly addicted
to hunting and women, of whom he is said to
have had more than 3000, and the number of
his falconers exceeded 40,000. If, as some
historians say, he was just, he certainly can-
not be called humane. He had his grand
vizir strangled in his presence ; and when
the sufferer still showed some signs of life, he
cut his throat with his own hand. He was
only prevented by fear from murdering his
brother. If there was anything great or
praiseworthy in his actions, we must look for
it in his religious foundations and his taste for
architecture. He built the grand mosque
named after him, Ahmedye, and he expended
immense sums in embellishing the holy cities
of Medina and Mecca. The Ka'bah was
ornamented by him with a sun composed of
precious stones set round a diamond of extra-
ordinary size and beauty, for which he had
paid 50,000 ducats. The following remark-
able circumstance was looked upon as omi-
nous by the true believers. Ahmed, the twice
seventh sultan of the Osmanlis, lived four
times seven years, reigned twice seven, and
when he ascended the throne he was also
twice seven years of age ; so that the three
most remarkable events of his life are sepa-
rated by two epochs of twice seven years
each ; he had seven grand vizirs ; he had
seven aunts, whom he married to seven great
men of his court ; and he concluded treaties
with seven European powers. (Hammer,
Geschichte des Osmanischen Beiches, vol. iv. ;
KnoUes, General History of the TurAs, 6th edit,
vol. ii. p. 837 — 944. ; D'Ohsson, Tableau
general de V Empire Othoman, fol. vol. ii. p. 67,
etc. ; Cunstitutiones Pads inter Romanoriim et
Turcicum imperatorem, 1006 ; NsiyTna, Fesliket
ul Tewdrikh {Collection of History), 2 vols. fol.
Constantinople, a.h. 1147 (a.d. 1734), vol. ii.
p. 417.) W. P.

AHMED II., sultan, son of Sultan Ibra-
him, was bom a.h. 1053 (a.d. 1643), and
succeeded his brother, Mohammed III. in
1691, after passing forty-eight years in the
seraglio. He there cultivated letters, poetry,

VOL. I.

and music, to alleviate the dulness of liis
secluded life ; but he became a prey to
bigotry and the darkest melancholy. Such
a temperament and such tastes could hardly
produce an energetic prince ; nor had Ah-
med in reality more than the name of sul-
tan. He left all the cares of government to
his grand vizir Koprili, the third of that
name who attained the high office of first
minister. Koprili, an excellent man, and
well worthy of the titles of holy and virtuous,
which were given him by his contemporaries,
had prepared everything for placing Ahmed
on the throne ; but neither the minister nor
sultan could extricate the Porte from the
dangerous situation in which it stood at that
epoch. The war with Germany was raging
with the utmost fury. The Imperialists,
commanded by the greatest captains of the
age, such as Prince Eugene and Prince Louis
of Baden, always had the advantage ; until
the Turks, having received reinforcements,
made a stand at Slankamen, to measure their
strength with the enemy. A bloody battle was
fought on the 19th of August, 1691 ; the Im-
perialists lost Duke Christian of Holstein, and
the Counts of Kaunitz and Starhemberg ; but
the Turks were routed with dreadful slaughter.
They lost 150 cannons, with their camp
and military chest ; and the enemy obtained an
immense booty. The grand vizir Koprili,
Safer, the aga of the Janissaries, and Ibrahim
Pasha were left dead on the field with 5,000
Turks. The fortress of Grand- Waradin
soon surrendered to the Emperor Leopold I.
Dangerous intrigues in the seraglio, the
plague, famine, and a violent earthquake at
Smyrna, completed the calamity. Ahmed,
infuriated by so many misfortunes, changed
his ministers, and beheaded or strangled many
eminent men. But the people, exasperated
by these calamities, were still more provoked
by the imprudent measures of the sultan, and
showed their dissatisfaction in the usual man-
ner by setting fire to the houses. On the 5th
of September, 1693, a dreadful conflagration
broke out in the most populous quarter of
Constantinople, and raged without inter-
ruption for twenty-three hours ; and, as a
further addition to the pubhc calamities, the
Arabs pillaged the grand Mecca caravan.
The war with Austria was still continued
with unceasing anunosity on the part of the
Turks, whose pride was in nowise humiliated
by all their reverses. Lord Paget, the En-
glish ambassador at the Porte, in vain offered
himself as mediator between the sultan and
the emperor. France, to whom this war was
most advantageous, contrived to frustrate all
attempts at mediation on the part of England.
The result, however, was unfavourable to the
Turks ; they were beaten at Lippa and Wara-
din in Hungary, and discomfited in Dalmatia
by the Venetians, who seized the island of
Chios and threatened Smyrna in 1694.

Overwhelmed by so many humiliating

M M

AHMED.

events, Ahmed sank under the disease from
■which he had long suffered, and died of
dropsy on the 6th of February, 1G95. He was
succeeded by Mustafa II. Ahmed, having
passed the greater part of his life in the seraglio,
■was weak and credulous. But his piety fre-
(juently prevented him from indulging in
those fits of passion to which he was naturally
subject, especially after drinking, for he was
addicted to spirituous liciuors. He was
passionately fond of music, and he wrote
several poems in the Persian language ; his
hand-«Titing was beautiful. These occu-
pations filled up his time, for he always left
the cares of government to others. The fol-
lowing trait is honourable to his humanity.
After his accession to the throne, " I have
been," said he to his deposed brother Mo-
hammed III., " forty years a prisoner, whilst
you wei'e on the throne. You suffered me
to live, and I wUl do the same by you : be
not alarmed on that head." (Hammer,
Geschichte des Osmaiiischen Belches, vol. vi.,
who cites Rashid I., fol. 172—205.) W. P.
AHMED III., sultan, son of Mohammed
IV., was born on the 3d Ramazan, a. u. 1084
(12th December, 1673). He ascended the
throne on the 10th of Rebiul-akhir, a. h.
1115 (23d August, 1703), after a mutiny of
the Janissaries, who deposed his bi-other
Mustafa II. Ahmed, contrary to the cus-
tom of his predecessors, announced his ac-
cession to the throne to the emperor, the
kings of England and France, and other
Christian princes, from whom he received
congratulatory answers. The first years of
his reign were troubled by intestine com-
motions of every kind, and sudden changes of
ministers ; for in fifteen j-ears he had four-
teen grand vizirs. In 1707, religious quarrels
broke out among the Armenian Catholics at
Constantinople, who were excited by the
Jesuits and supported by France, who also
protected at the same tune the revolted Pro-
testants of Hungary. But after the decapitation
of the Armenian patriarch Sari, on the 5th of
November, 1707, the disturbances ceased. In
the same year the Turkish army attacked the
Tcherkesses and experienced a severe defeat.
Upon this, Ahmed chose for his grand vizir
'Ali Chorlili, an active and enterprising
man, who increased the navy, and established
a foundery for casting anchors, which, till
then, had always been procured from Eng-
land. These events were simultaneous with
the war between Peter the Great and Charles
XII., who after the loss of the battle of Pul-
tawa suddenly appeared on the Turkish
territory. It is generally believed that
Charles XII., in advancing into tlie Ukraine,
had merely followed his own rash councils ;
but it is now known that in penetrating so far
his object was to get nearer to Turkey,
whose alliance had been proposed to him
some time before by an agent named Vio-
hammed Efendi, despatched to him at Danzig
522

by the Pasha of Oczakow. [Charles XII.]
Charles found means to rekindle the war be-
tween Turkey and Russia, and Baltaji Mo-
hammed, the new grand vizir, reduced the
czar to a very dangerous situation on the
Pruth ; but, weak-minded and covetous, he
traitorously sold the honour of his country
and the fortune of Charles by the peace of
the Pruth (22d July, 1711), which was not,
however, altogether without advantage to the
sultan, as Russia restored to him the fortress
of Azof. In 1714 the war with Venice and
Austria began. Ahmed placed himself at the
head of hi:? ai-my to oppose the Venetians,
and accompanied it as far as Larissa in
Thessaly. The Morea was conquered in a
single campaign ; but the Turkish forces
were less fortunate in Hungary. On the
5th of August, 1716, the grand vizir Damah
'Ali Pasha, at the head of 150,000 men, was
completely defeated by Prince Eugene, at
Peterwaradin, and the gi-and vizir was left dead
on the field of battle, with 6000 of his men.
The issue of the war was decided on the
16th of August, 1717, by the battle of Bel-
grade, in which the Turks were routed with
great slaughter. Peace was concluded at
Passarowicz on the 21st of July, 1718. Of
her Venetian conquests Turkey retained
the Morea, but was obliged to cede to Aus-
tria, Belgrade, Orsowa, Temeswar, Servia,
and a part of V/alachia. A fire desolated
Constantinople on the 17th of July, 1718,
which continued to burn for twenty-four
hours. Ahmed concluded an " eternal
peace" with Russia on the 16th of November,
1720, on the footing of the treaty of the
Pruth, but he recognised Peter only as czar
and not as emperor. In the same year
a Prussian agent named Jurgowski appeared
at Constantinople for the first time. In
1723 Ahmed declared war against Persia,
occupied Georgia, and made several conquests,
which he divided with Peter the Great. For
the retrieving of his affairs he was indebted
to the grand vizir Ibrahim Pasha, a man of
superior abilities, who administered the go-
vernment from 1718 to 1730. Ibrahim not
only made the Porte respected abroad, but
consolidated the internal peace of his country.
He published proclamations against luxury
and the rage for flowers, which was then
as great in Turkey as in Holland : whole
palaces were filled with tulips, and with lamps
placed between them of colours to correspond
with the flowers, thus producing the most
brUliant effect. Ibrahim established two im-
perial libraries, and three for public use, at
Constantinople; and in 1727, a printing-office,
the first in Turkey, was founded at Constanti-
nople under the patronage of Ibrahim, by the
Hungarian renegade Ibrahim Basmaji, who in
less than twelve years published sixteen great
works concerning history, moral and gram-
matical science. [Ibra'hi'm Basma'ji'.]
Able writers translated into Turkish the

AHMED.

Uuivcrsal History of the Arabian A'yni, en- i
titled " Akd-ul-jeman fi Tarikhi Ehlif- !
zenii'in" (" Coral-knots of the History of
Contemporaries"), and another universal
history written in Persian by Khuand. Under
Ahmed HI. and his vizir Ibrahim the in-
fluence of the West over the East made great
progress. In 1730 Turkey was suddenly
invaded by Tahmasp, Shah of Persia, who
took up arms to recover the provinces, which
had been lost some years before. Ibrahim
was ready to march against him, and the
Sultan himself had resolved to accompany his
army, when news arrived that the Turkish
forces had been completely beaten, and that
the Shah was advancing by forced marches.
The sultan and grand vizir were in the
country at the time, little expecting such a
misfortune. Suddenly, on the 15th of Re-
biul-ewwaL, a. h. 1 143 (28th September,
1730), the Janissaries, who attributed the
reverses of the army to the grand vizir,
burst out into open rebellion. The sultan
and his vizir hastened to Constantinople, and
there Ibrahim was assassinated, and Ahmed
was compelled to abdicate on the 17th (18th?)
of Rebiul-ewwal (30th September, or 1st Oc-
tober). His nephew ascended the throne
under the name of Mahmud L

Notwithstanding his reverses, the reign of
Ahmed III. was glorious. He was a person
of majestic stature, and of a mild but com-
manding presence ; his voice was remarkably
harmonious, and he possessed every quality
calculated to win the affections of women.
He was tenderly beloved by his wives, by
whom he had thirty-one children. He
loved whatever gratifies the senses, such as
singing birds, sweetmeats, flowers, rich
clothes, and fine buildings ; and he cultivated
letters and poetry with some success. He
died of apoplexy in the month of Moharrem,
1152 (AprU, 1739), at the age of sixty-six,
nine years after his deposition. (Hammer,
Geschichte des Osmaniscken Reiches, vol. vii.
book 62 — 65. ; Storia delle due RibeUioni,
seguite in Constantinopoli, nell 1730 e 1731,
nella Deposizione de Ahmed III., ^c, com-
posta sopra Manuscritti originali, in Venezia,
1737, 8vo. ; Luigi di St. lller, Lettere par-
ticolari scritte in Constantinopoli dal 1720
sino al 1724, regnante Ahmed III., Bassano,
1737, 4.; Ferrari Girolamo, Notizie histo-
riche deUa Lega tra S. M. Carlo VI. e hi
Repuhl. di Venezia contra Ahmed III., Ve-
nezia, 1723, 4to., and 1736, 4to.) W. P.
AHMED IV., or more correctly 'ABDU-
L-HAMID I., was born on the 5th of Rejib,
A.H. 1137 (20th March, 1725), and suc-
ceeded Mustafa III. on the 3d of Shawwal,
A.H. 1187 (24th December, 1773). Ham-
mer, in the genealogical tables at the end of
the eighth volume of his work cited below,
places his birth on the 2d of March, 1775 ;
and in Ersch and Giiiber's " Allgemeiue En-
cyclopsedie," he places his accession to the
523

throne on the 21st of January, 1774, and his
death in 1780 ; but the first and the third of
these dates are typographical errors, and as
to his accession, it is correct to place it on the
day of the death of his predecessor, who died
on the 24th of December, 1773. It is only
the date of the installation of this sultan,
which took place in the beginning of Janu-
ary, which authorises us to say, as the his-
torians generally do, that he camo to the
throne in 1774. Turkey was then engaged
in a dangerous war with Russia, which was
undertaken for the purpose of preventing
Poland from being partitioned among Russia,
Prussia, and Austria. However, the Porte
had not only declared war before she was
able to measure hei'self with her formidable
neighbour [Ahmed Resmi Pasha], but her
armies were commanded by incompetent
generals. The Russians had conquered all
the Turkish provinces north of the Caucasus
and the Danube, and when Ahmed succeeded
Mustafa they had crossed that river. Im-
mediately after the accession of the new
sultan, the Turks were beaten at Basarjik,
and routed in the battle of Koslije on the
19th (O. S. 9th) of January, 1774 ; and such
was the disorganization of the Turkish army,
that Neyli Ahmed, a pasha of three tails, was
sent to Adrianople for the sole purpose of
preventing the cowards and deserters from
escaping to their homes. Educated in the se-
raglio, ignorant, without experience, without
character and energy, and full of that haughti-
ness which is peculiar to men of high rank
who live in a narrow sphere of life, Ahmed
was overpowered by circumstances. As early
as the 14th of July, the grand vizir, Miisa
Oghli, was entirely surrounded at Shumla by
the Russian general Kamenski, who, al-
though he did not force that strong position,
was ready to descend into the plain of
Adrianople, when the Turks, at last, ac-
cepted proposals for peace. It was concluded
on the 17th of July, 1774, at Kuchuk Kai-
narji, which was chosen by the Russians as
the place of negotiation, because they wished
to humble the Turks, who, some time before,
had gained a battle there over General
Weissmann, who lost his life. For the same
reason the Russian ministers did not sign the
treaty before the 22d of July, which was the
anniversary of the peace of the Pruth. By
this peace, which was concluded without any
foreign mediation, Russia obtained the Great
and the Little Kabarda, between the Kuban,
the Terek, and the Caucasus ; the fortresses
of Azof, Kilburn, Kertsh, and Yenikale ; the
tract between the Bog and the Dniepr ; the
free navigation on the Black Sea and the sea
of Marmara ; the co-protectorship over Mol-
davia and Walachia, as well as the pro-
tectorship over all the Greek churches of
the Turkish empire. The Khanat of the
Crimea was separated from Turkey, and ac-
knowledged as an independent state, although
M M 2

AHMED.

it became dependent upon Russia ; and the
sultan was obliged to consent to the division
of Poland, and to recognise the czars of
Russia as emperors, by giving them the title
of Padishah.

The peace of Carlowicz had broken the
power of Turkey, but that of Kuchuk Kai-
narji destroj-ed its political independence,
and brought it under the direct influence of
Russia. Austria was neutral during this war,
and yet Ahmed was compelled to pay for mere
neutrality by ceding the province of Bu-
kowina, the bulwark of Transylvania, by
which Austria obtained an easy communica-
tion between Transylvania and the kingdom of
Galicia, her share in the partition of Poland.
A struggle with Russia to recover political
independence became necessary, and was ac-
celerated by the haughtiness of Russia. As
early as 1783 the Empress Catherine the Se-
cond annihilated the ridiculous independence
of the Khanat of the Crimea, which was
united with Russia, and in 1784 the sultan
was obliged to recognise this usurpation. He
now invited French officers to exercise his
troops, and to fortify the fortresses on the
Austrian and Russian frontier. The alliance
between the Emperor Joseph II. and Cathe-
rine left no doubt that his next war would be
against their united forces. Notwithstanding
the lesson they had received in the last war,
the Turks rashly began hostilities against
Russia in 1787, by assailing the fortress of
Kilburn ; and in the month of February,
1788, they were in their turn attacked by
the Austrian troops. On the 17th of De-
cember, 1788, the Russian general Potemkin
took Oczakow by storm, and although the
grand vizir Yiisuf gained some advantages in <
Hungary over the Imperialists, the state of
Turkey became so hopeless, that the sultan
was obliged to force his subjects to sell him
all their silver at the rate of a himdred pias-
ters for an okka weight, or two pounds and a
half of silver. This was the only means of '
providing for the expense of a new cam- !
paign, and the treasury thus gained more
than sixty per cent. Before the new cam-
paign began, Ahmed died, on the 7th of
April, 1789, in a state of physical and moral
exhaustion. His successor was Selim III.

Besides the political events, the reign of
Ahmed is remarkable for the re-opening of |
the printing-offices, which had ceased to be
worked thirty years before his accession, but
which were again brought into activity by
Reshid and Wassif, both Reis-Efendis, and
known as Turkish historians. (Hammer,
Geschichte des O.wianischen Retches, vol. viii.
p. 430 — 448. 585. ; Hammer in Ersch und
Gruber, AUgemeinc JSncychpcedie, s. v. Ab-
dul-Hamid ; Ahmed Resmi Pasha, Klnda-
satul-itebar, translated into German under
the title of Wesentliche Betrachtungen, by
Diez. Berlin, 1813.) W. P.

AHMED IBN 'ABDI-R-RABBIHI
524

(Abu 'Omar Ibn Habib Ibn Hodeyr Ibn
Selim), an historian and poet of note, was
born at Cordova, on the 10th day of Rama-
dhan, a. h. 246 (Nov. A. d. 860). He was de-
scended from an enfranchised slave of Hi-
sham I., second sultan of Mohammedan Spain,
of the dynasty of Umejyah. He studied at
Cordova under the most eminent professors,
and as he was endowed with a great memory,
he soon became deeply learned in sacred tra-
ditions, and acquired great historical inform-
ation. He was likewise an excellent poet,
and passes as the inventor of a species of me-
trical composition, called by the Arabs " mo-
washshahat," and not dissimilar in structure
from the old Spanish romances. (Casiri, Bib.
Arab. Hisp. Esc. i. 127) Ahmed's chief
work is an historical cyclopsedia, divided into
twenty-five books, each containing two chap-
ters. The title is " Kitabu-l-'ikd" ("The
Book of the Pearl Necklace "), and each of the
twenty-five books of which it is composed is
denominated after one of the twenty-five pearls
which form a necklace, and have a particular
name in the Arabic language. The con-
tents of the work are various essays upon
histoiy, genealogy, the science of war and
that of government, eloquence, justice, li-
berality, courage, magnanimity ; women and
their good or bad qualities, houses, camels,
weapons, hostages, encampments, &c. The
fifteenth book, entitled " Al-'osjadah fi-1-
kholafci wa iyamihim wa tawarikhihim "
(" The Book of the Pearl, called 'Osjadah"),
treating of the khalifs and of tlieir history
and chronology, is undoubtedly the most in-
teresting of all, as it contains much valuable
information on the history of the Arabs, both
in the East and in the West. The second
chapter of the same book is wholly occupied
with the history of Mohammedan Spain.
There are in the Bodleian library several
detached fi'agments of this interesting work,
which in its original state must have con-
sisted of at least ten folio volumes. The
historian Al-homaydi, who in a. d. 1086
wrote a biographical dictionary of illustrious
Moslems born in Spain, bestows great praise
on Ahmed Ibn 'Abdi-r-rabbihi, whom he
calls the phoenix of his age, and the restorer
of good taste in poetry. He adds that he
saw in Cordova a copy of the " Tkd," which
the author had written himself for the use
of Prince Al-hakem, son of 'Abdu-r-rah-
man III. of Cordova, under whose reign
Ahmed lived and died. He wrote also other
minor works, the titles of which have not
been preserved ; and he published a diwan,
or collection of his own poems, which he
entitled " Al-mahanit" (" Purifications "), be-
cause every erotic piece in it is followed by
anotlier on morality and devotion ; as if he
had intended to purify the profane ideas of
the one by the religious sentiments of the
other. Ahmed Ibn 'Abdi-r-rabbihi died on
Sunday, the 18th of Jumada the first, a. h.

AHMED.

3-28 (March, a.d. 940), and was buried tlie
next day in the cemetery of the Heni 'Abbiis
at Cordova. Sliortly after the death of Ah-
med, his large work was abridged by Abu
Is'hiik Ibrahim Ibn 'Abdi-r-rahmiin Al-kaysi,
a native of Giiadix in the province of Gra-
nada, who died in a. ii. 570 (a.d. 1174-5), as
well as by Jenialu-d-din Abii-l-fadhl Mo-
hammed ibn Blukarram Al-khazreji, the
author of an excellent work on rhetoric, en-
titled " Lisanu-l-'arab " (" The Language of
the Arabs ")• Some extracts from the " 'Ikd"
have been given by Mr. Fresnel, in his
" Letters." (Al-homaydi, Jadhwatu-l-mok-
tabis, MS. llodl. Lib. Hunt. No. 464. ; Al-
makkari, Moham. Dijn. i. 338. ; Ibn Khal-
lekiln, Bioy. Diet. i. 92. ; Ilaji Khalfah, Lex.
Bill. voc. '"Ikd ;" Casiri, Bib. Arab. Hisp.
Esc. i. 157. ii. 134. ; Conde, Hist, de la Dom.
i. 425.) P. de G.

AHMED BEN ABI'L-ASH'ATH, an
Arabic physician, whose complete names
were Abu Ja'far Ahmed Ben Mohammed
Ben Ahmed Ben Abi'l-Ash'ath. Ibn Abi
'Ossaybi'ah, who has given an account of his
life in his " Pontes Relationum de Classibus
Medicorum," cap. x. § 34., says that he had
many scholars, and notices especially the
greatness of his abilities, tlie uprightness of
his intentions, his love of learning, the quiet-
ness and soberness of his manners, and his
carefulness about the things of heaven. He
died at a great age, about a. h. 360 (a. d.
970-1). He wrote several works, chiefly
medical, none of which have been published,
either in the original language, or in a trans-
lation : two of them (namely, his treatises on
Animals, and on Colic) were abridged by
'Abdu-'I-lattif. (Wustenfeld, Geschichte der
Arabischcn Aerzte ; NicoU and Pusey, Catal.
Cudd. MSS. Arab. BibUulh. Bodl. p. 583.)

W. A. G.

AHMED IBN ABI' MERWAN IBN
SHOHEYD, surnamed Abu 'A'mir Al-ashjai,
a celebrated Arabian poet, was born at Cor-
dova, in A. H. 382 (a. d. 992). He was the
son of 'Abdu-1-malek Ibn Shoheyd, a dis-
tinguished functionary of the court of Al-ha-
keiii II. of Cordova, ['Abdu-l-jialek,] and
the grandson of Ahmed Ibn Shoheyd, who
had been Dhu-l-wiziirateyn * (holder of
the double vizirate) during the klialifate of
Abdu-r-rahman An-nasir lidinillah, the
eighth of the Beni Umeyyah of Spain.
Ahmed was one of the most learned men of
his time ; he was a great favourite of Al-
mansur, the hiijib (chamberlain) of Hi-
sham II., who raised him to posts of honour
and trust, and distinguished him above all the
other poets of the court. Ahmed wrote the fol-
lowing works : — " Kashfu-d-dakk wa 'idhahu-
sh-shakk," ("The unravelling of Subtlety,
and clearing of Doubt"), which, according
to Haji Khalfah {Lex. Bibl), is a treatise

* A title given to those vizirs who were at the same
time invL'Sted with civil and military authority.
525

on legerdemain; " At-tawabi' wa az-zawabi',"
which Mr. Fluegel {Lex. Bibliog. No. 3711.)
translates by " Genii et Doemones ; " and lastly,
"Hiiniitu-l-'attar" (" The Druggist's Shop "),
which, according to Adh-dhobbi, is a treatise
on grannnar. Ibn Khallekan {Biog. Diet.),
who gives the life of Ahmed among those of
his eminent Moslems, introduces some ex-
tracts from his verses. He died at Cordova,
on Friday morning, the 30th of Jumada the
first, A. H. 426 (April, A.D. 1035.), and was
interred the next day in the cemetery of
Umm Salmah. (Casiri, Bib. Ar. Hisp. Esc.
iL 47. ; Conde, Hist, de la Bom. i. 624.)

P. de G.
AHMED IBN AHMED IBN YAHYA
AL-KORAYSHI' AL-MAKKARF AT-
TELEMSA'NI' (better known as Ahmed
Al-makkari), the author of a valuable history
of Mohammedan Spain, was born at Telem-
san, in a. h. 985 (a.d. 1577-8). He was de-
scended from an ancient and illustrious family,
which had been established at Makkarah, a
village close to Telemsan, from the time of the
invasion of Eastern Africa by the Arabs.
One of his ancestors, named Abu 'Abdillah
Mohammed Al-makkari At-telemsani, be-
came kadhi-1-jam'ah, or chief justice of Fez,
and made himself known by several learned
works on theology and jurisprudence. Ah-
med passed the first years of his life at Te-
lemsan, where he learned the Koran and the
science of traditions under his uncle, Abii
'Othman Sa'id, who then held the office of
mufti in that city. Under the tuition of that
learned man, who was himself the author of
many valuable works, Ahmed early imbibed
that love of science, and acquired that taste
for literature, by which he was distinguished
in after life. Having completed his studies,
he quitted his native place in a. h. 1009
(a.d. 1600-1), and repaired to Fez, where
he frequented the society of the learned men
of the day, with most of whom he contracted
an intimate friendship. He then returned to
Telemsan, which place he again left for Fez
inA.n. 1013 (a.d. 1604-5). After passing
fourteen years in that city, Ahmed quitted
Fez, towards the end of Ramadhan, a. h. 1027
(a.d. 1618), and soon after sailed for Alex-
andria, intent iipon a pilgrimage to Mecca
and Medina. He arrived at JMecca earlj- in
a. H. 1028 (Jan. A.D. 1619); and, having made
a short stay at Cairo, started for Arabia in
the month of Rejeb of the same year. On
his return from the holy cities, in Moharram,
A. H. 1029 (Dec. A.D. 1619), he went to Cairo,
where he took a wife and settled. Ahmed
continued to perform yearly his pilgrimage
to Mecca, until a.h. 1037 (Sept. a.d. 1627),
when he determined upon visiting Jerusalem.
After spending twenty-five days in that city,
he proceeded to Damascus, where he arrived
at the beginning of Sha'ban, a.h. 1037 (Feb.
A.D. 1628). Soon after his arrival there.
Ahmed Al-makkari made the acquaintance
M M 3

AHMED.

of a ■wealthy Turk, named Ahmed Ibn
Shahin Ash-shahihi, who was a liberal patron
of literature, which he himself cultivated
with success. By his recommendation Ah-
med obtained a set of rooms at the Ma-
drisah Al-jakmakiyah, or college founded by
Al-malek Adh-dhaher Jakmak, tenth sultan
of Syria and Egypt, of the dynasty called
" the Circassian Mamelukes." The generous
and enlightened individual who had become
Ahmed's patron employed him in transcrib-
ing some works for his own library, as well
as in writing a history of Damascus, for which
he was amply remunerated. It was also at
his persuasion that Ahmed imdertook to
write the history of the Mohammedan em-
pire in Spain, from the conquest of that
country by Tarik Ibn Zeyyad and Musa Ibn
Nosseyr (a. d. 711-12) to the expulsion of
the Moriscos under Philip III. in 1610.

During his stay at Damascus, Ahmed gave
public lectures on the " Sahih," or repertory
of authenticated traditions by Isma'il Al-
bokhari, which were attended by the prin-
cipal citizens, as well as by aU the students
and theologians of Damascus. In the month
of Shawwal, a.h. 1037 (a.d. 1628), Ahmed
left Damascus, and returned to Cairo. He
again visited Damascus about the end of
Sha'ban, a. h. 1038 (February or March, a. d.
1629), being received by Ahmed Ibn Shahin
and his other friends as kindly as on the for-
mer occasion. He then returned to Cairo,
and, after a short stay, divorced his wife. He
was preparing to make another journey to
Damascus, where he had determined to settle
for the remainder of his days, at the invitation
of his friend and patron Ibn Shahin, when he
was attacked by violent fever and dysentery,
which caused his death, in the month of Ju-
mada the second, A. H. 1041 (Jan. a.d. 1632), at
the age of fifty-six. Besides the patronymic
Al-korayshi, denoting that his family be-
longed originally to the illustrious tribe of
Koraysh, and Al-makkari and Telemsani,
both taken from the places of his birth and
residence, Ahmed was known in the East
under different surnames and appellations,
which it is important to point out. At Da-
mascus, his great literary reputation, and the
immense learning which he displayed in his
course of lectures on the " Sahih," obtained
him the honourable titles of Al-hafedh Al-
maghrebi (the Western traditionist), and She-
hdbu-d-din (bright star of religion). He is
sometimes called Almaliki Al-ash'ari, be-
cause he professed the sect of Malik Ibn Ans,
and partook of the religious opinions of the
Ash'aris, or disciples of Ash'ari ( Abu-1-hasan
'Ali) ; and lastly, the surnames of Tmadu-d-
din (colimin of religion), and Sahibu-t-tawa-
rikh (the historian), are bestowed on him
by Amin Jelebi, the historian of Damas-
cus.

The history of Mohammedan Spain, the
most important as well as tlie best known of
526

i Al-makkari's works, is entitled " Naflui-t-
tib fi ghosni-1-Andalusi r-ratib wa tarikh Li-
sani-d-dini-bni-!-khattib" (" Fragi'ant Odour
[exhaling] from the tender Shoots of An-
dalus (Spain), and the History of the Vizir
Lisanu-d-din Ibnu-1-khattib "). It is divided
into two parts or sections (aksam) : the first
part relates to the history and topography
of Mohammedan Spain, and contains eight
books, in which the author gives a fuU
narrative of the conquests, wars, and settle-
ments of the Spanish Moslems, from their
first invasion of the Peninsula to their final
expulsion, together with an account of their
government, literature, manners, customs,
dress, &c., and biographical notices of the
most eminent individuals mentioned in the
course of his work ; the second part, which
is likewise divided into eight books, contains
the life of the celebrated historian and vizir,
Lisanu-d-din Ibnu-1-khattib (Abu 'Abdillah
Mohammed Ibn 'Abdillah), who was a native
of Granada, and lived about the middle of
the fourteenth century of our sera : so that,
in point of fact, Al-makkari's history of Mo-
hammedan Spain is only a sort of introduc-
tion or preface to the life of that celebrated
Granadian vizir. At first, Al-makkari met
with considerable difficulties in the execution
of his task, from the scarcity of historical
records, having, as he informs us in his
preface, left the whole of his books in Africa,
including a very complete history of Spain
under the Moslems, on which he had be-
stowed considerable labour. He was enabled,
however, through the liberality of Ahmed
Ibn Shahin and other friends, to purchase a
large collection of books both at Cairo and
Damascus, with the aid of which he brought
his arduous undertaking to an end. The
plan which he followed in the composition
of his history is rather singular. Instead of
compiling from more ancient sources, and
presenting to his readers a clear and unin-
terrupted narrative of events, as Abu-1-feda,
At-tabari, and other historians have done,
Al-makkari preferred transcribing entirely
or abridging the narrative of those historians
who preceded him. For instance, when re-
lating the taking of Seville by Ferdinand III.
of Castile, in a.d. 1248, he tells it in the
words of an historian, after which he intro-
duces other passages from other sources, thus
giving different and even contradictory ver-
sions of the same event : so that, properly
speaking, the work of Al-makkari is not a
history, and ought rather to be called " Selec-
tions on the History of Jlohammedan Spain."
However objectionable this plan of writing
history, it has its merits : by adhering
strictly to it, the author has in many in-
stances given us the original text of ancient
Arabian historians, whose works are either
lost or buried in some library in the East.
An English translation of the historical part
of Al-makkari's work by the author of this

AHMED.

article is now in course of publication under
the auspices of the Oriental Translation Fund
of Great Britain and Ireland, The first vo-
lume has already appeared. (London, 1840,
4to.)

Ahmed Al-makkari also wrote several
other works. The principal are — " Az'haru-
1-kemamah wa a;zh:iru-r-riy.idh fi akhbar
Kiidhi 'lyadh " (" Blooming Buds and Flowers
of the Garden ; or the History of the Kadhi
'lyadh"). This is the life of a celebrated
theologian named Abu-1-fadhl 'lyadh Ibn
INIiisa Al-yahssobi, who was kadhi of Ceuta,
and died in A.h. ,544 (a. d. 1149-50), with
interesting particulars of other eminent or
learned men who lived about the same time.
There is a copy of it in the royal library at
Paris (No. 1377. ancien fond). "'Arafu-n-
nashak fi akhbar Dimashk " (" Sweet Odour
of the Flowers, or the History of Damas-
cus") : this was written at the desire of
Ahmed Ibn Shahin. " llaudhu-l-asi-l-'attiri-
l-anfas fi dhikr min lakituhu min a'lam
Morrekosh wa Fas" (" The Garden of fra-
grant Myrtles, or an Account of those learned
ilen whom I met during my stay at Marocco
and Fez"):' it is a biography of those
doctors and literary men whose pupil he had
been in his youth, or whom he met during
his stay at those two cities. " Sharh Mu-
kaddamat Ibn Khaldun, " a commentary
upon the historical prolegomena by Ibn Khal-
diin, [Abdu-k-rahma'n Ibx Khaldu'n,]
the celebrated African historian. A com-
Kientary upon the Koran ; an abridgment of
general history, entitled " Kattafu-1-muh-
tassar" (" Bunch of Grapes symmetrically
. arranged ") ; a treatise on the epithets of
God, called " Ad-dorru-th-thamin " (" Valu-
able Pearls"); and other compositions, the
titles of which we omit for brevity's sake, are
among Al-makkari's productions. He also
began, but did not complete, a biographical
dictionary of the illustrious men who were
born at his own native place, Telemsan.
(H:iji Khalfah, Lex. Blhl sub. voc. " Ta-
rikhu-1-andalus," " Nafhu-t-tib," &c. ; D'Her-
belot. Bib. Or. voc. "Tarikh;" Amin Je-
lebi. Hist, of Damascus, MS.) P. de G.

AHMED AL-ANSA'RI' (Abii Ja'far
Ibn 'Abdi-r-rahman Ibn Mottiiher), a Mo-
hammedan historian, native of Toledo in
Spain. He was the author of a biographical
dictionary of eminent lawyers and kadhis, or
judges, born in his native city. He died in
a. h. 489 (a. d. 1096), after the occupation of
Toledo by the Cliristians. (Casiri, Bib. Arab.
Hisp. Esc. ii. 141.) P. de G.

AHMED 'AL-BAGHDA'DF (Abu Bekr
Ibn 'All Ibn Thabit Ibn Ahmed Ibn Mahdi
Ibn Thabit), more generally known as Al-
khattib Al-baghdddi, or the preacher of
Baghdad, was born in that capital, on Thurs-
day, the 2.3d of Jumada the second, a. ii. 392
(May, a. d. 1002). Ibn Kha!lek;in, who gives
his life among those of his illustrious Moslems,
527

distinguishes Ahmed by the title of Al-ha-
fidhu-sh-sharki," or the Eastern traditionist,
owing to the immense reputation he acquired
as a lawyer and a recorder of sacred tradi-
tions. But though a doctor of the law,
Ahmed made history his chief study. He
devoted his whole life to collect information
respecting his native place, and wrote a
voluminous history of Baghdad, which he
designed as a continuation of that by Ahmed
Al-isfarayni, and in which he gave short
biographical notices of all the eminent au-
thors, poets, theologians, and others, who had
lived in that city from its conquest by the
Moslems to his own times. Ahmed Al-
baghdddi is also said to have written upwards
of 100 different works on various subjects,
but principally upon sacred traditions and
law. One, entitled " Mokhtassar talkhiss el-
mutashabahi-fi-r-rasam wa hamayati," being a
treatise on the orthography of proper names
which occur in sacred traditions, is in the
library of the university of Leyden, and has
been described by Hamacker in his " Spe-
cimen Cod. Or. Bibl. Lugd. Batav.," p. 145.
Ahmed died at Baghdad, on Monday the 7th
of Dhi-1-hajjah, a.h. 4G3 (Sept a. d. 1071).
During his last illness he gave away all his
fortune, which was very considerable, dis-
tributing it in alms to the poor students and
theologians of Baghdad. He also bequeathed
his library to a mosque. (Ibn Khallekan,
Biog. Diet. ; Hdji Khalfah, Lex. Bibl. sub
voc. "Tdrikh Baghdad;" Abu-1-fedd, Ann.
Musi iii. 216.) P. de G.

AHMED AL-BELA'DHORF (Abu-1-
'abbas Ahmed Ibn Yahya Ibn Jdbir), sur-
named also Abu Ja'far, and Abu-1-hasan, an
Arabian writer of note, who lived at Baghddd
towards the middle of the ninth century of
our sera, in the khalifate of Al-mu'tamed.
He wrote a work entitled " Fotuhu-1-boldan,"
(" The Conquest of the World by the Mos-
lems "), which is in the Leyden library (No.
1903.) Another work, on cosmography, with
a description of the inhabited earth, entitled
" Kitdbu-1-bolddn" (" The Book of the Coun-
tries "), is in the librarj^ of the British Mu-
seum {Bib. Rich. No. 7496.) He also wrote
a work on the genealogy of the Arabian
tribes, the title of which has not reached us ;
and he translated several works from the
Persian. He is said likewise to have been
a good poet. Ibn Haukal, Al Me'sudi, and
other ancient geographers cite him frequently
in their writings. Al-belddhori is the
relative adjective of Belddhor, or Bela-
dhir, the name of an intoxicating plant (an-
acardium), of which Ahmed is said to have
made use, whence he was called Al-bcla-
dhori. According to Abii-l-mahasen, he died
in A. H. 279 (a. d. 892-3). (Hamacker,
Specimen Cod. Or. Bibl. Ludg. Bat. p. 7. et
seq. ; Sprenger, El-Ma'siidi's historical cy-
clopa-dia, entitled Meadoivs of Gold and
Mines of Gems, p. 15.) P. de G.

W M 4

AHMED.

AHMED AL-FA'Sr, surnaraed Shehabu-
d-(lia (bright star of religion), and Al-
luokri, because he was reader of the Koran
in the great mosque of the Karawiin, or
people of Calrvran, at Fez, is supposed to
have lived in the fifteenth century of our
sera. He was the author of a general history,
entitled " Kitabu-1-juman fi akhbari-z-za-
niiin " (" Connected Pearls : on the History
of the Times"). The work is divided into
three parts : the first part comprises the
history of the world from the creation to the
birth of the prophet Mohammed ; the second
part contains the life of Mohammed, his
preachings, adventures, wars with the infidel
tribes of Arabia, &c ; the third part con-
tains the history of the khalifs of the houses j
of Umeyyah and 'Abbas, till a.h. 845 (a. d. j
1441-2), as well as that of the Fatimites of
EgyT)t, the Beni Umeyyah of Spain, the
Almoravides and Almohades of Africa, and
some of the JNIameluke dj-nasties of Syria.
There is an abridgment of this work by a
Spanish Moslem, named Abu 'Abdillah
SIdi Al-haj Mohammed Ash-shatibi, of
Shatibah, now Xativa, in the province of
Valencia. The original work is rather scarce ;
but copies of the abridgment are not un-
common, and are found in several European
libraries. The royal library at Paris pos-
sesses two, marked Nos. 762. and 769., which
are fully described in the second volimie of
the " Notices et Extraits," in an article by
De Sacy. (D'Herbelot, Bib. Or. sub. voc.
" Giuman," " Fassi ;" Notices et Extraits des
MS. de la Bibliuth. lioi/. i. 124.) P. de G.
AHMED AL-GHAZZA'LI' (Abu-l-fu-
tuh Ibn Mohammed Ibn Mohammed Ibn
Ahmed At-tusi), surnamed Majdu-d-din
(glory of religion), a doctor of the sect of
Sliafi', and brother to the celebrated Imam
Abii Hamid Al-ghazzali. Ibn Khallekan de-
scribes him as being handsome in person and
endowed with the gift of working miracles.
At first he practised as a lawyer, but, preach-
ing being his ruling passion, he neglected
his profession, and took to frequenting the
mosques and other public places, where he
addressed the people on religious subjects
with great eloquence and vigour. "Wlien his
brother Abu Hamid was induced from re-
ligious principles to quit Baghdad, and retire
to Mecca, Ahmed succeeded him as professor
of theology in the Nizamiyah College, and
continued to lecture on that science. After
his brother's death, he made an abridgment
of his " Ihya 'olumi-d-din" ("Revival of the
Religious Sciences"), which he entitled " Lo-
babu-1-Ihya" ("The Marrow, or Essence, of
the Ihya"). He was also the author of
another treatise, called " Adh-dhakhirah fi
'ilmi-1-basirah " (" The hoarded Treasure :
on the Science of Vision"), which, to judge
from its title, must have related to the mystic
doctrines of a particular sect of Sufis, who
believed that by abstinence and the practice
528

of virtue a man could arrive at a knowledge
of future events. Ahmed Al-ghazzali died
at Kazwin, in a.h. 520 (a.d. 1126). (Ibn
Khallekan, Biog. Diet. i. 79. ; Haji Khalfah,
Lex. Enci/. sub. voc. " Ih'ya.") P. de G.

AHMED AL-ISFARA'YNI' (Ibn Abi
Tahir Mohammed Ibn Ahmed), surnamed
Abu Hamid, a celebrated Mohammedan
doctor, of the sect of Shafi', was born at
Isfarayn, a small town of Khorasan, in the
district of Nishapur, in a. h. 334 (a. d. 955).
At the age of twenty, Ahmed left his native
place, and went to Baghdad, where he taught
jurisprudence, and gave lectures on the
"Mokhtassar" ("Epitome") by Al-muzani,
which he explained with additional observa-
tions of his own. Ahmed is said to have
contributed more powerfully than any other
doctor of his sect to spread the doctrines of
the Imam Shafi', by two works, entitled, " Ta'
likat" ("Hasty Notes"), in which be treated
exclusively of the religious opinions of that
celebrated imam. He also wi-ote another
work, called " Bostan" (" Garden "), consisting
of singular anecdotes. Haji Khalfah attri-
butes to him a history of Baghdad, which
was continued after his death by Ahmed
Al-baghdadi. Ahmed died at Baghdad, on
Friday, the lath of ShawwaJ, a. h. 406 (March,
A. D. 1016). [Ahmed Al-baghda'di'.J
(Ibn Khallekan, Biog. Diet. ; Haji Khalfah,
Lex. Bibl. sub. voc. "Ta'likat;" Abii-1-feda,
Ann. Musi, iii.) P. de G.

AHMED AL-KASTA'LI' (Abu 'Omar
Ibn Mohammed), surnamed Ibn Dan-aj
(the grandson of the maker or seller of
ladders), a celebrated Arabian poet, was bom
at Kastalah, now Cazalla, a town between
Cordova and Seville, in Spain, in the month
of MohaiTam, a. h. 347 (February or March,
A.D. 958). He repaired to the capital in his
youth, and was introduced to the notice of
the celebrated Almansur (Mohammed Ibn
Abi 'A'mir), who appointed him his katib, or
secretary, took him in his company whenever
he went on a military expedition, and granted
him a handsome pension. Ahmed failed not
to show his gratitude. He wrote several
poems in praise of his patron, which are held
in great esteem even by the Arabs of the
present day. An eastern writer, named Ath-
tha'lebi, who wrote the " Lives of the Ara-
bian Poets," ['Abdu-l-Ma'lik,] compares
him to Al-mutennabi, for the sweetness and
melody of his poetical compositions. (See
Yatimatu-d-dahr, Brit. Mus. No. 9578.)
The life of Ahmed Al-kastali is in the
" Biographical Dictionary " of Ibn Khallekan,
who gives some extracts from his poems,
and places his death on Sunday, the 15th of
Jumada the second, a.h. 421 (July, a.d,
1030). Another writer, named Al-homaydi,
places it one year sooner ; and Casiri is cer-
tainly mistaken when he makes him still alive
in A. h. 428. (Casiri, Bib. Ar. Hisp. Esc. ii. 95. ;
Conde, Hist.de la Dom. i. 522-3.; Al-makkari,

AHMED.

Moham. Dyn. i. 39. 342.; Ibn Khallekan, Biog.
Diet.) P. de G.

AHMED AL-MEYDA'NI' (Abu-1-fadhl
Ibn Mohammed Ibn 'All Ibn Ibrahim), sur-
named Al-adib, (the philologist), is well
known as the author of a collection of Ara-
bic proverbs, entitled " Amthalu-1-meydani,"
or, " The Proverbs of Al-meydiini," which
Pococke translated into Latin. The original
is in the Bodleian library. In 1773 Henry
Albert Schultens published a specimen of
Pococke's version, " Specimen Proverbiorum
Meidanii. Ex Versione Pocockiana. Lond."
4to. The same author undertook in 1795
to publish a complete translation of Al-mey-
dani's proverbs ; but he died before the com-
pletion of the work, and only 454 out of the
COOO proverbs which compose the collection
of Al-meydani appeared, edited by Schroeder,
" Meidanii Proverbiorum Arabicorum Pars,
Latine vertit Henricus Albertus Schultens.
Lugd. Bat. 1795." 4to. A few more pro-
verbs, together with a specimen of Pococke's
version, were also published by Dr. Mac-
bride of Oxford, in the first, third, and fourth
volumes of the collection entitled " Fundgru-
ben des Orients." Rosenmiiller published
also a few in Arabic and Latin, 1796, 4to.,
Leipzig. An edition of the entire work in
Arabic, with a Latin translation and notes
by G. W. Freytag, is now in course of pub-
lication at Bonn. Ahmed Al-meydani died
at Nishapur, in a. h. 513 (a. d. 1124-5).
Al-meydani means the native of Meydan, a
quarter of the city of Nishapur where Ahmed
was born and resided. (Ibn Khallekan,
Biog. Diet. ; D'Herbelot, Bib. Or. sub. voc.
" Mediani.") P. de G.

AHMED AN-NAHHA'S (Abu Ja'far
Ibn Mohammed Ibn Isma'il Ibn Yiinas Al-
moredi), an eminent grammarian and philo-
logist, was a native of Egj'pt. He wrote
several works, among which are a volu-
minous commentary on the Koran ; a treatise
on the grammatical analysis of the Koran ;
another on the verses of the Koran which
were suppressed, and those who suppressed
them ; a work on grammar, entitled " TufFa-
hah fi-n-nahu " (" The Apple ") ; another on
etymology ; a treatise on the ideas usually
met with in the works of poets ; a com-
mentary on the seven " Mo'allakat," or sus-
pended poems ; a biography of eminent poets,
arranged according to the age in which they
lived, and their different schools (Tabalidtu-
sh-sho'ara). He was considered the first
grammarian of his time, and he had been the
pupil of Al-aklifash (Abu-1-hasan Sa'id),
Abu Ishak, Az-zajjaj, and other literary men
of 'Irak, whither he had travelled for the
purpose of studying under them. He is de-
scribed as exceedingly parsimonious. He
would live as much as possible upon his
friends and acquaintances, to whom he be-
came a burden ; notM'ithstanding that his
rooms were always thi'onged with students.
529

He died at Misr (Old Cairo), on Sunday the
5th of Dhi-1-hajjah, a. u. 338 (May, a. i>.
950); or, according to others, the year be-
fore. He came by his death in the following
manner. He was sitting on the staircase of
the Kilometer, by the side of the river, which
was then on the increase, scanning some
verses, when a common fellow, who knew
him not, hearing him utter words which
to him appeared unintelligible, said, " This
man is pronouncing a charm to prevent the
overflow of the Nile, so as to raise the price
of provisions," and he pushed him forthwith
into the river, where he was drowned. An-
nahhas means the coppersmith, but we are
not informed if such was Ahmed's trade.
(Ibn Khallekan, Biog. Diet. i. 81. ; Ilaji
Khalfah, Lex. Bibl. sub. voc. " Talfahah,"
" Tabakat," " Mo'aUakat," &c.) P. de G.

AHMED AN-NESA'YT (Abu 'Abdi-r-
rahman Ibn 'Ali Ibn Sho'ayb Ibn 'Ali Ibn
Senan Ibn Bahr), a celebrated JMohammedaa
doctor and hafidh, or traditionist, was born
at Nesa, a city in Khorasan, in a. h. 214 or
2 1 5 (A. D. 829-30). He inhabited Old Cairo,
in which city he gained great reputation by
his works, and had many pupils ; but towards
the end of his life he settled at Damascus.
He was the author of a sunan, or collec-
tion of traditions, as well as of a work en-
titled " Khassais " (" Particularities "), in
which he treated of the merits and virtues of
'Ali Ibn Abi Talib, and those of his family.
Having been asked one day why he did not
write a work on the merits of the companions
of Mohammed, he answered, " On entering
Damascus, I found a great number of persons
holding 'Ali in aversion, and I wrote this
book to make them change their opinion.
Haji Khalfah {Lex. Ency. voc. "^^sma") at-
tributes to him another work, entitled " As-
mau-1-mudallesin " ("The Names of the Im-
porters or Recorders of False Traditions").
Ahmed An-nesayi died in the month of Sha-
ban, A. H. 303 (Feb. a. d. 916). He met with
his death in the following manner. Having
on a certain occasion, in the mosque, advocated
very strongly the rights of the khalif 'Ali
and his family, he was immediately assailed
by those who were present, severely beaten,
and trodden under foot. He was carried on
a litter to Rakkah, where he died soon after
his arrival. (Ibn Khallekan, Biog. Diet. ;
D'Herbelot, Bib. Or. sub voc. " Nessai ; "
Haji Khalfah, Lex. Bibl.) P. de G.

AHMED AN-NUSHARISr, a Moham-
medan author who lived and died at Granada,
and was the author of a history of Abu-l-ha-
jaj Yusuf, seventh king of Granada, of the
dynasty of the Nasserites, or Beni Al-ahmar,
as they are otherwise called by the Arabian
writers. A copy of this work, which is en-
titled " Kenasatu-dh dhakan ba'd intikali-s-
sekan," is in the Escurial library (No. 1707.).
From a note at the end it would appear that
the work was completed in a. h. 750(a. d.

AHMED.

1349-50). (Casiri, Bib. Arab. H!sp. Esc. ii.
159.) P. de G.

AHMED IBN 'ARABSHAH, an Arabian
■writer of the fifteenth century, was a native
of Damascus, vrhere he died in A. d. 1450.
He is the author of a history of Timur, or
Tamerlane, entitled " 'Ajayibu-1-kodur fi
akhbar Timur " (" Miraculous Effects of
Divine Providence [shown] in the History
of Timur"). This work, which has been
translated into Persian and Turkish, is
written in that highly figurative style which
is so much to the taste of the Eastern people.
Its historical merits, however, are far from
being equal to its rhetorical beauties. There
are three editions of this history ; one pub-
lished at Leyden by Golius, in 1636, 4to. ; the
second by Henry Manger, in 3 volumes 8vo. ;
and the third at Calcutta, by Sheikh Ahmed
Ibn Mohammed Al-ansari, 1818, 8vo. Vattier
first translated it into French, " L'Histoire
du Grande Tamerlan traduite de I'Arabe
d' Ahmed, fils de Gueraspe," Paris, 1658,
4to. ; and Samuel Henry Manger into Latin,
" Ahmedis Arabsiadte Vitae et Rerum ges-
tarum Timuri, qui vulgo Tamerlanus dicitur,
Historia," Leovard. 1767-72. Ahmed Ibn
'Arabshah was also the author of a collection
of tales in elegant prose, entitled " Faka-
hatu-1-kholafa wa mufakahatu-dh-dhorafa "
(" Fruits for the Khalifs and Amusement for
the Witty"), of which there are three copies
in the Escurial library (Nos. 511, 512, 513.) ;
as well as of a treatise on education, con-
taining elegant extracts in prose and verse,
under the title of " Miratu-1-adab " ("The
Mirror of Literature"). He wrote likewise
a treatise, in verse, on the unity of God, en-
titled " Irshadu-1-mufid likhalissi-t-tauhid "
(" Profitable Direction to those who believe
sincerely in the Unity of God"). (D'Herbe-
lot. Bib. Or. sub. voc. " Ahmed " and " Arab-
schah;" Haji Khalfah, Lex. Bibl.. sub. voc.
" Irshad," " 'Ajayib," &c.) P. de G.

AHMED AR-RA'Zr (Ibn Mohammed
Ibn Musa Ibn Busheyr Ibn Jenad Ibn Lekitt),
an historian of Mohammedan Spain, was
born at Cordova about the end of the ninth
century of our ara. His father, Mohammed,
was a native of Ray, a considerable district
of Persia, and a jeweller by trade. Having in
oneof his journeys visited Spain, he met with
so much encouragement from 'Abdu-r-rah-
man II., the reigning sultan of Cordova, and
the nobles of his court, that he decided upon
establishing himself in Cordova, and following
his mercantile pursuits there. He died very
rich, on his return from an embassy to the
city of Elvira, whither he was sent by Al-mun-
dhir, sixth sultan of Cordova, of the family
of Umeyyah. Ahmed followed, at first, his
father's profession ; but, as he was very fond
of scientific pursuits and the societj^ of lite-
rary men, he neglected his affairs and suffered
heavy losses, which induced him to retire
from business, and devote all his leisure to
530

the cultivation of letters, and especially to
the investigation of the history and antiquities
of Spain. He wrote a voluminous work, in
which he gave an account of all the Arabian
tribes which settled in the Peninsula, as well
as a description of the principal cities or dis-
tricts inhabited by them, the productions of
the soil, the minerals, industry, commerce,
&c. ; followed by a concise history of Moham-
medan Spain, from the conquest to the
accession of 'Abdu-r-rahman An-nasir-lidin-
illah, first khalif and eighth sultan of Spain
of the race of Umeyyah. There is a semi-
barbarous Spanish translation of this work,
made during the middle ages, under the title
of " La Coronica del Moro Rasis, Coronista
de Dalharab, Miramomelin de Marruecos y
Rey de Cordova." It was first translated into
the Portuguese dialect by Gil Perez, a priest,
and Mohamad, a converted Moor, during the
reign and by the command of Dinis, king of
Portugal (a. d. 1279—1325.). It was then
translated into Castilian. The work has never
been printed ; but copies of it are not un-
common : there is one in' the library of the
British Museum (No. 9044.). Casiri, on the
authority of Al-homaydi, attributes to this
historian a work on the topography of Cor-
dova, similar to that which Ibn Abi Tahir
composed on the topography of Baghdad. If
the statement be correct, this production must
be a distinct one from the above. The same
writer, Casiri, conjectured that a valuable
historical fragment published by him at the
end of his " Bib. Arab. Hisp. Esc." was
likewise the work of Ahmed Ar-razi ; but we
doubt if the circumstance of the name
Ahmed (so common among Mohammed-
ans), which is also the initial name of Ar-
razi, being placed at the head of the fragment,
is a sufficient ground for the conjecture. The
year of Ar-razi's death is not known ; but
from certain passages in his work it may be
inferred that he was still alive in a. h. 920.
Ar-razi means the native of Ray. He is
likewise called by some writers Al-tarikhi,
i. e. the historian.

There is another Arabian writer also called
Ahmed Ar-razi, because he was a native of
the same district, who was the author of
an Arabic dictionary, entitled, " Al-mujammel
fi-1-loghat" (" The Collector: on the Lan-
guage"), as well as of a biographical work,
known under the title of " Hilyatu-1-fokaha
(" Ornament of Doctors "). The entire name
of this author was Ahmed Ibn Paris Ibn
Zakariyya Ibn Mohammed Ibn Habib Ar-
razi. He died in a. h. 375 (a. d. 985).
(Al-makkari, Moham. Dyn. i. 314. ; Casiri,
Bib. Arab. Hisp. Esc. ii. 329.) P. de G.

AHMED IBN BU'WAYH (Abu-1-
huseyn), surnamed Mo'izzu-d-daulah (the
exalter of the empire), and Al-akta (the
maimed), from having lost his left hand,
and some fingers of the right, in a skirmish
with the Kurds, foimder of the dynasty of

AHMED.

ADMED.

Biiwayh or Buyah, who ruled over Persian
'Irak and Ahwaz. He was born near Shiraz,
A. H. 303 (a.d. 915-16), and was the son of
Abu Shuja' Buwayh, a poor man, who
boasted a descent from Behranighur, one of
the most renowned of the ancient Persian
kings. Ahmed was one of three brothers,
all of whom attained a considerable share of
power. Abu-1-hasan 'Ali, surnamed 'Imadu-
d-daulah (the column of the state), who was
the eldest, became sovereign of Diliixn, a
division of the province of Tabaristan, and
fixed his court at Shiraz. The second, Hasan,
surnamed Roknu-d-daulah (the foundation of
the state), took possession of Ispahan and part
of Persian 'Irak, where he ruled undisturbed
till his death. As to Mu'izzu-d-daulah (Ah-
med), he began his life by selling fire-wood,
but he ultimately attained the same eminence
as his two brothers. In a.h. 321 (a.d. 933),
when Imadu-d-daulah was proclaimed sove-
reign of Dilam, his brother Ahmed was
despatched by him, at the head of an army, to
extend the power of the race of Buwayh
over the neighbouring provinces. Ahmed
left Shiraz in a. n. 322 (a. d. 934), and
inarched upon Serjan, of which city he made
himself master without opposition. Having
proceeded into Kerman, he reduced the
whole of that province, after defeating the
governor, Mohammed Ibn Eliyas, in several
conflicts. He then marched towards the
territory of Ahwaz, the whole of which he
united to his former conquests. In a. h. 334
(a. D. 945), during the khalifate of Al-mustakfi,
the- twenty-second of the house of 'Abbas,
Ahmed set out for Baghdad, which he en-
tered without resistance on Saturday the
11th day of Jumada the first (Dec. a.d.
945), under the pretence that he was going
to deliver that monarch from the tyranny of
the Turks, who had usurped all the power
at court. He there promised allegiance to
that khalif, .who granted him the investiture
of all the provinces which he had conquered,
and also conferred on him the dignity of
Amiru-1-omra, and the title of Mu'izzu-d-
daulah. But some misunderstanding having
arisen in the course of the same year between
Ahmed and the khalif, the former, who was
all powerful at Baghdad, had his sovereign
seized and confined to a dungeon, where he
lost his eyesight, and appointed in bis room
Al-mutayu-billah, who retained only a
shadow of power ; all authority being in the
hands of the ambitious Ahmed. After a rule
of upwards of twenty-one years, Ahmed died
at Baghdad, on Monday the 17th of Rabi'
the second, a.h. 356 (April, a.d. 967). He
was interred in his palace, but his body was
afterwards removed to a superb mausoleimi
built for its reception in the cemetery of
Koraysh, near Baghdad. When on the point
of death he granted liberty to all his slaves,
and gave the greater part of his property in
alms. He was succeeded in the lordship of
531

Kerman and Ahwaz, as well as in the dignity
of Amiru-1-omra at Baghdad, by his son
Bakhtiyar (Ibn Khallekan, Biog. Diet. vol.
i. p. 155. ; Abu-1-feda, /Inn. Mus. subpropriis
annis ; Price, Chron. lietrosp. of Moham.
Hint. ii. 255. ; Elmacin, Hist. iSar. 216.)

P. de G.

AHMED IBN FARAJ (Abu 'Amru),
a celebrated Arabian poet and historian, was
born at Jaen in Spain about the middle
of the tenth century of our sera. When
young he removed to Cordova, where the
reigning khalif, Al-hakem Al-mustanser-
billah, ninth sultan of the race of Umeyyah,
was encouraging science and literature by his
example and his liberality. Ahmed was first
brought to the notice of his sovereign by some
light poems, which were greatly admired,
and which Al-hakem wished him to recite in
his presence. Ahmed complied with the
order, and received, as a rcMard, a purse
containing 100 dinars of gold. Some time
after, he WTOte an historical account of all
the rebels who had on different occasions
revolted against the government of the Beni
Umeyyah, from the establishment of that
dynasty, in a. h. 138 (a. d. 755) to his own
times. Adh-dhobbi, quoted by Conde (i. 480.),
attributes to him a collection of the best poems
written by the Spanish Arabs, which he is
reported to have made at the express desire
of Al-hakem, who desired it for his own
library. The work bore the title of " Hada-
yik " (" Enclosed Gardens "), and consisted of
two-hundred chapters, each containing one
hundred verses. Each chapter, moreover,
was denominated after a flower. It appears
that this collection was made in competition
with a similar one which Abu Mohammed
Ibn Dawud, an eastern poet, had made for a
khalif of the race of 'Abbas. Ahmed wrote
likewise a history of the sultans of the house
of Umeyyah who reigned in Spain. The
above-mentioned historian (Adh-dhobbi) in-
forms us that Ahmed Ibn Faraj was executed,
by the order of Al-hakem, in a. h. 360 (a. d.
971); but he is silent as to the cause of his
incurring the displeasure of that monarch.
(Conde, Hist, de la Dom. i. 465. ; Al-makkari,
Moh. Dyn. i. 185—187.) P. de G.

AHMED IBN HANBAL (Abu 'Abdillah
Ash-sheybani Al-merwazi), founder of one of
the four religious sects which are considered
orthodox by the Mohammedans, was born at
Baghdad, in Rabi' the first, a. h. 1 64 (a. d. 780).
Other writers make him a native of Mem,
in Khorasan, to which place he must at least
have originally belonged, since the adjective
Al-merwazi, i. e. from Meru, is invariably
affixed to his name. However this may be,
Ahmed Ibn Hanbal studied at Baghdad,
where he soon gained great reputation by his
learning and exemplary life. He became the
intimate friend of Shafi', the founder of the
sect of the Shafiites, from whom he is said to
have received most of his knowledge of the

AHMED.

sacred traditions. When Shafi' left Baghdad
for Egypt, he was heard to exclaim, " I went
forth from 'Irak, and left not behind me a
more pious man, or a better jurisconsult,
than Ahmed Ibn Hanbal." Among the doc-
trines held by Ibn Hanbal, in common with
other eminent theologians of his day, one
Avas, that the Koran was uncreated and eter-
nal. Having been called upon to declare that
the Koran was a creation, he refused ; and
although he was scourged and imprisoned by
order of the khalif Al-mu'tassem, the eighth of
the house of 'Abbas, he persisted in his refusal.
Ibn Hanbal died at Baghdad, in Rabi' the
first, A. H. 245 (a. d. 855). According to
Ibn Khallekan, his body was followed to the
grave by 800,000 men, and 60,000 women ;
and we are gravely told by the same biogra-
pher, that on the day of Ibn Hanbal's death,
20,000 Christians, Jews, and Magi volun-
tarily embraced the Mohammedan faith.
He left two sons, both men of learning ;
the eldest of whom, named Saleh, became
kadhi of Ispahan. Among his disciples the
most celebrated were, Al-bokhari, the author
of the Sahih, Moslem Al-kusheyri, Abii
Dawiid Alh-kaheri, and Ibrahim Al-ha-
rethi'. The sect founded by Ibn Hanbal
increased so fast, and became so powerfid,
that in A. h. 323 (a. d. 934-5) in the kha-
lifate of Ar-radhi, the twentieth of the house
of Abbas, they raised a great commotion
in Baghdad, entering the houses of the in-
habitants, spilling their wine, or breaking
their musical instruments, when they found
any, beating the singing women whom they
met in the streets, and committing other
excesses. A severe edict was published
against them, and many of the ringleaders
vvere committed to prison before they could
be reduced to order. The Hanbalites are
not numerous now, and are seldom met with
out of Arabia. (Sale's Koran, Prelim. Disc. ;
Ibn Khallekan, Bmj. Diet; Abu-1-feda, Ann.
Musi. ii. 154. ; Abu-1-faraj, Hist. Dyn. p.
252.) P. de G.

AHMED IBN HU'D (Abu Ja'far Al-
jodhami), surnamed Al-muktadir-billah,
(he who is powerful by the grace of God),
second king of Saragossa, of the dynasty of
the Beni Hud, succeeded his father Suley-
man, in a. h. 438 (a. d. 1046-7). He was an
able and enlightened ruler, who bravely de-
fended his dominions against the then rising
power of the kings of Aragon. In a. d. 1048
he reduced the fortress of Barbastro, which had
some time before fallen into the hands of the
Aragonese, and defeated and killed their king,
Ramiro, near the castle of Grados. Sancho I.,
who succeeded his father Ramiro on the throne
of Aragon, being anxious to revenge the
outrage, advanced into the dominions of Ibn
Hiid, recovered Barbastro, invested and took
Monzon, and, lastly (in a. d. 1054), laid siege
to Huesca, the ancient Osca. Ahmed having
hastened to the assistance of the besieged, a
532

battle ensued, in which the King of Aragon
was defeated and slain. A Moorish warrior,
named Sa'darah, having reached the enemy's
camp in disguise, entered the tent of Sancho,
and stabbed him with his dagger below the
right eye. Such is at least the account
given by the Arabian writers ; the Christian
chroniclers, who do not mention the battle,
say that Sancho, having one day approached
the walls of Huesca for the purpose of recon-
noitring, was mortally wounded by an arrow
in the right side, while raising his hand to
point out a spot where the assault might be
made. Ahmed Ibn Hud died in a. h. 474
(a. d. 1081-2), and was succeeded by his son
Abu 'Amir Yusuf, surnamed Al-mutamen
(he who trusts in God).

There were two other kings of Saragossa of
the dynasty of Hud, who bore the name of
Ahmed, namely, Abu Ja'far Ahmed II., sur-
named Al-musta' in billah (he who implores
the help of God), who reigned from a. h. 478
to 503 (a. D. 1085-1109), and Abu Ja'far
Ahmed III., surnamed Seyfu-d-daulah (the
sword of the state), and Al-mostanser-billah
(he who expects the assistance of God), who,
though no longer master of Saragossa, which
was taken by Alfonso I. of Aragon in a. d.
1118, reigned nevertheless over some extensive
districts of Aragon till a. h. 524 (a. d. 1 130),
when he died. (Casiri, Bib. Arab. Hisp. Esc.
ii. 21.3.; Conde, Hist, de la Horn. ii. 175.267.;
Abu-1-feda, An7i. Musi. iii. 75.). P. de G.

AHMED IBNU-L-MAKU'Wr (Ibn
'Abdi-1-malek Ibn Hashim Abu 'Omar), a
celebrated J.Iohammedan lawyer, a native of
Seville, who is said by Casiri to have been
chief kadhi of Cordova, and to have compiled
a code of Mohammedan law (" Pandectse
Hispanaj") by the command of Al-hakem
Al-mostanser-billah, the ninth sultan of the
family of Ilmeyyah, in Spain. Al-homaydi
(^Judhwatu-l-moktabis, fol. 107.) says that, in
conjunction with Abu Merwan Al-mu'ayti,
he wrote a work on the memorable sayings
of Malik Ibn Ans, in imitation of the " Al-
bjihir" (" The Illustrious"), written by Abu
Bekr Ibnu-1-haddad on the memorable say-
ings of Shafi'. Ahmed Ibnu-l-maki\wi died at
Cordova, on Saturday the 7th of Jumada the
first, A. n. 401 (Oct. A. D. 1010). (Casiri, Bib.
Arab. Hisp. Ese. ii. 140 ; Al-homaydi, Jf/(//(-
ivatH-l-nloktabis, MS. Bodl. L\h. Hunt. 4:64.;
Conde, Hist, de la Dom. i. 475.) P. de G.

AHMED IBNU-S-SAFFA'R (Ibn 'Ab-
dillah Al-ghafeki Abu-1-kasim), a celebrated
mathematician and astronomer, was born at
Hisn-Ghafek, in the territory of Cordova,
about the close of the tenth century of our
a;ra. When young he left his native place
and repaired to Cordova, where he obtained
an appointment under government, and gained
great celebrity by a treatise on arithmetic
which he is said to have dedicated to Al-
mansiir Ibn Abi 'Amir. He died at Cordova
inA. u. 426 (A. D. 1034-5). Ibn Abi Os-

AHMED.

saybi'ah, ■who gives his life among those of
the Spanish physicians, attributes to him " A
Treatise on the Manner of constructing
Mathematical Instruments," and a set of
Astronomical Tables. (Casiri, Bib. Arab.
Hi.sp. Enc. ii. 140. ; Al-makkari, Moliam.
Dyn. i. 428.) P. de G.

AHMED JESA'YR. [Aveis I.]
AHMED KEDiJK, or " Broken-mouth,"
one of the most celebrated Turkish captains,
was grand vizir of Mohammed H. from 1473
to 1477. From being a private soldier he
soon became an oflQeer, and distinguished
himself in every engagement. When raised
to the rank of general, he commanded the
army against the rebels of Caramania, took
the famous castle of Develi-Karahissar, and
brought that dangerous war to a close. As
a reward for his services, the sultan named
him grand vizir (1473), and in 1475 intrusted
him with the command of an expedition de-
signed to aid the Khan of the Crimea against
his revolted brothers and the Genoese.
Ahmed Kediik, at the head of a powerful
fleet and an army of 40,000 men, anchored
before Kaffa ; and that town, then called
Little Constantinople, surrendered on the 4th
of June, 1473, after a siege of four days. The
Turks found an unmense booty ; 40,000
prisoners were sent as settlers to Constanti-
nople ; and 15,000 (1500?) young Genoese
noblemen were enrolled in the corps of Ja-
nissaries. The city had been betrayed by
certain Armenians, and Ahmed Kediik
invited them to a grand entertainment.
After dinner the traitors were led down a
narrow staircase, at the foot of which they
were beheaded. The town of Tana (Azof)
surrendered shortly after, and the whole of
the Crimea was soon subjugated by the Otto-
mans, who annexed it to their dominions.
Whatever claims these numerous services
might give him to the sultan's gratitude, the
latter, frequently irritated by his vizir's ob-
stinac}', deposed him in 1477, and imprisoned
him in the castle of the Bosporus, from
which, however, he was soon released to
assume the pashalLk of Valona. In the year
following he was appointed to the command
of an expedition against Italy. He took the
islands of St. Maura and Zante, landed on the
coast of Apulia, and on the 28th of July,
1479, after a siege of fourteen days, took the
city of Otranto, then the rampart of Italy
against the Infidels. The Turks were guilty
of unheard-of atrocities : out of 22,000 in-
habitants, 12,000 were massacred, and the
rest sent into slavery. Ahmed Kediik was
the first Turk who set foot on the classic soil
of Italy, where, six centuries before, the
Mohammedan Saracens had lost the last of
their possessions. Sultan Mohammed II. died
in 1481. His son, Bayazid II., was his suc-
cessor ; but his brother Jem, so well known
from his detention in France and his tragic
fate, disputed his claim to the crown. Baya-
533

zid's fate depended on the issue of a battle,
which he was afraid to commence, as the
conqueror of KafiFa was not in his camp. On
the eve of the engagement, Ahmed Kediik
unexpectedly arrived, and his presence gave
more confidence to the troops than the ar-
rival of a whole army would have done. Jem
was defeated (20th June, 1481), and pursued
by Ahmed Kediik. While thus occupied,
he was suddenly recalled to Constantinople ;
but, proud and headstrong, he neglected to
obey, immediately, the orders of the capricious
Bayazid, and was again consigned to prison.
The brave pasha was, however, too valuable
a servant to remain there long. Kazim Bey,
the last of the Caramanian princes, had once
more raised a rebellion in that province, but
Ahmed Kediik soon reduced it to the sultan's
authority. Prince Jem then overran Asia
Minor with a powerful army ; but the rebels
dispersed before Ahmed Kediik. Jem him-
self fled to Rhodes, and the throne was se-
cured to Bayazid.

In 1482 the Sultan had made a treaty with
Venice, renouncing his claim to the tribute
hitherto paid by that republic ; and at the
same time he concluded a peace with the
knights of Rhodes. He was anxious for
peace, as he feared that war might supply the
Janissaries with new pretexts for revolt, as
they had twice mutinied after the disgrace of
their idol Alimed Kediik. But this great
captain was too fond of war to approve of the
two treaties, and forgot himself so far as to
speak of the sultan in terms highly offensive :
he also intrigued with his father-in-law
against the influence of Mustafa Pasha, the
sultan's favourite. This imprudent conduct
decided Ahmed's fate. On the 6 Shawwal,
A. H. 887 (18th of November, 1482), Baya-
zid, after a dinner given to his ministers,
among whom was Ahmed, dismissed them
with presents of splendid robes. Ahmed
Kediik, the conqueror of Kaff"a and Otranto,
and of Jem and Kazim Bey, approached in his
turn : he was presented with a black kaftan,
the symbol of immediate death. For the first
time in his life the old warrior drew back
in alarm. One of the sultan's mutes ad-
vancing, stabbed him with a poniard, and
Ahmed expired at the sultan's feet. The
Turkish historians do not allude to the fatal
issue of this dinner ; and according to Edris,
Ahmed was not assassinated till some days
after in the environs of Adrianople. . A revolt
of the Janissaries succeeded the death of their
great captain. The following anecdote is
given on authority that cannot be disputed.
When Bayazid was a young man, he was one
day severely reprimanded by Ahmed Kediik
for having unskilfully placed a division of the
army which was intended to fall on the enemy.
Bayazid, irritated at this want of respect, swore
that he would have his revenge as soon as
he became sultan. " And I swear," returned
Ahmed, " that I will never gird on my scimitar

AHMED.

in your service." And it actually happened,
v/hen Bayazid joined the army after he suc-
ceeded his father on the throne, that Ahmed
appeared at the head of the cavalry with his
sword attached to the pummel of the saddle.
Bayazid observed it, and said, " Well, you
have a long memory ; but forget the faults of
my youth, gird on your scimitar, and use it
against my enemies." (Hammer, Geschichte
des Osmanischen lieiches, vol. ii. book 18, 19.,
especially p. 284, 285. : he cites Edris, fol.
240.; 'Ali, fol. 155.) W. P.

AHMED KH A'N, one of the Mogul kings
of Persia, whose real name was NIKU-
DA'R. D. F.

AHMED KHAN ABDA'LI, founder of
the Durrani dynasty in Afghanist;in, and
grandfather of Shah Shuja, the late ruler
of that country. Zaman Khan, the father of
Ahmed, was distinguished as the chief of the
Abdali tribe, and a few years previous to the
appearance of Nadir Shah he had nearly suc-
ceeded in shaking off the Persian yoke. In
1722, after defeating a Persian army of double
their own number, the Abdalis not only were
in possession of Herat, but were able to de-
spatch a large force to besiege Mashhad, in
the western extremity of Khorasan. At last,
in 1728, they were, for the first time, attacked
by the renowned Nadir, and after a short
campaign, of various success, they were re-
duced to submit to that conqueror. Zaman
Khan left two sons, the elder Zu'l'fikar, and
the younger Ahmed, the subject of this
memoir, who was born in 1723. When yet
very young, Ahmed was taken prisoner by
Nadir, and served for some time as one of the
royal slaves, till, attracting the notice of his
master, he was promoted to the rank of mace-
bearer. He accompanied Nadir in his expe-
dition to India in 1739, probably in some
domestic capacity, as he was then too young
to bear arms. He afterwards obtained the
rank of an ofl&cer of cavalry, and had the
command of a considerable body of Afghans
in a campaign against the Turks. The valour
displayed by Ahmed and his countrymen in
these wars raised them very high in Nadir's
favour, a partiality which, according to some
historians, cost that tyrant his life. But the
fact is, that Nadir had completely forfeited
the affection of his own subjects, and at this
period he showed most attachment to his
foreign troops. Meanwhile the Persians, op-
pressed beyond the power of endurance, re-
solved " that the tyrant should die ; " and on
the 8th of June, 1747, when encamped not
far from Mashhad, a band of Persian con-
spirators surprised his tent, and, after a brief
struggle, deprived him of life. Ahmed Kh:in,
then about twenty-four years of age, appears
to have attained considerable ascendancy in
Nadir's service, as we find him, on the morn-
ing after the tyrant's death, acting as com-
mander-in-chief of the Tartars and Afghans
in an attack upon the Persians. It has been
534

already stated that Nadir had for some time
shown a decided preference to his foreign
troops ; and on the very night in which he
was murdered, he had formed a design of
massacring, by their means, all the Persians
in his camp. Hence authors disagree as to
which party began the attack the next morn-
ing. The Persians were eager to exterminate
their intended executioners ; and the Tartars
and Afghans were equally ready to avenge
the death of their master, and to gain an op-
portunity of plundering the camp. At length,
after a loss of 5000 men on both sides,
the foreign troops were repulsed. Ahmed
Khan proceeded by rapid marches to Kan-
dahar, where he arrived with a force not
exceeding two or three thousand men. He
succeeded in taking possession of that city,
where he found a large convoy of treasure,
on its way from India to Nadir's camp. This
treasure had been already appropriated by
the Afghans ; but Ahmed, backed as he was
by military force, claimed it for himself, and
by these means he laid the foundation of a
kingdom which, during his own lifetime at
least, became formidable to the neighbouring
nations. In October, 1747, Ahmed was
crowned at Kandahar as Ahmed Shah Dur-
rani. He passed the following winter in
settling the country which he had already
acquired, and in collecting an army for future
expeditions. His first object was to secure
the affection of his troops, and particularly to
attach to himself the chiefs of his own tribe.
He distributed all the great offices of his
new state among the leading Durranis, esta-
blishing certain offices in particular families,
in the same manner in which he settled the
crown in his own. He left the hereditary
chiefs in possession of their ancient privileges,
and seldom interfered in the internal govern-
ment of their clans, except in such a degree
as was necessary to maintain his army and
preserve the general tranquillity. It re-
quired considerable address, however, to
reconcile so many warlike and independent
tribes to a form of government to which they
had never been more than temporarily sub-
jected, and to which they had no reason to be
at all attached. They never had been united
under a native king ; and when subdued by
the more warlike sovereigns of Persia, such
as Timur and Nadir, they viewed the kingly
power as an engine of extortion and oppres-
sion, to be feared and resisted, rather than a
source of order and protection, to be loved
and obeyed. Hence the exaltation of Ahmed
was looked upon by many of the chiefs with
as much jealousy as the usurpation of a foreign
master. To counteract these feelings, Ahmed
directed his views to foreign wars and ex-
peditions into the more wealthy regions around
him. He justly perceived that if they should
prove successful, his victories would raise his
reputation, and his conquests would supply
him with the means of maintaining a large

AHMED.

army, as -well as of attaching the disaffected
chiefs by favours and rewards. Besides, the
hope of phinder -would induce many of the
tribes to join him, -whom he could not other-
wise have compelled to submission. In the
spring of 1748 Ahmed commenced his career
of conquest, and the most attractive object
appeared to be the imperial city of Delhi,
whose wealth and luxurj^ he had witnessed
when in Nadir's campaign. He advanced
rapidly through Kabul and Peshawer, then
nominally under the Great Mogul, whose
governor he drove across the Indus, at Attock.
Ahmed's army increased as he advanced
through the Afghan country. He then
crossed the Indus, traversed the Panjdb, and
after defeating a large body of Indian troops,
in sight of Lahore, he entered that city in
triumph, prepared to advanced upon Delhi.
He thence crossed the Siitledge, and captured
the town of Sirhind ; but being opposed, near
that city, by a strong Indian force, he was
compelled to retreat into the Panjab, of which
he took and retained possession, the Mogul
governor Safdar Jung having acknowledged
Ahmed as his sovereign, and agreed to pay
the regular tribute of that province. The
affairs of the Panjab being thus satisfactorily
arranged, Ahmed marched back to Kandahar.
On his way he settled the governments of all
the intermediate provinces, and reached his
own capital in the early part of 1749. The
busy reign of Ahmed may be summarily
described as a series of campaigns and expe-
ditions, extending over the immense regions
situated between Delhi on the east, and the
Caspian Sea on the west, and from the Oxus
to the Indian Ocean. The full detail of these
belongs to history. The following brief out-
line is enough here. In the spring of 1749
he marched against Herat and Mashhad,
reducing under his power all the places that
lay on that route. In 1750 he captured the
city of Nishapur, and annexed the whole of
Khoriisan to his dominions. In 17-52 he
marched into the Panjab, and reduced to sub-
mission Mir Manu, the governor, who had
revolted in his absence. During this cam-
paign he conquered Cashmir, and obtained
from the Great Mogul a cession of the coun-
try of Hindustan as far east as Sirhind. In
1736 he was once more called into India,
owing to the disturbed state of the Panjab,
which the Great Mogid was endeavouring to
regain. Ahmed's presence in the Panjab
soon restored order and tranquillity. He
thence marched upon the imperial city, and,
after a feeble resistance on the part of the
inhabitants, he entered triumphantly within
its walls. During his stay at Delhi, he and
his son Timur Shah married princesses of
the imperial family, with whom large por-
tions were given, or rather exacted : among
these, the fair kingdoms of the Panjab, Mul-
tan, and Sind were settled on Timur Shah,
who was at the same time appointed viceroy
535

of all his father's territories to the east of the
Indus. In 1759 Ahmed made another expe-
dition into Hindustan, partly with a view of
restoring order into his own Indian posses-
sions, and partly to protect the Great Mogul
from the Mahrattas, whose power had then
become formidable. They had assembled in
large force near Delhi, and, before Ahmed's
arrival, had almost gained possession of the
cit}'. The Afghans fell in with the Mah-
rattas at Badli, near Delhi, where a severe
action took place, in which the latter were
totally defeated, and Dataji, their leader,
killed. The Mahrattas, however, exerted
themselves to repair their losses, and soon re-
assembled a powerful army from the Dekkan,
under Vishwas Rao, the heir apparent of
their country. The two armies passed several
months in each other's vicinity, and various
skirmishes took place, but with no decisive
results. At length, on the 7 th of Januarj-,
1761, was fought the celebrated battle of
Paniput, near Delhi, in which, after a des-
perate struggle, the Afghans were victorious
on every point. So complete was the victory,
that scarcely one out of the Mahratta army
escaped, and the result was, that the Mah-
rattas thenceforth abandoned their designs
on the north of Hindustan, which now ap-
peared to be at Ahmed's mercy. He, how-
ever, wisely contented himself with the por-
tion that had been formerly ceded to him,
and in the spring of 1761 returned to Kabul.
Ahmed had now reached the simimit of his
ambition ; and it required all his talents and
activity to maintain his elevation during the
remaining twelve years of his life. Some-
times he had to suppress insurrections among
his own chiefs ; and frequently he made a
rapid march to queU a revolt in some remote
province. At length, in 1773, his health had
considerably declined, and in the spring of
that year he left Kandahar for the hills of
Toba, where the summer is comparatively
cool. Here his malady, which was a cancer
in the face, continued to increase, and in the
beginning of June he died at Murgha, in the
fiftieth year of his age, and twenty -fifth of
his reign, leaving his throne to his son
Timur Shah. Mountstuart Elphinstone,
in his elegant work on Kabul, says of
Ahmed, that " his character seems to have
been admirably suited to the situation in
which he was placed. His enterprise and
decision enabled him to profit by the con-
fusion that followed the death of Nadir. He
seems to have been naturally disposed to
mildness and clemency, and the memory of
no eastern prince is stained w ith fewer acts
of cruelty and injustice." He treated mullas
and learned men with respect, being himself
ambitious of the character of a divine and an
author. He laid the foundation of a mighty
empire, which rose to its meridian splendour
mider his own wise administration. It
declined under his less active son. Timur

AHMED.

Shah ; and sunk under his grandsons, the
last of whom, after living for years on the
bounty of " the merchants of England," was,
by them, lately placed upon the throne of his
grandfather. (Elphinstone's Caubul ; Mdl's
British India ; Malcolm's Persia ; and an
" Account of Ahmad Shah Abdali," from a
Persian MS., Asiatic Miscellany, 4to. Cal-
cutta, 178.5.) D. F.

AHMED PASHA, son of Weli-ed-din,
preceptor to the princes under Mohammed II.,
and afterwards vizir, was the first Turkish
lyric poet who deserved the name, and he
continued so until he resigned the palm to
Nejati, who in his turn ceded it to the cele-
brated Baki. Extracts from his " Diwan"
are given in aU the anthologies of Turkish
poets. The Orator of Brusa (f 184.) gives a
biography of Ahmed, who is the first of the
series, because he is interred in the beau-
tiful mosque which he himself had reared
at Brusa. We cannot ascertain the year of
his birth, but he died in a. h. 902 (a. d. 1469).
(Hammer, Geschichtedes Osmanischen Heiches,
vol. ii. p. 588.) W. P.

AHMED PASHA, grand vizir to Soli-
man I., was by birth a Croatian and a
Christian, but he embraced Islam and joined
the corps of Janissaries. He soon attained
distinction, and in 1552 commanded the army
that was besieging Temeswar. The Turks
had been repulsed several times ; at last,
Ahmed, wielding an iron mace, drove back
the fugitives to the breach, and took the
fortress by capitulation, which, however, he
disregarded, and beheaded the brave Hun-
garian commandant Losonczy. On the 21st
of September, 1553, Soliman, yielding to the
instigations of his favourite wife Khasseki
Khurrem Sultanin, surnamed Roxolana, or
the Russian, ordered his son Mustafa to be
strangled ; and to appease the Janissaries, who
had revolted on account of this atrocious
murder, he deposed the grand vizir Rustem
the same day, and appointed Ahmed, the con-
queror of the Banat in Hungary, in his stead.
Ahmed, however, refused to accept the dan-
gerous office until the sultan had sworn that
he would never depose him. But he did not
remain grand vizir long. In 1555, an im-
postor, the famous Mustafa, excited Asia Minor
to revolt, proclaiming that he was the sultan's
son. The grand vizir of this adventurer was
a poulterer, and two students were his
ministers. Ahmed promptly suppressed the
rebellion ; but during his absence, the in-
triguing Roxolana, eager to reinstate her son-
in-law Rustem in the office of vizir, caballed
against Ahmed, whom she accused not only
of peculation, but also of having calumniated
Ali-Pasha, governor of Egypt, for the purpose
of disgracing him with the sultan and causing
his destruction. On the 12 of Zilk. A. H. 962
(28th September, 1555), Ahmed was ar-
rested on his way to the diwan, and imme-
diately after beheaded at the gate of the
536

palace. " Thus," says H:iji Khalfah, " the
sultan kept his oath ; for he did not de-
pose him, he merely put him to death."
This author places the death of the vizir in
A. H. 972 instead of 962 ; but this is a
typographical error. It cannot be doubted
that Ahmed died in the manner stated by
the Turkish historians, and we must there-
fore reject the stories with which European
writers have amused their readers, and espe-
cially Busbequius, the ambassador of the Em-
peror Rudolph at Constantinople. Ahmed
Pasha built the fine mosque which still bears
his name, at the gate of canons in Constanti-
nople ; but his name is particularly distin-
guished as having foi-med several eminent
statesmen, such as Mustafa Aga, Mohammed
Chelebi, and Memi Chelebi, afterwards
Reis Efendi. (Hammer, Geschichte des Os-
vmnischen Heiches. vol. iii. p. 299 — 341., who
cites the Turkish sources ; Pechewi, fol. 114..
and Haji Khalfah, Chronological Tables, p.
176.) W. P.

AHMED PASHA, surnamed the Traitor,
first distinguished himself in the war of
Soliman I. against Austria. He followed
his master in the expedition against the
knights of St. John, who then held Rhodes,
and after the terrible assault of the 24th of
September, 1522, he was named general-in-
chief by the sultan, who had become furious
by his want of success. Ahmed made an-
other assault on Rhodes 11th of Moharrem
(30th November), but he was repulsed with
the loss of 3000 men. The knights, however,
finding their position hopeless, wished to
capitulate, and with this view sent to Ahmed
two officers bearing a letter written by the
I late Sultan Bayazid, in which he promised
to keep eternal peace with the knights. The
Turkish general, enraged at his defeat, tore
up the letter, stamped on the pieces, and
wrote to the Grand Master of the Order a
letter, full of abusive language, which he
sent by two Christian prisoners, whose noses,
fingers, and ears had been cut off by his
orders. Rhodes capitulated on the 2d of
Safer, a.h.928 (21st December, 1522); but,
four days after, the Turks violated the capi-
tulation and plundered and profaned the
churches. This event occurred on Christmas-
day, the same day and nearly the same hour
when the pope, in celebrating mass at St.
Peter's, was frightened by a stone falling
from the top of the cupola and rolling to his
feet, as if to announce that the first rampart
of Christendom had fallen into the hands of
the infidels. This brilliant conquest turned
Ahmed's head. He calumniated the cele-
brated grand vizir, Piri Mustafa Pasha, in the
hope of obtaining his office, but he only suc-
ceeded in part, for though Piri Pasha was
dismissed, it was not himself, but Ibrahim,
the sultan's favourite, who was named grand
vizir. Being sent to Egj-pt, in 1523, to put
down a revolt of the Arabs, he there con-

AHMED.

AHMED-

ceaved the klea of making himself sultan of
Egypt, as a compensation for having missed
the vizirship. He gained over the Mamluks,
distributed the government lands among his
creatures, and suddenly raised the standard
of rebellion. But the corps of Janissaries,
faithful to their oath, made an obstinate re-
sistance in the citadel of Cairo. At last,
Ahmed took the fortress by stratagem, and
the Janissaries M-ere put to the sword (1.524).
Upon this, Ahmed proclaimed himself sultan
and assumed the two prerogatives of Mo-
hammedan sovereignty ; that is, the coin-
ing of money, and the Khutbeh, or public
prayers. ['Ala'-eu-ui'n.] A Chaiish or officer
having brought the sultan's order for his
deposition, he put him to death, and named
three vizirs, one of whom, Mohammed, soon
betrayed his new master. Ahmed was
surprised while in the bath at Cairo, but he
escaped from the assassius and took refuge in
the castle, which he defended with great
bravery. Mohammed having declared that
the treasures of the rebel should be given to
the troops which took the fortress, whole
hordes of Beduins attacked the castle, and
carried it by assault. Ahmed escaped in the
confusion, and sought an asylum in the tribe
Beni Bakar, which inhabited the district of
Sherkije. But Kharish the Sheikh gave him
up to Mohammed, who sent his head to Con-
stantinople. (Hammer, Geschichte dcs Os-
manischen lieiches, iii. p. 28 — 36, who cites
the follow^ing Turkish authors : Ferdi,fol. 8.5. ;
Jelalzade, foL 74. ; Solakzade, fol. 102. ; Su-
heili, fol. 53. ; Sliukri, fol. 107. ; 'Abdu-1
A'zif, fol. 58.) W. P.

AHMED PASHA EL-HA'Jr, grand vizir
under Mahmud I., was son of Jafer Pasha, who
had been the obedient tool of Osman Kiaya-
Bey, and was executed after the taking of
Oczakow and Nissa by the Russians (a. d.
1737). He entered the service under the pro-
tection of Bekir Pasha, son-in-law to the
sultan, and formerly governor of Jidda, and
rose by degrees to the posts of marshal of the
empire and high chamberlain. He had par-
ticularly distinguished himself at the be-
ginning of the last war against Russia, more
especially in throwing supplies into Oczakow.
At a subsequent period, for the zeal he dis-
played in A'i'din (in Anatolia) against the
rebels under the command of Sari Oghli, he
was appointed kaymakan ; and when the
grand-vizirship was conferred upon him he
held the office of nijanji-vizir of the cu-
pola, 28 Rebiul-ewwal, a. h. 1153 (23d
June, 1740). As soon as he assumed the
administration, he adopted a system of
crooked diplomacy towards Austria, taking
advantage of the critical position in which
Maria Theresa was then placed ; for at that
period the Turks had perfected themselves in
diplomacy, and Ahmed particularly excelled
in that art. His intellect was of a high order,
and he was distinguished by his love of

VOL. I.

justice and his respect for the European
ministers, to whom he gave splendid enter-
tainments, which none of his predecessors
had ever done except on extraordinary occa-
sions, and then to ambassadors only. Great
as his talents were, he was deposed by the
sultan in 1742, to prevent a threatened po-
pular insurrection in Constantinople, which
was owing to the exasperation produced
among the people by the daring attacks of
Persia on the Turkish dominions. As a re-
ward for his services, the sultan confided to
him the government of Rakka, He became
successively pasha of Baghdad, Ichil, and
Egypt, and showed himself very active against
the rebellious Arabs, who were excited by
the famous fanatic Mohammed Ibn Abdu-1-
wahhab, whose " impious doctrine sapped
the fundamental principles of Islam, and who
set himself up as the head of a new religion"
(1749). (Hammer, Geschichte des Osmunlsclien
Retches, vol. viii. p. 7 — 153., who cites Mo-
hammed Said, Biographies of Grand Vizirs.)

W. P.
AHMED PASHA HEZARPA'RA', or
" Torn in a thousand pieces," the son of ]Mus-
tafa Chaush, who was the son of a Greek priest,
rose by endless intrigues from one place to
another, until, in 1647, he became prime
minister after the execution of the grand
vizir, Salih Pasha. Another person was on
the point of being named to this important
office, but Ahmed had the impudence to offer
300,000 piasters for the place, and Sultan
Ibrahim I. so far forgot his dignity as to
take the money and install this adventurer as
Salih's successor. Not long after, a second
bargain, still more disgraceful, was made
between the sultan and his minister. Ahmed
divorced his wife, whom the sultan received
into his harem in exchange for his daughter,
Bibi Sultanin. This double wedding was
celebrated by feasts and entertainments of
unheard-of splendour during eighteen days.
The grand vizir, to gi'atify his master, who
was passionately fond of handsome furs, had
all the apartments of his own palace hung
with ermine and sable. Ahmed was well
acquainted with business, and very active, but
harsh and cruel ; he corrupted others, and
was himself ready to accept money for any
services that he might render to individuals.
He oppressed the people so much by his
fiscal measures that the ulemas, as early as
1648, assembled in the grand mosque to
concert means for depriving him of his high
office, and the sultan, yielding to the ad-
vice of his ministers, promised to dismiss
him ; but he would not give up to pub-
lic vengeance the husband of his daughter.
Ahmed, warned of the danger that threat-
ened him, took to flight, carrying with him
an immense quantity of gold and diamonds ;
but he was arrested by the new grand vizir,
and forced to give an account of his gold
and jewels. He valued them at 300 pui'see.

N N

AHMED.

" That will not do, my dear friend," politely
observed the grand vizir, " put another
cipher, if you please." Ahmed reluctantly
■wrote 3000 ; but this was not enough to satisfy
his rapacious successor, who still insisted on
more ciphers, and at last made him add
70,000 ducats. Notwithstanding this, the
sultan at last consented to his being put to
death ; the executioner led Ahmed outside
the gates of Constantinople, and strangled
him there, 18th of Rejib, a. h. 1058 (8th of
August, A. D. 1648). It was not his body, as
some have pretended, but his fair name which
was torn into a thousand pieces, a circum-
stance that conferred on him, during his life,
the surname of Hezarpara. (Hammer, Ge-
schichtedes Osmanischen Retches, vol. v. p. 420
— 453., who cites Osmanzade Efendi, Histon/
of the Grand Vizirs.) W. P.

AHMED the RENEGADE, pasha, vizir,
and grand vizir, was a German, and born at
Griitz in Styria. Being taken prisoner by
the Turks, he embraced Islam, entered the
army, and soon attracted notice by his talents
and intrigues. He was vizir when he mar-
ried a grand-daughter of Soliman the Great,
and his wedding was celebrated with kingly
splendour and munificence ; the expense of
sweetmeats distributed among the people
alone is said to have amounted to a hundred
thousand pounds sterling. After the murder
of the famous grand vizir SokoUi, 19th of
Sha'ban, A. H. 987 (11th of October, A. D. 1579),
the sultan appointed Ahmed in his stead ; but
he held the office only six months, for he died
in May, 1580. In a conversation which he one
day had with the ambassador of the Emperor
Rudolf II., he had the impudence to tell the
representative of his old sovereign, " I am a
native of Griitz, and intend shortly to go and
see my dear countrymen in Austria." At this
time there were many renegades in the sul-
tan's service. Such were the four dragomans,
Mahmud, 'Ali-Bey, and Melchior Tierpuch,
Germans ; Miirad, a Hungarian ; the vizirs
Sokolli and Piale, Hungarians ; Mahmud, a
German ; Siawusz, a Croatian ; the famous
Ochiali, Kapudan Pasha by the name of
Kilij 'Ali, an Italian ; Cicala, a Genoese,
Agha of the Janissaries ; and three Germans
more, the Kislar Agha Welzer, the Baron von
Kammacher, a Chaush, and the famous Adam
Neuser, a Protestant minister, who joined the
Mamluks. (Hammer, Geschichte des Osma-
nischen Rciches, vol. iv. p. 26, &c ) W. P.
AHMED RESMI HA'JI', of Greek ex-
traction, was Kuchuk Ewkuf or principal of
the chamber of small pious foundations at
Constantinople, when Sultan Mustafa III.,
who highly appreciated his worth and talents,
sent him on an embassy to Vienna in 1756.
The Seven Years' war, which had just com-
menced, had placed the sultan in a very
delicate position, and he required a man of
abilities as his representative at the court
of the Empress Maria Theresa, with whom
538

Mustafa was anxious to remain at peace.
Ahmed Resmi, a man of ready wit and great
sagacity, justified the sultan's choice, which
had been directed in this critical circum-
stance by his own experience as well as
by the counsels of the Reis Efendi Mustafa
Taukji, Ahmed's father-in-law. He did not
return to Constantinople till 1758, and in
reward for his services, he was appointed
Nijanji, or keeper of the sultan's seal. In
1763 the sultan sent him to congratulate
Frederick the Great on the victories which
he had gained over the Austrians, Russians,
and French. It has been pretended that the
Porte was inclined to conclude a treaty of
alliance with Prussia, but this opinion is
unfounded. On the contrary, all the efforts
made for that purpose by the Prussian am-
bassador, Rexin, had been frustrated by the
sultan's firm resolution to remain neutral
in that memorable war. In 1763, how-
ever, Ahmed Resmi was not sent for idle
ceremonies only ; he was directed to dis-
cuss with Frederick what measures should be
taken with respect to Poland in case of the
decease of King Augustus III., and to unite
with the King of Prussia against any Russian
or Austrian intervention. It is worthy of
remark that the political notions of the Porte
at this epoch were extremely precise. The
title given to Frederick by the sultan in the
credentials of his ambassador is alone a suffi-
cient proof of this fact. He is first styled King
of Prussia and Margrave of Brandenburg ;
and afterwards, " Ruma Imperatorimin Kame-
rariosi we Herzek we Prinj we Silezioniin
Dukazi," that is, "Chamberlain of the Roman
Empire, Duke, Prince and Duke of Silesia."
Now, in calling him Duke of SUesia, the
Porte declared its opinion as to the right of
the King of Prussia to that province, which
was, in fact, the primary cause of the Seven
Years' war. On returning from his embassy,
Ahmed was made Kiaya-Bey, or minister
for home affairs, an office which he resigned
six months afterwards, for that of President
of the Chamber for daily business. In this
capacity he accompanied the army in the war
against Russia in 1769, and superintended the
management of the funds to be distributed
among the wounded soldiers. In 1 77 1 he was
appointed Kiaya-Bey a second time. Ahmed
Resmi has written an account of his two embas-
sies, which contains many curious remarks on
Austria and Prussia, and especially on the per-
sons with whom he came in contact. His ob-
servations are not altogether free from Turkish
prejudice, but are nearly always founded on
truth ; it is only in the arrangement of his
observations, and in the strange conclusions
he comes to, that we recognise the oriental
author. Sometimes the reader might suppose
he had fallen on the adventures of Haj i Baba.
His description of the life led by the Sybarites
of Vienna is equally true and amusing ; but
the conclusion drawn by the author betrays

AHMED.

a man brought up under the influence of
opinions and manners very diiferent from
ours, and scarcely able to distinguish between
the frivolity of oui- social life, and the weight
of our private and public interests. " The
great and wealthy of Vienna," says Ahmed
llesmi, " sleep till broad daylight, dine at
noon, eat again in the afternoon, then ride
out in their carriages, go to the opera or play-
house, and make another good meal before
they retire for the night Now, how is it
possible for people who think of nothing but
eating all day and sleeping all night to make
any vigorous preparation against the attacks
of the King of Prussia ? " The description of
Berlin is not less interesting than that of
Vienna. He devotes a whole chapter to Fre-
derick, of whom he speaks in the highest
terms as a warrior and statesman. Ahmed
was in general better informed than his pre-
decessors at Vienna, especially Rashid, who
says that one of the principal sources of
revenue to the Emperor of Germany was the
" penny " paid by every passenger who entered
Vienna after the closing of the gates. In the
Annals of the Turkish Empire, from 1754
to 1774, by Wassif, Ahmed's narrative oc-
cupies twelve large folio sheets. It has been
translated into German by Baron Hammer,
though his name does not appear in the trans-
lation, the title of which is " Des Tiirkischen
Gesandten Resmi Ahmed Efendi gesandt-
schaftliche Beriehte von seinen Gesandt-
schaften in Wien, 1757, und Berlin, 176.3,"
Berlin & Stettin, 1809, in 8vo. This trans-
lation is accompanied with notes by the editor,
Fr. Nicolai, and by the Prussian major-general,
Minutoli. Ahmed Resmi is also the author of
the following works, all of great value for
the history of the Turks, but in many parts
written with too much passion : " Khulasat-ul
itebar," or " Summary of Observations,"
translated into German with a somewhat duU
commentary, by Diez, under the title of
" Wesentliche Betrachtungen," Berlin, 1813,
8vo. These observations relate to the war
with Russia in 1769. Ahmed disapproved
of this war as being rashly undertaken, and
its unfortunate issue showed his opinion to be
right. " Haunilet-ul-Kubera," or " Amulet of
the Great," contains the biographies of thirty-
seven Kislar Aghas, from the close of the
sixteenth century to the middle of the eigh-
teenth ; a work written at the suggestion of
the powerful Kislar Agha, El-haj Beshir.
There is a copy of this work in the library
of Baron Hammer at Vienna. (The notes of
Nicolai, Minutoli, and Diez to the above-
mentioned works ; Beschreihtng der vom
Vice-Kanzler Grafen von Colloredo dem
Tiirkischen Gesandten Resmi Ahmed Efendi
unterm II April, 1758, offentlich ertheilten
Audienz, Vienna, 1758, 8vo. ; Hammer, Ge-
schichte des Osmanischen lieiches, vol. viii.
p. 202, &c.) W. P.

AHMED IBN SAID (Abu Ja'far Al-
539

'ansi), a poet and historian, was born at Kal'ah
Yahssob, now Alcala la Real, near Granada,
in A. H. 507 (a. D. 1113-14). He was the son
of 'Abdu-1-malek Ibn Sa'id, a powerful Arab
chieftain, who had filled offices of trust under
the Almoravide sultans, and who was feudal
lord of Kal'ah Yahssob. His family, the Beni
Sa'id, were the descendants of Yasir, one of
the companions of the Mohammedan Prophet,
From early youth Ahmed evinced great
talents for poetry, as well as great aptitude
for learning. Some of his poetical composi-
tions having attracted the attention of Sid
Abd Sa'id, at that time governor of Granada
for the Almohades, he was raised to the
rank of vizir, and intrusted with the admi-
nistration of affairs, which he conducted with
much prudence and success.

There was at that time in Granada a
poetess, named Hafssah, whose society Ahmed
was in the habit of frequenting. The governor,
Abu Sa'id, having fallen in love with her, she
was persuaded to abandon her former lover,
and to accept the governor, who, from that
moment, conceived a great dislike for Ahmed,
and deprived him of all his honours and
distinctions. Ahmed, however, was so strongly
attached to Hafssah, that, although he was
repeatedly advised by his friends to quit
Granada, and not to expose himself to Abii
Sa'id's vengeance, he still persisted in visiting
her, and trying to regain her favour. One
day he said to her, " What good canst thou
expect from that huge slave of thine (mean-
ing Abu Sa'id, who was of a dark olive com-
plexion) ? I can any day procure thee a better
one for twenty dinars." These words having
been reported to the governor, he swore
vengeance ; and an opportunity soon presented
itself. The father, the brothers, and other
relatives of Ahmed, having entered into a
secret correspondence with Ibn Mardanish,
an Almoravide chieftain, who had risen in
Valencia against the Almohades, Abu Sa'id,
who had received intelligence of their pro-
jects, issued orders for the apprehension of
the conspirators. All, however, had time to
escape, and take refuge within the family
castle, with the single exception of Ahmed,
who, unwilling to depart from Granada with-
out taking leave of Hafssah, stayed till it was
too late. Having at last obtained an inter-
view with her, he left Granada, accompanied
by his own servants ; but he had scarcely got
out of the gates, when he was closely pursued
by the troops of the governor, obliged to
change his route, and fly to Malaga, where
he lay hid for some time, until he was dis-
covered and put to death, in Jumada the first,
A. H. 550 (April, a. d. 1164). Ahmed Ibn
Sa'id wrote several works, the most celebrated
of which was a " History of Mohammedan
Spain," being a continuation of that by his
father, 'Abdu-1-malek. He composed also
several odes and other short poems, of which
no collection appears to have been formed,

N N 2

AHMED.

although there are large extracts from them
in the " Biographical Dictionary of Illustrious
Granadians," by Ibnu-1-khattib. Conde has
also translated some. (Al-makkari, Moham.
Dpi. i. 165. 442. ; Conde, Hist, de la Dom.
ii. 358. ; Casiri, Bib. Arab. Hisp. Esc. ii. 107.)

P. de. G.

AHMED IBN SA'ID IBN MOHAM-
MED IBN 'ABDILLAH, better known by
the surname of Ibnu-1-fayyadh (the son of
the man generous like an overflowing tor-
rent), an Arabian writer, who lived in Spain
about the beginning of the eleventh century
of our ffira, was the author of a history of that
country, entitled" Kitabu-l-'ibar" (" The Book
of the Councils or Example"), which is often
cited by more modern writers, and of which
there is a Hebrew translation. Ahmed is
sometimes designated by the gentile name
Al-bayesi, or the native of Baeza, a city
of Spain, in the province of Seville. (Conde,
Hist, de la Dom. i. 513. ; Al-makkari, Moham.
Dyn. I. 194. 474.) P. de G.

AHMED BEN SEIRIM ('Axm^t i^'^J
^(tpelfi), commonly called Acmet, or Achmet,
the author of a treatise on the Interpretation
of Dreams QOveipoKpniKo), concerning whom
much has been written, but some degree of
uncertainty still prevails ; an abstract of the
various opinions on the subject will be here
given, and references to the works where it
is discussed. His father's name is written in
various ways in different manuscripts (JZ-npflfx,
Sypelyu, 'Seiprtu, &c.) ; but this may be easily
accounted for, if we recollect that ft, t), and
V have all the same sound in Romaic, and
therefore were probably pronounced in the
same way in ancient Greek, or at least at the
time when this work was written. It was
translated out of Greek into Latin about the
year 1160 by Leo Tuscus, and dedicated by
him to Hugo Etherianus, (or Eterianus, or
Echerianus,) an eclesiastical writer of the
twelfth century. Two specimens of this
translation are to be found in the Adver-
saria of Caspar Barth (lib. xxxi. cap. 14.
Francof 1624. fol.). It was translated into
Italian by Patritio Tricasso de Cerasari of
Mantua, and published at Venice, 1546, 8vo.,
and again in 1551, Svo. (Paitoni, Biblioteca
degli Autori Antichi Greci e Latini Volgariz-
zati, Venez. 1766, tomo i. p. 6, 7.) It was
published in Latin at Frankfort in 1577, 8vo.,
translated by Leunclavius from a very im-
perfect Greek manuscript found in the library
of Sambucus, with the title " Apomasaris
Apotelesmata, sive de Significatis et Eventis
Insomniorum, ex Indorum, Persarum, iEgyp-
tiorumque Disciplina." It contains an apo-
logetic preface of twelve pages by the editor,
and begins in the middle of the fourth chap-
ter ; several other chapters are also wanting,
for instance, from the thirtieth to the thirty-
fifth, from the two hundred and forty-ninth
to the two hundred and fifty-eighth, &c.
The name Apomasares is a corruption of Al-
540

humasar, or Abu Ma"shar, and Leunclavius
is said to have acknowledged his mistake in
attributing the work to him, in his " Annales
Turcici." A French translation was published
at Paris, 1581, 8vo., and it is said to have
been also translated into German. (Hend-
reich, PandectcB Brandenhttrfficce, Bero\. 1699,
fol. p. 32.) It was first published in Greek
from two manuscripts in the royal library
at Paris by Rigaltius, and annexed (because
of the similitude of the subjects) to his edition
of Artemidorus, Lutet. Paris, 1603, 4to. He
reprinted the Latin version of Leunclavius,
in which he supplied the chapters that were
missing ; he added no notes, but prefixed
a short preface. This is the last edition that
has been published (as far as the writer is
aware) ; but some Greek various readings
to it are to be found in Jac. De Rhoer,
" Otium Daventriense, Davent." 1762. Svo. p.
338, seq. The learned Joseph Mede hasmade
use of this work in interpreting the Apoca-
lypse (Mede's Works, Lond. 1672, fol. p,
451.), and Knorr de Rosenroth is said to have
borrowed from it without acknowledgment
in his commentary on the same book, pub-
lished 1670, 12mo., under the assumed name
of Peganius. (Placcius, Pseudonym. Catal.
Hamb. 1674, 4to.) It is rather a long work,
consisting of three hundred and four chapters.
The substance professes to be according to the
doctrine of the Indians, Persians, and Egyp-
tians ; it is written in an eastern style, con-
tains much that is curious, and (as might be
expected from the subject matter) much that
is absurd. It quotes Syrbacham {'S.vpSaxa/j.),
Baram (Bapa^i), and Tarphan (Tapcpdv) ; the
first of whom is said to be an Indian inter-
preter of dreams, the second a Persian, and
the third an Egyptian. This last person is
probably the most ancient of the three, as he
appears to have lived in the times when
Pharaoh was the common name of the kings
of Egypt. Who was the author of the work,
is still uncertain. Rigaltius is of opinion that
Ahmed Ben Seirim is the same person who
is mentioned by Coni-ad Gesner in his " Bib-
liotheca Universalis," and by J. Ant. Sara-
cenus in his notes to Dioscorides, as being a
physician and the author of a work, which
was extant in Greek, in seven books, entitled
" Viatica Peregrinantiura." This opinion
however is certainly not correct, as Abu '
Ja'far Ahmed Ben Ibrahim Ben Abi Khaled
Ibnu '1-Jezzar was quite a different person.
[Ibnc 'l-Jezza'r.] In a manuscript at
Vienna he is called 'Ax/j-^t vlhs Sripcl/j., 6
'OveipoKp'nTis rov TlpcoTov ^vp.§ov\ov Ma/xovf, on
which authority he is generally said to have
lived in the ninth century under the Khalif
Al-Mamiin ; and this is the account given by
Casiri, " Biblioth. Arabico-Hisp. Escur." torn,
i. p. 401. ; the "Biographic Universelle ;"
and Lambecius, " Biblioth. Vindobon." lib.
vii. p. 562, seq. ed. Kollar, and several other
writers. The internal evidence is somewhat

AHMED.

contradictory : the author says that Mamun
was not of the race of the UpajTO(TviJ.§ov\ot
(cap. 45.), which is not true of the khalif of
that name, if that is the meaning of the title
npwToffv^SovXos. (Du Cange, Gloss. Med.
et Inf. Grtrcit. in vv. Mafxavv, et npuToffv/j.e.')
He speaks sometimes of Seirim without at
all alluding to his being his son (cap. 95. 146,
&c.), and he appears clearly to have been a
Christian (cap. 2. 150, &c.) Upon the whole
it seems probable that Ahmed Ben Seirim
is the same person as Abu Bekr Moham-
med Ben Sirin ; and the two names Mo-
hammed and Ahmed may the more easily
have been confounded from each consisting
in Arabic of four letters of which the first
only is different. In the catalogue of the
royal library at Paris, where the work of
Mohammed Ben Sirin is stUl extant in
Arabic, it is said to be the same that has
been published under the name of Ahmed
(vol. i. p. 230. cod. iMCCX.) ; but as the
Greek work was certainly written by a
Christian, it must diifer in that respect at
least from that of Ben Sirin. Till the two
works are carefully and thoroughlj' compared,
the question respecting the authorship of the
'OvetpoKpiTiKa cannot be finally settled. (See,
besides the works quoted above, Fabricius,
Bihliotheca Grreca, tom. v. p. 266. ed. Har-
less ; Clement, Bibliotheque Curieu.se ; Bayle,
Diet. Hist, et Crit. ; NicoU and Pusey, Catal.
Codd. Arab. Biblioth. Bodl. p. 516.)

W. A. G.
AHMED SHA'H, the second king of the
INIohammedan dj-nasty of Guzerat, succeeded
his grandfather MuzaflFar Shah in 1411, at
the early age of twenty-one. During the
feeble reign of Mahmud Toghlak of Delhi,
and the confusion resulting from Timur's
invasion of India, several of the provinces
remote from the capital assumed the title of
independent kingdoms. jVIuzaffar Khan,
whose famOy had been elevated from menial
situations in the household of the kings of
Delhi, was appointed governor of Guzerat
about 1391, and from that period his reign
may be said to have commenced, although he
did not assume the title of king for several
years after. At his death, which took place
in 1411, he appointed as his successor Ahmed j
the son of his favourite son Tatar Khan, who '
had died in 1404. Ahmed Shah was at first ,
violently opposed by his uncles, who were \
strongly supported by Hushang the king of i
Malwa, a dynasty, like his own, of recent
growth. This led to a war which continued
for several years without any important re-
sult on either side. Ahmed thrice invaded '
Malwa, and once penetrated as far as Saran-
piir in the east of the kingdom, where he
gained a victory. On the other hand the
King of Malwa, assisted by Ahmed's enemies
combined with the refractory r:ijas within
the territory of Guzerat, succeeded twice in
invading the latter kingdom, though without
541

gaining any real advantage. The peculiar
situation of the Mohammedan dynasties of
India rendered it necessary that every prince
should be a warrior. Hence there is a same-
ness in the histories of all of them. The
reign of Ahmed Shah of Guzerat is a coun-
terpart of that of his namesake and contem-
porary Ahmed Shah of the Dekkan. In 1429
Ahmed Shah Bahmani, during an invasion
of the Concan territory, captured the islands
of Bombay and Salsette, which had been
previously annexed to the kingdom of Gu-
zerat. This led to a war between these
rival princes, which terminated only with
their lives. The Bahmani king was expelled
from Bombay, but ever after remained hostile,
and more than once joined the King of Can-
desh (another recent dynasty) in his wars
with Ahmed of Guzerat. But notwithstand-
ing these incessant expeditions and cam-
paigns, Ahmed was not negligent of the
internal administration of his kingdom. He
established fortresses in different places to
restrain the disaffected. He founded the
city of Ahmedabiid (so called after his own
name), thenceforth his capital, and one of the
largest cities in India, both from the num-
ber of inhabitants and the magnificence of
the buildings. Ferishta says that "it con-
sisted of 360 different muhallas or parishes,
each having a wall surrounding it, and the
principal streets were sufficiently wide to
admit of ten carriages abreast." He con-
cludes, " It is hardly necessary to add that
this is on the whole the handsomest city in
Hindustan, and perhaps in the world." Ah-
med's last campaign, like his first, was un-
dertaken against Malwa but with very
different views. In 1435 Mahmud Khan,
one of the ofiicers of the Malwa government,
seized that throne by usurpation, after having
poisoned his master Mohammed Ghory the
son of Hushang, who had been Ahmed's
early and unremitting enemy. Mas'iid the
son of Mohammed, then thirteen years of
age, fled for protection to the court of Gu-
zerat. Ahmed received him with kindness,
and immediately made extensive preparations
for reinstating on his paternal throne the
grandson of his ancient foe. The expedition
totally failed, chiefly owing to the plag^ue
which broke out with dreadful severity in
Ahmed's army. This is supposed to be the
only instance on record of the disease known
to Europeans by the name of the plague
having made its appearance in India, notwith-
standing the frequent intercourse between its
coast and Egypt. Ahmed was therefore
compelled to quit Miilwa and to retreat to
his own kingdom with the wreck of his army.
He died at Alimedabad in 1443, after a war-
like reign of nearly thirty-three years. Ah-
med seems to have been well qualified for
supporting the throne erected by his grand-
father. The Mohammedan historians com-
mend him for the orthodoxy of his faith,

N N 3

AHMED.

which was exhibited in destroying the tem-
ples of the Hindus and in building mosques
in their places. (Elphinstone's India ; and
Ferishta's Histon/.^ D. F.

AHMED SHAH, son of Mohammed
Shah, succeeded his father on the throne of
Delhi, in 1747. A short time previous to his
father's death, he distinguished himself as
commander of the Indian ti-oops, in resisting
the first invasion of Hindustan by his illus-
trious namesake, Ahmed Abdali. But on
ascending the imperial throne, he seems to
have given himself up to indolence, and his
brief reign presents nothing but dissensions at
court, revolts in many of his provinces, and
encroachments on the part of his warlike
neighbours the Afghans. Under him the
iSIogul empire sunk rapidly into insignifi-
cance, and almost every province started up
into an independent principality. One of his
nobles, Ghdzi-ed-din, a young man of talent
and energy, made considerable efforts to re-
trieve the affairs of the empire. His success
excited the envy of some of the emperor's
courtlj' favourites, and their weak master
concerted a plan for his destruction. On
hearing of this, Ghazi joined the Mahratta
chief Holkar, and ultimately succeeded in
seizing the person of his ungrateful master,
to whom he previously wrote, justifj'ing the
course he had adopted. He said, " that he
could no longer place confidence in the man
who plotted against his life for no crime,
unless to serve the state be one. A prince
that is weak enough to listen to the base in-
sinuations of every sycophant, is unworthy to
rule over brave men, who, by the laws of
God and nature, are justified to use the power
which Providence has placed in their hands
to protect themselves from injustice." Ahmed
was soon driven into the citadel of Delhi, and,
after a brief resistance, obliged to surrender.
He was dethroned, and deprived of sight,
after a reign of nearly seven years. He was
succeeded by Ayaz-ed-din, great grandson of
the celebrated Aurungzebe, under the title
of Alamgir the Second. (Dow's History of
Hindustan.') D. F.

AHMED SHAH WALI BA'HMANI,
the ninth king of the Bahmani dynasty in
the Dekkan, and one of the grandsons of the
founder Ala-ed-din. He succeeded his brother
Firoz Shah in 1422, but his history begins
twenty-five years earlier. Under Firoz the
Bahmani family had reached the pinnacle of
its prosperity and splendour. That illustrious
prince soon after his accession raised his
younger brother Ahmed to the highest rank
under the crown, with the title of Amir ul
Umra or Khan Khanan, both of which sig-
nify Lord of Lords. This is not the usual
course in oriental kingdoms, the younger
brothers of a successor to the throne being
generally removed from all power ; and it
must be admitted that in Ahmed's case the
event did not altogether disprove the wisdom
542

of such policy. The active reign of Firoz
was passed in perpetual warfare both with the
Hindu rajas of the Dekkan, and the rival
Mohammedan princes of the north. In all
these transactions Ahmed bore a conspicuous
part, both in the field and in the council.
At length, in 1412, as may be inferred from
Ferishta's history, Ahmed began to aim at
his brother's throne. There was a celebrated
saint of the day, by name Saiyad Mohammed,
surnamed Gisu-daraz, "of long ringlets" or
" long-locked," who had for some time enjoyed
Firoz's bounty, " but on the king finding
him deficient in learning and information, he
withdrew his favour. Meanwhile Ahmed
entertained the highest veneration for the
holy man, and not only built a superb palace
for him, but spent great part of his tune in
attending his lectures, and distributed large
sums of money in presents to the saint's
attendants and disciples." The result of this
excessive piety on the part of Ahmed ap-
peared a few years after. Firoz had a weak
and dissipated son, by name Hasan, whom
he wished to proclaim publicly as his suc-
cessor. For this ceremony he invited all his
nobles to attend, and requested the holy
Saiyad to come and give his blessing. The
saint returned an answer, that " to one chosen
by the king, the prayers of a poor beggar
could be of no consequence." Firoz, dissa-
tisfied with this reply, sent to him again, on
which the saint observed, " that as the crown
was decreed to descend to his brother Ahmed
by the will of Pi-ovidence, it was in vain for
him to bestow it on another." In the years
1417 to 1419, when Firoz was occupied in
besieging the fort of Pangul, a severe pesti-
lence broke out in his army, in which men
and horses died every day in great numbers.
The surroimding Hindu rajas, availing them-
selves of this crisis, suddenly assailed him
with a vastly superior force. Firoz was
totally defeated, and with the utmost diflficulty
effected his escape from the field. The Hin-
dus made a general massacre of the Moslems,
and pursuing the king into his own country
laid it waste with fire and sword. Firoz
Shah seemed ready to sink under these mis-
fortunes, which affected both his health and
understanding. In the mean time Ahmed
strenuously betook himself to repair these
disasters. He reassembled the wreck of his
brother's army, and, favoured both by his su-
perior military skill and his thorough know-
ledge of the country, he after repeated battles
succeeded in expelling the whole of the in-
vaders. His brother's ministers, jealous of
Ahmed's well-earned popularity, suggested
to Firoz that his son's succession would be
very insecure while Ahmed possessed such
power and influence. Firoz, recollectmg the
prediction of Saiyad Mohammed, ordered his
brother to be blinded to prevent the possibility
of his ascending the throne. Ahmed, in-
formed of this design, prepared for flight ; and

AHMED.

about midnight, with his son Ala-ed-din,
sought the dwelling of the holy Saiyad, who
gave them his blessing, and predicted sove-
reignty to both. Next morning Ahmed with
a band of 400 faithful companions issued
from the gates of the city, where he was
saluted with the title of king by one of his
earliest acquaintances, a wealthy merchant
named Khalf Hasan of Basrah. From this
moment Ahmed's reign may be said to have
commenced. His little band was soon in-
creased to a formidable army, before which his
brother's troops were repeatedly defeated.
At length Firoz, borne down by sickness and
sorrow, called to him his son Kasan, and
observed that " empire depended on the at-
tachment of the nobility and army ; and as
these had declared for his uncle, he recom-
mended him to refrain from further oppo-
sition, which could only occasion public cala-
mities." Soon after Firoz had an interview
with Ahmed, whom he expressed pleasure in
seeing as sovereign. He begged of him to as-
cend the throne, resigning himself and his son
to his care. Ahmed was accordingly crowned
in Sept. 1422, under the title of Ahmed Sh.ih
Bahmani. Firoz died shortly after, having
reigned twenty-five years ; and his son
Hasan, though legal heir to the sovereignty,
was appointed to a command of 500 horse.
It is true Ahmed's ministers strongly advised
that this prince should be put to death, or at
least blinded ; but Ahmed followed the more
generous policy which he had himself expe-
rienced from Hasan's father. Besides, this
prince was too much devoted to pleasure to
become an object of jealousy under his uncle's
government. Ahmed commenced his reign
by a crusade against the infidel rajas of the
Carnatic, whom he not only defeated in the
field, but chastised with severe retaliation by
desolating their country with fire and sword,
sparing neither age nor sex. The historian
Ferishta details these atrocities with great
complacency, stating that " wherever the
number of slain (including old men, women,
and children) amounted to 20,000, the king
there halted three days and made a festival
in celebration of the bloody event. He also
broke down the idolatrous temples, and de-
stroyed the colleges of the Bramins." At
length a body of 5000 Hindiis, urged by des-
peration at the cruelties perpetrated upon
their race and the insults offered to their
religion, united in a solemn compact never to
sheathe the sword till they had slain the
author of their sufferings, or sacrificed their
own lives in the attempt. They had not
long to wait for a favourable opportunity ; as
it happened one day that Ahmed when
hunting separated from his attendants, and
in his eagerness for the chase advanced twelve
miles from his camp. The Hindus, who had
spies to watch his movements, immediately
hastened to intercept him, and had nearly
succeeded when Ahmed was joined by a
543

faithful band of 200 Moguls, with whom he
fled for shelter into a small mud inclosure used
as a fold for cattle. Here a most desperate
battle ensued, in which the brave defenders
sacrificed their lives in maintaining their post
against such formidable odds. At length
Ahmed's armour-bearer arrived with a strong
body of troops, which after a severe struggle
rescued their master from his perilous situ-
ation. In this conflict the Hindus lost 1000
men, and the Mohammedans about 500.
After this event, Ahmed pursued the Hindus
with tenfold rigour, till at last they sued for
peace. The whole of Ahmed's reign con-
sisted of a series of campaigns, not only
against the infidel Hindus, but also with the
orthodox Mussulman princes of Guzerat and
Malwa. At that period the Bahmani dynasty
held the first rank among the Mohammedan
powers in India, as the princes of Delhi did
not then possess any eminence. Ahmed
died in Febi'uary 1435, after a reign of twelve
years, and a military career of nearly forty
years. He is much admired by Mussulmar
historians for the orthodoxy of his faith, and
the great deference which he paid to holy
and learned personages. (Ferishta's His^
tonj.) D. F.

AHMED IBN TULU'N, sumamed Abu-
l-'abbas, founder of the dynasty of the
Tuliinites of Egypt, was born at Samara,
others say at Baghdad, on the 23d of Ra-
madhan, a. h. 220 (Sept. A. D. 835). His
father, Tulun, was of the Turkish tribe of
Tagharghar, which inhabits the shores of
Lake Lop, in Lesser Bokhara. He had been
taken in an incursion by the governor of
Bokhara, Niih Ibn Ased, the Samanide, and
presented to the Khalif Al-mamiin, who
gave him his liberty, together with a lucra-
tive oifice at court, and the command of a
division of the army. At the death of his
father, in A. h. 240 (a.d. 854-5), Ahmed suc-
ceeded him in the command of the troops ;
and when Al-must'ayn-billah was compelled
to abdicate by the all-powerful party of the
Turks, it was Ahmed who was selected to
escort him to Wasit, the place of his confine-
ment, and intrusted with his custody. In
A. H. 254 (a. D. 867), the Khalif Mu'tazz
having appointed a Turk, named Bakbak, to
be governor of Egypt, the latter, who knew
the brilliant qualities of Ahmed, took him in
his suite, and gave him the command of a
division of troops stationed at Fostat, or Old
Cairo. Ahmed did not betray the con-
fidence placed in him. An African, named
Bogha Al-asfar, who pretended to be the de-
scendant of 'Ali Ibn Abi Talib, having re-
volted in the territory of Barca, Ahmed sent
against him a body of troops under Temim
Ibn Huseyn, who pursued the impostor and
put him to death. Another rebellion, ex-
cited in LTpper Egj-pt by an adventurer
called Ibrahim, the son of Mohammed Ibnu-
s-sufi, was also unsuccessful. Defeated under

N N 4

AHMED.

the walls of Ikhmim, the ancient Chemmis
or Panopolis, the rebel had to seek an asylum
in the Desert. In the meantime Bakbak, the
governor of Egj-pt, having been put to death
by order of the khalif, another Turk, named
Barktik, whose daughter Ahmed had married,
was raised to the vacant dignity. Shortly
after, in a. h. 260 (a.d. 873-4), Barkuk died,
and Ahmed succeeded him in the govern-
ment of Egypt, where he ruled as master,
although he still acknowledged himself the
vassal of the khalif, and sent yearly to court
tlie customary tribute. An attempt, how-
ever, which was made some years after to dis-
possess him of his government, made Ahmed
throw off the mask, and renounce all alle-
giance to the khalif. Hearing that a con-
siderable body of troops was marching to
Egypt to enforce the execution of the khalifs
order, Ahmed raised an army, put his pro-
vinces in a state of defence, defeated the
troops sent against him, and declared him-
self independent. Not satisfied with the do-
minions he had acquired, Ahmed determined
upon extending them eastwards. Under the
pretence of going to make war against the
Greeks, he marched his army into Syria, and
profiting by the absence of Muwaffek, the
lieutenant of the Khalif Al-rautawakkel, then
at war with the Zinj of Arabia, he took
possession of Emesa, Hamah, Aleppo, An-
tioch, and other important cities of Syria.
In A. H. 268 (a.d. 881-2) the rebellion of his
son, Abu-l-'abbas, whom he had left to govern
Egypt in his absence, obliged Ahmed Ibn
Tulun to return. No sooner had he arrived
at Old Cairo, than his son came out to meet
him, threw himself at his feet, and implored
his mercy. Ahmed was preparing to return
to Syria, when the intelligence was brought
to him that his freedman Lulii, whom he
had left to command in his absence, had
made common cause with Al-muwaifek, who
had now returned from his Arabian expe-
dition. Determined upon chastising the rebel,
he marched into Syria ; but though he gained
at first some slight advantages over his
enemies, he was unable to regain all his
conquests. He died at Antioch, in A. h.
270 (a.d. 883-4), of a diarrhoea, caused by
the immoderate drinking of buffalo's milk,
of which he was passionately fond. Ahmed
Ibn Tulun is represented as a just, brave,
and generous prince. Ibn Khallekan says
that he was an able ruler, and an unerring
physiognomist ; he directed in person all
public affairs, repeopled his provinces, and
inquired diligently into the condition of his
subjects ; he liked men of learning, and kept
every day an open table for his friends
and the public ; a monthly sum of one
thousand dinars was expended by him in
alms. Being consulted one day by his trea-
surer as to the propriety of bestowing alms
upon a woman who had come to solicit his
charity, though she was respectably dressed,
544

and had a gold ring on her finger, he an-
swered, " Give to every one who holds out
his hand to thee." He knew the Koran by
heart, and was well versed in sacred tra-
ditions. He built a magnificent mosque
at Cairo, which still bears his name, as
well as a large citadel, where he resided ;
he erected colleges and hospitals, and caused
the canal between Cairo and Alexandria
to be cleaned. He also ordered many other
useful works to be executed in his dominions.
The dynasty founded by Ahmed Ibn Tulun
lasted until a. h. 292 (a. d. 905), when the
Khalif Moktafi reduced Egypt and Syria,
and put to death Senan, son of Ahmed Ibn
Tulun, the fourth sultan of the Tuliinite
dynasty. There is a history of Ahmed Ibn
Tulun in Arabic, written by Ahmed Ibn
Yusuf Ibnu-d-dayah, who, according to Haji
Khalfah, died in a. h. 338 (a. d. 945-6).
There is likewise a work entitled " Abul Ab-
basi Amedis Tulonidarum primi Vita et Res
gestae, ex Codicibus MSS. Bib. Lugd. Bat.
editisque libris concinnavit et auctorum
testimonia adjecit Taco Boorda, Frisius.
Lugd. Bat." 1825, 4to. (Besides the two
above works, D'Herbelot, Bib. Or. voc.
"Thoulouu;" Abu-1-feda, A)m. Musi, sub
propriis annis ; Ibn Khallekan, Biog. Diet. ;
AbdeUatif, Belatioti de I'Egi/pte, p. 4. ; Qua-
tremere. Description de VEgypte, p. 66.)

P. de G.

AHMED IBN YUSUF IBN MOHAM-
MED FIRU'Z is the name of an Arabian
writer, who was the author of a history of
Yemen, entitled " Mattali'-n-niran" (" The
Rising of the Constellations "), of which there
exists a copy in the royal libraiy of Paris,
No. 829. An analysis of this work by De
Sacy appeared in the fourth volume of the
" Notices et Extraits des MSS. de la Bib-
liotheque du Roy," p. 505. P. de G.

AHRU'N, (whose name is commonly
written Aaron,) a Christian priest of Alex-
andria, who lived in the reign of the Emperor
Heraclius (a.d. 610 — 641). He compiled a
large medical work, entitled " Kunnash " (or
" Pandecta "), a name frequently occurring
among Syriac and Arabic medical works.
Ahriin is supposed by Freind, Haller, Kiihn,
Wiistenfeld, and others, to have written his
work in the Syriac language ; but Abu 'l-fariij,
in his " Chronicon Syriacum," (p. 62.) says
expressly that "he was not a Syrian himself,
but that his book was translated from Greek
into Syriac by an Alexandrian named Gosius."
The same writer tells us, in his " Historia
Dynastiarum," (p. 99.) that " Ahrun's work
was extant in Syriac, consisting of thirty
tracts, to which two more had been added by
Sergius ; " and he remarks, in another place,
(p. 127.) that "the Pandects of Ahrun had
been translated into Arabic under the Klialif
Mei"wan, by a Jew named Maserjawaih."
(a. H. 64. A.D. 683-4.) His work appears
to have been lost ; at least no manuscript of it

AHRUN.

AHUITZOTL.

(as far as the -writer is a-ware,) is to be found
in any European library : large extracts from
it are, however, preserved in the "Continens"
of Rhazes. Ahrun is particularly celebrated
as being the earliest writer * who is known
to have mentioned the smallpox and measles,
which, together with anthrace or erythema-
tous plague, he considered to be the product
of one common specific contagion. The last-
mentioned disease was soon thrown out of
the list by Rhazes, and transferred to a dis-
tinct genus ; but the two former continued to
be contemplated by most writers as one and
the same disease for eight centuries after the
sera of Ahriin. (Good's Stiali/ of Med. art.
" Empyesis Variola.") Ahrun attributed the
smallpox to the putrefaction and ferment-
ation of the blood, and to the fermenting par-
ticles being thrown out of it ; a theory which
■was afterwards adopted by the greater part of
the Arabic physicians. He points out several
prognostic signs, saying, for example, that
the life of the patient is in danger if the erup-
tion makes its appearance on the first day of
the disease, and that it is a more favourable
sign if it does not appear till the third. At
the commencement of the disease, he recom-
mends the avoiding cold air and cold drinks,
and the use of diluents and resolvents. Ahrun
is quoted in several other parts of Rhazes's
■works, and also by Mesne, Serapion, Con-
stantinus Afer, and others : Haly Abbas tells
us that dietetics and surgery were treated by
him in a superficial manner. {Lib. Reg. Tlieor.
lib. i. prol. p. 6. ed. Lugd. 1.523.)

A more detailed account of his medical
opinions and practice may be found in Haller,
Biblioth. Medic. Pract. i. 3.35. ; and espe-
cially Sprengel, Hist, de la Med. ii. 267. See
also Fabricius, Biblioth. Graca, xiii. 18. ed.
vet. ; Freind's Hist, of Physic. ; Russell's JVat.
Hist, of Aleppo, vol. ii. Append, p. iv. ; C. G.
Kiihn, Additam. ad Ind. Med. Arab, a Fabric.
exhib.; Wiistenfeld, Gesch. derArab. Aerzte.

W. A. G.
AHUITZOTL, (or, as it is written by the
author of the explanation of the Mexican
paintings in the collection of Mendoza,
" Ahui909in,") eighth king of Tenochtitlan,
or Mexico. He was son of Axajatl the sixth
king of Mexico, and brother of Tizoc the
seventh king, and was bom about the year
1426. He commanded the armies of Mexico
during the reign of his brother, it having
been, since the reign of the third king Chi-
malpopoca, customary at Mexico not to raise
any member of the royal family to the throne
■who had not previously held that charge.
Ahuitzotl was elected king, according to
Humboldt, in 1480; according to Clavigero,

• Rhazes, in the beginning of his treatise on the
smallpox and measles, expressly says that these dis-
eases are mentioned by Galen ; but the passages al-
luded to by him are almost universally supposed to
refer to different complaints. See Channing's note on
Rhazes, p. 14. ; G. Gruner, Variol. Antiquit. ab Arab.
Solis Repet. s. 12. p. 22.
545

in 1482 ; and according to the interpreters of
the Mendozan and Tellerian collections, in
1486. Believing that Humboldt has adopted
the chronology of Gama, who calculated most
of the eclipses recorded in the Mexican an-
nals, we incline to adopt his date as correct.
In 1486 according to Humboldt and Clavi-
gero, 1487 according to the commentator on
the Tellerian collection, the great Teocalli
of Mexico, begun imder Tizoc, was com-
pleted ; and, during the four days' festival of
its consecration, an immense number of hu-
man victims, the prisoners, it is said, taken
in the incessant wars waged by Ahuitzotl
from the time he mounted the throne, and
reserved for that solemnity, -were sacrificed.
His lust of conquest continued to the last ;
and, according to the Mendozan annals, forty-
five cities were added to the Mexican domi-
nions during his reign. His intrigues were
felt in the territories of Guatimala, but it
does not appear that his authority had
reached so far even as the frontiers of that
state. A succession of dry years having
rendered the navigation of the lake on which
the city of Mexico or Tenochtitlan stood diflS-
cult, he conceived the project of augmenting
the volume of water by a canal from Coljoa-
can, intended to divert into that lake a part
of the affluents of the neighbouring lake of
Xochimilco. Tzotzomatin, a powerful noble-
man of Coljoacan, remonstrated against this
scheme, as likely, in rainy seasons, to sub-
ject Mexico to inundations. Ahuitzotl attri-
buted this opposition to his plan to Tzo-
tzomatin's fear lest Coljoacan might be in-
jured by diverting its streams into the terri-
tory of Tenochtitlan, and, irritated by the
pertinacity with which that nobleman ad-
hered to his representations, had him put
to death. The canal was constructed in
1498, and the apprehensions of danger were
verified in the course of the same year : the
city of Mexico was inundated, manj- buildings
were destroyed, the inhabitants obliged to
save themselves in boats, and the king him-
self narrowly escaped. Making a precipitate
retreat from the rising water, he struck his
head with such violence against the low door
of the apartment in which he sate that he
never completely recovered from the effects
of the contusion. Popular clamour forced
Ahuitzotl to apply for counsel to the king of
Acolhuacan, by whose advice he repaired the
dyke erected by Montec^imia I., at the sug-
gestion of that prince's father, and, it is pro-
bable, destroyed the canal, inasmuch as
scarcely a vestige of it remained when the
Spaniards arrived. The year 1499 was ren-
dered remarkable by a famine, and by the
discovery of a quarry of tetzontli, the employ-
ment of which in rebuilding Mexico contri-
buted much to the magnificence which so
strongly impressed the minds of the Spanish
conquerors. (Aglio's Antiquities of Mexico,
vol. V. — EsplicacioH de la Colecion de Men-

AHUITZOTL.

AIBEK.

doza, and EspUcacion del Codex Telleriano-
Memensis ; Clavigero, Storia Antica del Mes-
sico, i. 256 — 263. ; Humboldt, Essai Politique
sur le Roi/aume de la Nouvdle Espagne, p. 174.
208. ; Monumens des Peuples Indigenes de
rAmerique,Y>. 319.) W. W.

A'iBEK A'Z AD-ED-DI'N, suraamed Ma-
lek-el-Moezz, or " most exalted king," the
first sultan of Egypt of the dynasty of the
Mamluks-Baharites, was of Turkish origin,
and was born at the beginning of the
thirteenth centui-y, in the kingdom of Kipt-
shak, on the borders of the Caspian Sea.
Being made prisoner and sold in Egypt, he
entered the corps of Mamluks, which pre-
ferred taking recruits among Turkish slaves,
as this nation was already renowned for its
martial virtues. A'ibek's courage raised him to
the highest offices in the army during the reign
of Turan-Shah, who then governed Egypt.
In 1250, when Louis IX., king of France,
landed in Egypt with an army, A'ibek took
part in the bloody battles which signalised
this campaign, and in which the Turkish
slaves called Baharites more than once dis-
comfited the French cavalry. The un-
fortunate issue of this campaign is known to
all. King Louis and his army fell into the
hands of the Musulmans, who would have
massacred them all if A'ibek, who intended
to share with the Mamluks the 200,000 francs
which the King of France was to pay for his
ransom, had not drawn his sabre and sworn
that he would never suffer the faith of treaties
to be thus violated. It was also during the
captivity of the French king that the re-
volted Baharites murdered the Sultan Turan-
Shah, and acknowledged as queen of Egypt
his favourite wife Shajr-ed-dur (Shegger-
Eddor), who raised A'ibek to the dignity of
atabey or generalissimo of the army. Three
years afterwards she married him, and put
the administration into his hands. But the
Mamluks were envious and the people in-
dignant at seeing a slave obtain supreme
power, and they compelled him to resign it,
but without depriving him of his military
authority. They recognised for their sultan
a child of Saladin's family named Eshref,
and appointed A'ibek his guardian. Not long
after A'ibek was attacked by Nazir-Yusuf,
sultan of Damascus or of Syria, who ad-
vanced with an army under pretence of
avenging the death of Tiiran-Shah, although
his real intentions were to take advantage of
the disorders in Egypt, or at least to prevent
A'ibek from joining the Franks and seizing
Syria, A'ibek was beaten at first, but he
afterwards gained a signal victory near
Abaza, A. H. 649 (a.d. 1251), and compelled
the Sultan of Damascus to treat for peace.
The Jordan was made the limit between
their territories, and A'ibek engaged never
to make common cause with the Franks.
Thus each obtained what he most wanted,
and both parties were satisfied. In order to
546

strengthen his authority A''ibek procured the
death of Tares-ed-din, a powerful Mamluk,
his rival and enemy ; and at last dethroned
his ward Eshref, the last sultan of the Saladin
dynasty. A'ibek became sultan in a. h. 652
(a. d. 1254), but did not hold his sovereignty
long ; for his wife, Shajr-ed-dur, having
learned that he designed to marry the
daughter of the King of Mosul, had him
assassinated on 2.3 of the first Rebiul, a. h. 655
(a.d. 10th April, 1257). The partisans of
A'ibek, to avenge his death, slew all who had
any share in his murder, and placed on the
throne his son 'Ali, whom they surnamed Ma-
lek-al-Mansur (victorious king). A''ibek was
the first sultan of the race of the Baharites or
Mamluks, which subsequently divided into two
branches, that of the Baharites, and that of
Borjites or Tcherkess, which succeeded the
former and terminated with the conquest of
Egypt by Sultan Selim I. A''ibek loved the
sciences, and founded on the banks of the
Nile, in Old Cairo, a superb college, to which
he gave his name. (Deguignes, Hist des
Huns, iv. 122, &c. ; Abu-1-Mahassen, Hist,
of Egypt, in Annales Moslemici, ed. Reiske ;
Ibn Khallekan, Joinville, and Matthew Paris,
extracted in Michaud, Bibliotheque des Croi-
sades.) W. P.

AICARDO, GIOVANNI, an Italian archi-
tect, born at Cuneo, about, or rather after, 1 550,
who obtained such repute in his profession
that he was invited to Genoa at the beginning
of the seventeenth century, where he erected
the corn magazines near the Porta San Tom-
maso, several houses near the Piazza de' Ban-
chi, &c., and died in that city, in 1625. (Ti-
cozzi, Dizionario degli Architetti, §-c.)

W. H. L.

AICARDO, JA'COPO, son of Giovanni,
was also an architect, and was employed with
his father in many works at Genoa, and suc-
ceeded him in those of the great aqueduct.
He erected the salt magazines near the church
of San Marco, improved both the Ponte de'
Mercanti and the Ponte Reale, and executed
the beautiful fountain near the latter bridge.
He died in 1650, at about the age of seventy.
(Ticozzi, Dizionario degli Architetti, &c.)

W. H. L.

AICARTS DEL FOSSAT, a troubadour
of the thirteenth century, of whose life nothing
is known. His name is afiixed to one of the
most spirited pieces of poetry in the Provenyal
language, a " sirvente " of forty lines, in
which he anticipates with the vivid delight
of a warrior the pleasures of the war which
was about to break out between Conradin, the
last of the house of Hohenstauflfen, and
Charles of Anjou, the usurper of the throne
of Naples ; the contest between whom was
terminated by the battle of Tagliacozzo, in
1268. In the poem, Conradin is called Con-
rad, which has sometimes led to his being
confused with Conrad IV., king of the
Romans, a supposition which is irreconcilable

AICARTS.

AICHSPALT.

with other circumstances mentioned in the
sirvente. The poem is given entire in
Raynouard, an entire translation in Millot,
and an almost entire one in the " Histoire
Litteraire de la France ; " but both are in prose,
and so weak, that they give no notion what-
ever of the vigour and spirit of the original.
(Raynouard, C/wix des Poesies originates des
Troubadours, iv. 230. ; Histoire Litleraire des
Troubadours, by MUlot, ii. 326, &c. ; Histoire
Lilteraire de la France, xix. 524, &c.) T. W.

AICHER, OTTO, a German historian and
antiquary of the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries. He embraced a monastic life in
the Benedictine monastery of St. Beit in
Lower Bavaria, or, according to other au-
thorities, in the Abbey of St. Lambert in
Styria. He was appointed in 1657 one of the
professors of the university of Salzburg, and
taught grammar, poetry, rhetoric, ethics,
and history. He died at Salzburg a. d. 1705,
aged 77. He edited portions of the works of
Cicero, Livy, and Tacitus, and produced a
great number of useful treatises, chiefly on
points of ancient history, all in the Latin
language. Among his principal works are —
1. " Theatrum Funebre exhibens, per va-
rias Scenas Epitaphia nova, antiqua, seria,
joocsa. 2 torn. 4to. Salisburgi (Salzburg),
1675." 2. " Hortus variarum Inscriptionum
veterum et novarum, 2 parts, 8vo. Salis-
burgi, 1676-84 ;" " Brevis Institutio de Co-
mitiis veterum Romanorum, 8vo. Salisburgi,
1678 ;" reprinted by Polenus in the first vol.
of his " Utriusque Thesauri nova Supple-
menta." 3. " Epitome Chronologica Historiae
Sacrse et Profanse Colonise, 1706." A little
volume of aphorisms, entitled " Florilegium
Sententiarum, 12mo. Noribergse, 1695," is
ascribed to him in a MS. addition to the title-
page of a copy in the library of the British
Museum, and in the catalogue of that library.
(Joseph, Bibliotheque Generale des E'crivains
de rOrdre de St. Benoit ; Ersch & Gruber,
Encyclopddie ; Biographic Universelle.)

J. C. M.

AICHINGER, GREGO'RIUS, an eccle-
siastic, was organist to the celebrated Jacobus
Fugger. His published compositions extend
from the year 1590 to 1621, and were printed,
some at Augsburg, some at Dillingen, and
some at Venice : they are principally masses
and hymns for the service of the church, to-
gether with some madrigals and canzonets.

E. T.

AICHSPALT (according to some writers,
Achtzspalt, or Asspelt), PETER OF, was
born, apparently, about the middle of the
thirteenth century. The accounts of the in-
cidents of his life previous to his elevation to
the archiepiscopal chair of Mainz, scattered
through the pages of German chroniclers, are
for the most part confused and irreconcilable.
It seems agreed that he was bom at Asspelt,
a village near Trier, and that his parents
were extremely poor. He received his ele-
547

mentary education in the schools of Trier.
Where he received instruction in theology
and medicine — for the knowledge of both of
which, especially the latter, he enjoyed a
distinguished reputation among his contem-
poraries — is unknown. He was at one time
physician to Henry, duke of Luxemburg ;
and, according to some authors, he for a
short period held the same appointment at
the court of the Emperor Rudolph of Habs-
burg. Both these princes are said to have
employed him in political negotiations. His
services were rewarded with presentations
to various ecclesiastical benefices ; and in
1296 he was installed in the bishopric of
Basel, with the designation Peter II. of that
see. In 1300, the Emperor Albrecht I. sent
him on an embassy to Pope Boniface VIII.
On the death of Gerhard II., archbishop
of Mainz, the chapter elected Baldwin, bro-
ther of Henry, duke of Luxemburg ; but
Clement V. refused to confirm the election,
on the groimd of Baldwin being only eighteen
years of age. The chapter could not come
to an agreement in favour of any other can-
didate, and the pope conferred the vacant
archbishopric upon Peter of Aichspalt. This
elevation does not appear to have occasioned
any interruption in his friendly relations to
the house of Luxemburg. In 1307 he brought
about the election of Baldwin to the arch-
bishopric of Trier ; and in 1308 it was owing
to his exertions that Henry of Luxemburg
was raised, by an unanimous vote of the elec-
toral college, to the imperial throne with the
title of Henry VII. The archbishop of Mainz
was one of the three regents to whom
Henry intrusted the administration, on setting
out for Italy, in September, 1310; and in
February, 1311, this prelate placed the crown
of Bohemia on the head of the emperor's son
John. The archbishop's devotion to the in-
terests of the Luxemburg famUy drew upon
him the hostility of Frederick, markgraf of
Meissen, who, having embraced the cause of
the dethroned King of Bohemia, invaded the
territories of Mainz. The death of Henry
VII. in 1313, occasioned great anxiety to the
house of Luxemburg ; the able and powerful
Frederick of Austria was in the field as a can-
didate for the imperial throne ; the wishes of
the nation were in his favour, and he had pro-
mises of support from a major it j- of the elec-
tors. The King of Bohemia and his uncle had,
in the event of his election, good reason to fear
that he would exert his power to reinstate his
cousin, the deposed king, in the possession of
Bohemia. The archbishop of Mainz remained
true to his party, and by his counsels the
Luxemburg princes succeeded in detaching
the Elector of Saxony from the interests of
the Duke of Austria. The Archbishop of
Mainz and Trier, the King of Bohemia, and
the Elector of Saxony, constituting a majority
of the electoral college, elected Ludwig of
Bavaria ; but the minority had, the day before,

AICIISPALT,

AIDAN.

at a separate meeting, taken upon themselves
to declare Frederick of Austria king. The
■war which immediatelj' ensued between the
rival emperors wrought such desolation in
Germany, that it was remarked of the arch-
bishop, to whom the election of Ludwig was
generally attributed, that he had forgotten his
medical art, and made the nation sick, instead
of well. He did not survive to see the end of
the contest, having died on the 5th of July,
1320. He maintained, during the fifteen years
that he filled the see of Mainz, the character
of a good governor, and a pious and moral
man. He retained to the last the respect of
the secular princes of the empire, and the
love of his own subjects and clergy ; although
he held a strong hand of discipline over the
latter. Notwithstanding the troubled times
in which he lived, he discharged many debts
which he found burdening the diocese at his
accession ; and secured for it, by grants and
purchases, many new fiefs and tolls upon the
Rhine. These additions of territory and
revenue were the rewards of the support he
gave to Henry and Ludwig, when candidates
for the empire. (Schunk, Beytrdge zur Main-
zer Geschichte, Frankfurt und Leipzig, 1788,
et seq., vols. ii. & iii. ; Heinrich's Teutsche
Beichs-Geschichte, iii. 647 — 674. Leipzig,
1789; H. A. Erhard, in Ersch & Gruber's
Allgemeine Encyclopcidie, v. " Aichspalt.")

W. W.
AIDAN, the most eminent among the
kings of the Dalriadic Scots, was the son of
King Gabran, grandson of Fergus, by whom
this Irish colony had been conducted to Ar-
gyle, and the monarchy founded, about a.d.
503. On the death of Gabran, a.d. 560, the
throne was taken possession of by his nephew
Conal, who occupied it till his death in 573 ;
and then a contest for the succession appears
to have ensued between C'onal's son Don-
chad and his cousin Aidan, which was ter-
minated by the defeat and death of the
former, at the battle of Lore, in Kintyre, in
575. Various events of Aidan's reign, which
are now perfectly uninteresting, are noticed
by Adomnan, Bede, and the Irish annalists ;
the old " Gffilic Duan," or genealogical
poem, composed in the reign of JNIalcobn
Canmore, commemorates hun as " Aidan of
the extended territories ;" and it appears
from Bede, who calls him " Edan, rex Scoto-
rum qui Britanniam inhabitant" (the king
of the Scots dwelling in Britain), by way of
distinction from the original or Irish Scots,
that in the year 603 he was so ambitious as
to lead a great army against EdUfrid, king of
the Northumbrians, by whom, however, the
Scots were defeated, and put to the rout, with
great slaughter ; " nor from that time," adds
Bede, writing about 130 years after, "has
any king of the Scots in Britain dared to
come to battle with the English to this day."
Aidan died, it is said, at an advanced age,
about two years after this, and was buried,
548

according to Fordun, at Kilcheran, in Kin-
tyre. He was succeeded bj- his son, Eochoid
Boidhe, who reigned sixteen or seventeen
years ; but after his death, the succession
appears to have been disputed by a son of
Conal, and the claims of the two rival
lines confuse the obscure story for many ge-
nerations. (Pinkerton's Enquiry into the His-
tory of Scotland preceding the Reign of Mal-
colm III., ii. 114, &c., and the authorities
there referred to. The Biographia Britan-
nica has two folio pages on Aidan, mostly
made up of the inventions of Hector Boethius,
and other late writers.) G. L. C.

AIDAN, or iEDAN, ST., was originaUy
a monk of lona, in which monastery Oswald,
who became king of Northumberland in 635,
had been educated. As soon as Oswald came
to the throne, he sent to lona for an eccle-
siastic to instruct his subjects in the Chris-
tian religion ; for, although the people of
Northimibria had been converted a short
time before by Paulinus (who is reckoned the
first archbishop of York), they had generally
returned to paganism on that prelate having
been driven out of the country by the suc-
cessful invasion of Penda, the Jlercian king,
in 633. In the first instance the Scotch
monks sent Oswald one of their number,
named Connan, who is described as a person
of a severe disposition and morose manners ;
but he speedily returned, and reported to his
assembled brethren that the Northumbrians
were a rude and intractable race, of whom it
was impossible to make anything. Aidan,
who was present, observed mildly, that per-
haps their excellent brother had not con-
descended so much as he ought to have done
at first to the weakness of his unlearned
hearers ; and this opinion being shared in by
the rest, it was agreed that Aidan should
himself undertake the task in which Corman
had failed. His gentle demeanour and per-
suasive mode of teaching had all the success
that could have been desired ; he became a
great favourite with Oswald, and it was not
long before Northumberland was once more
a Christian kingdom. Aidan, who is com-
monly considered as a bishop, though it does
not appear by whom he was consecrated, esta-
blished himself, not at York, where Paulinus
had resided, but on Lindisfarne, hence in after
times called Holy Island, where he founded, or
j induced King Oswald to found, a monastery,
, over which he presided as abbot. Aidan is
j reckoned the first of the line of bishops now
designated of Durham, in which city the
episcopal residence was finally fixed in the
j end of the tenth century. Oswald was killed
in battle in 642 ; and was succeeded in the
part of his dominions called Bernicia by his
brother Oswio, in the part called Deira by
Oswin, the son of a former king. Aidan
appears to have attached himself to Oswin,
whose murder, in 651, by the contrivance of
Oswio, the Abbot or Bishop of Lindisfarne is

AIDAN.

AIGREFEUILLE.

said to have predicted, and to have taken so
much to heart that he died himself twelve
days after. Bede, who is the authority for
all the facts that have been mentioned, ex-
cept only the name of Corman, which is
preserved by the Scottish historian Hector
Boethius, gives Aidan the highest character
for piety, humility, diligence, charity, and all
oilier Christian virtues ; the only thing to
be excepted to him, in Bede's opinion, is,
that he was not orthodox on the subject of
the season for celebrating Easter, holding in
that point to the usage and doctrine of the
primitive British and Irish churches, in which
he had been reared. The historian gives an
interesting account of the spectacle which he
says used often to be seen, of Aidan preach-
ing in his native tongue (the Irish Celtic),
not having a perfect knowledge of the En-
glish (or Saxon), while the king, who had
become familiar with the foreign tongue
during his long exile, interpreted the dis-
course to his generals and ministers. Great
numbers, it is added, of Scottish ecclesiastics
followed Aidan to Northumberland, and
settled in the country, both as priests and
as teachers of youth. Several miracles are
attributed by Bede to Aidan, one of which is
"worth noting, his smoothing the sea in a
storm by directing some holy oil to be poured
on it. There is reason to believe that the
application of oil for this purpose, to which
the experiments of Franklin attracted the
attention of scientific inquirers in the last
age, has been familiar from early times to
the inhabitants of the Hebrides, as well as to
other insular or seafaring races. The name
of St. Aidan is not found in the most an-
cient martyrologies, such as those of Bede,
Ado, Usuardus, &c. ; but it appears in some
of those of the tenth century. The day
assigned to him in the Roman calendar is
the 31st of August (pridie kalend. Septem.),
which Bede gives as that of his death.
(Bede, Hist. Eccles. iii. 3. 5. 14, 1.5, 16, 17. ;
Will. Malmesburiensis, De Gestis Pontif.
Angl. lib. iii. p. 275., in H. Savile, Rerum
Angl. Scriptores post Bedam Pracipui, fol.
Francof 1601 ; Hen. Huntingdoniensis, His-
tori'a, p. 295. 330., ibid. ; Bollandus, &c. Acta
Sanctorum, torn. vi. August, (1743), pp. 688
—694.) G. L. C.

AIGEN, KARL, an Austrian historical
painter, bora at Olmlitz, in 1694. He ex-
celled in figures of a small size, which he
painted with great care. A St. Leopold,
which has been engraved by G. A. Miiller, is
reckoned one of his best pictures. He died
at Vienna, in 1762. (Fiissli, Alhjemcines
K'unstler Lexicon.) R. N. W.

AIGNER, A. F., a clever sculptor at
Prague, executed the tomb of the Baron von
Ellrichshausen, in the Mariahiilfschanze, for
the Emperor Joseph II. (Nagler, Neues All-
gemeines Kiinstler Lexicon.) R. N. W.

AIGREFEUILLE, CHARLES D', a
549

French ecclesiastic of the eighteenth century
doctor of divinity, and one of the canons
of the cathedral of Montpellier. He was a
native of Montpellier, but little appears to be
known of him, except that he was the author
of a work of some value, " Histoire de la
Ville de Montpellier depuis son Origine,"
2 vols. fol. Montpellier, 1737-1739. The
second part or volume contains the eccle-
siastical history of the city, and is sometimes
cited, but en-oueously, as a distinct work. In
the title-page and dedication of this second
volume the author's name is printed Degre-
feuille ; but in the first volume it is D'Aigre-
feuille. {Preface and Title to his History of
Montpellier.) J. C. M.

AIGUA'NI, FRA MICHELE, a learaed
Carmelite and cardinal of Bologna, of the
fourteenth century. He was eighteenth ge-
neral of his order, was the author of several
theological works and comments (as an Ex-
position of the Psalms, a Theological Dic-
tionary, &c.), and was distinguished also as
a sculptor. Some of his works in sculpture
are still in the Carmelite church of San Mar-
tino Maggiore at Bologna. It is reported
that Aiguani was engaged upon one of his
statues in his convent, when the news was
brought him that he was raised to the dignity
of cardinal. He died at Bologna, in 1400,
and his body lay in state three days. (.\:a-
sini, Bologna Perlustruta ; Orlandi, Abece-
dario Pittorico.) R. N. W.

AIGUEBERE, JEAN DUMAS D', a
counsellor of the parliament of Toulouse,
but better known as a dramatic writer than
a judge, was born at Toulouse on the 6th of
September, 1692. He studied at Paris in the
college of Louis le Grand, where he formed
an intimacy with Voltaire. He completed
his legal education at Toulouse. On his
retm-n to Paris, M. d'Argental introduced
him to the Duchess of Maine, who was de-
lighted with his wit and gaiety, and he
became a frequent guest at Sceaux, the resi-
dence of the duchess. Mouret, the celebrated
musician who composed the music for the
fetes known as the " Nuits de Sceaux,"
pressed Aiguebere to write an opera, and
accordingly he produced a piece comprising a
tragedj> comedy and opera, under the title
of " Les Trois Spectacles," which was per-
formed at Sceaux the 9th of July, 1729, and
subsequently at the Theatre Fran9ais. This
piece consists of a prologue in verse, of " Po-
lixene," a tragedy in one act and in verse, of
" L'avare amoureux," a comedy, and of
" Pan et Doris," a pastoral opera, the music
to which was composed by Mouret. It was
subsequently parodied under the title of
" Melpomene vengee." The success of " Les
Trois Spectacles " was surprising ; and, al-
though anxious to return to Toulouse and
discontinue theatrical composition, he yielded
to the pressing solicitations of the Duchess of
Maine, and prolonged his residence at Paris

AIGUEBERE.

AIGUILLON.

sufficiently to write a comedy called " Le Prince
de Noidy," which was acted at Sceaux
and also at the Theatre Fran(;ais in the year
1730. He afterwards parodied it under the
name of " Colinette " for the Theatre Italien.
Neither the original piece nor the parody
has been printed. In 1715 he was crowned
by the Academic des Jeux Floreaux for an
ode entitled " L'Or ; " and in the following
year he received a similar honour for one
called "Les Graces." His friendship with
Voltaire continued through life. In 1749, on
the death of the Marquise du Chatelet, Voltaire
sought consolation in communicating his sor-
row to Aiguebere. In a letter written to Aigue-
bere by Voltaire soliciting him to go to Paris,
he says, " It appears to me that you are made
to be petted. I confess that it would be a
sweet consolation to me to pass with you the
remainder of my days." Aiguebere would
not, however, abandon his office, the duties
of which he performed with equal zeal
and integrity. He died at Toulouse on the
21st of July, 1755. Sabatier, in his "Siccles
de Litterature," speaks highly of his promise
as a dramatic author. " Les Trois Specta-
cles " was printed at Paris in 1729, in 8vo.
and 12mo., and also in the 12th volume of
the " Theatre Francais." Paris, 1733. In
addition to the foregomg pieces, he published
anonymously, " Lettre d'un Gar(;on de Cafe
au Souffleur de la Comedie de Rouen sur la
Piece des Trois Spectacles," Paris, 1729,
12mo. ; and " Reponse du Souffleur de la
Comedie de Rouen a la Lettre du Gar<,'on de
Cafe," Paris, 1730. 12mo. (Biogniphie Tuu-
lousaine, article " Dumas ; " Querard, La
France Litteraire ; Barbier, Dictionnaire des
Ouvrages anonymes et pseudonymes, ii. 248.,
iii. 220. 2d edit.) J. W. J.

AIGUILLON, ARMAND VIGNEROD
DU PLESSIS RICHELIEU, DUC DE,
the great grand nephew of Cardinal Richelieu,
and first minister of France during the last
three years of Louis XV., 1771 — 1774, was
born in 1720. The life of this nobleman and
his administration form one of the most re-
markable episodes in the whole history of
France before the revolution. Aiguillon was
bred to arms like the other French nobles of
that day ; and having engaged the affections
of a lady who had captivated Louis XV., he
joined the army in Italy by the command of
the king. He passed the Alps with the
troops which the Prince of Conti led into
Piedmont in 1742, and was wounded in the
engagement which took place in the defile
near Chateau Dauphin. Returning to France,
he was appointed governor of Alsace ; and
afterwards military commandant in Brittany.
He held this latter post, one of high trust
and importance, during all the Seven Years'
war (1756 — 1763), when the province of
Brittany was continually threatened by a
descent from the English troops, and more
than once suffered actual invasion. He was
550

a man of ambitious and enterprising charac-
ter, and of a very imperious temper ; but en-
dowed with courage and capacity, and with
signal activity and address. The character
of the court and ministry of Louis XV., and
still more the state of parties in France at
that period, presented an inviting career to
a man of a turbulent and intriguing character.
During the latter period of Louis's reign the
internal agitation caused by the disputes be-
tween the Jesuits and Jansenists, which had
signalised the commencement of the eighteenth
century, after subsiding under the temperate
sway of Fleury, burst forth with augmented
violence through the restless activity of the
Jesuits, and especially through the heated
zeal of the Archbishop of Paris. This man,
by withholding the sacraments from the ex-
piring Jansenists, had not only filled Paris
with confusion, but had set an example to
the parochial clergy in every province ; the
political animosities arising from the opposite
pretensions of the court and the parliament
of Paris revived and mingled with these
ecclesiastical broils ; the spirit of civil liberty
received new accession of force, and spread
under the shelter of zeal for the security of
the Gallican church against papal encroach-
ment ; and the same parties which had dis-
tracted the realm under the regency and Car-
dinal Du Bois, appeared new modelled on the
one hand by the intrigues which had produced
the Austrian alliance, and on the other by
the rage of con(iuest and territorial aggran-
dizement which at that time began to aggra-
vate the domestic factions of France. The
Due de Choiseul, prime minister, embracing
a plan of policy more subtle than prudent,
had alternately courted the parliament and
the Jesuits; and while he thought to esta-
blish his dominion on their alternate depres-
sion, he not only lost the confidence of both,
but raised up a third party which aimed only
at working his fall. But finding that the
Jesuits were again growing formidable by the
countenance and protection of the dauphin,
father of Louis XVI., Choiseul deemed it
requisite for his own safety to join the party
of the Jansenists, and he permitted the par-
liament of Paris, in 1762, to expel the
Jesuits from France. It was at this moment
that Aiguillon, whose discerning eye had
watched the vicissitudes of these factions,
laid the foundation of his greatness by ac-
quiring the direction of the passions excited
by the bold and somewhat precipitate mea-
sure of Choiseul. He zealously attached
himself to the dauphin, and, supported by his
kinsmen of the family of Richelieu, he placed
himself at the head of a numerous party who
had been induced by the near approach of
that prince's accession to imitate his devotion
to the Jesuits. When Choiseul abolished
the order, Aiguillon held together the
remnant of that body ; he united them with
the lay zealots; he formed their dispersed

AIGUILLON.

followers Into a league ; and he attracted and
concentrated from every part of the kingdom
all who from bigotry, resentment, or ambi-
tion were hostile to Choiseul's administration.
His own government of Brittany, by reason
of the extremes to which the parliament of
Rennes and the priestly party had pushed
their opposite pretensions, was the centre of
those intestine feuds which raged throughout
the kingdom. He was possessed of almost
unlimited power within that spacious pro-
vince ; but while he exerted it to give form
and strength to his rising party, he was
hurried by his impetuous and vindictive tem-
per into acts by which he incurred universal
odium, exposed himself to the penalties of the
law, and yet was enabled by his singular
address finally to triumph over his enemies.
Aiguillon held the office of military com-
mandant of Brittany when General Bligh
made a descent on the French coast at the
bay of St. Gas near St. Malo in 1758. The
English general had already marched into
the interior of the province with 6000 men ;
when Aiguillon, advancing with a superior
force, compelled him to retreat, and, attacking
him while in the act of reimbarking his
troops, cut off his rear with considerable
slaughter. Elated by this success, and taking
advantage of the military dispositions pro-
duced by the dread of invasion, he was
prompted to many acts of rigour, which drew
on him the remonstrances of the parliament
of Brittany, one of the most intrepid and
refractory of the local judicatures. The
period was unfavourable to the privileges of
these bodies. The ministers of Louis XV.
had made an attempt, after the peace of
1763, to continue certain imposts which were
to have terminated with the war ; they were
assailed by loud remonstrances from all the
parliaments throughout France ; and in the
general conflict which ensued between the
court and these local tribunals, the parlia-
ment of Rennes was, at the instigation of
Aiguillon, and by an unusual stretch of the
royal authority, abolished by edict, and a
commission appointing sixty new judges
issued. This measure left the whole pro-
vince of Brittany exposed to the military
tyranny of Aiguillon, whose ambition and
private resentment, freed from local control,
hurst forth in acts of great cruelty and in-
justice. M. de la Chalotais, procureur-general
in the parliament of Rennes, a man of genius,
spirit, and abilities, had incun-ed the dis-
pleasure of Aiguillon by some railleries which
he had thrown out on the suspected cowardice
of that nobleman in the afl^air at St. Gas ; and
had further provoked his resentment by de-
nouncing in the parliament of Rennes the
iniquities of his provincial administration.
Without delay Aiguillon resolved on his de-
struction ; and as his promptitude in exe-
cution was equal to his thirst of vengeance,
he found means of instituting process against
551

Chalotais, on a false accusation of trea-
son, of suborning evidence, and finally of
procuring sentence of death against him,
A. D. 1765. Chalotais awaited his fate in the
castle of Morlaix. Meanwhile the king, at
the instance of the Due de Ghoiseul, then
prime minister, had reinstated the parlia-
ment of Rennes ; and the members scarce
recovered their places in time to save their
procureur-general from the vengeance of
Aiguillon. They procured the reprieve and
liberation of Chalotais. A new scene now
opens in this view of provincial government
in France as it subsisted before the revolu-
tion. The parliament of Rennes instituted
inquiries into the process which Aiguillon
had directed ; and discovered not only evi-
dence that he had resorted to subornation,
but strong presumption of an attempt to poi-
son the procureur-general. The parliament
commenced process against Aiguillon ; and
that nobleman, who had long laboured under
universal odium, was removed by the Due
de Ghoiseul from the military command of
Brittany. But no concession could allay the
just resentment of the parliament of Rennes ;
the counsellors pushed their inquiries with
vigour ; the lawyers of Paris seconded their
proceedings with all their influence over
public opinion ; the case was evoked to the
parliament of Paris, the proper tribunal ac-
cording to the ancient law of France for the
trial of peers. The affair had now engaged
the attention of the whole nation, and all
men awaited with impatience the issue of the
struggle between the high rank, fortune, and
powerful court influence of the ex-com-
mandant on the one side, and the jurisdic-
tion, venerable, but undefined and precarious,
of the parliament of Paris on the other.

But Aiguillon possessed a source of
strength more than sufficient to support him
against all his enemies. Nursed in those
court intrigues by which all afi'airs, even the
most momentous wars and treaties, were de-
termined in the reign of Louis XV., he had
fortified himself with the friendship of
Madame Du Barry, whom he had introduced
to Louis after the death of Madame Pom-
padour ; and as his influence over that lady
was as unlimited as her ascendant over Louis,
he thus exercised an indirect control over
the king. Another circumstance concurred
to render his power irresistible. Madame Du
Barry was full of resentment against the
Due de Ghoiseul, who had opposed her in-
troduction at court ; she was irritated at the
repulses which she had met with in her ad-
vances to that minister, and was eager to
wreak her revenge by seconding Aiguillon
in subverting his administration. But though
the influence and power of Aiguillon, through
these means, outweighed those of the mi-
nister, he was alarmed with just appre-
hensions of the judicial sentence which hung
over him ; nor could he have averted the

AIGUILLON.

vengeance of the parliament, had he not by
a rare fortune found in the heart of ChoiseuFs
cabinet an instrument who not only sheltered
him from impending ruin, but paved the way
for his advancement to power.

The Chancellor Maupeou, an ambitious,
corrupt, and daring minister, no sooner ob-
served Choiseul sinking under the superior
influence of Aiguillon than he formed a
coalition with the rising ex-commandant of
Brittany ; and he paid assiduous court to
Madame Du Barry, the fountain of honours,
by entering into all the views of her favourite.
As the head of the law he exercised the in-
fluence of his office over the parliament of
Paris ; and he was the man in France the
best fitted by his functions to sta}- or over-
rule the proceedings stiU urgently pressed
forwards by that body against Aiguillon.
Animated by the hope of new power, and no
way dismayed by the determined front op-
posed by the parliament, he shrunk not from
renewing those conflicts between the court
and the supreme tribunal so fatal to royal
authority, nor from exposing the king to the
hazards of a contest with the parliament in
defence of a criminal of whose guilt the
evidence had never been questioned. The
heads of the accusation were very grave ;
subornation, tyranny, an attempt to poison :
but once resolved, the resolutions of Maupeou
were inflexible, and he carried through his
design of screening the delinquent and crush-
ing the parliament with signal energy. He
thought first to overawe that assembly with-
out recourse to violence ; and he found no
difficulty in persuading Louis, now worn
down with debauchery, to call together the
parliament to Versailles, and, presiding in
person, to convey such intimation of the
royal wishes as might induce them to drop
the proceedings, and so carry a vote to that
effect. This first meeting of Louis and the
parliament, which took place in April 1770,
passed so peaceably that the chancellor and
Aiguillon imagined themselves secure, and
were surprised when the parliament, secretly
supported by Choiseul, renewed the attack,
and proceeded towards a sentence of con-
demnation against the duke. The next step
of the court (for the minister sided with the
parliament) was a direct interposition of the
royal authority in favour of Aiguillon, which
brought the king into open collision with that
body. In June Louis summoned the parlia-
ment to a bed of justice at Versailles, that is,
to a session where the king presided in all
the forms of royalty. The chancellor, in a
menacing tone, rebuked the contumacy of
the parliament, and in the name of the king
commanded them to cease the prosecution.
This was a stretch of prerogative unpre-
cedented even in the absolute monarchy of
France. Beds of justice to compel the re-
gistration of fiscal edicts and other roj-al
ordonnances were conformable to the esta-
552

blished maxims of the French government,
and had acquired sanction from precedents
so ancient as in the judgments of lawyers to
be no longer questionable ; but to suspend a
penal process by the authority of the king was
an act of power which even Cardinal Richelieu
had never attempted. The parliament was
inflamed by this aggression of the crown, and
made haste to vindicate their jurisdiction by
proceeding to a sentence against Aiguillon.
In July they passed a judgment of attainder,
by which he was deprived of all his rights
and honours as a peer. Aiguillon and Mau-
peou, who grew bolder at every stage of the
contest, were no way disconcerted by this
blow. These fierce and impetuous spirits,
in whose hands the pageant king, in the last
stage of his dissolute life, was an instrument,
thundered out an arret or ordonnance of the
royal council, by which they quashed the
judgment of the parliament and reinstated
AiguiUon in all his honours. This was the
mode in which Cardinal Richelieu was wont
to crush the refractory parliaments of his
day when they resisted his edicts of con-
fiscation and proscription by counter decrees ;
and was a less violent exertion of arbitrary
power than the former interposition, an edict
of the council being in the judgment of
French jurists equivalent to a royal ordon-
nance registered in the parliament. When
the court struck this last blow all the re-
sources of the parliament were exhausted ;
and it had now recourse to remonstrance. The
members persisted in successive deputations to
the king, complaining of their grievances in
a stjde glowing with suppressed indignation,
which kept alive the popular ferment and
held Aiguillon in continual inquietude. The
danger of that nobleman was not yet past.
The evidence of his crimes was in the
archives of the parliament ; its register con-
tained the record of his conviction ; and
there was nothing to prevent that body, upon
any new turn of faction, renewing their pro-
ceedings against him. Some fresh act of
power, and that more vigorous and decisive
than the last, he deemed necessary for his
safety. In September, 1770, the king sud-
denly entered Paris, surrounded the parlia-
ment with his guards, held a summary bed
of justice, and after reprehending, through
the mouth of Maupeou the chancellor, their
obstinate presumption in transgressing their
jurisdiction, he called for the register and
tore from it the minutes of the proceedings
and the judgment against Aiguillon. In
this measure Aiguillon and INIaupeou again
followed in the steps of Cardinal Richelieu,
who in 1631, when the parliament refused
to register his edict of attainder against the
adherents of Mary de Medicis, and placed
on their archives a counter decree of re-
monstrance, summoned them to the gallery
of the Louvre, and made Louis XIII. tear
their decree with his own hand from the

AIGUILLON.

register. A second bed of justice followed
after a short interval, in which the king
tendered to them a general ordonnance, which
declared it to be incumbent on the parlia-
ment to register all edicts emanating from
the throne ; and this law, which destroyed
the last shadow of legislative authority re-
siding in the parliament, received a com-
pulsory registration.

During this violent career, in which Ai-
guillon trampled down the supreme tribunal
of France, the only shield of the nation
against arbitrary sway, Choiseul, despoiled of
all powei% still clung to his office ; while his
rival, all-powei-ful, awaited the convenient
moment for his expulsion. The political au-
thority of the parliament being destroyed,
and that council reduced to the functions of a
mere judicature, all things were ripe for the
fall of Choiseul. On Christmas, 1770, the
lettre de cachet dismissing and ordering him
into exile was delivered to that minister.
Aiguillon, impeached and convicted, and
lately on the brink of punishment, became
from that moment supreme in Fi'ance, with
the parliament at his mercy, and the last
control on the executive government over-
thrown. Some time, however, elapsed before
the seals of office were formally delivered to
him. Aiguillon was fifty years of age when
he thus seized the reins of government, which
he held with a vigorous hand till the death
of Louis XV. He had neither the eloquence
of Choiseul nor the knowledge or compre-
hensive mind by which that minister was
distinguished. Activity, subtlety, penetra-
tion, promptitude in resolution, — these, the
arts by which he rose, were better fitted to
elevate hun to the office of foreign minister
than to qualify him for the vast and compli-
cated questions of external policy which then
agitated France. The commencement of his
power was marked by his usual energy, and
his administration was signalised by several
memorable events which render it a kind of
sera in the decline and fall of the Bourbon
dynasty. Of these, the most remarkable,
both in design and execution, was the de-
struction of the parliament of Paris, an insti-
tution which was coeval with the earliest
periods of the French monarchy. Stripped
of its legislative powers, and deprived of its
patron Choiseul, the parliament had never
abated the energy of its indignant remon-
strances against the illegal acts which had
wrested from them their ancient privileges.
Seeing all the remaining barriers of the con-
stitution levelled by Aiguillon, and dreading
a total annihilation of justice, they resolved
to abandon their judicial functions ; and they
thought to embarrass the new administra-
tion by the disorder incident to the cessation
of the legal tribunals. They sent fresh
deputations to Versailles, intimating their
resolution no longer to continue their session.
The king replied by an arbitrary mandate,

VOL. I.

ordering tliem to resume their functions.
The parliament was inflexible, and Paris
was thrown into confusion by the denial of
justice, and by the agitation which prevailed
among the lawyers. Aiguillon and the
Chancellor Maupeou, who, having reaped the
reward of his subserviency, stood foremost in
this continued conflict, had gone too far to
recede, or even relax their vigour in the
prosecution of their design, now visibly
formed, of rendering the king wholly abso-
lute. They resolved on the dissolution of
the parliament and the banishment of all the
refractory members. In the month of January,
1771, at midnight, two musqueteers arrived
at the house of each counsellor of parliament
at the same moment, and, tendering him the
question " whether he would resume his
duties ? " commanded him to answer simply,
yes pr no. The members, roused from
their slumber, and in confusion at so rude a
sunmions, were scarce allowed time to collect
themselves : by far the greater nimiber, re-
fusing to comply with the demands of the
court, were banished to remote parts of
France, some to Languedoc, some to Mont
St. Michel, and the remnant, whose sub-
serviency recommended them to the favour
of the chancellor, in the present exigency of
r justice, were formed into a new tribunal,
which wholly superseded the ancient parlia-
ment. This judicature, by which the legal
business of France, suspended by the vio-
lence of Aiguillon, again proceeded, was
called the Maupeou parliament. The sup-
pression of the supreme judicature of the
metropolis was followed by the general de-
struction of the local parliaments. At filetz,
Toulouse, Bordeaux, Rennes, the same
scenes of military violence ensued ; and in
all these cities the local tribunals, the de-
positaries of the remains of the ancient con-
stitution and the organs of public opinion, in
i which the flower of the talents and accom-
j plishments of the provinces centred, were at
one stroke swept away. At a bed of justice
held in April, 1771, prior to Aiguillon's re-
ceiving the seals as foreign minister, the new
courts of law, composed of men dependent
on him and on the chancellor, were solemnly
installed. Thus did these two ministers,
without convulsion or popular tumult, work
out a measure which was nothing short of a
great internal revolution, and complete the
destruction of institutions which had limited
the power of the crown in the most ty-
rannical periods of the French monarchy,
which had thwarted Richelieu, taken arms
against Mazarin, and by their intrepidity,
constancy, and influence over the nation, had
so braved all former ministers, that no one
had ever attempted their destruction. At
first Aiguillon, through Slaupeou, attacked
the parliament, from dread of the attainder
and apprehension of the disgrace whh which
it threatened him ; but finding so bold and
o o

AIGUILLON.

unscrupulous a coadjutor, he opened his
mind to larger enterprises, and from a mea-
sure of mere self-defence still proceeded on-
■wards till he had annihilated all intermediate
power between the king and the people. The
character of Maupeou will be given in another
place [Maupeou] ; we here merely view him
as the partisan of Aiguillon. The progress
of this attempt excited an extraordinary in-
terest ; the energy with which the ministers
redoubled their blows, from the first encou-
raged their pai-tisans ; and those who cen-
sured the measure as rash and impolitic were
dazzled by the success which seemed to justify
its temerity. Many circumstances favoured
the attempt. The nation was divided ; Aiguil-
lon dissipated the first combination against
him by intrigue and profusion ; and by his
vigilance and severity overawed those whom
he could not gain by these artifices. Though
the French court was at that time dissolving in
the maturity of its own corruption, it drew a
species of strength from the general disso-
luteness of manners, which, enervating public
spirit, even among the growing principles of
liberty, rendered the nation incapable of any
firm or unanimous effort.

In May, 1771, Aiguillon received the
seals of the foreign office. By his late
measures he stood in a situation which no
French minister had ever before attained.
Neither the cardinal of Lorraine nor Richelieu,
his great grand uncle, possessed such uncon-
trolled power. But all this minister's renown
terminated with his elevation to office. His
foreign policy during the last three years of
Louis XV. exhibits a perfect blank ; and as
a statesman his administration sinks into in-
significance, compared with the extensive
views and successful political intrigues of
Choiseul, his predecessor, or the magnificent
ambition of Vergennes, who succeeded him.
The rage of foreign conquest which burst
forth in France upon the death of Fleury
had engendered two parties, of whom one
insisted on maritime war and the main
strength of France being directed against
England, the other clamoured for conquest
and territory on the continent. Choiseul,
adhering to the former policy, had encouraged
all the hostile designs of Spain agamst Eng-
land, had formed the family compact with
the Spanish branch of the Bourbons for
offensive purposes, and by drawing close
the alliance with Austria, had closed up the
prospect of French aggrandizement on the
continent. Aiguillon reversed the whole
system of Choiseul without adopting any
definite policy of his own ; and while he
disgusted the maritime war party, he did not
satisfy the more nimierous faction who called
aloud' for a return to the aggressive policy of
Louis XIV. He relaxed the alliance with
Spain, the basis of Choiseul's projected hos-
tilities against England ; and though he at
the same time broke with Austria, and thereby
554

seemed to open the way for a continental M-ar,
his policj' on that side was wholly pacific and
pusillanimous. The clamours which rose
against him were augmented to a tenfold pitch
when the three other military powers received
a vast accession of strength by the partition of
Poland, the former scene of French influence,
without an effort on the part of Aiguillon to
avert its fate. In that event the nation saw
the effect of the exhaustion of France by her
exertions during Austrian alliance, the work
of Choiseul ; and Aiguillon reaped at once the
odium of his rival's policy, and of his own
vaccination. When the noise of preparations
in the arsenals of Brest gave umbrage to the
English government, and Lord North em-
ployed remonstrances, he suspended his war-
like measures with as little dignity as he had
displayed foresight in commencing them.
Contrary to the former policy of France, he
made no effective effort to repress the rise
of the naval power of Russia in the Medi-
terranean. He neglected the republican
party in Holland, where the French interest
ran high, as well as the invisible springs by
which Choiseul had divided and swayed the
court of Sweden ; and though he claimed the
merit of the remarkable revolution which in
the year 1772 rendered Gustavus III. of Swe-
den absolute, he had no part in that event.

While Aiguillon displayed so little vigour
in council, he abated nothing of the violence
in action which had conducted him to power.
He threw Segur into the Bastile for secretly
remonstrating with Louis on his apathy in
the matter of Poland. His dissensions with
his instrument Maupeou had thrown his
cabinet into anarchy, when the death of
Louis XV. in March, 1774, brought his ad-
ministration to a close. One of Louis XVI.'s
first and most popular measures was the dis-
grace of AiguiUon and of Maupeou, which
was quickly followed by the restoration of
the parliament of Paris. Aiguillon had in-
curred the resentment of Marie Antoinette
by neglecting the Austrian alliance ; and
notwithstanding his spirit of restless intrigue,
he never was able to recover any share of
power under that reign. He died before the
revolution, leaving a son, who inherited his
title and estates.

Posterity has formed a just and unanimous
judgment concerning the character of Ai-
guillon. His own adherents, exulting in his
dominion, and dazzled with a success at once
great and unexpected, imagined that, like
Richelieu, he had achieved the permanent
triumph of the French crown over every
Ihnitation ; and it was only by the course of
events that they learned the contrast between
a statesman who gave a mortal stab to the
falling dynasty of Bourbon, and that famous
cardinal whose hand first rooted and exalted
that djTiasty. On the other hand, he was
signally endowed with courage and sagacity,
was fertile in expedients and rapid in exe-

AIGUILLON.

cutlon ; yet such was his ignorance of foreign
aifairs that he was the feeblest foreign minister
and the most ineffective diplomatist of his
age.. He left France humiliated in the eyes of
Europe, worn down with taxation, and the
revenue so dilapidated that the benevolent
administration of Turgot which succeeded,
though supported by genius, only sustained the
falling fortunes for a time, but could not avert
the fate of the French monarchy. {Mem. du
Due d'Aiguillon ; Soulavie, Mem. du Mar.
Due de Richelieu; Lacretelle, /^w<. du 18/ne
Siicle ; Condorcet, Vie de Turgot ; Mem. sur
les Finances ; Politique de Tons les Cabinets,
L. B. Segur Vaine, ^c. ; Mem. de Bertrand
de Molleville.) H. G.

AIGUILLON, ARMAXD DE VIGNE-
ROD DU PLESSIS RICHELIEU, DUG
DE, son of Armand, duke of Aiguillon, was
elected to the order of nobles in the assembly
of the States General in 1789, for the bailiwick
of Agen. Stungwith the disgrace of his father,
full of resentment against Louis XVI., whose
accession caused his fall from power, he was
one of the minority of nobles who from the
beginning urged on the revolutionary move-
ments, and made a conspicuous figure in its
first stages. He was one of the first of his or-
der who joined the Tiers E'tat on the occasion
of the debate respecting the separate session
of the three orders. Aiguillon signalised him-
self in a still more remarkable manner on
the celebrated night of the 4th August, 1789,
by seconding and enforcing the motion of the
Viscount of Noailles for the relinquishment
of the privileges by which the French nobles
had long enjoyed exemption from taxation;
and he urged on the National Assembly both
the abolition of the feudal services, which
pressed heavily on the peasantry, and the
total extinction of prandial servitude, which
stiU existed in several provinces of France.
His wide domains and extensive forests and
royalties, commanding many species of ser-
vitude, rendered this sacrifice the more con-
spicuous, and acquired him an unbounded
popularity. Still actuated by the same mo-
tives, Aiguillon was foremost in pushing
matters to extremity against the court, during
the period of the Constituent Assembly.
He supported the motion which gave to that
body the right of nominating to public em-
ployments, and that which vested in them the
power of declaring war and making peace.
When the war broke out, he superseded
Custines in the command of the army on the
- Rhine. Upon the fall of the two earliest
revolutionary factions, which he had succes-
sively supported, and the final subversion
of the monarchy, in 1792, by the triumph of
the Jacobins, Aiguillon was struck at by
one of the numerous decrees of accusation
which were scattered by the Convention. He
escaped the scaffold by flying to Germany;
and died at Hamburg, where he resided
with other emigrants, in 1800. He had
555

much of the versatile ability and ardent tem-
perament which distinguished the race of
Richelieu. {Moniteur, 1789-90; Toulongeon,
Hist, dela Revol. Frangaise ; Thiers, Hist, de
la Itevol. Franca ise ; Mem. de Bailli.) H. G.
AIGUILLON, MARIE MADELEINE
DE VIGNEROD, DUCHESSE D', the niece
of Cardinal Richelieu, was born at Paris in
the beginning of the seventeenth century.
She was the daughter of Rene de Vignerod,
I seigneur of Pont-Courlay in Poictou, and of
Fran9oise du Plessis, the sister of the car-
dinal. The family of Pont-Courlay is now
merged in the two houses of Richelieu and
Aiguillon.
I Richelieu, in the first part of the reign of
i Louis XIII., was only bishop of Lucon, an
humble diocese. Having acquired the un-
I limited confidence and friendship of Maiy de
i MedicLs, the queen-mother, and persuaded
that ambitious princess that by advancing
him she should recover the dominion which
she enjoyed when regent, she appointed him
j superintendent of her household; and he in-
I troduced to her his niece Vignerod, in qua-
lity of maid of honour. Richelieu, who, by
the imceasing importunities of the queen-
mother, had obtained first a cardinal's hat,
and after a short interval the first place in
] the administration, at first repaid his bene-
: factress by permitting her to share his power;
and during the first five years of his govern-
ment. Mademoiselle Vignerod, now become
the wife of M. de Combalet, a gentleman of
the court, continued to hold her place in the
household of 3Iary de Medicis, grew in her
favour, and was enriched by her bounty.
During these years, while the influence of
the cardinal over Louis was yet unfixed, and
his tenure of power stiU precarious, he
deemed it necessary to court the queen-mo-
I ther ; and by the aid of Madame de Combalet,
who was continually about the court and
person of Mary, he was enabled both to
maintain a show of gratitude and submission
to that princess, and to discover and discon-
cert the numerous intrigues to which he was
constantly exposed from the animosity of the
French nobles and princes. "When he had
established the same ascendant over Louis
which he had long exercised over the queen,
and,by the scaffold and BastUe, had overthrown
every obstacle to his ambition, this princess
found her own influence rapidly on the
decline. But though aversion now succeeded
to that intimate friendship which had long
subsisted between her and the minister, and
the animosity and revenge of her Italian cha-
racter prompted her to undermine the car-
dinal's sway, she stiU retained Madame de
Combalet in her household. Upon the occa-
sion of the celebrated intrigue called the day
of dupes, in 1 630, when Mary extorted from
her son a promise to dismiss his minister,
and all Paris looked to the immediate fall
of Cardinal Richelieu, Mary de Medicis de-
o 0 2

AIGUILLON.

prived Madame de Combalet of her place,
notwithstanding the king's earnest solicita-
tions in her behalf. Louis even led her into
his mother's apartment, and made an effort
to reconcile them : but no entreaty could
soften the resentment of Mary ; and such was
the indignity of her language, that Madame
de Combalet retired in tears. Richelieu hav-
ing banished the queen-mother from France,
to which she never returned, Madame de
Combalet, now a widow without children,
resided in the Palais Cardinal with her
uncle, who was exceedingly attached to her;
and as his power was now unbounded, she
became the object of universal adulation.
Many sought the honour of her hand; but
the arrogance of the minister, and his am-
bition of royal alliances for his kindred, made
him reject the offers of the French nobles.

In 1633, when on the eve of declar-
ing war with Spain, Richelieu advanced a
French force into Lorraine, and having
stripped the duke of a great part of his
dominions, the brother of that prince, the
Cardinal of Lorraine, endeavoured to divert
him from the siege of Nancy by oifering to
wed Madame de Combalet. This proposal
touched a passion deeply rooted in the breast
of Richelieu, the aggrandizement of his fa-
mily ; and though he listened to the marriage
treaty with seeming indifference, and reject-
ed it when proffered as the price of Nancy,
he secretly hoped that means might be found
of carrying it into effect. With pleasure he
found the proposal revived when he had car-
ried all his ends in Lorraine; and Richelieu,
in order to compensate the cardinal for the loss
of the benefices which in consequence of hir
marriage he was obliged to resign, promised
Madame de Combalet a large dowry, and the
inheritance of that vast personal estate which
he was daily accumulating. Meanwhile the
Duke of Lorraine abdicated his dominions ;
the cardinal succeeded him; and Madame de
Combalet daily expected to be enthroned at
Luneville, as duchess of Lon-aine. The Car-
dinal of Lorraine immediately despatched a
messenger to Paris, with professions of duty
and submission; but his addresses to Madame
de Combalet were no more heard of ; and he
soon after solemnised his marriage with the
Princess Claude of Lorraine, to whom he
had been secretly engaged when he paid his
addresses to Madame de Combalet. Stung
by this affront, Richelieu avenged the honour
of his niece by stripping the cardinal-duke of
his dominions, which he annexed to France;
and he consoled Madame de Combalet by
conferring on her the duchy and vast domains
of Aiguillon, after the confiscation of the estate
of Puylaurens. The death of Cardinal Riche-
lieu, in 1612, left the Duchess of Aiguillon
defenceless, and not without apprehension
from the many enemies whom his career of
vengeance had raised up against his family.
But Louis XIII., who quickly felt in its full
556

extent the loss which he had sustained in
the death of his minister, assured her that
he would never abandon her, nor forget the
services of her illustrious relative. In the
decline of life the duchess became a devotee,
and from her vast revenues bestowed large
sums for preachers, who disseminated them-
selves among the French Protestants and
endeavoured to bring them back to the Ro-
man Catholic church. She ultimately em-
braced the ascetic discipline of St. Vincent
de Paul ; and she built and endowed the
hospital of Quebec, and ransomed slaves on
the coast of Africa. Almost from the death
of Cardinal Richelieu she devoted herself to
these labours ; and, declining the rising splen-
dour of Louis XI V.'s court, spent the remain-
der of her days in penitence and prayer. She
died in 1675, bequeathing her splendid do-
main of Aiguillon to her niece, and in re-
mainder to her nephew, the younger son of
the Marquis de Richelieu, in whom the fa-
mily of Aiguillon began. Flechier has cele-
brated her piety in a funeral oration, (il/e'/n.
(le Richelieu ; Mezerai, Hist, de France ;
Mem. de Marie de Med. ; Le Clerc, Vie du
Card. Richelieu; Flechier, Oraisons Funebres.)

TT f^

AIGUI'NO, BRESCIA'NO, was author of
a work entitled " La Illuminata de tutti i
Tuoni di Canto fermo," &c. published in 1562
at Venice. A second edition of the same
work was published in 1581. He was a pupil
of Pietro Aaron, whom he calls " il mio
irrefragabile maestro." (Mattheson, Orga-
nistenprobe.') E. T.

AIKEN, JAMES, bishop of Galloway,
was the son of Henry Aiken, sheriff and
commissary of Orkney. James was born in
Kirkwall in the year 1613, where he re-
ceived the rudiments of his education ; but
was afterwards sent to Edinburgh, where he
completed his classical studies. From Edin-
burgh he went to Oxford and studied divinity,
with the view of taking holy orders in Eng-
land. When the Marquis of Hamilton was
sent down by Charles the First as the royal
commissioner to the General Assembly
which met at Glasgow in 1638, Mr. Aiken
was appointed his chaplain, and accom-
panied him into Scotland. The Glasgow
assembly commenced its sittings on the 21st
of November, 1 638 ; but its views and those
of the king's commissioner not coinciding,
he dissolved it by proclamation. The as-
sembly, however, refused to obey the royal
mandate, and continued their sittings till the
end of December, when they had established
the supremacy of the solemn league and
covenant ; and declared " that the swearer is
neither bound to the meaning of the pre-
scriber of the oath, nor to his own meaning
who takes the oath, but to the reality of the
thing sworn, as it shall be afterwards in-
terpreted by the competent judge." In his
station of chaplain Aiken conducted himself

AIKEN.

so much to the satisfaction of the Marquis
of Hamilton, that upon their return to court
he procured for hiin a presentation from
King Charles to the church and parish of
Birsa in Orkney.

In the beginning of the year 1650, the
Marquis of Montrose landed in the Orkney
Islands furnished with a commission from
(."harles the Second to raise troops for the pro-
secution of the war with Oliver Cromwell.
The Orkneys were loyal, and the marquis met
with the best wishes of the clergy and chief
inhabitants, who held a public meeting and
unanimously deputed Mr. Aiken to draw up
a declaration, in their names, expressive of
their loyalty to their exiled king, and their
determination to maintain his rights. Ac-
cordingly Mr. Aiken composed a paper re-
plete with expressions of loyalty and of re-
solutions to adhere to their dutiful allegiance.
For this step, and also for having conversed
with the Marquis of Montrose, the General
Assembly sitting at Edinburgh excommuni-
cated the whole of the Orcadian clergy, and
deposed them from their ministeral character
and office ; and the council also issued a
warrant for the apprehension of Mr. Aiken,
who had been the most prominent actor in
this affair. The warrant came down in due
course for execution, and besides being in-
cluded in the whole body of the Orcadian
clergy, Mr. Aiken was individually excom-
municated, a sentence which then carried with
it the confiscation of all his real and personal
property. At that time Sir Archibald Prim-
rose, who afterwards became lord registrar and
Earl of Rosebery, was clerk of the council,
and being related to Mr. Aiken, sent him
private notice that a warrant was out against
hun. Aiken innnediately fled to Holland,
where he lived in poverty till 1653. In that
year he returned to Orkney, and removed
his family secretly to Edinburgh, where he
resided in obscurity till the Restoration in
1660.

On the Restoration he accompanied the
only surviving Scottish prelate. Bishop
Sydserf, to London, to congratulate King
Charles on this auspicious event. His friend
Bishop Sydserf recommended him to the
Bishop of Winchester, who presented him to
the rectory of Winfrith, in the county of
Dorset, where he continued till the year
1677. In reward of his loyalty and suffer-
ings he received a conge d'eslire to the dean
and chapter of Moray, who elected him
bishop of that see. He was consecrated at
Edinburgh by Archbishop Sharp. He pre-
sided over the see of Moray till the year 1680,
when he was translated to Galloway on the
6th of February, with a dispensation to reside
at Edinburgh ; because, says Wood, " it was
thought unreasonable to oblige a reverend
prelate of his years to live among such a
rebellious and turbulent people as those of
that diocese were." Keith says, " He so
557

carefully governed this diocese, partly by liis
letters to the synod, presbyteries and single
ministers, partly by a journey he made
thither, that had he resided on the place,
better order and discipline could scarce be ex-
pected." On account of the disturbed state of
the country Bishop Aiken opposed the repeal
of the penal laws against the field meetings
of the Covenanters, although he had the most
charitable sentiments towards them. He died
of apoplexy at Edinburgh on the 28th of
October, 1687, in the seventy -fourth year of
his age ; and was buried in the Greyfriars
churchyard in that city. The following in-
scription was affixed to his coffin : —

" Maximus, Atkinsi, pietato, et maximus annis
Ante diem, invita religiune, cadis.
Ni caderes, nostris inferiet foisitan oris
Hand impuue suos Roma superba deos."

(Skinner's Eccles. Hist. ; Keith's Catalogue of
Scottish Bishops ; Wood's Athen. Oxon.')

T. S.

AIKIN, A. L. [Barbacld.]

AIKIN, EDMUND, youngest son of John
Aikin, M. D., was born at Warrington,
October 2. 1780. Having shown early in-
dications of a taste for drawing and design,
he was placed, at a suitable age, with a sur-
veyor and builder, after leaving whom he
commenced business as an architect and
surveyor. He wrote several of the early
articles in the department of civil archi-
tecture for Rees's " Cyclopaedia ; " an Essay
on Modern Architecture, published by the
London Architectural Society ; and some
other minor pieces. In 1808 Mr. Aikin
published a series of Designs for Villas and
other rural buildings, with an introductory
essay ; and a few years after he presented to
the Architectural Society an Essay on the
Doric Order of Architecture, which was
printed at their expense, in folio, with several
plates : this is his most important work.
He subsequently published, in 1813, an
Essay on St. Paul's Cathedral, and remarks
upon the architecture of the reign of Queen
Elizabeth, appended to his sister's Memoirs
of the Court of Elizabeth. About 1814 he
went to Liverpool, to superintend the erec-
tion of the Wellington assembly-rooms ; and
he fixed his future residence in that town,
whei'e he furnished designs for several build-
ings. He died at Stoke Newington, during
a visit to his father, March 11. 1820.
{Memoir of John Aikin, M. D., by Lucy
Aikin, i. 267—272.) J. T. S.

AIKIN, JOHN, M.D., was the only son
of the Reverend John Aikin, D.D., and Jane,
daughter of the Reverend John Jennings, a
dissenting minister who superintended an
academy at the village of Kibworth-Har-
court, Leicestershire. The father of John
Aikin was educated for the dissenting mi-
nistry under Dr. Doddridge, and accepted a
pastoral charge at Leicester ; but, just as he
was entering upon its duties, a disease of the
o o 3

AIKIN.

lungs permanently incapacitated him from
preaching, and compelled him to retire from
active life. Under these circmnstances he
opened a school at Kibworth-Harcourt, where
both his children, John and Anna Lsetitia
(afterwards Mrs. Barbauld), were born, the
former on the 15th of January, 1747. In
1756 he removed with his family to War-
rington, where he became classical tutor to
the dissenting academy established in that
town ; and, at a later period, tutor in divinity
also. Young Aikin improved this oppor-
tunity of obtaining a classical education, and
■was entered among the students in the War-
rington academy while only in his twelfth
year. He had been intended for the mi-
nistiy ; but, preferring the medical profession,
he was articled to a surgeon named Garth-
shore, at Uppingham in Rutlandshire. Owing
to the want of congenial society this situation
proved very irksome to him, and at the age
of about eighteen he removed to the uni-
versity of Edinburgh. Having studied there
for two winters he returned to England in
1766, and shortly after became a pupil of
Mr. Charles White, of Manchester, at which
place, while he was diligent in his pro-
fessional pursuits, he devoted much attention
to poetry and polite literature, as is evident
fi"om extracts published in his " Memoir,"
hereafter referred to, from letters written
about this period to his sister, with whom he
always maintained a most affectionate in-
tercourse. In 1769 he removed to London,
and joined the anatomical class of Dr. William
Hunter. During this visit to the metropolis
he was received into the house of Mr. Arthur
Jennings, his maternal uncle, whose youngest
daughter he married in 1772.

Aikin commenced his professional career
in the autumn of 1770, when he settled at
Chester, where he obtained several valued
friends, among whom were Pennant and
Dr. Haygarth. Failing, however, to obtain
sufficient encouragement, he removed in
little more than a year to Warrington. "WhUe
at Chester he published " Observations on
the external Use of Preparations of Lead,
with some general Remarks on topical Me-
dicines ; " a work which was well received,
and is still held in esteem. Watt mentions a
still earlier publication of Aikin's, entitled
" Essay on the Ligature of Arteries," which
he saj's was published in 1770. In 1771
appeared another professional work, entitled
" Thoughts on Hospitals," which also met
with a favourable reception ; and in the
following year Aikin published the first
edition of his "Essays on Song- Writing ;
with a Collection of such English Songs as
are most eminent for poetical Merit." The
first of these essays is on song-writing in
general, and the other three are on the par-
ticular classes of songs into which the collec-
tion is divided, which are — 1. Pastoral songs
and ballads ; 2. Passionate and descriptive
553

songs ; and 3. Witty and ingenious songs.
This little work soon reached a second
edition, and was again republished in 1810,
with several additions, under the name of
" Vocal Poetry." In 1773 appeared, at War-
rington, the first edition of a very popular
volume entitled " Miscellaneous Pieces in
Prose," by Aikin and his sister ; in which
work his was considerably the smaller share.
In the following year he published a trans-
lation, with notes, of the " Life of Agricola"
by Tacitus ; and shortly afterwards a trans-
lation of Tacitus on the " Manners of the
Germans." He had intended to produce a
translation of all the works of Tacitus, but
he abandoned the design upon the announce-
ment of Murphy's translation.

For many years Aikin devoted consider-
able labour to collecting information relative
to medical history and biography ; and in
1775 he published an essay entitled "A
Specimen of the Medical Biography of Great
Britain," which attracted much attention, and
procured him many offers of assistance.
This was followed, about five years later, by
an octavo volume of " Biographical Memoirs
of Medicine in Great Britain from the Re-
vival of Literature to the time of Harvey ; "
but he never published any further portion
of his projected work. While he resided in
the country the difficulties attending the in-
vestigation of the earlier periods of medical
history were increased by the want of access
to public libraries ; and it appears also that
the plan did not meet with sufficient en-
couragement. Miss Aikin states, that " after
repeatedly resuming and again laying aside
this favourite task during nearly twenty suc-
ceeding years, he was compelled finally to
abandon it as one which promised no adequate
remuneration either in fame or emoliunent."

About the year 1776 Aikin published some
selections from Pliny's " Natural History,"
as a school book ; and in the following year
appeared, at Warrington, his " Essay on the
Application of Natural History to Poetry,"
which was dedicated to Pennant. Shortly
afterwards he was engaged to write an essay
upon Thomson's " Seasons," to be prefixed
to a new edition of that poem ; and in 1778
he produced an English translation of Baimie's
" Manuel de Chymie." It was at this time,
according to his daughter's narrative, that
Aikin began to show himself a strenuous
advocate of civil liberty ; and to the support
of this dearly cherished cause he frequently,
in subsequent years, devoted his pen and
sacrificed his pecuniary interests. With the
exception of his work on medical biography,
before mentioned, he published no very
important works during the next few years,
although he was continually employed in
literary pursuits during the intervals of lei-
sure allowed by an extensive practice and
the instruction of a few medical pupils. He
also delivered chemical lectui'es to the stu-

AIKIN.

pcnts in the Warrington academy, among
the tutors of which he found some friends
of similar tastes to his own. This esta-
blishment was dissolved at the end of
1783, and the little company of literary
friends who had bound him to the place
were dispersed. This circumstance, combined
with the loss of his father, who died late in
1780, and the advice of his friends, who con-
sidered a more extensive field to be desirable
for the exercise of his talents, induced him
to take the degree of M. D., with a view to
removing from Warrington. He obtained
this degree at the university of Leyden, which
he visited for the purpose in July, 1784,
taking with him a thesis entitled " De Lactis
Secretione in Puerperis." He wrote a journal
of this tour, which is printed in his daughter's
" Memoir." After returning to Warrington
for a few months. Dr. Aikin removed with
his family to Yarmouth : his mother was
compelled to stop on the way by an illness
of which she shortly died. A residence at
Yarmouth for about a year led him to fear
that the ground was too fully preoccupied to
leave him a fair chance of success, and he
therefore removed to Loudon ; but, just as
favourable prospects were dawning upon him
in the metropolis, one of his former com-
petitors retired from practice, and he was
induced by the pressing invitation of the
principal inhabitants of Yarmouth to return
thither after an absence of about four months.
A circumstance which increased his satisfac-
tion in this residence was the removal of his
intimate friend. Dr. Enfield, from Warring-
ton, to take the charge of a congregation at
Norwich.

To return to Aikin's literary occupations
m order of time, it should be stated that in
1783 he was engaged by the proprietors of
Lewis's " Experimental History of the Ma-
teria Medica " to prepare an enlarged and
corrected edition of that work, to which he
devoted much time. It was published in 1784,
in one volume, quarto ; and again, with further
additions by Aikin, a few years later. About
the same time he was induced, by the age of
his elder children, which then rendered the
subject of education peculiarly interesting to
him, to bestow considerable labour on books
for the young, the first of which, entitled " The
Calendar of Nature," appeared in 1784.
About fifteen years later, this work was en-
larged and republished by his son Arthur,
under the title of " The Natural History of
the Year." In 1788 was published the first
edition of " England delineated," a work con-
taining a brief description of every county in
England and Wales, which became very po-
pular, and ran through many editions. It
was remodelled in 1819, when the title was
altered to " England described."

The excitement produced by the French
revolution, and more especially by the un-
successful attempts of the dissenters to obtain
559

the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts,
rendered Dr. Aikin's situation at Yarmouth
very uncomfortable. Being deeply interested
in the cause of the dissenters, by principle
as well as by his connections, he issued
two pamphlets on political subjects, one of
which was called " An Address to the Dis-
sidents of England on their late Defeat,"
published in 1790. These pamphlets were
printed anonj-mouslj% but no attempt was
made to conceal the authorship ; and in con-
sequence of their appearance most of the
clergy and many of the other leading in-
habitants of Yarmouth considered themselves
justified in secretly withdrawing their sup-
port from Dr. Aikin, and transferring it to
another physician, whom they invited to
settle there. Owing to these circumstances.
Dr. Aikin again left Yarmouth and removed
to London in 1792. During his residence at
Warrington, as early as 1777, he had become
acquainted with Howard the philanthropist,
who was then superintending the printing, in
that town, of his work on prisons; and a per-
manent friendship had been formed between
them. Shortly before Howard's death, in the
Crimea, in 1790, he gave directions for his
memoranda to be forwarded to Dr. Price and
Dr. Aikin for publication ; but the infirm
health of Price incapacitated him from
taking any part in the task of arranging
them, which was therefore performed by
Aikin alone, who published them as an
appendix to Howard's work on lazzarettos.
He also issued, in 1792, a volume entitled
" A View of the Character and Public Ser-
vices of the late John Howard, Esq., LL.D.,
F.R.S.," which contains an account of his
valuable labours, especially in his investiga-
tions into the condition of prisons, hospitals,
lazzarettos, &c., as well as an able summary
of his character, and narrative of the prin-
cipal events of his life. Shortly before the
appearance of this work. Dr. Aikin published
a small volume of " Poems."

On his return to London, Ailiin was en-
abled to resume the society of some of his
literary friends, in connection with whom he
engaged in a monthly publication entitled
" Memoirs of Science and the Arts," contain-
ing an account of the proceedings of learned
societies in England and other countries ;
but, from some unexplained cause, this work
was soon discontinued. In 1792 he com-
menced the publication of a very popular
and instructive work designed for the benefit
of the young, under the title of " Evenings
at Home," of which the sixth and last volume
appeared in 1795. This work, which, in
addition to a very extensive circulation in
England, has been translated into several
foreign languages, was the joint production
of Dr. Aikin and ]Mrs. Barbauld ; but the
portions contributed by the latter amount to
only about one twelfth of the whole. Another
work, commenced shortly afterwards, under
o o 4

AlKIN.

AIKIN.

the name of " Letters from a Father to a Son
on various Topics relative to Literature and
the Conduct of Life," is of a less elementary
character ; the son to whom they were ad-
dressed having completed his education and
entered upon the duties of a profession; and
the subjects as well as the mode of treating
them being adapted for readers of mature
age. This work is considered by his daughter
and biographer, who gives a particular ac-
count of its plan, to be "the most original,
and in several respects the most important
performance of its author." A second vo-
lume was published a few years later.

During his residence at Warrington Aikin
had issued proposals for a history of Lan-
cashire, but he had laid aside the scheme for
■want of sufficient encouragement. His local
knowledge was however turned to advantage
in the production, in 1795, of a large quarto
volume containing a " Description of the
country from thirty to forty miles round
Manchester." Shortly afterwards Dr. Aikin
became editor of the literary department of
the " Monthly Magazine," which was esta-
blished in 1796 ; and during the ten years
in which he held that office he contributed
many papers to the magazine. Towards the
close of the same year he was engaged upon
his greatest work, which is entitled " Ge-
neral Biography ; or Lives, Critical and
Historical, of the most eminent Persons of
all Ages, Countries, Conditions, and Profes-
sions, arranged according to Alphabetical
Order." Miss Aikin states that the design
was not originally his own, although none
could have coincided more happily with his
talents, his acquirements, or the habits of his
mind. Dr. Aikin's fitness for such a work is
shown by the preface to the first volume, in
which the plan of the book is laid down, and
some good remarks are made upon the selec-
tion, compass, and arrangement of the matter.
Considerable prominence is given by Dr.
Aikin to the class of persons eminent as in-
ventors or improvers in the various depart-
ments of science and art ; and he expresses
his anxiety to avoid any undue stamp of
nationality in his selection of names. Con-
ciseness, unpartiality, and simplicity of style
are especially aimed at ; and in order to in-
sure the last quality, he always employed one
of his family to read the manuscript aloud in
his own presence, and in that of such other
members of his domestic circle as could be
conveniently assembled, and he invited the
freest strictures even from the youngest.
Dr. Enfield was associated with Aikin at
the commencement of this work, and he
undertook the articles on divines, metaphysi-
cians, writers on natural and moral philoso-
phy, and mathematicians ; but he died before
the completion of the first volume, which was
published in 1799 ; and in the latter part of
the work this department was chiefly sup-
plied by the Reverend Thomas Morgan.
560

Messrs. Nicholson and Johnston were the
principal other contributors, but nearly one
half of the work was written by Aikin him-
self. It extends to ten closely -printed quarto
volumes, (including a supplement and chro-
nological index of royal personages, which
fill more than half of the tenth volume), of
which, owing to circumstances which im-
peded the publication, the last did not appear
imtil 1815. Authorities are referred to at
the end of every article, and the initials of
the writers are always given.

The extensive labours required during many
years for the production of the " General
Biography" did not prevent Dr. Aikin from
undertaking several other literarj- works,
especially after he was compelled by ill health
to renounce his professional engagements,
which he did in 1798, when, after a tempo-
rary sojourn at Dorking, he removed to
Stoke Newington, near London. About 1800
he imdertook the editorship of a new edi-
tion of Johnson's Poets, comprising several
new prefaces and biographical notices, of
which only fourteen volumes were published,
containing the works of Spenser, Butler, Cow-
ley, and Milton. In the course of his long
literary career he produced many short
critical essays on the works of English poets,
some of which are published in the appendix
to his Memoir. A pleasing little work en-
titled " The Arts of Life," intended for the
young, appeared in 1802 ; and in the same
year Dr. Aikin produced a volume descrip-
tive of British forest trees, under the name
of " The Woodland Companion," which has
passed through several editions. Soon after-
wards he wrote " Letters to a young Lady
on a Course of English Poetry," and also a
work in two small volmnes entitled " Geo-
graphical Delineations," which gives an ac-
count of the natural and political state of all
parts of the world. In 1809, during a
temporary suspension of the " General Bio-
graphy," he made an English translation of
the Memoirs of Huet, bishop of Avranches,
from the original Latin by himself. This
translation, with notes, was published in 1810,
in two volumes, octavo.

On the termination of Dr. Aikin's connec-
tion with the Monthly Magazine, in 1806,
he commenced a new literary periodical,
called the " Athenseum," which was aban-
doned after two years and a half; and in
1811 he published a collection of some of his
essays from these journals. About the same
time he wrote the " Lives of John Sel-
den, Esq. and Archbishop LTsher," which
were published in one octavo volume in
1812. In 1811 he became editor of Dods-
ley's " Annual Register," a work which em-
ployed much of his time in future years ;
and in 1816 he published the first edition of
his " Annals of the Reign of George III.,"
in two volumes, octavo. This edition em-
braced the period from 1760 to the peace of

AIKIN.

AIKMAN.

1815 ; but in a second the narrative was ex-
tended to the death of George III. One of
the latest publications of Dr. Aikin was a
volume of "Select Works of the British
Poets," with biographical and critical pre-
faces; which appeared in 1820. In the course
of the half century during which he was
employed in useful and elegant literature, he
executed several translations and other works
not here enumerated, besides " miscellaneous
pieces, biographical, moral, and critical," a
collection of which occupies the whole of the
second and part of the first volume of the
" Memoir" published by his daughter, Miss
Lucy Aikin, in two octavo volumes. The
preface to that work, and Watt's " Biblio-
theca Britannica," contain a long list of the
works of Dr. Aikin, of which the principal
only have been noticed above. A dangerous
attack of palsy deprived him of his faculties
for a time in 1817, but he in a great degree
recovered from its effects. He died of apo-
plexy, December 7. 1822, at Stoke Newington.
In person Dr. Aikin was of middle stature,
spare, erect, and much pitted with small-pox.
His temper was cheerful and affectionate,
and his diligence was unwearying ; constant
employment appeared to be essential to his
happiness. He was a careful writer, and,
excepting in the case of the " General Biogra-
phy," usually wrote everj'thing twice, and
sometimes oftener, before sending it to press.
A portrait of him is prefixed to his daughter's
" Memoir." {Memoir of John Aikin, M.D.,
by Lucy Aikin. There is also a short bio-
graphical notice of Dr. Aikin, by his son
Arthur, in the Gentleman's Magazine for
1823.) J. T. S.

AIKMAN, WILLIAM, a Scotch painter
of considerable merit, was born at Caimey,
in Aberdeenshire, in 1682. He was educated
for the law, but his taste for the arts induced
him to adopt painting as his profession, and
he accordingly studied under Sir John Me-
dina, when that painter was in Scotland, and
soon mastered the practical difficulties of the
art. In 1707 he sold his paternal estate at
Arbroath, in Forfarshire, and set out for
Italy, where he resided three years, chiefly
in Rome, devoting his time principally to
the study of the great works of the Roman
school. He then visited Constantinople and
Smyrna ; and after a second sojourn at Rome,
he returned, in 1712, to his native country.
In Scotland, although he painted some por-
traits of the Scotch nobility, Aikman found
little to do, and he was persuaded by his
patron the Duke of Argyle to remove to
London, whither he came in 1723. In Lon-
don, with the patronage of the Duke of
Argyle to assist him, he was not long without
employment, and was soon much occupied in
portrait painting. He was commissioned by
the Earl of Burlington to paint a large picture
of the royal family. He, however, died before
he had an opportunity of completing it. He
561

died in London, in 1731, and liis body was
interred in Scotland, in the same grave with
his only son.

Aikman was a very accomplished man ; he
was intimate with Allan Ramsay, whose por-
trait he painted, and with the poet Thom-
son, who wrote some verses on his memory.
He was Thomson's first patron, for he in-
troduced him to Sir Robert Walpole. He
was on tenns of intimacy also with Sir God-
frey Kneller, in whose style he to a great
degree painted. Ilis portraits are simple,
and aim at no adventitious beauties. He
painted the portrait of Gay, which is much
praised by Virtue. His own portrait, painted
by himself, is now in the painter's portrait
gallery at Florence. (Walpole, Anecdotes of
Fainting, ifc; Pilkington, Dictionary of
Painters.) R. N. W.

AILHAUD, JEAN, was bora at Lour-
mian in Provence, in 1674, and was the pro-
prietor of a very successful quack medicine,
which was long known as " La poudre pur-
gative d'AUhaud." It was composed of resin,
scammony, and soot. In the provinces he
gained money enough to become a doctor,
and go to Paris, where he obtained an ex-
clusive privilege for the sale of his powder,
and realised a considerable fortune. He
wrote his own praises, in a work entitled
" Traite de I'Origine des Maladies et des
Effets de la Poudre Purgative," (8vo. Paris,
1740 and 1742, and Avignon, 1748,) which
has all the ordinary characters of those works
in which all diseases are described as de-
rived from one origin, and curable by one
medicine. He died in 1756, and left a son,
Jean Gaspar Ailhaud, who for a time con-
tinued his father's trade with equal advantage,
and became Baron de Castelet. He wrote
several works upon the virtues of the powder,
of which the titles are given in the Biographic
Medicale, i. 79. ; and in Querard, La France
Litteraire, i. 19. J. P.

AILI'NL or AYLI'NI DE MANIA'CO,
JOHANNES, author of an account of the
war in Friuli from 1381 to 1388, occasioned
by the refusal of a strong party allied to the
Venetians to acknowledge Cardinal Alen9on,
who had been nominated in commendam by
Pope Urban VI. to the patriarchate of Aqui-
leja. All that is known of him is to be
gleaned from incidental allusions in his narra-
tive, and from Muratori's preface to it in the
third volume of his Italian Antiquities. He
lived at Maniaco during the war, of which he
has left an account, and had at that time a
grandson who was about fourteen years of
age. He was by profession a notary, as his
father, grandfather, and great-grandfather
had been. He possessed considerable pro-
perty. In consequence of his wealth, or his
character, or his professional ability, he had
great influence with his townsmen, and this
he used on one occasion during the war to
save the lives of the noblemen at the head of

AILINI.

AILLAUD.

the small party in Maniaco favourable to the
claims of the patriarch. He held during the
war the office of provisor (it may be trans-
lated secretary at war) in Maniaco ; and
in the course of his narrative he contrives to
give an exhaustive catalogue of his great
services in that capacity, prefaced by a solemn
declaration that he was reluctant to speak of
his own warlike acts, because Cato has said
that no man ought to praise himself. The
history of the war of Friuli is rude in style,
and sometimes barely inteUigible : it con-
sists of the kind of gossip which might be
expected from the magistrate of a small pro-
vincial town, in an age and country charac-
terised by energy and enterprise, the absence
of all refinement, and unbounded party spirit.
But its very defects in a literary point of
view render it valuable as a picture of the
burghers of the fourteenth century in the
north of Italy — of the middle classes, the
materials of which were composed the civil
and military partisans of the Carraras lords
of Padua or of the senate of Venice. The
house of the Ailini seems to have enjoyed
a long track of uninterrupted prosperity for
the tumultuous period in which it flourished.
Ailinus, the great-grandfather of Johannes
the historian, was practising as a notary in
1277 ; and a younger Johannes (the grand-
son of the historian, according to Muratori,
but, from a passage in the history, more
probably his great-grandson), was a canon
in the church of Udine in 1477. (Aiitiqui-
tates Italice Medii jEvi, Auctore Ludovico
Antonio Muratorio. Mediolani, 1740. torn. iii.
C. 1189 — 1220.) W. W.

AILLAUD, PIERRE TOUSSAINT, was
born at Montpellier, in 1759. He entered
the church, and was also professor of rhetoric
in the college at Montauban, and keeper of
the public library there. The Abbe Aillaud
obtained a respectable name as a poet. He
died at Montauban, in 1826. His principal
works were — 1. " Apotheose de Theresine,"
an elegiac poem, in five cantos. Montauban,
1802. 8vo. Reprinted 1827. 2. " L'Egyp-
tiade," an heroic poem, in twelve cantos.
Touloxise, 1802, 8vo. ; Paris, 1813, 8vo. The
subject is Napoleon's expedition to Egypt,
and the model is the "Jerusalem Delivered;"
but the whole poem is a monotonous panegyric.
The abbe wrote four additional cantos, but
Napoleon's downfall occurring before they
could be printed, they appeared under the
new title of " Pastes Poetiques de la Revolu-
tion Franyaise." Mont. 1821, 18mo. 3.
" Cleopatre a Auguste," an heroic epistle.
Mont. 1802, 8vo. 4. " Le Nouveau Lutrin,"
an imitation of Boileau's masterpiece. Mont.
181.5, 8vo. 5. "Le Triomphe de la Revela-
tion," in four cantos. Mont. 1815, 8vo. 6.
" Jean Jacques Rousseau Devoile." Mont.
1817, Svo. A refutation of Rousseau's opin-
ions on education and society. 7. " Tableau
Politique, Moral, et Litteraire de la France,"
562 '

from the days of Louis le Grand to 1815.
Mont. 1823, 8vo. 8. "La Nouvelle Hen-
riade. Canto I." Mont. 1826, Svo. This was
a publication of a few pages only, but Aillaud
proposed to rewrite the whole of Voltaire's
epic in the same style. His specimen was pre-
ceded by remarks on the original, in which
its blemishes were pointed out, and the ne-
cessity of its being rewritten by a competent
hand insisted on ; but the abbe never pub-
lished more than the first canto. Besides'
the works enumerated, Aillaud produced
some other poems, and a version of fifteen
odes of Horace, which, with the elegy on
Theresine, &c., were printed in one volume,
after the abbe's death; Montauban, 1827.
(Rabbe, &c. Biographie des Contemporains,
V. 7. ; Querard, La France Litteraire, i. 19,
20.) J. W.

AILLEBOUST or AILLEBOUT, JEAN.
[Albo'sius.]

AILLI, PIERRE D', was bom at Com-
piegne in Picardy in 1350, and his great
talents presently made amends for the ob-
scurity of his origin. In 1372 he entered
into the college of Navarre, at Paris, and
obtained early distinction by some treatises
on Logic, in support of the doctrines of the
Nominalists, and by his expositions of the
" Sentences of Peter the Lombard," de-
livered in 1375. Five years later he took
the degree of doctor, and became canon of
Noyon; in 1384 he was promoted to the grand
mastership of his college, where his pupils
were extremely numerous, and among them
were Gerson andClemangis ; and in 1389 to
the chancellorship of the university of Paris.
In return for these honours he caused a resi-
dence for theologians to be added to his
college, and at his death bequeathed to it his
library and other property. But his labouns
and distinctions were not confined to his
university. He appeared before Clement VII.,
at Avignon, as the strenuous and successful
advocate of the immaculate conception,
against the error of John Montesson. At
Genoa he preached before Benedict XIII.
concerning the Trinity with so much power,
as to induce that pope to establish in the
church the festival of the Most Holy Trinity.
By such exertions he merited the see of
Cambray, to which he was advanced in 1395.
Devoted to the interests of the church, he
was afflicted by the great schism then pre-
vailing, and unwearied in his endeavours to
heal it. For that purpose he undertook some
missions; but it was his fixed opinion that
the only hope of remedy was in a general
council. His urgent remonstrances con-
tributed to the convocation of that of Pisa,
and there his sense and learning gave him
much influence and augmented his great
reputation. Two years afterwards, in 1411,
he was raised by John XXIII. to the dignity
of cardinal. In the council of Constance
he found a still larger field for distinction.

AILLI.

He presided at the third session; and when
the flight of John and most of his cardinals
occasioned some doubts as to the validity of
the council, he boldly upheld its authority,
as superior to the papal prerogative. After-
wards (June 15. 1415) he was placed, toge-
ther with only two other cai'dinals, on the
Committee of Reform. Yet his ecclesiastical
principles were sufficiently lofty. He main-
tained that all civil authority, whether of
princes or magistrates, was subject to the
spiritual power; and he was instrumental in
the execution of Huss, as a rebel against that
power. But at the same time he confessed
and denounced the abuses and impurities of j
the church, the pomp of its ceremonies, its
superfluous festivals, the midtitude of its !
monks and of its images, the imperfections of
its prelates, the rapacity of the court of Rome,
and especially argued that any effectual re-
formation must begin with the head. And
to these opinions it must be ascribed that his
name was afterwards recorded along with that
of Huss among the " witnesses of the truth,"
whose honest labours are supposed to have
prepared the path for Luther and Zwingli.
It is disputed whether he died in 1420 or in
1425. It is certain that his ashes were trans-
ported to Cambray and interred in that cathe-
dral, and also that he bequeathed large sums
of money to various churches for masses for
the repose of his soul. His title, according
to the custom of the age, was, " The Eagle of
France and the indefatigable Hammer of He-
retics." Among his various works, those on
judicial astrology, which are numerous, are
perhaps the most singular; for in the warmth
of his argument he does not fear to maintain
that the deluge of Noah, the birth of Christ,
and every other very remarkable event might
have been predicted by astrology. These
are the titles of some : — " Vigintilogium de
Concordantia Astronomicse Veritatis cum
Theologia ; " " Tractatus de Concordantia
AstronomiciB Veritatis et Narrationis His-
toriciE ; " " Tractatus elucidarius Astrono-
miccE Concordia; cum Theologia et cum His-
torica Narratione ; " "A pologetica Defensio
Astronomical Veritatis," &c. Of his other
compositions some were logical, others theo-
logical. Others related to the constitution and
condition of the church ; such were his
books " De Ecclesiastica Potestate ; " " De
Emendatione Ecclesise ; " " De Difficultate
Reformationis in Concilio Universali," &c.
There remain, besides, a volume of tracts and
sermons, and a life of Pope Celestine V.,
from his pen ; and it is likewise true that he
composed, in some thirty lines of French
poetry, a description of the " Life of a
Tyrant," which was paraphrased in Latin
hexameters by his pupil Clemangis. A com-
plete list of his works may be found in Lau-
noi's " History of the College of Navarre, "
in the " Gersoniana " of Dupin, and in the
" Bibliotheque Nouvelle dcs Manuscrits," by
563

D. Montfaucon ; and some of the most im-
portant are contained in the " Fasciculus
Rerum expetendarum et fugiendarum," as re-
published by Edward Brown, London, 1690.
The particulars of his life are given by Launoi
and Dupin in the above works. G. W.

AILMER. [Elmer.]

AILRED, an historical writer, and the
author also of certain treatises on morals and
divinity, was born near the beginning of the
twelfth century, it is supposed in a. d. 1109,
and is said in the " Biographia Britannica "
to have been abbot of the Cistercian monas-
tery of Revesby, in Lincolnshire. But this
statement, though it appears in other bio-
graphical works, and receives some support
from what we find in Leland respecting him,
is incorrect, it being indisputable that not
Revesby, but Rievaulx, another Cistercian
house, was that over which he presided.
This distinctly appears by the addition of
Rievallensis to his name in the incipit and
explicit of the treatises by him, published by
Twj'sden, and by his own designation of
himself in the preface to two of his treatises,
" Frater A., servus servorum Christi qui in
Rievalle sunt." Rievaulx was a monastery
in the North Riding of Yorkshire, not far
from Helmsley or Hamlake, where was the
castle of its founder, Walter Espec, a man
of Ailred's time, and celebrated by him. It
appears to have been some mistaken reading
of the word Rievaulx which brought him
into connection with Revesby.

Leland, to whose account of AUred little
has been added by any later writer, says that
he was educated in Scotland, with Henry, son
of David, king of the Scots ; and it is evident
from his own writings that this king was
personally known to him, and had commanded
much of his veneration and esteem Leland
has a conjecture that he might be born in
Scotland.

The greater part of his life appears to have
been spent at Rievaulx, then a newlj' -founded
house, some monks having been sent thither
by Saint Bernai'd. The two first abbots were
named William and Maurice, under whom he
lived as a private monk ; and on the death of
Maurice, succeeded him in his oflice of abbot,
which he held till his death. The retired
situation of Rievaulx was eminently favour-
able to the purposes of those who delighted in
study and religious meditation. Ailred ap-
pears to have been one of them. Though
his merit was very great, and very generally
known in the world, he was not to be seduced
from the shades of Rievaulx, not even by the
offer of a bishopric. He was buried in the
church of his monastery, a great part of the
walls of which now remain ; but there are at
present no traces of his tomb, which Leland,
writing about the time of the dissolution of
the religious houses, says that he saw richly
adorned with gold and silver ornaments.

The writings of Adred may be divided

AILRED.

AILRED

into two classes, the religious and the his-
torical ; and also into those which have been
printed, and those which are only to be
found in manuscript. Manuscripts containing
■writings of his are common in great libraries ;
but it does not appear that anything was
printed professedly as his before the year 1631.

In that year Richard Gibbons, a Jesuit,
printed at Douay a volume containing the
five following works : — 1. " Sermones de
Tempore et de Sanctis." 2. "In Isaiam Pro-
phetam Sermones XXXI." 3. " Speculum
Charltatis Libris III., cum Compeadio ejus-
dem." 4. " Tractatus de Puero Jesu duo-
decenni." 5. " De Spirituali Amicitia."
These works of Ailred were subsequently
included in the " Bibliotheca Cisterciensis,"
and also in the " Bibliotheca Patrum."

His historical writings remained imprinted
till 1652, when the chief of them were in-
cluded by Sir Roger Twysden in his col-
lection of early English chroniclers, entitled
" Historise Anglicanse Scriptores Decern."
They are four treatises of no great length,
filling from column 333. to column 422. of
Twysden's work. Their subjects are — 1.
" De Bello Standardi tempore Stephani Regis ;"
2. " De Genealogia Regum Anglorum ;" 3.
" De Vita et Miraculis Edwardi Regis et Con-
fessoris ; " and, 4. " De quodam Miraculo
Mirabili," or, " De Sanctimoniali de Watton."
It is in the first of these that he speaks of the
deeds of Walter Espec ; in the second, of
David, king of Scotland. The other two be-
long rather to the class of legendary writings
than of chronicle or history ; and on the
whole, notwithstanding the high encomiums
passed upon him by Capgrave and Leland, as
an historical writer, he cannot be placed in
the same rank with several other writers of
the two or three centuries succeeding the
Conquest.

Three other treatises, which are now gene-
rally believed to be his, have been printed ;
namely, " Regulaj ad Inclusas sen Moniales,"
which is printed among the works of St. Au-
gustine, as if by that father. The others are
entitled " Tractatus de Dominica infra Oc-
tavas EpiphaniiB," and " Sermones de Operi-
bus Isaia;." These are printed among the
works of St. Bernard.

There has lately been published, in the
" Reliquiae Antique," by Messrs. Wright and
Halliwell (vol. ii. p. 180 — 189.), acatalogueof
the books which formed the library of the
monks of Rievaulx in the fourteenth century,
in which are many writings of St. Augustine,
of St. Bernard, and of Ailred. Among those
attributed to AUred, is one entitled " De In-
stitiitione Inclusarum," which is probably
the tract attributed to St. Augustine : there
is also the " De Operibus Ysaiaj," given to
Ailred ; and this may be taken as some proof,
in addition to what is to be found in Tanner,
of the wrong appropriation of those treatises.
There is also in that catalogue a volimie of
564

sermons among the works of Ailred. Con-
sidering the connection of AUred with this
monastery, their collection of writings, said
to be his, may be taken as being nearly a
complete collection of the works really his,
and their testimony as being no mean proof
of his claim to works given to him. We add,
therefore, that, besides the writings first men-
tioned, there are in the Rievaulx catalogue
the " De Spirituali Amicitia," " De Vita
Sancti Edwardi ;" " De Generositate et Mo-
ribus et Morte Regis David," which is pro-
bably the treatise published by Twysden
under the title " De Genealogia Regum An-
glorum," or at least the former portion of
it ; " De Vita Sancti Niniani Episcopi ; " " De
Miraculis Haugustaldensis Ecclesise ;" " Epis-
tolae ; " De Anima ;" and " Speculum Charl-
tatis," which, though not expressly said to be
his, is so placed in the catalogue that it may
reasonably be inferred the compiler meant it
to be received as his, as Gibbons considered
it. There is also in this catalogue a " Psal-
terium Glossatum" by him. The original of
this valuable catalogue is in the library of
Jesus College, Cambridge. Of the treatise
on the miracles of the church of Hexham, and
the life of Saint Ninian, there are copies
among Laud's MSS. in the Bodleian. We
proceed to notice other writings which are
attributed to him by Pits and other writers :
— 1. A Life of the Confessor, in Latin verse,
addressed to Lawrence, abbot of Westminster.
A copy of this is in the library of Cains
College, Cambridge (Tanner). 2. " Vita S.
Margarita; Regiua; Scotige." 3. " De Fun-
datione Monasterii S. Mariae Eboracensis, et
de Fontibus," a copy of which is in the library
of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. 4. " De
Prelatorum ISIoribus." .5. " De Ministrorura
Officiis." 6. " Sagittam Jonathse." 7. " Dia-
logus inter Hominem et Rationem." There
are a great number of other small treatises,
each contained in one book, attributed to him
by Pits, for which the reader is referred to
his work. But he may be warned that there
is danger of writings being attributed to Ail-
red of Rievaulx which really belong to Edil-
red, who was abbot of Warden.

Pits says, without naming his authority,
that Ailred died in A. d. 1166, being in his
fifty-seventh year, and that his name was
placed in the catalogue of the saints. Leland
says that he was assisted in his writings by
Walter Daniel the Deacon. J. H,

AIMAR RIVAULT. [Atmar.]
AIMAR VERNAL [Aymar.]
AIMERI DE BELENVEL [Belenvei.]
AIMERI DE BELMONT. [Belmont.]
AIMERIC, or HAIMERIC, (called, in
the " Biographic Universelle," but we know
not on what authority, Aimeric Malefayda,
or de Malefaye,) third Latin patriarch of
Antioch. In his own letters he writes his
name Aimericus, but William of Tyre gene-
rally writes it Haimericus, and Baronius fol-

AIMERIC.

lows him. Aimeric was a native of Limousin,
and an illiterate person. On the deposition
of Radulphus, or Ralph, patriarch of Antioch,
A.D. 1 142, he was chosen to succeed him, partly
through the patronage of Raymond, prince
of Antioch; and partly, it is said, through
the brihes distributed to the bishops of the
diocese by Peter (called by William of Tyre
Petrus Armenius), commander of the garri-
son of the city, and uncle to Aimeric. Ai-
meric was at the time of his election one of
the clergy of the cathedral of Antioch. Wil-
liam of Tyre in one place calls him dean
(decanum), in another, one of the subdeacons
(quendam ejusdem ecclesiae subdiaconum).
He was involved in a quarrel with Raynald,
who had married the widow of Raymond of
Antioch and succeeded to the principality,
and was by him imprisoned and treated with
the utmost cnielty. Cinnamus, the Bj-zan-
tine historian, affirms that Raynald's object
was to extort money from the patriarch,
(Cinnamus, Histori/, book iv. c. xviii.) By
the intervention of Baldwin III., king of Je-
rusalem, he was set at liberty and his pro-
perty restored to him; after which he left
the diocese of Antioch, and withdrew into
the kingdom of Jerasalem, where he resided
some years. During this interval he cele-
brated the marriage of King Baldwin with
Maria Comnena, niece of the Emperor John
Comnenus. In the year 1180 he was in-
volved in a quarrel with Bohemond, now
prince of Antioch, who had repudiated his
wife, and, in spite of the opposition of the
clergy, taken another. For this Bohemond
incurred excommunication, and in revenge
plundered the property of the church and
offered violence to the patriarch, who with
some of his clergy was besieged in a fortified
house belonging to the church. The dissen-
sion was partially allayed after some time by
the intervention of the patriarch of Jerusalem
and the grand masters of the Hospital and the
Temple. About this time Aimeric received
the ^Iaronites into the communion of the
Latin church. He was the Pope's legate in
the East. After the battle of Tiberias, a.d.
1187, Aimeric sent two bishops into the West
to invoke the aid of the European princes.
The letter which he wrote on this occasion
to King Henry II. of England, and Heniy's
answer, are preserved by Benedict of Peter-
borough (Z)e Vita et Gestis Henrici II. et
Ricardi /., Hearne's edit., pp. 503, seq.) Ai-
meric's letter is given also by Baronius.
Aimeric died a.d. 1187, before receiving, as
it appears, the answer of the King of England.
The order of Carmelite monks is said to owe
its origin to him: he collected the hermits
who were living in the Holy Land, formed
them into a community, and fixed them on
Mount Carmel, from whence the order spread
into Europe. A letter of Aimeric to Hugo
Etherianus, acknowledging the gift of his
book on the procession of the Holy Ghost, is
565

given in Martene's " Thesaurus Anecdoto-
rum," vol. i. p. 480. (Guillelmus Tyrius,
(William of Tyre), Historia Belli Sacri, lib.
XV. c. xvi. xviii., lib. xviii. c. i. xxii., lib. xxii.
c. vii. viii. ; Baronii Annales ad Ann. 1143,
1181,1182,1187; VArt de verifier les Da tes,
vol. iv.) J. C. M.

AIMERIC DE PEGULHA, or AI-
MERI DE PEGUILAIN, a troubadour of
the thirteenth century, was the son of a dra-
per of Toulouse. His poetrj' was, we are
told, very bad, till he fell in love with a ci-
tizen's wife of the neighbourhood, on whom
he made many excellent songs. The lady's
husband thought fit to meddle with him, and
do him dishonour (" io marit se mesclet ab
lui e fes li desonor," are the words of the
Provencal biographer), on which Aimeric
avenged himself by dealing the husband a
serious wound on the head with his sword,
and was in consequence obliged to fly from
Toulouse. He took refuge in Catalonia
with Guilems de Berguedan, himself a poet,
who was so pleased with his talents, that
he gave him his own palfrey and clothing,
and presented him to King Alfonso of
Castile. The husband was cured of his
wound, an event which seems to have been
unexpected, and went on a pilgrimage to St.
James of Compostella, probably to return
thanks for his recovery. Aimeric felt desirous
of profiting by his absence, to carry on his
amour at Toulouse, and King Alfonso, on
learning his wish, not only provided him with
all he wanted, but sent an escort with him to
assist him in his designs. The companions
of Aimeric went to the house of the citizen's
wife, told her that a cousin of the King of
Castile, who was in their company on a pil-
grimage, had fallen Ul on the road, and soli-
cited permission for him to lodge in her
house. LTnder this pretence, Aimeric gained
admittance, and was there ten days, after
which he returned to his friends in Spain.
He remained at the court of Alfonso till
he was obliged to leave it on account of a
satire which he had composed on Anselm, the
rojal steward, in which he accused him of
stealing his master's gold cup. He then
spent some time at the court of the Princess
Beatrice, the heiress of Provence, before her
marriage to Charles of Anjou, in 1245, an
event which the poet deplored in verse as a
great misfortune. The latter part of his life
was passed in Lombardy, where his biogra-
pher states that he is said to have turned
heretic. As he lived in the time of the con-
test between the pope and the Albigenses, it
is not improbable that this statement may
have had a foundation in fact, especially as
Aimeric, in some of his poems, celebrates the
Count of Toulouse, the defender of the Albi-
genses, and the King of Aragon, the defender
of the count. In some of his verses, he al-
ludes to himself as advanced in age, and, from
the events that he mentions as contemporary.

AIMERIC.

AIMERY.

it is evident that he lived both at the com-
mencement and towards the middle of the
thirteenth century. He is said to have died
about 1260.

More than fifty poems by Aimeric are still
extant. That they were highly esteemed in
his own time, is shown by the mention made
of them by Dante, in his treatise " De Vulgari
Eloquio," book ii. chap. 6. ; and by Petrarch,
in his " Trionfo d'Amore ; " if, indeed, the
Amerigo mentioned by Petrarch is Aimeric
de Pegulha, which has been doubted. He
was fond of, and thought to excel in satire ;
but, to a modern reader, his poems do not
appear to possess peculiar merit. Several of
his productions are printed by Raynouard,
and a few by Rochegude. ( Life, by a Pro-
vencal biographer, in Le Parnasse Occitanien,
by Rochegude, p. 1 69, &c. ; and in Raynou-
ard, Choix des Poesies originahs des Trou-
badours, V. 8, &c. ; Histoire Litteraire des
Troubadours, by Millot, ii. 232, &c ; Life, by
Nostradamus, with notes by Crescimbeni, in
Crescimbeni, Comentarj intorno alia sua Isto-
ria della volqar Poesia, ii. 78, &C.") T. W.

AIMERICH, MATEO, a Spanish Jesuit,
born at Bordil in the diocese of Gerona in
Catalonia, A. d. 171 5. He entered the so-
ciety of Jesuits at the age of eighteen ; and
after finishing his studies, became professor
of philosophy and divinity in several of their
colleges. He was chancellor of the university
of Gandia at the time of the expulsion of the
Jesuits from Spain (1767). He retired into
Italy and settled at Ferrara, where he died
A. D. 1799, aged eighty-four. Aimerich was a
man of extensive learning, and remarkable
for the elegance and purity of his Latin style.
Besides a variety of smaller works on philo-
sophical and philological subjects, he published
— 1. " Nomina et Acta Episcoporum Barcino-
nensium, 4to. Barcinone, 1760." 2. " Quinti
Moderati Censorini de Vita et Morte Linguae
Latinae Paradoxa phUoIogica criticis non-
null is Dissertationibus exposita, asserta, et
probata, 8vo. Ferrarise, 1780." 3. " Rela-
tione autentica dell' Accaduto in Parnasso,"
8vo. Ferrara, 1782. This was a defence of
the preceding work. 4. " Specimen veteris
Romana* Litteraturas deperditse vel adhuc
latentis, 4to. Ferraris, 1784." 5. " Novum
Lexicon Historicum et Criticum antiquaj
Romans Litteratura deperditse vel latentis,
&c. 8vo. Bassani, 1787." This is a sequel
to the preceding work. He left a supplement
to his Lexicon, and some other works in MS.
(^Biographic UniverseUe, Supplement.) J. C M.
AIMERY, or AMAURY DE LUSIG-
N A N, king of Cyprus, and also of Jerusalem,
in the twelfth ceaitury. He succeeded to
Cyprus on the death of his brother Guy,
A.D. 1194, and in 1197 he obtained the titular
kingdom of Jerusalem by his marriage with
Isabella, daughter of Aimery I., a previous
king. His brother Guy had acquired the
same dignity by his marriage with Sibilla,
566

the elder sister of Isabella, and about the
year 1189 had lost almost at the same time
the greater part of his dominions by his un-
successful wars with the Saracens, and the
title by the death of his queen. Isabella,
who had then, by claiming her inheritance,
deprived the Lusignans of the title of king
of Jerusalem, had successively conferred it,
after her separation from her first husband,
Humfrey of Toron, on Conrad of Mont-
ferrat, and Henry of Champagne ; and now,
by her fourth marriage, she transferred it a
third time, and restored it to the family of
Lusignan. Aimery, at the request of his
queen, fixed his residence in Palestine, and
intrusted the government of Cyprus to the
knights of Saint John. His first operations
against the Saracens were successful ; in
spite of the formidable opposition of Malek
Al'-adhil, the brother of Saladin, he took the
city of Berytus or Bey rout, and was crowned
there in the first year of his reign. The
Christian forces next undertook the siege of
Toron, a fortress between Mount Lebanon
I and the sea, and would probably have suc-
ceeded, but for treachery and dissension
among themselves. Disgusted at this con-
duct, the German crusaders, who formed
the chief strength of the Christian army,
availed themselves of the excuse for re-
turning to Europe afforded them by the
death of their emperor, Henry VI., to whom
Aimery had acknowledged himself a vassal
for the kingdom of Cyprus, for the purpose
of obtaining assistance. Left to contend
alone with the Mohammedans, the King of
Jerusalem was only enabled to maintain the
shadow of power by the internal disputes
of the successors of Saladin. His hopes of
assistance were revived by the tidings of the
approach of a new force of crusaders ; but he
was disappointed by its unexpected diver-
sion against the Greek empire, which resulted
in the conquest of Constantinople by the
Latins, A. d. 1202. As soon as this news
reached Palestine, Aimery was deserted even
by the crusaders who had hitherto remained
with him, and was unable to effect anj-thing
more than an advantageous armistice with
Malek Al-'adil, who had a great respect for
his character. He died at Acre, after an-
other war and another armistice, on the 1st of
April, 1205, a short time after his queen
Isabella ; and at his death the kingdoms of
Cyprus and Jerusalem were again disunited,
to the great disadvantage of the Christian
cause. Cyprus fell to Hugh, his son by a
former wife, and Jerusalem to Maria, the
daughter of Isabella by Conrad of Mont-
ferrat. (Art de i^erifier les Dates, folio edit,
i. 451. 459. ; Wilken, Geschichte der Kreuz-
zi'ige, V. 20, &c. &c. Some statements made
by Etienne Lusignan, Histoire des Princes
de Hienisalem, Cyprc, ^c, are at variance
with other authorities, and have been disre-
garded.) T. W,

AIMO.

AINE.

AIMO, DOME'NICO, an Italian sculptor,
called Varignana. He made some of the
statues over the prineipal gate of San Pe-
tronio at Bologna. He lived in the early
part of the sixteenth century. (Cicognara,
Utoria delta Scultuia. R. N. W.

AIMOIN (in Latin, Aimoinus), a monk of
the Benedictine abbey of Fleury, or St. Benoit
sur Loire, near Orleans. He was a native of
Aquitaine or Guienne, and was related by the
mother's side to the lords of Aubeterre in
Angoumois. He embraced the monastic life
at the abbey of Fleury under Oylbold, A. d.
970, and died A. D. 1007 or 1008. His prin-
cipal work is his history of the Franks,
dedicated to Abbon of Fleury [Abbon], suc-
cessor of Oylbold. He wrote or designed to
write four books, extending from the de-
parture of Antenor (to whom he traces the
origin of the Frankish nation) from Troy
to the time of Pepin le Bref, father of Charle-
magne ; but either he never completed his
plan or part of the work has been lost.
Three books and part of the fourth are ex-
tant. The work is continued to the fifteenth
year of Louis le Dcbonnaire by another hand.
Almoin professed to be only a compiler, " to
bring together in one work, and to re-write
in purer Latin, the deeds of the Frankish
nation or kings, dispersed in various books,
and recorded in rude style." The authorities
to which he had recourse are enumerated by
Bouquet (Becueil des Historiens des Gaules et
de la France, torn. iii. p. 20.). Aimoin wrote
the life of Abbon of Fleury [Abbon] ; two
books on the miracles of St. Benoit or Bene-
dict ; a sermon on the festival of that saint ;
and some Latin hexameter verses on the
translation of the bones of St. Benedict, and
the foundation of the abbey of Fleury. The
verses are printed by Francois Duchesne at
the close of Aimoin's history, in the third
volume of the " Historic Francorum Scrip-
tores." The style of Aimoin, though in-
ferior to that of Abbon, is not so bad as that
of many authors of the same age. (Dupin,
Nouvelle Bibliotheque des Auteurs Ecclesias-
tiqites ; Bouquet, Prefatory Notice to Aimoin's
History in the Recueil des Historiens des
Guides et de la France.) J. C. M.

AINE, AISNES, or DAINE, MARIE
JEAN BAPTISTE NICHOLAS D', was
born at Paris in 1733. After filling the office
of maitre des requetes, he became successively
intendant of Pau, Limoges, and Tours. He
was a member of the Academy of Sciences
and Belles Lettres of Prussia, and is described
as a man remarkable for his probity, possessed
of great information, and one whose con-
versation was both amusing and instructive.
He died on the 25th of September, 1804. His
works consist of a translation of Dodsley's
" (Economy of Human Life," published at
Edinburgh in 17.52, in 12mo., and of Pope's
Eclogues : the latter translation is inserted
in the second volume of " La Nouvelle Bi-

garrure," p. 75. (Le Monilciir, an. xiii. p. 30.;
Querard, La France Littcraire, tit. " Aine"
and " Dodsley.") J. W. J.

A'iNEJr SOLIMAN, grand vizir, sur-
named A'ineji, (the Crafty, or, literally,
the " Mirror -man,)" from his address in
both friends and enemies. He
born in Bosnia, of Christian parents,

deceiving

was

but he embraced Islam, and was employed
as a groom in the palace of the celebrated
Koprili, whose kiaya or secretary he became.
Having entered the army, he rose to the
rank of general, and beat the Poles at Ba-
batach in 1684. He was afterwards em-
ployed in Hungary, and showed himself i
subtle diplomatist in the civil troubles of thai
country. Kara-Ibrahim, the grand vizir,
who aimed at his ruin, named him com-
mander-in-chief in Hungary ; but A'ineji
saw the snare, and hastily started for Con-
stantinople. He there persuaded the diwan
that the presence of the sultan himself, or at
least of the grand vizir, could alone retrieve
the state of afifairs in Hungary. But the sul-
tan durst not absent himself from Constanti-
nople, and Ibrahim, an infirm and sickly
man, was neither a statesman nor a soldier ;
and A'ineji succeeded in convincing the
ministers of this. Accordingly, Ibrahim was
caught in the snare he had set for A'ineji,
who was appointed to supersede him as grand-
vizir. Vigorous measures soon announced to
the people the accession to power of a minister
equally distinguished in the cabinet and in
the field. A'ineji's first step was to pay the
troops the arrears, but in a debased money.
He defended and saved Tokuli, the usurper
of the Hungarian throne, whose head had
been called for by the adherents of the sys-
tem of the late grand vizir who still possessed
influence ; and he quelled the disorders of
the Janissaries. He also stopped the frauds
practised by the soldiers in obtaining their
pay several times, which they did in the fol-
lowing way : — each soldier had a ticket with
his name written on it, and he was paid
on showing the ticket to the cashier, who
returned it without asking for a receipt, a
measure of precaution which could not be
practised in a country where the people can-
not write their names. When a soldier was
paid, he used to give his ticket to one of his
comrades, who got the pay again on assuming
the name which was written on it. A'ineji or-
dered that the description of the bearer should
be written on the back of each ticket ; but by
this measure he excited the discontent of the
army, for in that time no freeman in Turkey
would allow a description of his person to be
given on his papers, because this was equiva-
lent to being classed among slaves.

The French ambassador having demanded
the cession of the Holy Sepulchre at Jeru-
salem to the Roman Catholics exclusively,
A'ineji received him with all courtesy, but
refused to accede to his proposal. It was in

AINEJI.

AINSLIE.

May, 16S6, that A'ineji Soliman started for
Hungary, after obtaining from the sultan a
firman which promised him life and liberty,
•whatever might be the issue of the campaign.
In this war everj-thing depended on prevent-
ing the Imperialists from taking Buda (Ofen),
then defended by ATjdi Pasha against the
Duke of Lorraine, in whose camp were col-
lected nobles and soldiers from every nation
in Europe. The grand vizir advanced to
relieve the place, but the Germans gained a
brilliant victory, and took Ofen by assault on
the 2d of September, 1686. The Turkish
army was obliged to retire under the walls of
Belgrade. The following year A'ineji had
some partial successes near Essek, and the
capital was already celebrating them by re-
joicings and prayers in all the mosques, when
everything was thrown into confusion by the
news of the battle of 3Iohacs, in which, on the
12th of August, 1687, the sultan's army was
completely defeated bj' the Germans. Alneji
Soliman saved himself with great difficulty,
leaving in the hands of the Duke of Loi'-
raine his superb tent ornamented with four-
teen turrets, each surmounted by a ball of solid
gold. Fortress after fortress was lost, and
province after province. Transylvania shook
oif the Ottoman yoke ; and to crown this series
of disasters, Morosini landed in Greece with
an army of Venetians, and overran the Morea
in a single campaign. After all these misfor-
tunes, discontent and hatred began to gather
over the head of the unhappy grand vizir.
A'ineji, taking with him the standard of the
empire, secretly left his camp, and fled to
Constantinople. He showed the despairing
sultan the firman which guaranteed him life
and liberty. He was nevertheless arrested
and thrown into prison ; but the artfid minis-
ter escaped from confinement, ran through
the streets calling out for a revolution, and at
last concealed himself with a Greek who
lived near the seraglio. His asylum was
known only to the sultan and the Kislar-Agha.
The armj^ however demanded his death ; the
sultan abandoned him, and he was led to
execution, 1st Zilkide, a. h. 1098 (a. d. 8th
October, 1687). (Hammer, Geschichte des
Osmanischen Reiclies, iv. 442, &c.) W. P.
AINSLIE, GEORGE ROBERT, eldest
son of Sir Philip Ainslie, of Pilton, Edin-
burghshire, by the daughter of Lord Gray,
was born at Edinburgh, in 1766. He entered
the army in his eighteenth year, served seve-
ral campaigns in Flanders and Holland, and
rose through the intermediate ranks to that
of colonel in 1810. Two years after, he was
appointed governor of St. Eustatius, and, the
year following, governor of Dominica. The
legislature of Dominica voted him their
thanks, and a sword of the value of two
hundred guineas, for his exertions in sub-
duing the Maroons, a banditti formed from
runaway slaves, who had ravaged the island
for forty years. He was recalled in 1814,
568

to explain his conduct in the Maroon war,
which had been questioned in Parliament,
on which occasion he was warmly addressed
by all classes of the inhabitants. He returned
to Dominica, but soon after finally retired.
He had attained the military rank of lieute-
nant-general.

Peace being proclaimed, and his time im-
occupied, Ainslie turned his attention to nu-
mismatology, to which he became enthusiasti-
cally devoted. He paid particular attention to
the stud}' of the coins struck by the English
princes in France, and succeeded in forming
a cabinet richer in coins of that class than
any other collection, either public or pri-
vate. He was especially fortunate in obtain-
ing pieces of value for determining the dates
of historical events ; and in the pursuit of
these he paid no regard to time, trouble, or ex-
pense. He made repeated jom-neys to France
with a view to their acquisition; and the parts
most rich in such treasures being completely
out of the track of ordinary English tourists,
his foreign appearance, in some places, pro-
cured him a " tail " of girls and boys equal
to that of a Highland chief In 1830 he
published, in a handsome quarto volume,
" Illustrations of the Anglo-French Coinage,
from the Cabinet of a Fellow of the Anti-
quarian Societies of London and Scotland,
of the Royal Societies of France and Nor-
mandy, and many others, British as well as
Foreign." The work is admirably printed
and embellished, and contains the best account
we have of the coins referred to, which throw
much light on English history of the time
of our Edwards and Henrys. Shortly after
the publication, a great part of the collection
was sold by public auction, when some of the
most interesting coins were purchased for the
British Museum. Genei"al Ainslie died at
Edinburgh, on the 16th of April, 1839, at
the age of sixty-three. {Illustrations of the
Anglo-French Coinage, pref. p. vi. viii. ; Gen-
tleman s Magazine for 1839, New Series, xii.
216.) J. W.

AINSLIE, SIR ROBERT, BART., was
born in 1729 or 1730, and was the third sou
of George Ainslie, Esq., a Scotch gentleman
of ancient descent, long settled as a merchant
at Bordeaux, and of his wife Jane, daughter
of Sir Philip Anstruther, of Anstruther, in
the county of Fife, Bart. Of his two elder
brothers, the eldest, Philip, who was knighted,
died in 1802, and George I'ose to be a general
in the army, and died in 1804 : of five sisters
four were married in France ; and Robert is
also stated to have spent his earliest years in
that country, although his father, who died
in 1733, had returned to Scotland, and settled
on an estate which he purchased in the county
of Mid Lothian, in 1727. The first public
mention which we have foimd of Robert is
the announcement in the Gazette, under date
of 20th September, 177.5, of the appointment
of " Robert Ainslie, Esq. to be His Majesty's

AINSLIE.

ambassador to tlie Ottoman porte, in the room |
of Jolin Murraj-, Esq., deceased." He was
now knighted, and took liis departure in May
of the following jear for Constantinople,
which he reached in November, and where
he continued to reside as minister till 1792.
In September, 1796, he received a grant of a
pension of 1000/. on the civil list, to be held
during the joint lives of himself and His
Majesty. The same year he was returned to
parliament as one of the members for the
close borough of Milborn Port (on the interest
of the proprietors, the Earl of Uxbridge and
Sir William Cotes Medlycott) ; and he sat
till the dissolution of that parliament in June,
1802 ; but it does not appear from the Par-
liamentary History that he ever spoke in the
House. In 1804 he was made a baronet,
with remainder, in default of issue male of
his own body, to his nephew, Robert Sharpe
Ainslie (the son of General Ainslie), who
was then one of the members for the borough
of St. Michael, and who eventually inherited
the honour on the death of his uncle, at Bath,
on the 22d of July, 1812. Sir Robert Ainslie
had the reputation while in Turkey of being
a great favourite and boon companion of the
Sultan Abdu-1 Ahmed [Ahmed IV.] ; but his
name is principally known in connection with
an extensive collection of coins and other
antiquities, drawings, and objects in natural
history, which he formed during his resi-
dence in Turkey. Certain of the drawings,
which were by Luigi Mayer, furnished the
subjects for the " Views in Egypt," the
" Views in the Ottoman Empire, chiefly in
Caramania," and the " Views in Palestine,"
which were engraved by Thomas Milton, and
published by Bowyer, in 1801, 1803, and
1804 : the entire collection, consisting of
ninety-six plates, with letter-press, in elephant
folio, is dedicated to Ainslie, in a short ad-
dress, in which the drawings are stated to
have been taken under his auspices. Many
of the coins are described by the Abate
Domenico Sestini in various publications,
especially in his " Lettere e Dissertazioni
Numismatiche sopra alcune Medaglie rare
della CoUezione Ainslieana," 4 tom. 4to.,
Leghorn, 1789; his " Dissertazione sopra
alcune Monete Armene dei Principe Rupi-
nensi della Collezione Ainslieana," 4to., Leg-
horn, 1790; and his " Descriptio Numorum
Veterum ex Museis Ainslie," &c. 4to. Leipzig,
1796. The first-mentioned of these pub-
lications is inscribed to Ainslie in a very en-
comiastic dedication, in which the author
extols him as his Maecenas, and as the pro-
tecting genius of the fine arts ; but they
quarrelled after this, and in the preface to the
" Descriptio Numorum Veterum," Sestini
assails his former patron with the bitterest in-
vective, as a mere trader in antiquities, who
had gathered togetlier the contents of his mu-
seum with no other view but to make money
of them, according, as Sestini is pleased to say,

VOL. I.

to the genius and character of his nation —
" secondo il genio et carattere della sua na-
zione." {Baronetage of Eixjlu ml, 12mo. 1806,
p. 531, 532. ; Burke's Diclioiiarij of the Peer-
age and Baronetage of the British Empire,
1840; Gent. Mag. iar August, 1812; Beat-
son's Chronological liegister, vol. ii. ; Annual
llegister, xxxi. 120, 138. ; xl. 179.) G. L. C.

AINSWORTH, HENRY, one of the
earliest leadei's of the English sect of Inde-
pendents, or, as they were at first called,
Brownists. [Browne, Robert.] There is
no mention of him till the year 1593, when
he was in connection with a church which
had been founded at Amsterdam by the
Brownists, who had been exiled from Eng-
land in that year. We again find him at
Amsterdam in 1596 : a letter written by him
in that year is printed in Limborch's " Epist.
Viror. Pra>stant. et Erudit." p. 74.

Ainsworth appears to have lived, like many
of the other Brownists in Amsterdam, in very
great poverty. It is stated that he hired him-
self as a porter to a bookseller, and that he
lived on ninepence a-week and some boiled
roots. The truth of this statement, however,
is strongly doubted by Mr. Hanbury. Ac-
cording to Hornbeck, he made a voyage from
Amsterdam to Ireland, and there made some
converts to Bi'ownism.

The Brownist exiles at Amsterdam, though
protected by the government of the united
provinces, met with much opposition from
the Dutch clergy, and especially from Ar-
minius. Among the attempts which they
made to conciliate their opponents, one of the
most important was the correspondence of
Ainsworth with Junius in 1596. These
attempts failing, the exiles put forth a state-
ment of their pi'inciples under the fol-
lowing title : " The Confession of Faith of
certain English People, living in the Low
Countries, exiled." This document, in the
composition of which Ainswoith had a con-
siderable share, was first drawn up in the
year 1596, and republished in 1598, with a
dedication " To the reverend and learned
men, students of Holy Scripture in the
Christian universities of Leyden in Holland,
of St. Andrew's in Scotland, of Heidelberg,
Geneva, and other the like famous schools of
learning in the Low Countries, Scotland, Ger-
many, and France." It was reprinted, with
some alterations, in 1602 and 1604.

The pastor of the church to which Ains-
worth belonged was Francis Johnson, and
Ainsworth himself held the ofiice of teacher.
In this church disputes soon broke out, in
some of which Ainsworth supported the
pastor, [Johnson, Francis,] but at length,
about the year 1609, Johnson and he differed
about certain points of church discipline, and
especially about the power of the elders,
Johnson maintaining that the absolute go-
vernment of the church lay in their hands,
and Ainsworth holding that the elders ouglii
p p

AINSWORTH.

AINS^W)RTH,

always to yield to the wishes of the body of
the people. There were other points re-
specting wliicli they disagreed, namely, the
call to the ministry; rebaptizing, or the in-
validity of the baptism derived through the
Church of Rome ; and the propriety of
taking counsel from sister churches. After a
year or more spent in controversy, and after
a fruitless attempt to settle the dispute by
the mediation of the church at Leyden,
Ainsworth and his party withdrew from
Johnson's church on the 1 6th of December,
1610, and founded another church in Am-
sterdam, of which Ainsworth became pastor.
The adlierents of Johnson and of Ainsworth
were from this time distinguished as John-
sonians and Ainsworthians.

In the midst of these disputes, and of
other controversies with the enemies of the
Brownists, Ainsworth published the great
work on which his reputation mainly rests,
" Annotations on the Five Books of Moses,
the Psalms, and the Song of Songs," which
was first pviblished, in separate parts, in 1612
and the following years, and reprinted at
London in 1627 and in 1639, in one volume,
folio. There is a Dutch translation of the
whole work, which was published at Leu-
warden in 1690, and a German translation
of the commentary on Solomon's Song,
Frankfort, 1692. This work displays a very
sound knowledge of Hebrew, and great cri-
tical powers. It has always been held in
very high esteem both in England and on the
continent.

Ainsworth died suddenly in the year 1622
or 1623. His death, according to an impro-
bable story related by Neal, was suspected
to have taken place from poison under
singular circumstances. Ainsworth, having
one day picked up a very valuable diamond
in a street of Amsterdam, advertised for the
owner, who proved to be a Jew, and who
offered Ainsworth any reward he chose to
ask. Ainsworth would accept of nothing but
a conference with some of the Jewish rabbis
on the prophecies of the Old Testament re-
lating to the Messiah ; and the Jew, not
having influence enough with his brethren
to obtain the conference, made away with the
challenger by poison. Another version of
the story is, that the conference was held,
and that Ainsworth confuted the Jews, who
poisoned him out of revenge. The story is
not mentioned by any of the editors of his
posthumous works.

Ainsworth was in aU respects one of the
first men of his party. His opponents have
borne very high testimony to his character
and learning. Bishop Hall, in his " Apology
for the Church of England against the
Brownists," often mentions him as the great-
est man of his party, their doctor, their chief,
their rabbi.

His chief works, besides the annotations
above mentioned, were — 1. " Counterpoison :
570

(1) Considerations touching the Points in
difference between the godly Ministers and
People of the Church of England and the
seduced Brethren of the Separation ; Ar-
guments that the best Assemblies of the
present Church of England are true visible
Churches, that the Preachers in the best
Assemblies of England are true IVIinisters of
Christ ; (2) Mr. Bernard's Book, intituled
' The Separatists' Schism ;' (3) Mr. Cra-
shaw's ' Questions,' propounded in his Ser-
mon preached at the Cross : — examined
and answered, by H. A., 1608," 4to., re-
printed in 1642. This work must not be
confounded with another "Counterpoison"
which is sometimes ascribed to Ainsworth,
but which was written by Dudley Fenner, a
Puritan, before 1584. 2. " A Defence of the
Holy Scriptures, Worship, and Ministry used
in the Christian Churches separated from
Antichrist, against the Cavils, Challenges,
and Contradiction of Mr. Smith, &c., 1609."
3. " An Arrow against Idolatry, taken out of
the Quiver of the Lord of Hosts ; " an attack
on the Church of Rome, and one of the most
powerful controversial works of the age,
published at some period before 1612. 4. " An
Animadversion to Mr. Richard Clyfton's
' Advertisement,' &c., 1613." This work re-
lates to the differences in the church at Am-
sterdam. 5. " The Communion of Saints,"
published probably before 1617. 6. " The
Book of Psalms : Englished both in Prose
and Metre, &c., 1612." 7. " The trying out
of the Truth : begun and prosecuted in cer-
tain Letters or Passages between John Ayns-
worth and Henry Aynsworth ; the one
pleading for, the other against, the present
Religion of the Church of Rome, &c., 1615."

8. " A Reply to a pretended ' Christian Plea'
for the Anti-Christian Church of Rome,
published by Mr. Francis Johnson, &c., 1620."

9. " A Seasonable Discourse ; or, a Censure
upon a Dialogue of the Anabaptists, &c.,
1623," reprinted 1644. 10. A posthumous
work entitled " The Orthodox Foundation of
Religion, 1641 :" prefixed to this is a strong
testimony to Ainsworth's character, by the
editor, Samuel ^Vhite. Some other works by
Ainsworth are noticed by Mr. Hanbury.
His " Treatise on the Communion of the
Saints," and his " Arrow against Idolatry,"
were reprinted together in 1789, with an ex-
cellent life of the author by Dr. Stuart.
(Neal's History of the Puritans, ii. 43. ;
Wilson's Dissenting Churches, i. 22. ; Brook's
Lives of the Puritans, ii. 299. ; Hanbury's
Historical Memorials relating to the Indepen-
dents, vol. i. passim.)

A new edition of the " Annotations" is
now in course of publication in parts, 8vo.,
by Blackie and Son, Glasgow. Five parts
have already appeared. (July, 1842.) P. S.

AINSWORTH, ROBERT, was born in
September, 1660, at Woodyale, in the parish
of Eccles, a few mUes from Manchester, and

AINSWORTH.

was educated at Bolton in Lancashire, -where
he afterwards himself taught a school. He
came to London in or before 1698, and, having
made himself known by a pamphlet on the
subject of education, he in that or the follow-
ing year opened a boarding-house at Bethnal
Green. He soon after removed his establish-
ment to Hackney ; and subsequently he is said
to have had a school in other villages near
London : but, ha^•ing soon made money
enough to enable him to dispense with the
labour of teaching, he spent some of the last
years of his life in literary leisure, much of
whiclL, it is related, he employed in making
rounds among the shops of the brokers in all
parts of the metropolis, searching for old
coins and other antiquities and rarities, of
which he had at last accumulated a consider-
able collection at a small cost This he dis-
posed of in single articles a short time before
his deatli, which took place in London on
the 4th of April, 1743. His wife and he
were both buried at Poplar, under an in-
scription, partly in Latin, partly in English
verse, composed by himself.

Ainsworth's first publication, as far as is
known, was the tract already alluded to, en-
titled " The most natural and easy Way of
Institution ; containing Proposals for making
a domestic Education less chargeable to
Parents and more easy and beneficial to Chil-
dren ; bj' which Method, Youth may not only
make a very considerable Progress in Lan-
guages, but also in Arts and Sciences, in two
Years," 31 pages 4to., 1698. This is a very
sensible little treatise, evincing that the author
was considerably ahead of his age, and had
arrived at much more correct views than
were then, or than indeed are yet, commonly
entertained, more especially on the mode of
teaching foreign languages, which he would
have taught in schools to a great extent after
the mode by which every child learns at
least the essentials of its native language.
Ainsworth did not place his name on the title-
page of the first edition of this pamphlet ; but
he affixed it to " The dedication addressed to
Sir William Hustler, M. P.," that is. Sir Wil-
liam Hustler, knight, then one of the members
for Northallerton, with whom he appears to
have been previously well acquainted. At the
end is the following advertisement : — " Such
as desire to discourse the author of these pro-
posals may hear of him at the booksellers, or
at the ^larine Coffee House in Birchin Lane,
after 'Change, who can inform them of under-
takers." A second edition, " with additions,"
(which, however, scarcely amount to a page
in all,) appeared in the same form the follow-
ing year ; the author now giving his name
on the title-page, and there being inserted, in
place of the advertisement, the date, " From
my house at Bednal Green, December the 22d,
1698." The existence of this second edition
appears to have been forgotten when in
1736, while the author was still alive, a new
571

impression of the tract was published hi 8vo.
(price Is.) and called the second edition ; the
publisher was the notorious Curll, of Rose
Street, Covent Garden, and it was probably
brought out without Ainsworth's knowledge
or consent. Ainsworth appears to have sent
nothing more to the press, unless it might be
some Latin and English short poems which
he is said to have printed, though their exist-
ence is now unknown, till he published, in
1720, an account in Latin of the classical
antiquities collected by the late John Kemp,
Esquire, under the title of " Monumenta
Vetustatis Kempiana, ex vetustis Scriptori-
bus illustrata, eosque vicissim illustrantia ;
in duas partes divisa ; quarum altei-a Mu-
mias. Simulacra, Statuas, Signa, Lares, In-
scriptiones, Vasa, Lucernas, Amuleta, Lapides,
Gemmas, Annulos, Fibulas, cmn aliis Veterum
Reliquiis ; altera Nummos, Materia Modoque
diversos, continet." The author's name is
not on the title-page, but at the end of the
preface, in which he states that he had
been prevailed upon to draw up the account
at the request of Kemp's brother, a worthy
man, but not conversant with such matters,
notwithstanding that, besides his other defici-
encies, a weakness in his eye-sight (oculorum
vitium) made him not very fit for the under-
taking. Ainsworth is said to have been very
short-sighted- He had evidently taken no
ordinary pains with his task. Besides the cata-
logue, profusely illustrated with classical refer-
ences, the volume contains, in addition to the
preface, ten long dissertations on Egyptian,
Greek, and Roman antiquities ; one being a
disquisition on the Roman money, " De Asse
et Partibus ejus," which extends to above
seventy pages. There is a sumptuously bound
copy of this volume in the British Museum,
which appears to have been the presentation
copy sent to Henry (Hare) Lord Coleraine,
two manuscript lettei-s addressed to whom by
the author are pinned into it. The first,
written in a remarkably beautiful hand, is
dated April 14th, 1720 : it has not, as far as
we are aware, been printed, and contains
some matter which may be tei-med bio-
graphical, besides affording a sample of Ains-
worth's English style, which, although a little
pedantic, was not without elegance : — " My
lord, the relation between patron and client
in ancient Roman times was so sacred that
both were called by one common name,
Amici ; and the polentes amici treated the
tcHues with a civility and respect suitable to
the old maxim, Amicitia aid invenit aitt
facit pares. Indeed in later and worse
times the case was so much altered, that the
client was esteemed little better than a ser-
vant, and used accordingly ; which treatment
Juvenal in his fifth Satire severely lashes.
But, my lord, that between your grandfather
of blessed memory and myself was of the
former kind. He was a man antiqucE virtutis
et fidei. He not only received my little
P P 2

AINSWORTH.

services with an air of one obliged, but also
returned them with such kind offices as if he
thought himself so, though they were far
overpaid by his gracious acceptance, which
was so delightful and pleasing to me that I
could correct Horace and read him thus : —
Dulcis et experto cultura potentis amici.
Marvel not, my lord, at these scraps of
Latin. They are such as would not bear a
translation, the English of this epistle being
but a version of a dedication intended to have
been prefixed to the book herewith presented
to your lordship. For I could not endure
to think of any other patron of a book of
antiquities, whilst a successor to the name,
honour, virtues, and learning of my noble
patron, a famous antiquary, was living. I
had therefore designed to entreat the honour
of your shining name to illustrate a work the
design whereof is to illustrate antiquity ; but,
to my surprise, was lately acquainted by the
owner of the antiquities here described that
he intended to present a book to the king,
which would not be accepted if dedicated to
any subject ; which prevents my book's re-
ceiving the desired honour and protection.
Whether he has yet made his present I know
not, but could no longer delay this of mine to
your lordship. Your favourable acceptance
thereof will highly honour and oblige, my
lord, your devoted client and humble ser-
vant, R. Ainsworth." The other letter, very
neatly written in imitation of printing, is
dated 1.5th May, 1720, and expresses Ains-
worth's regret that although his " very good
friend" Mr. Samuel Benson had been three
times to Tottenham with the book, he had
never found his lordship at home, -which had
delayed the publication longer than was con-
venient, because he had wished to put it into
his lordship's hands before it should reach
those of any other nobleman. He hopes that,
in the circumstances, his lordship will excuse
the delay, and accept the mean present. A
manuscript note in the volume, in the hand-
writing of Dr. Birch, dated March 16. 1754,
states that the greater part of Kemp's col-
lection had been first brought together by
Mr. John Goilhard, who had been governor
to George first Lord Carteret ; he sold the
articles to Carteret for an annuity of 200/.
After Carteret's death, 22d September, 169.5,
Kemp bought a considerable part of the col-
lection during the minority of John Lord
Carteret, then, when the note was written.
Earl Granville. This account professes to be
given on the information of Heneage Earl of
Winchelsea, who had seen many of the ar-
ticles in Goilhard's possession, at Angers in
France, in 1676, and afterwards, increased to
a much greater number, at Paris in 168.3.
The collection, as left by Kemp, Birch adds,
was sold by auction at the Phcenix Tavern
in Pall-Mail, on Thursday the 2.3d, the 24th,
25th, and 27th of March, 1721, in 293 lots,
for 1090/. 8.S. &d. Ainsworth had been
572

elected a member of the Society of Anti-
quaries, probably after the appearance of the
" Monumenta Kempiana ;" and in 1724, when
the society resolved to have an account drawn
up of all ancient coins, the Roman coins were
undertaken by him and Roger Gale. His
next publications were two short archaeo-
logical tracts ; the one entitled "ISEION,
sive, ex Veteris Monumenti Isiaci Descrip-
tione, Isidis Delubrum reseratum," 4to. 1729,
consisting of only four pages, besides the
dedication to James West, Esq. ; the other
entitled " De Clj'peo Camilli antiquo," 4to.,
1734, which had previously appeared at the
end of the " Museum Woodwardianum," or
account of the antiquarian collections of Dr.
John Woodward, published after Woodward's
death in 1728, under the superintendence of
Ainsworth, by whom it was in part drawn
up. His Latin Dictionary, the work that has
preserved his name, is said to have been
suggested by the booksellers so early as about
the year 1714 ; and the first edition of it ap-
peared, with the title of " Thesaurus Linguae
Latinse compendiarius ; or, a Compendious
Dictionary of the Latin Tongue, designed
principally for the use of the British Nations,"
in one volume, 4to., in 1736. It was inscribed
to Dr. Mead in a Latin dedication, written
with Ainsworth's usual elegance of style.
The republication of his early tract by Curll
the same year was probably occasioned by
the reputation to which Ainsworth was im-
mediately raised by this performance, which
was certainly much superior to any work of
the kind that had previously appeared in this
country, and, with the improvements made
upon it in successive editions, long continued
to be our best Latin and English Dictionary.
It appears that the sum Ainsworth received
from the booksellers for this first edition, in
which he is supposed to have been assisted
by Dr. Samuel Patrick, was 666/. 17*. 6f/.,
and his executors were paid 250/. more for
what he had contributed before his death to
a second edition, which was brought out in
1746, under the superintendence of Patrick,
with a preface containing a short biographical
account of the deceased author. Dr. John
Ward is also said to have assisted in this
edition, which, like the former, was in one
volume 4to. A third edition, little if any-
thing more than a reprint, followed in 1751,
under the care of Mr. Kimber ; and a fourth,
in one volume folio, in 1752, with great im-
provements by the Reverend William Young
(the Parson Adams of Fielding's " Joseph
Andrews"), assisted by Ward. Young's
edition was reprinted in 1761 ; in 1773 an-
other edition, in two volumes 4to., was pro-
duced under the care of the Rev. Thomas
]Morell (the learned author of the Greek
Prosodiacal Lexicon) ; and several other
editions have since appeared. The latest, we
believe, is that published at London in one
large 8vo. volume, revised by the Rev. R. W.

AINSWORTH.

AIO.

B. Beatson, A. M., of Pembroke College,
Cambridge, and further revised and corrected
by William Ellis, Esquire, A. M., King's
College, Aberdeen. There are also abridg-
ments by Young and by Mr. Nathaniel
Thomas. (Bioij. Brit., principally on the
authority of Patrick's Preface to the Dic-
tio/iari/ ; Archceolvyia, vol. i. p. xxxvii. ; and
Ainsworth's various publications.) G. L. C.

AIO, AYON, or AJO'NE, younger son of
Adelgisus, prince of Beueventum, succeeded
his elder brother, Radelchis, A. d. 883, in
consequence of a revolution. His reign was
a troubled one. He had to fight against Wido,
duke of Spoletum, who took him prisoner,
but he was afterwards liberated. Waider,
nephew of Adelgisus, who had put himself
under the protection of the Byzantines, made
also war against Aio, and, being supported
by the Emperor Leo, took from him the
greater part of his dominions. In 890 , Aio
died, and was succeeded by his infant sou
Ursus, and in the following year the By-
zantines took possession of Beneventum,
and put an end to the Longobard dynasty,
which had lasted 330 years. (Giannone,
Sturia Civile del Regno di Napoli ; C. Pere-
grinius, Historia Principum Laiigobardorum.')

A. Y.

AIO was, according to the history attri-
buted to Ingulphus, a monk of Croyland, who,
when that monastery fell into decay on the
death of King Athelstan, a. d. 941, retired to
that of Malmesbury, and remained there till
recalled to his former place of residence by
the abbot Turketul, by whom the house at
Croyland was re-established in 947, the second
year of King Edred. Of the former monks,
originally twenty-eight in number, there re-
mained at this time, besides Aio, only four
other old men : brother Brunus, who had
taken refuge in the monastery of Winchester,
and brothers Clarenbaldus, Swarttingus (else-
where called Swarlingus) and Thurgarus,
who had never left Croyland. Aio is de-
scribed as learned in the science of law (juris-
peritus), and well acquainted with the ancient
muniments of the monastery, and on that
account he was appointed by Turketul to
arrange an account of the house from its
foundation, on the information of the other
aged brethren, and especially of Thurgarus,
who had been brought up in it from his in-
fancy and remembered the sacking of the
place and the massacre of the monks by the
Danes in the year 870. Another monk,
named Swetmannus, was assigned to assist
him in the work, who is described as an ex-
cellent notary or scribe (optimum notarium),
and whose duty was to be to take down
the statements of the ancient brethren, that
they might be afterwards arranged and put
into a good style, probably by Aio. The
history is said to have been actually brought
down to the fourteenth year of King Edgar,
that is, the year 974, in which both Aio and
573

Bruuus died. The great age which Thurgarui
nmst have attained, who is represented as
having survived Aio for two or three years,
has been made an objection to this story ; but
that is comparatively nothing. Ingulphus, or
the writer of the history which passes under
his name, is a very bold narrator. It is true
that he makes Thurgarus to have died in 976,
at the age of 115; but he has just before
stated that Swarlingus died in 975, at 142, and
Clarenbaldus, as well as Aio and Brunus, in
974, at 108 (reduced in the more modest
manuscripts to 148). No part of the his-
torj' prepared by Aio and his colleagues re-
mains, although Ingulphus seems to speak
of it as existing in his time. (Ingulphus, His-
toria Croyland, in Gale, Rerum Anyl. Scrip-
tores, p. 29, 30. 32. 48. 51.) G. L. C.

AIR AY, HENRY, D.D., a divine of the
Church of England, who has been ranked
among the Puritans on account of his non-
conformity to certain minor observances ap-
pointed by the Church of England, such as
bowing at the name of Christ. He was born
in Westmoreland in 15 GO, and educated
under Bernard Gilpin, by whom he was sent,
at the age of nineteen, to Oxford, where he
studied first in St. Edmund's Hall, and after-
wards in Queen's College, of which he be-
came provost. He was vice-chancellor of
the university in 1606, when Laud was called
before him to answer for sentiments alleged
to be popish, which he had expressed in a
sermon at Oxford. Dr. Airay died on the
6th of October, 1616, at the age of fifty-six,
and was buried in the inner chapel of Queen's
College. His religious opinions were Cal-
vinistic, his piety was sincere and unaffected,
his character was such as to draw upon him
a degree of admiration from which his mo-
desty shrunk, and his government of his
college was most efficient. His works were —
1. "Lectures upon the whole Epistle to the
Philippians, 1618." 2. "The just and ne-
cessary Apology touching his Suit in Law
for the Rectory of Charlton on Otmore, in
Oxfordshire, 1621." 3. "A Treatise against
bowing at the Name of Jesus." (Wood's
Athena Oxonienses, i. 348. ; Brook's Lives vf
the Puritans, ii. 247.) P. S.

A'IROLA, ANGIOLA VERONICA, an
Italian lady of a noble family of Genoa,
devoted herself to painting as a profession.
She was the pupil of Domenico Fiasella of
Sarzana, and executed several works of con-
siderable merit. An altar-piece which she
painted for the church of Gesu e ]\Iaria at
Genoa has been praised for its tasteful com-
position. She painted also several pieces for
the convent of San. Bartolomeo dell' Olivella,
of which she was a sister, and in which she
died, according to Orlandi, in 1670. (So-
prani, Vite de' Pittori, ^c. Genovesi; Orlandi,
Abecedario Pittorico.) R. N. 'W.

AISNES. [AiNE.]

AiSSE', MADEMOISELLE, a Circassian
p p 3

AISSE.

AITINGER.

by birth, was carried off by the Turks m
the pillage of a Circassian town, and in 1698,
when about four years of age, was sold to
M. de Ferriol, the French ambassador at
Constantinople, for 1500 francs. She was
immediately consigned to the sister-in-law of
the ambassador, Madame de Ferriol, under
who^e protection she received a careful edu-
cation in all the accomplishments of her time.
When arrived at maturity she went to reside
with M. de Ferriol, who at first treated her
with the affection of a parent, but sub-
sequently, abusing the powers and oppor-
tunities which his situation gave him, suc-
ceeded in seducing her. After the death of
M. de Ferriol she received many solicitations
from the Regent Duke of Orleans, who met
her at the house of Madame de Parabere, but
which she steadily resisted. After a long
struggle she yielded to her passion for the
Chevalier d'Aydie, who appears to have been
well worthy of her affection. As a knight of
Malta he could not marry, but he was anxious
to be freed from his vows in order that he
might be united to her. This sacrifice of his
interests she would never consent to. When
she found herself likely to become a mother,
she confided her situation to her friend Lady
Bolingbroke, who, under the pretence of
taking her with her to England, placed her
privately in a remote quarter of Paris, where
she gave birth to a daughter. The infant
was conveyed to England by Lady Boling-
broke, and received her early education
there ; she was afterwards placed in a con-
vent at Sens vmder the name of Miss Black,
niece of Lord Bolingbroke. Although living
at a period when French manners were
characterised by the extreme of profligacy.
Mademoiselle Aisse appears always to have
retained lier purity of mind, and to have
erred rather through an excess of romantic
generosity of temper than a want of moral
principle, and some time after the birth of
her daughter she resolved to live with the
chevalier only as a sister. The same
strength of mind which had enabled her to
resist all sacrifices on his part supported
her in her present purpose, and the remain-
der of her life was spent in penitence. She
died in the year 1733. Her letters, which
are written in a very simple and pleasing
style, and which display much depth of feel-
ing, were printed at Paris in 1787, in 12mo.,
with notes by Voltaire. A subsequent edition
was published at Paris in 1823, in 12mo.,
with a biographical notice by the Baron de
Barante, and explanatory notes by L. S.
Auger. (Barante, Mehniges Historiqiies et
Litleraires, iii. 333 — 342. ; Querard, La
France Litteraire.') J. W. J.

AISTULPHUS. [AsTULPHus.]
AITINGER, SEBASTIAN, secretary to
Philip the Magnanimous, Landgraf of Hesse.
An interest attaches to him, from the manner
in which he threw away his life to preserve
.'574

his fidelity to his master and the Protestant
cause. Sebastian Aitinger was born in
Ulm, in 1508. He was bred a notary, and
acted for some time as secretary to the town
council. On the occasion of some quarrel
with his employers, he quitted their service,
and entered that of the Landgraf of Hesse,
He was employed by that prince as his private
secretary, and thus became acquainted with
all the secrets of the league of Schmalkalden.
WTien the Emperor Charles V. made Philip
prisoner, in the beginning of 1547, an eager
search was made by the Imperialists for his
secretary, in order to extort from him the
secrets of the Protestant princes who were
members of the league. Sebastian sought
refuge in his native town, where, notwith-
standing his former quarrel with the au-
thorities, he was hospitably received ; but
haimted by a constant fear of falling into the
hands of the Roman Catholic princes, and
being forced to reveal the secrets with which
he had been intrusted, he left the town, and
lurked in the vicinity. He was attacked by
a fever in the beginning of November, 1547,
while stopping at Burlofiingen, near Ulm.
On the evening of the 8th, an alarm was
given that twenty men at arms belonging to
the Imperialist army were approaching the
village. Aitinger immediately fled, sick as
he was, swam across the Danube, and took
refuge in the residence of a nobleman who
protected him. Here his fever increased to
such a degree as quickly put an end to his
life. His devotion was long held in thankful
remembrance by those who would have
been compromised by evidence which torture
might have forced from him. When Ai-
tinger's son, many years aftei'wards, was
presented to the Landgraf Philip, he ob-
served, " This lad's father died for me ;
would that there were more such servants."
(Ersch und Gruber's AUgemeine Encyclo-
padw.) W. W.

AITKEN, JOHN, M.D., was one of the
surgeons of the royal infirmary of Edinburgh,
and gave lectures in that city on the practice
of physic, anatomy, surgery, midwifery, and
chemistry. He was admitted member of the
College of Surgeons of Edinburgh in 1770,
and died in 1790. His works are numerous,
and embrace many of the leading subjects of
medicine ; and though several of them are
merely the text-books of his lectures, they
contain much valuable information, are well
written, and show him to have been ftilly con-
versant with the literature and philosophy as
well as the practical department of his pi-o-
fession. He introduced an alteration in the
mode of locking the midwifery forceps, so as
to "render this matter easier to the prac-
titioner, and the whole instrument more safe
to the mother and child ; " and he invented a
flexible blade to the lever. He likewise in-
vented, and described in his " Essays and
Cases in Surgery," a pair of forceps for

AITKEN.

AITON.

dividing and diminishing the stone in the
bladder, when too large to be removed entire
by the wound in lithotomy. His works are
— " Essays on several Important Subjects in
Surgery, chiefly with regard to the Nature
and Cure of Fractures." London, 1771, 8vo.
'* Essays and Oases in Surgery." London,
1775, 8vo. "Conspectus rei Chirurgia;."
Edinburgh, 1777, 8vo. "Medical Improve-
ment : an Address to the Medical Society of
Edinburgh." Edinburgh, 1777, 12mo. "Ele-
ments of the Theory and Practice of Surgery,"
Edinburgh, 1779, Bvo., which was republished
with the " Elements of the Theory and Prac-
tice of Physic," thus forming two vols., en-
titled " Elements of the Theory and Practice
of Physic and Surgery." London, 1783, 8vo.
" Outlines of the Theory and Cure of Fever."
London, 1781, 12mo. "Principles of Mid-
wifery, or Puerperal Medicine." 1784, 8vo.
"Osteology, or a Treatise on the Bones of
the Human Skeleton." London, 1785, Bvo.
" Principles of Anatomy and Physiology."
Edinburgh, 1786, two vols. 8vo. " Essays
on Fractures and Luxations." London, 1790,
8vo. (yVatt,Biblioth. Britt; Aitken's Works.)

G. M. H,

A'iTOGHDI-ALP, the son of Gundus-
Alp, and nephew of Osman first sultan of the
Osmanlis, whose favourite he was on accoimt
of his valour. He fell by the hand of a
Greek noble in the battle fought in a. h. 701
(a. D. 1301) between Osman and Muzalus,
general of the Byzantine guards, whose army
was defeated. Seventeen years after Osman
avenged his nephew's death, by beheading
the son of the man that killed him, who had
fallen into his hands at the taking of Brusa,
of which town that yoimg Greek was com-
mandant. A'itoghdi-Alp was buried near
Brusa, where his tomb still remains, and is
famous for the virtues which it is said to
possess, of curing diseased horses that are
led to look at it. (Hammer, Geschichte des
Osmanischcn Reiches, vol. i. p. 68.) W. P.

AITON, WILLIAM, was born in 1731,
at a small village near Hamilton in Scotland.
He visited England in 1754, and became
assistant to Mr. Philip Miller, the author of
the Gardener's Dictionary, who was at that
time the curator of the Botanic Garden at
Chelsea. Whilst with Miller, he assiduously
cultivated a knowledge of plants as well as
their practical management in the garden -,
and in 1759 he was appointed by George III.
to form and arrange a botanic garden at the
royal residence at Kew. He continued in
this situation till his death in 1793, and lost
no opportunity which his favourable circum-
stances aiforded him of introducing new and
rare forms of foreign plants. He had at one
time under his care in this garden upwards
of 6000 species of plants, and was remarkable
for the success with which he managed them,
and the improvements which he introduced
into their cultivation. In 1783, on the death
575

of Mr. Haverfield, he was appointed to the
superintendence of the pleasure and kitchen
gardens. The opportunities that he possessed
at Kew of becoming acquainted with new
plants resulted in the publication of a de-
scriptive catalogue of the plants grown there,
under the title " Hortus Kewensis, or a
Catalogue of the Plants cultivated in the
Royal Botanic Garden at Kew." London,
1789. 3 vols. 8vo. In this work a descrip-
tion of each species is given, with much in-
teresting incidental matter with regard to
their introduction, cultivation, and other
matters. Alton received assistance in this
work from Dr. Solander and Mr. Dryander,
foreign naturalists residing in this country,
and the whole of the work is arranged ac-
cording to the system of Linnaeus.

A second edition of this work, in five
volumes, appeared in 1810-13, edited by Mr.
William Townsend Alton, son of the subject
of this article and his successor In the royal
gardens at Kew. This edition was revised
by Robert Brown, and is enriched with ad-
ditional matter by huu. An epitome of the
second edition of this work was published in
London in 1814.

Alton died on the 1st of February, 1793,
leaving a wife and three children. His
private character is represented as highly
estimable. He numbered among his friends
Sir Joseph Banks, who during the latter part
of the last and the beginning of the present
century was the great patron of natural
history in Great Britain. (^Funeral Sermon by
Smith ; Gentlemaris Mag., 1793.) E. L.

AITSI'NGERUS, MICHAEL, is inserted
here under the designation with which the
title-pages of his works have rendered readers
most familiar. His real name, however, was
Michael von Eytzing. His father, Christofer
Freiherr von Eytzing, an Austrian nobleman,
was ceconomus, or maitre d'hotel, to Maxi-
milian, king of Bohemia, afterwards Maximi-
lian II. of Germany. Young Eytzing, having
received a good elementary education at
Vienna, was sent by his father, in the year
1553, to Louvalne, to study law. At this
time a letter from Ramus, which has been
preserved, speaks of him as a youth (juvenls);
five years later, Mudajus designates him a
young man (adolescens). These vague data
are all that we have to enable us to con-
jecture the time of his birth. Michael von
Eytzing was probably about seventeen or
eighteen years of age in 1553. In the letter
above alluded to Ramus speaks of him as a
lad of great promise.

In 1556 negotiations were commenced for
the sale of his step-mother's interest in the
seigneurie of Conde to Anne Montmorency,
the countess dowager of Lalalng. The
management of this business was intrusted
to Michael. As soon as the transaction was
concluded he returned to Louvalne ; but in-
stead of confining himself, as before, to the
p p 4

AITSINGERUS.

AI'fSINGEilUS.

law, ae began to tvirn his attention to history ;
and either at this time or previous to his ,
leaving Vienna, he devoted a part of his lei- '
sure to the study of mathematics. The
first fruits of his inquiries were a system of
chronology so arranged as to serve the pur-
pose of an artificial memory for students of
history ; and a diagram of a perpetual ca-
lendar to facilitate the finding of the true
time of Easter in any year.

In 1563 Michael von Eytzing undertook a
journey to Trent for the purpose of sub-
mitting his chronological corapend and per-
petual calendar to the cardinals and prelates
there assembled. Thence he proceeded to
Rome with a warm letter of recommendation
from four of the cardinals present, to Car-
dinal Boromeo, and a letter from the em-
peror to Pius IV. He was allowed to explain
the principle upon which he had constructed
his perpetual calendar to the cardinal legate
at Trent, on the 15th of July, 1663 ; and,
according to his own account of the
matter, it received, at a subsequent period,
the formal sanction of Pope Pius V. In
1565 he presented to the emperor his trea-
tise on Austria and the emperors of the
house of Austria. In 1566 he presented his
inquiry into the age of the world to the
electoral college. In 1568 he was sent to
Belgium on a mission to the Duke of Alba ; and
before his departure he caused 112 copies of
a map of the Holy Land, which he had com-
piled, to be printed, for the purpose of dis-
tributing them as farewell presents among his
friends.

The subsequent life of Von Eytzing can
only be traced in the publication of his
works. In 1579 he published his com-
pendium of chronology, in a small quarto
volume, at Antwerp, with the following title-
page : " Michaelis Aytsingeri Austriaci
Pentaplus Regnorum Mundi. Antwerpiae ;
ex officina Christophori Plantini Architypo-
graphi Regii. 1579." In 1582, he published
at Cologne his map of the Holy Land, en-
graved by Francis Hogenberg, along with an
historical and topographical account of the
country. The book is a small quarto, the
title-page as follows : — " Terra Promissionis
topographice atque historice descripta ; cum
amplissimis duobus Locorum ac Temporum
Indicibus. Per Michaelem Aitsingerum
Austriacum. In utilitatem omnium qui
locorum in eadem terra inspectores, pariter et
rerum ibidem gestarum sectoi-es esse cupiunt.
Francisco Hogenbergio concesso." The colo-
phon informs us of the time and place of
printing : " Colonise Agrippinas excudebat
Godefridus Kempensis anno ab origine
mundi 5542 ; a Christi vero Salvatoris nostri
Nativitate ann. 1582." To this account of
the Holy Land he added, as an appendix, the
perpetual calendar above alluded to. It is
iincertain in what year the first edition of the
historical and topographical accoimt of the
576

Belgic lion appeared. The earliest edition, in
the British Museum, printed at Cologne in
1585, bears on the title-page to be an enlarged
and improved edition. Some remarks in the
table of errata seem to point to the conclusion
that the first edition was published in 1583.
This work, like that on the Holy Land,
originated in a map of Belgium, which the
author had compiled, and Hogenberg en-
graved. In the preface he informs us, that
having been struck with the resemblance of
the boundary line of the seventeen provinces
of the Netherlands to the outline of the figure
of a liou, he had compiled a map of them
under this fanciful form ; and that Hogen-
berg had engraved it for him, " not less
beautifidly than he did that of Europe, pre-
sented to the Emperor Charles in Italy, in the
figure of a virgin queen, Portugal being the
diadem." In this his map Von Eytzing in-
troduced horizontal pai'allel lines, distin-
guished by the letters of the alphabet, with
perpendiculars falling upon them, distin-
guished by the cardinal numbers, with a view
to facilitate the finding of any place referred
to in his narrative. And to add to the interest
of his work, he resolved not to confine him-
self to a dry list of proper names, but to add
to the topography of Belgium its history,
from the accession of Philip II. in 1559, to
the year 1583. For imdertaking this task he
felt he possessed peculiar advantages, having
resided, one time with another, upwards of
twenty years in the country. Successive
impressions of the work appeared in 1583,
1585, 1587, and 1595 ; each bringing down
the narrative to the time of publication. The
title-page of all these editions is, with very
trivial variations, the same ; the date of each
impression must be learned from the colophon,
or in some cases from the year to which the
annals extend. The title-page is to this
effect : — " De Leone Belgico, ejusque Topo-
graphica atque Historica Descriptione : liber
quinque partibus Gubernatorum Philippi
Regis Hispaniarum ordine distinctus. In-
super ex elegantissimi illius Artificis Fran-
cisci Hogenbergii 142 Figuris ornatus ;
rerumque in Belgicis maxime gestarum inde
ab anno Christi 1559, usque ad annum 1585,
perpetua narratione continuatus. Michaele
Aitsingero Austriaco auctore. Francisco
Hogenbergo concesso. Auetior ac locupletior
editio." In 1590 he published a catalogue of
the reigning princes of Europe, with their
respective genealogies. An improved edition
appeared in 1591. The title-page of this
second edition is as follows : — " Thesaurus
Principum hac ^tate in Europa viventium :
libellus, jam midtis locis correctior et Aue-
tior quam antea editus. Omnibus histori-
arum studiosis non minus utilis quam neces-
sarius. Per Michaelem Eyzinger Austri-
acum •. Colonia; Agrippinse, apud Godefri-
dum Kempensem. Anno 1591. 12mo." In his
prefaces he mentions three other works, which

AITSIXGERUS.

AITZEMA.

yre have not seen. The first of these is his
treatise on Austria and tlie emperors of
the house of Austria ; the second he calls
" Liber de Mundi Puncto ; " it is probably
the work which Jocher describes as an " in-
quiry how long the world has really existed;"
'J'he third is a special topography of the
Netherlands, with seventeen maps, published
both in Latin and German : the Latin edition
is entitled " Itinerarum Belgicum;" the Ger-
man " C'horograpliia von Belgien." Besides
these, Jocher attributes to him a history of
the Prankish kings (" De Regibus Pranco-
rum"), and " A Historical Relation of past,
present, and future Times."

The year of 3Iichael von Eytzing's death
is uncertain. A statement in the preface to
a continuation of his " History of Belgium,
from 1595 to 1605," seems to imply that he
died soon after the close of the former year.
With all their defects his Belgian annals
are valuable. His personal intimacy with
the most eminent leaders, both of the Pro-
testant and Roman Catholic parties, and
diplomatic appointments which he held at
different times, afforded him ample opportu-
nities for observation. The accuracy of his
statements has been vouched for both by
Roman Catholic and Protestant contempo-
raries. (The materials for this sketch have
been collected from the prefaces and dedi-
cations of Aitsinger's works, and from the
introduction to the edition of his De Leone
i?e/(//cf), published in 1585.) W. W.

AITZEMA, FO'PPIUS VAN, was a mem-
ber of an ancient family of Friesland, and an
eminent jurist. He held the professorship
of law successively at the universities of
Leyden, Helmstiidt, and Wiirtemberg. He was
resident for the United Provinces at Hamburg
until 1630, when he was sent on special mis-
sions to the imperial generals Wallenstein and
Tilly, and to the King of Denmark. In 1 636
he was sent as envoy to the Emperor Ferdinand
II., and made himself conspicuous by his en-
deavours to bring about a peace between the
Swedes and the emperor, in the course of
which he asserted that he had been requested
by the Swedish envoy to use his good offices
for that purpose, which the latter flatly de-
nied. His motive on the occasion is sup-
posed to have been a wish to ingratiate him-
self with the emperor as a powerful Roman
Catholic prince, Aitzema having shortly be-
fore, according to rumour, been converted to
the faith of Rome. It being also reported
that he had accepted the lordship of Ameland
in Friesland as a fief of the empire, his
masters recalled him to the Hague. Taking
the alarm, he fled from Hamburg, first to
Prague and then to Vienna, where he soon
after died.

He published — 1. " Poemata Juvenilia,

Odse, &c." Paris, 1605, 8vo. 2. " Disserta-

tionum ex Jure Civili, Lib. II." Ilclmstadt,

1607. Reprinted in the sixth part of Meer-

577

mann's " Thesaurus Juris." (Foppens, Bib'
lidtheca Belgica, p. 280. ; Pufendorf, JJe Rebus
Suecici.s; lib. ix. 296. ; Kok, Vuderlandxch
Wourdcnboek, ii. 407, 410.) J. W.

AITZEMA, LIEUW, or LEO, VAN,
was born on the 19th of November, 1600,
at Doccum in Friesland, where his father,
Meinard Van Aitzema, was secretary to the
Dutch admiralty. He studied law at the
university of Franeker, but for a time in-
dulged also in lighter pursuits, as appears
from a volume of his " Poemata Juvenilia,"
which was published in his seventeenth year.
He finished his education at Orleans, where
he took his licence en droit on the 22d of
January, 1622. On his return to Friesland,
he practised for some time at the bar ; but,
in 1629, through the influence of his uncle,
Foppius Van Aitzema, he obtained the post of
counsellor and resident for the Hanseatic
cities at the Hague, to which was afterwards
added that of resident for Stralsund. The
business of his office led him twice to Eng-
land, where he remained for some time, and
became intimate with most of the gi'eat
officers of state, and also with Cromwell.
He has been accused of having sought Crom-
well's favour by betraying to him the secrets
of his principals ; but against this charge it
must be urged that he retained their con-
fidence to the close of his career. Ai-tzema
is best known as an historian ; and as his
works are especially valuable for the rare
state documents which they contain, and
which are generally not easily accessible, he
has been charged with employing unjustifiable
means to obtain them ; but the proof rests
chiefly on the admissions of some of his pre-
sumed accomplices, alleged to have been
made after his death. He died, unmarried,
at the Hague, on the 23d of February, 1669.

His works are — 1. " Poemata Juvenilia,"
Franeker, 1617. 2. "Theses Inaugurales,"
Orleans, 1622, 4to. 3. " Verhaal van de
Nederlandsche Vredehandeling" ("Narrative
of the Dutch Negotiations for Peace "),
Hague, 1650, 4to. ; reprinted Amst. 1653,
2 vols. 4to. ; Leyden, 1654, 4to. A Latin
translation appeared at Leyden, 1651, 4to.
4. "De Herstelde Leeuw"("The Lion re-
stored"), a history of Dutch affairs in the
years 1650 and 1651. Hague, 1652, 4to. ;
Amst. 1654. 5. "Historic oft Verhaal van
Saecken van Staet en Oorlogh, &c." (" His-
tory or Relation of Political and Military
Afl'airs, &c."). Hague, 1657—1671, 15 vols.
4to. This is Aitzema's chief work. The
collecting of materials for it occupied him
many years. It includes the history of Hol-
land from the conclusion of the truce with
Spain, in 1621, to the year 1668. Another
edition, under the editorship of Charles Van
Roorda, bj' whose persuasion the work was
originally published, appeared at the Hague,
in 8 vols, folio, 1669 — 1672, the last volume
containing a reprint of the " Vrcdehandel "

AITZEMA.

AJAX.

and the " Herstelde Leeuw." The first
edition is, however, considered preferable
by some writers, who assert that many
alterations were made in the second, to
suit the prejudices of the author's fellow-
countrymen ; but the biographer Kok states
that this opinion is unfounded, and that
the alterations are not of the slightest
importance. It is a very valuable work,
and throws great light on the history of the
seventeenth century. Though rich in histo-
rical materials, it does not rank high as a
composition. Wicquefort, indeed, speaks of
it in that view with great contempt ; but
many others have a very different opinion of
its merits, and Bayle considers Wicquefort
much too severe. An abridgment of the
■work was published by De Lange, and a
continuation of it, to 1688, by Lambert van
den Bosch, under the latinised name of
Sylvius. (Foppens, Bibliotheca Belgica, p.
813. ; Goethals, Lectures relatives a VHistoire
des Sciences, ^c. en Belyique, i. 161 — 165.;
Kok, Vaderlandsch Woordenboek, ii. 412.;
Wicquefort, De V Ambassadeur, i. 172 — 446.)

J. W.

AJAX (Aifas). Two heroes of this name
play a prominent part in the stories of the
war against Troy.

1. Ajax, the son of O'ileus and of Eriopis.
His father Oileus was a king of the Locrians,
whence the son Ajax is sometimes called the
Locrian, or the Narycian, from his birth-
place Naryx, in Locris. He is also called
the Lesser Ajax, to distinguish him from his
greater namesake, the son of Telamon. In
the Homeric poems the Locrian Ajax is
always characterised by some distinguishing
epithet, while the son of Telamon is frequently
designated by the simple name of Ajax. Ac-
cording to Homer, the son of O'ileus sailed
to Troy with his Locrians in forty ships.
He distinguished himself in the war with the
Trojans, and more especially in the great
battle near the ships. He also assisted
Achilles in rescuing the body of Patroclus
and his horses by keeping the Trojans en-
gaged at a distance. In the funeral games
at the pyre of Patroclus, Ajax contended
with Odysseus (Ulysses) in the foot-race, and
nearly won the first prize ; but Athena (Mi-
nerva), who was unfavourably disposed to-
wards him, caused him to stumble, and he
only gained the second prize. On his return
from Troy his ship was wrecked, through the
influence of Athena, upon the Gyra>an rock.
He himself escaped to the rock, through the
favour of Poseidon (Neptune) ; but on his
boasting that in spite of the gods he would
escape all dangers, Poseidon split the rock
with his trident, and Ajax perished in the
sea. Homer describes him as small of stature,
and only armed with a linen cuirass ; he was
brave, and especially skilful in throwing the
spear, and, next to Achilles, he was the most
swift-footed of the Greeks.
578

Later poets and mythographers have em-
bellished the simple sketch given in the
Homeric poems. According to Hyginus,
Ajax was the son of O'ileus and of the nymph
Rhene, and was one of the suitors of Helena.
In the war against Ti'oy he slew fourteen of
the enemy ; and a tame dragon five cubits in
length followed him about like a dog. After
the taking of the city, Ajax penetrated into
the temple of Athena, where Cassandra had
taken refuge at the statue of the goddess.
Ajax dragged her forth from the temple, and
placed her among the other prisoners. Ac-
cording to one tradition, Ajax ravished Cas-
sandra in the temple of Athena. This account
however is stated by some ancient authorities
to have been untrue ; for it was said that
Agamemnon, through the instrumentality of
Odysseus, spread this false report in order to
raise the indignation of the people against
Ajax, and thus to gain possession of Cas-
sandra. Upon this calumny, however, Ajax
was condemned to be stoned to death ; but
he escaped by clearing himself of the charge
by an oath. The anger of Athena, however,
was provoked by the violation of her temple.
On his voyage homewards, when Ajax came
near the Capharean rocks on the coast of
Euboea, his ship was wrecked, and he him-
self was killed with lightning by Athena.
His body was washed upon the rocks, which
were henceforth called the rocks of Ajax. A
third account of his death is given by Phi-
lostratus, according to whom Agamemnon
took Cassandra from Ajax, and spread the re-
port among the Greeks that Athena threatened
them with destruction unless Ajax were put
to death. Ajax, dreading an ignominious
sentence, put to sea in a small boat, which
was upset by the waves, and he was
drowned. When the Greeks received the
intelligence of his death, they broke out in
loud lamentations, erected a funeral pile in
the vessel in which Ajax had come to Troy,
placed in it black cattle to be sacrificed to
the deceased hero, and then set the whole on
fire and let it float upon the sea. The shade
of Ajax was supposed to dwell with that of
Achilles and other heroes in the island of
Leuce. The Opuntian I^ocrians worshipped
him as their national hero, and whenever
they drew up in battle array against an
enemy they left a place for him, as if his
shade was to fight among them. Many of
the Locrian coins contain the figure of a
warrior in the attitude of attack, and armed
with a helmet, shield, and sword, and this
figure is generally supposed to be a repre-
sentation of Ajax, the son of O'ileus. (Besides
the Homeric poems see Strabo, ix. 425. ; Ovid,
Metam. xiv. 468. ; Hyginus, Fab. 97. 81.
114. 116.; Apollodorus, iii. 10. 8.; Philo-
stratus, Her. viii. 1. ; "Virgil, ^n. ii. 403. ;
Euripides, Troad. 70. ; Dictys Cretensis, v.
12. ; Tryphiodorus, 647. ; Quintus Smyrnseus,
xiii. 422. ; Lycophron, 360. with the scholia ;

AJAX.

A J AX.

Pausanias, x. 31. 1. ; x. 26. 1. ; lii. 19. 11. ;
Conon, Narrat. 18.) L. S.

2. Ajax, the son of Telamon, king of
Salamis, and of Periboea or Eribcea. He
■was descended from iEacus, and is frequently
distinguished from the Locrian Ajax by the
epithets " the Telamonian," or " the Great."
According to Homer, the Telamonian Ajax
led his Salaminians in t-welve ships against
Troy, -where, next to Achilles, he was the
most distinguished among the Greek heroes.
In stature he exceeded all the Greeks, and in
beauty he was only second to Achilles. When
Hector challenged the bravest of the Greeks
to single combat, the lot fell upon Ajax ; and
■when he approached his adversary. Hector
himself began to tremble. Ajax -wounded
Hector, and struck him to the ground with a
huge stone. But -when both the combatants
-were on the point of making use of their
swords, the heralds interposed and separated
them. On this occasion they conceived such
esteem for one another, that when they parted
they exchanged presents, and the Greeks
re-n'arded their champion with a feast. During
the retirement of Achilles, when the Greeks
were hard pressed by the Trojans, Ajax was
one of the messengers sent to Achilles to
persuade him to lend his assistance to the
Greeks. In the attack of the Trojans upon
the fortifications of the Greeks, Ajax was
one of the most active in its defence, and he
prevented Hector from taking the armour of
Amphimachus, who was slain. But he dis-
tinguished himself most in the battle near
the ships, in which he hurled a stone at
Hector with such force that his adversary fell
senseless on the ground. When the Greeks
were driven to their ships, and the Trojans
were on the point of setting fire to them,
Ajax again fought with Hector. He showed
the same courage in the fight about the body
of Patroclus : he and the Locrian Ajax re-
pelled the enemy, while ^lenelaus and Me-
riones carried off the body. In the games
at the funeral pile of Patroclus he wrestled
with Odysseus, but the victory remained
undecided. He also fought with Diomedes
fbr the shield and helmet which Pati'oclus
had taken from Sarpedon, and for the sword
which Achilles had taken from Asteropseus.
After the death of Achilles, when his mother
Thetis proposed to give his armour to the
bravest among the Greeks, Ajax disputed
it with Odysseus, who obtained it. This
slight was the cause of the death of Ajax.
Homer does not say in what manner he died.
Odysseus, on descending into the lower
world, met the shade of Ajax, and in vain
endeavoured to conciliate him : his indigna-
tion at his supposed wrong continued un-
abated.

This sketch of the story of Ajax contained

in the Homeric poems has been filled up by

later writers with a variety of incidents, but

more especially his death. Pindar and Apol-

579

lodorus relate the birth of Ajax in the folio-w-
ing manner : — When Hercules invited Tela-
mon to the expedition against Troy, he found
him at a feast, and was hospitably received.
In return for this kindness, Hercules prayed
to Zeus to give to Telamon, who had hitherto
been childless, a son courageous and invul-
nerable like the skin of the Nemean lion
which he himself was wearing. As a sign
that the prayer was granted, Zeus sent an
eagle (aieros), and Hercules advised Telamon
to call his son from this sign Ajax (Afaj).
According to another accoimt, Hercules him-
self made the child invulnerable by wrapping
it up in his own lion skin, with the exception
of one part of the body which was acci-
dentally not covered by it. When a young
man, Ajax sued for the hand of Helena, but
without success. During the war against
Troy he made several expeditions into the
neighbouring countries. He invaded the
Thracian Chersonesus, where he got rich
spoils, and took Polydorus, the son of Priam,
who had been intrusted by his father to King
PoljTnnestor. Ajax went thence to Phrygia,
where he slew King Teuthras, or Teleutas,
in single combat, and also took Tecmessa,
the king's daughter, who became his favourite.
After the death of Achilles, Ajax disputed
the possession of his armour with Odysseus ;
and when Agamemnon, at the suggestion of
Athena, adjudged it to Odysseus, Ajax went
mad. In the night he fell upon the sheep
belonging to the Greeks, killed many of
them, and dragged both dead and living sheep
into his tent in triumph, inlagining that he
had been slaying his enemies. In the morning
he awoke from his frenzy, and put an end to
his life with the sword which he had received
as a present from Hector. According to
Dictys Cretensis, Odysseus, Agamemnon, and
Menelaus were suspected of having murdered
him. According to Dares Phrygius and
others, he died of a wound which he received
in a contest with Paris, or was stoned to
death by the Trojans, as he could not be
killed with swords. His half-brother, Teucer,
on his return to Salamis, was accused by
Telamon of fratricide, but he cleared himself
of the charge. Some traditions state that
Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles, put the
remains of Ajax, in a golden urn, upon the
Rhoetean cape on the coast of Troy ; whereas,
according to Sophocles, his body was buried
by his brother Teucer, against the will of
Agamemnon and Menelaus. Philostratus,
who considers Ajax as an Athenian hero,
says that the Greek chiefs exhibited the
corpse of Ajax for three days to all the
Greeks ; that Menestheus delivered a funeral
oration over it, and that each of the heroes
threw a lock of hair on his tomb. Dictys
states that Odysseus, in tears, brought the
armour of Achilles to the tomb to conciliate
the deceased, but that Teucer prevented it
being deposited there. Pausanias relates that

A J AX.

AJILJON.

■when Odysseus was shipwrecked, this armour
was carried by the waves to the tomb of
Ajax, as if to reconcile his shade, which was
believed to dwell in the island of Leuce. In
the time of the Emperor Hadrian the sea is
said to have opened the tomb, and gigantic
bones were found in it, which the emperor
ordered to be buried again.

The Salaminians worshipped the Tela-
monian Ajax as the guardian hero of their
island. A temple was erected to him, adorned
with a statue of ebony, and an annual festival
was celebrated in honour of him, which was
called iEanteia. At Athens also he was
worshipped as one of the eponymic heroes,
one of the Attic tribes being called iEantis
after him. His statue at Athens stood near
the Tholos. Not far from the town of
Rhoeteon, on the cape of the same name,
there was likewise a sanctuary of Ajax, with
a statue, which M. Antonius carried to Egypt,
but it was restored to its original place by
Augustus. By his wife Glauca Ajax had a
son called iEantides, and by Tecmessa he
had another son, Eurysaces. Miltiades,
Cimon, and Alcibiades traced their pedigree
to the Telamonian Ajax. Various scenes of
the story of Ajax were represented by the
ancient artists, and some beautiful specimens
of art, of which this hero is the subject, are
still extant. (Besides the Homeric poems, see
ApoUodorus, iii. 12. and 10. ; Pausanias, i.
42. 4. ; Pindar, Isthm. vi. 43. and 45, &c. ;
Strabo, ix. 394. ; Schol. to Lycophron, 455. ;
Hyginus, Fab. 81. 114. ; Dictys Cretensis, ii.
18. V. 15, 16. ; Sophocles, Ajax ; Ovid, Metam.
xiii. 1, &c. ; Dares Phrygius, 35. ; Quintus
Smyrnseus, v. 125, &c. ; Pausanias, i. 28.
12.; i. 35. 2, &c. ; iii. 19. 11.; Philostratus,
Her. xi. 3. ; Strabo, xiii. 595. ; Pausanias, ii.
29. 4. ; Plutarch, Alcib. 1., and numerous
other passages.) L. S.

AJELLI, ANTONIO. [Agelli, Anto-
nio.]

AJILJON, R. SOLOMON BEN JACOB

(npl?'' p \vh''^ Hd"?!^ "■)). a Portuguese
rabbi, who succeeded R. Jacob Abendana as
chief rabbi of the synagogue of London in
the year a. m. 5449 (a. d. 1689). He appears
to have first exercised the rabbinical func-
tions in the Levant, as he was called from
Salonichi, the ancient Thessalonica, to under-
take the charge of the synagogue of London,
which he retained for eleven years. In the
year a. m. 5460 (a. d. 1700) he left England
for Amsterdam, where he took charge, as
chief rabbi, of the Portuguese synagogue in
that city, in which office he continued until
his death on the first day of the month Jiar
or Jjar, a.m. 5488 (the 10th of April in the
year 1728). He has left no works that we
can discover, but his " Censurte " are affixed
to various Hebrew works, such as the edition
of the Talmud printed at Amsterdam, A. M.
5474 (a. d. 1714). He has been greatly
blamed by many Jewish writers for having
680

affixed his rabbinical approbation to the
writings of Abraham Michael Cardoso and
Neheniiah Chaija Chajon, who are considered
heretics by the Jews. (Wolfius, Biblioth.
Hebr. iii. 1026. iv. 974.) C. P. H.

AKA'KIA, ACAKIA, or ACACIA, the
surname of several physicians and professors
of medicine and surgery in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries.

The eldest of them, Martin Akakia, of
Chalons, is believed to have adopted and trans-
mitted to his descendants this name as a
Greek translation of that of Sans-malice,
which before belonged to his family. He
studied medicine under Brissot at Paris, and
was admitted doctor of the faculty in 1526.
He was appointed one of the physicians to
Francis I. ; and in 1530, when the Royal
College was established, he was made pro-
fessor of medicine in it. He died in 1551.
His works consist of translations of Galen,
with practical commentaries ; and they prove
him to have merited the high reputation
which he enjoyed ; for they are written in a
clear style, and his remarks give evidence of
a closer observance of facts than was usual
among the physicians of his time. Their
titles are — " Claudii Galeni Pergameni, Ars
Medica quae et Ars parva." Paris, 1538 ;
Venice, 1544, &c. " Galeni de Ratione cu-
randi ad Glauconem Libri Duo." Paris, 1 538 ;
Venice, 1547, &c. " Synopsis eorum qua;
quinque prioribus Libris Galeni de Facul-
tatibus Simplicium Medicamentorum conti-
nentur." Paris, 1555.

The second Martin Akakia, a son of the
preceding, was born about 1539, and became
doctor of medicine at Paris in 1572. In 1574
he was made Regius Professor of Surgery
in the Royal College, and in 1576, second
physician to Henry III. He died in 1588,
having some time previously been obliged,
by his constant occupation in practice, to
resign the professorship to his son-in-
law, Pierre Seguin. [Seguin.] Bayle has
shown, by the researches of Drelincourt,
that this Martin Akakia was the author
of two works commonly ascribed to his
father. One of these, entitled " De Morbis
itluliebribus, libri duo," treats of nearly
all the peculiar diseases of women in both
the ordinary and the puerperal states. It is
chiefly collected from the works of Galen,
Hippocrates, and others of the ancient writers,
and was first published after the death of the
author by Israel Spachius, in his " Gynse-
ciorum," Strassburg, 1597, p. 745. The other
of his works consists of two " Consilia," that is,
long prescriptions, stating the general nature
of the disease to be treated, and ordering the
plan to be pursued, both in diet and medicine,
which are published in the " Consilioruni
Medicinalium Liber" of L. Scholtzius, Ha-
nover, 1610, p. 396. Their titles are—" In
Nephritide," and " Canones Observandi in
Renum Affectibus."

AKAKIA.

AKBAR.

A third Martin Akakia, son of the second,
became doctor in 1598, having been a student
at Montpellier, and in the following year
succeeded his brother-in-law, Seguin, in the
professorship of surgery. He died in 1605.

Jean Akakia, another son of the second
Martin, was made doctor of medicine at Paris
in 1612, and dean of the faculty in 1619. He
was physician to Louis XIII., and accompanied
him with the army into Savoy, where he died,
in 1630. He left several children, one of
whom, a fourth Martin Akakia, became pro-
fessor of surgery in 1644, but had the mis-
fortune to close in disgrace the honourable
career through which his family had passed.
He was guilty of some breach of professional
etiquette, for which he was suspended from
the honours and emoluments of his calling
for six months. The result of his sentence
was, that he died of grief, and his son chose
another profession. (Bayle, Dictiotinaire His-
torique et Critique ; Haller, in his Bibliotheca
Medicina Practice, gives an account of the
several editions of the works of M. Akakia
of Chalons.) J. P.

AKBAR (Jalal-ud-din Mohammed), the
greatest and the wisest of all the monarchs
who have swayed the sceptre of Hindustan.
At the early age of thirteen he succeeded his
father Humayun on the loth of February,
1556. Most of the few years which he then
numbered had been passed in the school of
adversity. About the time of Akbar's birth,
his father Humayun, a mild and lenient
prince, was deprived of his kingdom through
the restless ambition of his brothers Kamran
and Hindal. The dissensions thus excited
enabled Sher Khan, a Patan or Afghan chief,
to usurp the government of India. Humayun,
attended by a few faithful adherents, became
a wanderer and an exile. In his flight
through the western desert towards the banks
of the Indus, he and his little band experienced
a train of calamities almost unparalleled.
The country through which they fled being
an entire desert of sand, they were in the
utmost distress for water. Some went mad,
others fell down dead. At length those that
lived reached the town of Amerkote, where,
on the 14th of October, 1542, the wife of
Humayun, one of the few survivors of his
party, gave birth to a son, Akbar. Himiayun
sought shelter in Persia, where he was hos-
pitably received by Shah Tahmasp. After
twelve years exile, he was once more restored
to his father's throne at Delhi, but in less
than a year he fell down as he was about to
descend the marble stairs of his palace, and
was so severely hurt that he died in a few
days. ^Tien Akbar ascended the throne
the whole empire of India was in a very dis-
tracted state ; and though he was possessed
of unusual intelligence for his age, he was
incapable of administering the government.
Sensible of his own inexperience, he conferred
on Bahram Khan, a Turkoman noble who
581

had ever proved faithful to his late father, a
title and power equivalent to that of regent
or protector. At the same time he required
of that chief to swear on his part, by the soul
of the late Humayun and by the head of his
own son, that he would be fiiithful to his
trust. Bahram for some time proved him-
self worthy of the young king's choice. His
experience in military affairs and the bold-
ness and vigour of his government enabled
him to surmount difficulties which would have
overwhelmed a man less determined. But
Bahram was more of the soldier than states-
man, and there were numerous complaints of
his arbitrary, if not cruel disposition, though
these qualities were essential for maintaining
subordination in his army, which consisted
of licentious adventurers, and for quelling the
rebellious chiefs who abounded in every pro-
vince of the empire. In the course of a few
years the energy of Bahram succeeded in
restoring the country to comparative tran-
quillity. Hitherto his domination was sub-
mitted to even by Akbar himself, because
the general safety depended on his exercise
of it ; but now that tranquillity was restored,
the pressure of his rule became less tolerable.
The king, now advancing towards manhood,
began to exhibit his im.patience of the in-
significance in which he was held by his
haughty minister, and openly expressed his
indignation at the injustice of some acts of
his arbitrary power. He therefore in 1558,
at the age of sixteen, made a successfid efiFort
to deliver himself from the thraldom which
he had hitherto endured. He concerted a
plan with those around him, and took occa-
sion, when on a hunting party, to make an
unexpected journey from Agra to Delhi on
the plea of the sudden illness of his mother.
He was no sooner beyond the reach of his
minister's influence than he issued a pro-
clamation announcing that he had taken the
government into his own hands, and for-
bidding obedience to any orders not issued
imder his own seal. The proud Bahram
perceived, when too late, that his authority
was at an end. He endeavoured to establish
an independent principality in Malwa ; but
after two years of unsuccessfid rebel.lion he
came, in the utmost distress, to throw him-
self at the feet of his sovereign. Akbar,
mindfid of his former serv-ices, raised him
with his own hands, and placed him in his
former station at the head of the nobles. He
gave him his choice of a high military com-
mand in a distant province or an honoured
station at court. Bahram replied that the
king's clemency and forgiveness were a suf-
ficient reward for his former sei'\'ices, and
that he now wished to turn his thoughts
from this world to another. He therefore
begged that his majesty would afford him
the means of performing the pilgrimage to
Mecca. The king assented, and ordered a
proper retinue to attend him, at the same

AKBAR.

time assigning him a pension of fifty thousand
rupees.

Akbar had now taken upon himself the
sole management, or rather re-establishment,
of the Mogul empire ; and it required all his
great qualities to accomplish the task. Several
of the provinces that had belonged to his
predecessors had assumed the name of inde-
pendent kingdoms, some were in open re-
bellion, and even those that had felt the effect
of Bahram's sway were ready to shake off
their allegiance whenever an occasion offered.
The whole empire was distracted, and the
people harassed by the perpetual wars and
feuds of petty princes and turbulent nobles.
Akbar, at the early age of eighteen, formed
the noble design of putting himself at the
head of the whole Indian nation, and of
forming the various inhabitants of that vast
territory into one peaceful commimity. In
the course of his long reign he had the
gratification of seeing this enlightened policy
in a great measure realised. He appointed
to situations of trust only men of merit, with-
out any distinction of race or religion. The
hitherto despised and oppressed Hindu was
freely admitted to every degree of power.
The consequence was that Akbar won the
loyalty and affection of that numerous race,
who formed by far the greater portion of his
subjects. This, however, required years of
unremitting labour and enlightened adminis-
tration.

The first objects of Akbar's attention were
to establish his authority over his chiefs, and
to recover the various portions of his empire
that had been lost during so many revolutions.
When he ascended the throne, his territory
■was limited to the Panjdb and the provinces
of Agra and Delhi. In the fortieth year of
his reign, according to Abu-1-fazl, the em-
pire comprised fifteen fertile provinces, ex-
tending from the Hindu Kush to the borders
of the Dekkan, and from the Brahmaputra to
Kandahar. These provinces were not re-
covered without great efforts and the sacri-
fice of many lives ; yet we have no reason
to attribute this career of conquest to mere
restless ambition on the part of Akbar. The
countries which he invaded had been for-
merly subject to the throne of Delhi, and he
would have incurred more censure than
praise among his contemporaries if he had
not attempted to recover them To every
province thus recovered, a well-qualified
subahdar or viceroy was appointed, whose
duty it was to administer justice and give
protection to all, without any regard to sect
or creed. Thus his conquests, when once
concluded, were permanent, for good govern-
ment is the surest safeguard against rebellion.
Of the vigilance with which Akbar watched
the proceedings of his viceroys, and the ex-
treme attention which he paid to the ad-
ministration of his more remote provinces,
we have ample proofs in his letters preserved
582

by Abu-1-fazl. Unlike most eastern princes,
his fame is founded on the wisdom of his
internal policy, not on the vainglorious title
of subduer of regions. One of the most
striking traits in his character as a Moham-
medan prince was the tolerant spirit which
he displayed towards men of other religions.
There is no doubt that he was educated as
an orthodox Moslem, and during the earlier
part of his reign he was assiduous in visiting
holy shrines, and in attendance on men of
sanctity ; he even contemplated a pilgrimage
to Mecca : but about the twenty-fourth year
of his age he seems to have relaxed in his
zeal. The more bigoted Moslems saw with
alarm that he listened without prejudice to
the doctrines and opinions of all men ; and it
is not improbable that the fiery zeal of those
of his own faith disposed him to question the
infallible authority of the Koran. Be this as
it may, Akbar seems to have thenceforth
lived without attaching himself to any par-
ticular creed ; at the same time he felt great
interest in all inquu-ies respecting the religious
belief and forms of worship prevalent among
mankind. In the siunmer of 1582 he wrote
a letter to the " wise men among the Franks,"
that is, the Portuguese ecclesiastics at Goa,
requesting them to send him a few of their
more learned members with whom he might
converse respecting the Christian religion.
This curious docimient is preserved in Abu-
l-fazl's collection, and was translated by
Eraser in his History of Nadir Shah. Fraser
makes a mistake, however, in saying that it
was addressed to the King of Portugal. His
copy seems to have had it " To the governor
of the Franks," which at best means the
viceroy of Goa ; but in all the copies which
we have seen it is merely " To the sages of
the Franks," which the context and all the
other circumstances prove to be the correct
reading. The following extract speaks
volumes with regard to Akbar's character.
He says, " Most people, being enchained by
the bonds of constraint and fashion, follow
the customs of their ancestors, relations, and
acquaintances. Without examining any ar-
guments or reasonings, they give an implicit
faith to that religion in which they have been
brought up, and remain excluded from the
beauty of truth, the investigation of which is
the proper end of reason. Therefore, at fit
times, I converse with intelligent men of all
religions, and reap advantage from the dis-
courses of each. It has also reached my
ears that the heavenly books, viz. the Penta-
teuch, the Gospels, and the Psalms, have been
translated into Arabic and Persian. Should
there be a translation of these books, or
should you have any others that may be of
general benefit, let them be sent." Accord-
ingly, on the 3d of December follow ing, three
learned padres, by name Aquaviva, Mon-
serrate, and Enriques, departed on this un-
portant mission. Travelling by easy stages,

AKBAR.

by way of Surat, Mandoo, and Ujjain, they
reached Agra in about two months. They
■were immediately admitted into the presence
of Akbar, who gave them a most gracious
reception. The missionaries then solicited a
public controversy with the MuUas or doctors
of the Mohammedan religion,which was readily
granted. Of this disputation the Christians
and Mohammedans give different accounts.
Akbar, who is strongly suspected to have
sought amusement as well as instruction from
these discussions, informed the padres that an
eminent MuUa had undertaken to leap into a
fiery furnace with the Koran in his hand, to
prove by this ordeal the superior excellence
of his faith, and he trusted that they would do
the same with the Bible. The worthy fathers,
who had during the discussion made some
pretension? to supernatural powers, were con-
siderably embarrassed by this proposal, which,
however, they wisely declined. Abu-1-fazl
says that " the disputants having split on the
divinity of their respective scriptures, the
Christian offered to walk into a fiaming
furnace bearing the Bible, if the Mohamme-
dan would show a similar confidence in the
protection of the Koran ; to which the Moslems
only answered by a torrent of abuse, which
it required the emperor's interference to stop.
He reproved the Mullas for their intemperate
language, and expressed his own opinion
that God could only be worshipped by fol-
lowing reason, and not yielding implicit faith
to any alleged revelation." The missionaries,
seeing that Akbar showed so little partiality
to the Mussulman religion, naturally con-
cluded that they had made him a convert.
At that time, however, his attention was dis-
tracted by disturbances in Kabul and Bengal,
and his visitors returned under a safe con-
duct to Goa, which they reached in May,
1583. It appears that Akbar requested and
received tvro other similar missions in the
course of his reign, which, after going through
the same round as their predecessors, returned
without any further result. It would appear
also that at Akbar's request one of the
missionaries, JeronjTno Xavier, remained at
Agra for the purpose of translating the
Gospels into Persian. He was assisted in his
task by Mulana 'Abd-ul-sitdr ben Kasim of
Lahore, and the work was completed in 1602.
It is very much on the plan of our Dia-
tessaron, and divided into four books. The
first book is entirely occupied with the his-
tory and life of the Virgin Mary, and our
Saviour's infancy. These puerile legends
have been long declared apocryphal even by
the church of Rome, and it is difficult to
conceive why the worthy padre should have
ventured to interweave them with the sub-
lime truths of the Gospel : yet this compilation,
such as it is, has had considerable circulation
among the Moslems of India, who have
naturally viewed it as a standard authority
in judging of the Christian religion, from the
583

circumstance of its being issued forth under
the patronage of Akbar.

Of the encouragement which general
literature received under this enlightened
monarch there are numerous monuments
extant. He established schools throughout
the country, at which Hindu as well as
Moslem children were educated, each ac-
cording to his circumstances and particular
views in life. He encouraged the translation
of works of science and literature from the
Sanscrit into Persian, the language of his
court. In this he was ably seconded by the
two brothers Faizi and Abu-1-fazl ; the
former the most profound scholar, and the
latter the most accomplished statesman, then
existing. Faizi was the first Moslem who
applied himself to the language and learning
of the Brahmins. Assisted by qualified per-
sons, he translated into Persian two works on
algebra, arithmetic, and geometry, the " Bija
Ganita," and " Lilavati," * from the Sanscrit
of Bhaskara Acharya, an author of the twelfth
centurj" of our sera. In the " Bija Ganita "
there are several analj-tical discoveries which
were, even at that period (1580), unknown
in Europe. In the "Lilavati" we have the
approximate ratio of the diameter of the
circle to its circumference, 1250 : 3927
(which is exactly 1 : 3.1416), known among
the Hindus for hundreds or even thousands
of years, for Bhaskara compiled his works
from more ancient sources. Under Faizi's
able superintendence were also translated the
Vedas, or at least the more interesting por-
tions of them, the great epics of the Maha-
bharata and Ramayana, and also a curious
history of Kashmir during the 4000 years
previous to its conquest by Akbar, remark-
able as the only specimen of historical com-
position in the Sanscrit language. Abu-1-fazl
long held the highest rank, both military and
civil, under Akbar. His great work, the
" Akbar Nama," is a lasting monument of
his master's fame, and of his own distin-
guished talents and industry. Manuscript
copies of it have been multiplied in abun-
dance, particularly the third volume called
the " Ayin-i-Akbari," which is descriptive of
the Indian empire. In a very recent bio-
graphical work, under the name of " Abul
FazU," (which means Abu-l-fazl.) it is stated
that " a portion only of this great work has
been translated into English by Mr. Glad-
win, and his book is very scarce. There is
only one copy of the original, and it is in
France." Now there are at least fifty copies of
the " Ayin-i-Akbari," in the original Persian,
in Great Britain, and Mr. Gladwin's trans-
lation is common enough on our book-stalls.

For a more ample and detailed account

* We have here followed Mr. Elphinstone's autho-
rity, although we are not aware that Faizi made any
translation of the " Bija Ganita," the existing Persian
version of which did not appear till 1634 by Ata Allah
Rashidi. It may however have been commenced or
projected by Faizi,

AKBAR.

of the many admirable -works, original and
translated, which were written under the
patronage of Akbar, the reader is referred to
the first volume, of Gladwin's " Ayin-i-
Akbari." But of all the measures of Akbar's
reign, perhaps there is none which redounds
more to his true glory than his humane and
liberal policy towards the Hindus, who
formed, as already stated, the majority of his
subjects. This injured race had long been
subjected to a capitation tax, termed jazia,
imposed upon them by their haughty con-
querors as a punishment for what they were
pleased to call their infidelity. This odious
impost, which served to keep up animosity
between the people and their rulers, was
abolished early in Akbar's reign. He at the
same time abolished all taxes on pilgrimages,
observing, "that it was wrong to throw any
obstacle in the way of the devout, or of in-
terrupting their mode of intercourse with
their Maker." But though Akbar showed
every indulgence to the Hiudiis in the exercise
■of their religion, he was not bUnd to the
abuses of the Brahminical system. He for-
bade trials by ordeal, and the slaughter of
animals for sacrifice. He also enjoined widows
to marry a second time, contrary to the Hindu
law. Above all, he positively prohibited the
burning of Hindu widows against their will,
and used every precaution to ascertain, in the
case of a suttee, that the resolution was free
and uninfluenced. It is stated in the Akbar
Niima that on one occasion, hearing that the
raja of Jodpiir was about to force his son's
widow to the pile, he mounted his horse and
rode with all speed to the spot in order to
prevent the intended sacrifice. It may be
observed, that all those cases in which Akbar
interfered with the religion of the Hindus
were really abuses originating with the cor-
rupt priestcraft of latter times. Such pro-
hibitions being of a purely benevolent nature
would nowise affect the loyalty and attach-
ment of the great body of the people. In
fact, Ave have an interesting memorial of the
impression made upon the Hindus by the
mild sway of Akbar in a spirited remon-
strance, addressed, a century after, to the
bigoted Aurungzebe, by the descendant of
the very raja of Jodpiir above mentioned.
The then raja says, " Your ancestor Akbar,
whose throne is now in heaven, conducted
the affairs of his empire in equity and security
for the space of fifty yeai-s. He preserved
every tribe of men in ease and happiness,
whether they were followers of Jesus or of
Moses, of Brahma or of Mohammed. Of
whatever sect or creed they might be, they
all equally enjoyed his countenance and
favour; insomuch that his people, in grati-
tude for the indiscriminate protection which
he afforded them, distinguished him by the
appellation of ' Guardian of Mankind.' "

In the revenue department Akbar effected
vast reforms. He established a uniform
584

standard of weights and measures, and caused
a correct measurement of the land to be made
throughout the empire. He ascertained the
value of the soil in every inhabited district,
and fixed the rate of taxation that each should
pay to government. He strictly prohibited
his ofiicers from farming any branch of the
revenue, the collectors being enjoined to deal
directly with individual cultivators, and not
to depend on the headman of a village or
district. For the administration of justice he
appointed courts composed of two officers
with different powers ; the one for conducting
the trial and expounding the law, and the
other, who was the superior authority, for
passing judgment. These were enjoined to
be sparing of capital punishment, and, unless
in cases of dangerous sedition, to inflict none
until the proceedings were sent to court, and
the emperor's confirmation returned. He
also enjoined that in no case should capital
punishment be accompanied by any additional
severity. Akbar was fully sensible of the
importance of commerce, which he greatly
promoted. He improved the roads leading
to all parts of the empire, and rendered
travelling safe by the establishment of an
efficient police. Above all, he abolished a
vast number of vexatious imposts which
merely fettered trade without enriching the
treasury. He strictly prohibited his officers
from receiving fees of any kind, and thus cut
off one great source of abuse. Among tbe
numerous efforts made by Akbar for the im-
provement of his country, perhaps the least
successful was his attempt to promulgate a
new religion. On this subject the reader
will find ample information in the " Trans-
actions of the Literary Society of Bombay,"
vol. ii., contributed by Colonel Kennedy of
that presidency. Suffice it here to say, that
Akbar's new faith was a species of pure
deism, too refined and spiritual for his age
and country. It maintained that we ought to
reverence and serve God, on account of his
goodness, which is manifest in aU his works :
that we ought to seek for our own future
happiness by subduing our evil passions,
and by practising such virtues as are bene-
ficial to mankind : that we ought not to
adopt a creed or practise a ritual on the
authority of any man, as all are liable to
error like ourselves : that priests, and public
worship, and resti'ictions about food were
unnecessary : that prayer was unnecessaiy,
because God knew our wants better than we
did ourselves. It does not appear that Akbar's
faith made any great progress beyond the
precincts of his palace. In fact, it had num-
berless foes to encounter among the priest-
hood both of Mohammed and Brahma, who
throve by the existing superstitions of their
respective flocks. Hence on Akbar's death
it expired of itself, and the Mohammedan
faith resumed all its splendour and intolerance
under Jahangir. Akbar had three sons, by

AKBAR.

AKEN.

■whose misconduct the latter daj's of his life
•were embittered. Two of them -were cut off
in early youth through habits of dissipation,
and Selim, the survivor (after-wards Jahaugir),
repeatedly raised the hand of rebellion against
his father. These afflictions, together -with
the loss of many of his intimate friends, began
to prey upon Akbar's mind. He died in
September, 1 605, in the sixtj-fourth year of his
age, after a prosperous and beneficent reign of
half a century. In person Akbar is described
as strongly built, with an agreeable expres-
sion of countenance and very captivating
manners. He was possessed of gi-eat bodily
strength and activity; temperate in his habits,
and indulging in little sleep. He frequently
spent whole nights in those philosophical
discussions of ■which he -was so fond. His
early life abounds with instances of romantic
courage, better suited to a knight errant than
the ruler of a mighty empire. The first half
of his reign required almost his constant
presence at the head of his army, yet he
never neglected the improvement of the civil
government ; and by a judicious distribution
of his time he was enabled not only to despatch
all essential business, but to enjoy leisure for
study and amusement. Of his character as
a prince nothing needs to be said ; it shines
conspicuous in every act of his reign, which
will descend to the latest posterity as a signal
blessing bestowed upon mankind by Him
who is the King of kings. (^Ayin-i-Akbari ;
Elphinstone's History of India ; Ferishta's
History ; and Transactions of the Literary
Society of Bombay, vol. ii.) D. F.

AKEN. There appear to have been four
or five Dutch artists of this name, of whom,
however, our information is very scanty and
very confused.

Jan van Aken, a painter and engraver,
born in the early part of the seventeenth
century. He has been frequently confounded
with the celebrated German painter Johann
van Achen of Cologne ; it is, however, cer-
tain that there was a Dutch artist of this
name, but the exact date and the place of his
birth are uncertain. Nothing is known of
his paintings ; but Bartsch enumerates twenty-
one of his etchings, which are touched in the
manner of Saftleven ; they are verj- slight,
but display great mastery. Heineken de-
scribes an etching by him from his own
design, which he says is very scarce. He
terms it the Travellers on Horseback. It is
marked, " J. V. Aken, inv. et fee." Among
those above mentioned are six horses after
Laer or Bamboccio, and six views of the
Rhine after Saftleven.

Joseph Van Aken, a painter of Antwerp,
of the early part of the eighteenth century,
excelled in painting embroidery, stuffs, and
draperies. He came to England and was
known among artists as tailor Van Aken, a
name which he acquired through his great ser-
vices in assisting them in painting the draperies

VOL. I.

and other parts of their pictures connected
with dress. He died in this country, in 1749,
aged about forty; and Hogarth etched a
humorous plate of his funeral procession, in
which he introduced various groups of me-
lancholy and despairing artists, to illustrate
the dilemma in which many of them were
placed by his decease. He left a brother,
according to Fiorillo, who also practised as
drapery painter ; but was a diiferent person
from Arnolu Van Aken, who painted small
conversation pieces and landscapes, and who
also lived in this country about the same
period. He published a set of copper plates
of fish, &c., which he termed " ^\'onders of
the Deep." Fiorillo says that he had a brother
who was an engraver, and Strutt sajs that
Arnold himself etched some frontispieces to
plays and other works, for booksellers.
(Heineken, Dictionnaire das Artistes, Sfc. ;
Fiorillo, Gescltichte der Mahlerey, vol. v. ;
Fiissli, AUgerneines Kiinstler Lexicon; Bartsch,
Le Peintre Graveur ; Strutt, Dictionari/ of
Engravers.) R. N. W.

AKENSIDE, MARK, was the second son
of Mark Akenside, a butcher of Newcastle on
Tyne, and of his wife, INIary Lumsden, and
was born in the street called Butchers' Bank
in that town, on the 9th of November, 1721.
The Rev. John Brand, who was also a native
of Newcastle, states, in his " Observations on
Popular Antiquities," that a halt which Aken-
side had in his gait was occasioned by the
falling of a cleaver from his father's stall
upon him when he was a boy ; and " this,"
adds Brand, who was himself bred a shoe-
maker, " must have been a perpetual re-
membrance of his humble origin." It is said
that Akenside was far from regarding the
ever-present memento either with com-
placency, or even with the most philosophic
composure. The butcher was a strict Pres-
byterian ; and young Mark's original destina-
tion was to be a clergyman in that commu-
nion, with which view, according to the
common account, he was sent to a dissenting
academy in his native town, whence, at about
the age of eighteen, that is to say, probably
in November, 1739, he proceeded to the
University of Edinburgh. But it appears
from a memoir of Richard Dawes (the author
of the "Miscellanea Critica'") by the Rev.
Mr. Hodgson, in the second volume of the
" Archaologia iEliana," 4to. Newcastle, 18.32,
that Akenside was a pupil imder Dawes, who
was appointed head master of the Royal
Grammar School at Newcastle, in July, 173S.
If this was the case, his attendance at the
school could not have been long. The ex-
pense of his residence at Edinburgh, or part
of it, was defrayed by the Dissenters' Society.
But after studying divinity for one session,
he determined to change his intended pro-
fession, and the remaining two years of his
attendance at college ■were given to the me-
dical classes. He afterwards returned the
QQ

AKENSIDE.

money he had received from the Dissenters'
Society. In 1742 he went to finish his medi-
cal course at Leyden, and he was admitted by
the university to tlie degree of M.D. on the
16th of May, 1741, onwliich occasion he pub-
lished a thesis, or Latin inaugural discourse
on the human foetus {De Oitu et Incremento
Foetus Humani), in whicli he is said to have
displayed eminent scientific ingenuity and
judgment in attacking some opinions of
Leeuwenhoek, and other authorities of the
time, which have now been generally or imi-
versally abandoned. But if tlie date of his
graduation (given by Johnson, and copied by
all his subsequent biographers) be correct,
Akenside had already made a brilliantly
successful literary debut before the appear-
ance of this professional essay. His English
didactic blank verse poem, in three books,
entitled " The Pleasures of Imagination,"
which, according to one account, he had
begun, and even, it is absurdly said, finished,
while he was on a visit to some relations at
Morpeth, before he went to college at Edin-
burgh, was published at London in Feb-
ruary, 1744. He had taken to verse-
making at an early age ; in the seventh vo-
lume of the Gentleman's Magazine, pub-
lished in 1737, is a poem entitled " The
Virtuoso, in imitation of Spenser's Style and
Stanza," dated from Newcastle, having the
signature of Marcus, and stated to be the
production of a writer in his sixteenth year,
v/hich is undoubtedly his ; this was followed
by other poetical contributions to the same
miscellany ; and while at Edinbui-gh he had
written some of the odes and otlier minor
pieces which have since been printed among
his works. But he had as yet published
nothing in a separate form or with his name,
and was consequently altogether unknown,
when he took or sent his " Pleasures of
Imagination " to Dodsley the bookseller,
with a demand of 120/. for the copyright.
Johnson, who mentions this, says that he had
heard Dodsley himself relate that, hesitating
to give so large a price, " he carried the work
to Pope, who, having looked into it, advised
him not to make a niggardly offer, for this
was no every-day writer." Pope, who died
in the end of May of the year in which it
appeared, lived nevertheless long enough to
see his judgment ratified by the extraordinary
success of the poem. It reached a second
edition in May, and continued in constant
demand : the edition before us, published by
Dodsley, in 1763, is called the sixth. The
poem was at first published anonymously,
and a story is told by Boswell, on Johnson's
authority, of the authorship being claimed by
a person of the name of Rolt, who is even
said to have had an edition of it printed in
Dublin with his name on the title-page ; but
in England, at least, the name of the true
author appears to liave been very well
known all along. Akenside was certainly
580

in England before his poem was published :
if the date of his graduation be cor-
rect, he probably returned to Leyden to
go through that ceremony. His first at-
tempt to commence practice as a physician
was at Northampton ; but he only continued
there for about a year and a half, during
which he appears to have written more
poetry than prescriptions. It seems, how-
ever, to have been before he settled at
Northampton that he wrote his " Epistle to
Curio," a satii'e on Pulteney, recently created
Earl of Bath, which was published by Dods-
ley in a quarto pamphlet in 1744. While at
Leyden, Akenside had formed an intimacy
with one of his fellow students, Jeremiah
Dyson, a man of fortune, who afterwards
became clerk of the House of Commons, then
one of the members for Horsham, subse-
quently secretary to the Treasury and a
lord of the Treasury, and ultimately cofferer
to the household, and a privy councillor.
They had returned from Holland together,
and on Akenside, shortly after the publica-
tion of his great poem, being attacked by
Warburton in a preface to a new edition of
his " Divine Legation," for something he
had said in a note in support of Shaftesbury's
notion about ridicule being a test of trnth,
Dyson took up his pen in defence of his
friend, and published, anonymously, " An
Epistle to the Reverend Mr. Warburton,
occasioned by his Treatment of the Author
of the ' Pleasures of Imagination.' " War-
burton took no notice of this appeal ; but he
afterwards reprinted his strictures at the
end of his Dedication to the Freethinkers
of another edition of his work. Dyson now
gave Akenside a more substantial proof of
his friendship by making him an allowance
of 300Z. a-year, to be continued till he should
be able to live by his practice. Thus secured
in an income, he came up to London, and
established himself in the first instance at
Hampstead, where, at Northend, Dyson had
bought a house, and where he exerted him-
self to make his friend favourably known
among the inhabitants, with a view to his
establishment in liis profession. His efforts,
however, were not very successful ; and
after being two years and a half at Hamp-
stead, Akenside removed to London, and
fixed himself in Bloomsbury Square, where
he resided till his death. This change of
residence occurred in 1748. In 1745 he had
published, in 4to., ten of his odes, under the
title of " Odes on several Subjects ; " his
" Ode to the Earl of Huntingdon " appeared
in 1748 in the same fonn ; and several others
of his poems appeared afterwards from time
to time in " Dodsley's Collecti<m," then in
course of publication. An " Ode to the
Country Gentlemen of England," 4to,, 1758,
and an " Ode to Thomas Edwards, Esquire,
on the late Edition (by Warburton) of Mr.
Pope's Works," fol. 1700, are almost his only

AKENSIDE.

separate poetical productions after this date.
Besides being admitted by mandaimis to the
degree of M. 1). in the University of Cam-
bridge, he became in course of time phy-
sician to St. Tliomas's Hospital, a fellow of
the College of Physicians, and one of the
physicians to the queen ; but he was probably
indebted for these honours as much to his
literary as to his professional reputation.
The support of his friend Dyson, also, was
no doubt of use to him. His practice is said
never to have been considerable. The late
Dr. John Aikin, who himself attempted to
combine the pursuit of literature with the
practice of physic, says, in his " Select Works
of the British Poets," " It is affirmed that
Dr. Akenside assumed a haughtiness and
ostentation of manner which was not calcu-
lated to ingratiate him with his brethren of
the faculty, or to render him generally ac-
ceptable." Another account that has been
given is, that his manner in a sick room was
so grave and sombre as to be thought more
depressing and injurious to his patients than
his advice or medicines were serviceable.
Yet his latest and most elaborate biographer,
Mr. Bucke, has noted that he had practice
enough to enable him, with his pension, to
keep a carriage ; and he also sustained his
reputation at a respectable point by various
professional publications. In 1755 he read
the Gulstonlan lectures before the College of
Physicians ; and an extract from them con-
taining some new views respecting the lym-
phatic vessels being afterwards read before
the Royal Society (of which he "was elected
a fellow in 1753) was published in the
"Philosophical Transactions " for 1757. This
publication drew Akenside into a controversy
with Dr. Alexander Monro of Edinburgh, who,
in a pamphlet entitled " Obsei'vations Anato-
mical and Physiological," both accused him
of some inaccuracies, and also insinuated a
charge of plagiarism from a treatise of his
own published the preceding year. Aken-
side replied to these charges in a small pam-
phlet published in 1758. In 1759 he delivered
the Harveian Oration before the College of
Physicians ; and it was published by Dodsley,
in 4to., in the beginning of the next year,
under the title of " Oratio Anniversaria," &c.
An " Account of a Blow on the Heart, and
its Effects," by Akenside, appeared in the
Philosophical Transactions for 17G3. In
17G4 he published, in 4to., what is accounted
the most important of his medical works,
his treatise on dysentery, in Latin, " De
Dysenteria Commentarius," — " considered,"
says Johnson, " as a very conspicuous speci-
men of Latinity, which entitled him to the
same height of place among the scholars as
he possessed before among the wits." It has
been translated into English both by Dr. Denis
Ryan and by Motteux. To these perform-
ances are to be added several papers in the
first volume of the Medical Transactions,
587

published by the College of Physicians in
1707 ; and, having been appointed Krohnian
Lecturer, he also delivered three lectures
before the college on the history of the
revival of learning, which have not been
printed. He might probably have risen to
greater professional eminence and more ex-
tended practice if his life had been protracted ;
but he was cut off by a putrid fever on the
23d of June, 1770, in his forty-ninth year.

As a poet, Akenside has been very differ-
ently estimated. He must be judged of j)rin-
cipally by his " Pleasures of Imagination,"
which is admitted on all hands to be his
greatest woik. Johnson, who hated both the
kind of verse in which it is written, and the
politics of the author, which, always whig,
were at the time when it was composed
almost I'epublican, admits that "he is to be
commended as having fewer artifices of dis-
gust than most of his brethren of the blank
song ; " but seems to regard the poem on
the whole as having more splendour than
substance, more sound than sense. " The
reader," he observes, " wanders through the
gay ditmsiou, sometimes amazed, and some-
times delighted ; but, after many turnings in
the flowery labyrinth, comes out as he v/ent
in. He remarked little, and laid hold on
nothing." There is some truth, as well as
some exaggeration, in this account of the
matter. Alienside had a warm and suscepti-
ble, but not a creative imagination ; there is
probably not in his whole poetry a thought
which can be properly called his own, or
even a new and striking image or metaphor,
or a felicity of expression not borrowed or
imitated. He interests and atfects his readers
chiefly through the sympathetic glow which
he excites by his enthusiasm in behalf of
truth and beauty, and other elevating con-
ceptions ; and the sort of admiration he wins
from those who admire him most is hardly
more critical or intellectual than what is
commonly drawn forth by the mere enuncia-
tion of any generous or popular sentiment
from an audience in a theatre, or other simi-
larly constituted assembly. His compositions
for the most part are, in fact, rather eloquence
in verse than poetry. He has no touches of
nature, no pathos, no dramatic power, little
or no invention ; and even his pictures of
natural scenery, which are, perhaps, what he
has done best, are brouglit out always by an
elaborate accumulation of details ; never by
those happy characteristic strokes which flash
forth at once the lineaments and spirit of a
scene like sudden sunshine. All is operose,
cumbrous, and cloudy, with abundance of
gay colouring and well-sounding words, but
filling the ej'e oftener than the imagination,
and the ear oftener than either. Something
of all this was natural enough in a poem,
written at so early an age as the " Pleasures
of Imagination ; " and Akenside himself, after
a time, became so dissatisfied with the work,
QQ 2

AKENSIDE.

AKERBLAD.

that he proceeded not so much to rewrite it
as to compose a new poem on the same sub-
ject. Of this second poem, which was to
have been much more extended than the
first, he had finished three books and part of
a fourth before his death ; and he had even
printed the first and second books, though he
did not publish them. Both poems were pub-
lished by his friend Mr. Dyson, in a complete
edition of Akenside's works, 4to., and also 8vo.,
London, 1773; but his admirers have con-
tinued to prefer their original favourite, its
rapid flow being felt to have more of plea-
surable excitement than the greater correct-
ness and more matured thought of the later
composition. Akenside's minor pieces have
the same beauties and defects with his chief
work. They are mostly odes and hymns,
and are full of lofty sentiments and swelling
verse, which are farther made impressive by
a spirit of earnestness and ardour coming
from the thorough conviction and sincerity
of the writer. A few are in a less ambitious
style, consisting of plain sense neatly ex-
pressed ; but, although he sometimes at-
tempted the gayer flights of the muse, he
had no wit or humour, and what he has done
in this way is wholly unsuccessful. (Kippis's
JJiuijraphia Britunnica; Johnson's Lives of the
Poets ; liucke's Life, Writings, and Genius of
Akenside, 8vo., London, 1832). G. L. C.

AKERBLAD, JOHN DAVID, a cele-
brated orientalist, distinguished for his re-
searches into hieroglyphical, Coptic, and
Phcenician literature and inscriptions. He
was by birth a Swede, but the place and
precise date of his nativity are not known,
although he must have been born in 17 GO.
At an early age he was attached to the
Swedish embassy at Constantinople, and
during his appointment visited Jerusalem in
1792, the Troad in 1797, and in one of his
dissertations he mentions having been in
Cyprus. In 1800 he retired to GiJttingen,
and employed himself in adding valuable
geographical notes to the German translation
of Le Chevalier's " Voyage dans la Troade."
He was soon after appointed Swedish charge
d'affaires at the court of France, and employed
the leisure of his diplomatic functions in
researches into Phoenician inscriptions and
Coptic literature. He employed himself on the
Coptic manuscripts which had been removed
from the library of the Vatican to the present
Bibliotheque du Roi. In 1801 he published,
in the " Magasin Encyclopcdique," vol. vii.
1801, a letter entitled " Lettre a M. Silvestre
de Sacy sur I'Ecriture cursive Coptique," in
which he gave a cursive Coptic alphabet till
then unknown. In 1802 his " Inscriptionis
Phoenicia; Oxoniensis nova Interpretatio,
Par. an. x. 1802," in 8vo., presented, as was
imiversally admitted, a far better analysis
and interpretation of one of the twenty-three
Phoenician inscriptions found by Pocoeke
than had been previously made by Barthelemv.
.588

' In the same year he resumed the researches
into the second inscription of the trilingual
stone of Rosetta, which contains an Egyptian
decree in hieroglyphical, enchorial or demotic,
and in Greek characters : see his " Lettre sur
rinscription E'gyptienne de Rosette addressee
a M. Silvestre de Sacy, Paris, an. x. 1802,"
in 8vo. It is on this work that his reputation
is chiefly founded, and it possesses the merit
of being the first rational attempt to analyse
the cursive writing of the ancient Egyptians,
called in the Gra^co-Egyptian decrees en-
chorial ; by Herodotus, demotic; by Clemens,
epistolographic ; and in the hieroglyphic ver-
sion of the Rosetta stone (last line), " the
writing of the books." He employed for this
purpose the same means which Barthelemy
had previously used for deciphering the
Palmyrene, and De Sacy the Pehlvi, by
analysing proper names, and then the groups
of characters about them ; and he endea-
voured, with considerable success, to advance
the knowledge of the demotic, of which De
Sacy had only deciphered the names of Alex-
andria and Ptolemy. His labours were how-
ever much embarrassed by the erroneous im-
pression under which he laboured, that this
writing was purely alphabetic, while it is in
reality a very cursive or tachygraphic form of
the hieroglyphic, introduced about the a.'ra of
the Psammetichi,and of a mixed nature, partly
ideographic, partly phonetic. Neither was
he aware of the suppression of medial vowels
as in other Semitic languages. His labours
however laid the foundation of the researches
of Young and Champollion into the Demotic,
and advanced the inquiry. In 1804 he pub-
blished a pamphlet entitled " Notice sur deux
inscriptions en caractores Rimiques trouvees
a Venise et sur les Varanges ; avec les re-
marques de M. d'Ansse de Villoison," Paris,
180-1." This is on the Runic inscription on
two colossal marble lions at the gate of the
arsenal at Venice, which he attributes to the
people called Varanges, supposed to be the
Danes, English, Celts, or Icelanders. It is how-
ever chiefly valuable for the erudite notes
of Villoisin. Discontented with the political
changes in Sweden, Akerblad relinquished
his diplomatic employment, and left Paris to
reside at Rome, where, supported by the
Duchess of Devonshire and other admirers of
his talents, he was enabled to devote his
remaining days to literature. He renounced
all connection with his country, and always
passed himself off as a Dane. He here took
pleasure in acting as cicerone to his friends,
and published two dissertations, one en-
titled " Inscrizione Greca sopra una lamina
di Piombo trovato in uno Sepolcro nelle
vicinanze d'Atene," 4to. Rome, 1813, on
a lead plate found by Dodwell in a ceme-
tery at the Piraeus, and now in the Dod-
well museum, at the foot of the Capitol ; and
another, entitled " Lettre sur une Inscrip-
tion Phenicienne trouvee a. Athenes ; Rome,

AKERBLAD.

AKERIIIELM.

1817," which was dedicated to his friend the
Count Italinski, and relates to a bilingual
monument, in Greek and Phoenician, on a
native of Citium, who was buried at Athens.
He was preparing a new edition of the pre-
■vious work on the Greek inscription at the
time of his death, which took place on the
8th of February, 1819. He was buried close
to the pyramid of Cestius. Akerblad was
corresponding member of the Institute of
France, of the Royal Society of Gottingen,
and of the Academy of Stockholm. Can-
dour, modesty, and judgment characterise his
writings. He is said to have read and
spoken several European and Eastern lan-
guages. {Biographie Universelle, Supplement ;
Conversations Lexicon ; Biographic des Con-
tcmporains ; Champollion, Gram. Egypt, pre-
face.) S. B.

AKERBOOM, a Dutch landscape painter,
distinguished for the great care with which
he finished his pictures. He painted prin-
cipally views of towns and villages. A view
of Tournay by him is spoken of as an ex-
cellent painting. (Fiissli, Allgemeines Kiinstler
Lexicon.) R. N. W.

AKEREL, FRIEDRICH, a Swedish en-
graver, born in SiJdermanland, in 1748. He
first studied with Akermann at Upsala, and
then entered the academy at Stockholm. He
engraved maps, portraits, and landscapes.
He engraved the portraits of many eminent
and distinguished Swedes; and he executed,
besides many other landscapes, the plates for
Skjeldebrand's " Voyage pittoresque au Cap
Nord;" also the best plan of TroUhiitta was
engraved by him. He died in 1804. (Fiissli,
Allgemeines Kiinstler Lexicon.) R. N. W.

AKERHIELM, ANNA MANSDOT-
TER AGRICONIA, a learned Swedish lady.
She was born on the 18th of March, !642, at
the parsonage-house of the parish of Aker, in
Suderniania, where her father, JIagnus Jonte
Agriconius, the author of a few small works,
in allusion to whose name she was called
Mansdotter, or Magnus's daughter, was at
that time minister. At the age of sixteen
she was left an orphan, with a brother three
years older than herself, Samuel Mansson
Agriconius, and two sisters. The family
lived in the strictest union. The three sisters
spared as much of their little inheritance as
they could to enable their brother to pursue
his studies and to travel abroad ; and he, as
soon as he was able to make his way, acted
towards them as a father, and also as a pre-
ceptor. Anna displayed the greatest talents
for literature, and became, under his guid-
ance, an excellent Latinist ; after which she
made herself mistress, unassisted, of several
of the modern languages. In 1671 the bro-
ther became secretary to Count Magnus
Gabriel Delagardie, chancellor of the king-
dom, and procured a situation for Anna as
hotjungfrau, or lady in waiting on the Prin-
cess Maria Euphrosyna, in consequence of

which she became so well acquainted with
Catharina Charlotta Delagardie, one of the
count's daughters, that on that lady's mar-
riage with Field-Marshal Count Otto Wil-
helm Konigsmark, she accompanied the bride
as companion, and remained with her till her
death. She was with the countess on a jour-
ney to Venice, and afterwards to Greece and
the Morea, where the count commanded the
Venetian forces. On Konigsmark's death in
1G88 she returned with the countess to Ger-
many, and paid a visit to Sweden in 1 091,
where she presented the Princess Ulrica
Eleonora, afterwards queen, with a little
Turkish girl, named Elemina, whom she had
had educated, and caused to be baptized.
She returned to Germany, and died at Bremen
on the 1st of February, 1698. Her brother,
who had risen to be secretary of legation
to England and Holland, at the treaty of
Nimeguen, was ennobled by the name of
Akerhielm, a Swedish translation of his
original name Agriconius, which he had
formed from the Greek ; and Anna was also
allowed to take the same title.

Anna Akerhielm kept a diary of her resi-
dence in Greece, of which some fragments
remain, and were printed by Gjijrwell in his
" Swenska Bibliotek." They are very brief,
and by no means remarkable for vivacity or
observation. What would have been the
most interesting portion, the account of Ko-
nigsmark's conquest of Athens, which was
brought about by the destruction of the
Turkish powder magazine in the Parthenon,
appears never to have been written for want
of leisure ; and she declines attempting an
account of the antiquities of Athens because
"there are so many descriptions already."
The only fact in connection with the con-
quest of Athens that she deems it worth
while to put on record is, that the victors
established a Lutheran church there, to which
they gave the name of the Church of the
Holy Trinity. Gjijrwell also published five
letters written fi'om Greece by Anna to her
brother, in one of which, bearing date 18th
October, 1687, and written therefore but a
few days after the destruction of the Par-
thenon, she saj's, " The fortress stands on
a mountain, and was said to be verj- hard to
take, because it could not be mined. His
Excellency was very unwilling to destroy the
beautiful temple, which had stood for three
thousand years, and was called the temple of
Minerva; but it was all of no use ; the bombs
did their work, and that temple can never be
built up again in this world." (Gjijrwell, Det
Swenska Biblioteket, iii. 25—66.) T. W,

AKERHIELM, SAMUEL, son of Samuel,
the brother of Anna, who died at Stock-
holm in 1702, in the post of secretary of
state. The son was born at Stockholm in
1684; accompanied Charles XII. in all his
expeditions ; and in 1741 accepted the situ-
ation of upper marshal (iifverste marskalk),

QQ 3

AKERIIIELM.

AKHSHID.

from which, in 1747, he was dismissed at his
own request, in consequence of the disregard
with which his views in finance were treated.
In 1765 the states requested him to resume
his office, but he declined, principally on ac-
count of his advanced age. The states, on
that occasion, ordered a medal to he struck
in his honour, and to be presented to him
by three of their body. He died in 1768.
(Gezelius, ForslJk til ct Blographiskt Le.ricon
ijfvcr Srenske Man, iii. 437— 440.J T. W.

AKERMANN, ANDREAS, a Swedish
engraver, born at Upsala, in 1718. He en-
graved principally maps and portraits. He
executed also some plates for the publications
of Linnpeus. He died in 1778. (Flissli,
Allgemeines KUnsilcr Lexicon.') R. N. W.

AKEROYD, SAMUEL, was a native of
Yorkshire. His songs are in the four col-
lections published by John Playford in 1685,
1686, and 1687, under the title of the
" Theatre of Music," to which Purcell, Blow,
and Lock were contributors. With such
musicians, Akeroyd, it must be confessed,
was very unequally associated. It would
seem, by some commendatory verses that are
prefixed to the " Amphion Anglicus," that
he was a pupil of Dr. Blow : —

" Take tlic tlianks of one whose heart

Is full of gratitude as yours of art.

The favours you have done me speak them due,

And the unwearied goodness you pursue ;

Wliilo in acknowledgments my thoughts contend,

And own the patron where I find the friend."

(Playford, Theatre of Music ; Dr. Blow,
Amphion Anqlicus.) E. T.

AKERSLOOT, WILLE3I, a painter and
engraver of Haarlem, of the early part of the
seventeenth century. He engraved portraits
and historical pieces. The following are his
best prints ; we have no mention of any of
his paintings : Peter denying Christ, and
Christ loaded with Chains, after Molyn ;
Christ taken in the Garden, and Peter in
Chains, after Hondius ; and portraits of
Frederic Henry, prince of Orange, and his
wife, after Vander Venne ; and of Pope
Urban VIIL, after Vouet. (Heineken, Dic-
tionnaire des Artistes, §'e. ; Fiissli, Allgemeines
Kiinstler Lexicon.') II. N. W.

AKHSHID, or, as Ibn Ivhallckan pro-
nounces it, IKIISHI'D, was descended from
the Khakans or chiefs of Ferganah, the ca-
pital of the Turkish hordes of Transoxiana.
He was born at Baghdad, a.h. 268 (a.d. 881),
and received at his birth the name of Mo-
hammed. His grandfather Joff was the first
of his ancestors who settled at Baghdad. He
had been invited by the Khalif Al-motassem,
the son of Hariin Ar-rashid to enter with a
corps of Turkish soldiers into his service.
AVhen he arrived at the khalif's court, he
was received with the greatest distinction,
and the khalif gave him valuable estates
near Samarra (Sermenray). Togj, the father
of Akhshid, was one of the most popular
leaders of the Turkish mercenaries, who
590

formed at that time the guard of the khalif.
The Turks being then verj* powerfid, their
leaders divided the provinces of the empire
among themselves, and were frequently at war
with each other. As Togj, who was assisted
by his son Akhshid, decided in most cases the
victory for the party that he assisted, he was
a man of great importance ; but finally he
fell a victim to the machinations of Al-'abb.-is,
the vizir of Motawakkel, and was cast into
prison at Baghdad, where he died. His son
Akhshid, who had shared the fame of his
father, suffered with him the same misfor-
tunes. It was long after the death of his
father that he was released from prison, his
party having become victorious. His name
soon attracted a great number of men who
wished to enlist under his command. Ac-
cording to Mohammed Ben 'Abdullah of
Hamadan, his army consisted of four hundred
thousand men, besides a body-guard of eight
thousand Mamluks, two thousand of whom
were constantly on duty. The khalif, under
these circumstances, was obliged to court his
friendship and to employ him against his
less subordinate vassals. In a.h. 306 (a.d.
918), Al-moktader made him governor of the
province of Ramlah. Two years later he
added Damascus to his possessions, and in
A.H. 324 he was acknowledged by the khalif
Ar-radhi as viceroy of Egypt, Syria, Arabia,
and Mesopotamia. The same khalif gave him
the name of Akhshid, or Ikhshid, which was
originally the title of his ancestors, the chiefs
of Ferganah, and signifies king of kings. He
died at Damascus in a. h. 334, (a. d. 945), and
left his kingdom, which was but nominally
dependent on the khalif, to his two sous, and
to Kafur their tutor. (Ibn Khallekan, MS.
of the British Museum, No. 7342. and 7343. ;
Abu-1-feda, Annates Muslemici, ii. 368. 441. ;
Ibn Kethir, MS. of the British Museum, No.
7318.) A. S.

AKFBA BEHR BEN JOSEPH ("I
flDV p -lya W3'pK), a German rabbi, the son
of R. Joseph of Vienna (Vindobonensis), was
living in the beginning of the eighteenth
century. In the latter part of the seventeenth
century he exercised the office of rabbi of the
sjmagogue of Zinkendorf in Hungary (Wolif
has Zickendorf), whence he removed to
Schnaitach in Bavaria, and finally to Gun-
zenhausen, where he not only exercised the
office of chief rabbi, but was also Hebrew
judge of the district of Anspach. His works
are— "Sepher Abodath Bore" ("The Book
of the Worship of the Creator"), a col-
lection of pra3'ers for various occasions,
partly original and partly extracted from the
works of other Jewish writers. They are
divided into five parts, each of which has a
separate title. The title of part 1. is " Abo-
dath Elohim " (" The Worship of God ") ;
2. " Kirmath Ilammittah " ("The Arousing
from the Bed ") ; 3. " Jechur " (" Exciting
to Zeal"), which consists of ju-aiscs and

AKIBA.

thanksgivings ; 4. " Bajith Jehovah " (" The
House of the Lord") ; and 5. " ITashulchan "
(" The Table"). The initial letters of these
five titles form the name of the author,
Akiba ; and the inhial letters of the gene- |
ral title of iJie work " Abodath Bore" are
the initials of his name and surname, Akiba
Behr. It was first printed at Wilmersdorf
(Wilhermsdorf) in Franconia, A. M. 54-18
(a. d. 168S), 4to. ; and at Berlin, a. m. 5460
(a. d. 1700), 4to. It was printed at Sulzbach,
A.M. 5467 (a.d. 1707), by Aaron ben Uri
Lipnian, with corrections and additions by
the author himself, who on the title to this
latter edition is called R. Simeon Akiba
Behr, by which it appears that he had assumed
the additional pra>nomen of Simeon after the
publication of the former editions of his work ;
a practice not uncommon among the Jews,
who were accustomed to assume names in-
dicative of some great mercy received or
affliction suffered, as well as sometimes the [
name of a deceased relative, whose memory J
they wished thus to perpetuate. 2. " Pi
Shenajim" ("The ISIouth of Two, or a
Double Portion") {Vent. xxi. 17.), is a col-
lection from the Talmud and other Jewish |
writings, in which he was assisted by Seelig-
man Levi, or, as he is called in the Censura
affixed to this book, Isaac Seligman, whence
the title " The Mouth of Two." It treats of
various matters connected with Judaism, and
is arranged in alphabetical sections, as Abra-
ham, Adam, and so forth : it was printed at
Sulzbach by Aaron ben Uri Lipman, a. m.
5462 (a.d. 1702), in 4to. On the title Akiba
is said to have written several other works,
but we meet with onlv one more in print,
which is, .3. " Abir Ja'acob " (" The Strong
God of Jacob") {Genesis, xlix. 24.), which
is a German-Hebrew commentary on the
paragraphs (parashas) of the book of Genesis,
extending to the paragraph chap, xlvii. v. 28 :
it is made up of various traditions and stories
from the Talmud and other Rabbinical works.
It was printed at Sulzbach by the same printer
as his other works, a.m. 5460 (a.d. 1700),
4to., and afterwards at Fuith, by Salman ben
Bonfed Schneior, a.m. 5489 {\.v>. 1729), 4to.
(Wolfius, Bihlioth. Hchr. i. 957, 958. iii. 889.
iv. 948.) C. P. H.

AKI'BA BEN ELEAZAR (P T\-2'pV "1
ITy^X)' ^ German rabbi who lived in the
beginning of the sixteenth century ; he was
the grandfather of Akiba of Frankfort. He
is the author of " Kinah " (" A book of La-
mentations, or Songs of Sorrow"), which,
with others of the same kind, by his father
or grandfather, R. Eleazer, are at the end of
the collection called " Kinoth " (" Lament-
ations"), printed at Lublin in Poland, a.m.
5.377 (a.d. 1617), 4to. (^yolfius, Bihlioth.
Hchr. iii. 889.) G. P. H.

AKIBA OF FRANKFORT (Hn-py "n
DTlDpJ"lS2D), a rabbi, who is also called
Akiba GLinzburg, was a native of Frankfort
591

on the Main, and the chief preacher in the
synagogue of his native city during the latter
part of the sixteenth century. He died at
Frankfort a.m. 5357 (a.d. 1597), according
to the continuation of the "Tzemach David,"
and this date is confirmed by a funeral sermon
preached for him by R. Levi of Prague,
which was printed with the "Pesack al Agu-
bah," of R. Jacob Polack at Frankfort on
the Main, a.m. 5479 (a.d. 1719), in 8vo.
Hisworksare — 1. " Techinnoth Becol Joni"
(" Prayers for every Day "), in a rythmical
form. They were collected and published
bj' R. Elias ben Moses Loans, and printed at
Basle by Conrad Waldkirch, a. m. 5359 (a. d.
1599), in 8vo. The same volume contains —
2. " Zemiroth ve Shirim " (" Hymns and
Songs ") for the Sabbath, some of which are
accompanied with a German-Hebrew trans-
lation and a Ilebi'ew exposition ; and 3. " Ve-
cuachi Hajajin ve Hamajin" ("A Contro-
versy between the Wine and the Water "), in
Hebrew verse, with a German-Hebrew ver-
sion and Hebrew commentary. The Sabbath
Hymns of Akiba were also printed alone,
with the title " Zemiroth Lelajil Shabbath"
(" Songs for Sabbath Evening "), at Berlin,
a.m. 5473 (a.d. 1713), 8vo. (Wolfius, Bih-
lioth. Hebr. i. 957, 958. iii. 888.) C. P. H.
AKI'BA BEN JOSEPH {\2 n2"'py "1
FjDV), an ancient rabbi, one of the early
Tanaite or Mishnic doctors, who was famous
in the land of Israel during the greater part
of the first century of the Christian sera, and
the beginning of the second ; but he was
most celebrated during the reigns of the
emperors Titus and Hadrian, when he be-
came a principal actor in the tragical events
of those times, by which his nation suffered
so grievously. He was born, according to
the Jewish chronologists, in a. m. 3760,
which answers to the year in which the
Saviour Jesus Christ was born, or a.d. 1.
According to the same authorities, he was of
Hebrew descent by the mother's side only,
his father having been a proselyte of justice *

* There were two kinds of proselytes (Gerim) ad-
mitted into the Jewish nation by the law of Moses.
The proselyte of justice or righteousness (Ger Tzedek),
called also a proselyte of the covenant (Ger Berith),
received circumcision and engaged himself to observe
the whole law of Moses, in return for which he was
admitted to eat the passover and to all the privileges
of a true son of Abraham (Eznach), being thereby
made one of the people of God. All proselytes who
presented themselves for circumcision were strictly ex-
amined as to the motives of their conversion, and, if
admitted, they went through a threefold ordeal, bap-
tism by immersion, circumcision, and sacrifice ; females
were baptized and offered sacrifice. The second kind
of proselyte was called a proselyte of the gate (Ger
Shaar) ; also an inhabiting proselyte (Ger Toshab).

' Such proselytes merely bound themselves by an oath

j to observe the seven precepts of the children of Noah :
namely, 1. obedience to the lawful princes and magis-

1 trates, which of course included a submission to the

' whole moral code ; 2. the worship of Jehovah and the
abandonment of all idolatrous practices ; 3. the ab-

1 juringall blasphemies and false-swearing ; 4. all inces-
tuous and unnatural lusts were to be utterly abjured ;
5. also bloodshed, mnrdir, wounds, and mutilation oi

i men or animals ; G. thefts, cheating, or lying ; 7. they
were not to eat any part of any living animal. To

I Q Q 4

AKIBA.

of a noble Syrian family, descended, accord-
ing to tradition, from Sisera, the general of
JalDin, king of Canaan, who perished by the
hand of Jael the wife of Heber the Kenite.
(^Judges, iv.) According to the Ghemara,
as well as the Juchasin, Tzemach David, and
the other Jewish historians and chronolo-
gists, he lived 120 years, of which the first
forty years were devoted to business, the
second forty to study, and the third forty
years to the instruction of his nation. The
tradition of the manner in which he passed
the first forty years of his life is, that he kept
the flocks and herds of Calva Sheva, a rich
inhabitant of Jerusalem ; and that, having
become enamoured of his master's daughter,
she consented to marry him if he quitted his
servile employment and became a learned
doctor of the law. Stimulated by this pro-
mise, he entered the colleges and applied
himself to learning with such energj' for
twenty-four years that he not only gained his
wife but the esteem of the Jewish nation, by
whom he was considered the most learned
man of his time. He also travelled in pur-
suit of knowledge into Arabia, Gaul, Africa,
Egypt, and other countries. He studied first
under R. Eliezer, the son of the great Hyr-
canus, and afterwards under Gamaliel, the
preceptor of St. Paul, whom he succeeded as
president of the school or synagogue of Ja\Tia
or Jafna, a town three miles from Joppa called
Jamneia ('la/xviia) by Josephus and Strabo,
and by R. Benjamin of Tudela (Benjamin
ben Jonah), in his Itinerary, Ebalin. Of
this synagogue he was the third ruler, having
been preceded by the two Gamaliels ; and
here he became so famous for his learning
that the Bercshith Rabba says he had 11,000
disciples, which number subsequent Jewish
writers have magnified into 24,000. After
the death of his first wife he married (ac-
cording to the Talmud) the widow of Tur-
nus or Tyrannus Rufus, the Roman general
whom the Emperor Hadrian had sent against
the rebellious Jews, and who fulfilled the pro-
phecy of Jeremiah by causing the plough to
pass over the site of the temple of Jerusalem.
{Jeremiah, xxvii. 18.) When Akiba was,
according to the Jewish chronologists, 120
years old, he joined the standard of the im-
postor and pseudo-mcssiah Bar Cokeba (the
son of the star), also called in derision Bar
Cozeba (the son of the lie), who called him-
self king of Israel, and began his reign in
the city called Bither or Bethara, a. m. 3880
(a. D. 120). Akiba declared that this was
the star of Jacob predicted by Balaam {Num-

such proselytes belonged Naaman the Syrian, Corne-
lius the centurion, the enniich baptized by Philip, and
others. They are the persons alluded to in the fonrth
commandment as hound to the observation of the
sabbath — "and the stranger (Ger) that is within thy
gates." They considered themselves as in the way to
eternal life, and were permitted to dwell in the land
of Israel, and to share in the outward prosperity of the
people of God.
592

be?-s, xxiv. 17.), and consequently the true
]\Iessiah ; and he not only anointed him
king, as Samuel had done for the two first
kings of Israel, but became his armour or
sword bearer. These confederates, at the
head of an immense multitude of fanatical
Jews, attacked the Roman province of Judaia,
and committed enormous cruelties, more
especially on the Christians ; but, being at-
tacked by a regular Roman army, they were
utterly defeated, their pretended Messiah
slain, and Akiba taken prisoner and put to
a cruel death by the Roman general ; his
flesh was torn off by iron combs. His body
was buried by his disciples near the top of a
mountain near the city of Tiberias, and his
sepulchre became a place of pilgrimage to the
Jews, who considered him a holy martjr,
and paid annual visits to his tomb between
the passover and the feast of penteccst. The
Ghemara says that his eleven thousand
disciples were interred on the same mountain
below their master

R. Akiba is looked upon by the Jews as
one of the greatest of their JNIishnic fathers or
authorities for the oral law ; indeed R. Be-
chai, in his commentary on the Law, says
that revelations were made to Akiba which
were withheld from Moses. The Shal-
shelleth Hakkabbala says that the greater
part of the Mishna was dictated by him, and
Abraham Zacuth, in the Juchasin, goes still
further, and gives him the merit of the whole
work.

The works attributed to Akiba are — 1.
" Othioth shel R. Akiba" (" The Letters or
Alphabet of R. Akiba"), which is a cabba-
listical and allegorical explanation of the
Hebrew alphabet. This little book was first
printed at Constantinople, without date, but,
according to De Rossi, early in the sixteenth
century, in small 4to. There was a copy of
this edition in the library of R. Oppenheimer.
It was next printed at Venice, a. m. 5306
(a. D. 1546), by Marco Antonio Justiniani, in
8vo. ; and, according to the Siphte Jeshenim,
at Cracow, with additions, a. m. 5339 (a. d.
1579), in 8vo. Bartolocci says that this
edition has added to it " Perush Aruk " (" A
Diffuse Commentary "). "Wolff also cites two
editions printed at Amsterdam a. m. 5367
and 54G8 (a. b. 1607 and 1708), in 8vo. It
is also printed at full in Hebrew and Latin,
but without the commentary, in the QEdipus
iEgyptiacus of Father Kircher (vol. ii.),
and in the admirable Bibliotheca of Father
Bartolocci (vol. iv.). The text of Bartolocci
is printed from a vellum MS. in the library
of the Duke of Parma at Rome. De Rossi
says that besides the first edition, which is
very rare, he had in his possession four manu-
script copies, all varying in some points, and
none of which had been used for the printed
editions. There is among the Pococke MSS.
in the Bodleian library, a manuscript on
paper in a very legible Hebrew character.

AKIBA.

Containin>T six tracts, of -^vhich the first is the
alphabet of R. Akiba, with this title, " Seder
Othioth Shel R. Akiba" (" The Order of the
Letters of R. Akiba"'). 2. " Scpher Jetzira
or Jezira" (" The Book of the Formation or
Creation"), which is usually attributed by the
rabbis to the patriarch Abraham ; but by the
more enlightened Jews, as well as Christian
writers, it is received as the work of R.
Akiba. This work is the great fountain of
the Cabbala and mystic theology of the Jews,
from which all subsequent writers on these
subjects have drawn their notions. The
great respect which the Jews have for this
work is shown by their attributing it to the
patriarch Abraham, whose name always ap-
pears on the title. It is divided into six
heads, and each head into sections, in all
thirty-two, which are called paths or ways
(" Nethiboth") and which, under the twenty-
two letters of the alphabet and the ten se-
phiroth, treat of divine wisdom and the
mystic power of the divine names. It was first
printed at Mantua by Jacob Cohen, A. m.
5322 (a. D. 1562), in 4to., with five com-
mentaries by Haravad (Abraham ben Dior
Ilalevi), Ilaramav (R. Moses Botril), Ha-
ramban (R. Moses bar Nachman), Saadia
Gaon, and R. Eliezer de Garmiza. It has a
double preface, one by Haravad and the other
by Haramav. The text is printed in the
square Hebrew character, and the com-
mentaries in the Rabbinical letter ; it is a
very elegant and carefully printed edition.
The text is also given by itself at the end of
the book ; but according to Wolff and De
Rossi, it dififers in some degree from that
given with the commentaries, a diversity
which is found in all the ancient i\] SS., and
which has been continued in all the subse-
quent editions, of which there are several.
Wolff conjectures, with his usual sagacity,
that this diversity of text has arisen from the
transcribers having in the course of ages
introduced the interpretations of the com-
mentators into the text. De Rossi says that
this double text is found even in the modern
edition printed at Constantinople a. m. 5484
(a. p. 1724), which was in his possession, and
which had an abridgment of the commentary
of Haravad, and the whole of that of Ha-
ramban, with a part of that of R. Isaac Luria.
De Rossi had also among his manuscripts an
unedited copy of the Jetzira, with a com-
mentary by Jacob ben Nissim, bound up
with the conmientary of Saadia Gaon. There
are two Latin translations of the Jetzira, one
by Postcllus, printed at Paris a. d. 1552, and
one by Joh. Steph. Rittangelius, printed at
Amsterdam by the Jansons, a. d. 1642, in 4to.,
which has the Hebrew text, and is far more
esteemed than the former. R. Ghedalia aben
Jachija, in the Shalshelleth Hakkabbala,
supposes the Jetzira of R. Akiba to be a
different book from that of the patriarch
Abraham ; but R. Shabtai and the other
593

Jewish writers acknowledge only one Jetzira.
3. " Scpher Mekilta" (" The Book of the
Measure or the Bushel"), which is a very
ancient commentary on Exodus, written
either by Akiba or one of his disciples.
There are two other IMekiltas, one by R.
Ismael and the other by R. ben Azai. 4.
The Shalshelleth also attributes to him an-
other work called " I\Iekiltin," a commentary
on the ceremonial law of the Pentateuch,
which Wolff and De Rossi think is not to be
distinguished from the Mekilta. 5. " Hab-
dallali" (" The Separation"), a cabbalistical
treatise on the ceremonial of the sabbath, and
principally concerning the ceremonies in
which a lamp was lighted on the sabbath
evening to mark the transition from day to
night, and the consequent departure of the
sabbath, which ceremony is called Habdul-
lah by the Jews. This work is cited in the
Noveloth Chocmoh and the preface to the
Emeck Hammelek, as a manuscript by R.
Akiba. De Rossi says that it was among the
MSS. in Oppenheimer's library. The cele-
brated works called Siphra, Siphri, and To-
saplita are all said by the Jews to have been
written by disciples of Akiba, and conse-
quently to be replete with his doctrines. The
Jewish prayer which begins " Abinu ISIal-
kinu" (" Our Father, our King") is said
to be by R. Akiba. Vorstius, in his notes
on the Tzemach David, makes Akiba, the
author of the Jetzira, to be a different
person from the author of the Othioth, and
says that neither of the two must be con-
founded with the Akiba who was the asso-
ciate of Bar Cokeba, and that they are both
authors of a more modern date. But as he
seems only to be hazarding a mere conjec-
ture, and produces no proofs, we prefer the
testimony of the whole Jewish body of chro-
nologists and historians. Paul Pczron, in his
" Antiquite des Temps Retablie et Defendue,"
says that Akiba was the first who introduced
corrupt readings into the sacred text in favour
of Judaism and against Christianity ; but Wolff
has successfully combated this absurd opinion
in his second volume, where he treats of the
canon of Scripture. This rabbi is called,
by St. Jerome and by Epiphanius, Barakiba.
(Wolfius, Bibliuth. Hcbr. i. 25. 955 — 957. ii.
1025. iii. 887, 888. iv. 948.; OiXho, Historia
Doctor. Mischnkor. p. 132—147. ed. Wolff;
Bartoloccius, Biblioth. Mag. Rahb. i. 15. iv.
272 — 281. ; De Jioss'i, Dizionario Storico dcfili
Autori Ebrci, i. 41, 42. 169. ; Imbonatus, i?(6-
liotli. Lat. Hcbr. 66. 419.; Uri, Cat. 3ISS.
Orient. Biblioth. Bodl. i. 68. ; Jo. Lightfoot,
Hora Hcbr. cl Talmud, i. 98. ; Bayle", Diet.
Histor. Crit. i. 130. art. " Akiba," ed. Rotterd.
1702 ; Glicmara, Cod. Bo.ih Hashana, Ket-
vroth, Jevamoth ; Basnage, Histoire des Jitifs,
vii. 346. ; Petitus, Miscellanea, ii. 63.)

C. P. H.
.AKIBA BEN JUDAH LOW (riZ'p]} ""I
Hv rmrT* p), a German rabbi who was t'

AKIBA.

AKRISH.

living at the beginning of the last century.
He was the author of " Haohel 01am " (" The
Everlasting Tabernacle "), which title in
Hebrew corresponds by Gematria (note,
p. 156.) with the name Akiba, the letters of
each being equivalent to the number 187. It
is a commentary on the book called " Ketu-
voth " (" Matrimonial Contracts "), which is
the third book or treatise of the order " Na-
shim " (" Women ") of the Talmud. In the
preface the author says that he wrote this
book while a youth. It was printed at Frank-
fort on the Main, a.m. 5474 (a.d. 1714), in
folio. (Wolfius, Bihlioth. Hcbr. iii. 889, 890.)

C. P. H.

AKIMOV, IVAN AKIMOVICH, a
Russian artist, born in 1754, was one of the
earliest pupils of the Academy of Fine Arts
at St. Petersburg, where he studied under
Professor Anthony Losenko, an historical
painter who died in 1773. On quitting the
academy he was rewarded with a gold medal
of the first class, and was then sent abroad
(1773) with a travelling pension. Shortly
after his return he was appointed teacher of
historical design (1779), was made an acade-
mician in 1782, and adjunct professor in
1785 ; and was director of the academy from
179G to 1800. He died August 15th "(27th),
1814, and left to the academy his collection
of engravings, and a bequest of 15000 rubles.
Owing to his time being so much engaged
by his official duties, his works arc incon-
siderable in number, but give evidence of
great ability and talent, more especially in
regard to drawing and the arrangement of
his draperies. In colouring he was by no
means so successful, although his latter per-
formances show some improvement in this
respect. Among his chief productions are
his Death of Hercules, in the possession of
the academy ; the Ikonostas, in the church
of the Alexandronevskaya Lavra ; and two
paintings in that of tJie Mother of God
of Smolensk. The academy has a portrait
of him painted by Lampi the younger. (Gri-
gorovieh, in Entsiklop. Lcxikon; Khudozhcst-
vennai/a GazctaS) W. H. L.

AKOUI. [Akwei.]

AKRISH, R. ISAAC BEN ABR.\HAM
BEN JUDAH. called Ashkenazi, "the Ger-
man" (cnDy min^ p Dniz^ p pn^*'- "i

''*J^^'^^), a German rabbi, or of German
parentage. De Rossi calls him a native of
the Levant (Levantino), who exercised his
rabbinical functions in the Levant, and prin-
cipally at Constantinople, during the sixteenth
century. Having heard much from others con-
cerning the remnant of the ten tribes of Israel
who were dwelling beyond the fabulous river
Sabbatjon, he undertook a journey from Con-
stantinople to Egypt in the year a. m. 5322
(a. d. 1562), chiefly for the pui'pose of visiting
this people and ascertaining their actual state;
after which he wrote his celebrated work
called " Maasse Beth David Bejeme Malcuth
594

Peres " (" The History of the House of David
in the Days of the Kingdom of Persia"). In
this work the author undertakes to prove that
even in their present exile and dispersion the
Jews yet possess a country in which they
exercise the kingly power and supreme do-
minion. The work is divided into three
parts, the first of which is called " Maasse
Shel R. Bosthenai " (" The History (Acts) of
R. Bosthenai "), which celebrates his marvel-
lous deeds in favour of the Jews in Persia ;
the second part treats of the remnant of the
ten tribes dwelling on the further side of the
river Sabbatjon ; and the third part gives
the history of King Joseph of the Cosara^ans,
called by Buxtorff King Alcozar, with the
epistle of R. Chasdai to that king and his
answer. [Chasdai ben Isaac Shiprut.]
This third part is generally called " Kol
Mebasher " (" The Voice of the Herald or
Crier "), because it begins with those words,
which circumstance led Wolff, in his first
volume, and De Rossi, who seems to have
followed him altogether, to call the whole
work " Kol Mebasher." But this error
Wolff corrected in his third volume, when,
having examined the work, he found Barto-
locci as usual correct, and the title as we
have given it above ; which is also the title
given in the " Siphte Jeshenim." Bartolocci
says that it was first printed at Cracow, but
he gives no date ; also in German-Hebrew
at Basle, by Waldkirch, without date, in 4to.
This first edition is also noticed by Plan-
tavitius. It was also reprinted in Hebrew
with the " Iggereth Orchoth Olani " or
Hebrew Itinerary of Abraham Perizol at
Offenbach, a.m. 5480 (a.d. 1720), 12mo.
There is also a German-Hebrew translation
of this little book by David ben Joseph of
Toplitz (Teplicensis), printed at Frankfort
on the Main, a.m. 5465 (a.d. 1705), 8vo.
Wolff says that he saw an edition, printed
at Constantinople, in Oppenhcimer's library,
but he does not name the year of publication
or the form of the book. • ( Wolfius, BibJiotli.
Hebr. i. 644, 645. iii. 548. ; Bartoloccius, Bib-
liotli. Mag. Rabb. iii. 918. ; Buxtorfius, The-
saurus Grammat. Hebr. 662. ; De Rossi, Di-
zionario Storico degli Autori Ebr. i. 42.; Plan-
tavitius, Biblioth. Rabbin. 391. ; Florilcg.
Rabin. 598.) C. P. H.

AK-SHEMS-ED-DIN, or AK-SHEMSU-
D-DIN, that is, the white sun of belief, was
a Turkish sheikh, renowned for his great
knowledge of medicine, music, and mystical
philosophy, but stiU more for his extra-
ordinary prophecies. He was born in Syria,
A. n. 692, (a.d. 1389). He becojne a "dis-
ciple of the great sheikh Haji Beyram, and
afterwards followed the Turkish army on
its march to the last siege of Constanti-
nople. His eloquence, and the oracular cha-
racter of his words, often put into ecstasies
the fanatical bands assembled by Sultan 'Slo-
hammed II. under the walls of old Bvzan-

AK-SHEMS-ED-DIN.

AK-SUNKUR.

t'mm. This great monarch distinguished Ak-
shems-ed-din among the crowd of common
sheikhs, and availed himself of his elo(iuence
for tiie purpose of rousing the energy of his
ministers, who, discouraged by the obstinate
resistance of tlie Greeks, endeavoured to per-
suade the sultan to abandon the siege. The
crafty sheikh imitated the example of Peter
the Hermit. In the same way as the Christian
monk pretended that the Apostle Andrew had
shov.n him the spot where the holy lance
was hidden, so the Mohammedan sheikh pro-
claimed, one day, that Eyub, the standard-
bearer of the Prophet, had conducted him to
his tomb, the situation of which had, vmtil
tliat day, been unknown to the believers. He
then preached on a suitable test taken from
a tradition concerning the Prophet, and pre-
dicted the day, and even the hour, of the fall
of Constantinople. The hopes of the Turks
had been more than once frustrated during
the preceding sieges of that city ; but now the
name of Ak-shems-ed-din seemed to warrant
a happy issue to their undertaking, and the
army enthusiastically called out for the as-
sault. When the 29th of May, 1453, arrived,
the sultan command<3d the assault to be made.
The Turks were successful, and Constanti-
nople from that time became the centre of
the Mohammedan religion. The fame of
Ak-shems-ed-din's prediction spread over all
the East ; but he retired from public affairs,
and, in contemplative solitude, taught the
mystical philosophy of Sheikh Beyram. The
most distinguished of his numerous disciples
were his own sons, seven in number, who
were all called by the name of Mohammed,
and among whom two were well-known poets.
After having made seven pilgrimages to
Mecca, Ak-shems-ed-din died about A. d. 1472,
and was buried at Koniah, where numbers of
pious Slohammedans still annually visit his
tomb. (Von Hammer, Geschichte des Os-
wanischcn Beiches, i. 523, &c., who cites
Shakiak, Aali, fol. 143., and a manuscript bio-
graphy entitled Menahibi Ak-slicms-cd-Jin .')

W. P.
AK-SUNKUR (Abu Sa'id Ibn 'Abdillah),
surnamed Kasimu-d-daula!i (the partner in
the empire), but more generally known by
the title of Hiljib (chamberlain), was the
father of Tmadu-d-din Ziuki, the founder of
the dynasty of the Atabegs of Mosul. Ak-
sunkur had been the mamluk of Malek Shah,
son of Alp-arsh'm, third sultan of the race of
'Iran Seljuk. In a. ir. 478 (a. d. 1085), when
T:iju-d-daulah Tutush, son of Alp-arshin,
obtained possession of Aleppo, he left Ak-
sunkur as his lieutenant in that city, thinking
he could place reliance on one who had been
his brother's (Jlalek Shah) mamluk. Ak-
sunkur, however, revolted in a. h. 4S7 (a. u.
1094), and Tutush mai'ched against him and
gave him battle near a village called Ruyan,
in the vicinity of Aleppo, in the month of
Jumada the first, a. n. 487 (a. d. 1094). The

conflict terminated in the utter defeat and
death of Ak-sunkur. Another of Malek
Shah's maraluks, named Buzan, who had
assisted Ak-sunkur in his revolt, was taken
prisoner and beheaded. When 'Imadu-d-din
Zinki obtained possession of Aleppo in a. h.
522 (a. n. 1128), he caused the body of his
father to be transferred from the cemetery at
Mount Karnebiya, where it was at first
buried, to a madrisah or college in the quarter
of the city called Zajjfijiyah. Ak-sunkur is
a Turkish name, meaning " white falcon."
(Ibn Xhallekan, Biog. i>/c^ i. 226. ;■ Frey-
tag, Selecta ex Historiii Halebi, p. 75.; Abii-
1-feda, Ann. Musi iii. 290.) P. de G.

AK-SUNKUR (Abii Sa'id), surnamed
Al-ghazi (the warrior), Kasimn-d-daulah
(partner in the empire), Seyfu-d-din (sword
of religion), and Al-bursoki, because he was
a manumitted slave of a mamluk named
Bursok, was prince of llosul, Rahaba, and
the neighbouring districts, oi which he got
possession after the death of Isfahsalar Mau-
dud, who governed them in the name of Mo-
hammed, son of Malek Shah, fourth sultan of
'Iran of the race of Seljuk. In a. ii. 449
(a. D. 1057-8.), Ak-sunkur, who was then
shahnah or lieutenant of that sultan at Bagh-
dad, received orders to lay -siege to Tekrit,
then in the possession of a chieftain named
Kaykobad Ibn Ilazarasb the Dilamite, who
was reported to be a partisan of the doctrines
of the Batinites or Isma'ilians, commonly
called assassins. In pursuance of his orders,
Ak-sunkur arrived before Tekrit, which he
besieged till Moharram a. h. 500 (Sept. a. d.
1106). He was on the point of reducing
that city, when Seyfu-d-daulah Sadakab,
whose assistance Kaykobad had implored,
came up at the head of considerable forces
and saved his ally from destruction. Ak-
sunkur raised the siege and retired to Mosul,
of which place he had been appointed gover-
nor some time before. No sooner, however,
had he established his authority there, than
he was directed to march against the Franks
in Syria, whom he forced to I'aise the siege
of Aleppo. He returned to Mosul, where he
continued to reside till his death, which hap-
pened in the month of Dhi-I-ka'dah, A.n. 520
(Nov. A. D. 1120), in the following manner :
Some Isma'ilians, whose relatives Ak-sunkur
caused to be executed, swore to revenge their
death. As he was one day sitting in the
maksurah, or railed inclosure of the mosque,
the assassins, who were standing near him in
the disguise of Sufis, sprang upon him and
stabbed him. He was a wise and enlightened
ruler, and his loss was greatly felt by his
subjects. After the death of Ak-sunkur, the
government of Mosul passed to his son 'Izzu-
d-din Mas" lid. (Ibn Khallek;in, 13 log. Diet.,
ii. 228. ; Abu-1-feda, Ann. Masl., iii.)

P. de G.

AKWEI, a distinguished Cliinese general

and prime minister in the reign of Keen Loong,

AKWEI.

which lasted from a.d. 1736 to 1796. He
was of a good Tartar family, and held an
hereditary- command in the Red Banner, one
of the eight standards into which the Manchoo
Tartar nation, which conquered China in
1644, is divided. He lived however at Pekin
in a private capacity for some time, engaged
In the study of Chinese literature, in which
from his youth he had made great progress.
Becoming accidentally known to the prime
minister Foo-hang, who conceived a high
opinion of his abilities, he was sent to serve
under Foo-tay, a celebrated general, in the war
against the Eleuth Tartai's, in 1757, and also
charged with the duty of sending reports of
the state of affairs to the minister, who was in
the habit of showing them to the emperor
himself. The war against the Eleuths ter-
minated so successfully for the Chinese that
Keen Loong emploj-ed the French Jesuit At-
tiret to execute a series of historical paint-
ings of the principal events, with portraits of
the leading officers, and had them engraved
at Paris. The next war in which Akwei was
engaged had very different results. The
Burmese, called in Chinese the Meen nation,
had succeeded in repulsing and cutting to
pieces the invading armies of China. In
1769 a last effort was made by the Chinese,
and a force, which the Burmese historians
represent as amounting to 50,000 horse and
500,000 foot, entered Ava under the command
of three generals, called by the Burmese
Thu-koun-ye, A-koun-ye, and Youn-koun-
ye, in the second of whom we may re-
cognise Akwei, though erroneously called
the son of the Cliinese emperor. After re-
peated defeats by land and water, the Chinese
commanders were obliged to summon a
council, in which they proposed to send a
mission to the Burmese camp to open nego-
tiations for a safe return to China ; and on
the 13th of December, 1769, a treaty to that
effect was concluded. The then king of
Burmah, called by the Burmese Tshen-lyn-
yen, and by Symes Shem-Baun, was highly
displeased with his general for allowing the
Chinese army to escape, and Akwei appears to
have suffered no diminution of the emperor's
favour from his conduct on this occasion.
In 1772 Keen Loong appointed him to the
command of the expedition against the tribes
called the Meaou-Tsze, promoting him over
the heads of many more experienced officers,
and among others of his old commander
Foo-tay. The Meaou-Tsze consisted of a
few tribes in the province of Sze-ehuen, said
to be of Tibetian origin, who from time im-
memorial had paid little more than nominal
obedience to Chinese authority ; and now, on
having been interfered with more than was
customary, set it at open defiance. They had
repeatedly succeeded in repulsing the troops
sent against them, and Akwei was induced,
therefore, to adopt a slow and cautious system
of attack. It is said, in one account of the
596

war, that he often remained for two or three
months at the foot of one of the rocks on
which the rude fortifications of the Meaou-
Tsze were constructed, awaiting a night of
fog, on which he might have a chance of
assailing it without loss. In another Chinese
account his proceedings are stated to have
borne a character of more energy and ra-
pidity ; and in both it is maintained that his
course of action was crowned with complete
success. Father Amiot wrote, in 1776, after
describing the sanguinary executions of the
captive chiefs of the rebels, ordered and wit-
nessed by Keen Loong, that nothing remained
of the unfortunate nation of the Meaou-Tsze
but some few persons of low rank, who had
been given as slaves to the victorious officers.
Davis, on the other hand, states in 1836 tliat
Amiot's narrative was taken from official
papers " not more correct or veracious than
Napoleon's bulletins," and adds that the Meaou-
Tsze " still remain nearly as independent as
ever ; " "a body of mountaineers who defy
the Chinese in the midst of their empire." It
appears however to have suited the policy of
Keen-Loong to treat the triumph as complete.
He received Akwei .with extraordinary
honovirs, and granted him the privilege of
wearing the personal decorations generally
confined to princes of the blood. The jealousy
of his old commander Foo-tay was aroused
at seeing his own honoui's surpassed, and he
preferred accusations against the loyalty of
Akwei, the investigation into which ter-
minated in the condemnation and execution
of the accuser as guilty of falsehood and an
attempt to deceive the emperor. In the next
year, 1777 Akwei was named prime minister.
One of the most important acts of his admi-
nistration was the improvement of the dykes
of the river Hwang-ho, the inundations of
which are a source of perpetual alarm and
calamity to the Chinese. While engaged in
this useful work he was again summoned to
war by the revolt of the Mohammedan in-
habitants of the province of Kan-suh, wliich
he suppressed v/ith vigour. As a punishment
for the crime of ingratitude, Keen-Loong
ordered the slaughter of every Mohammedan
above the age of fifteen in Kan-suh, and
Akwei is said to have faithfully executed his
orders. This is the last occasion on which
his name is found mentioned, although it has
been supposed that he survived the abdication
of Kiien-Loong in 1796. (Histoire de la Chine,
traduite du Tong-kien-kang-mou, by Slailla,
&c. xi. 591, &c. &c. ; Reduction dcs Miao-
Tsce, in Memoires cortccrnant les Chinois, iii.
387, &c. ; Gutzlaff, S/ietch of Chinese Histon/,
ii. 53, &c. ; Davis, The Chinese, i. 153. ; Bur-
mese historians translated by Capt. Burney
in Asiatic Journal of Bengal for 1837, vi.
121. 406, reprinted in Asiatic Journal of Lon-
don for 1838, new series, xxvi. 327. xxvii.
62, &c.) T. W.

ALA, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, organist

ALA.

ALABASTER,

at Milan, born at Monza in 1580 and died in
1G12. The following works were published
after his death : — 1. Two sets of Madrigals
and Canzonets. Milan, 1017. 2. Concerti Ec-
clesiastici for one to four voices. Milan, 1618.
He was one of the earliest of the Italian
composers who attempted the composition of
an opera. Two of these were printed at
Milan, "Armida abbandonata" and "Amante
occulto." (Mazzuchelli, Scriiiori d' Italia.)

E. T.

A'LABA ESQUIVEL, DIEGO DE, a
native of Vittoria, and educated at Salamanca,
where he prosecuted with distinction the study
of law. After acting as judge in more than one
tribunal, he was made president of the supreme
court of Granada, an appointment which he
resigned on being elected bishop of Astorga.
"While he occupied this see he attended five
sessions of the council of Trent. In the last
of these sessions (1547) he boldly denounced
the efforts of the Italian prelates to support
the practice of bestowing a plurality of bene-
fices upon the same person, and the granting
of bishoprics in commendam as attempts to
screen offenders in high places at the ex-
pense of degrading the character of the
church. In 1548 he was transferred to the
see of Avlla, subsequently to that of Cordova,
along with which preferments he was allowed
to hold the office of president in the supreme
court of Granada. He died on the 16th of
February, 1502. Diego de Alaba Esquivel
was author of a work on ecclesiastical councils
and their defects : the title of the edition
described by Antonio is " De Conciliis Uni-
versalibus, ac de his quae ad Religionis et
Reipublicse Christians Reformationem insti-
tuenda videntur. Granatce, 1582," fol. An
edition of this work, with additional illus-
trations, was published by Francisco Ruiz de
Vergara y Alaba, at Madrid, in 1671. {Bib-
Vtothcca Nvva Hispanu, a D. Antonio Nicolao
Hispalensi, Romte, 1783, fol., in voce " Di-
dacus de Alaba Esquivel ; " Historia del Con-
cilia Tridcntino di Pietro Soane Pulono, in
Londra, 1619, folio, p. 248, 249.) W. W.

ALABARDI, GIOSEFFO, called Schi-
oppi, a Venetian painter of considerable
merit towards the end of the sixteenth cen-
tury. He executed several works in fresco
in the Sala de' Conviti, in the ducal palace in
Venice, but there is at present scarcely any
thing of his remaining. (Zanetti, Delia Pit-
tura Veniziana; Guarienti, Abecedario Pit-
torico.) R. N. W.

ALABASTER, WILLIAM, is stated by
Fuller to have been bom at Hadleigh in
Suffolk, and to have been " by marriage,"
(that is, we suppose, through Still's wife,)
nephew to Dr. John Still, bishop of Bath
and Wells. His birth must have taken place
in 1507, if we may trust to the circumscrip-
tion about an engraving of his head given in
one of his books. He studied in Trinity
College, Cambridge, and he took his degree
597

of M.A. at that imi versify ; afterwards he
was, 11th July, 1592, incorporated of the
university of Oxford. In June, 1590, he ac-
companied the expedition sent against Cadiz
as chaplain to the Earl of Essex, the com-
mander-in-chief of the land forces, and while
in Spain he became a convert to the Roman
Catholic faith. His biographers do not seem
to be aware that he remained abroad and a
Roman Catholic till the year 1010 ; but it
appears from his own books that if he ever
came home from the continent before that
date, he went back again, and he did not
return to the Church of England till 1610.
He appears to have published something
in defence of his change of religion soon
after it took place ; and his pamphlet, or
pamphlets, gave rise to a controversy, which
seems still to have been going on so late as
1004. About four years after he became a
Roman Catholic, as appears again from the
inscription to his portrait, he took to the
study of cabalistic divinity, or the secret
theology (arcana theologia), as he calls it ;
and in 1007 he published, in a 4to. volume,
at Antwerp, a singular treatise full of that
sort of learning, under the title of " Appa-
ratus in Revelationem Jesu Christi." This
performance was condemned and put into
the " Index Librorum Prohibitorum " by
the ecclesiastical authorities at Rome in the
beginning of the year 1610 ; Alabaster him-
self, if we may believe his own account,
having been previously induced by some
fraudulent promises of the Jesuits to come
up to that city, was thrown into the
prison of the Inquisition, and only released
under an order to confine himself within
the city for the next five years. It seems
to have been this treatment that caused
his re-conversion : he made his escape
from Rome, not, as he says, without the
greatest danger of his life ; and, returning
to his native countrj-, rejoined his original
church. These facts we learn from the pre-
face to a work which he published in 4to. at
London, in 1633, entitled " Ecce Sponsus
^'enit ; Tuba Pulchritudinis," &c. ; the object
of which is to determine tlie date assigned to
the existence of the world, and also that of
the Church of Rome, against which he was
now greatly envenomed. It is in this work
that the engraving of his head is found. After
his reconversion, having taken his degree of
D.D., he was made a prebendary of St. Paul's,
London, and he also became rector of what
Fuller calls " the rich parsonage " of Thar-
field in Hertfordshire. He died in the be-
ginning of April, 1040. Another of his
works is a dictionary or vocabulary in five
languages, entitled " Lexicon Pentaglotton,
Hebraicum, Chaldaicum, Syriacum, Tal-
mudico-Rabbinicum, et Arabicum," fol. Lon.
1637 ; and there are some other theological
treatises attributed to him in the catalogue
of the Bodleian librarv, in Watt's Biblio-

ALABASTER.

tlieca, and by Chalmers in his Biographi- !
cal Dictionary, which we have not seen.
But the only production for which Alabaster
is now remembered is a Latin tragedy, en-
titled " Roxana," which was acted in Trinity !
College Hall, Cambridge, probably in or
before the year 1592, but was not published,
and seems to have been generally forgotten, till
a surreptitious impression of it was brought
out at London in 1632, and a more correct
edition by the author the same year. Atten-
tion was drawn to this tragedy by a remark
of Johnson in his Life of Milton, " tliat if
we produced anything worthy of notice [in
Latin verse] before the Elegies of Miltou, it
was, perhaps. Alabaster's Roxana." Dr. Jo-
seph Warton, in a note published in his bro-
ther's collection of Milton's Smaller Poems
(2d edit. p. 430.), noticing this criticism,
observes that the Roxana, far from being
entitled to be placed on a level with Milton's
Latin poetry, " is written in the style and
manner of the turgid and unnatural Seneca."
" It is remarkable," he adds, " that Mors,
Death, is one of the persons of the drama."
In his dedication to Sir Ralph Freeman, Ala-
baster affects to speak of the play as a de- '
funct trifle which had been the work of a ,
fortnight, and designed only for the amusement
of a night ; and he expresses himself with
great indignation in regard to the plagiary
(plagiarius) as he designates the publisher of
the other edition, who, having got hold of a
corrupted copy, had sent it to the press.
But he gives no hint of a little fact which ;
is mentioned in a MS. Latin note, in a hand
of the seventeenth century, on a copy of his
own edition in the British Museum, that the
Roxana is, to a great extent, merely a trans-
lation from the Italian tragedy of " La Da- |
lida," written by Luigi Groto, commonly
called The Blind Man of Hadria. This ,
has been lately noticed, we believe for the ■
first time, by Mi'. Hallam, in his " Introduc- ;
tion to the Literary History of Europe," iii.
524. Groto's tragedy, v/hich was first printed
in 1572, but which, as he tells us in his
dedication, had been written many years
before, when he was very young, had un-
questionably served as the groundwork of
Alabaster's composition. The story, a fiction,
the scene of which is laid in Bactria. and which
appears to be of Groto's invention, is followed
in neai-ly all its details by Alabaster ; the con-
duct of the dramatic action is for the most part
closely copied ; even some of the names of
Groto's characters are retained, though others ■
are altered ; and not only Death, but other |
similar allegorical or shadowy personages, |
act the same parts in the one drama as in the
other : such as Jealousy, which Groto calls
Gelosia, and Alabaster Suspicio, and a spirit
or ghost (Ombra di JNIoleonte in the Italian,
Umbra Moleontis in the Latin play). Each
drama also has a chorus. It might be going
too far indeed to say that the dialogue in the j
598 I

one is generally a translation of that in the
other ; Alabaster rather appears to have
exercised a good deal of his own ingenuity
in this part of his task ; he has at any rate
everywhere greatly compressed his original,
in which the speeches are throughout long-
winded in the extreme, and the mere rhe-
torical gladiatorship intolerably protracted ;
and we doubt not that he has frequently
thrown in some poetry and passion of his
own in lieu of the wearisome verbiage and
cold conceits of his original. But, after all
deductions, his play must be considered as
borrowed from that of Grcto to an extent
which made it imperative on him to acknow-
ledge his obligations ; and his not having
done so may go far to entitle him to the
credit of having been more sincere than he
might otherwise have been thought in his
wish that the production should have been
forgotten. jMr. Hallam considers Groto's
play as the better production of the two.
Alabaster, however, had a high poetical
reputation in his own day, founded on other
grounds than his Roxana. Fuller, referring
to that performance, calls him " a most rare
poet as any our age or nation hath pro-
duced," an expression which Anthony a V>'ood
(or his printer) intending to transcribe,
has transformed into " the rarest poet and
Grecian that any one age or nation produced."
Herrick, in his Hesperides, has celebrated
him in various passages ; and Spenser, to
whom he appears to have been also person-
ally known, has in his " Colin Clout's Come
Home Again" (probably written in 1594),an
elaborate passage about him (v. 400 — 413.),
in which he speaks of his poetry in terms of
unmeasured admiration. The performance
to which Spenser particularly refers is an
imfinished Latin epic poem of Alabaster's,
in celebration of Queen Elizabeth, the full
title of which is, "Elisccis, Apotheosis Poetica,
sive De Florentissimo Imperio et rebus ges-
tis angustissima; et invictissimaj principis
Elizabetha;, D. G. Anglia;, Francite, et Hi-
bernite Regina;." It was designed to have
been extended to twelve books ; but no more
than the first was ever written, and of that
the author's manviscript, left by hira to his
friend Theodore Hake (the physical experi-
mentalist), is now in the library of Em-
manuel College, Cambridge. Two English
sonnets by Alabaster were found by Malone
in a IMS. in the Bodleian library, and pub-
lished by him in some annotations on Spen-
ser's poem in his edition of Shakspere ; and
Mr. Collier, in his " History of Dramatic
Poetry " (ii. 432.), has printed two others
from a MS. in his possession, containing
seventeen in all, entitled " Divine jMedita-
tions, bj Mr. Alablaster " (for so the name
appears also to have been written). (Fuller,
Worthies of England, 2 vols. 4to. Lon. 1811,
ii. 343. ; Wood's Fasti Oxonienses, in Athena
Oxonienses, 4 vols. 4to. Lon. 1815, i. 259.,

ALABASTER.

ALA-ED-DEWLET.

and Athena, i. 013., and iv. 280. ; Bayle, '
Dictionnnire Criticjiie ; Works of Edmund
Spenser, by Todd, i. ci.) G. L. C.

ALACOQUE, MARGUERITE, aficr-
-wards ]MARIE, a holy nuu of the convent
of La Visitation Sainte Marie of Paray le
Monnlal in Cliarolais. She was born at
Lauthcconr in the diocese of Autun on the
22d of Jnly, 1G47, and was christened by the
name of Marguerite, to which she afterwards
added that of Marie in gratitude to the Holy
Virgin, to whom she attributed her cure
from a severe attack of rheumatism and
paralysis under which she had laboured from
the eighth to the twelfth year of her age.
According to her biographer, Languet de la
Villeneuve de Gergy, bishop of Soissons, she
gave very early signs of a vocation to a
cloistered life, manifesting at the age of three
years a remarkable abhorrence of all sin, and
at four years of age delighting in mental
communings with the Deity. She took the
veil on the 6th of November, 1672, and is
stated to have been gifted with prophecy as a
reward for her distinguished piety ; to have
had revelations, visions and trances, and, in
opposition to the prediction of her physi-
cians, to have foretold correctly the time of
her own death, v>hich took place on the 17th
of October, 1690. Many miracles are related
concerning her, amongst which might be
included the ineffable pleasure which she de-
clares that she experienced while carving
upon her breast in large characters the
name of the Saviour with a penknife. The
fete du Sacre Cceur de Jesus Christ was in-
stituted by her through the instrumentality
of the Jesuit De la Colombiere, in obedience,
as she declares, to a divine injunction. She
is the authoress of a production entitled " La
Devotion du Cceur Jesus." Her life has been
written by the bishop Languet mentioned
above, under the title of " La Vie de la veri-
table Mere ^larguerite Slarie, religieuse de
la Visitation Sainte Marie, &c., niorte en
Odeur de Saintete en 1690." Paris, 1729, 4to.
The credulity displayed by the author in the
various absurd stories he admitted into his
work exposed him to much ridicule. The
" veritable Mere " is more indebted to Cres-
set for the notice he has taken of her in the
following lines, which occur towards the
commencement of the chant second of his
poem of " Vert-vert : " —

" Vert-vert etoit un perroquet devot

* * » * *

Ne disoit one un immodeste mot :

Mais en revani-lie il sgavoit des cantiques,

Des Oremus, des coUoques mystiques:

11 disoit bien son Benedicite

Et Notre Mure et Votre Cliarite ;

II sQavoit menie unpeu de soliloque

Et des traits tins de Marie a la Coque."

(Enq/clopedie des Ge7ts du Monde, 1833 ;
Pierer, Universal Lexicon ; Querard, La
France Litteraire, art. " Languet de la Vil-
leneuve de Gergy ; " Gresset, Q^iieres, Lond.
176.5, i. 8.) J. W. J.

599

'ALA'-ED-DEWLET, the last of the
Turkoman dynasty of Zulkadr, occupied an
eminent position among the oriental princes
of the fifteenth centurj'. The dynasty of
Zulkadr was founded a. h. 780 (a. d. 1378)
by Sein-ed-din Kdrdja Zulkadr, who con-
quered the present province of Mer'ash on
the north frontier of Syria, and whose grand-
son was Soliman, who ascended the throne of
Mer'ash in 1442. Soliman gave his daughter in
marriage to Mohammed the Great, the con-
queror of Constantmople, and, at his death
in 14.V3, left four sons, ArsUin, Sliiih-Suwar,
Budak, and 'Ala-ed-dewlet, among whom
Arsldn was recognised as his successor.
After a reign of twelve years, the new sultan
was murdered by his third brother Budak,
who was expelled by his elder brother Shah-
Suwiir, in 1467, and obliged to seek a refuge
at the court of Sultan Kaitbai of Egypt.
This powerful prince immediately armed in
the cause of Budak, entered the state of
Mer'ash, and completely defeated the a-rmy
of Shiih-Suwar, who had implored in vain
the help of his brother-in-law, the great
Sultan Mohammed. Wandering in the moun-
tains, the fugitive usurper was betrayed by
one of his vassals and delivered to Kaitbai,
who ordered him to be hanged in the public
market-place of Cairo. In the mean time
the Sultan of Egypt did not reinstate Prince
Budak, as he had promised, but kept Mer'ash
by the right of conquest. But it was soon
taken from him by Sultan Mohammed, who,
although he had disdained to participate in
all these crimes and intrigues, would not
allow the extensive state of Mer'ash to be-
come the prey of so powerful and ambitious
a neighbour as Sultan Kaitbai. Accordingly
in 1480 he recognised 'Ala-ed-dewlet, the
youngest of the four brothers, as sovereign
prince of Mer'ash and the dependent coun-
tries. A war broke out between Mohammed
and Kaitbai ; and after their death their suc-
cessors, Bayazid II. in Turkey, and Usbeg in
Egj-pt, continued the war ; the one on behalf
of Budak, the other on behalf of 'Ala-ed-
dewlet, and both for their own ambition.
This real cause of the war, however, was
not unknown to 'Ala-ed-dewlet, who was as
foithless as his brother. He entered into nego-
ciations with Usbeg, and, by separating his
forces from those of Bayazid, caused the
total defeat of the Turkish army by the
troops of Usbeg and his ally the prince of
Caramania.

Meanwhile prince Budak, the guilty victim
of Ka'itbai's selfishness, had secretly left
Egj'pt for Constantinople, and implored the
mercy of Bayazid, who gave him the pa-
shalik of "Wise, and sent him with a body
of chosen troops against his own brother
'Ala-ed-dewlet. The armies were in sight
of each other, when the light horsemen
of 'Ahi-ed-dewlet seized a messenger, on
whom they found a letter written by Budak

ALA-ED-DEWLET.

to one of his lieutenants, the commander of
a detached corps, -whom he ordered to join
the main army, which, as he said, was not
strong enough to stand alone against the
enemy. 'Ala-ed-dewlet, as cunning as he was
brave, altered the letter with a skilful hand
by a simi)le transposition of the word 7iot,
which can be easily done in Turkish, and
sent it to the lieutenant, who of course re-
ceived it as an order not to join the main
army, which was stroiic) enough to stand alone
against the enemy. Thus deceived, Budak
was suddenly attacked by the superior army
of his brother ; his troops were defeated,
himself fell into the hands of the victor, and
was delivered up to the Sultan of Egypt.
The battle took place in 1490, and was the
first of the numerous defeats of the Turks in
this campaign. At last their commander-in-
chief, the famous Herzek Ahmed Pasha,
[Herzek Ahmed Pasha] fell into the hands
of 'Ala-ed-dewlet and Usbeg, who pursued
the routed Turks to the fortress of Kaisarieh,
the old C;csarea, where they owed their
safety to the mediation of the ambassador
of Tunis. Peace was concluded in 1491.
Egypt retained the conquests which she had
made in Arabia, and 'Ala-ed-dewlet, admired
by the whole East for his cunning and his
talents for war, became sole master of the
vast dominions of the house of Ziilkadr.

From this time all good faith between
Constantinople and Mer'ash was at an end.
A war having broken out between the Porte
and Miinid, the last Turkoman sultan of
Persia of the dynasty of A'k-ko-yunli, or
the " White Sheep," 'Ala-ed-dewlet assisted
the latter with a body of troops, but could
not prevent the tragical end of that prince,
A. H 914 (a. d. 1408). Bayazid was enraged
at tliis assistance given to the Persians, but
for the moment he suppressed his anger.
About the same time 'Ala-ed-dewlet refused
the hand of his daughter to Ismael, a young
Persian prince, who, infuriated at this af-
ront, ravaged Mer'ash, and among the pri-
soners who were carried off into slavery
there were one of the sons and two of the
grandsons of 'Ala-ed-dewlet. Such was the
barbarian's thirst for revenge that he ordered
them to be roasted alive, and his savage
Persian horsemen devoured them. Ven-
geance roused the aged 'Ala-ed-dewlet ; but
when Selim I., the successor of Bayazid 11.,
proposed to him to attack Persia with their
united forces, in spite of his personal feelings,
he refused the alliance as contrary to his
political interests. This, however, seemed a
new insult to the Sultan of the Osmanlis, who,
deeming it a favourable occasion to bring
down the pride of the house of Ziilkadr,
which was still allied with the sultans of
Egypt, created a son of Shah-Suwar, the
brother of 'Al:i-ed-dewlet, sanjack of Kai-
sarieh and Bazuk, although these towns and
the dependent country belonged to the state
COO

' of Mer'ash. No sooner had the allied sove-
reigns protested against such an open breach
of peace, than 'Ahi-ed-dewlet was suddenly
threatened by 10,000 Janissaries commanded
by Sinan Pasha and 'Ali Bey the son of the
new sanjak of Kaisarieh. He had hardly
time to place his harem and his treasures in
a stronghold on the steep peak of Mount
Tarna-dagh, and to occupy the defiles at the
foot of this mountain, when he was attacked
by Sinan Pasha on the 12th of June, 1515.
His army was destroyed, 'Ala-ed-dewlet
himself was slain, and his four sons, who
were made prisoners, fell victims to the rage
of the Osmanlis. His brother-in-law 'Abd-
er-rezziik alone was not put to death, but,
together with the heads of his unhappy kins-
men, was presented to Sultan Selim, who was
encamped in the neighbourhood. The head
of 'Ahi-ed-dewlet was immediately sent to
Cairo to terrify Sultan Usbeg, and at the same
time an ambassador was sent to Venice to
communicate to the senate the news of this
important victory. Selim was now enabled to
take Egypt, which he conquered in 1517;
he also acquired the extensive country
bounded on the north by Armenia and the
upper part of the Kizil-Irmak, on the east by
Kurdistan, on the south by Syria and the
Gidf of Cyprus, and on the west by the pro-
vince of Caramania. The history of the
dynasty of Ziilkadr was little known in
Europe until Hammer discovered it, almost
entirely in Turkish sources. Deguignes in
his " Histoire des Huns " does not speak of
it, and although Leunclavius or Liiwenklau
in his genealogical tables has mentioned it,
his account is incomplete and very erro-
neous. (Hammer, Geschichte des Osmanischen
Reiches, ii. 177, seq. 294. 300. 345. 426.)

W.P.
'ALA'-ED-DFN, the younger son of Os-
man, the founder of the empire of the Os-
manlis, v,-as one of the greatest statesmen
recorded in history ; Turkey owes to him
several civil and military institutions, which
for five centuries have been the ground-
work of all her political strength. After
the death of Osman, a. h. 726 (a. d. 1326),
his eldest son, Urkhan, succeeded him, pur-
suant to the last will of the late sultan, who
wished to prevent any division of his con-
quests between his two sons. Neverthe-
less Urkhan offered his brother half of Os-
man's private property, but 'Ala-ed-din,
obedient to the will of his father, refused to
accept even half of his flocks, and contented
himself with the revenue of one village in
the environs of Brusa in Bithynia. Ad-
miring his generosity and modesty, " Well,
my brother," cried Urkhan, " as you refuse
the flocks, be the herdsman of my people,
and share with me the burden of govern-
ment: be my grand vizir." (The word vizir
signifies, literally, the bearer of a burden.)
'Ala-ed-din accejjted the ofler, and soon

ALA-ED-DIN.

showed his ability to perform tliese high
functions. "While Lirkhan extended the em-
pire by couquest, 'Ala-ed-din consolidated it
by wise regulations concerning the mint, the
dress of the different classes of the people,
and especially concerning the army. The
right of coining money is one of the privileges
which the Islam gives to sovereign princes ;
but down to the year a. h. 729 (a. u. 1328) the
money of the Turks Osmaulis had been
coined under the name of the sultans of the
Turks of Koniah, who assumed a kind of
supremacy over all the other Turkish princes
in Asia Minor. But as soon as Urkhaii had
succeeded his father, 'Ala-ed-din advised him
to coin monej' in his own name, and thus to
put an end to that shadow of vassalage which
still subsisted between him and the sultan of
Koniah. With the same view, and in order
to strengthen Urkhan's political power, he
persuaded him to order the khutbeh, or the
public prayers, to be said in his own name,
and thus to assume the second of the pri-
vileges of ]Mohammedan sovereignty. [Ah-
med Pasha, the Traitor.] His regulations on
dress principally related to the stuff and the
colour of the turbans and other head-dresses
which in the East have always formed a
characteristic distinction between different
classes and nations.

Ertoghrul, Osnian, and other Turkish
princes had carried on all their wars with
armies exclusively composed of light horse-
men called Akinji, or " runners on horse-
back," one part of whom was levied among
the vassals of the princes, and the rest
were volunteers. They were imder arms
only in time of war, and were disbanded as
soon as peace was concluded ; but this mili-
tary organisation was insufficient for a nation
which felt the necessity of consolidating its
conquests. Such were the circumstances
under which 'Ala-ed-din conceived the plan
of creating a standing army ; and he carried
it into effect a full century before Charles VII.
of France established a similar force, which
has generally been supposed to be the first
regular standing army since the fall of the
Roman Empii-e. The new army thus created
by 'Ahi-ed-din was first composed of a large
body of regular infantry which was called
" Piade," or footmen, from the Persian word
" pa'i," foot. Lands, which were afterwards
constituted into fiefs, were given on condition
that the occupiers should keep in repair the
public roads that ran along their grounds. In
the performance of this duty they became so
skilful, that European nations applied this
name (piade) to troops emploj-ed in similar
labours, and they are still called pioneers. The
second main body comprised the regular
horsemen or sipahi, a name which is still
used, and which at that time was assumed as
a title of honour by the warlike clans of the
Kurds. Part of these also were rewarded
with fiefs ; and as they did not pay any taxes,

VOL. I.

they received the name of Mosellem or " the
exempt from taxes." The whole regular
army, the cavalry as well as the infantry,
was divided into sections of tens, hundreds,
and of thousands, each of which were com-
manded by an officer. There was also a
strong body of irregular footmen, the Ashab
or freemen, and the above-mentioned irre-
gular cavalry which still preserved its old
name of akinji. Besides the produce of their
lands, the piades and the sipahis had the daily
pay of an akje, or about three farthings, a
very considerable sum at that time, in a
country where money was scarce. But this
pay became the cause of great disorder among
these soldiers. They spent their money in
debauchery, became haughty and insolent,
and at last so far disregarded all military
discipline that 'Al:i-ed-din determined to
create a new body of troops. Before he had
fixed upon any plan, the grand judge of the
army, Kara Khalil Chendereli, a near kins-
man of the two royal brothers, proposed to
them to enlist young Christian prisoners,
after first compelling them to adopt the Mo-
hammedan religion. " For," said the subtle
judge, " as the Koran teaches that the germ
of the Islam is contained in the soul of every
child from the very moment of its birth, we
are doing a highly deserving action by con-
verting them to our religion ; and we may
do so with the greater right as they are our
slaves and legitimate property. Having nei-
ther relations nor countrymen among us,
they will not be under the influence of any-
body, and they will fight as well and obey
better than our stubborn Turkomans. Their
example will be followed by scores of brave
foreigners, who will increase our army, .so
that in future our victories shall no longer be
purchased with the loss of so many true Os-
manlis, and even our defeats will always be a
sensible loss for our enemies, who will only
triumph over their own countrymen." Urkhan
and 'Ala-ed-din approved of this plan, and
'Ala-ed-din carried it into effect with that
practical skill which distingiiished all his
reforms. These converted soldiers, when
organised, received the name of " Yeni-cheri,"
or the new troop. This was the origin of that
famous band known in Europe by the cor-
rupted name of Janissaries, which for five
centuries has been the bulwark of the Turkish
empire : they took Constantinople, they filled
up with their bodies the ditches of .\'alta,
and they twice assailed the capital of the
German empire. From the holy cities of
Mecca and Medina, from the pyramids of
Egypt to the foi-ests of Poland, and from the
lofty peaks of the Caucasus to the ruins of
Carthage, the nations trembled when the
war-cry " Allah ! Allah ! " announced the ap-
proach of the Janissaries. And when at last
they degenerated, and the ruins of this power-
ful institution were broken by the late Sultan
Mahmud, their fall left Turkey in a state of

R R

ALA-ED-DIN.

ALA-ED-DIN,

military dissolution ; and its regeneration can
only be eiFected by another 'Ala-ed-din.

As soon as the new troops were organised,
'Alii-ed-din, in order to assure them of being
as well paid and fed as the piades, gave to their
otRcers names derived from the various
duties of the kitchen : their colonels were
called chor-bashi, or soup-makers ; the ma-
jors, ashje-bashi, or first cooks ; the captains,
saki-bashi or cup-bearers ; and their palla-
dium was the largest kettle in the kitchen,
round which they not only assembled to take
their dinner, but also to discuss political and
military affairs. The new organisation soon
showed its advantages. In 1370, when
'Ala-ed-diu was appointed commander-in-
chief of the army against the Greeks, he
gained the famous victory of Philocrene over
the Emperor Andronieus the younger, and took
Nica^a, the bulwark of the Greek empire in
Asia. The year of the birth as well as of
the death of 'Ah'i-ed-din is unknown ; but
his name is immortalized in the annals of the
Turks, and in the history of modern warfare.
(Hammer, Gesdiichtedes Osmanischcn lieicJies,
i. 77-^81. ; Knolles, Historn of the Turkish
Empire, 6th edit. 125 — -130. ; Robertson, A
View of the State of Europe, Sfc. ; D'Ohsson,
Tableau de V Empire Ottoman, 8vo. edit. vol. iii. ;
De Tott, Memoire sur les Turks et les Tatars;
JMarsigli, Stato Militare delV Imperio Ottomano;
Paulus Pater, Insignia Turcica, Jena;, 1683,
fol. W. P.

'ALA'-ED-DFN KEY'KOBA'D L, son
of Ghay-yath-ed-din, Key-khosrew, prince of
the Turks Seljuks of Rum in Asia Minor,
ascended the throne in a. h. G17 (a.d. 1220),
after the death of his elder brother Ased-ed-din
Key-kaus. During the reign of this prince,
' Ala-ed-din revolted against his brother (about
1204), but was made prisoner, and was pu-
nished by a confinement of five years ; after
his delivery he was banished, and took refuge
at Constantinople. Connected with statesmen
and generals, and in constant intercourse with
the l?yzantine poets and philosophers, he de-
veloped the brilliant gifts with which he was
endowed by nature, and thus attained to that
eminent position which he afterwards occu-
pied among the princes of the East. As soon
as he was on the throne, he made an alliance
with Melik Eshref, king of Armenia, and
with his assistance defeated the Turkish
emirs of Amid and ^lesopotamia, whom he
obliged to do homage to him. He then
turned his arms against Jellal-ed-din, the king
of Khowaresni or Khiwa, who had surprised
the governor of Akhlath, a nephew of
'Al;l-ed-din, and forced him to take the oath of
allegiance. In a.d. 1229 the King of Khiwa
was defeated in one of the bloodiest battles
recorded in Mohammfdan history, and 'Ala-
ed-din would have conquei'ed all Khowaresm
if Melik Kamil, sultan of Egypt, had not
obliged him to defend his southern states.
Melik Kaniil also was defeated, and as carlv as
602

1234 'Ala-ed-din was master of the extensive
state of Khiwa and of the northern provinces
of the Egyptian empire as far as the gates
of Syria. After these glorious campaigns
' Ala-ed-din employed a long peace in restrain-
ing his turbulent subjects by severe laws.
He also erected numerous mosques, convents,
and schools, and embellished nine large towns,
but especially Amasia and Koniah or Ico-
nium, where he held his court. About this
time JelUil-ed-din, a famous mystic poet, tied
from his native country of Bokhara, which
was overrun by the Mongols, and took re-
fuge at Koniah. A great number of Persian
writers and artists followed his example, and
all enjoyed the generous protection of 'Ala-
ed-din, who distinguished himself among the
scholars of the East by that taste in arts and
knowledge which he had acquired among the
Greeks. Koniah, although a Turkish town,
became the centre of Persian literature.
'Ala-ed-din's renown as a philosopher, as a
legislator, and as a great captain spread over
all the East ; and such was the glory of his
name, that Nasir-ed-din Lillah, the khalif of
Baghdad, sent him a diploma by which he
conferred upon him the title of the greatest
sultan of his age. When the khalif's am-
bassador approached Koniah, 'Ala-ed-din, at
the head of all the ulemas and sheikhs, and
followed by a body of five thousand horse-
men, went out from the town to receive re-
spectfully the messenger of the chief of the
faithful. 'Ahi-ed-din performed his duties
with most remarkable zeal. He only slept four
hours, and divided the remainder of his time
into three parts, one of which he devoted to
state affairs, the second to intercourse with
scholars and artists, and the third to the
study of historj-, theology, and morals, as
well as to acts of devotion. He was poisoned
by his son, Ghayyath-ed-din Key-kobiid II.,
in 1237, after a reign of seventeen years. His
unnatural son did not long enjoy the fruits
of his crime. Sacrificing the interests of his
kingdom to shameful pleasures, he was sur-
prised, in 1247, in the midst of his orgies, by
a swarm of Mongols, who strangled him in
his own palace. (Hammer, Geschichte des
Osmanischcn liciches, i. 25, &c. ; Deguignes,
Histoire des Hu7ts.) W. P,

'AL A'-ED-DI'N MOHAMMED succeeded
to the throne of Khowarezm in a. h. 596
(a. d. 1200). He was the sixth sovereign of
his dynasty, which he i-epresented about one
hundred years after it had been founded. In
the biography of an oriental king it is im-
portant to observe how old his dynasty was
when he reigned, for dynasties are founded
by chiefs of warlike tribes, or by enter-
prising leaders of mercenaries, who occupy
the throne of a weak country and give to
their soldiers the privileges of a feudal
nobility. As long as they are poor they are
warlike, and their leader has no means to
provide for them e.Kcept by leading them to

ALA-ED-DIN.

■war and booty ; but as soon as a habit of
enjoying the hixuries of wealth and the com-
forts of settled life has enervated them, they
become subjugated by new adventurers.
For this reason every dynasty has to go
through comparatively short periods of
growth and decay which have been com-
pared by Ibn Khaldun to the natural life of
individuals.

In the dynasty of the Khowarezm-Shahians,
to which 'Ala-ed-din belonged, these periods
are particularly observable. His ancestors
rose in the steppes of Khowarezm, they
thence extended their power over Khorasan,
conquered Ghaznah and part of India, and
they made themselves masters of the treasures
"which had been accumulated by the Ghazna-
wides who first pillaged the temple of Multan
and other sacred places of the Brahmins.

In the first part of 'Ala-ed-din"s reign, his
dynasty had attained the acme of prosperity.
At his court assembled all the learned men
of his age, and he himself was well versed
in law and in the literature of the Arabs and
Persians. His energies were called forth by
his contests against Ghayyath-ed-din and
Shehab-ed-din, the representatives of the
Ghaurian dynasty, who disputed with the Kho-
warezm-Shahians the dominion of central
Asia. Soon after the death of Takkesh the
father of 'Ala-ed-din, they invaded Khorasan
and wrested this province from him. 'Ala-
ed-din undertook an arduous and long-pro-
tracted campaign against them, in which he
recovered Khorasan, and took nearly the
whole of the Persian empire. Whilst he
was engaged in the western provinces of his
dominions, his governors beyond the Oxus
made themselves independent with the aid of
Gurkhan the king of Kara Khatiiy. In A. h.
607 (a. d. 1210) he crossed the Oxus, put the
governor of Bokhara to the sword, and pro-
ceeded to Samarkand. Sultan Othnuin met
him to do him homage, and surrendered the
town to him. 'Ala-ed-din advanced with-
out delay and in great force towards the
territory of Gurkhan. He Avas opposed by
a formidable army, which was commanded
by Tai'nku Teraz, the vizir of Gurkhan. In
the month of Rebi'ah the first, a. h. 607 (a. d.
1210) a decisive battle terminated in the
total defeat of the Kara Khatayans and the
captivity of their general. In consequence
of this signal victory the city Otrar sub-
mitted to 'Ala-ed-din. He made one of his
generals governor of Otrar, and returned to
Khowarezm without pushing his victory fur-
ther, as policy would have required it, for
this campaign was not lucrative enough and
too fatiguing for his rapacious soldiers, who
were accustomed to rich booty and easy vic-
tories. The dynasty of 'Ala-ed-din had al-
ready passed the zenith of its power. En-
couraged by this want of energy, Gurkhan
soon after invaded Mawarannahr (Transoxi-
ana of the ancients), took Samarkand, and
603

would most likely have crossed the Oxus with
his army, if Kishlek, a prince of royal blood,
had not rebelled against him. Although
Gurkhan had to contend with two enemies,
he was victorious over 'Ala-ed-din, who
would have lost his life, if a cloud of dust
which rose towards the end of the battle had
not rendered all further contest impossible.
'Ala-ed-din, disguised in the uniform of the
enemy, made his escape, although he had
been surrovmded, and he succeeded in cross-
ing the Oxus.

The intrigues of the khalif Nasir with the
Ghaurians were a pretext for 'Ala-ed-din to
push his victories further in "Western Asia.
With this object he procured a fetwa, or
legal decision of the Imams, that the khalif
was acting against the interests of the Islam,
and that it was the duty of every Mohamme-
dan prince to put him down. He began his ex-
pedition inA.H. 614 (a. D. 1217). He was,
however, called back from it before he had
seen his enemy, by the inroads of Genghiz-
khiin, the cause of which oriental historians
assign unanimously to the perfidy of 'Ala-
ed-din. Perhaps the progress of the arms of
Genghiz-khan might, even after the com-
mencement of hostilities, have been stopped
before he entered the Moslem territory, if
' Ahi-ed-din's march had not been retarded by
debauchery and intoxication. When he had
passed the Oxus to meet his enemy, he chose
his position between two canals ; but what
must have been his surprise on finding the
ground covered with dead bodies ! Onlj- one
soldier, who was mortally wounded, was found
alive, and he explained to him the awful
scene. It was the army of Tukia Khan, one
of the princes of Turkistan, which had been
slaughtered by a detachment of Genghiz-
khan's forces. 'Ala-ed-din upon this has-
tened in pursuit of the Moguls, whom he
overtook the following day. Jiiji Khan, the
commander of the detachment, informed
'Ala-ed-din that it was against his orders to
engage in battle, but if he was attacked he
would know how to defend himself. 'Ala-
ed-din attacked him, and although he was
not defeated, he was so disheartened by the
firmness of the Moguls that he retreated to
Samarkand, where he assembled no less than
four hundred thousand horse. But the as-
trologers advised him not to engage again
during that year in battle against Genghiz-
khan. Accordingly he broke up his army
into little detachments, which he dispersed all
over the country, and continued his retreat to
Khorasan. At the same time he wrote to
his mothtr Tiirkan Khatun, to seek refuge
with his family in INIazendaran, the moun-
tainous district on the south-east coast of the
Caspian. He was undecided what he should
do ; at first he intended to take refuge in his
Indian provinces ; but when he had reached
Balkh he was prevailed upon to go to 'Irak,
and he once more returned to Khorasan. At

K R 2

ALA-ED-DIN.

ALAIMO.

Nishapur he received intelligence that a corps
of INIojjuls had crossed the Oxus after taking
Eokhara. He gave orders to his family to
secure an asj-lum in the fortresses of Kdriin-
dezh and Eblal, and he himself sought refuge,
after many adventures, in an island near
Aboskun. The unfortimate Turkan, the mo-
ther of 'Ala-ed-din, vas soon obliged to sur-
render to the Moguls, and -with her ten mil-
lions of mithsals of gold, a thousand ass loads
of silken goods, and jewels to a prodigious
amount fell into the hands of the besiegers.
'Ala-ed-din did not long survive the news of
this intelligence; he died in A. h. 617 (a. d.
1220). (Abu-1-feda, Annates Musi. vol. iv. ;
Price, Mohammedan History, vol. ii. ; Nowairi
MSS. of Leiiden.) A. S.

ALAGON, LOUIS D', BARON ME'-
RARGUER, was a nobleman of Provence,
who lived in the time of the league and of
Henry IV., and of whom the records of
history have transmitted nothing beyond the
plot which he expiated with his blood. In
the year 1G05, the seventh after Henry IV.
obtained full possession of the French crown,
while the intrigues and emissaries of Spain
rendered his throne very precarious, Alagon
entered into a plot for delivering the city
and port of ^larseille into the hands of the
Spaniards. The Duke of Guise, governor of
Provence, apprised of his treasonable pro-
jects by one of his associates of mean birth,
communicated them to Henry ; and Alagon,
having proceeded to Paris, in order to con-
cert measures with Zuiiiga, the Spanish am-
bassador, was arrested at a secret conference
with that minister's secretary, on whose
person were found documents containing un-
deniable proofs of their conspiracy. Bru-
neau, the ambassadoi-'s secretary, was thrown
into the Bastile ; and Alagon imprisoned,
first inLeChatelet, and afterwards transferred
to the Conciergerie. Both prisoners were
interrogated ; and Bruneau made a full con-
fession. Bruneau was liberated upon the
remonstrances of the ambassador, who ap-
pealed to the law of nations ; but Alagon
was brought to trial before the parliament of
Paris and received judgment of death. He
was exe(?uted at the Place de Greve in
December, 1G05, his body quartered, and his
head sent to Marseille and fixed on the gates.
Alagon was allied to the noble families of
Joyeuse and Montpensier. (Mezi'rai, His-
toire de France ; Daniel, Histoire de France.)

H. G.

ALAI'MO of Lentini in Sicily, lord of
Ficarra, was one of the leaders of the con-
spiracy against the French which produced
the Sicilian vespers. Foreign historians have
mentioned Giovanni da Procida alone as the
leader in that transaction. Procida was the
originator of the plot, but he was effectually
seconded by several leading nobleman of
Sicily ; among whom were Alaimo, Palmerio
lord of Favognana and Carini, and Gualterio
604

of Calatagirone lord of Giarratana. Accord-
ing to the Sicilian chroniclers Alaimo un-
dertook to revolutionise the Val Demone, or
province of Messina. The signal was given
bj' the people of Palermo on Easter Tuesday-,
1282. On that day many of the citizens went,
according to custom, to hear vespers at a
church outside of the walls, when a French-
man called Drouet grossly insulted on the
road the wife of Roger Mastrangelo, a noble
of Palermo, under the pretence of seek-
ing for concealed weapons. The husband
and his attendants immediately killed Drouet,
and the cry of " Uccide, uccide ! " resounded
through the multitude, who fell upon the
French or Provencals and massacred them
all. As the report of the occurrences at
Palermo reached the other towns, the people
followed the example of the capital, for it is
not true that the insurrection burst out every
where on the same day. Messina was the
last town to rise, and this was nearly a month
after the outbreak at Palermo. Heribert of
Orleans, vicar-general of ICing Charles of
Anjou, escaped to Calabria. Alaimo was
appointed one of the regents of the kingdom
till the arrival of King Peter III. of Aragon,
to whom the crown of Sicily was offered by
the nation. In the following July Charles
of Anjou, with a large land and sea force,
laid siege to Messina, which was bravely de-
feuded by the citizens under the guidance of
Alaimo. Charles, unable to take Messina
either by force or by the terror of the ex-
communication launched against the town by
Pope Martin IV., who was in the interest of
the Anjou king, tried to bribe Alaimo, who
however remained faithful to the national
cause. Peter of Aragon, being crowned
king of Sicily, rewarded Alaimo by making
him grand justitiarius or chief justice of the
kingdom, and gave him three fiefs, Palazzolo,
Buccheri, and Odogrillo or Drillo. Gualtiero
of Calatagirone, who had received from the
king the fief of Butera, not thinking himself
sufficiently rewarded, conspired against Peter;
but his treason being discovered, he shut
himself up in the town of Butera and refused
to surrender. He was surprised by Alaimo,
taken prisoner, condemned, and executed,
with several of his accomplices, in 1283.
Soon after, however, Alaimo himself con-
spired with his two nephews, the lords of
Mazarino and Mineo, at the suggestion of his
wife, an ambitious woman, who complained
that King Peter treated those who had given
him the crown not as friends and companions
but as subjects. The Infante Don Jayme, who
was regent of Sicily in the absence of his
father, having suspicions of Alaimo, thought it
best to send him with his nephews to Aragon
on a mission to King Peter, and he then ar-
rested his wife and shut her up in the castle of
Messina. Afterwards, some treasonable cor-
respondence of Alaimo being intercepted, he
was arrested in Spain with his two nephews,

ALAIMO.

ALAIN.

but King Peter spared his life on consider-
ation of his former services. After Peter's
death, in 1285, his elder son, Alfonso, king
of Aragon, detained Alaimo in prison till
1287, and was on the point of releasing him
when, at the demand of his brother, Don
Jayme, king of Sicily, who was alarmed at
the discovery of some fresh conspiracy, he de-
livered him up to him. Alaimo and his nephews
■were embarked in a vessel bound for Sicily,
and were thrown into the sea near the island
of Maretimo. (Aprile, Cronologia della
Siciliti, and the old chroniclers therein
quoted.) A. V.

ALAIN, or ALAN (Latinised ALANUS),
a French prelate of the twelfth century,
sometimes called by modern writers Alain
of Lille ; and in that case distinguished from
another Alain of Lille by the epithet of
" the elder." He was probably born in
Flanders and near Lille, in which town, if
we may trust the Liber Sepulcrorum of
Clairvaux Abbey (where he was buried), he
was brought up. The year of his birth is
unknown, but it is probable that it was near
the end of the eleventh or the beginning of
the twelfth century. Having embraced the
monastic life under St. Bernard at Clairvaux,
he was made (a. d. 1140) abbot of the newly
founded Cistertian abbey of La Rivour, near
Troyes in Champagne ; and twelve years
after (a. D. 1152) he was elected bishop of
Aiixerre by the unanimous voice of the
chapter. The see had, through the dissen-
sions of the electors, been vacant for a year ;
and the pope had appointed three com-
missaries, of whom St. Bernard was the
chief, to settle the dispute ; it was probably
by the influence of the saint that Alain was
chosen. The same influence was exerted,
and, as it appears, with good effect, to re-
move the objections urged by Louis VII.
king of France against the election. Alain
exercised his episcopal functions fourteen
years, with prudence and good reputation ;
and then resigned his bishopric (a. d. 1167)
without previously asking the consent of the
pope, Alexander III., who expressed his dis-
content at the omission. Alain's motive
appears to have been the love of monastic
seclusion, to enjoy which he retired to his
former abode at La Rivour, where he re-
sided for many years ; he then withdrew to
Clairvaux, where he occupied the cell which
had belonged to St. Bernard, and where he
died and was buried. His death is placed by
Mabillon and others in 1181 or 1182, but he
was alive, as the authors of the Gallia Chris-
tiana have shown, in 1185 ; and it is pro-
bable he was then at La Rivour. Fabricius,
who confounds him with the other Alain of
Lille, places his death in a. D. 1202, but this
is an error : it is not likely that he lived much
after a. r>. 1185, if indeed he survived that
year. He is chiefly known by his Life of St.
Bernard, in which lie abridged the more ample
C05

memoir commenced by Guillaurae or William
then of Signy in Champagne, and continued
by Ernald of Bonneval in Beaune, and by
Godefrid or Gaufrid, St. Bernard's notary.
Alain arranged the facts of the narrative in
chronological order, and made some other
corrections : he has frequently, however, re-
tained the language of the original writers.
He inscribes his work to Pontius abbot of
Clairvaux, which enables us to fix pretty
nearly the date of its composition ; for
Pontius succeeded to the abbacy in 11C8,
and held it for four years. This is the only
work of any importance which is indisputably
his ; but some of his letters are extant, and
the substance of his will is recorded in a
document given in the " Instrumenta " of the
diocese of Auxerre, in the Gallia Christiana.
The commentary on the prophecies of Merlin,
by Alain of Lille, has been by some writers
ascribed to this Alain, but without just
foundation. The writer of the commentary
states that he was a " little boy " (puerulus)
in 1128, which is inconsistent with the age
of Alain who was made abbot of La Rivour,
an office supposing mature age, only twelve
years afterwards, added to which there is
difficulty in supposing that Alain possessed
the learning which the commentary displays.
{Histoh-e Litteraire de la France, vol. xiv. ;
Gallia Christiana, vol. xii. ; Mabillon, St.
Bcrnardi Opera ; De Visch, Bibliotheca
Scriptorum Ordinis Cisterciensis ; Foppens,
Bibliotheca Behjica ; Dupin, Nouvclle BilJio-
thcque des Auleiirs Ecclesia.stiqucs.) J. C. M.
ALAIN, DUKES OF BRETAGNE. [Bre-
tagne.]

ALAIN-CHARTIER. [Cuartier.]
ALAIN of LILLE (Latinized ALA-
NUS DE INSULIS), an ecclesiastic of the
twelfth century, of such renown as to have
acquired the title of " the universal doctor,"
(" doctor universahs,") but of whose history
we have scarcely any authentic record. If,
as there is reason to believe, he is the author
of the Commentary on the Prophecies of
Merlin, he was born, according to his own
statement, at Lille in Flanders, and was " a
little boy" (puerulus) in the year 1128. He
died, according to the chronicle of Alberic
of Trois Fontaines in the diocese of Chalons
(Albericus Trium Fontium), a.d. 1202, in
the abbey of Citeaux. Henry of Ghent
(Henricus Gandavensis), who died near the
close of the thirteenth century, states in his
work " De Scriptoribus Ecclesiasticis," that
he was rector of the ecclesiastical school at
Paris : but this statement is liable to some
doubt from the fact that he is not noticed by
other writers of that time, who would have
known, and probably have mentioned him,
had he occupied so conspicuous a post.
Without however denying that there is some
force in the objection, we think considerable
credit is due to a writer who lived so near
the time as Henry of Ghent. In default of
R R 3

ALAIN.

any authentic record, there is a sufficient
store of legends, the most remarkable of
which is that Alain, self-convicted of
presumption in having undertaken to ex-
plain the mystery of the Trinity, retired in
disguise to the abbey of Citeaux, was re-
ceived there as a lay brother, and had charge
of the flocks belonging to the community.
It is further added, that having in a menial
capacity accompanied the abbot who was
summoned to attend a council at Rome, and
having secretly obtained by his favour and
connivance admission to the council, he spoke
so convincingly in refutation of some heretics
who had appeai'ed there, that their leader
declared " he must either be Alain or the
devil." Alain, thus discovered, received
marks of the highest respect both from the
abbot and the pope. Without giving full cre-
dence to these legends, especially to that of
Alain's attending the council, we are in-
clined to think that the story of his retreat
to Citeaux may have a foundation in fact ;
and that Alain, convinced of the vanity of
human applause and of the unsatisfying
character of the learning of that day, may
have exchanged the literary bustle and
rivalry of the schools for the religious seclu-
sion of the convent. An inscription on a
tomb erected to him at a subsequent period
(probably a d. 1487 *) in the cloisters of
Citeaux, states, that he had, as lay brother,
the charge of the flocks of the convent, and
that he died a. d. 1294 ; and although the
date assigned to his death is a proof of the
ignorance that prevailed with respect to him
at a period subsequent to that in which he
lived, it may be regarded as a confirmation
of the account of his retirment to Citeaux,
and, perhaps, of his giving up literary pur-
suits.

The authors of the " Histoire Litteraire de
la France" (xvi. 396, seq.) are disposed to
identify Alain of Lille with Alan (Alanus)
canon of Benevento, and afterwards prior of
Canterbury and abbot of Tewkesbury, men-
tioned by Gervase of Canterbury (Gervasius
Doroboruensis), and Ralph (IJadulfus) de
Diceto ; but though they adduce some plau-
sible reasons in support of their opinion,
it cannot by any means be regarded as
established. Indeed, a considerable dif-
ficulty arises from the circumstance that
Gervase distinctly states that Alan was an
Englishman by nation, while, accoi-ding to
Alain himself, he was born at LiUe ; nor is
this difficulty satisfactorily obviated by the
supposition that he was of English parents
though born abroad.

The writings of Alain are numerous. Some
of them were comprehended in a large
volume of his works, edited by Charles de
Visch (fol. Antwerp, 1653) ; others, though

* The part of the inscription here referred to is sus-
pected by some to be of later date than the tomb itself,
perhaps as much as two centuries later.
606

not then included, were already in print : the
remainder were either in MS., or had pre-
viously been lost. Fabricius gives an enu-
meration of eleven works inchxded in the
edition of De Visch ; (to which JNIansi in his
edition of Fabricius adds a twelfth, omitted
by Fabricius through mistake ;) of five
(including the Life of St. Bernard, by Alain
bishop of Auxerre, and assigned to our
author by Fabricius, who erroneously iden-
tified the two Alains) published by others ;
and of a number of unpublished works
enumerated by Trithemius, De Visch (Bib-
liotheca Scriptorum ordinis Cisterciensis) or
Oudin ; or which Fabricius thoiaght v/ere to
be ascribed to Alain. The list of the works
of Alain in the " Histoire Litteraire de la
France" diifers in some respects from that
of Fabricius ; and it is certain that neither is
accurate, for two works enumerated by both
as unpublished^(viz. " Regular coslestis Juris,"
or " Maximse Theologise," and "Liber de
Distinctionibus Dictioninn theologicalium,")
are in print ; and copies, in very ancient
type, without date or place or printer's name,
are in the British Museum, and are now be-
fore us. The principal works of Alain are
— 1. The " Anticlaudiauus," or Encyclo-
pajdia, a moral allegory in Latin hexameters,
in nine books. It has been published se-
veral times. Tlie poem is an imitation of
Claudian's poem against Rufinus, whence
its title of Anticlaudianus. 2. " Doctrinale
minus " (sometimes called " Doctrinale al-
timi," a title which properly belongs to
another work of the same writer) " seu
Liber Parabolarum ;" a collection of pro-
verbs and maxims in elegiac verse. The
maxims relate sometimes to morals, some-
times to natural philosophy, and are often
weighty and well expressed. A translation
in French verse was published at Paris,
A. D. 1492, in 4to. 3. A treatise against
heretics and unbelievers, in four books.
The first two books were printed by Jean
Masson, Svo. Paris, 1612 ; and again, with
the beginning of the third, in the collection
of Alain's works by De Visch. The authors
of the " Histoire Litteraire de la France,"
vindicate Alain's claim to the authorship of
the Commentary on Jlerlin's Prophecies, in
opposition to several writers of good repu-
tation, who ascribe it to Alain bishop of
Auxerre. The work, from internal evidence,
was M-ritten by a member of one of the
monastic orders, and between the years
A. u. 1167 and 1183. It shows considerable
acquaintance with English historj'. Alain's
poetical works are his best. His controver-
sial pieces are also considered good, but his
other theological works have little in them
that deserves notice. (Histoire Litlvraire
de la France, vol. xvi. ; Fabricius, Bih-
lioOieca Latina Media ct Injima JEiatis ;
De Visch, Bihliotheca Scriptorum Ordinis
Cistcrcicncis; Foppens, Bihliotheca Bclgica ;

ALAIN.

ALALEONA.

Dupin, Noiivelle Bibliothvqiic dcs Auteurs
Jicclesiastiiiues.) J. C M.

ALAIN, ROBERT, the son of a saddler,
was born at Paris in the year 1G80. His
father, intending- liim for the clerical profes-
sion, gave him a liberal education. He made
considerable progress in his studies, but con-
ceiving a dislike for theology, determined
ultimately to follow the trade of his father.
The mechanical details of his business did
not, however, extinguish his love for polite
literature, and in conjunction with Le Grand
he wrote a " comedie," in one act and in prose,
called " L'Epreuve Reciproque," which was
played with great success. It is related that
Lamotte the dramatist, who was present at
the representation of the piece in 1711, and
thought it too short, said to the author, in
allusion to his trade of a saddler, " Alain,
tu n'as pas assez allonge la courroie." The
love of pleasure led him into excesses which
destroyed his constitution, naturally delicate,
and he died in the month of September, 1720,
at the age of 40 years. (Annales Drama-
tiques, i. 135. ; De Mouhy, Tahlcttes Draimi-
tiques, 32. ; Theatre dcs Auteurs du Second
Ordre, 297.) J. W. J.

AL-AKHFASH (the Purblind) is the
surname of three Arabian writers, so called
because they were short-sighted. All three
became celebrated as grammarians of the
school of Basrah, which was opposed to that
of Kufah. Their names were ' Abdu-1-hamid
Ibn 'Abdi-1-mejid, a native of Ilajr in
Arabia, who was the master of the celebrated
grammarians Sibauyah and Abii 'Obeydah ;
Abu-1-hasan Sa'id Ibn Mas'adah Al-muja-
sha'i of Basrah, who was the author of
several works on prosody and grammar, and
died in a. h. 215 (a. d. 830) ; and, lastly,
Abii-l-hasan 'Ali Ibn Suleyman Ibn Al-fadhl,
who died at Baghdad in a. h. 315 or 316
(a. d. 927-8). In order the better to dis-
tinguish these three grammarians, all of whom
belonged to the school of Basrah, the Arabian
writers have surnamed the first Al-kebir
(the Great) ; the second, Al-ausatt (the Mid-
dling) ; and the third, Al-asghar (the Small).
The lives of the first and second are in the
" Biographical Dictionary " of Ibn Khal-
lekan. D'Herbelot mentions only one of
them. (D'Herbelot, Bib. Or., sub. voc.
" Akhfasch ; " Ibn Khallekan, Biog. Diet.)

P. de G.

ALALEO'NA, GIUSEPPE, son of Fulvio
Caluccio Alaleona and Lodovica Bartolocci,
both descended from noble families of Ma-
cerata, was born in that city on the 20th of
May, 1670. He studied law, literature, and
Roman history in the university there ; took
the degree of doctor in 1689, and was not
long after appointed professor of law. He
devoted much of his time to poetry and
criticism ; was one of the founders (in 1G92)
of the colony of the Arcadians, which took
the name of Elvia ; contributed a jocular
607

addition to the number of pamphlets elicited
by the controversy on the strictures pro-
nounced by Pere Bouhours on Italian poetry
("Life of the Marchcse GiovanGiosefoOrsi")
in the form of a dialogue in 1711 ;
and published in 1714 several orations and
poems in honour of Violante, princess of
Tuscany. In virtue of an ancient compact
the auditor of the rota of Perugia was se-
lected from among the lawyers of Macerata,
and the auditor of the rota of Macerata
from among the lawyers of Perugia ; in 1718
Giuseppe Alaleona was appointed auditor of
the rota of Perugia. He held the office only
three years, being called in 1721, by the in-
fluence of Peter Grimani, afterwards doge
of Venice, to be lecturer on the institutions
of Justinian in the university of Padua.
In 1728 he was promoted to the principal
chair of civil law in the same university.
He died on the 5th of April, 1749. His
juridical publications are — 1. " Prsclectio ad
Titulum Institutionum de Ha^reditatibus qute
ab Intestato deferuntur. Patavii, 1728," 4to.
This lecture on the succession to intestates
is dedicated to the Reformatori of the uni-
versity ; and in the dedication the author
expresses an intention to publish a complete
commentary on the institutions. 2. " Dis-
sertazione Istorica Legale recitata nella Aca-
demia de' Ricovrati di Padova in Tempo del
suo Principato F anno 1737," 8vo. 3. "Disser-
tazioni del Signor Giuseppe Alaleona Ma-
ceratese Publico Primario Professore di
Ragion Civile nell' Universita di Padova ;
a Profitto de' Giovanni studiosi della me-
desima Faecolta ; dedicate dall Autore al
Serenissimo Principe Pietro Grimani Doge
di Venezia ; in Padova, 1741," 4to. In one
of these dissertations (p. 153.) the author
announces a work to be entitled " Collatio
Juris Veneti et Roman i," which is said to
have been left complete at his death. The
dissertations are not calculated to create a
belief that any serious loss has been sustained
in consequence of its not having been pub-
lished. They possess an interest, however,
as showing the discussions which at that
time occupied the attention of the academical
jurists of Italy. They seem to have been
divided into the disciples of Hobbes and
Grotius. It is worthy of remark that our
author, who was a zealous adherent of the
Roman Catholic faith, avails himself almost
exclusively of quotations from the Protestant
Grotius for the purpose of combating the
doctrines of the philosopher cf Malmesbury.
Alaleona's other published works are — ■
" Orazione e varie Poesie sopra Violante Gran
Principessa di Toscana; in Macerata, 1714."
" La Vagliatura tra Bajone e Ciancone Mugnai
della Lettera toccante le Considerazioni sopra
la Maniera di ben pensare, scritta da un
Academico * * al Signor Conte di * * Dialogo
del Signor Giuseppe Alaleona Maceratese : "
first edition, Lucca, 1711 ; second edition,
K R 4

ALALEONA.

AL-AMIN.

in the second volume of the second edilion
of " Considerazioni del Marchese Giovan
Giosefo Orsi Bolognese sopra la Maniera di
ben pensare ne' Oomparimenti gia publicata
dal Padre Domenico Bouhours ; in Modena,
1735;" third edition in Padova, 1741.
This work displays an elegant and playful
vein of humour : the consideration of the
subject belongs properly to the life of the
Marchese Orsi, or of Pere Bouhours. A
sonnet by Alaleona published in the fourth
volume of Crescimbeni's work leaves a
fa^'ourable impression of his talents for ver-
sification. (Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d' Italia ;
Crescimbeni, Storia delta Poesia Volgare,
vol. iv. p. 281. The " Dissertazioni," &c.
mentioned above.) W. W.

ALALEONA, PA'OLO, a canon in the
ch'jrch of the Vatican, and master of cere-
monies under several successive popes, at the
close of the sixteenth and beginning of the
S3venteenth centuries. Petrucci's collection
of the letters of the Abbate Grillo contains
two addressed to Paolo Alaleona, from which
we learn that he was " Cameriere Segreto "
to Paul V. Mandosius, in his " Bibliotheca
Romana"(vol. ii. p. 256.), mentions that Ala-
leona had composed eight volumes (MS.) of
Ephemerides, which contained many things
worthy of notice, and were regarded as au-
thorities by the masters of ceremonies of his
day (1682). Montfaucon mentions a manu-
script Diary of Paolo Alaleona, in one thick
volume, extending from the 15th December,
1582, imder Gregory XIIL, to the com-
mencement of the pontificate of Sextus V.
Mandosius states that Alaleona died during
the pontificate of Urban YIIL (Mazzuchelli,
Scrittori d' Italia ; Bibliotlieca Bibliotheca rum
j]Ianuscriptonim, a II. P. D. Bernardo de
Montfaucon, Parisiis, 1739, i. 200. ; Biblio-
theca Itomana Authore Prospero INIandusio,
Roma?. 1682, ii. 25G.) W. W.

ALAMANNL [Alemax.m.]
ALAMANNL [Crivelli, Carlo.]
AL-AMI'N'ALA DI'N-ILLAH (the firm
in the true faith) MOHAMMED, suruamed
Abii 'Abdillah, and also Abu Miisa, the sixth
khalif of the house of 'Abbas, was born at
Baghdad in a. h. 170 (a. d. 786-7). He was
the son of Harim Ar-rashid, at whose death,
which happened at Tiis, on Saturday, the 3d
of Jumada the second, a. n. 193 (March,
A. D. 809), he succeeded to the khalifate.
Some time before his death, Hariin Ar-rashid
appointed Al-amin his successor, on condition
that Al-mamuu, another of his sons, should be
left in command of the army assembled at
Tus, and in possession of all the treasure
amassed at that place ; that he should have the
government of Khorasan, and should have
moreover to succeed to the khalifate at the
death of his brother. No sooner, however,
had the news of Hariin"s death reached Bagh-
dad, where Al-amin was then residing, tlian,
disregarding his fatlier's last will, that prince
608

sent a secret message to Fadhl Ibn Rabi', his
father's late vizir, at Tus, and by promises of
great reward, succeeded in gaining him over
to his party, and inducing him to conduct the
army to Baghdad, as well as the treasures
amassed by his father. This being done, a
messenger was despatched to Al-mamun, who
was then residing at Meru, in Khorasan,
urging him to have the authority of his
brother Al-amin acknowledged in that pro-
vince. Al-mamiin was well aware of what
his brother had done, but not considering
himself yet strong enough to resist, he stifled
his resentment, and caused his brother to be
proclaimed from the pulpit of the great
mosque of Meru, at the same time that he
sent him an embassy, with a splendid present,
consisting of horses, arms, and slaves. Wish-
ing, however, to consolidate his power in
Khorasan, and to provide for his own defence
in case he should be attacked, Al-mamiin
secured the attachment of the people of that
province by governing them with justice and
moderation, and remitting the payment of
all arrears of taxes. In a. h. 194 (a.d. 810),
Al-amin, at the instigation of Fadhl Ibn
Rabi, whom in acknowledgment of his
services he had raised to the post of prime
vizir, caused his own son Miisa, then an
infant, to be proclaimed " Wali-l-ahd" or
presumptive heir to the khalifate, and ex-
cluded his brother Al-mamim from all right
to the succession. He then deposed his
brother from the government of Khorasan ;
but as it could not be supposed that Al-
mamun would tamely submit to the spoliation,
an arm J' of forty thousand men was despatched
against him under the command of an ex-
perienced general named Ibn Mahiin ('AIL
Ibn 'Isa) in March, a.d. 811. Meanwhile,
Al-mamiin was not inactive. Having put his
province in a state of defence, he gave the
command of his forces to Tahir Ibn Huseyn,
who was subsequently the founder of the
Tahii'ite dynasty in Khonisan, directing him
to march with the utmost expedition to Ray,
and secure that important city. In com-
pliance with Al-mdm tin's orders, Tahir ad-
vanced by forced marches upon Ray, which
he fortified ; and, having soon after en-
countered the khalif's troops in the neigh-
bourhood of that place, he gained a most
complete victory, and slew their general with
his own hand (July, a.d. 811). The news of
the defeat and death of Ibn Mahan caused
a violent commotion among the people of
Baghdad ; Al-amin was openly charged with
having incurred the wrath of Heaven by his
treacherous behaviour towards his brother,
and the troops, when ordered to march
against the enemj-, refused to leave the
capital. At last the distribution of a large
sum of money among the soldiers overcame
their scruples, and they marched to Khorasan
nuder 'Abdu-r-rahman Al-anhari. This chief
was not more fortunate than his predecessor

AL-AMIN.

in command. Having been defeated at a
pluce between Ray and Hamaddn, he was
compelled to throw himself for protection
behind the walls of Hamadan, and was at
last killed in an attempt to surprise the
enemy's camp (a.d. 812). Tahir now led
liis army to Celashdn, and, having crossed
the pass of that name without opposition,
took possession of Hulwan, where he waited
for some reinforcements which Al-mumiin
had promised him. His march was here
opposed by a fresh army of forty thousand
men under the command of two experienced
officers named Ahmed Ibn Marid and Ab-
dullah Ibn llamid ; but owing to a well-
planned stratagem of Tahir, the troops under
their command dispersed and returned to
Baghdad. Huseyn, the son of Ibn Mahan, was
next intrusted by Al-amin with the prose-
cution of the war ; but he also retreated upon
Baghdad. On the very day of his entrance
into the metropolis, Huseyn received a mes-
sage from his sovereign requiring his attend-
ance. Fearing Al-amin's resentment, Huseyn
refused to obey his summons, declaring that
he would not appear at the palace othei-wise
than at the head of his troops. In the course
of the night Huseyn received a second
message from Al-amin, requesting his pre-
sence, as he had matters of serious importance
to communicate. To this Huseyn replied
that he was neither a minstrel nor a buffoon
to wait upon him at night, and that, as the
khalif could have nothing to communicate to
him but what related to war, he would on
the next day appear in front of the palace at
the head of his troops. At the same time
Huseyn sent for his chief officers, and having
acquainted them with what had passed, he
asked them whether they felt disposed to
change their master ; to which they unani-
mously replied that they were tired of Al-
amin's rule, and would willingly have him re-
placed by another ; and they ended by offering
their assistance and that of the troops under
their orders. With this assurance, Huseyn
proceeded to the royal palace at the head of
a chosen body of ti-oops, and, having over-
powered the guards, seized the khalif, and
confined him to a dungeon. The insurgents
next proceeded to proclaim Al-mamun ; but
a portion of the troops of Baghdad having
shortly after declared for the dethroned
khalif, Huseyn was defeated and put to death,
and Al-amin re-established in his full au-
thority. In the mean time the party of Al-
mamun daily grew stronger in tlie provinces.
His generals had made themselves masters of
Ahwdz, Basrah, Kufah, Wasit, Mosul, and
the greater portion of Arabian 'Irak ; and
the victorious Tahir was fast advancing
against Baghdad, which he ultimately be-
sieged in A. H. 197 (a.d. 812), in concert with
Harthemah, another of Al-mamun's generals,
who took his post at Neherwan. Al-amin,
having strengthened the gates of Baghdad,
609

retired into the citadel, and there awaited the
result of the siege. After an obstinate de-
fence, which lasted several months, and during
which the garrison and citizens of Baghdad
fought with desperation, the besieging forces
took possession of the gate of Basrah and
penetrated into the city, where a succession
of skinuishes for some time arrested their
progress. At last, the besiegers having ef-
fectually cut off the garrison from its com-
munication witli the Tigris, the city was re-
duced to the last extremity, and desertion
began to manifest itself among the khalif's
troops. In this extremity Al-amin came to
the I'esolution of giving himself up to the
generals of his brother ; but as he had every
reason to fear the cruel and vindictive dis-
position of Tahir, he detennined upon apply-
ing to Harthemah. For this purpose he de-
spatched a message to that general, offering
to go over to him and surrender himself,
provided it could be done without the know-
ledge of Tahir, and on condition that Har-
themah would engage to convey him in safety
to his brother Al-mamiin. Harthemah ac-
cepted ; and it was accordingly arranged
that he should approach the palace in a boat,
and that Al-amin should come out to meet
him. The correspondence, however, was
not conducted with such secrecy as to escape
the vigdance of Tahir, who immediately
detennined to disconcert their plans. He
accordingly posted himself with a consider-
able body of troops along the right bank of
the Tigris, and having embarked 200 men
on board some river craft, gave them the
necessary instructions. At the appointed
hour, Harthemah, with a handful of resolute
followers, repaired to the spot agreed upon ;
Al-amin, in the disgiiise of a slave, and his
head mufHed up in his cloak, stepped into the
boat. Scarcely, however, had they gained
the middle of the Tigi'is, when they were
surrounded by those whom Tahir had sta-
tioned on the river. Harthemah and his
followers resolutely defended themselves for
some time ; but the assailants, having trans-
fixed their fragile bark with their spears, it
soon filled with water and sunk beneath the
stream. One of the crew seized Harthemah
by the arm, and conveyed him safe to the
shore ; Al-amin also, after considerable ex-
ertion, succeeded in gaining the eastern bank
of the Tigris, opposite to the city. No
sooner, however, had he put his foot on
shore than he was seized by some soldiers
and conveyed to the tent of Ibrahim Ibn
Ja'far, one of Tahir's officers. As soon as
Tahir was apprised of the capture of Al-amin,
he secretly despatched one of his black slaves,
named Koraysh, with instructions to bring
him the khalif's head. The slave, finding
his victim alone and unprotected, drew his
sword, and, after some resistance, cut off his
head, which he carried to his master. The
death of Al-amin happened, according to

AL-AMIN.

ALAMOS.

Ad-diydrbekri, on Saturday, the 25th of ilo-
harram, a. h. 198 (September, a. v. 813), at
the age of twenty-eight, and after a precarious
sovereignty of four years and about six
months. He is described by the Mohamme-
dan writers as having a fair complexion, being
tall, broad-shouldered, with small eyes, a full
black beard, and a prominent nose. He was
of a kind and benevolent disposition, and very
liberal ; but his neglect of the duties of his
high station, and his excessive indulgence in
pleasure of all kinds, even in the midst of
the dangers by which he was surrounded,
rendered him an object of contempt to his
subjects. (Abu-1-feda, An?i. Musi ii. sub
propriis annis ; Elmacin, //w^ Sarac. p. 124. ;
Price, Chroiiul. Retrospect, ii. 90. ; Ad-diyar-
bekri, Ge«. Hist. MS. ; D'Herbelot, Bio. Or.
voc. " Amin," " Almamoun," &c.) P. de G.

A'LAMOS DE BARRIENTOS, BAL-
TAZAR, was born at Medina del Campo,
in Old Castile, about the middle of the six-
teenth century, and studied law at the uni-
versity of Salamanca. He contracted a warm
friendship with Gonzalo Perez, secretary of
state to Philip II., and afterwards with the
minister's son Antonio, who succeeded him in
the same situation. The disgrace of Antonio
Perez brought ruin on Alamos, who was
imprisoned for twelve years in consequence
of the unfortunate connection. In 1598
Philip II. died, leaving directions in his will
that Alamos should be released ; and in the
succeeding reign, though not employed, he
was looked on with favour by the ministers,
especially the Duke of Lerma, who supplied
him with the means of subsistence. On the
accession of Philip IV., through the influence
of the Count-Duke Olivarez, who highly
esteemed his talents, he obtained several valu-
able places about the court, and was ulti-
mately made a member of the councils of the
Indies and of the royal patrimony. He died
at the advanced age of eighty-eight, leaving
behind him several daughters, one of whom
was married to Don Garcia Tello de San-
doval, himself a writer of some celebrity.

Alamos is known by his translation of
Tacitus, which he originally undertook to
relieve the tedium of imprisonment. It
is the most complete version of the author
extant in the Spanish language. The prin-
cipal portions were executed entirely in
prison, as appears from Philip II. having
granted a licence for their publication in 1594,
four years before Alamos was released ; but the
translations of the Manners of the Germans
and the Life of Julius Agricola were the fruits
of his labours when at large. The whole ap-
peared in one vol. 4to. at Madrid, under the
title of " El Tacito Espafiol illustrado con
Aforismos," in the year 1614. The transla-
tion is scrupulously accurate, but Alamos has
unfortunately not imitated the energetic
brevity of the original, and is reproached
with having overloaded his author with a
610

superfluity of words. The " Aforismos" are
alike deficient in brevity and point, occupymg
almost as much space as the text, and con-
sisting of such choice reflections as " old
monarchs ai'e often led astray by fair ladies,"
and the like. They have been spoken of
slightingly enough by several critics, among
others Amelot de la Houssaie ; but they have
also met with their admirers, one of whom,
Juan de On ate, collected and arranged them
as they were afterwards published by Don
Antonio Fuertes, under the title of " Alma o
Aphorismos de Cornelio Tacito, " Antwerp,
1651, 8vo. This collection was translated
into Italian by Girolamo d'Anghiari, and
published with Politi's version of Tacitus,
Venice, 1665, 4to.

Besides his great work. Alamos wrote
sevei'al treatises which remain in MS., called
respectively, — 1. " Advertimientos al Go-
vierno," addressed to his patron the Duke of
Lerma at the beginning of the reign of
Philip III. ; 2. " El Conquistador," relating
to expeditions in new countries ; and, 3.
" Pantos Politicos, o de Estado." He also
wrote commentaries on Tacitus, which were
licensed for publication, but omitted in the
book on account of their length. (Pellicer,
Ensayo de una BihUothcca de Traductorcs
Espanoles, p. 24. 28. ; N. Antonius, Biblio-
theca Nova Hispana, edit, of 1783, i. 180. ;
Prologue, Dedication, &c. to the Tacito Es-
paiiol.) J. W.

ALAN, abbot of Farfa in Italy in the
eighth century, wrote in Latin an enormous
book of Homilies, the preface to which is
published by Bernard Pezius in the " The-
saurus Anecdotorum," torn vi. part i. p. 83.
(Mosheim, Ecclesiastical Histori/.) A. T. P.

ALAN, bishop of Caithness, was appointed
Chancellor of Scotland in the year 1291. LTpon
the death of Alexander III., king of Scotland,
when the seal deputed for the government of
the kingdom of Scotland was given into the
hands of Edward I., king of England, till the
right of succession should be decided, Ed-
ward on the same day (the 12tli of June, 1291)
conferred it upon Alan, bishop of Caithness.
The royal mandates in this year exhibit an
increase in the chancellor's pay from twenty
marks a month to a mark a day; and to-
wards building his cathedral of Caithness
he received from Edward, on the 26th of
October, forty oaks. Bishop Alan died
before he had enjoyed his dignity seven
months ; for the mandates of January the
8th and June the 20th, 1292, grant to his
brother all the goods and chattels in Scotland
belonging to the late bishop, to be distributed
for the benefit of the soul of the deceased
(" Rotuli Scotia; in Turri Londinensi, et in
Domo Capitulari Westmonasteriensi asser-
vati "). These acts of Edward, particularly
the last, done " from observation of his faith-
ful service" as chancellor, ("intuitu fidelis
obsequii," lib. cit. Mandate, June 20th, 1292,)

ALAN.

seem at variance with the accoimt of Tanner
in " IJiblioth. Brit. Hib.," -svho, following
Dempster, says, " At first he favoured the
side of the English, but afterwards attached
himself to the Scottish party." Tanner states
that he was the author of " Super Ilegalita-
tem Roberti Brusii, Lib. I. ; " " Epistola; ad
Robertum Ross, Lib. L" (Dempster, His-
toria Ecclesiastica Gentis Scotorum ; Tanner,
Bihliothcca Britannico-Hibernica; Holinshed's
Chronicle, ii. 803. ed. 1.577.) A. T. P.

ALAN DE BECCLES, ALANUS
BELLOCLIVUS, ALANUS BEAUCLIF.
Leland, Pits, Bale, and Tanner, have vmder
one or other of these titles celebrated for his
literary acquirements and criticism on the
sacred writers, a native of Suffolk, who was !
professor of philosophy at Paris in the early
part of the thirteenth century. Leland refers j
to :Matthew Paris for corroboration, in whose ;
" Historia Major " (p. 354. ed. Londini, I
1640), we find that this "famous EngUsh- |
man," with others of the university, quitted
Paris in 1229, because they could get no re-
dress for an injury which one of their mem-
bers had sustained in a riot with the citizens.
Under the same name is foimd (lib. cit.
p. 536.) an archdeacon of Sudbury, in 1240,
and (lib. cit. p. 606.) a Norwich archdeacon,
in 1243, who meets a sudden death after
invading the rights of St. Alban's Abbey,
by which tvro last names the same person has
been supposed to be meant. In the papers
of Thomas Blunville, bishop of Norwich,
Alan Beccles, archdeacon of Sudbury, is
mentioned as that bishop's official. These
papers are in the possession of the Dean and
Chapter of Canterbury. The titles of his
works have not been discovered. (Tanner,
Bibliotheca Britannico-Hibernica.) A. T. P.
ALAN, JOHN. [Allex.]
ALAN OF LYNN, prior of the house
of Carmelites at Lynn Regis in Norfolk,
which is also supposed to have been the place
of his birth. He was admitted to the degree
of doctor in the university of Cambridge,
and was in great esteem in his time, both as
a philosopher and divine. He lived in the
reigns of Richard IL and Henry IV. ; he
died in 1420, which appears to be the only
ascenained date in his history.

He is rather to be regarded as a compiler
than an original author, though several small
works in philosophy and divinity are at-
tributed to him. But his labours seem to
have been chiefly directed to the reducing
mto summaries (which are called by no
higher term than indexes), the writings of
many eminent persons, including some of the
sacred writers, with Josephus, Augustine,
Basil, Cxregory, and several later writers,
among whom "is Hoveden and other authors
of chronicles or historical works. A large
catalogue of his indexes is given in Bale
and Pits. Bale says that he found many of
his writings in the library of the Carmelites
611

of Norwich. There is a long and valuable
note concerning the manuscripts of his works
in Tanner. It does not appear that any of
them have been printed. J. H.

ALAN OF TEWKESBURY, an histo-
rical writer of the latter part of the twelfth
century, a friend of Thomas (Becket) arch-
bishop of Canterbury. He was first a monk
in the Benedictine monastery of Saint Saviour
of Canterbury, and afterwards prior of that
house ; but at length was made prior of the
great monastery of Tewkesbury, whence the
addition to his name of Alan. He had
studied at Oxford, where he was admitted to
the degree of doctor, and was greatly cele-
brated both for learning and piety. It was
these qualities which recommended him to
the archbishop by whom he was greatly
beloved. He wrote a treatise on the life and
exile of the archbishop (" De Vita et Exilio
Thomae Cantuariensis"), of which Vossius
says there was a MS. in the Vatican library
cited by Baronius. There is also an historical
work, entitled " Acta Clarendonensia," attri-
buted to him, and several books of epistles.
A few other writings are also attributed to
him. Pits says he saw some of his works
in the library of John Fenn, an Englishman
living at Lovain Abrun. He is one of the
four writers out of whom was compiled the
" Quadrilogus De Vita et Processu S. Thomse
Cantuariensis et ^Martyris super Libertate
Ecclesiastica," printed at Paris in 1495.
The library of Corpus Christi College,
Cambridge, contains, among other works of
Alan, an " Epistola ad Baldweniun Archiepis-
copum de Archiepiscopi Cantuariensis jure
et potestate." J. H.

ALAND, SIR J. F. [Fortescue.]
ALA'NO, HENRI'CUS DE, a professor
of law in the u.niversity of Padua at the
close of the fourteenth and beginning of the
fifteenth centuries. His name has been pre-
served neither by his writings, of which none
are known to exist, nor by his skill as a
teacher, of which it is only vaguely recorded
that he was distinguished in his profession,
but by the part he was called upon to take
in the transfer of the city of Padua from the
sway of the Carrara family to that of the
republic of Venice. Henricus de Alano, a
native of the Trevisan, was appointed pro-
fessor of law in the university of Padua
some time between 1379 and the close of the
century. In 1405 he was nominated dictator
of Padua by the party among the citizens
attached to the Venetian interest, for the
purpose of effecting their submission to the
sovereignty of Venice in due legal form. In
conformity with the statutes of the univer-
sity, he was obliged, on accepting this ap-
pointment, to relinquish his professorship.
Two years elapsed before the arrangements
of the new government were completed : at
the end of that time, the dictator resigned
his authority, and was re-appointed professor,

ALANO.

AL ANSON.

with a liberal salary. The year of his death
is unknown. {Fasti Gi/iimasii Patavini, Ja-
cob! Facciolati Studio atque Opera CoUccti,
Patavii, 1757, 4to.; Nicolai Comneni Papa-
dopoli, Historia Gymnasii Patavini, Venetiis,
1726, fol.) W. W.

ALANSON, EDWARD, was the son of
John Alanson, Esquire, of Newton in Lan-
cashire, whei'e he was born in 1747. In
1703 he was apprenticed to Mr. Pickering, one
of the surgeons of the Liverpool Infirmary, in
whose family he resided for five years. He
then went to London and was a pupil of John
Hunter for two years, at the end of which
time he returned to Liverpool to commence
practice, and was in the same year, 1770,
elected surgeon to the infirmary. He held
the office for twenty-four years, but ill health
obliged him to resign it and to limit his
practice. For the latter purpose he retired
in 1800 to Aughton, near Ormskirk, where
he practised as a consulting surgeon for
seven years. Many of his old patients
followed him thither, and many more came
from a distance, especially from the northern
counties, and took up their residence for a
time at Ormskii'k. In 1808, desirous of re-
turning to his old neighbourhood, he pur-
chased a residence at Wavertree, near Liver-
pool, where he lived practising among his
friends till within a short time of his death,
which occurred in 1823.

Mr. Alanson introduced several Important
improvements in the mode of amputating
limbs. The chief designs of his method of
operating were to obtain a sufficient quantity
of the integuments to cover the stump at
once, and to avoid necrosis of the end of the
bone by securing an immediate union of the
wound. To effect his purpose he used, after
dissecting back and drawing up the integu-
ments, to " apply the edge of the knife under
the edge of the supported integuments, and
cut obliquely through the muscles, upwards
as to the limb and down to the bone, so as to
lay it bare about three or four fingers' breadth
higher than by the usual perpendicular cir-
cular incision, and continue to divide (or
dig out) the parts all round the limb by
guiding the knife in the same direction."
{Practical Observations, ed. 1779, p. 12.) The
stump thus formed had somewhat of the
shape of a hollow cone with the bone at its
apex, and was supposed to be less likely than
any other to permit a subseqixent protrusion
of the bone.

This method of incision, though generally
described as the only peculiarity of Mr.
Alanson's operation, was in reality its only
objectionable part. To make an incision of
this kind with any regularity was found so
tedious and painful that the attempt was soon
generally abandoned. But succeeding years
have more and more confirmed the advan-
tages of the other changes of plan which
Mr. Alanson at the same time urged, and of
C12

which the chief wei"e the discontinuance of
the tape or roller which used to be applied
tightly round the limb at the part where the
incision was to be made, the reflection of the
integuments before cutting through the
muscles, the exact ligature of the arteries
without including any of the adjacent tissues,
the careful cleansing of the surface of tlie
wound, the bringing forward of the skin
over the stump immediately after the opera-
tion, and the avoidance of all tight and warm
dressings. Some of these measures, indeed,
were recommended by a few of the surgeons
before Mr. Alanson's time, but they were not
commonly adopted, and he merits all the
honour of having, by combining them,
brought the operation to its present state.
With the exception of the peculiar method of
dividing the muscles, his plan does not in any
important respect differ from the circular
mode of amputation now visually adopted ;
and there is probably no better account of
the chief circumstances to be observed in
the treatment of patients after operations
than is to be found in his " Observations."

The first description of Alanson's opera-
tion was published with the title " Practical
Observations upon Amputation and the after
Treatment," London, 1779, 8vo. A second
edition, greatly enlarged, was published in
1782, and contains "Further Histories and
Cases in pi-oof of the foregoing Doctrine."
He wrote also " An account of a simple frac-
ture of the tibia in a pregnant woman, in
wliich case the calhis was not formed till
after delivery," in the "Medical Observations
and Inquiries," vol. iv. 1771. (MS. com-
munication.') J. P.

ALA'NUS DE FIFEDALE, a Scotch-
man of the Augustin fraternity, who died in
Rome, A. D. 1421. He wrote " Logicalia
Axiomata, Lib. I. ; " " In Parva Naturalia,
Lib. I. ; " " Epitaphium iEgidii Romani, Lib.
I. ; " " Epitaphium Archiepiscopi Biturigum,
Lib. I. ; " and " iEgidii Romani Testamentum."
(Tanner, Bibliotheca Britannico-Hib mica ;
Dempster, Historia Ecclesiastica Gcntis Sco-
torum.) A. T. P.

ALA'NUS, JOHANNES JANI, is the
Latin form of the name of a Danish writer,
all whose works were composed in Latin.
He was born on the 18th of August, lo63, in
a town called Ala, near Langholm in Hal-
land. During the Swedish war in the reign
of Frederick II. his mother fled with him to
Seeland, where a lady of the name of Birgitte
Giiie sent him to Herlovsholm school, of
which in 1597 he became rector, after having
pursued his studies at home and travelled
nine years abroad. In 1602 he was appointed
" pedagogic professor" at the university of
Copenhagen, and subsequently professor of
rhetoric, of the Greek language, of logic, and
of the Greek language again, at the same
university. He died on the 12tli of February,
1631. ilis writings are — 1. " Dispula-

ALANUS.

ALARCON.

tiones XI LogicsD," or eleven dissertations
on Logic, published at Copenhagen from IGIO
to 1621, in 4to., one apparently in each year.
2. Two disputations " De Sermone," or on
language ; in the first of which he treats of
the diversity of languages ; in the second,
of the variations of the Greek dialects, Co-
penhagen, lG()8-9, 4ta. 3. Two disputations
" De Pronuutiatione GrsDca," on the much-
disputed question of the ancient Greek pro-
nunciation, Copenhagen, 1G22-3, 4to. 4. Two
disputations " Miscellanearum Qutestionum,"
or on miscellaneous questions, Copenhagen,
1024-5, 4to. 5. " Responsio brevis ad Joh.
Goropii Becani et aliorum similium Crimina-
tiones objectas Saxoni Grammatico," a reply
"* to the objections brought against the history
of Saxo Grammaticus by the Dutchman Go-
ropius Becanus and others, Copenhagen,
1627, 4to. 6. " Disputatio de Gentium qua-
rundam Ortu," a dissertation on the origin of
certain natirus, and in particular of the origin
and migrations of the Cimbrians until their
settlement in Denmark, Copenhagen, 1628,
4to. The subjects selected by Alanus are all
of some degree of interest, and he appears to
have treated them with ability. (Witte, Dia-
rtum Biographicum, anno 1G31 ; Worm, For-
sljq til et Lexicon over danske, norske og
islamlskc larde Maud, i. 14.) T. W.

ALA'NUS, called TURONENSIS, either
from living some time in the gi'eater monas-
tery of Tours, or from being a Benedictine
monk of the congregation of Tours, a class
once very common in Scotland, was living
iuA. D. 1350. He was the author of the
following works : — " Historia Comitum de
Galweia, Lib. I.;" "Fundationes Csenobio-
rum. Lib. I. ; " " Rhythmi Latini, Lib. L"
(Dempster, Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Sco-
torum ; Tanner, Bibliotlieca Britannico-Hi-
liernica.) A. T. P.

ALARCO'N, DON ANTONIO SUA'REZ
DE, a knight of Calatrava, who fought under
his father, the first Marquess of Trocifal and
Count of Torres Vedras, against the Moors
at Ceuta in Africa, and afterwards wrote the
genealogical work alluded to in the article
Don Fernando de Alarcon. Lady Fanshaw
names among those who showed her most
attention at Madrid in 1666, three personages
of this illustrious family. W. C. VV.

ALARCO'N, FERNA'N MARTI'NEZ
DE, a Spanish captain of the twelfth century.
His family name was originally Zevallos, but
having signalised himself in the reign of
Alphonso VIII. of Castile, by taking from
the Moors the strong fortress of Alarcon in
the province of Cuenca, and having been ap-
pointed to its command, he assumed the name
and transmitted it to his posterity. There
were latterly two titled branches of this family,
Suarez de Alarcon and Ruiz de Alarcon,
members of which distinguished themselves
in arms in the warlike reigns of Ferdinand
and Isabella, and Charles V. ; and in letters
613

in that of Philip IV. A curious heraldic
illustration appears connected with the ori-
ginator of this name. He gained his renown
on St. Andrew's day in 117G, and as a me-
morial of his prowess his shield received an
augmentation, a border of golden saltires, or
Saint Andrew's crosses, or, (aspas de San
Andres de oro,) on a red ground, gules.
He was buried in the church of A larcon, and
in 1578 his banner was still pendent over his
tomb. (Argote de Molina, Noblcza de An-
duhtcia.) W. C. W.

ALARCO'N, DON FERNANDO DE,
Marques del Valle Siciliana y de Renda, a
Spanish military commander in the wars of
Granada and Italy. Commentaries on his
life and exploits (" elegans et magni pretii
liber," says Ernesti.) were written by An-
tonio Suarez de Alarcon, and published at
Madrid in 1665. To this distinguished no-
bleman, then general of the infantry, was
intrusted the custody of Francis I. of France
after the battle of Pavia. He was, says
Robertson, an of&cer of great bravery and
strict honour, and remarkable for that severe
and scrupulous vigilance which such a trust
required. He had also, after the taking of
Rome in 1527, charge of the person of Pope
Clement VII. Thus, adds tlie historian, the
same man had the custody of the two most
illustrious personages who had been made
prisoners in Europe during several ages.
(Ernesti, Bibliotheca Hispanica GencaJogica,
l-c. ; Robertson's Charles the Fifth.) W. C. W.

ALARCO'N Y MENDO'ZA, DON
JUAN RUrZ DE, a Spanish dramatic
writer of the reign of Philip IV. Of the
writers of Spain, unless pre-eminent in re-
putation as well as talent, biographical notices
are by no means abundant. Nicolas Antonio
did not know the place of his birth nor the
time of his death, but supposed him to have
been a native of Mexico. His time is gene-
rally fixed about the middle of the seven-
teenth century ; but in a preface to a second
volume of his Comedias, published in 1634,
he says that he is the author of twenty
pieces, and complains that some of them had
been attributed to others, as indeed they had,
by certain booksellers, to Lope de Vega and
Montalvan. This fact carries back his
labours to a much earlier date, and places
him among the competitors of the most cele-
brated dramatists of his country ; and it also
indicates the reputation he enjoyed. It has
been conjectured that he was an actor ; but
of this there is no sufficient evidence. He
was a licentiate, a jurisconsult, by profession,
and instances appear in his dramas of re-
search into the ancient laws of Spain.
Though without positive data, we have a
strong persuasion that he was a cadet of the
noble family of Ruiz de Alarcon ; but his
best history is in his works. They show,
not only that his attainments were of a
very high order, but that he was deservedly

ALARCON.

esteemed for his noble qualities and gene-
rosity. It is generally admitted that the best
picture of Spanish manners during the
reigns of the Philips is contained in the
Spanish dramatists. Traitors to the divine
unities, as Boileau and La Harpe de-
nounced them, they nevertheless truly " held
the mirror up to nature, and showed the
very age and body of the time, his form
and pressure ;" and they were also no mean
historians of the chivalrous ages which pre-
ceded them : they gave the best parts of the
vigorous chroniclers of their ancestors in
their own sonorous and majestic verse, for
every Spanish drama is a piece of lyrical
poetry. Alarcon has left many portraitures
of that dignified deportment, that generous
and manly sentiment, that punctilious sense
of honour, and that horror of breach of faith,
which characterised the old nobility of his
country (aquellos Cristianos viejos) ; and
he has sketched them with no less fidelity
and spirit than Lope, Calderon, and De Cas-
tro. No writer has ever more beautifully
delineated that true and delicate regard for
female character in the high-born Spanish
cavalier, for which he has been and is still
distinguished.

There is moreover in most of his dramas
a tone of morality which does him honour,
and places them unquestionably among the
best examples of this branch of literature.
It has been truly observed by a Spanish
annotator, " His pieces not only amuse, but
generally convey a useful moral." The
chastisement of the Backbiter in "Las Pa-
redes oyen" (" Walls have Ears"), and of the
Liar in "LaVerdad sospechosa" ("Lies like
Truth"), are examples of this. It is no small
proof of the merit of the last-named piece, that
CorneiUe, who, to use his own phrase, partly-
translated partly imitated it for the Parisian
stage, under the title of " Le Menteur,"
affirms that he had often said he would give
two of his best pieces if he could call the
invention of that drama his own. Alarcon's
plots are ingenious, his characters well
marked, his style nervous pure and elegant,
and his versification easy and harmonious.
His pieces are also free from the alfected and
extravagant Gongorisms [Gongora] which
disfigure the works of most of his contem-
poraries, and the object of which seems to
have been to mystify and teaze, rather than
to instruct and delight. Among the nume-
rous Spanish poets of this class, none could
be more fitl)^ selected as a model for a
real national drama than Alarcon. Huerta
gives the titles of thirty of his comedies.
The " Ganar Amigos," " La Verdad sospe-
chosa," " Las Paredes oyen," and " El Examen
de Maridos," are best known. The "Tejedor
de Segovia" was very popular. Like Schil-
ler's " Robbers," to which it bears a great
resemblance, it has been the subject both of
much censure and much praise. No com-
614 I

plete edition of Alarcon's works has ap-
peared, nor any volumes except the two
mentioned in the article. His pieces are
only found in miscellaneous collections.
(Nicolaus Antonius, Bibliotheca Hispana ;
Coleccion general de Comedias, Madrid, 1826-
34.) W. C. W.

ALARCO'N Y BEAUMONT, DON
LUIS RUI'Z DE, second son of the Count
Valverde, a member of the imiversity of
Alcaia (Complutensis), and genealogical
writer of the reign of Philip IV., highly
commended by Joseph Pellicer. His work is
entitled " Escrlturas de la Casa de Alarcon,"
a folio volume, published at Madrid in 16.51.

w. c. w.

ALARD, FRANCIS, a Protestant theo-
logian whose life is more remarkable than his
writings. He was born at Brtissels about the
beginning of the sixteenth century, and was
the twentieth and j'oungest son of William
Alard de Cantier, a zealous Roman Catholic
of a good family, who was desirous that one
of his children should embrace a religious
life, but was disappointed by all the preceding
nineteen. Francis was sent by his own con-
sent to a convent at Antwerp in his sixteenth
year, and in his twenty-second entered the
order of Preachers. A young Hamburg
merchant who heard him preach was so
pleased with his manner that he sought his
acquaintance, and with some difficulty per-
suaded him to read the works of Luther,
which he lent to him. Returning to Ant-
werp next year, the merchant found the
monk a complete Lutheran, and assisted him
to escape from the convent and make his
way to Germany to study the doctrines of
the Reformation. The death of the mer-
chant, who supported Alard at the university,
which was that of Jena according to Lam-
bert, of Wittenberg according to Nicholas
Alard, reduced the young convert to such
poverty that he determined to return to
Brussels to appeal to the kindness of his fa-
ther, whose favourite son he had been. His
mother met him accidentally in the street
in Brussels and denounced him to the In-
quisition, which, after vainly endeavouring
to persuade him to recant, determined to put
him to death by poison, to spare his family
the shame of a public execution. Alard took
the poison, and immediately felt a violent
thirst, which he was enabled to appease by
letting down his cap through the grates gf
his prison to a well outside, and the draught
of water he took produced such a vomiting
that the poison failed to kill him, though he
felt the effects of it till his death. On find-
ing that he still survived, the Inquisition de-
termined on bringing him to the stake, and
his mother oS'ered to furnish three loads of
wood towards the pile. On the eve of the day
appointed for his execution Alard escaped,
and a strange story is told, apparently from
his own mouth, of his having heard a voice

ALARD.

calling to him thrice, " Francisco, surge et
vade," " Francis, arise and go ;" immediately
after which he discovered by the light of
the moon a hole in the wall of his dungeon
large enough for him to make his way
through. He fled to the house of one of his
four sisters, who received him with the harsh
welcome of " Whence do you come, heretic ?
do you wish to bring me into misfortune as
well as yourself?" Her husband was more
compassionate, and by his assistance Alard
escaped to Oldenburg, where the Count of
Oldenburg appointed him preacher at the
castle. When the members of the Protestant
faith at Antwerp obtained freedom of religion,
he returned home and officiated as preacher
there ; but he was compelled to leave the coun-
try a second time by the persecution of the
Duke of Alba, and retired to Holstein, where
Christian IV. king of Denmark appointed
him pastor of Kolenkarchen. He was again
recalled to Antwerp about 1566, and had
the gratification of persuading his father to
adopt the Reformed faith. The successes
of the Duke of Alba compelled him to take
to flight once more, and he arrived "poor and
naked " at Holstein, where he was appointed
pastor of Wilster, and died there of the plague,
after twelve years' residence, on the 10th of
September, 1578. By his wife, Gertrude
Bening, who survived him and lived to the
age of 94, he had three sons, Thomas, Wil-
liam, and Francis.

The works attributed to Alard by Nicholas
Alard, the biographer of the family, are as
follows : — 1. " Confessio Antverpiensis,"
Antwerp, 1566, 8vo., a confession of faith
drawn up by Alard in conjunction with
other ministers, and frequently reprinted
both in the original Latin and in French
and Flemish translations. 2. " Ministrorum
Jesu Christi in Ecclesia Antverpiensi qua;
Augustanac Confession! adsentitur Adhorta-
tio," Antwerp, 1566, Bvo., an exhortation by
the Protestant ministers at Antwerp to re-
pentance and prayer, which is signed by the
whole body, among whom Alard's name
stands first. 3. " Antwerpische Agenda und
Kirchen Ordnung," Smalkald, 1567, 8vo.,
an account of the church discipline at Ant-
werp. 4. " Defensio Confessionis Minis-
trorum EcclesiiE Antverpiensis," Basil, 1567,
Svo., a defence of the Confession, published
apparently in the name of all the ministers,
but attributed by some to Flacianus, by
others to Alard. 5. '* Die Catechismus op
Frage enn Antwoorde gestellt," Antw. 1563,
Svo. ; the Catechism in question and an-
swer. 6. " Bewyss uth Gude's Worde unde
den Schriften des dliren Mannes Doct. Mar-
tin Lutheri dat de ErS'-Siinde nicht sy des
Menschen Wesent, syne Seele und Lyff,"
Lubeck, 1575, 4to. (" Proof out of God's
Word, and the Writings of that dear Man
Doct. Martin Luther, that Hereditary Sin is
not Man's Essence, Soul, and Life.") This
615

last work gave rise to a warm answer on the
part of Cyriac Spangenberg, published, in
1577. {Life by his great-grandson Lambert
Alard in Diinisclie Bibltother, vi. 310 — 326. ;
Life by another great-grandson, N. Alard,
Dccas Alardorum, p. 1 — 7. Moller, Cimbria
Literala, ii. 28.) T. W.

ALARD, LAMBERT, a son of William
Alard, was born on the 27th January, 1602,
at Crempe in Holstein, of which his father
was pastor ; and he studied in Germany. On
failing to obtain a professorship at Leipzig,
which was the object of his ambition, he
returned home and acted as his father's col-
league till 1630, when he was appointed by
Christian IV. of Denmark pastor of Briins-
biittel. He discharged the duties of his mi-
nistry forty-two years, and died on the 29th
of May, 1672. He is said by Moller to have
possessed real merits, which were obscured by
ridiculous vanity. Nicholas Alard enume-
rates thirty-one of his works, of which the
most important appear to be — " De Veterum
Musica Liber singularis," Schlesingen, 1636,
12mo., a dissertation on the music cf the
ancients ; " Commentarius perpetuus in C.
"S'alerii Flacci Setini Balbi Argonauticon,"
Leipzig, 1630, Svo., a commentary on the
Argonautics of Valerius Flaccus, in which a
comparison is made between that author and
ApoUonius Rhodius ; and " Laurifolia, sive
Poematum juvenilium Apparatus," Leipzig,
1627, 12mo., a collection of his juvenile
poems. He also wrote, under the title of
" Nordalbingia," a history of the principal
events in Holstein from the time of Char-
lemagne to the year 1637, which is errone-
ously stated by Hendreich to have been
published by Alard in 1643, in German,
but was in reality first printed in Latin in
Westphalen's " Monumenta inedita Rerum
Germanicai'um," Leipzig, 1739, 4to. The
writings of Alard are in four languages:
German, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. (^.loUer,
Cimbria Literata, i. 7, &c. ; N. Alard, Decas
Alardorum, p. 21, &c. ; Westphalen, Monu-
menta, i. 1749—2006.) T. AV.

ALARD, NICHOLAS, was the son of
Nicholas Alard, a preacher and writer, who
was born at Suderauf on the 17th of Decem-
ber, 1644, and died at Hamburg on the 3d
of October, 1699. The second Nicholas was
born at Tonningen on the 6th of September,
1683, studied at Kiel, became pastor of va-
rious congregations, and finally of that of the
cathedral at Hamburg in 1738, and died in
1756, according to some on the 13th of
February, and to others on the 19th of
January. His principal work was entitled
" Decas Alardorum Scriptis clarorum," Ham-
burg, 1721, 12mo., a biographical account
of ten of his namesakes of literary merit,
chiefly of his great grandfather, Francis
Alard [Alard, F.] and his descendants.
When it is considered how limited the sub-
ject is, and how familiar the author might be

ALARD.

ALARDUS.

expected to be ■with it, the work appears re-
markable for its deficiencies. Akird was also
the author of " Dissertatio de Misericordia
Dei fortuita," Wittenberg, 1705, 4to., a dis-
sertation on the fortuitous mercies of God,
extracted from Luther's commentary on
Genesis ; " Bibliotheca Harmonico-bibiica,"
Hamburg, 1725," a biblical harmony ; and
" Leichenpredigt auf Herrn H. HoUe," Leip-
zig, 1730, folio, a funeral sermon on H.
Holle. He left in manuscript historical no-
tices of the monastery of Reinbeck. (Jocher,
Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexicon, i. 186. ; Ade-
lung, Fortsetzung zti JiJcher^s Gelehrten-
Zexico, i. 390.) T. W.

ALARD, WILLIAM, a son of Francis
Alard, -was born on the 2 2d of November,
1572, and lost his father in his sixth year.
He studied at Wittenberg, and returning
home in 1575 was appointed conrector of the
school at Crempe, of -which place he was
finally appointed pastor, and where he re-
mained all the rest of his life, though fre-
quently invited to preferment in other places.
He died on the 8th of May, 1645. He was
twice married, and before his death had seen
twenty children, forty-two grandchildren, and
two great-grandchildren.

William Alard was much more celebrated
as an author than Francis. His works, as
enumerated by Nicholas Alard, are forty-
five in number ; they are in prose and verse
and in three languages, Latin, High German,
and Low German. They are all of a reli-
gious, almost all of an ascetic character. His
Latin poetry was thought so highly of, that,
as his biographer and grandson tells us with
exultation, he was twice presented with the
imperial laurel, once by Anthony Count of
Witersheini, chancellor of the counts of
Schauenburg; and the second time by Chris-
tian Theodore Schosser, historiographer of
the electors of Brandenburg. The list of
his works is given not only by N. Alard
but by Moller, and, with some incorrectness,
by Hendreich. (N. Alard, Dccas Alardorum,
p. 8 — 21. ; jNIoller, Cimhria Literata, i. 4 — 7. ;
Hendreich, Puudcctcc Braudcnhurgiccc, p. 77,
78.) ■ T. W.

ALARDUS, ^MSTELREDA'MUS, born
at Amsterdam of a respectable family to-
wards the close of the fifteenth century.
According to Melchior Adam, he prosecuted
his literary studies at first at Cologne, and
subsequently at Louvain. Alardus, in a
letter addressed to Rutgerus Rescius, men-
tions that in very early life he gave instruc-
tion in the belles lettres in the grammar-
school at Alkmaar, along with Bartolomaeus
Coloniensis. In a letter addressed to Petrus
Nannius he reminds that eminent scholar
that while at Alkmaar he explained the Rhe-
toric of Herennius to him. In the letter to
Rescius, Alardus mentions that during his
stay in Alkmaar he had bought, at a high
price, from Barbara, the daughter of Anto-
C16

nius Susatensis, a number of the essays, let-
ters, and other minor works of Rudolphus
Agrieola. The next incident in his life of
which a record has been preserved, and the
first to which even an approximative date
can be attached, is a visit which he paid to
Deventer, at considerable expense and the
hazard of his life, at a time when the district
was rendered insecure by war, in the hope of
procuring a complete and accurate copy of
Agricola's treatise on Dialectic. This was
in the year 1515 or 1516. The MS. was
both imperfect and inaccurate ; bad as it
was, however, he deemed it most advisable
to give it to the world with all its faults in
the mean time, and to embrace the earliest
opportunity of publishing an amended edi-
tion. The work appeared, in consequence,
in 1516, at Louvain, in folio, from the press
of Tbeodoricus Alustensis ; and soon after it
appeared, Alardus delivered a course of lec-
tures explanatoi-y of it. His place of resi-
dence and pursuits between 1516 and 1525
are uncertain. During that time he appears
to have visited Cologne for the purpose of
superintending the pi'inting of an amended
edition of Agricola's Dialectic, and to
have been frightened from the city by the
breaking out of the sweating sickness. For
some time previous to 1525 he resided in Lou-
vain, and according to Melchior Adam was
a housemate of Martinius Dorpius (ilar-
tino Dorpio contubernalis). After the death
of Dorpius, which occurred in that year,
Alardus yielded a reluctant consent to tlie
solicitations of Meynardus Mannius, alibot
of Hecmund, to accompany him to Holland.
It was expected that the eloquence and skill
in dialectic for which Alardus had ob-
tained so high a reputation in the schools
might be turned to account in an attempt to
arrest the progress of the Reformed doctrines
in Holland by his preaching. The attempt was
a failure ; and in 1526 Alardus wrote to a
friend from Hecmund that he had returned to
the life of learned leisure which the suggestions
of his friends had tempted him to relinquish ;
and that though he confessed more honour
and worldly profit lay within the grasp of
the popular preacher, his own mode of life
had greater charms for him. In this year he
published the original Greek of an epistle of
Hippocrates of Cos to Damagetus, accom-
panied by a Latin paraphrase. His enthu-
siastic admiration of Rudolphus Agrieola,
which had induced him to expend much
money and incur personal risk to procure
any works of that author he could hear of,
remained unabated. From the publication of
the first inaccurate edition of the Dialectic
in 1516, his search after a more perfect copy
Avas unremitted. In 1528 he learned from
Pompeius Occo that a copy of the work
which he had inherited from his uncle Adol-
phus, and which had been missing, had been
recovered. On this intelligence he flew to

ALARDUS.

Amsterdam, and finding the book complete
and accurate, persuaded Occo to intrust it to
liim for publication. The letter from Alar-
dus to Petrus Nannius above aUuded to is
dated from Amsterdam in 1520 : in it he
speaks of his exertions to spread among his
countrymen of Holland a conviction of the
importance of elementary schools ; criticises
with much judgment the mode of teaching
at that time prevalent ; announces that he
has with difficulty procured three scholars
for his correspondent (at that time a school-
master in Alkmaar) from among the many
worshippers of Mammon in Amsterdam, and
had but slender prospects of being able to
send him more for some time, but mentions
a j'oung orphan whom he intended to in-
trust to his care. A letter addressed in
April, 1329, from Cologne by Johannes
Phrissemius to Alardus, assures him that he
will find it easy to make a profitable arrange-
ment with a printer there for the publication
of the book, and invites him, in order to
avoid expense, to reside in his house till a
bargain is completed. Something must have
occurred to prevent Alardus from under-
taking the office of editor at that time. An
edition was published soon after by Phris-
semius, but it was not till 1539 that Alardus
published it, with voluminous scholia, in a
pretty complete edition of the works of Agri-
cola. The dates of his various publications
are the only events by which we can trace
his existence from 1529 till 1539 ; it would,
however, be rash to infer that he resided in
the towns named upon the title-pages of these
books in the years when they appear to have
been published. Of the few letters of Alar-
dus which have been presei'ved nearly one
half are dated in the year 1539, and from
Cologne, and relate to his publication of the
collected works of Agricola. In the same
year he published Jlarboda^us' work ou
gems, with scholia ; and in the dedication to
the Bishop of Hecmund he mentions that
the book had attracted his attention while
ransacking the episcopal library, in the years
immediately preceding, for information re-
garding precious stones, with a view to a
contemplated edition of the works of St.
Augustine. He died at Louvain, according
to one account in 1544, but more probably
in 1541. The talents and acquirements of
Alardus are highly spoken of by his con-
temporaries : even jMelanchthon bears testi-
mony to his literary eminence. His advice
was much in request with pai'ents and guar-
dians who were anxious to secure a good
education for the young men intrusted to
their care. Notwithstanding his success as a
lecturer on rhetoric, it is apparent that he
was unsuccessful in his attempt to become a
popular preacher. His zeal in the cause was
not in fault, for he continued through life a
determined opponent of the Lutherans. He
seems to have belonged to that party in the

VOL. I.

Romish church whose cultivated taste made
them feel the necessity of abandoning some
of the grosser superstitions which had grown
up during the dark ages. He was rather
deaf, and had the reputation of being talk-
ative. Erasmus said he made himself amends
by his tongue for the defect in his ears ; and
the same idea has been amplified in an
anonjmous epitaph. But whatever be the
judgment passed upon him in other respects,
he is entitled to respect and gratitude for the
unremitting enthusiasm with which he sought
out every fragment of Rudolphus Agricola's
writings, and for his services in the cause of
education. Notwithstanding that there is
reason to believe, from the mention of a
nephew in his letter to Nannius, that he had
surviving relations, he bequeathed his library
to the asylum for orphans in his native town.
The library of the British Museum contains
the following publications by Alardus : —
1. " Rodolphi Agricola; Phrisii Lucubrationes
aliquot lectu dignissima; in banc usque diem
nusquam prius editae, ca;teraque ejusdem viri
plane divini omnia qua? exstare creduntur
opuscula, plusquam depravatissime ubique
jam olim excusa, nunc demum ad autogra-
phorum exemplarium fidem per Alardum
iEmstelredamum emendata et additis scho-
liis illustrata. Epistola Johannis Phrissemii.
Erudita cumprimis Philippi Melanthonis
Epistola, Mores, Eruditionem, Yitamque Ro-
dolphi Compendio perstringens. Cum aliis
cognitu perquam necessariis quae versa de-
prehendes pagina. Colouia?, apud Johannem
Gymnicum," 4to. There is no year men-
tioned either in title-page or colophon ; it is
however well known to have been published in
1539. 2. " Epitome primi Libri de Inven-
tione dialectica Rodolphi Agricolse Phrysii,
adjectis sane quam appositis in singulos locos
exemplis per Alardum iEmstelredamum.
Parisiis, apud Christianum Wechelum, 1539,"
12mo. This is a reprint : we have not been
able to ascertain when it was first published,
but from the dedication it appears to have been
composed in Louvain. 3. 'l-n-TroKparovs Kwov
irphs Aatxay-qrov 'EmaToArj. Hippocratis Coi
Epistola ciunprimis erudita juxta ac salutaris,
interprete simul et paraphraste Alardo iEm-
stelredamo. Salingiaci, 1539." This also is a
reprint : the first edition appears to have been
published in 1526. 4. " Marbodaei Galli
Ca;nomannensis de Gemmarum Lapidimique
pretiosorum Formis Naturis atque Viribus eru-
ditum cumprimis Opusculum, sane quam utile
cum ad Rei medico?, tum Scripturse sacra; Cog-
nitionem : nunc primvun non modo centum
versibus locupletatum pariter et accin-atius
emendatum, sed et scholiis quoque illustra-
tum per Alardum JJ^mstelredamum. Cujus
studio additaj sunt et prrecipua; gemmarum
lapidnmque pretiosorum explicationes ex
vetustissimis quidem auctoribus coacta;.
Cum scholiis Pictorii Villengensis. Colonife,
1539," 12mo. The list of his remaining
s s

ALARDUS.

ALARIC.

works we are under the necessity of taking
from \^alerius Andreas, whose catalogue has
been servilely copied by every subsequent
■writer. It is extremely deficient : several
works are omitted altogether, and in the case
of others reprints are mentioned instead of
the original publications. 5. " Ritus edendi
Agnum Paschalem, cum x Plagis Egypti,
carmine heroico. Amstelodami, 1523." 6.
" C'aroli V. Panegyris et Paraceleusis, seu
Exhortatio ad Ecclesiffi Reformationem,l532."
7. " Encomium Hospitalitatis Abrahse, cum
Adjunctis Poematis :" time and place of
printing not mentioned. 8. " Commentariimi
in Progymnasmata Aphthonii. Colonia?,
1532." 9. " Matthrei Philadelphiensis Preca-
tiones pifE et ad Sumtionem Dominici Cor-
poris non pai'imi conducentes, Latinitate
donata;. Colouite Agrippinensis, 1532." 10.
" Parasceve ad SS. Eucharistiaj Sacramenti*
Perceptionem : additis Orationibus piis de
Passione Christi e Sanctis Patribus aliisque
collectis. Colonia?, 1532." 11. " Dissertatio
contra Anabaptismum. Autverpiae, 1535,"8vo.
12. " De Eucharistiai Sacramento, Lib. I.
Lovanii, 1537,"Svo. 13. " Ecclesiastes sive
Concionator, juxta locos Rudolphi Agricolse.
Colonia; apud Gymnicum ; Parisiis apud
Wechelem." The year of neither edition is
mentioned. 14. "Descriptio Hwretici, secun-
dum Locos Rudolphi Agricola?. Salingiaci,
1539," Svo. 15. " Baptismus Christianus et
Matrimoniumdescriptum per Dialecticce Locos
Rudolphi Agricolffi. Salingiaci, 1539," Svo.
16. "Erasmi Bucolicon, cuititulusPamphilus,
cum scholiis. Colonia?, 1539." 17. "Mulier,
sive Uxor juxta Inventionis Dialectics Locos
explicata. Colonise, 1539." 18. " Disserta-
tiuncula; tres, advers. Ha?reticos : quarum L
de Peccato originali ; IL de Justificatione per
Christum ; IIL de Justorum Operibus et Me-
ntis. Antverpia;, 1541." 19. " Oratio de
Matrimonio. Lovanii, 1543." (Vitce Ger-
manorum Philosophorum, coUectoe a Melchiore
Adamo, Francofurti, 1663 ; Dccas Alardorum
Scriptis Claronnn, collecta a Nicolao Alardo
Pastore Steinbeccensi, Hamburg!, 8vo.; Bayle's
IJictionary, voce " Agricola, Rudolphus ;" and
the letters of Alardus and his friends scat-
tered through the complete edition of Agri-
cola's works, or prefixed to the other three
publications of Alardus mentioned above, as
contained in the library of the British Mu-
seum.) W. W. ^

ALARIC. This name occurs in the ge-
nealogies of the Saxon kings, as that of an ;
illegitimate son of Ida the first king of \
Northumbria, and consequently as being I
brother to Adda : his a;ra, the middle of the j
sixth century. Nothing is known of him. |

J. H. I

ALARIC I., a king of the Visigoths in the ,
5th century a. d. He was descended from
the noble race of the Balthi, and in his
youth learned the art of war under the Em- ^
peror Theodosius. I. In 395 he became the
CIS '

leader of the Visigothie insun-ection ; he
marched from Thrace into Greece in 396, and
reached Athens without a check. He de-
vastated the whole of Attica, and exacted the
greater part of the wealth of Athens as the
ransom of its inhabitants. He then took
Corinth, Argos, and Sparta, plundering the
cities and enslaving the inhabitants.

In 397, Stilicho, the general of Honorius,
landed in the Peloponnesus with a large army
from Italy to oppose Alaric. An engagement
took place near Corinth, in which; after an
obstinate resistance, the Goths were defeated,
and, retreating to Pholoe, a mountain on the
frontiers of Elis, were there blockaded by
Stilicho. Alaric, taking the Romans by sur-
prise, broke through the entrenchments with
which they had surrounded him, and forced
his way into Epirus. He secretly, upon this,
made a treaty with the court of Constantinople,
and Stilicho was compelled to abandon Greece
by the command of the Emperor Arcadius,
who appointed Alai'ic master general of the
Eastern lUyricum. He availed himself of
the advantages of this post by obtaining arms
for his own troops from the different maga-
zines of arms within his government. He was
made king of the Visigoths by his own people,
and he alternately cajoled with promises
the courts of Rome and Constantinople.
Meanwhile he formed the project of invading
Italy, which he put into execution a.d. 400.
We are not well informed as to the circum-
stances of his passage across the Alps and
his conquest of the provinces of Istria and
Venetia, or how he employed himself in the
interval between the date of his invasion and
the year 403, when he appeared before Milan,
where the Emperor Honorius was then re-
siding. His advance excited the greatest
alarm. Honorius fled, not daring to trust
the strength of Milan ; and in the absence of
Stilicho, who had been called away to quell
an insurrection in Rhoetia, was besieged by
Alaric in Asta, a town of Liguria. He was
rescued by the return of Stilicho, who sur-
rounded the Goths on every side by en-
trenchments, cutting off their retreat. Alaric
still preserved his undaunted determination
to conquer Italy. The Roman general, avail-
ing himself of the time when the Goths,
celebrating the festival of Easter, were un-
guarded, attacked them at Pollentia, near
Turin, and defeated them with great slaughter,
taking prisoner the wife of Alaric. The
Gothic chief still persisted in his determin-
ation to force his way to Rome ; but being
intercepted by Stilicho, he concluded a treaty
with him, and agreed to quit Italj'. In his way
back, making an attempt on Verona, he was
surprised by the troops of Stilicho, and sus-
tained great loss, after which he was allowed
to retreat from Italy with an army much
diminished by slaughter, desertion, and famine.
After this expedition Alaric abandoned tlie
service of Arcadius, and concluded a treaty

ALARIC.

•with the Emperor of the West, by the terms
of which he was made master general of the
Roman armies in tlie prefecture of Illyrienm,
in order to aid Stiliclio in wresting tlie eastern
division of this country from the Eastern
Empire. In this post he made many claims
on Honorius for alleged services, and threat-
ened war on the non-fulfilment of his de-
mands ; a subsidy of 4000 lbs. of gold was in
consequence granted to him. After the death
of Stiliclio, A. D. 408, Alaric, availing himself
of the disaffection which ensued, appeared on
the Italian frontiers. Ilis offers for further
negotiation having been rashly rejected by
the court of Ravenna, he advanced by bold
and rapid marches from the Alps to Arimi-
nium (Rimini), plundering on his way the
cities Aquileia, Altinum, Concordia, and Cre-
mona. Hence, following the course of the
riaminian way, he proceeded through Um-
bria to Rome, and investing the city closely,
he soon reduced it to a state of famine.
The Romans made offers of surrender on
honourable terms, bidding him beware, if
he rejected this alternative, of the courage
of a despairing people. Alaric, with scorn-
ful pithiness, replied, " The thicker the
hay, the easier it is mowed." His terms were
at first so severe as to leave the inhabitants
little beside their lives ; but he afterwards
agreed to raise the siege on condition of an
immediate payment of 5000 lbs. of gold,
30,000 lbs. of silver, 4000 robes of silk, 3000
pieces of scarlet cloth, and 3000 lbs. of
pepper. On receiving this tribute, which
was raised with some difficulty, Alaric drew
off his troops into Tuscany. The slaves
deserted to him in great numbers, and he
received a large re-inforcement of Goths and
Huns imder Ataulphus, his wife's brother.
Though occupying so strong a position in Italy,
Alaric, for reasons which we cannot at this
distance of time attempt to explain, was very
moderate in his demands upon Honorius.
His stipulations were, to receive an annual
subsidy of corn and money, and to occupy
with his people Dalmatia, Noricum, and \'e-
netia. It was further suggested by Jovius,
the minister of Honorius, that Alaric should
be made master-general of the armies of the
West. But the folly and wickedness of the
ministers of Honorius prevented the accept-
ance of offers apparently moderate, and a
letter from the emperor, agreeing to the
annual payment demanded by Alaric, but
hauglitilj' refusing to a barbarian the com-
mand of the army, was imprudently shown
by Jovius to Alaric, who, exasperated at the
moment beyond his usual moderation, im-
mediately set out from Ariminium to Rome.
On his route he despatched a solemn embassy
of the bishops of the towns of Italy, mode-
rating his terms and imploring Honorius to
accept them before it was too late. His warn-
ing was imheeded ; and acting with great
promptitude, he seized upon the port of Ostia
619

and, once in possession of the corn magazine
there, immediately compelled Rome to surren-
der. On his entrance into the city he invested
Attains, the prefect of the city, with the im-
perial purple. But this usurper soon proved
himself unworthy of the high station to which
he had been exalted ; and the failure of the
expedition sent, by him to Africa against
Heraclian, and his general incapacity either
to govern or obey, induced Alaric to depose
him. Renewing, after this, his negotiations
with the court of Raveana, the Gothic king
was finally provoked to fresh hostilities by
the attack made upon him by Sarus, one of
his own nation, in the pay of Honorius, who
cut to pieces a considerable body of his
troops. Alaric again marched from the
neighbourhood of Ravenna, whither he had
gone to urge in person his offers of treaty on
the emperor, to Rome ; the city was imme-
diately surrendered by traitors within, and
delivered to be sacked, a. d. 410. The Chris-
tian piety of Alaric spared the churches
amid the general plunder. In a few days
the Goths, laden with booty, were led off by
their chief into Campania, and thence into
the south of Italy, ravaging all the countr}'
in their course. Extending his views of
conquest, Alaric now planned the invasion
of Sicily, purposing to make that island his
stepping-stone in the passage to Africa. Hav-
ing marched to the southern extremity of
Italy, he proceeded to embark his troops; but
a tempest destroyed some of his ships, and
he was arrested by death in the midst of his
preparations, a. d. 410. The Goths turned
the course of the river Busentinus, near
Consentia or Cosenza, in the territory of the
Bruttii, and placing the remains of their
king in the bed of the river restored the
water to its original channel ; and that the
spot might be for ever concealed, they mas-
sacred the prisoners employed on the work,
(Claudian, De Bello Getico, and Jn liu-
finum, ii. ; Jornandes, De Bebus Geticis,
c. 29. ; Zosimus, Histories, vi. ; Sozomen,
Hist. Ecclcsiastica, vii. and viii. ; Socrates,
Hist. Ecclcsiastica, vii. ; see also Gibbon, v.,
and the authorities quoted by him ; Green-
wood, First Book of the History of the Ger-
mans.) C. N.
ALARIC II., king of the Visigoths, ninth
in descent from Alaric I., succeeded while
very young to the dominions of his father
Euric in France, a. d. 484. Soon after his
accession he came in contact with the growing
power of the Franks. Clovis their king had
defeated Syagrius, A. d. 488, who, with the
title of king, or, perhaps, to speak more
accurately, of patricius, governed Soissons
and part of the second Belgic, in which sub-
jects of the Roman empire yet remained.
(See Biet, Sur I'Epoque de V Etablissement des
Francs dans Ics Gattlcs, p. 178, et seq.) Sj--
agrius lied to Alaric, who was compelled by
Clovis to surrender him. The Visigoths
s s 2

ALARIC.

professed Arianism, and on the pretext of
destroying this heresy the Prankish king
formed the design of conquering their
country. The banishment of Volusianus,
bisliop of Tours, on account of his non-
conformity with Arian tenets, was made a
grievance by Clovis, and k^d to disputes, the
settlement of whicli was vainly attempted by
the mediation of Theodoric, and by a cou-
ference of the two kings on a small island in
the Loire, on which occasion Clovis is said
to have made false tenders of peace. Alaric
continued to persecvite his refractory bishops,
till, invited by the general discontent in the
Gothic kingdom, Clovis marched through
Tours and crossed the Loire at Poitiers.
Alaric had not neglected the means of de-
fence ; he had collected an army, numerous
but unused to active service. At the passage
of the Vienne, swollen at the time by an
accidental flood, the Goths opposed the march
of Clovis, who was however enabled by the
discovery of an luiguarded ford to cross the
river. Alaric, who was expecting promised
aid from his father-in-law Theodoric, king
of the Ostrogoths, urged by the precipitate
counsels of his younger warriors to give battle,
still hesitated, till he was attacked about ten
miles from Poitiers by the Franks. In the
battle which ensued the Goths fought bravely,
but were defeated with great slaughter, and
Alaric encountering Clovis in single combat
was killed by him, a. d. 507. From this
event may be dated the foundation of the
Merovingian dynasty in France. Alaric left
two sons, Giselle, a bastard, and Amalaric,
the fruit of his marriage with Theudicote or
Theodogothe, the daughter of Theodoric, king
of the Ostrogoths, whose ally he had been
against the Ileruli. Giselic reigned for a
short time over the remnant of the Gothic
kingdom ; Amalaric was afterwards placed
on the throne bj' Theodoric, and died a. d. 531,
when the dynasty of the Visigoths in France
was finally extinguished. (Gibbon, vi. c. 38.
8vo. ; Gregorius Turonensis, lib. ii. in Bou-
quet, Mecueil lies Historiens ties Gaules, ^t.
vol. ii. ; Procopius, De Bell. Goth. lib. ii.
c. 12. ; Jornandes, De Rebus Geticis, c. 58.)

C. N.
The reign of Alaric II. was signalised by
an attempt to form a body of law for the use
of his Roman subjects, which is generally
known under the name of the Breviarium or
Breviarium Alaricianum. The only authority
for the history of this legislation is the Com-
monitorium prefixed to the code, of which
Savigny has given a corrected text. In the
twenty-second year of his reign Alaric com-
missioned a body of jurists, probably Romans,
to make a selection from the imperial con-
stitutions and the writings of the Roman
jurisconsults. The compilation was made
in the city of Aire (Aduris) in Gascony, and
was confirmed by an assembly of bishops
and nobles ; and a copy of it, signed bj
620

Anianus, the referendarius of Alaric, was sent
to each comes, with instructions to allow the
use of no other law under pain of heavy
penalties. The circumstance of the copies
being signed by Anianus (Anianus . . . hunc
codicem . . . edidi atque subscripsi) has given
rise to the unfounded notion that he was the
compiler of the code ; but his signature was
only the official evidence of the authority of
the copies. This compilation had no appro-
priate name : it was called Lex Romana, and
at a later period it was called Lex Theodosii,
Corpus Theodosii, from the title of the code,
which forms an important part of it. The
name Breviarium or Breviarium Alarici-
anum is comparatively modern.

The Breviarium consists of the following
materials arranged in the order here enume-
rated: — 1. The sixteen books of the Thec-
dosian Code. 2. The Novella? of Thec-
dosius XL, Valentinian, Marcian, Majorian,
and Severus. 3. The Institutiones of Gains
in two books. 4. The Recepta? Sententise of
Paulus in four books. 5. Codex Gregorianus,
thirteen titles. 6. Codex Hermogenianus,
two titles. 7. A short extract from Pa-
pinianus. Lib. I. Responsorum.

In the commonitorium or general instruc-
tions prefixed to the compilation (which is
not found in all the MSS.), and also in the
compilation, the materials of which the code
of Alaric consists are referred to two ge-
neral heads. Leges and Jus. The term Leges
comprehends laws properly so called, that is,
imperial constitutions ; and Jus comprehends
the writings of the Roman jurists, such as
the Institutiones of Gains, and the com-
pilations made by private individuals, as the
Codex Gregorianus and Hermogenianus. The
parts selected for this compilation have ncai-ly
always been given without any alteration,
with the exception of the Institutiones of
Gains, which were epitomised, and various
alterations were introduced into the text.
All the parts of the compilation, except
Gains, are accompanied by an interpretation,
which appears to have been made by the
compilers, and was found necessary because
the original text, so far as it was adopted,
was given entire, and would often either be
obscure or ill suited to the condition of the
inhabitants of Gaul. As Gaius was com-
pletely remodelled, there was no occasion for
an interpretation there. It is obvious that
the Breviarium is of little use for correcting
the text of Gaius, but it often shows what
subjects were treated in those passages of
Gaius which are defective in the Verona MS.
Some parts of this epitome of Gaius are not
taken from the Institutiones.

The Breviarimn has considerable value
for the history of the Roman law, as it con-
tains sources which are otherwise entirely or
partially unknown — the Recepta; Sententias
of Paulus and the first five books of the
Theodosian Code. But juristical learning had

ALARIC.

ALARY.

greatly declined at the time -when this com-
pilation was made, as we must infer from
the fact that no use was made of Ulpian,
very little of Papinian, that Gains was
epitomised, and that the best works of Paulus
were not selected by the compilers.

There are numerous JMSS. of the Brevi-
ariuni ; but the only complete edition of the
Breviarium alone is that of Sichard, Basle,
1.528, fol. The whole Breviarium, together
with other things, is contained in the Jus
Civile Antejustinianeum, Bei'lin, 1815. (Sa-
vigny, Geschichte des Bum. Jl( clits im Mit-
telaltcr, vol. ii. ; Zimmern, Geschichte desRiJm.
Privatrechls; Gains, Fro-fat. prima: edit, pra-
missa.) G. L.

ALARY, BARTHELEMY, was born at
Grasse in Provence about the middle of
the seventeenth century, and for some time
practised as an apothecary in his native place.
He is reputed to have been the first of that
class of pharmaceutists who are distinguished
by the sale of secret remedies for particular
diseases, and to have introduced this species
of empiricism by vending lozenges for the
cure of intermittent fevers, which he declared
would quickly and certainly yield to their
influence. The direct action of these reme-
dies was to excite vomiting, to promote per-
spiration, and many of the other secretions of
the body. They were composed of angelica,
coutrajerva, antora, black hellebore, gentian,
various salts, and arsenic. Having practised
with success upon Jean Raibaut, an anatomist
and surgeon of some reputation at Grasse,
Alary went to Paris in or about the year
1680. The wife of Aquin, chief physician to
Louis XIV., was at this time suffering under
an intermittent fever, which had resisted all
the medicines then usually employed ; appli-
cation was made to Alary in her behalf, and
two doses of his nostrum were sufficient to
effect her cure. This success, in so well-
known a person, of course quickly gave repu-
tation to the remedy. Royal pati'onage was be-
stowed upon the inventor, and the king made
him a handsome present, directed the lozenges
to be used in all the French hospitals, and
ultimately purchased the secret. To so great
a height had the confidence in the efficacy of
this remedy attained, that Louvois, one of
the ministers of Louis XIV., was thought to
confer a great service on the French army
by presenting them with 20,000 of these
lozenges. Alary established a mart at Paris
for the sale of his medicine, and produced a
work entitled " La Guerison assuree des
Ficvres Tierces, double-tierces en deux jours,
quatres et double -quat res en quatre jours,
par le remede de B. Alarj^, fait et distribue
par privilege du Roi." Paris, 1685, 12mo.
In this work he describes the mode in which
the remedy is to be administered, the regime
to be followed during the time of its employ-
ment, and the different effects which it pro-
duces ; at the same time he repels the
621

charges brought against its universal utility
b}' physicians, and gives some general direc-
tions for the hygienic management of patients
suffering under fevers. (Mangetus, Biblio-
theca Med. ; Acta Entditorum, 1685.)

G. M. H.

ALARY, E'TIENNE AIME', a sol-
dier-priest distinguished for his piety and
bravery, was born at Montpezat in the pre-
sent department of Ardeche in the month of
September, 1762. He studied theology at
the seminary at Viviers, and took holy orders
in 1785. On the breaking out of the revo-
lution he attached himself to the fortunes of
the royal family, was outlawed, and forced to
emigrate in 1792. He was afterwards ap-
pointed aumonier du quartier general of the
Prince of Conde, and successively confessor
of the Dukes of Angouleme and of Berri.
He accompanied the army of the Prince of
Conde through the campaigns of 1792, 1793,
1794, 1795, 1796, 1797, 1799, and 1800, was
present at every engagement in which it
took part, and displayed the greatest cou-
rage in rendering spiritual consolation and
assistance to the wounded. He was himself
wounded before Munich in 1796, and had a
horse killed under him in the engagement at
Constance in 1799. In 1803 he ventured to
return to France, but was arrested in the
following year, and kept in confinement for
several years, first at St. Pelagic, and after-
wards at the Temple. Again an exile, he
followed Louis XVIII. in his wanderings,
and returned with hira to his native country
on the final abdication of Napoleon. His
death is stated, in the supplement to the
" Biographic Universelle," to have taken
place in 1819. {Biographie des Hommcs Vi-
vans.) J. W. J.

ALARY, GEORGE, abbe, director of
the seminary for foreign missions at Paris,
was born at Pampelonne, in the diocese of
Alby on the 10th of January, 1731. Having
determined to devote his labours to the diffu-
sion of the Christian religion in foreign
countries, he quitted Paris in 1763 for the
mission to Siam, at which place he arrived
on the 8th of September in the following
year. He had resided at jNIergui four months
when that city was sacked, and Alary, after
being stripped of everything and cruelly ill
treated, was led away captive with the greater
part of the inhabitants to Rangoon, a mari-
time city of the kingdom of Ava. This
event opened to him a new field for ex-
ertion : he effected many conversions amongst
the heathen inhabitants of the place, and was
of great use to the Christians there, who
were at that time without a pastor. After a
captivity of nine months he obtained per-
mission to embark on board an English
vessel, which carried him to Bengal, whence
he proceeded to Pondicherry, and afterwards
to Macao. In 1768 he entered China, and
preached the Gospel with much success in
s s 3

ALARY.

the province of Su-Tchuen, and afterwards
in that of Kouei-Tcheou, -which latter place
had not been visited by missionaries for a
considerable period, and where he also made
many converts. Having been recalled to
Paris in order to undertake the dii-ectorship
of the seminary for foreign missions, he left
China in 1772 and entered upon his office
by the express desire of Clement XIV. He
continued in the zealous discharge of his
duties until 1792, when the revolution driving
him from his country he took refuge in
England. In 1802 he returned to France,
and succeeded in procuring the re-establish-
ment of the seminary in 1804, which he
again superintended vmtil its final dissolution
in 1809. From this time he lived in retire-
ment until his death, which took place on
the 4th of August, 1817. (Ze Monitenr,
1817, p. 895.) J.W.J.

ALARY, JEAN, a poet and advocate of
the parliament of Toulouse, in which city he
was born in the latter half of the sixteenth
century. His father, who was president of
the PrOsidial of Toulouse, was much esteemed
by Catherine de Medicis and Henri III.,
who intrusted to him the management of
many affairs of importance, and on his pre-
mature death continued their protection to
his children. Jean Alary being involved in
a long and intricate law- suit was obliged to
take up his residence for several years in
Paris, and while there, in order to spend his
time usefully as well as profitably, he pub-
lished a long discourse entitled " Abrege des
longues etudes ; ou, Pierre Philosophique des
Sciences." This work, which made much
noise at the time, was addressed to all princes,
ecclesiastics, ambassadors, and others who
might be desirous of supplying in a short
period the deficiencies of their early educa-
tion. The author proposed to communicate
his science by certain new and infallible rules,
and he soon obtained many disciples. Thirteen
of his rules having been stolen from him, he
presented a memorial to the king in 1620
demanding justice for the theft. His com-
plaints made so strong an impression upon
several persons, that one prelate offered to
allow him 800 francs per annum, and to re-
pair an old abbey for the reception of the
poor scholars to whom he was desirous of
imparting his science ; and another, to pay
him annually 12,000 francs towards the ac-
complishment of his great projects in favour
of education. That these projects were not
carried into effect may be presumed from the
absence of any evidence upon the subject.
Little more is known concerning him be-
yond what may be gathered from the titles
of his works : by one it appears that he had
been obliged to quit France and abandon his
property through the machinations of the
Jesuits ; and by another, that he had visited
England. The time of his death is not
known. He was very whimsical in his
G22

dress, and was commonly called by the
lower orders " le philosophe crottc " (the
dirty philosopher). His works are — 1.
" Recueil de Recreations Poctiques." Paris,
1605, 4to. 2. "Le Lys fleurissant pour la
Majorite du Roy." Toulouse, 1615, 8vo. 3.
" Abrege des longues E'tudes." 4. " Sur les
Louanges, Maladie et Guerison de tres-haut
Seigneur Messire George de Villiers, Due de
Buckingham ; " printed about 1623. 5. " Con-
ceptions Poctiques, sur les Morts du tres-
auguste Jacques, Roy de la Grande Bre-
tagne, et du tres-valeureux Maurice, Prince
d'Orange;" printed about 1625. This tract
contains " Continuation des Conceptions
Poctiques, par le meme auteur, depuis son
retour en Angleterre." 6. " Sur la Louange
de tres-illustre Seigneur le Prince d'Orange,
et Siege de Breda : ode par Jean d'Alary,
monstrant les deux perfections du s9avoir,
par I'invention de son art qui I'a coutrainct
de quitter la France et ses biens par Teuvie,
&c. des Jesuites." The last three works
have escaped the notice of his previous
biographers. 7. " La Vertu triomphante de
la Fortime." Paris, 1622, 4to. The circu-
lation of his works is supposed to have been
very limited, he having printed them at his
own expense and been his own publisher.
(Barbier, Examen Critique des Dictionnanes
Historiqiies, §-c. i. 19.) Barbier states that he
has taken his account of Alary from an un-
published work of great reputation entitled
"Histoire des Poetes Fran9ais," by Guillaume
CoUetet. (Goujet, Bibliotheque Frangoise, xv.
35. ; Le Long, Bibliotheque Histvrique de la
France, ii. 784.) J. W. J.

ALARY, PIERRE JOSEPH, prior of
Gournay-sur-Marne, was the son of an apo-
thecary and born at Paris in 1689. His
amiable disposition and his ardent desire for
knowledge procured him the friendship of
the learned Abbe de Longuerue, who took
pleasure in instructing him, and always spoke
of him as one of his best scholars. Under
such excellent tuition he acquired an accu-
rate knowledge of ancient and modern lan-
guages, and became well acquainted with
history, and particularly with that of his own
country. Notwithstanding the quiet and stu-
dious life led by Alary, he was accused of
participation in the Cellamare conspiracy
which was formed in 1718. The regent,
Philip of Orleans, permitted him to defend
himself, and was so well persuaded of his
innocence, that he said to hi\n, " Your ene-
mies have conferred an obligation upon both
of us in affording me the opportunity to
know you ; " he also intrusted him with an
important share in tlie education of the king,
Louis XV., that of teaching him historj-.
Alary had early been made prior of Gournay-
sur-Marne, and on the 30th of December,
1723, he was elected a member of the French
Academy. This election aroused the jealousy
of many who coveted the distinction, and the

ALARY.

ALASCO.

poet Roi published so gross a libel against
the society in general, and Ahiry in par-
tieular, that the hing coniniitted the antiior
to prison, and the Aeadi'iuie des Inscriptions
et lielles Letti'es strueli him out of their list
of members. In 1724 Alary formed a species
of political academy, under the name of
" Societe de I'Entresol," which continued in
existence until 1731. Many details concern-
ing this society -will be found in the corre-
spondence between Alary and Lord Boling-
broke. He is said to have imitated his pre-
ceptor Longuerue in his philosophic indiffer-
ence for literary reputation, and has in fact
left no work behind him, with the exception
of a portion of a history of Germany, which he
laid aside when he became tutor to the king.
It is probable that his philosophic iuditference
■was fostered by the possession of an income
of about 40,000 livres per annum. He is
described as a man who loved all the conve-
niences of life, and above all, good cheer,
but whose morals were as pure as his dispo-
sition was amiable. He died on the 15th of
December, 1770. (D'Alembcrt, H/stoire des
Memhres de I'Acadcmie Francoise, vi. 315. ;
Lettrcs Historiques, PoUtiqucs et Pariiculiires,
de Lord Bolingbroke, depuis 1710, jnscju en
1736, ii. 439. iii. 451.) J. W. J.

ALASCO, or a LASCO, JOHN. His
real name was John Lascki. He was born
in the year 1499 in Poland, and belonged to
a family of very high rank in that country.
After his elementary education was com-
pleted at home, he visited the most cele-
brated universities on the continent of
Europe, especially those of Italy, France,
and the Netherlands. At Ziirich he became
acquainted with Zwingli, who exhorted him
to a careful study of the Scriptures. In

1525 he stayed for some time at Basel, where
he formed an intimate friendship with Q2co-
lampadius and Pellicanus, but more espe-
cially with Erasmus. During his stay in
Switzerland he imbibed the doctrines of the
Swiss reformers ; but he did not make an
open profession of his belief till some time
afterwards. On his return to his country in

1526 he was appointed provost of Gnesen,
and afterwards of Lenczicz also. Ten years
later, two bishoprics were offered to him at
once, that of Weszprim in Hungary, and of
Cujavia in Poland ; but the religious opinions
which he had in the mean time formed in-
duced him to declare that he could not con-
scientiously undertake the duties of either of
these high offices. Sigismund I., then king
of Poland, acquiesced in this declaration, and
gave Alasco permission to pay a second visit
to foreign countries, by means of which
Alasco hoped partly to extend his know-
ledge, and partly to be enabled to pursue
and carry into practice his religious views
with less restraint than in his own country.
In 1537 he stajed for some time at Mainz,
and then spent two years at Louvain, where

623

he married. In the course of these two
years he also visited Wittenberg, and became
ac(iuainted with Melanehthon. Soon after
1540 he went to Emden in East Frieslaud,
Avhere he found a sphere of action suited to
his talents and religious views. Count Enno,
and after his death the Countess Anna, fre-
quently consulted him on public, especially
ecclesiastical affairs, and he was so well
satisfied with his position there, although he
held no public office, that in 1542, after a
short visit to his native country, he returned
to Friesland. At the urgent request of the
government and of the Protestant community
at Emden, he accepted the office of preacher,
together with the superintendence of all the
newly-established Protestant communities in
the country. The Reformation in this part of
Holland owes to Alasco its completion and
final settlement. He had great obstacles to
overcome, but he succeeded in making many
new arrangements in the forms of public
worship, in removing images from tlie
churches, in abolishing various superstitious
practices, in introducing a strict church dis-
cipline, and in reorganising the establish-
ments for education. He wrote a manual of
the Reformed doctrines, in which he followed
the views of the Swiss reformers. Albert,
duke of Prussia, made him a brilliant offer,
and invited him to settle in his dominions ;
but Alasco would not give up the view
which the Swiss reformers took of the Lord's
supper, and this prevented him from accept-
ing the duke's proposal. The Augsburg In-
terim also placed many obstacles in the way of
his operations in Friesland. In 1548, being
invited by Archbishop Cranmer, at the re-
quest of King Edward VI., he came over to
England. The great object of his visit was
to regulate the affairs of the congregation of
foreign Protestants which had been formed in
London, principally consisting of those who
had been obliged to leave their homes. In
1554 this congregation consisted of upwards of
3000 members, and Alasco not only undertook
to organise the body, but drew up an admirable
constitution for them, which was printed at
London in 1550. He was not well satis-
fied with the ceremonial part of the Reformed
English church, and he tliought it wrong
that the Lord's supper was not taken by the
communicants in a sitting attitude. In 1553,
after the death of Edward VI., the foreign
Protestant congregation being obliged to quit
England, Alasco sailed with above 300 per-
sons to Denmark, where he hoped to find a
place of refuge for them. But as he attacked
the manner in which the Lord's supper was
administered in that country, and openly
declared his disapproval of the ritual adopted
in Denmark, he was obliged, in the winter of
1553, to leave the country. The king, how-
ever, provided him and his friends with all
that was necessary for their journey, and also
allowed Alasco's two sons with their in-
s s 4

ALASCO.

AL-ASHARI.

structor to remain in Denmark until the end
of the -winter. Alasco now again -went to
Emden, and soon after to Frankfurt on the
Main, -where he endeavoured to organise the
body of foreign Protestants -who had taken
up their abode there, and partly consisted of
those -who had foUo-^ved him from London,
and partly of such as had resorted there from
other countries. In 155G he appears to have
gro-wn tired of his wandering life, and re-
turned to Poland. His zeal, however, in
promoting the interests of the Reformed re-
ligion -nas still unabated, and he -was one
of the first and most active reformers in
Poland. He -was one of the eighteen divines
-who co-operated in the Polish translation
of the Bible, -which was published in
1563. Alasco, however, died before the work
was completed, on the 13th of January,
1560.

Alasco is the author of a great number of
theological and controversial writings, all of
which are written in Latin, and in defence of
the religious opinions of the Swiss reformers.
The most remarkable among them are —
" Defensio veraj Doctrinje de Christi Domini
Incarnatione adversus Mennonem Simonis,"
1545. "Forma ac Ratio totius Ecclesiastici
Ministerii Eduardi VL in Peregrinorum,
maxime Germanorum, Ecclesia," London,
1550. This work, which contains the con-
stitution of the congregation of foreign Pro-
testants in London, is preceded by an address
to King Sigismund, the senate, and the nobles
of Poland. It has been translated into Ger-
man by ISIicronius, Heidelberg, 1565, 8vo.
" Brevis et dilucida de Sacramentis Tractatio,"
London, 1 552, 8vo. " Epistola continens
summam Controversise de Coena ;" and " Con-
fessio de nostra cum Christo Domino Commu-
nione, et Corporis item sui in Ccena Exhibi-
tione," London, 1552. " Catechismus major,"
London, 1551 : it has been translated into
Dutch by Utenhov. " Simplex et fidelis
Narratio de Ecclesia Peregrinorum in Anglia,"
Emdye, 1553. This work is preceded by an
admonitory letter to Christian, king of Den-
mark. " De recta Ecclesiarum instituenda-
rura Ratione Epistola; III." 1556. " Purgatio
Ministrorum in Ecclesia Peregrinorum Fran-
cofurti adversus eorum Calumnias," Basel,
1556, 8vo. His other writings, which con-
sist chiefly of letters of a controversial na-
ture, are scattered in various works. (Adami
Vita Thcolog. Exteror, p. 19, &c. ; Neue Bei-
trdge von altcn unci neuen Theolog. Sachen,
1756, p. 595, &c. ; L. Ihxrho, JVuchrichten von
den Scfiicksalcn dcs Johann a Lasco %ind
seiner Gemcine in Danemarh, transl. into Ger-
man by Mengel, Copenhagen and Leipzig,
1758, 8vo. ; J. F. Bertram, Griindlicher
Bericht von Johann a Lasco, Aurich, 1733,
3 vols. 4to. ; Burnet, History of the Reform-
ation ; Comp. Adelung's Supplement to
Jiicher's Allyem. Gelehrt. Lexic. iii. 1310,
&c.) L. S.

624

AL-ASH'ARF (Abu-1-hasan 'Ali Ibn
Isma'il), founder of the sect of the Ash'arites,
was born at Basrah about a. d. 860. He was
the descendant of Musa Ibn Belal Al-'ashari,
the companion of the prophet Mohammed,
and took his name from him. Al-'ashari at
first professed the sect of the Motazelites,
not that of Shaft', as erroneously stated by
D'Herbelot {Bib. Or. voc. " Ashari") ; but
having quarrelled with his master, Abii 'Ali
Al-jobbai, he left him and set up a sect of
his own. The occasion of the dispute was
as follows : — Al-'ashari put to his master
the case of three brothers, the first of whom
lived in obedience to God, the second in
disobedience to him, and the third died an
infant, and then asked him what he thought
would become of them ? Al-jobbai answered
that the first brother would certainly be
rewarded in Paradise, the second punished in
hell, and the third neither rewarded nor
punished. " Very well," said Al-ash'ari ;
" but if the third brother were to say, ' O
Lord, hadst thou left me longer on the earth,
I might have entered Paradise with my be-
lieving brother, and it would have been
better for me.' " To this Al-jobbai replied,
" that God knew before hand that he would
be a wicked creature, and therefore cast him
into hell." "Then," retorted Al-ash'ari,
" the second brother would say, ' O Lord,
why didst thou not take me away in my
infancy, as thou didst my third brother, that
I might not deserve by my sins the punish-
ment of hell ? ' " Al-jobbai could return no
answer to this, and some angry words ensuing,
both master and pupil separated, and were
ever after hostile to each other. On the
ensuing day, Al-ash'ari repaired to the
mosque, and in the presence of the assembled
multitude retracted his religious opinions,
and forsook the sect of the Motazelites,
framing one of his own, which partook of
the doctrines of the Shafiites and of those
of the Hanbalites. The opinions of Al-
ash'ari spread rapidly through Syria and
Egypt, but were chiefly adopted by the
Moslems of Spain and Africa, who pro-
fessed the sect of Malik Ibn Ans, that among
the orthodox sects of Islam to which the
doctrines of the Ash'arites bear most re-
semblance. Their principal tenets are as
follow : they allow the attributes of God
to be distinct from his essence, yet not so as
to establish any comparison between God and
his creatures. This was also the opinion of
Ahmed Ibn Hanbal, the founder of the sect
of the Hanbalites ; of Dawiid Al-ispahani,
chief of the Dhaherites ; as well as that of
Malik Ibn Ans. On the subject of pre-
destination they maintain that God has one
eternal will, which he applies to whatever he
pleases, both with regard to his own actions
and to those of men so far as they are created
by him, but not as they are acquired by
themselves, and that he wills both their

AL-ASHARI.

ALASHKAR.

good and their evil. As to mortal sins, their
opinion is, that if a believer, guilty of any sin
whatever, die without repentance, his sen-
tence is to be left to God, who will, either
pardon him out of mercy, or through the
intercession of the Prophet, or will punish
him in proportion to his demerit, and after-
wards, through his mercy, admit him into
Paradise ; for it is not to be supposed, they
say, that a believer can remain for ever in
hell witli an unbeliever. In this latter point
the doctrines of the Ash'arites is diame-
trically opposed to that of the Motazelltes.
In common with the Sefatians or Attri-
butists, Al-ash'ari and his disciples believed
the Koran to be eternal and uncreated,
but with some slight modifications which
are fully explained by Sale in the pre-
liminary discourse to his translation of the
Koran. Al-ash'ari led a very exemplary
life, and it is related that his yearly expense
did not exceed seventeen dirhams. The
year of his death is not well ascei'tained,
some authors placing it in a. h. 324 (a. d.
935-6), whilst others postpone it till a. h.
330 (a. D. 941-2). He left sevei'al works,
among which the most esteemed by his dis-
ciples, as containing an abstract of his re-
ligious opinions, are the " Aydhahu-1-bor-
hani fi-r-radd"ila ahli-z-zigh wa-l-tagliy;in"
(" Clear Proofs for the Refutation of Here-
tical Doctrines"), and the " At-tabiin fi os-
suli-d-din" (" Exposition of the fundamental
Principles of Religion"). A doctor named
Ibn 'Asakir, who had been one of Al-
ash'ari's disciples, wrote an account of his
life and writings, and Ibn Khallekdn also
devoted to him an article in his Biographical
Dictionary. A notice of Al-ash'ari occurs
likewise in the tract attributed to Leo
Africanus, and inserted by Hottinger in his
" Promptuarivmi, sen Bibliotheea Orientalis,"
under the following title — " De Viris qui-
busdam illustribus apud Arabas." (Abii-1-
feda, A7in. Musi. ii. 419. ; Abii-1-faraj, 7//*^
JDi/n. p. 105. ; D'Herbelot, Bib. Or. voc.
" Aschari ; " Pococke, Specimen Hist. Arab.
ed. vet. p. 230. ; Ibn Khallekan, Biog. Diet.)

P. de G.
ALASHKAR or ALISHKAR, RABBI
MOSES, the , Egyptian, ("Ipw'wS'pN' n'J'O "I
DnVQO -\p'C"bii IN), an African rabbi, who,
according to De Rossi, was judge or ruler of
his people in Egypt. He was most probably
descended from the ancient and well-known
Hebrew family, " Min Haadomim," generally
translated De Rubeis, as the Arabic surname
" Alashkar" has the same signification as the
Hebrew " Haadom," that is, " the Red." He
was living during the close of the fifteenth
and beginning of the sixteenth centuries,
and wrote — 1. "Hasagoth," (Animadversions
on the book called " Sepher Haemunoth"
("The Book of Truths") of R. Shem Tob
Aben Shem Tob, in which Alashkar repels
and successfully confutes the attacks made
625

by Shem Tob on Maimonides, Aben Ezra,
and Levi Gerson, and supports their views of
the Hebrew doctrines and articles of faith.
It was printed at Ferrara the year after the
" S. Haemunoth," of R. Shem Tob, by Abra-
ham Usque, a.m. 5317 (a. d. 1557), in 4to.
It was written a.m. 5255 (a. d. 1495), as ap-
pears from the preface, in which the editor,
R. Baruch Usiel, of the family of the Zacuti,
saj'S that he met with these Animadversions
lying like a string of precious pearls in the
author's volume of Questions and Answers,
by which he no doubt means the following
work : — 2. " Sheeloth Uteshuvoth " (" Ques-
tions and Answers"), printed at Sabionetta,
by Cornelius Adelkind, or Adelkenad,
A.M. 5314 (a.d. 1554), in 4to. De Rossi
also cites an edition as printed at Constanti-
nople, without giving either date or form ;
but he has followed Bartolocci, who follows
the Shalshelleth Hakkabbala. 3. Buxtorff and
the Siphte Jeshenim cite a work by this au-
thor called " Geon Jaacob" ("The Splendour
of Jacob "), and the younger BuxtorfF, in the
appendix to the " Bibliotheea Rabbinica"
of his father, mentions another manuscript
work of this author, called " Sepher Ha-
geula" ("The Book of Redemption") ; but
no account of these works is given beyond
the mere titles. 4. Some Hebrew poems and
prayers by Moses Alashkar are printed in
the " Jephe Noph" (" Beautiful in Situation")
{Psalm xlviii. .3.), which is a collection made
by an anonymous author, comprising the
epistles of R. Judah Zarko to R. Joseph
Aben Jachija, R. Joseph Ilamon, and R.
Chajim Alphual, with other epistles ; also
various forms of legal instruments and con-
tracts relating to marriage, divorce, and the
like ; also cabbalistical prayers for travellers
by sea and land, by Ramban (Nachmanides) ;
also some rhj-thmical prayers by R. Isaac
Ashkenazi or the German ; to which is added
the ceremony of administering forty stripes
save one, according to the formulary pre-
served among the occidental Jews, that is,
those who dwelt in Palestine, as contradis-
tinguished from the oriental or Babylonian
Jews. This flagellation they call " Malkuth,"
and they were accustomed to receive it
voluntarily as a penance on the eve of the
great day of expiation. The "Jephe Noph"
was printed at Venice by J. de Gara, in 4to.,
without date. 5. R. Samuel Oseida, in the
preface to his commentary on the " Pirke
Aboth," cites a commentary on the same
work by Moses Alashkar, as a work of
which he has made use in his own. 6. De
Rossi says that he is also the author of a
commentary on the "Orach Chajim," and
also on " Rashi" on the Pentateuch, both in
manuscript, but he does not say where they
are to be found. (Wolfius, Biblioth. Hebr.
i. 803, 804. iii. 729. ; Bartoloccius, Biblioth.
Mag. Rabb. iii. 869. iv. 60. 65, 66. ; R.
Gedalia, Shalshelleth Hakkabbala, p. 63. ; De

ALASHKAR.

ALATRINO.

Rossi, Dizionario Storico degli Autori Ehr.
i. 42.) , C. P. H.

ALATFNO, MOSES, (IJ^DXbS HC^'D), a
Jewish physician of Spoleto in Italy, was
contemporary with R. Emanuel Aboab, and
consequently lived at the end of the six-
teenth century. Aboab, in his Nomologia,
p. 220., speaks of him as a most skilful phy-
sician, and also remarks that he saw in his
library a Hebrew manuscript of the Bible,
six hundred years old. He is the author of a
Latin translation of Galen on the treatise of
Hippocrates entitled " On Air, Situation, and
Waters," which is in the sixth volume of the
works of Galen printed at Paris, a.d. 1679,
in 13 vols, folio. He also translated from
Hebrew into Latin the treatise of Theniis-
tius on Aristotle's work " On the Heavens
and the World," which Hebrew translation
had been made from the Arabic : at least
this is the account given by Huet, in his
vrork " De Claris interpretibus," p. 224.
(Wolfius, Bihlivth. Hehr. i. 803. ; De Rossi,
Dizionario Storico dcgli Autori Ebr. i. 42, 43.)

C. P. H.
AL ATI'NO, yiTA'LE, {^^>;q^^^ ^t^^TlX
a Jewish physician of Spoleto in Italy, uncle
of the celebrated pliysician and rabbi David
de Pomis, who, in his " Apologeticus trac-
tatus de Medico Hebrceo" (" Apologetical
Treatise on the Jewish Physician"), p. 71.,
says that Alatino was universally esteemed
one of the greatest phj-sicians of his time,
and that throughout the whole of Umbria he
was considered a second Hippocrates ; that
he has also left many valuable works on the
science of medicine, but of these works he
gives no account. He tells us also that his
imcle Vitale was chief physician to Pope
Julius in. From these facts we learn that
he lived in the early part of the sixteenth
century. (Wolfius, Biblioth. Hehr. iii. 236. ;
De Rossi, Dizionario Storico degli Autori
Ebr. i. 43.) C. P. H.

\ ALATRINO, R. JOCHAN AN JUDAH,
^(ly-loSs* min'' pnr "l), an Italian rabbi
■who was living in the beginning of the six-
teenth century, and who is called by Barto-
locci (vol. iv. p. 46.), Mordecai Alatrino,
but who is better known among Italian
writers as Angelo Alatrino. He is the
author of an Italian translation of some
Hebrew verses by R. Nathan Jedidja ben
Elieser, which are published with the " Barki
Naphshi" (" Bless, O my Soul") of R.
Bechaji ben Joseph. They consist of one
hundred and sixty-four Hebrew triplets, with
the Italian version on the opposite page or
column. In the preface, R. Nathan, the
author of the Hebrew verses, says that the
Italian is by his maternal grandfather, R.
Jochanan Judah Alatrino. This little book
was printed with the title " L' Angelica
Tromba di JVI. Angelo Hebra^o Alatrino, con
Alcuni Sonnetti Spirituali del Medesimo"
(" The Trumpet of the Angel of M. An-
626

gelo Alatrino the Jew, with some Spiritual
Sonnets of the same"), at Venice, a.d. 1628.
in Svo. Bartolocci, who inserts this account
from the work itself, in his article " Bechaji
Haddaijan," which is also confirmed by
Wolff, who had evidently also consulted the
book, does not tell us why he elsewhere calls
this rabbi Mordecai ; it is probable, however,
that at some period of his life he may have
assumed that name. The assumption of new
appellations was not unusual among the Jews.
(Bartoloccius, Biblioth. Mag. Rabb. i. 653.
iv. 46. ; Wolfius, Biblioth. Hehr. i. 238 — 788.
iii. 144.) C. P. H.

ALAU-D-DI'N KUJU'K. [Kuju'k.]
'ALA'UD-DI'N MAS'U'D GHORI, the
seventh king of the first Tartar dynasty in
Delhi, succeeded his brother Bahram in a. d.
1241. His brief reign presents to us one re-
markable event which is not unworthy of
our notice at present, situated as we are
with regard to China. In a.d. 1244 a host
of Mogul Tartars invaded Bengal by way
of Khata and Tibet. They were vigorously
opposed and ultimately expelled by the
Indian troops, who were probably aided by
the climate. Of the numerous incursions
made by the hordes of the north into India,
this is the only one recorded in history as
having taken place from that quarter. Un-
fortunately the historians have left us no
information respecting the precise region
from which the invaders came, nor of the
route which they followed. In the following
year 'Ala-ud-din at the head of his troops
repelled another army of Moguls, who
under Mangii Khan were on their march
through Kandahar towards the banks of the
Indus. The enemy, on seeing the prepara-
tions made to receive them, hastily retreated,
and 'Ala-ud-din returned in triumph to
his capital. After this he seems to have
abandoned himself to the worst kinds of
dissipation. When under the influence of
wine he exercised so many acts of cruelty
and oppression, that the most innocent of
those who were near him felt not a moment's
security of their existence. At length his
nobles, no longer able to endure his caprice,
transferred the crown to his uncle Nasir-
ud-din who succeeded in June, 1246. 'Ahi-
ud-din was allowed to pass the remainder of
his life in prison. (Ferishta's History; and
Elphinstone's India.) D. F.

A'LAVA Y BEAUMONT, DIE'GO, was
the son of Francisco de Alava, master of
artillery to the King of Spain, and was born
about the j'ear 1560. He was educated at
Alcala, in the house of Ambrosio de IMorales,
the celebrated Spanish antiquary, and studied
the Greek and Latin languages and the law ;
but the bent of his mind leading him towards
military studies, he left Morales to devote
himself to mathematics under Jeronymo de
ISIufioz, then professor at Salamanca. A\'hon
about the age of thirty he published at

ALAVA.

Madrid, in folio, a work on the art of war,
and in pai'ticulur of artillery ; " El jierfeeto
Capitan instruido en la Disciplina niilitar y
nueva Ciencia de la Artilleria," which was
highly commended by Sanchez de IJrocas,
better known by the name of Sanctius I5ro-
censis, one of the most distinguislied scholars
Spain has ever produced. Nicolas Antonio
records nothing of his subsequent career.
(N. Antonius, Bibliotheca Hispana Nova,
edition of 1783, i. 265.) T. W.

ALAVA Y NAVARE'TE, DON IG-
NA'CIO MARI'A DE, a Spanish marme
officer, a native of Vitoria. He commenced
his career as midshipman (guardia marina)
on the 23d of June, 176G, and distinguished
himself in this subaltern rank by his appli-
cation, acquirements, and courage. On the
breaking out of the war with the English in
1779, he joined the fleet of Admiral Cordova,
who in 17S1 gave him the command of the
frigate Barbara. He cruised in the Straits
of Gibraltar during a severe winter, and
assisted the floating batteries which were
constructed to attack the garrison of Gib-
raltar in 1782. He was also present at the
partial engagement with Lord Howe, after
the relief of Gibraltar on the 20th of October
in the same year. He was successively ap-
pointed captain of the frigate Sabina, and of
the San lldcfonso ship of the line, and while
in the latter became actively instrumental in
bringing about the first treaty of peace be-
tween Spain and Algiers. In 1787 he was
rear admh-al (mayor general) of the squadron
under Don Juan de Langara, and in 1790
of that under the Marquess Del Socorro. In
1791 he assisted, with his ship the San
Francisco, in the defence of Oran in Carbary,
then belonging to Spain, which was attacked
by the Moors while suffering from a re-
cent earthquake ; and in 1793 he was with
Langara in all the enterprises in the Mediter-
ranean against the French republic. Being
appointed admiral, he sailed to South Ame-
rica, doubled Cape Horn, and crossed the
Pacific to the Philippine Islands. During his
voyage he touched at the Mariana Isles,
and rectified many errors in the charts of the
South and A siatic seas, and passed through
several straits little known, or rarely fre-
quented by ships of equal magnitude. Re-
turning to Europe, by the Cape of Good
Hope, in 1803, he was made second in com-
mand of the fleet under Admiral Gravina ;
and was engaged in the ever-memorable
battle of Trafiilgar, which was so disastrous
to his country. He was wounded severely
in the head, and was taken with his flag-
ship, the Santa Anna of 112 gvms ; but
during the heavy gale that followed the
vessel got dismasted into Cadiz. Admiral
Collingwood in his despatches states his be-
lief that she had sunk, as her side was almost
entirely beaten in. During the Peninsular
war he was appointed commander-in-chief
627

of the Havanna station ; and on his i-etum
from thence he received the same command
at Cadiz for life. After such long and worthy
service he was in 1817 elevated to the
rank of high admiral (capitan general de la
Armada) and president (decano)of the Board
of Admiralty ; which distinguished rank he
enjoyed a very short time ; he died at Chi-
clana, near Cadiz, on the 26th of May of
the same year. (Biographical article in
Mifiano's " Diccioruirio (Jeoyrajico ;" Clark
and M' Arthur's Life of Nelson.) W. C. W.
ALAYMO, MARCO ANTONIO, also
called Alcaimo, was born at Ragalbuto in
Sicily in 1590. After going through the
ordinary courses of philosophy and classical
literature he made choice of the profession of
medicine, and received his doctor's degree at
Messina in 1610. In 1616 he established
himself at Palenno, in which city he gained
great reputation, especially during the plague
which ravaged Sicily in 1624, and afforded
an opportunity for the display of his energy
and skill. He was at this time directed by
the viceroy to go into several of the larger
towns, and under his superintendence means
were adopted to check the progress of the
pestilence. His fame was not confined to his
own country, for the professorship of me-
dicme in the university of Bologna and the
place of chief physician of Naples were suc-
cessively offered to him. Attachment to his
' own country induced him to reject both
these propositions, and he continued to prac-
tise at Palei'mo, where he died in 1662.

Alaymo is ranked as the first physician of
his age in Sicily ; he was consulted by per-
sons from all parts of the island, and
esteemed an oracle in subjects connected with
his profession. He was one of the foimders
of the academy of medicine in Palermo ; at
his death a funeral oration was pronounced
in his honour by a member of this academy,
and was published with other pieces in praise
I of Alaymo at Palermo, 1662, 4to. He was
distinguished for his munificence to religious
institutions, and he mainly contributed to
! found a church at Palermo to Sta. Maria degli
' Agonizanti, to the completion of which he
contributed large sums. His writings, though
not voluminous, evince much classical learn-
ing, and an extensive acquaintance with the
philosophy of the time in which he lived.
His Diadecticon contains an account of various
medicinal substances : the most remarkable
portion of it is that in which he inveighs
against the folly of those who would exclude
from the catalogue of remedies preparations
derived from the human body. He argues
that as bodies possessing the most perfect
forms are found to yield the most exquisite
properties, so man, being created in the
image of his Maker, must of necessity in his
body supply the best medicaments, far supe-
rior to those derivable from other animals.
He adds, " When, upon his fall, man was re-

ALAYMO.

AL-AZDI.

jected from Paradise, and compelled to seek
remedies in various regions, it was the gift
of Supreme Goodness that in his own body-
should be contained the antidote for almost
every disease ; so that not only the whole
body, but even its most sordid excrements,
become of the highest value." {Diadect. p. 6.)
He then proceeds to give an account of the
different parts of the human body to be used
remedially, and the diseases to which they
are severally applicable. The ulcus syriacum,
which forms the subject of a separate treatise,
is described by him as a gangrenous affection
of the throat, commencing in the tonsils and
uvula, quickly spreading to the adjacent
parts, and leading often to a fatal termination.
He states that from a very early period the
barbarian inhabitants of Egypt and Syria had
been afflicted with it, and that the Dehy had
lately introduced it into Sicily, probably in-
tending it as a punishment for the nimierous
and lieinous crimes then practised among
his countrymen. Though many died from
its effects, he describes it as differing from
the plague in many respects, and relates the
symptoms by which the two diseases may be
distinguished. His works are — " Discorso
intorno alia Preservatione del Morbo Con-
tagioso," Palermo, 1G2.5, 4to. Consultatio
pro Ulceris Syriaci nunc vagantis Curatione.
Panormi," 1632, 4to. " Diadecticon, sen de
succedaneis Medicamentis Opusculum. Pa-
normi," 1637, 4to. "Consign Medico-Po-
litici. Palermo," 1652, 4to. He left in ma-
nuscript the following: — " Commentaria in
Historian! ab Hippocrate in Epidemicis Con-
stitutionibus observatam;" "Opus pro cog-
noscendis curandisque Febribus malignis ; "
"Consultationes MedicEe pro arduissimis Mor-
bis, ac difficile curabilibus." The two last he
mentions in his Diadecticon as already in pro-
gress. (Mongitore, Bibliotheca Sicula ; Maz-
zuchelH, Scrittori d' Italia.) G. M. H.

AL-AZDI' is the patronymic of a cele-
brated INIohammedan doctor, named Abu
Mohammed 'Abdu-1-hakk Ibn 'Abdi-r-rah-
raan Al-ishbilii, who Avas a native of Seville
in Spain, where he lived and died in a.h.
582 (a.b. 1186-7). He wrote a work entitled
" Ahkam " (" Statutes " or " Decisions "),
which, according to Al-makkari, was held in
great esteem by the Spanish Moslems, and
treated of legal decisions founded on the
Konin and the traditions relating thereto.
Haji Khalfah, who mentions the work, says
that the author made three editions of it ; one
in three large volumes, which was called
" Al-kobra" (" The Large "); another called
" Al-wsetta " (" The Middling "), in one
thick volume ; and a third known by the
title of " As-soghra " (" The Small "), which
last contained one thousand and twenty-nine
well-authenticated traditions. (Haji Khalftih,
Lc.r. Enri/. voc. " Ahkam ; " Al-makkari,
Moham.D;in. i. 192.)

Al-azdi, which signifies o«e from the tribe
628

of Azd, from the stock of Kahttiin, is also
the patronymic of Abii-l-'abbas Ahmed Ibu
Mohammed (Al-azdi), a native of Spain, who,
in A.H. 619 (a.d. 1222), composed, at Ma-
rocco, a set of astronomical tables, which are
preserved in the Escurial library (No. 904.),
and was also the author of a treatise on the
names and attributes of God, in the same
library (No. 1496.). P. de G.

ALBA. [Ettore d'Alba ; Macrino
d'Alba.]

ALBA, or ALVA, FERDINAND ALVA-
REZ OF TOLEDO, DUKE OF, was born
in 1508, of a Castilian family of great an-
tiquity. In his early youth he entered the
army under the command of the Emperor
Charles V. in the Milanese, and followed that
monarch through his whole military career
both in Europe and in Africa. In the field
he was more distinguished by sagacity,
prudence, and circumspection than by an in-
trepid and brilliant valour ; and though his
character bore a strong resemblance to that of
his master, he was slow in acquiring the favour
and confidence of the emperor. He fought
under the eyes of Charles at the battle of
Pavia ; and he followed him in his disastrous
expedition to Algiers, when his fleet was nearly
destroyed by a tempest on the Barbary shore.
His first considerable exploit was the defence
of Perpignan against the French army under
the dauphin in 1542. His qualities of un-
conquerable resolution and vigilance were
signallj' displayed in his desperate resistance
when pressed by a superior forc5 and re-
duced to the utmost extremities ; a resist-
ance which he maintained until the town ■was
succoured by the Genoese through the port
of Collioure, and which saved the province
of Roussillon from falling into the hands of
Francis. From this time he acquired the
first place among the emperor's generals, and
held the chief command under him in the
decisive campaign against the Lutheran
princes of the empire in 1547. He led the
main body of the imperial army at the battle
of Miihlberg, when the Elector of Saxony
was taken prisoner, and presided over the
council of war which condemned that prince
to death. After Henry II. of France, with
Maurice of Saxony% had assailed Germany
on the side of the Moselle, and the emperor,
among other disasters which then befell him,
lost Metz, he made a vigorous effort, in
1552, to recover that city-, the western
bidwark of his dominions ; and he com-
mitted the conduct of that enterprise to Alba.
Alba invested Metz with a numei'ous and
well-appointed force, and pressed the siege
with great vigour. But the Duke of Guise,
who commanded the town, at the head of the
French nobles, bafiled every effort of Alba
to make an assault ; the impetuous sallies of
the French garrison broke the besieging
army ; their numbers were reduced by pesti-
lence and famine; and in the end of 1552

ALBA.

Alba -was compelled to raise the siege, to the
great mortification of the emperor, and with
some blemish to his own reputation.

The credit and authority of Alba received
some diminution, -when the Milanese was
resigned to Philip in 1554 by his fother
the emperor, who had already given to
Alba the chief place in his councils. Alba
found himself opposed in the favour of
Philip by Ruy Gomez de Silva, prince of
Eboli, who, dreading his abilities, prevailed
on Philip to despatch him to supersede Fer-
dinand of Gouzaga in the government of the
Milanese, Mliich at that time was menaced by
a French force under Marshal Brissac. Alba
was unwilling to quit the court of Madrid,
but still more reluctant to shrink from mili-
tary service. He came to Milan in June,
1555, and found that Brissac had passed the
frontier of Piedmont, and had already made
himself master of Casale, the citadel of Mon-
ferrato. Alba, who had boasted that he
would overrun all Piedmont in a week, began
his career by taking some towns of little note
on the Po, and his course, according to his
usual practice, was marked by a track of
blood ; but he was speedily stopped by Bris-
sac, who gave him battle at Valenza, repulsed
his renowned Spanish infantry, compelled
him to raise the siege of Santia, and after-
wards took Moncalvo. This campaign, in
which the Spanish commander was worsted
by Brissac with inferior forces, proved alike
prejudicial to the interests of Philip and to
the reputation of Alba.

In the ensuing year (1556) Alba was en-
gaged with an adversary of a different cha-
racter in the person of an ambitious pontiff,
the enemy of Philip IL, now king of Spain.
Paul IV. (Caratfa) was actuated by an im-
placable animosity against the court of Ma-
drid, and he was bent on the conquest of
Naples. He was scarce seated on the
papal throne before he entered into an alli-
ance with the French king for the inva-
sion of the Spanish dominions. Henry, al-
lured by the promises of Paul, and encou-
raged by the aid of so powerful an ally in
the heart of Italy, eagerly seized the oppor-
tunity of renewing the often repeated attempts
of France on Italian dominion ; but so fluc-
tuating were the resolutions of this prince,
though vigorous in action, that after con-
cluding an offensive league with the pope,
he was drawn by Philip II. into a treaty of
truce at Vauccellas in February 1556. From
this pacification he was quickly diverted by
the address of Cardinal Caraffa, who pre-
vailed on him to renew his alliance with the
pope, and resume his warlike preparations,
and he engaged to second the papal enter-
prise against Naples by a French array under
the command of the Duke of Guise. "When
Caratfa thus rekindled the war in Italy, and
threw Europe again into combustion. Alba
was in Naples. Anticipating the movements
629

of the pope, he entered the patrimony of St.
Peter, and in a short time made himself
master of the whole Campagna of Home.
That city lay at his mercy ; but his deference
for the pope was so great that he not only
abstained from any attempt on his capital,
but granted Paul a truce, when reduced to
the utmost extremity. Pursuant to the en-
gagements of the French king, Guise ap-
peared on the Alps in the following year,
1557 ; and he had no sooner descended on
the plains of Lombardy than Paul and the
Caraffas resumed their hostilities against
Alba. They pressed the immediate march
of Guise to Rome, signalised his arrival by
the honours of a triumphal entry ; and they
hastened his advance against Alba at the
head of the confederate army. Alba, politic
as well as warlike, and aware of the military
talents of the French commander, adopted a
cautious and dilatory mode of warfare. He
eluded every attempt of Guise and his Gas-
cons to bring him to a pitched battle, wore
down the spirits of these impetuous troops
by dragging them on a harassing pursuit on
the frontiers of the Abruzzi, and routed them
at Civitella on that frontier. He had already
foiled Guise by his prudent conduct in this
campaign, when that commander was sud-
denly recalled to Finance by the defeat of
Henry's army at St. Quentin, where Philibert
Emanuel of Savoy, another of Philip's gene-
rals, obtained a signal triumph. This fatal
encounter blasted ail Paul's hopes of Neapo-
litan conquest, and he saw Alba again on his
march towards the gates of Rome. But Alba's
religious scruples again withheld him from
proceeding to extremities against Paul ; and
in the midst of his career of success, he
favourably received the pope's first advances
towards a peace, which he finally concluded
in September 1557.

By the treaty thus concluded between Paul
and Alba, the reconciliation of the rival
houses of Valois and Austria was accelerated ;
the issue of the battle of St. Quentin con-
firmed these pacific dispositions ; and both
Henry, who had suffered so deeply from that
fatal encounter, and Philip, who had gained
a great advantage, were willing to bury their
animosities that they might quell the commo-
tions which Avere arising in both kingdoms,
from the progress of religious dissensions.
The negotiations between the two great Ca-
tholic kingdoms were opened at Cambray in
Picai'dy in 1558. Alba, assisted by Cardinal
Granvelle, was Philip's plenipotentiary ; the
Constable Montmorency and the Cardinal of
Lorraine appeared on the part of Henry.
After protracted conferences. Alba succeeded
in extorting from the French king the
cession of all the places, amounting to one
hundred and eighty-one, which he had taken
during the disasters of the Emperor Charles's
latter years ; and by the same definitive
treaty which made these concessions, he ce-

ALBA.

mcnted an alliance between France and
Spain, which continued unbroken until the
age of Cardinal Richelieu. Upon the com-
mencement of the administration of the car-
dinal of Lorraine, who then ruled France with
absolute power, Alba proceeded to Paris with
the Prince of Orange as one of the hostages
for the delivery of the towns ceded by Philip.
It appears from the letters of the Cardinal of
I^orraine, (which are contained in the state
papers of Aubespine, bishop of Limoges,
his minister in the Low Countries, and were
first published from the original documents
in 1841,) that Alba sought to obtain his liberty
by a personal application to the j-oung and
imbecile king, Francis IL, without the know-
ledge of his ministers, the princes of Lor-
raine ; but was prevented by the vigilant
cardinal, to whom the proposition had been
communicated by Francis. He repaired to
Madrid when the articles of the treaty were
executed, and after a short interval returned
to Paris at the head of a splendid embassj',
to espouse Elizabeth, sister of the French
king, in the name of Philip his master.

Spain was now at peace with all the world;
and Alba, during this interval of tranquillity,
was actively engaged at Madrid as the
counsellor and minister of Philip, who was
intent on carrying into execution the objects
of the treaty of Cateau Cambresis. That
treaty was rather a confederacy of the Roman
Catholic powers for the extermination of
heresy than a mere pacification ; and as the
Calviuists had multiplied rapidly both in the
Low Countries and in France, during the
long wars between France and Spain, Philip,
whose bigotry was fully shared by his mi-
nister, resolved to cement an alliance with
the French king, and to concert the means
of jointly turning their swords against the
heretics of both realms. Alba was the main
instrument of the negotiations for this end,
of which the court of Madrid was at that
time the centre ; and he was rapidly ad-
vancing towards the execution of his schemes,
in conjunction with the Cardinal of Lorraine
the French minister, when an event occurred
which interrupted the harmony of the two
courts, threw obstacles in the way of Philip's
slow and irresolute counsels, and involved
Alba in a new negotiation, both intricate and
hazardous, with the court of Paris. By the
early death of Francis IL the administration
of the Cardinal of Lorraine was brought to a
close ; and Catherine de Medicis, who be-
came regent of France, departing from the
maxims of that prince, began her reign by
granting a. considerable latitude of toleration
to the Hugonots, in order to check the ex-
orbitant power of the Guises. In order to
justify this neutral scheme, which gave great
umbrage to Philip, Catherine despatched
IMontberon to Madrid. The Spanish king
committed to Alba the difficult task of treat-
with the French ambassador at that
G30

critical juncture. Alba, after listening to
Montberon, told him that the dominions of
the King of Spain were infected with heres}',
and endangered by the countenance and pro-
tection which the queen-mother extended to
the Hugonots ; and he made a fniitless at-
tempt to prevail on Catherine to suppress
the Hugonots by persecution. In L565 Ca-
therine, entertaining apprehensions of Conde
and the Hugonots, returned to the per-
secuting policy of the Cardinal of Lorraine,
and resumed those close connections with the
court of iladrid which had subsisted between
France and Spain during the government of
that prelate. Alba had an interview with Ca-
therine at Bayonne, and he there concerted
with her that celebrated league by which the
common designs of the two courts for the ex-
tirpation of heresy were finally matured for
execution. The ensuing year, 1566, brought
to ISIadrid the intelligence of the insurrection
of the Flemish Calvinists, which appalled
the Spanish ecclesiastics and agitated Philiix
When the matter was debated in the council.
Alba took a conspicuous part in the pro-
ceedings of that memorable consultation so
fatal in its issue to the Spanish monarchy.
Stung by the insults offered to the Roman
Catholic faith in the Low Countries and by
the fall of the Inquisition, he urged the ne-
cessity of an armament, not only to support
the secular arm, but to protect the hierarchy
against the enraged fanatics ; and he pointed
out to Philip that the late tumults in the
Low Countries presented an opportunity of
crushing those disloyal provinces, and of
annihilating the remains of the ancient Bur-
gundian constitution, which was the real
source of these obstinate rebellions. Though
every word which Alba spoke fatally con-
curred with Philip's previous resolutions, so
slow was the king in carrying his purposes into
execution, that he contented himself with
sending directions to his sister the Duchess
of Parma, who governed the Low Countries,
to levy troops ; and although the insurrection
after being put down broke out afresh in the
Low Countries, he required the incitement
of the Spanish cardinals before he could com-
mand the expedition under Alba, destined
against the Low Countries, to quit the shores
of Spain. It was towards the middle of the
year 1567 before Alba embarked for Genoa,
from which he marched over Jlount Cenis
with a powerful force and a train of heavy
artillery.

The body of Spanish and Italian troops
with which Alba was marching on the Low
Countries was the most complete armament,
in point of discipline and equipment, which
had appeared in modern warfare. It was
composed of chosen veterans from the troops
which had served under the Emperor Charles.
The men were armed with muskets of un-
common length ; the artillery was directed
by Italian engineers. When the long array

ALBA.

wound through the valleys of Lorraine, and
aiTived on the southern borders of Lux-
cuihourg, the intelligence of Alba's approach
spread terror and consternation through the
Low Countries. Before the sound of his
name many Protestants fled away ; and the
art and industry of the Flemings, quitting
their native cities, already sought an asylum
in foreign lands. Before he appeared, the
Prince of Orange, who was well acquainted
with his character, prudently left the Low
Countries and retired to his hereditary do-
minions in Germany.

Alba was received at Thionville with
military honours. On the 2d of August
Alba entered Brussels. Having kissed the
hands of the Duchess of Parma, who herself
regarded him with dismay, he took up his
abode at the CuUemburg Palace, and next
day produced Philip's letters appointing him
military prefect in Flanders, with the entire
disposition of the forces, but reserving the
civil administration to the Duchess of Parma.
After receiving a train of the Flemish nobles,
who waited on him with a procession of
great equestrian pomp, he had a second in-
terview with the duchess, in which he ex-
hibited more ample powers intrusted to him
by Philip, which extended to the construc-
tion of citadels, the appointment of magis-
trates, and to the inquiry into and punishing \
the recent disorders. When Margaret mildly |
inquired what moi'e powers he could have, he
replied that he had j'et further powers, which
upon occasion he would produce. While
Alba thus unfolded by degrees the unlimited
authority with which he was invested, the
duchess perceived that her government was,
in effect, superseded ; and dreading, from the
tenor of his instructions no less than from
the character of the man, that nothing less
than a military tyranny was contemplated,
she seized this brief interval of peace to
address a mild but impressive remonstrance
to her brother Philip. She represented that
despair of pardon and the apprehension of
future convulsions had already driven above
one himdred thousand Flemings from j
Flanders, by which his dominions were im- i
poverished ; that the unusual military powers
of Alba, and still more the sight of the
Spanish soldiers, were more fitted to renew
the insurrection than to establish his dominion \
over these provinces ; and she concluded by '
intreating him to discharge her from the
administration of the Low Countries, which
she had held for nine years.

It was not long before Alba struck a blow.
He had evinced an extreme anxiety to draw I
to the council the confederate lords in the
late rebellion ; and having treated Egmont
with great distinction, he had succeeded in
alluring Horn to the court, who, more dis-
trustful, had kept aloof from Brussels since
the arrival of the Spanish commander. On
the 9th of September, 1567, Alba held a
631

council at the CuUemburg palace, wliich was
attended by Aremberg, Aarsehot, Egmont,
Horn, and many other Flemish nobles.
V>'hen the council rose. Alba called Egmont
to him as if he desired to confer with him
privately ; several guards advanced ; and
Alba, telling him that he was arrested in the
king's name, demanded his sword. At the
same moment Horn was disarmed in another
part of the palace ; and both these nobles were
sent captive to Ghent amid the murmurs ol'
the Braban^ons. The Duchess of Parma,
on receiving the intelligence of this /iolent
measure, despatched her secretary to Philip
to press her recall from a viceroyalty where
she no longer possessed any authority ; and
having obtained his permission, she returned
to Italy in 1568.

As long as the duchess remained in
Flanders, Alba had restrained in some mea-
sure his sanguinary disposition : the de-
parture of that princess was the signal for
letting loose the full rage of persecution ; and
from that moment his administration became
one scene of violence and bloodshed. The
main engine of his tyranny was a new judi-
cature erected in Brussels, called the " Court
of Tumults," with a jurisdiction combining
the arbitrary powers of the Inquisition with
the rigour of a military tribunal. By this
court the persecuting edicts against the
Calvinists were carried into effect with merci-
less severity. Wherever the Protestants were
found they were di-agged before Alba's judges ;
multitudes were thrown into prison and
stretched on the rack ; and either consigned
to perpetual captivity, or doomed to expiate
on the scaff"old what had been extorted from
them by torture. Through all the Low
Countries, from Picardy to Holland, the same
cruelties were exercised ; the magistrates,
in whose hands the persecuting edicts had
languished during the late administration,
were superseded by the creatures of Alba ;
and Flanders was filled with scenes of horror
which spread the terror of Alba's name
through Europe.

These cruelties, which had been concerted
by Philip and Catherine de Medicis at the
instigation of Pius IV., were regarded by the
whole body of the European Protestants as
the commencement of a war of extermination
against them ; and Conde and the Prince of
Orange, the leaders of that party in the two
great Roman Catholic kingdoms, had formed
a counter league of self-defence, and already
concerted the measures of resistance. The
Prince of Orange, having been cited before
Alba's tribunal and his possessions con-
fiscated, had levied a formidable army, and
was on his march towards the Rhine, while
his brother, Count Louis of Nassau, raised
the standard of revolt in Groningen. In
the spring of 1568 the first conflict took
place between the Spaniards and Dutch,
the prelude to more than half a century of

ALBA.

wai" maintained by the northern proTinces
against Spain. Alba, menaced on all sides,
sent Aremberg into the province of Gro-
ningen, who attacked Count Louis, but was
repulsed with considerable loss. Alba, en-
raged by this defeat, which revived the
drooping spirits of the Protestants, and gave
life to their allies among the insurgents of
France, redoubled his severities ; and while
he prepared to march against the princes of
Nassau, he deemed it necessary to strike new
terror by acts of civil barbarity exceeding
the ravages of war. After racking and
tearing to pieces Casembrot, a nobleman, the
secretary of Count Egmont, he brought that
nobleman and Horn to trial. They were
accused of fomenting the late insurrection
against the Duchess of Parma, and of con-
spiring with the Prince of Orange to wrest the
sceptre of the provinces from Philip. They
were convicted by Alba's court, and executed
in the market-place of Brussels on the 5th
of June, 1568. The fate of these noblemen
did not crush the resistance of the two Pro-
testant princes. While the scaffold was still
streaming with their blood. Alba was com-
pelled to march against Count Louis, who
had augmented his force and posted himself
on the river Ems. Alba, availing himself of
a mutiny among the German auxiliaries of
the count, attacked him in his strong en-
trenchments ; and though the Dutch made
a brave stand, they were unable to resist the
veteran Spaniards. A cruel slaughter en-
sued ; and the fruit of this engagement was
the re-establishment of the Spanish dominion
in the Dutch provinces. IMeanwhilc the
Prince of Orange passed the Rhine, and ap-
proaching the Maas near Liege, menaced
Brabant ; but being inferior in celerity to his
brother Louis, he had not effected the passage
of that river when Alba, hastening from
Holland, encamped over against him at
Maastricht. Though the river was lined
with Spanish troops the prince forded the
stream beyond their outposts. A campaign
ensued which was signalised by great skill
on both sides, and in which Alba observed
the same prudent conduct which he had pur-
sued in his Neapolitan campaign against the
Duke of Guise. He eluded the attempts of
the prince to provoke him to an action ; he
hung on the flank of his columns ; and as the
finances of his adversary were narrow, and
his German levies discontented, he prolonged
the war until his troops broke into, mutiny
or melted away under the languor of these
protracted operations. The unwieldy army
of the Prince of Orange, superior in numbers
to the Spaniards, fell to pieces ; and before
the close of 1568 he was compelled to draw
off its shattered remains towards the Rhine,
without striking a blow. The dispersion of
the prince's army, though not followed by
military execution, gave scope to the civil
vengeance of Alba, which, by scaffolds and
632

gibbets, he exercised on the adherents and
abettors of the two brothers of Nassau.
Deeming his government now firmly esta-
blished, he proceeded to other arbitrary acts,
which, being directed against the remains of
the ancient Burgundian constitution still
subsisting in the Low Countries, and striking
at the national privileges without regard to
religious opinion, excited a more general dis-
content than his persecutions. He had been
disappointed of a large sum of money sent
him by the Genoese merchants, which had
been seized at sea by Queen Elizabeth, who by
this well-timed but unscrupulous act in some
degree forced him on those violent measures
which he pursued. Dreading a mutiny of
his soldiers, whom he had no means of pay-
ing. Alba imposed ruinous taxes on the
people, especially the Spanish impost of the
tenth of moveable goods on every sale. This
measure, which in a moment paralysed the
commerce of Ghent and Ypres, was further
regarded by all the Flemings as the result
of a settled plan for wholly subverting the
states of Brabant and Flanders, and reducing
the constitution of these provinces to the
Spanish model. Those who had acquiesced
in or submitted to the severities exercised
against the Protestants were now goaded to
resistance by the complicated grievances of
fiscal rapacity and civil tyranny ; the re-
monstrances of the states of Utrecht kindled
a flame in the north which was with diflieully
checked by the Spanish garrisons ; and Alba
was compelled to employ those bloody tri-
bunals, originally instituted against religious
heresy, for the suppression of the resistance
which had been excited by his measures of
taxation.

The provinces being reduced to a state of
seeming order and subjection. Alba contem-
plated larger enterprises ; and he conceived
the design of extending his attack to England.
In concert with the Cardinal of Lorraine, he
had long fomented the internal disorders of
that realm, and had especially encouraged the
rebellious designs which from the moment
of Elizabeth's accession had been entertained
by a powerful body of Roman Catholic noble-
men. In concert with the Spanish ambas-
sador at London and the Duke of Norfolk,
he had engaged to land a considerable body
of foot and horse at Harwich, which, aided by
an insurrection in the heart of the kingdom,
were immediately to march on London. An
attack on the English queen, who was the
chief stay of the Reformed religion, formed a
principal part of the war of extermination
which the two Roman Catholic kingdoms
were now waging against the Protestants.
But Alba's design on England was suddenly
disconcerted b}- the treachery of Norfolk's
servant and the execution of that nobleman.
In the ensuing year, 1572, his schemes of in-
vasion and offensive war v.ere for ever
brought to a close by a domestic revolt more

ALBA.

signal than had yet arisen in the I^ow Coun-
tries.

During the -whole progress of the troubles
in the Low Countries the main force of the
opposition to Spain had been derived from
the stubborn temper, animated by an insur-
mountable aversion to popery, of thu northern
provinces ; and the spirit of the Hollanders,
though kept down, had neither been appalled
by the terror of Alba's tyranny, nor subdued
by his arms. Since the close of the last cam-
paign of Count Louis, in 15G8, the islands at
the mouths of the Rhine, and the maritime pro-
vince of Holland, had grown in population by
the tide of refugees who found freedom in
these distant extremities of the Spanish domi-
nion ; the same cause reinforced the naval
power of that region, its native arm ; and prin-
cipally through the conduct of William de la
Mark, a nobleman of Liege,was silently formed
among the islands of Zealand that maritime
power which made the first successful aggres-
sion on the government of Alba. This
adventurous leader, having been prohibited
by Queen Elizabeth from equipping his arma-
ments on the English shore, made a descent
on the island of Voorn, between Holland and
Zealand, and coming boldly on the fort of
Brill, drove out the Spanish garrison, and
possessed himself of this stronghold. This
exploit roused Holland and Zealand to arms ;
the revolt of these provinces drew the Prince
of Orange again from his retreat ; Count
Louis appeared on the borders of Hainault ;
and Alba found himself once more attacked
on both extremities of his dominions, and the
war again blazing around him. He speedily
arrested the progress of Count Louis, and
recovered Mons, which that prince had seized;
but the affairs of Holland assumed another
aspect, and the whole fortune of the war was
quickly changed in that quarter. The Prince
of Orange, finding the population animated
by despair, formed the revolted cities into a
league ; and when Frederic of Toledo, Alba's
son, appeared before the walls of Haarlem,
he found the enthusiasm of the citizens
not onh- supported by an unexpected ex-
pansion of resources, but guided by military
conduct. The vigorous defence of Haar-
lem, protracted through every species of
suffering for seven months, gave a mortal
blow to the dominion of the Spanish king
in the seven northern provinces ; and though
Haarlem fell at last, the resolute spirit dis-
played in this obstinate resistance animated
all the Hollanders, and laid the foundation of
that illustrious commonwealth whose arms
and policy have made so conspicuous a figure
in modern history. Alkmaar, which was
next invested by Alba's son, endured still
greater extremities, and finally repulsed the
Spanish army. Philip, baffled in his projects
of establishing absolute power in the Low
Countries, recalled Alba at the close of the
year 1573; and Alba, who boasted that in

VOL. I.

four years he had brought 18,000 persons to
the scafi'old, returned to ^ladrid, leaving the
ten southern provinces, which preserved their
allegiance, impoverished and unsettled ; and
in the seven northern states, which had re-
volted, the federal union nearly established,
their naval power growing apace, and a con-
siderable portion of that teri-itory already
irretrievably lost. On his return to Jladrid,
Alba found his former influence undiminished
at the court of Philip ; and he continued to
enjoy the confidence of the king until his
eldest son oflPended him by seducing a lady of
the court, whom he refused to marry. Alba
himself incurred the displeasure of his jealous
master by aiding his son's escape, and was
banished to the castle of Uzeda, In 1580,
when Philip invaded Portugal with a fleet
and army, he found no one to whom he could
intrust the command of the land forces but
his exiled general. Alba was no sooner
solicited to undertake the expedition than he
embraced the offer with alacrity ; and althougii
Philip refused him a personal interview, he
proceeded towards Estremadura, where he
met the forces. He marched along the
north bank of the Tagus, passed Badajoz and
Elvas, and was advancing towards Lisbon,
when the appearance of the Portuguese force
in his front compelled him to change his
course. He resolved to put his army on
board the fleet under Santa Croce ; and em-
barking at Setubal, landed at the mouth of
the Tagus under the guns of the fleet, and
attacked the Portuguese army with an im-
petuosity unusual in his younger years. The
Portuguese were defeated, and Lisbon sur-
rendered after a feeble resistance ; but Alba's
laui'els were sullied with blood by the viola-
tion of the capitulation, the suburbs being
given up to the fury of the Spanish soldiers.
This enterprise, in which he drove the house
of Braganza from the Portuguese throne, and
united that kingdom to Spain for sixty years,
was some compensation to Philip for the loss
of his Dutch dominions. It was the last of
Alba's long services ; v.orn out with age, he
returned to Spain, and died in 15S2, in his
74th year.

His character displays conspicuously the
peculiar qualities which characterise Spanish
genius, and which the events of the sixteenth
centurj' called out in the warriors and states-
men of that country. Inviolable fidelity to
the king, and inflexible resolution — these
soldierly virtues he possessed in an eminent
degree, while his great military talents, being
united with an unrivalled sagacity, and con-
trolled by the most cautious prudence, render
him the model of a general. On the other
hand, he was sanguinary and merciless ; and
in his civil administration he not only acted
on the military notions almost universal in
his age, but pursued to the utmost those
maxims of extennination which even the
bai-barous policy of that day confined to hos-

T T

ALBA.

ALBACINI.

tile fields. "N^licthei" he was more cruel than
Marignano, Pcscara, and the other ferocious
chiefs who then led the Spanish armies, may
be questioned ; hut being placed in the front
of th.e war of religious opinion, and called to
the government of a country which was its
most active scene, when the whole force of
Roman Catholic Europe was first imited, his
cruelties were performed on a very conspi-
cuous theatre, and drew the eyes of every
nation. Alba was of an austere mien and
of a haughty and reserved demeanour. He
spoke little, and usually in Spanish proverbs
savouring of blood, which were noted and
repeated. (Rihier, Memoh-e.s d'Elat ; Thua-
nus, Historia ; Strada, De Belh Bekjico I)e-
cas ; Grotius, Annales ct Historia de liebus
JSelyicis ; Bentivoglio, Delia Gucrra di Fian-
dria ; Giannone, Prima Istoria Civile di Na-
poli ; Adriani, Istoria di suoi Tempi; Davila,
Istoria delle Guerre Civile di Francia ; Mura-
tori, licriim Italic. Scriptoi'es ; Dom I'Evesque,
Mem. du Cardinal Granvelle ; Sebastian de
I'Anbespine, bishop of Limoges, Correspond-
ence, first published in 1841 in Documens In-
edits pour VHistoire de France, Imprimerie
Royale.) H. G.

ALBA, R. JACOB DE (^ npy '")
n^^X IN ^^3^N)' called also Albo in the
index to the " Siphte Jeshenim," was an
Italian rabbi a native of Monferrato, and a
very eloquent preacher, who exercised the
office of chief preacher in the synagogue of
Florence, where he had a high reputation for
several years during the beginning of the
seventeenth century. A collection of his
discourses on the Pentateuch was published
during his lifetime imder the title of " Tol-
doth Jaacob" (" The Generations of Jacob")
(^Genesis, xxxii. 2.), to which title are also
added the following epithets : " Kol Jaacob "
("The Voice of Jacob") (Gewes/s, xxvii.22.);
" Kol Adonai Becoach " (" The Voice of the
Lord with Power ") (Psalm xxix. 4.) ; and " Kol
Adonai Behadar" (The Voice of the Lord in
Majesty") (Psalm xxix. 4.). It was printed at
Venice by Jo. de Gara, a.m. 5369 (a.d. 1G09),
in 4to., edited by Isaac Gerson, with a copious
index. (Bartoloccius, Biblioth. Mag. Rahb.
iii. 836. ; Wolfius, Biblioth. Hebr. i. 580. iii.
440.) C. P. H.

ALBACI'NI, CARLO, a Roman sculptor,
who lived towards the close of the eighteenth
century. He was much employed upon the
restoration of fragments of ancient sculpture ;
and in the publication " Winckelmann und
sein Jahrhundert" he is spoken of as one of
the most successful restorers of the human
figure in such works. In 1780 he executed
two monuments for the Empress Cathe-
rine IL of Russia ; one, of Raphael Anton
Mengs, to be placed in St. Peter's Church;
and the other, of Gianibattista Piranesi, for
the Priorate Church in St. Petersburg. Al-
bacini made a valuable collection of casts
from the antique. He was still living in
634

1807, when he acted as one of the executors
of Angelica KautFmann in Rome. (Fiissli,
Alhjemeines Kiinstler Lexicon ; Nagler, Neues
Allgemeines Kiinstler Lexicon.') R. N. W.

AL-BA'jr (Abu Merwan Ahmed), king
of Seville and great portion of Andalusia,
was born at Seville about the close of the
twelfth century of our sera. He was de-
scended from the celebrated writer Abu-1-
walid, who was Kadhi-1-nodha or chief jus-
tice of Seville, under Al-mu'tamed Ibn ' Abbad,
king of Seville. [Abu'-l-wali'd Al-ba'ji'.]
When the empire of the Almohades was de-
clining in Spain, and Mohammed Ibn Yusuf
Ibn Hiid, surnamed Al-mutawakkel-'alaillah
(he who relies on God), who became after-
wards the ruler of Mohammedan Spain, rose
in arms against those African conquerors,
Al-baji, who was then one of the most power-
ful citizens of Seville, helped that chief to
establish his authority in that wealthy city.
Ibn H ud made his entry into Seville in a. h.
626 (a. d. 1228-9), but being soon after
called to Valencia by a revolt of the inhabit-
ants he quitted Seville, leaving a bi'other
named Abu Nejat Selim in the command.
Soon after, however, Al-baji, having made a
considerable party among his own coimtry-
men, rose against the governor, whom he
expelled from Seville, and prevailed upon the
inhabitants to elect him king, under the sur-
name of Al-mu'tadhed-billah (the supported
by God). The example of Seville being soon
followed by Carmona and other wealthy
towns, Al-biiji soon became the ruler of the
best portion of Andalusia. At the news of
this insurrection, Ibn Hiid hastened to Se-
ville, which he besieged; but the rebel having
made an alliance with Ibnu-1-ahmar, then
king of Jaen, and afterwards of Granada,
attacked him in his camp, and defeated him
with great slaughter. Two years later, Al-
baji himself was the victim of treason. His
friend and ally, Ibnu-1-ahmar, wishing to add
the city of Seville to his other dominions,
sent thither one of his generals, named Ibn
Ashkihilah, who, under the pretence of giving
aid to Al-baji in case he should be again
attacked by Ibn Hud, penetrated into Seville,
and had him assassinated in his own palace
in A. H. 629 (a.d. 1232), after a short reign
of about two years.

" Al-baji," a term which means a man who
is a native of, or originally from, Beja, in
Alemtejo, is a surname common to several
Spanish Arabs of note, such as 'Abdullah
Ibn Mohammed Al-baji, who died in a. H.
378 (a.d. 988-9), and was kiidhi of Seville;
Ahmed Ibn 'Abdillah Ibn 'Omar Al-baji,
who lived in the eleventh century of our ccra,
and wrote a history of his own times ; Ibn
Siihibi-s-salat Al-baji, who was the author of
a valuable work on the settlement of the Al-
mohades in Spain, their wars with the Chris-
tians, &c., a copy of which is preserved in
the Bodleian library (Marsh. No. 433.) ; and

AL-BAJI.

ALB AN.

several other Spanish Moslems distinguished
for tlieir learning. (Ibn Khaldun, lli.<t. of
the Berbers, MS. Brit. Mus. No. 9575. fol. 14G. ;
Conde, Hist, de la J)um. ii. 434.; Casiri,
Bib. Arab. Hisp. Esc. ii. 135. 149.)

, , P. de G.

ALBALAG, R. ISAAC {plb^ pHV* "I),
a Spanish rabbi who lived in the beginning
of the fourteenth century. He translated the
book on the various opinions of the pliilo-
sopliers of Abu Ahmed Al-ghazzali from
Arabic into Hebrew, to which he added
notes of his own. It appears from the work
itself that he did this in the year a. m. 5067
(a. d. 1307). Such is the account given by
IJartolocci from the MS. in the Vatican
library, which is a paper MS. in 4to. There
is also a copy of this translation in one of the
MSS. in the Bodleian library, among those
given by Laud. The MS. contains five
different works, of which the first is entitled
" Abu Achmed Algazzali, a Treatise on the
Opinions of the Philosophers on the Art of
Speaking, translated from the Arabic and
illustrated with Observations by R. Isaac
Albalag ; to which is added the Hebrew
Alphabet." There is also, according to Wolff,
a MS. of this work in the Oppenheimer col-
lection, wherein the author's name is written
Alphalag (j^^'pk)- K- Shem Tob, in the
"Sepher Haemunoth" (sect. i. cap. i.) refers
to this translation of Albalag, in confutation
of the opinions expressed in the preface.
(Bartoloccius, Bibliuth. Mag. Rabb. i. 99. iii.
890. ; Wolfius, Bibliuth. Hebr. i. 648. iii. 553.
iv. 880. ; Uri, Cat. MSS. Orient. Bibliuth.
Bodl. i. 75.) C. P. H.

ALBAN, SAINT, called the proto-martyr
of England, as having been the first person
who was put to death in England for the
profession of the Christian faith. The time
of his death, according to all the authorities,
was during the persecution under Diocletian,
about A. D. 285 ; and so strong a tradition as
that which led the king of Mercia, Offa, to
found a monastery in honour of him near
the city of Verulam, that there was the scene
of his martyrdom, can hardly have existed,
unless there had been some foundation for
it. The Saint Albans historians relate that
Offa was guided miraculously to the place
in which the bodj- of the saint was interred
after he had been put to death, and also other
extraordinary circumstances attending his
death. This much is certain, that king
Offa towards the close of the eighth century
did found a monastery near to Verulam in
honour of Saint Alban, where his relics were
preserved, which monastery grew at length
to be one of the most famous in England,
and had among its members some of the
most learned and valuable writers of the
middle ages, of whom Matthew Paris may
be considered the chief.

This foundation of the Mercian king would
extend the celebrity of Saint Alban, and
635

might be the occasion of some of the niani-
festly fabulous matter which is mixed m ilh
the probably authentic facts of his history.
But it was far from being the cause of the
celebrity of the saint ; for Bede, who died
in A. D. 735, sixty years before the foundation
of the monastery, gives a large account of
the circumstances attending the martyrdom
in the 7th chapter of the 1st book of his
Ecclesiastical History ; and a still earlier
writer, ^ho has celebrated in verse the praises
of virgins and martyrs, notices Saint Alban
thus —

Albanum cgrcgium foccumla Britannia profert.
This was Fortunatus, an Italian, who lived
in the time of the Emperor Justin the
Younger, who succeeded Justinian in a. d.
505. The line is quoted by Bede. This
may be taken as sufficient proof of the ex-
istence and early celebrity of the saint.

Alban would appear from his name to be
a Roman. He is said to have been a soldier,
and to have served in the Roman armies
abroad. Bede represents him as a person
converted from Paganism. All agree that
the manner of his death was by beheading.
The 22d of June was the day on which he
was especially commemorated in the church.
The " Biographia Britannica," the "Lives
of the Saints," the Saint Albans historians,
and the Ecclesiastical History of Bede, may
be consulted for the uncertain matter which
has gathered around the few authentic par-
ticulars of his life. J. H.

ALBANE'SL GUIDO ANTONIO, a
physician of Padua in the early part of the
seventeenth century. After holding several
subordinate professorships in the university
of Padua, he was appointed in 1G44 to
succeed Sala, his former preceptor, in the
second professorship of theoretical medicine.
He was regarded as one of the best physicians
of his time, and has left a work entitled
" Aphorismorum Hippocratis E.vpositio Peri-
patetica." Padua, 1G49, 4to. (Mazzuchelli,
Scrittori d'ltalia.) J. P.

ALBANE'ZE, or D'ALBANE'SE, was
educated as a singer at the conservatorio of
Naples, whence he went to Paris in 1747, at
the age of eighteen. He was immediately
engaged in the Chapel Royal, and was first
soprano at the concerts spirituels from 1752
to 1762. He died in 1800. During his resi-
dence at Paris he published several collec-
tions of songs and duets. (Fetis, Biographie
Utiiverselle dcs Miisicietis.) E. T.

ALBA'NI, a noble Italian family, said to
have come originally from Albania, in one of
the emigrations occasioned by the invasions
of the Ottomans. The family became divided
into two branches, one of which settled at
Bergajno and the other at Urbino.

The branch of Urbino produced several
distinguished men : Giorgio and Altobello
Albani, who served in the Italian wars of the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries ; and in the

T T 2

ALBANI.

seventeenth century, Orazio Albani, who was
senator of Rome ; and lastly. Cardinal Gian
Francesco Albani, who became pope by the
name of Clement XL

Clement had several nephews, one of whom
purchased in 1715 the principality of Soriano,
in the patrimony of St. Peter, and whose de-
scendants bear to this day the title of Roman
princes. The Albani family has also produced
several distinguished cardinals.

Albani, Anni'bale, born at Urbino in
168'2, was nephew of Clement XI., who made
him a cardinal iu 1711. He filled many im-
portant offices at the court of Rome, aud was
sent as nuncio to Vienna, and was afterwards
made chief librarian of the Vatican. He
published at Rome — 1. " iMenologium Grse-
corum jussu Basilii Imperatoris olim editum,
nunc primum Greece et Latine prodit studio
et opera Annibalis Cardinalis Albani." 1727.
2. " Pontificale Romanum, Clementis VHI.,
Auctoritate recognitum." 1726. 3. " Con-
stitutioues Synodales Sabina? Dicecesis." 1737.
4. " Le buoue Arti sempre piu gloriose in
Campidoglio." He edited a splendid edition
of the homilies, bulls, and briefs of his uncle
Clement XL, and published also the " Me-
niorie concernenti alia Citta d'Urbino, 1724,"
which he dedicated to James IIL the Pre-
tender. (Mazzuchelli. Scn'ttori d'ltalia.')

Albani, iVlessandro, also nephew of
Pope Clement XL, born at LTrbino in 1692,
was sent to Rome, where he studied, and was
afterwards employed by his uncle in several
diplomatic missions. In 1721 he was made
a cardinal by Innocent XIII. Being a warm
lover of the fine arts, and gifted with exqui-
site taste, he made a most valuable collection
of statues and rilievi, which he obtained
partly from excavations among the ruins of
ancient Rome and the country ai'ound, and
partly by purchase. He arranged his collec-
tion in an elegant mansion which he built
outside of the Porta Salara, which has become
celebrated as the Villa Albani. He employed
]Mengs to paint the apartments, and Winckel-
niann and Gaetano Mariui to illustrate his
museum. He also collected many inscrip-
tions, which have been illustrated by the
learned Bianchiui, and which he gave to the
Capitoline museum. Pope Clement XII.
purchased for the same museum his collection
of medals, which have been explained by
Venutl. He was a generous patron of learn-
ing, and his house was frequented by the
most learned men at Rome, — Bottari, Bian-
chini, Marini, Giacomelli, and Winckelmann.
He obtained for Winckelmann from Pope
Clement XIII. the offices of prefect of Roman
antiquities, and writer of the Vatican library.
"Winckelmann was much attached to the car-
dinal, whom he made his heir general.

Cardinal Albani was appointed by Maria
Theresa her ambassador at the court of
Rome, and was considered a very able diplo-
matist. He was also appointed by the pope
G3G

prefect of several congregations and chief
librarian of the Vatican.

In his old age he became blind, but he con-
tinued to take delight in the conversation of
the learned, and he was to the last a collector
of works of art. He died in 1779, and was
buried in his family vault at St. Sebastian's,
outside of the walls. Strocchi, Cicognara,
and jMorcelli have written eulogies of him.
The learned Dutch archaeologist, Heekens,
in his book of Notabilia, speaks with the
greatest praise of his taste and learning. He
did more than any of his contemporaries to
encourage the study of the fine arts and an-
tiquities. (Tipaldo, Biografia degJi Italiani
illustri del Secolo X VIII. ; Lombard!, Sturia
della letteratura Italiana iiel Secolo XVIII.)

Albani, Giova'nni France'sco, nephew
of Cardinal Alessandro, born at Lh-bino in
1720, Avas made cardinal in 1747. He was
remarkable for his handsome person, his ac-
complishments, and his wit and penetration.
In the conclave of 1775 he was one of the
cardinals who promoted, and at last carried,
the election of Braschi, afterwards Pius VI.
Cardinal Albani showed himself a warm an-
tagonist of the principles of the French
revolution ; and when the French, under
Berthier, entered Rome in 1798, they confis-
cated, in consequence of an order of the
executive directory, all the property of the
Albani family, including the celebrated villa
and its museum, which had been formed by
the care of his uncle. Cardinal Alessandro.
Albani escaped, and was afterwards present
at the conclave of Venice, where Pius VII.
was elected. He returned to Rome, where
he died in 1809.

Albani, Giuse'ppe, son of Prince Orazio
Albani and of Marianna Cibo, and a nephew
of Giovanni Francesco, was born at Rome in
1750. He entered early into the service of
the papal court. He was made by Pius VI.
president of the Annona, and afterwards
auditor-general of the apostolic chamber, in
which he showed considerable administrative
abilities. During the alFraj' at Rome in 1794,
when the French revolutionary emissary was
killed by the populace, JMonsignor Albani
exerted himself to calm the popular fury ;
and he also saved the district of the Jews at
Rome from being pillaged by a fanatical mob,
who were led by designing people. He was
afterwards sent to Vienna in 1796, as envoy
of the pope, and was well received there,
both on account of the former connection of
the Albani family with the court of Austria,
and of his own mother's relationship to the
Archduke Ferdinand. He was much em-
ployed in the diplomatic negotiations of that
epoch between Austria and the Italian states.
General Bonaparte, in his correspondence
with the Directory, inveighed against what
he called the intrigues of Monsignor Al-
bani.

During the first invasion of Rome by the

ALBANI.

French in 179S, Monsipnor Albani remained
at Vienna ; his house at Home was plundered,
and his property confiscated. He afterwards
returned with Pope Pius VII., who made him
a cardinal in 1801. Cardinal Albani did not
mix in public affairs during the following
years, until the restoration of 1814, when
Pius VII. appointed him Prefetto del buon
governo, or home department. Leo XII.
made him secretary of the papal briefs, and
sent him on a mission to the Emperor Fran-
cis of Austria, in 1825. Pius VIII. made
Cardinal Albani secretary of state at a criti-
cal time, when the French revolution of
July 1830 threatened to spread over the
Italian states. Albani has been praised for
his prudence and moderation during that
period. Gregory XVI., after his accession,
appointed Albani legate of Pesaro and Ur-
bino, which province was then in a state of
revolt against the pope. There again he
succeeded in quelling the storm with as little
violence as was possible. He died, at a very
advanced age, in Pesaro, in December, 1834.
He possessed the love of the arts and of
learning, and the liberality which had dis-
tinguished many of his ancestors. (Tipaldo,
Biografia degli Italiani illitstri del Secolo
XVIII.) A. V.

ALBA'NI, FRANCESCO, a celebrated
Italian painter, bom in Bologna in 1.578. He
was the son of Agostino Albani, a wealthy
Bolognese silk mercer, who intended his son
to be brought up to his own business ; but
upon the death of his father, young Francesco,
then only twelve years of age, having evinced
great talent for design, was placed by an
uncle with the Fleming Denis Calvart, about
that time the most famous painter in Bologna.
Calvart intrusted the care of Albani's instruc-
tion to one of his scholars, Guido Reni, who
had been Albani's schoolfellow ; and an
intimate friendship grew up between the two
young painters, which lasted many years,
and ceased only when their future rival efforts
apparently rendered friendship impossible.
When Guido left Calvart for the rising school
of Ludovico Carracci, that of the Fleming
had no longer any attraction for Albani ; and
he shortly followed his friend into the school
of the Carracci, much to the displeasure of
Calvart. In the school of the Carracci,
however, sjTnptoms of that active jealousy
which ultimately separated them began to ma-
nifest themselves, and they executed several
rival works in Bologna. Albani's first public
work was an Assumption of the Virgin, in
fresco, over the shop of a hat-maker. The
best which he painted in competition with
Guido were a " Noli me tangere," in the
chnrch of San ]Michele in Bosco, and a Birth
of the \'irgin in Santa ]\Iaria del Piombo :
in the last he was pronounced by many to
have surpassed Guido. This active rivalry
caused no apparent interruption to the friend-
ship between the two painters, who invariably
637

spoke of one anotlier with praise. When
Annibal Carracci went to Rome, in tlie pon-
tificate of Paul v., to decorate the palace of
Cardinal Farnese, Albani and Guido followed
him, in company, in 1611 or 1612, the former
being in his thirty-third, and the latter in
his thirty-seventh year. In Rome the two
friends were not long together, for the re-
putation of Guido being much greater than
that of Albani, the latter found himself ne-
cessitated to work as subordinate to Guido,
which, through the petty tyranny of Guido,
who was very jealous of Albani, caused an
open rupture between tliem, and they sepa-
rated, never again to associate, after an inti-
macy of nearly thirty years.

In Rome Albani appears to have risen
rapidly to fortune, though it was not un-
alloyed by domestic sorrows. Shortly after
his arrival there he married a young Roman
lady, with whom he received property to the
value of 4000 scudi, consisting of two houses,
a handsome dowry for those times. He how-
ever lost his young wife in childbed of her
first child, a daughter, who survived ; yet,
notwithstanding this, he was sued by his wife's
mother for the property he had received with
her, which caused him considerable annoy-
ance for several years.

Annibal Carracci employed Albani to as-
sist him in the paintings in the Farnese pa-
lace ; and Albani painted the entire frescoes
of the chapel of San Diego in the church of
San Giacomo degli Spagnoli, after Annibal's
designs. He painted some good frescoes also
in the Chiesa della Pace, during the progress
of which he gave his employers, according
to Passeri, a wholesome lesson for their want
of confidence in him respecting some ultra-
marine. Somewhat more than two years
after the death of his wife Albani visited
Bologna, and there married a second time,
Doralice Fioravanto, a beautiful lady of a
noble Bolognese family: her dowry was only
2000 scudi. By this lady Albani had twelve
children, remarkable for their beauty ; and
this numerous and handsome family appears
to have been the chief cause of his changing
his style, and adopting one peculiar to him-
self, and by which he is now almost exclu-
sively known out of Italy. His wife and
children served him as his models, and they
were the originals of the Venuses, angels,
and Cupids, which are so often repeated in
his pictures. The celebrated sculptors Al-
gardi and Fiammingo (Du Quesnoy) also
studied the children of Albani as models.

In 1625 Albani was again in Rome : this
is probably the period when he executed the
paintings in the villa of the Marquis Giusti-
niani at Bassano near Rome, representing
the story of Neptune and Galatea, and the
Fall of Phaeton ; and also the frescoes which
he painted in the Verospi palace at Rome
(now Torlonia), consisting also of mytho-
logical subjects from Ovid and others," per-

T T 3

ALBANI.

ALBANL

haps his greatest works : they have been en-
graved in sixteen plates, folio, by Frezza,
published in 1704, under the title " Picture
Franc. Albani, in aede Verospia."

In 1633 he visited Florence, -where he
executed a Jupiter and Ganymede, and
several other -works for Cardinal Gio. Carlo
de' Medici, in his palace of Mezzo Monte ;
after the completion of -which he again re-
tvirned to Bologna, and in his villas of Medola
and Querciola painted the greater part of
those fanciful pictures from ancient poetry
and mythology to -which he owes his present
reputation.

Albani -was indefatigable in his labours
even -when old ; and it required all his efforts
to enable him to meet certain pecuniarj' de-
mands to -which he had made himself liable
by becoming security to a large amount for
one of his brothers, through -whose death, in
1053, he -was obliged to pay a sum amount-
ing to several thousand scudi, — 70,000 francs
according to Malvasia. But Albani -was not
able to satisfy the demand by the sale of his
pictures alone, and he -was accordingly com-
pelled to dispose of his villas of Medola and
Querciola in the vicinity of Bologna : a hard
fate, in his seventy-fifth year to be reduced
suddenly from afBuence to poverty through
the improvidence of a brother. Albani
bore these heavy misfortunes -well, as appears
from his letters preserved by Malvasia, and
as he evinced by his unremitting exertions
at an advanced age. He repaired again to
Rome, where, through the great activity of
Urban VIII. in promoting the arts, he still
hoped to retrieve his fortunes ; he did how-
ever little, for with increasing years his in-
firmities increased, and he returned to his
native city. He died in Bologna in 1G60, in
the eighty-third year of his age, attended on
his death-bed by his wife and family, his
favourite assistant Filippo Menzani, and other
friends. His private character, according to
his biographers, was in every respect ad-
mirable.

Albani's paintings are very numerous, both
in fresco and in oil : his illustrations of pro-
fane history greatly outnumber those from
sacred ; and yet he painted nearly fifty great
altar-pieces. His best works, however, are
those of small dimensions, which treat of
subjects from the ancient poets and mytho-
logy. Some of those which are painted upon
copper are exquisitely finished, and are very
beautiful ; they are also the best specimens
of his style, and are the main source of his
reputation, altbougb his larger works display
many of the higher qualities of art. He has
been termed the Anacreon of painters ; his
works certainly evince a very peculiar men-
tal quality ; their subjects are very trivial,
and they are decidedly not calculated to give
pleasure to serious minds. They consist
principally of landscapes, in which he ex-
celled, studded with nalved figures, rather
638

richly coloured, representing Venuses, Dianas,
Nymphs, Cupids, and other such personages.
His compositions are graceful, and the ar-
rangement of his figures is perhaps always
well adapted to the subjects, but his design,
though generally correct, is often feeble. He
seldom introduced men into his paintings ;
his figures were principally women and
children, his own wife and family always
serving him as the models ; and he evidently
imitated them pretty closely, for it is impos-
sible to overlook a general family likeness in
aU the figures of his best pictures of this
class. This has been urged by several critics
as a great defect in Albani's works ; but Avhen
we consider that it is seldom the case that
several pictures of the same kind and by the
same master are preserved in one place, it is
an objection of no importance ; for if the
figures are in themselves beautiful, the fact
that the same master has executed others
similarly beautiful cannot detract from their
worth as works of art, although it may dimi-
nish their value to the picture-dealer.

Albani's pictures are too numerous to admit
of anything lilve a list of them being given
here ; but the following few are amongst the
best. Of his own peculiar style the most
celebrated are, the four round pictures called
the Four Elements, pamted originally for
the Borghese family, and afterwards twice
repeated with slight alterations, once for the
Duke of IMantua and once for the Duke of
Savoy ; four pictures of the stories of Diana
and Venus, in the Florentine gallery, com-
menced for the Duke of Mantua and finished
for the Cardinal Gio. Carlo de' Medici, at
Florence ; the Toilet of Venus, in the
Louvre ; the Dance of Cupids at Dresden ;
and the landing of Venus on the Island of
Cythera, in the Ghigi Palace at Rome. Of
his larger works, from sacred history, the
following in Bologna are the best : — The
Baptism of Christ, painted for the church of
San Giorgio, now in the Pinacoteca or gal-
lery of the academy ; Sau Guglielmo, in the
church of Gesu e Maria ; Sant. Andrea, and
a " Noli me tangere," in the church of Santa
iMaria de' Servi ; a chapel in the church of
the Madonna di Galliena, illustrating various
stories from the Scriptures ; and an Annun-
ciation in the church of the Theatincs. Two
pictures in Rome also, painted in competi-
tion with Guido, in the church of San Sebas-
tiano, representing a St. Sebastian and an
Assumption of the Virgin, are reckoned
amongst Albani's best works. Malvasia has
preserved some of Albani's opinions upon
art : he considered invention and design the
chief merits of a painter, and affected to
despise representations of vulgar life and the
mere imitation of inanimate objects. Several
famous painters were among his scholars, as
Andrea Sacchi, Cignani, Pierfrancesco Mola,
and others. Sacchi painted his portrait,
which has been engraved by the elder Picart.

ALBANI.

ALBANO.

Many engravers have executed plates after
the pictures of Albani ; Sir Robert Strange
engraved three. The following artists also
executed several : — Frey, C. Bloemart, B.
Farjat, S. Baudet, Volpato, Cunego, Frezza,
D. Bonaverra, Benedetti, Poilly, Tauje, J.
Audran, the elder Picart, and Rosaspina.
Pilkington states that Albani had a scholar
and brother Giambattista, who excelled in
landscape painting ; but, according to his
biographers, Albani had only two brothers,
the one a procurator and the other a notary.
(Malvasia, Felsina Piltrice ; Passeri, Vite
de' Pittori, Sfc. ; Heineken, Dictionnaire des
Artistes, §r.) R. N. W.

ALBA'NI, MATTIA, a celebrated Ty-
rolese violin makei-, whose instruments are
yet prized by connoisseurs. He lived about
the middle of the seventeenth century. His
instruments are thus marked — " Albanus
Matthias fecit in Tyrol Bulsani." E. T.

ALBA'NO, GIOVANNI GIRO'LAMO,
born at Bergamo on the 3d of January,
1.504, was the son of Francis Albano, a gen-
tleman descended from a noble Albanian
family which had sought refuge within the
Venetian territory.

Giovanni Girolamo studied law in the uni-
versity of Padua, where Papadopoli says, on
the authority of a MS. of Sansoni, he took
the degree of doctor in 1525. He practised
as an advocate in his native town, and being
in that stormy period called occasionally,
in virtue of his rank, to take part in mili-
tary expeditions, he obtained considerable
reputation both as a lawyer and soldier.
He married in early life Laura Longa, of
a noble Bergamese family, by whom he
had several children. Upon the death of
his wife he is said to have made a vow
of celibacy, hut there is no record of
the time at which he actually took priestly
orders. In 1535 he published a treatise in
support of the opinion that Constantine had
transferred the temporal authority in the
Western Empire to the Bishop of Rome. In
1547 he published a legal exposition of the
status of cardinals in the church, their rights
and duties, dedicated to Paul III. In 1544
he published a treatise intended to prove that
general councils possessed no authority over
the pope. In both of these works he shows
himself an uncompromising champion of the
supreme power of the pope, and of the privi-
leges of the cardinals, the bishops, pres-
byters, and deacons of the see of Rome.
While Albano was engaged in completing
these works, the progress of the adherents of
Luther and Zwingli in the north of Italy,
and more especially in the districts around
Como and Bergamo, was exciting consider-
able alarm at Rome. Michele Ghislieri, a
Dominican monk (afterwards Pius V.), was
employed by the Romish inquisition to arrest
the progress of the new doctrines, and this
task he discharged at times, especially in the
639

large towns, at the hazard of his life. The
leader of the Protestants in Bergamo was
Giorgio filedolago, an eminent advocate, who
had gained wealth and popularity by his skiU
in pleading causes, and who through his
noble connections exercised no small in-
fluence over the minds of the aristocracy.
The local inquisitor w^as afraid to attack so
powerful a citizen ; but Ghislieri, having
been appointed to the office ad interim, had
iMedolago arrested and thrown into gaol.
Albano, who seems at that time to have
occupied the office of legal adviser to the in-
quisition of Bergamo (the biographer of
Pius V. calls him " comes," and " perpetuus
sacrae inquisitionis patronus"), fearlessly sup-
ported Ghislieri, although Medolago was his
own relation, and although more than one
attempt was made by the armed citizens to
release the prisoner and take vengeance on
his adversaries. In 1553 a treatise on the
privilege of sanctuary attached to churches
from the pen of Albano was published at
Rome. Albano was appointed colaterale
generale by the Venetian senate about the
end of 1554 or beginning of 1555 : the time
is fixed approximately by a letter from Ber-
nardo Tasso, congratulating him upon his
election, dated at Rome the 15th of February,
1555. How long he retained the appoint-
ment is uncertain : there are letters extant,
one addressed to him by Bernardo Tasso in
1557, and another by Giammateo Bembo in
15 GO, in both of which he is addressed by
the title of colaterale. Albano was deposed
iu consequence of the murder of Count
Achille Brembato in the church of S. Maria
Maggiore in Bergamo by two of his sons, a
crime in which he was supposed to have
participated. The two murderers escaped, but
Albano and a third son were banished for
ten years to Dalmatia. Ghislieri ascended
the papal throne 7th of January, 1566, as
Pius v., and one of the first measures of his
pontificate was to summon to Rome Albano,
of whose skill, courage, and devotion to the
authority of the pope he had experience at
Bergamo. Albano was immediately ap-
pointed apostolic referendary; soon after, go-
vernor of the March of Ancona ; and on the
14th of June, 1570, elevated to the dignity
of cardinal. On the 19th of February, 1571,
three of his sons — Giovanni Battista, Gio-
vanni Francesco, and Giovanni Domenico —
were by a pubhc decree of the senate adopted
as members of the patrician order of Rome.
Cardinal Albano survived to take part in the
election of four popes, Gregory XIII., Six-
tus v., Urban VII., and Gregory XIV. ; and
died on the 23d of April, 1591, with the re-
putation of a resolute and independent man,
endowed with a vein of playful and good-
natured wit. The four treatises mentioned
in the course of this sketch evince extensive
legal knowledge and the talent of stating a
case with clearness and precision. Their
T T 4

ALBANO.

ALBANS.

titles are — " De Donatione Constantini facta
Ecclesise. Colonic Agrippinensis, 1535 ;
Romse, 1547." " Tractatus de Cardinalatu
Johannis Hieronymi Albani, Bergamatis,
Equitis, ac Utriusque Juris Consvilti. Romae,
1541, 4to. ; Venetiis, 1584, 4to." " Tractatus
de Potestate Papsc et Concilii, Johannis Hie-
ronymi Albani, Equitis, et Utriusque Juris
Consulti. Venetiis, 1544, 4to. ; Lugduni,
1558, 4to. ; Venetiis, 1561. 1584. 1644, 4to."
(The edition of 1584 contains ample ad-
ditions.) " Tractatus de Immunitate Eccle-
siarum, et de Personis confugientibus ad
eas. Romse, 1553, fol. ; Venetiis, 1584, 4to."
These four works have been reprinted by
Ziletti in his collection of law tracts, ge-
nerally cited by the designation Tractatus
Tractatuum : the first in vol. xv. par. i. lib.
666. to the end ; the second in vol. xiii.
par. ii. lib. 105 — 131. ; the third in vol. xiii.
par.'i. lib. 66 — 86. ; the fourth in vol. xiii.
par. ii. lib. 18 — 23. Besides these there are
attributed to Albano " Lucubrationes in Bar-
toli Lecturas. Venetiis, 1559. 1561. 1571,
fol." " Disputationes ad Consilia. RoniEE,
1553; Lugduni, 1563, fol." fMazzuchelli,
Scrittori d' Italia ; Guido Panziroli, De claiis
Legum Literpretibtts. Lipsiffi, 1721, 4to. ;
Ciacenius, T7te et lies gesta Pontificitm Ro-
manorum et S. Ii. E. Cardinalium, ah Initio
nascentis Kcclesiae usque ad Cleinentem IX.
Romse, 1677, fol.; Calvi, Scena Litteraria
degli Scrittori Bergameschi. In Bergamo,
1664, 4to. ; Papadopoli, Historia Gymnasii
Patavini. Venetiis, 1726, fol.; De Vita el
Rebus gcstis Pii V. Pont. Ma.r. Lihri Sex.
Auctore Jo. Antonio Gabutio. Romse, 1605,
fol.) W. W.

ALBANS, JOHN OF ST., who is also
called by different writers Joannes iEgidius
de S. Albans, Joannes de S. iEgidio ad fa-
num S. Albani, Joannes Anglicus, Jean de
St. Gilles, and Joannes de S. Quintino, was
born near St. Albans, and studied at Oxford,
Avhere, at a later period, he taught philo-
sophy. In 1198, Philippe II., king of France,
invited him to his court, and appointed him
his chief physician. After teaching medicine
and philosophy for some years at Paris, he
went to MontpeUier, and lectured there on
the same subjects. At a subsequent period
he was made dean of St. Quentin in Picardy ;
and having entered the ecclesiastical order,
he obtained the degree of doctor in the
faculty of theology, and lectured at Paris
upon sacred literature. In 1228 he joined
the order of Dominican Friars, but at the
earnest request of his pupils he continued
his lectures ; and it was through his influ-
ence that the Dominican schools were at this
time first established in Paris, and the friars
of the order admitted to degrees in the uni-
versity faculty of theology. In 1233 he was
appointed theological teacher to his order at
Toulouse ; and in 1235 he returned to 0,x-
ford, where he again delivered lectures, and
640

for many years presided over the Dominican
schools. He seems to have been much re-
spected for both learning and piety, and to
have had considerable influence in intro-
ducing the Dominican or Black Friars into
England. The time of his death is unknown,
but Matthew Paris {Historia Major, Lond.
1571, p. 1165.) mentions him as attending the
death-bed of his friend Robert Grosse-teste,
bishop of Lincoln, in 1253, in the united
capacities of physician and theologian, and
relates at length the last conversation between
them.

While physician to Philippe II., John of
St. Albans amassed considerable wealth, and
bought the Hopital de St. Jacques at Paris,
which had been formerly used as a lodging-
house by pilgruns resorting to the church of
St. James of Compostella in Spain, but which
was almost in ruins. He repaired it in a
manner suited to his station ; and, after re-
siding in it for several years, he gave it, in
1218, to the Dominican order. It was the
first house that they possessed in France, and
from it they derived the name of Jacobites or
Jacobins, by which they were afterwards
commonly called, and which descended from
them to the members of that party in the
French revolution whose meetings were
usually held in one of their deserted con-
vents in the Rue St. Ilonore.

John of St. Albans is said to have written
several works on the Aristotelian philosophy
and on theology, and two on medicine. A
list of them is given by Quetif and Echard,
but none have ever been published ; nor is
any of them now known to be extant. (J.
Quetif and J. Echard, Scriptores Ordinis
Pradicatorum, Paris, 1719, t. i. p. 100. ;
Astruc, Memoires pour servir a VHistoire de
la Faculte de Medecine de MontpeUier ; Du
Fresne, Glossarium ad Scriptores Med. et Inf.
Latinitatis, " JacobitEC.") J. P.

ALBANUS MO'NACHUS, a Benedic-
tine of St. Albans monastery, who pretended
to visions and the gift of prophecy. He
wrote certain metrical predictions which had
reference to one Sextus Hibemiensis, a per-
sonage long before made the subject of pre-
diction by Gildas Albanius and Merlinus
Caledonius. He is the author of a book
called " Versus Vaticinales." which begins,
" Anglia transmitte Leopardo lilia," in MS.
in the Bodleian library. He also wrote one
book of prophecies entitled " Prophetise."
(Tanner, Bibliotheca Brittanico-Hibernica.)

A. T. P.

ALBANY, Countess of. [ALFrERi.]

ALBARDAI, JACOBUS. [Jacobus
Albardai.]

ALBARE'LLL JA'COPO, a painter and
sculptor of Venice, the scholar and assistant
of the younger Palma, with whom he lived,
according to Ridolfi, for thirty-four years.
In the church of All Saints at Venice there
is a Baptism of Christ by Albardli ; and

ALBARELLI.

ALBATEGNIUS.

over the door of tlie sacristy in the churcli of
SS. Giovaimi e Paolo is a bust in nuirble of
the younger Pahna by him. He died in
1C20, aged about fifty. (Ridolfi, Vite da
Pittori Vcneti, Sfc. ; Zanetti, Delia Pittura
Venezimm.) R. N. W.

ALBASPI'NUS. [AuBESPiNE.]
ALBATE'GNIUS is the Latinized sur-
name of a celebrated Arabian astronomer
whose works were much read during the
middle ages. His name was Mohammed Ibn
Jabir Ibn Senan Abii 'Abdillah, and he was
further known by the surnames of Al-harrani,
because he was originally from Harrah, the
ancient Charraj in Mesopotamia, and Al-
batcni, because he was born at Baten, a small
town of that district. He seems to have lived
in the ninth century ; for he informs us in
one of his works that he made an astrolabe
for the use of Al-mu'tamed 'alai-illah, the
fifteenth khalif of the race of 'Abbas, who
reigned from a. H. 257 to 279 (a.d. 870 —
892); and it appears from his treatise on the
advantages of astrology that he began his
observations in a. H. 264 (a.d. 877), and con-
tinued them till 306 (a.d. 918), sometimes
at Rakkah, the ancient Aracta, where he
generally resided, and sometimes at Bagh-
dad. In one of his visits to Baghdad, Al-
batcni was attacked by an acute disorder, of
which he died in a.h. 317 (a.d. 929). Ibn
Kifti, in his Lives of the Arabian Philo-
sophers, says that when Albateni felt his end
approach, he requested his friends to carry
him to Rakkah, that he might die there. He
was accordingly placed on a litter, but he
died on the road at a place called Kasru-l-
jiss. Albateni wrote the following works: —
1. An abridgment of and a commentary
upon the almagest of Ptolemy, of which
Abu-l-feda mentions two editions, and says
that the second is the best. 2. A work di-
vided into fifty-seven chapters, treating on
astronomy and geography, and containing
also chronological tables of the kings of
Syria, Egypt, Persia, and India, as well as of
the Greeks and Romans, the Mohammedan
khalifs, &c. ; the principal events from the
creation to the author's own times ; the lati-
tudes and longitudes of the principal cities in
the world ; and, lastly, a set of astronomical
tables. There is a copy of this work in the
Escurial library. No. 903. 3. An abridgment
of the Arabic translation of the geometrical
works of Archimedes. 4. A treatise on the
advantages of astrology {Bib. Esc. 966.). 5. A
commentary upon the " makalat" or quadri-
partitus of Ptolemy {Bib. Esc. No. 967.).
6. A collection of one hundred aphorisms on
the utility and advantages of astronomy;
which last work he appears to have composed
at Rakkah in a. n. 266 (a. d. 879-80). 7. A
treatise on the rising of tlie constellations,
and the times of their conjunction. This
last work was translated into Latin, and
printed at Niirnberg in 1537, 4to., with notes

and additions by Regiomontanus, " Alba-
tegnius Astronoinus peritissimus de motu
Stellarum, ex Observationibus tum propriis
tuni Ptolomaei." 8. Another elementary
treatise on astronomy, entitled " Kitabu-1-
mudakhel ila 'ilmi-n-nojum" ("The Book of
Introduction to the Science of the Stars ").
The labours of Al-bateni were of the greatest
advantage to astronomy. He supplied the
defects of the Ptolema-an tables by the
construction of new astronomical tables ;
he improved the theory of the sun, by deter-
mining more accurately the apogee and the
eccentricity, from the latter of which the
diminution of that element was first ascer-
tained ; it has since been demonstrated from
the theory of gravitation, and used in explain-
ing the secular equation of the moon. (De-
lambre. Astronomic du moycn Age, p. 10.;
Lalande, Astronomic, i. 120 — 127.; Abii-1-
faraj. Hist. Dyn. p. 191. ; Casiri, Bib. Arab.
Hisp. Esc. i. 343. ; D'Herbelot, Bib. Or.
voc. " Batan," " Batani.") P. de G.

ALBE, BACLER D' [Bacler-Dai.be.]
ALBEDYHLL, BARON GUSTAF D',
Swedish minister at the court of Copenhagen,
was removed from that post on account of
some political offence, when in justification
of himself he published his " Pieces authen-
tiques qui servent d'eclaircir la Conduite du
Baron d'Albedyhll, dans I'AfFaire qui se passa
a Copenhague an Commencement de I'Annee
1789." He also wrote " Recueil de Me-
moires, &c. relatifs aux Affaires de I'Europe,
et particulierement celles du Nord pendant la
dernicre Partie du 18me Siccle," 2 vols.,
Stockholm, 1798—1811; " Nouveau Me-
moire, &c." Stockholm, 1798 ; and " Skrifter
blandadt dock mast politiskt och historiskt
innehiill," 2 vols., Nykoping, 1799, 1810.
He died August 11. 1819, leaving as his
widow Eleanore Charlotte d'Albedyhll (be-
fore her marriage Countess of Wrangel), a
lady who had obtained some literary celebrity
by her " Gefion," a poem in four cantos, pub-
lished at Upsala, 1814; and also by her talent
for letter-writing, in which respect she has
been compared to Madame de Sevigne.
{Hermes, 1823.) W. H. L.

ALBELDA, R. MOSES (nt;'D "1
m^'^^X)' '"'^o is called also Ben Jaacob
(the son of Jacob), a rabbi who was chief
rabbi of the synagogue of Saloniki (the an-
cient Thessalonica) during a considerable
part of the sixteenth century, and where he
died in the beginning of the seventeenth cen-
tury. Plantavitius erroneously calls him a
Sicilian. His works are — 1. "Derash Moshe"
(or a mystical explanation of Moses), which
consists of a collection of discourses on the
Pentateuch, after which come a variety of
miscellaneous discourses on marriage, death,
excommunication, circumcision, and repent-
ance. It was printed at Venice by Jo. de
Gara, a. m. 5363 (a.d. 1603), in folio, edited
by the author's two sons, R, Judah and

ALBELDA.

R. Abraham Albelda, by whom many other
■works of their father are promised in the
preface. His works which were published
during the author's life are^2. " Olath Tamid "
(" A continual Burnt-offering ") (Exodus,
xxix. 42.) ; a literal and mystical explanation
of the Pentateuch from the works of the
rabbis and Jewish philosophers, which dis-
plays, according to Bartolocci, considerable
erudition : it is accompanied by a prefatory
dissertation on the whole work, and a shorter
one on the first section of the book of
Genesis, and at the end there is a copious
table of the contents of each section of the
work : it was printed at Venice by Jo.
de Gara, a.m. 5361 (a. d. 1601), edited by
the author's son, R. Judah Albelda, and re-
vised by R. Moses Alpalas. BuxtorflP, in
his Bibliotheca Rabbinica, under " Olath
Tamid," has fallen into an error in making
the date of the publication at Venice a. m.
5286 (a. D. 1526), which would be about
seventy-five years before the author's death.
3. "Reshith Daath" ("The Beginning of
Knowledge ") (Proverbs, i. 7.), which is de-
scribed as " Biur al Hattorah" (" An Elucida-
tion of the Law"). It consists of the various
heads of the Hebrew faith, elucidated from
the works of the most learned and philo-
sophical rabbis, and is divided into books,
sections, and chapters : it also treats of the
coming of the Messiah, and of the peni-
tential return of the Hebrew nation to God.
It was printed at Venice, A. m. 5346 (a. d.
1586), in 4to., or, according to Plantavitius,
A. M. 5343 (a. d. 1583). 4. " Shaare Dhnah"
(" The Gates of Tears ") is a moral work,
which treats of the vanity and uncertainty of
all mortal things. According to the " Siphte
Jeshenira," it is a commentary on the La-
mentations of Jeremiah : it is divided into
four parts, which are again subdivided into
sections, and it treats, among other matters, of
the calamities to which all men, but especially
those who desire to live to God, are exposed ;
it then goes on to show, both from the Holy
Scriptures and from the writings of the phi-
losophers, how these calamities are to be
combated by the brave and wise. It was first
printed at Venice, according to the " Siphte
Jeshenim," a. m. 5346 (a. d. 1586), in 4to., and
again immediately after the author's death
by his eldest son and executor, R. Judah
Albelda ; also at Venice by Dan. Zauctti,
A. M. 5361 (a. d. 1601), in folio, corrected by
R. Moses Alpalas ; and a third time at Venice
by Jo. de Gara, A. m. 5364 (a. d. 1604), in 4to.
"The Biur al Hattorah" ("Elucidation of the
Law ") of R. Moses Albelda was also printed
at Constantinople, in folio, with the com-
mentaries on the Pentateuch of three other
rabbis, R. Sam. Almosnino, R. Jacob Kanisel,
and R. Aaron Abu Aldari, and a part of
the commentary of Nachmanides. R. Shabtai,
indeed, in his alphabetical index to the
" Siphte Jeshenim," has made another ISIoses
642

Albelda of the author of this commentary
but it appears to have been a mere oversight,
as we find uo account of two writers of this
name. Basnage, in his History of the
Jews, referring to this author, twice calls
him, erroneously, Abelda. (Bartoloccius,
Bihlioth. Mag. Itabb. iv. 59, 60. ; Wolfius,
Bihlioth. Hebr. i. 804. iii. 729, 730. ; De Rossi,
Dizion. Storico degli Autori Ebr. i. 43. ;
Hasnage, Histoire des Juifs, ix. 843. ; Le Long,
Biblioth. Sacra, ii. 867, 868. ; Plantavitius,
Biblioth. JRabb. 136. 433. ; Florileg. Rabbin.
565, 626.) C. P. H.

ALBEMARLE, Earl of [Keppel.]
ALBEMARLE, Duke of [Monk.]
ALBENAS, JEAN POLDO D', a
French writer of the sixteenth century, born
at Nimes, a.d. 1512. He was educated for
the bar, and became counsellor of the Pre-
sidial or Superior Court of Nimes and Bcau-
caire. He embraced the Refomied religion,
and his influence promoted its extension at
Nimes. He died a. d. 1565. He published
a French translation of the Prognostica
of St. Julian, archbishop of Toledo, and of
the History of the Thaborites of Bohemia,
written by iEneas Sylvius, afterwards Pope
Pius II. But his chief work is on the history
and antiqviities of Nimes, entitled " Discours
Historial de I'antique et illustre Cite de
Nimes," fol. Lyon, 1560. This work is illus-
trated with engravings of the ground plan
and elevation of the principal antiquities of
the city, reduced to a certain scale. (^Bio-
graphie Uiiiverselle ; Albenas, Discours, ^c. de
Almes.) J. C. M.

ALBENEPHI,or ABEN NEPHI, BAR-

NESiA csyj pN ^^< *s"':)''nSx nN^D''j-)n),

an Arabian Jew whose works on Egyptian
Antiquities are frequently quoted by Kircher,
in his CEdipus iEgyptiacus, as for instance
in his book "DeMysteriis^gyptiorum; and
also in his book "De Servitute iEgyptiaca"
" On the Slavery in Egypt "). According to
Imbonati, Father Kircher translated the work
of this author " De Sapientia yEgyptiormu,
eorumque Symbolica Philosophia," (" On the
Wisdom of the Egj-ptians, and their Sym-
bolical Philosophy,") from the Arabic into
Latin ; but he does not inform us whether
this work of the learned Jesuit is in print, or
where the manuscript is deposited. (Imbo-
natus, Biblioth. Lat. Hebr. p. 9. ; Kircherus,
CEdipus AUgypt. i. 249. 277. ; Wolfius, Biblioth.
Hebr. iii. I'l. 89. 166.) C. P. H.

ALBENGNEFIT. [Ibn Wafi'd.]
ALBER, ERASMUS, more commonly
called by the Latinized form of his name
Alberus, was a contemporary of Luther, and
one of the most zealous supporters of the
Reformation in Germany. The year of his
birth is unknown, and even his native place
is uncertain. According to some he was
born in the Wetterau, and according to others
at Sprendlingen, not far from Darmstadt.
He was educated at Nidda and JMuinz ; and

AI-liER.

ALBER.

about 1521 he vas studying theology at Wit-
tenberg, where he became intimately ac-
quainted with Luther, who entertained great
esteem for him. After the completion of his
studies he exerted himself to propagate the
doctrines of Luther, and was successively
teacher or preacher in various places, as at
St. Ursel, Giitzenhain, Sprendlingen, Neu-
brandenburg in the Mittelmark, Staden, Ba-
benhausen, and Magdeburg. He did not
remain long in any of these places ; for his
inclination to satire and his resolute oppo-
sition to what he considered abuses in church
or state, generally led to a speedy dismissal.
During 1552, and the commencement of the
next year, he lived as a private person at
Hamburg ; but at the close of this period
he was appointed superintendent-general at
Neubrandenburg in Mecklenburg. He had
scarcely entered on his new official duties,
when he died on the 5th of May, 1553.

Alber was one of the most learned and
witty men of his age, and a zealous and in-
defatigable cliampion of the Reformation,
which he supported by teaching and by
numerous controversial and satii'ical writings.
His satire is not of the most refined kind :
it is always coarse, and sometimes obscene.
He indeed always hits what he aims at,
but his blows, as it has been justly observed,
are not those of a sharp sword, but of a heavy
bludgeon. Alber had great talent for nar-
rative, as appears from his forty-nine ^-Esopic
fables, which, however, do not possess that
easy flow and simplicity which distinguish
the fables of his contemporary Burkard Wal-
dis. He also wrote many sacred songs, which
are full of original ideas, and show deep
religious feeling. But even here he could
not control his satirical turn, and he occa-
sionally dealt hard blows against the enemies
of the Reformed religion and those Protest-
ants who differed from Luther. Some of his
sacred songs, however, were highly valued,
and were incorporated in the hymn-books
used in churches : as poetical productions
they are certainly not inferior to any of that
age, except those of Luther himself. Most
of his works are written in High German ;
a few are in Low German. Alber's chief
works are — 1. " Der Barfiisser Miinche Eu-
Icnspiegel und Alcoran, mit einer schonen
Vorrede Martin Luther's," without date or
place, in 12nio. It was reprinted at Witten-
berg, 1 542, -Ito., and without place in 1573,8vo.
Another edition appeared at Halle, 1615, 4to.
This work is an abridgment of the Conform-
ationes S. Francisci of Bartholoma?us Albi-
cius of Pisa, in which the resemblance of
S. Franciscus to Christ is set forth, and sup-
ported by various miraculous occurrences of
his life. Alber added to these stories nu-
merous satirical and sarcastic notes, which
made the work so popular that it was trans-
lated into Latin, French, and Dutch. 2.
" Neue Zeitung von Rom, wohcr das jNIord-
643

brcnnen komme ; item Pasquini und Mar-
forii neue Te Deum Laudamus von Pabst
Paulo UL zu Rom in Lateinischer Sprache
gesimgen, verdeutscht durch Piibstl. Heilig-
keit guten Freund Erasnmm Alberum," 1541,
4to., without place. The work is a bitter
satire on the pope. 3. " Ein Dialogus oder
Gespriich etlicher Personen vom Interim.
Item vom Krieg des Antichrists zu Rom,
Babst Pauli III. mit Iliilff Kaiser Caroli V.,
&c." 1548, 4to., without place. Tliis is like-
wise a very severe satire : it is sometimes
very coarse. 4. " Eilend aber doch wohlge-
troffne Contrafactur, da Jorg Witzel abge-
malet ist, wie er dem Judas Ischariot so gar
iihnlich sieht," in 4to., without date or place.
This is a satiric poem on George Wizelius,
who was first a monk, then embraced the
Protestant religion, and subsequently re-
turned to Roman Catholicism. 5. " Dass
der Glaub an Christum allein gerecht und
selig mach, widder Jorg Witzeln Mamme-
luken und Ischarioten, item von Jijrg Wit-
zel's Leben und dabei Ludus Sylvani ver-
deutscht, ser Kurtzweilig zu lesen," 1549,
8vo., without place. 6. " De grote Woldadt,
so unser Here Godt dorch den truwen unde
diiren Propheten Doct. Martinum Luther, yn
der Graveschop Mannsfelde gebaren, der
Werldt ertbget imde den Romisclien Widder-
christ geapenbaret, &c." 1546, 4to., without
place. This is a kind of epic poem in praise
of Luther. 7. " Ehebiichlein," 1539, 4to.,
without place. It was subsequently pub-
lished under the title " Lustiger Dialogus
edder Gespriike twischen twee Fruwen
Agatha unde Barbara, deren de eine eeren
Manns cheldet, de andere lawet," 1605, 8vo.,
without place. 8. " Das Buch von der Tugent
und Weisheit, nemlich xlix Fabeln, der
mchrere Theil aus Esopo gezogen und
mit guten Rheimen verkleret." Frankfurt,
1550, 4to. ; reprinted at Frankfurt, 1579.
(J. J. Kbrber, Beitrag zu der Lebenshe-
schreUiung Erasmi Albert, eines der ersicn
licfonnatorcn in der Wetterau, Hanau, 1754,
4to. ; G. G. Gervinus, Geschichte der Pocthch.
National. Literatiir der Deutsclien, iii. p. 25.
32, &c. 53, &c.; Jbrdens, Lexihon Deutscher
Dichter und Prosaisten, i. 28 — 36.) L. S.

ALBERGA'TI, ANTO'NIO, bishop of
Veglia or Biseglia, in the kingdom of Naples,
was the son of Fabio Albergati. He was
born at Bologna on the 16th of September,
1566 ; and after filling the ofiices of apo-
stolical referendary, governor of Todi, and
archdeacon of Milan, was appointed to the
bishopric of Yeglia by Pope Paul V., on the
3d of August, 1609. While papal nuncio at
Cologne under Gregory XV., he founded
there a society in aid of Roman Catholics
newly converted to the faith. He also esta-
blished other institutions for the purposes of
general and religious instruction, which were
supported at his pi'ivate cost during his life-
j time. In 1627 he resigned his bishopric

ALBERGATI.

and from that time resided constantly at
Rome, where he died on the 4th of Januarj-,
1634. He is the author of a -work entitled
" I tre Libri della Guida spirituale," published
at Bologna in 1628, 8vo. ; he also edited " Le
Morali," written by his father Fabio, and is
conjectured to be the author of a work called
" Antonii Albergati Instructio et Decreta
Generalia pro Pastoribus Civitatis et Dioecesis
Leodiensis. Leodii, 1614, 4to." (Bumaldus,
Bibliotheca Bononiensis, 20. ; Orlandi, Notizie
deqli Scrittori Bolognesi, 58. ; Ughellus, Italia
Sacra, vii. 949.) J. W. J.

ALBERGATI, FA'BIO, a native of Bo-
logna, ancestor of the marquises of the same
name, was born about the middle of the six-
teenth century. He was one of the most
celebrated literati of his time in Italy. Pope
Innocent IX. made him castellan of Perugia ;
and Orlandi asserts that he was also consis-
torial advocate. This latter statement is not,
however, supported by any collateral evi-
dence. He was held in great esteem by
Pope Urban VIII., and in 1589 was sent as
papal ambassador to • the court of Francesco
Maria della Rovere, the last Duke of Urbino,
by whom he was greatly beloved : the duke
and he had been fellow students in their
youth. By his wife, the Countess Flaminia,
daughter of the Count Antonio Bentivogli,
he had six sons and five daughters. One of
his daughters, Lavinia, became the wife of
the Duke Orazio Lodovisi, the brother of
Gregory XV. A bronze medal was struck
in honour of him, bearing on the obverse his
effigy, with the words " Fabius Albergati
Mon. Canini Marchio ; " and on the reverse,
falling dew, with the legend " Divisa bea-
tum." His death took place about the year
1605. The following is a list of his works :
1. " Del Modo di ridurre alia Pace le Inimi-
cizie private. Roma, 1583," fol. 2. " Del
Cardinale, Libri IIL Bologna, 1589," 4to.
3. " Dei Discorsi Politici Libri cinque, nei
quali viene riprobata la Dottrina politlca di
Giovanni Bodino, e difesa quella d'Aristotile.
Roma, 1602," 4to. 4. " Le Morali," edited
by his son Antonio, bishop of Biseglia, Bo-
logna, 1627, fol. 5. "La Repubblica regia.
Bologna, 1627," fol. 6. " Ragionamento al
Cardinale S. Sisto come nipote di Papa Gre-
gorio. Milano, 1600." 4to. He left several
other works in MS., which wei"e preserved
in the library of the Duke of Urbino above
mentioned. (Orlandi, Notizie degli So-iftori
Bolognesi, p. 109.; Dolfi, Cronologia dellc Fa-
miglie Nobili di Bologna, p. 33. ; Bumaldus,
Bibliotheca Bononiensis, p. 65. ; Mazzuchelli,
Scrittori d" Italia.) J. W. J.

ALBERGA'TI-CAPACELLI, FRAN-
CESCO, marquis, senator of Bologna, was
born of a rich and noble family in that city
in 1728. His character has been variously
represented. By some he is described as
addicted to every vice, while others speak of
him as not only enjoying but meriting the
644

affection and respect of the great and the
learned. The events of his life, so far as
they have been transmitted to us, would
appear to indicate infirmity of temper rather
than depravity of heart. His education was
suited to his rank. He studied law imder
Vernizzi, and had for his master in philo-
sophy and mathematics the celebrated Fran-
cesco Zanetti. His imagination was lively
and his person handsome. He married early
a ladj' his equal in rank, who was both rich
and beautiful ; but the union proved unfor-
tunate ; their affection speedily became in-
difference, which was succeeded by mutual
dislike, and a legal separation was the con-
sequence. Albergati early displayed a strong
propensity for theatrical representations, and
his high powers of declamation, which he
improved by careful and unremitting prac-
tice, gained him great reputation, and caused
him to be universally referred to as a model
in the art. He erected at his villa of Zola,
near Bologna, a theatre capable of holding
three himdred persons, in which, in the months
of May and June in each year, he represented
plays, many of which were of his own com-
position, to a brilliant audience. During
these periods Zola was filled with the first
families of Bologna, who were hospitably
entertained. In the year 1766 he retired to
'\'erona, where he lived for some time, and
afterwards spent many years at Venice, only
returning occasionally to Zola to enjoy for a
season the pleasures of his theatre. He had
already married again, and his second wife
had brought him two children, when this
union was dissolved by a most imexpected
and dreadful event, which took place at Zola.
The domestics were one day alarmed by
loud screams from the apartments of the
marchioness, who rushed out wounded in
several places, and shortly expired. Suspicion
immediately fell upon her husband, who, it
was reported, being of a violent temper, had
stabbed her in a fit of jealousy, and this sus-
picion derived strong confirmation from his
behaviour on the occasion and the circum-
stance of his sword being found stained with
blood. Criminal proceedings having been
instituted against him, he retired hastily to
Venice, and intrusted his defence to the
celebrated jurisconsult Ignazio Magnani,
having in the mean time procured for himself
the title of general in the service of Poland —
a rank which insured him against arrest.
The result of the trial was a full acquittal.
He married a third time (according to the
Biographie Universelle, a dancer named
Zampieri), and died on the 10th of March,
1804. His passion for the drama appears
never to have been extinguished ; and during
forty years of his life he occupied himself
solely with reading, composing, trjmslating,
and reciting theatrical pieces. Goldoni, in
his own memoirs, says of him, " In all Italy
there were none, professed actors or amateurs,

ALBERGATI.

'vrho could equal him in the parts of the
heroes of tragedy or the lovers in comedy.
He was the delight of his neighhourhood at
Zola and Medieina, his estates ; and was
seconded hy actors and actresses whom he
animated hy his intelligence and his expe-
rience. I had the happiness to contribute to
his enjoyments, having composed five pieces
for his theatre." The pieces referred to by
Goldoni are, "II Cavaliere di Spirito," "La
Donna bizarra," " L'Apatista," " L'Hosteria
della Posta," and " L'Avaro." Albergati was
' the friend and correspondent of Pope Bene-
dict XIV., Stanislaus Augustus, king of
Poland, \'oltaire, Cesarotti, Fontenelle, and
Alfieri. Although a good tragic actor, his
writings are confined to comedy, farce, and
satirical productions, which were more con-
genial with the natural disposition of his
mind. His principal works are as follow : —
" Lettere Capricciose ;" " Ragionamento in
Morte de Sig. A. Haller ;" " Dodici Novelle
morali." Nineteen dramatic pieces, viz. " I
Pregiudizj del falso Onore;" "II ]\Iatrimonio
iniproviso;" "II Prigioniero ; " "LaTaran-
tola;" "Emilia;" " L'Ospite infedele;" " H
saggio Amico," in two parts ; " L'Amor
fiuto e L'Amor vero;" "H Pomo;" "La
Notte ; " " Amor non puo celarsi ; " " Le
Convulsioni ; " "Rodolfo;" "Oh! che hel
Caso ; " " Le Vedove innamorate ; " " II
Ciarlatormaldicente;" "L'Uomo di Garbo;"
" II Gazzettiere ; " " La Vendetta virtuosa."
He also made various translations, the most
important of which are versions of nineteen
tragedies, and other dramatic pieces by Vol-
taire, Racine, Fontenelle, and others. The
whole of his works have been published
in twelve vols. 8vo. at Venice, 1783-.5. "I
Pregiudizj del falso Onore " and " II saggio
Amico" are considered the best of his come-
dies, and " Le Convulsioni," although rather
too caustic, is the best amongst his farces.
(Tipaldo, Biografia degli Italiani lUustri dc
Scculo XVlil. V. 179.; Zacchiroli, Elocjia
di F. Alberyati-Capacelli ; Anno Teatralle,
an. 3. iv. 104.; Memoircs de Goldoni, i. 346.)

J. W. J.
ALBERGATI, LU'CIO, a native of Bo-
logna, who lived in the latter half of the tenth
century, and was celebrated for his learning
(particularly his skill in languages) and his
piety. He wrote the following works, none
of which have been printed : — 1. " De Vir-
ginitate, Libri III." 2. " De Angelorum
Lapsu, Liber I." 3. " De Angelorum Hier-
archiis, Libri V." 4. "Quscstiones super Li-
brum Sapientia; Salomonis, Libri VI." 5.
" Super Pentateuchum Commentaria." 6.
" De Ecclesia et Religione, Libri IV." 7. " De
ultimis Temporibus et Mundi Tribulationi-
bus, Libri III." (Bumaldus, Bihliutheca Bono-
niensis,\oO. ; Ghirardacci, Histuriu di Boloqna,
i. 48.) J. W. J.

ALBERGA'TI, NICCOLO\ cardinal,
son of Pietro Niccolo Albergati, was born
045

at Bologna in 1375. He studied law until
his twentietli jear imder Giovanni Andrea
Galderini, but having one day, wiiile hunt-
ing, taken refuge from a storm in a Car-
thusian monastery, he was so strongly affected
by the midnight service, in which he took
part, that he determined to join the order.
He soon became distinguished for his piety.
In the year 1407, twelve years after his
noviciate, he was elected prior of the Certosa
at Bologna, and in 1417 was chosen bishop
of Bologna by the separate elections of the
republican rulers of the city and the clergy.
He was active in the discharge of his episcopal
duties, though he had unwillingly quitted the
seclusion of his convent. He exerted him-
self to reform the licence and irregulai-ity
which had grown up among the clergy and
the laity during the papal contests ; and on the
election of Martin V. he was the active and
successful agent of the pope in bringing about
a temporary accommodation between him
and the city of Bologna, which had thrown
off its dependence upon Rome during the
schism between Benedict XIII., Gregory XII.,
and John XXIII.

From this time he was almost constantly
employed in missions of a public character,
for which he was peculiarly fitted by his
eloquence and ability and his high reputation.
Martin, being anxious to make peace between
Henry V. of England and the Dauphin of
France, afterwards Charles VII., despatched
Albergati as his nuncio to both courts in
1422 ; but his efforts were on this occasion
rendered abortive by the death of Henry
and the French king. Four years afterwards
the pope presented him with the cardinal's
hat and made him archpriest of the basilica
di Santa Maria Maggiore, and in the same
year despatched him as his legate to Venice
and the Duke of Milan, for the purpose of
putting an end to the war which had arisen
in consequence of the attempts of the duke
upon Forli and Pisa. After great exertions,
in a second journey to these powers in 1428,
he succeeded in concluding a peace between
all parties. In 1431 he was present as papal
legate at the council of Basil, over which he
presided jointly with three other cardinals,
and maintained with firmness the rights of
the pope (then Eugenius IV.), and imme-
diately afterwards sat as president of the
council which was held first at Ferrara and
afterwards at Florence. He was again deputed
as papal legate to France and England in the
year 1435, and on this occasion succeeded in
establishing a peace between France and the
Duke of Burgundy at the congress at Arras ;
and four years afterwards he went to the con-
gress at Niirnberg, for the purpose of pro-
tecting the interests of the pope and the
j church.

Disease, the austerity of his life, and the
dangers and hardships he had endured in
many of his missions, frequently incurring

ALBERGATI.

great personal risk, had now rendered rest
indispensable, and on his return to Rome he
■was appointed chamberlain and grand peni-
tentiary. He was seized with fever while
accompanying Eugenius from Florence to
Rome, and died at the Augustinian convent
at Siena on the 9th of May, 1443.

Albergati was remarkable for his modesty,
patience, charity, and firmness in the dis-
charge of his duties, and likewise for great
diplomatic skill in the management of the
various delicate and important commissions
intrusted to him. He founded several chari-
table and religious institutions, particularly
two hospitals for foundlings. He was a man
of considerable learning, and collected an
extensive library. The following are his
works: — 1. " Recollecta multae Lectionis."

2. " De inexcusabili Peccatoris Nequitia."

3. " Orationes ad Venetos et Philippum
Vicecomitera Mediolani pro Pace." 4. " Ser-
mones multi." 5. " Epistola; ei'uditissimfe."
There are also in the library of the Institute
of Bologna, in MS., according to Fantuzzi,
6. " Coliationes ex Divinis Scripturis et ex
SS. Patribus, pro Pace procuranda inter Prin-
cipes." 7. " Laudes S. Elizabeth Reginai
Filiae Regis Hungarian." 8. " Probatio et
Defensio Virginitatis B. Maria? et ejusdem
virginese Fecunditatis adversus Hereticos."

9. " De Nuptiis male damnatis a Manichwis."

10. " Relatio ad Bononienses de Rebus et
Conventionibus quas ipse cum summo Pon-
tifice Bononiensium Nomine pertractavit."

11. " Spirituale Connubiuni." Orlandi, in
his " Notizie degli Scrittori Bolognesi," states
that several of his discourses and letters were
printed at Toulouse. Among those attached
to his service were Toramaso Pai'cntucelli,
his Maestro di Casa, who afterwards became
pope, and took the name of Nicolas V., and
the celebrated Enea Silvio Piccolomini, after-
■wai'ds Pius II., who accompanied him to
France as his secretary. (Fantuzzi, Notizie
degli Scrittori Bolognesi; Cavallo, Vita di B.
Nicolo Albergati ; Cardella, Meniorie Storiclie
de' CardlnaU, iii. 44.) J. W. J.

ALBERGATI, PIRRO CAPACELLI,
member of a noble Bolognese family, attained
some celebrity as a composer in the beginning
of the eighteenth century. Several of his
operas were performed at Bologna, among
them "Gli Amici" in 1699, and "II Prin-
cipe Selvaggio" in 1712. A set of his sacred
cantatas for voices and instruments was pub-
lished at Modena in 1703. Between the years
168.5 and 1702 he published at Bologna se-
veral motets, psalms, and a mass for voices
and instruments, as well as his oratorio of Job.
(Gerber, Lexicon der Tonkiinstler.') E. T.

ALBERGATI, VIANE'SIO, son of Fa-
biano Albergati. The date of his birth is
not known, but he took his degree of doctor
in civil and canon law in 1516. He was ap-
pointed apostolical prothonotary by Leo X.,
and, according to LTghelli and others, was
G46

subsequently made bishop of Cajazzo ; but
the truth of tliis last statement is doubted by
Fantuzzi. He died in 1529, and left behind
him two works in manuscript : one was
deposited in the library of Cardinal Barberini
at Rome, No. 2739., entitled " Vianesii Alber-
gati Commentarii Rerum sui Temporis," a
work replete with exact and important details
of all that took place in Rome and the con-
clave from the death of Adrian VI. to the
election of Clement VII. The other, " Liber
manualis Computorum Exitus et Introitus
Cam. A post, in Hispania," embracing the
period from the 20th July, 1520, to the 26th
February, 1522. This latter work is pre-
served in the Vatican. (Masinus, Bologna
pcrlustrata, ii. 103. ; Fantuzzi, Notizie dcpli
Scrittori Bolognesi.') J. W. J.

ALBERGHE'TTI, ALFONSO, a Fer-
rarese sculptor of the latter part of the six-
teenth century. In the house of the Counts
Costabili of Ferrara there are two richly
ornamented vases of bronze ; the ornaments
consist of figures and arabesques of every
description. Inside the vases is the following
inscription : — " Alfonsi Albergeto Ferrarensi
me fecit anno Domini 1572." Also in the
interior of one of the magnificent wells in the
court of the ducal palace at Venice is written
" Alberghetti, 1559." (Cicognara, Storia
della Sciiltuni.) R. N. W.

ALBERGO'NI, ELEUTE'RIO, bishop of
Monte Marrano in the kingdom of Naples,
was a native of Milan, and lived in the end
of the sixteenth and commencement of the
seventeenth centuries. He was a leai'ned
theologian and celebrated preacher, and filled,
among others, the offices of reader in the
cathedral of Milan, consultore of the holy
office of the Inquisition, and provincial of the
province of Milan. His merit alone is said
to have raised him to the episcopal dignity,
which was conferred upon him by Pope
Paul V. on the 29th of October, 1611. He
held his bishopric twenty-five years, and
died in 1636. The following is a list of his
works : — 1. " Resolutio Doctrinas Scoticfe,
in qua quid Doctor subtilis circa singulas
quas exagitat Qua;stiones sentiat, etsi op-
positum alii opinentur, brevibus ostenditur.
PaduEE, 1593," 4to. 2. " Concordanza degli
Evangelj correnti nelle cinque Domeniche
di Quarcsima con Cantico della B. Ver-
gine. Milano, 1594," 8vo. 3. " Trattato
della Gratitudine, dell' Ingratitudine, dell'
AUegrezza salutevole et dell' Umilta, per
r Esposizione delli primi tre Versi del Can-
tico della B. Vergine. Milano, 1598," 8vo.
4. " Sermoni fatti nell' Occasione delle Qua-
rante Ore. Milano, 1598," 8vo. 5. " Pre-
dica del Modo di lodare e di esaltare Dio
nella Cattedra sopra I'Evangelio : super Cathe-
dram Moysis sederunt Scribse et Pharissei,
&c. 1606," 4to. 6. "Prediche per le Do-
meniche deir Avvento e Santo Natale dette
in S. Pietro di Roma. Roma, 1631," 8vo.

ALBERGONI.

ALBERICO.

7. " Connexio Evangel iorum Quadragcsima-
lium et Psalmorum. Romix", 1631," 4to. 8.
" Lczioni sopra il INIagnificat concordanti
con gli Evangelj Ambrogiani. Roma, 1G31,"
8vo. (Argellatus, Bihliotlieca Scriptorum
Mcdiulunensium, 1745, i. 16. ii. 1934. ; Morigi,
La Nobillu di Mlluiio, 1619, p. 289. ; Mazzu-
chelli, Sent tort d' Italia.) J. W. J.

ALBERGOTTI, FRANCESCO, a na-
tive of Arezzo, son of Alberico Albergotti, a
lawyer, was bom in 1 304. He studied under
several professors of law, the most eminent
of whom was Baldo. Albergotti, after taking
the degree of doctor, settled as a practising
advocate in his native town. The per-
suasions of his friends induced him in 1349
to remove to Florence. The reputation
which he gained at Florence by his writings,
lectures, and forensic displays induced the
republic to inscribe him among its own pa-
tricians. He was nominated ambassador, in
1358, to settle some dispute about boundaries
which had arisen between Florence and
Bologna. He died at Florence in 1376.
Mazzuchelli mentions two MS. woi-ks of
Albergotti as preserved in his day in the
library of the Spanish college at Bologna :
" (^ommentaria in Libros Digestorum ; "
"Commentaria in Partes quasdam Codicis"
(the sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth books).
Several of his legal opinions were published
along with those of Gio. Battista Marzianese
at Venice, in 1573 : one is included in Ziletti's
collection of opinions of eminent jurists on
questions of the law of marriage ; and several
are said by Mazzuchelli to have been pre-
served in jMS. in the library of the college
of Spain at Bologna. Albergotti was called
by his contemporaries the teacher of sub-
stantial truth (solidse veritatis doctor) : this
distinction he owed probably to his reputation
as a consulting lawyer. (Mazzuchelli, Scrit-
tori d'ltalia.) W. W.

A'LBERI, M., an Italian landscape painter
or draughtsman, known only by engravings
of six landscapes, inscribed " Sei Paesagi
dodicati alia Signora Marchese di Mancini
di M. Alberi inv." (Heineken, Dictionnah-e
des Artistes, l^'c.) R. N. W.

ALBERIC, physician to the King of Bo-
hemia, and afterwards archbishop of Prague,
wrote two medical works about a. d. 1475,
entitled " Practica Medicina; et Regimen
Pestilentiae," and " Regimen Sanitatis," which
were published at Leipzig, 1484, by Marcus
Brandt. (Fabricius, Biblivth. Grceca, vol. xiii.
p. 45, 46. ed. vet.) W. A. G.

ALBERICI. [Albrizzi.]

ALBERICI, GIA'COMO, an ecclesiastic
of the Augustine order, of which he was
afterwards vicar-general, died at Rome in
1610. His work " Catalogo degl' illustri
Scrittori Yenetiani," published at Bologna in
1605, contains some account of the lives of
Croce, Gabrielli, Zarlino, and their other
eminent musical contemporaries. E. T.

647

ALBERICO DA BARBIA'NO wasbom

of the family of the counts of Barbiano and
lords of Cuneo in Piedmont, about the middle
of the fourteenth century. After receiving
the usual education of that time for young
men of his condition, he embraced the mili-
tary career under the celebrated English
condottiere John Hawkwood. The soldiers
of Hawkwood were foreigners, who for pay
entered the service of the various Italian
states which happened to be in want of them
during the frequent wars between Florence,
Pisa, the Visconti of JNIilan, and the pope.
Several large bodies of these foreign mer-
cenaries, styled companies, consisting of
several thousand men and horse, under various
leaders called condottieri, were roaming about
Italy during the fourteenth century, selling
their services to the highest bidder, and com-
mitting all sorts of depredations. Alberico,
after learning the art of war under Hawk-
wood, conceived the design of forming an
Italian company with the view of superseding
the employment of foreigners. He styled
his band the company of St. George, and was
particular in the choice of the men whom he
enlisted, and he subjected them to a stricter
discipline than was established among the
foreign mercenaries. Jacopo Attendolo, after-
wards known by the name of Sforza, Braccio
da IMontone, and other celebrated Italian
condottieri, served their apprenticeship under
Alberico.

In the schism between Pope Urban VI.
and the antipope, Robert cardinal of Geneva,
styled Clement VIL, A. d. 1378, Alberico en-
tered the service of Urban. Clement had in
his service the Breton company, which had
already committed the greatest atrocities at
Cesena and other parts of the Romagna.
Alberico encountered them at Marino, in the
Campagna, totally routed them, and entered
Rome in triumph in 1379. Clement escaped
to Naples, where he was protected by Queen
Joanna I., and L'rban was seated in the pon-
tifical chair. The Breton company was dis-
banded, and Alberico assumed on his standard
the legend " Liberator Italisc ab extornis."
Soon after. Urban having invited Charles of
Durazzo to effect the conquest of the king-
dom of Naples, and excommunicated Queen
Joanna, Alberico accompanied Charles in
his expedition and contributed to his success,
which terminated in the deposition of Queen
Joanna. Charles, having become king of
Naples, made Alberico great constable of the
kingdom. Alberico afterwards entered the
service of Gian Gakazzo Visconti, duke of
Milan, and defeated the league formed by
Venice, Florence, the Marquis of Ferrara,
and the Duke of Mantua. He next attacked
Bologna, where Giovanni Bcntivoglio had
usurped supreme power, and after a desperate
fight in the streets Bentivoglio was taken and
put to a cruel death, and Bologna became
sul)ject to the Visconti. In 1402 Gian Ga-

ALBERICO.

«t-azzo Visconti died, whilst Alberico -was
fighting for him in Tuscany. Alberico, being
slighted by the duchess regent, left the Mi-
lanese service, and went to Naples to defend
the young king, Ladislaus, against the An-
gevins. He died at Trani, in Apulia, at the
age of sixty, with the reputation of being one
of the first captains of his age. (Bossi,
Storia (T Italia ; Lomonaco, Vite dei famosi
Capitani d' Italia.} A. V.

ALBERICO DE ROSCIA'TE, an emi-
nent practical lawyer of the fourteenth cen-
tury. He was born in the village after which
he was named, a dependency of Bergamo.
He studied law at Padua under Ricardus
Malumbra and Oldradus, and took the degree
of doctor, but never lectured. He practised
as an advocate in Bergamo, and was en-
gaged in many transactions, for which a
lawyer is not always selected as an agent.
He was member of a commission for re-
vising the statutes of Bergamo, and was
frequently employed oy Galeazzo Visconti,
ruler of Milan. After his death, he con-
tinued to enjoy the confidence of his suc-
cessors, Luchino Visconti and his brother
John, bishop of Novara. He visited the
court of Benedict XII. at Avignon, with a
commission from them in 1340. In his de-
clining years he gave up business to obtain
leisure for the composition of his legal com-
mentaries. In 1350 he repaired to Rome
with his sons to witness the ceremonies of
the year of Jubilee. He died in 1 3.54. He
composed commentaries on each of the three
parts of the Digest, and on the Codex. The
editions of these, as enumerated by Savigny,
are — " A. Digestum vetus. Pars I. Regii,
1484 ; Lugduni, 1517 : Pars II. Papiae,
1499; Lugduni, 1518." " B. Infortiatum,
Lugduni, L51G, 1517, 1534." " C. Diges-
tum novum. Lugduni, 1517, 1518, 1548."
" D. Codex, Mediolani, 1492 ; Lugduni,
Pars I. 1545 ; Pars II. 1548 ; place of print-
ing not named, 1534." — Alberico de Ro-
sciate also composed a treatise on the statute
law of Italian towns. It has been reprinted
in Ziletti's great collection of law tracts
(vol. ii. 1. 2 — 85.). The treatise is divided
into four books, and each book contains a
number of questions, with their solutions.
In the first book the general doctrines of
statute law are expounded in answers to one
hundred and eighty-seven questions ; the
second treats, under the rubric of two hun-
dred and thirty-three questions, of statutes
relating to civil controversies ; " the word
civil being taken in its widest acceptation,
as embracing all pecuniary controversies,
whether arising out of contracts or delicts ; "
the third, containing the resolution of sixty-
seven questions, treats of such penal statutes
as ordain the infliction of corporal punish-
ment ; the fourth book is devoted to the
explanation of proceedings in the case of
persons against whom the ban either of the
648

empire or of inferior jurisdictions has been
pronounced. The work leaves a favourable
impression of the sagacity of the author, and
is calculated to throw much light upon the
domestic history of the Italian communities
of the fourteenth century. The editions of
this work mentioned by Savigny are — that
of Como, 1477 ; Venice, 1491, 1493, 1497 ;
Milan, 1493. Savigny mentions a kind
of Law Dictionary by Alberico, which he
says has been often reprinted, but which we
have not seen. He describes it as containing,
first, a collection of legal rules ; second, a
glossary of law terms ; third, lists of pas-
sages in the Corpus Juris where certain legal
phrases occui'. All these materials are mixed
and arranged in alphabetical order. Alberi-
co, it would appear, had composed two works
of this kind, one for the canon and the other
for the civil law. An anonymous editor
blended the two works into one, and in this
form it has been printed. Some editions
have, by way of appendix, two little treatises
composed by Alberico : — " De Orthogra-
phia ;" " De Accentu." He also left a trans-
lation of the Latin commentary on Dante
by Jacopo della Loma, of which manu-
script copies are understood to be preserved
in the libraries of Bergamo and Milan. Al-
berico de Rosciate lived and wrote when
the early legal school of the Glossators had
fallen into decay, and before a new life had
been infused into the study of law by the
revival of classical literature. His writings
are judged deficient by Savigny both in
point of taste and judgment ; but the same
authority allows that they are better than
those of most of his contemporaries, owing
to his familiarity with the practice of the
law. (Savigny, Geschichte des liumischen
liechts iin Mittelalter, vi. 112 — 121., where
the other authorities are enumerated.)

ALBERI'CUS or ALBERICO L, caUed
by some Albertus, and styled the elder,
count of Tusculum, and consul and patri-
cian of Rome in the tenth century, was
also duke of Spoletum and Camerinum.
He has been confounded by some writers
with his contemporary Adalbert II. the
Rich, marquis of Tuscany. Albericus
married Maria, or JMarozia, a Roman lady
of noble birth, whose mother, Theodora,
exercised a great influence in Rome. The
historian Luitprandus speaks very ill of the
conduct of both these women. Albericus had
several sons by Marozia, one of whom was
afterwards pope, under the name of John XL,
and another, called Albericus the younger,
was senator of Rome. Count Albericus joined
Pope John X. and Landulfus, prince of Bene-
ventum, in an expedition against the Saracens,
who had invaded Campania, and totally
defeated them on the banks of the Liris, a. d.
916. Afterwards, however, the count and
the pope quarrelled, and Albericus was obliged

ALBERICUS.

ALBERO.

to leave Rome, where he liad a mansion on
the Aventiue, and shut himself up in his fief
of Orta, the castle of -which he fortified. In
revenge he is said to have invited the Un-
gri or Hungari, which names are given by
the chroniclers to a host of barbarians who
had already appeared in North Italy, to invade
the Roman territory, but the account of these
Hungarian invasions is very obscure and
contradictory. However, in the year 925
Count Albericus was killed at Orta, says
Sigonius, by the Romans, in an affray of
which the particulars are not known. His
widow Marozia afterwards married Wido,
marquis of Tuscany and son of Adalbert the
Rich. (Ilena, Serie chgli cmtichi JJuchi e
Marchesi di Toscana ; Sigonius, Dc Regiio
Itdlice, b. vi. ; Fatteschi, Memorie dei Duchi
di S/>oletu.) A. V.

ALBElirCUS II., or the younger, was
with his mother Marozia when Hugo, king
of Italy, came to Rome to marry her,
after the death of Wido of Tuscany, a.d.
930. Hugo is said by Luitprandus to have
grossly insulted the Roman nobles, and Al-
bericus himself, who was waiting upon him.
Albericus headed an insurrection against
Hugo, and besieged him in the castle of St.
Angelo, from which Hugo made his escape.
Upon this Albericus assumed the title of
prince of the Romans, " Dei gratia Princeps
atque omnium Romanorum Senator." There
was then a senate at Rome, consisting of the no-
bles, and the president of the senate was styled
" Princeps Senatus." He struck money with
the legend " Albericus P." Hugo marched
against Rome in the year 932, and devastated
the territory, but could not enter the city.
Albericus confined his mother Marozia, an
intriguing and dissolute woman, and let his
brother Pope John XI. attend to his spiritual
duties, without any share, however, in the
temporal power. In 936 King Hugo made
peace with Albericus, and gave him his
daughter Alda in marriage. Albericus
governed Rome with full authority until his
death, which happened about a.d. 954. His
administration appears to have been firm and
wise. His son Octavianus succeeded him as
prince of Rome, and was afterwards made
pope under the name of John XII., a.d. 956.
(Conrigius Curtius, De Senatu Romano post
Tempus ReipubliccB libera: ; Sigonius, De
Regno Italia ; Rena, Serie degli antichi Duchi
e Marchesi di Toscana.) A. V.

ALBERI'NO. [Caccia, Guglielmus.]
ALBERIUS, CLAUDIUS. [Aubery,
Claude.]

A'LBERO I., fifty-seventh bishop and
prince of Liege, the see of which he occupied
from 1123 to the 1st of January, 1128. He
was the son, by a previous husband, of Adela
of Thuringia, who afterwards married Henry
II., count of Louvain. The most important
event in the history of his bishopric is the
abolition of the " right of dead hand," which

VOL. I.

is explained by several authors as being the
lord's right of claiming a heriot, or the best
chattel of a house, when the father of a family
died, which might be redeemed by cutting otf
the hand of the deceased, and presenting it
to the lord. Reifl'enberg, who denies the
correctness of this statement of the custom,
suggests no other explanation of the origin
of the phrase. The bishop, going one night,
according to his practice, to say his prayers,
at the door of one of the churches, overheard
a poor widow bemoaning her fate, and ex-
claiming, " Am I not unfortunate enough in
losing my husband, but the bishop must come
to take away my bed ? " The next morning
the bishop inquired into and abolished the
claim, but for centuries afterwards it was a
practice in Liege to leave in every will a
legacy to the church of St. Lambert, as an
acknowledgment of gratitude for deliverance
from this tax. (Article by Reilfenberg in
Biographic Universelle, Suppl., i. 136.; Bouille,
Histuire de la Ville et pat/s de Liege i. 144 —
148.) T. W.

A'LBERO II., fifty-ninth bishop and prince
of Liege, was chosen to that see in the year
1136. On the deposition of his predecessor
Alexander, in 11.34, by the council of Pisa,
the Count of Bar had taken possession of the
castle of Bouillon, which Albero was so
anxious to recover, that he made two jour-
nies to Rome to solicit the interference of the
pope, and failing in both, resolved to try the
effect of arms. The siege commenced in
1140, and as it advanced slowly it was re-
solved to bring the body of the martyr St.
Lambert into the camp. Two sons of the
Count of Bar were defending the castle, one
of whom, on the arrival of the martyr's body,
proposed an instant surrender, and on being
overruled fell into a kind of frenzy. A
grand attack was made on the 17th of Septem-
ber, St. Lambert's day ; but, unluckily for the
credit of the martyr, it completely failed. The
castle was however finally taken, principally
by the valour of Henry the Blind, count of
Namur, formerly the enemy and now the
ally of Albero, and an annual festival was in-
stituted in consequence in honour of St. Lam-
bert, from gratitude for his assistance. It is
owned by contemporary chroniclers that at
the same time debauchery and immorality
wtre carried to the greatest height at Liege.
Henry of Leyen, the provost of St. Lambert,
carried his complaints of these disorders to
the pope, Eugene III., and Albero died on his
way to Rome to answer the charge, towards
the end of March, 1146. Henry of Leyen
was chosen his successor. (Bouille, Histoire
de la Ville et pays de Liege, i. 157 — 164. ;
Dewez, Histoire Particuliere des Provinces
Belgiques, i. 135, &c.) T. W.

ALBERO'NI, GIAMBATTISTA, agood
architectural painter of Bologna. He was
the scholar of the celebrated Ferdinando
Galli, called Bibiena.

He distinguished him-

V V

ALBERONI.

self as a student of the Bolognese academy,
and was elected a member of it in 1730.
(CrespUVitecle" Pitlori Boloqncsi,^-c.) R. N.W.
ALBERONI, GIU'Llb, born in the
neighbourhood of Piacenza, in 1664, of
humble parentage, entered the clerical pro-
fession, and became the incumbent of a
country parish. It is said that the French
poet Campistron, -while travelling in Italy,
being waylaid and robbed near Alberoni's
parsonage, found an hospitable reception
under his roof, and that Alberoni gave him
clothes and lent him money for his journey.
Several years after, during the war of the
Spanish succession, when the Duke of Ven-
dome commanded the French army in North
Italy, Campistron, who was in the suite of
the duke, remembered his benefactor, whom
he introduced to Vendome as a man of in-
telligence and penetration, and who might be
useful through his knowledge of the country.
Vendome took Alberoni with him, made use
of his local information for obtaining provi-
sions for his soldiers, and was amused by his
repartees and broad humour. Alberoni fol-
lowed the duke to Paris, and from thence to
Spain, whither Vendome was sent to com-
mand the French troops. He made himself
useful in the correspondence between the
duke's head quarters and the court of Phi-
lip v., in which the Princess des Ursins had
the greatest influence. The princess was half
Italian by her connections, and Alberoni,
by means of his shrewdness, ingratiated him-
self with her, and after the end of the war
he obtained the appointment of agent of the
Duke of Parma and Piacenza at the court of
Madrid. In this quality he negotiated in
1714, the marriage of Elizabeth Farnese,
granddaughter of the late Duke Ranuccio,
and niece of Francesco, the reigning duke of
Parma, with Philip V. The gratitude of the
new queen promoted his advancement ; he
was first made a bisliop, then he obtained
a cardinal's hat, and lastly was made prime
minister of Spain. Alberoni was an ambitious
man, with an imagination vmder little restraint
from judgment or principle. He was struck
with the contrast between the condition of
Spain under Philip II. and its actual state, and
he thought that he could restore the declining
Spanish kingdom to its former superiority in
Europe. Above all, he aimed at '.'estoring to
Spain its former Italian dominions. Without
heeding the family alliance of the present
dynasty with the French Bourbons, he made
large armaments in the various ports of Spain,
equipped a powerful fleet, in which a consi-
derable force was embarked, and without any
declaration of war, sent it in 1717 to invade
the island of Sardinia, which had been se-
cured to the emperor by the peace of Utrecht.
The imperial garrisons and authorities were
taken by surprise, and Cagliari and other
towns surrendered to the Spaniards in a few
■weeks. Another armament was sent by
650

Alberoni against Sicily, which was in pos-
session of the house of Savoy. Part of the
island was occupied by the Spanish forces,
but the Spanish fleet was encountered by
the English under Admiral Byng and de-
feated in August, 1718. All Europe, in-
cluding France, now cried out against this
infraction of the treaty of Utrecht, and an
alliance was formed against Spain. Alberoni
showed a bold front : he endeavoured to ex-
cite disturbances in various countries ; he
favoured the pretender, James Stuart, to give
emplo}-ment to the English at home ; he in-
trigued with the Turks, and with Prince
Ragotsky of Transylvania, to carry on war
against the emperor ; and he put forth claims
on behalf of his master, Philip V., to the
regency of France, against the Regent-duke
of Orleans. But the allies, through the Duke
of Parma, uncle of the Queen of Spain, re-
presented to Philip V. the danger to which the
mad ambition of Alberoni exposed him, and
by a court intrigue the all-powerful minister
was suddenly discarded and obliged to leave
Spain in December, 1719. Alberoni retired
to Genoa, where Pope Clement XI. applied
to have him arrested and brought to Rome,
to abide his trial as a disturber of the public
peace ; but the cardinal escaped to Switzer-
land, where he wrote an apology for his mea-
sures. After Clement's death, in 1721, Albe-
roni obtained a safe-conduct to repair with
the other cardinals to the conclave at Rome.
The new pope elect. Innocent XIII., caused
Alberoni's trial to be proceeded with, but
afterwards quashed the proceedings on the
ground of informality. Alberoni retired for
a time to his native town, Piacenza, where he
founded a college, which stUl subsists and
bears his name. Pope Clement XII. took
him into favour, and sent him as legate to
Ravenna. From thence, in the year 1739,
he first intrigued with some disaffected citi-
zens of San Marino, which republic had long
maintained its independence under the papal
protection, and he afterwards took forcible
possession of that little state. But Pope
Clement repudiated the conduct of his legate,
and restored San Marino to its independence.
This was the last political act of Alberoni.
Being recalled from his government, he
withdrew to private life, and died at an ad-
vanced age, in 1752. He left some MSS.,
chiefly on political matters, out of which the
book entitled " Testament Politique d' Albe-
roni," published in 1753, was said to have
been compiled ; but the work has been con-
sidered apocryphal. Jean Rousset has written
the life of Alberoni in French, in 1 vol. 12mo.
(Muratori, Aiinuli d' Italia ; Botta, Storia
cV Italia ; and the other contemporary his-
torians.) A. V.
ALBERS, HEINRICH PHILIPP
FRANZ, was born at Ilemeln, in Miinden,
in 1768. He received his early education
from his father, who was a clergyman, and

ALBERS,

ALBERS.

afterwards went to GiJttingen, where, having
studied theologj- for a year and medicine for
three years, he received the degree of doctor
of medicine. He practised at Stolzenau, at
Blumenau, and at Rehburg, and was brun-
nenarzt or physician to tlie springs at Reh-
burg from 1805 to his death in 1830.

Albers' chief work is his account of the
springs of Rehburg. It is entitled " Ueber das
Bad Rehburg und seine Heilkriifte." Hanover,
1830, 8vo. It contains all the oldest records
of cures effected by the waters, and reprints
of the numerous papers on the same subject,
which the author had published in the " Neue
Hannoversche Annalen," from 1798 to 1808,
and in Hufeland's " Journal der Heilkunde,"
from 1821 to 1829. Callisen has given a
list of several other short essays on various
medical questions contributed by Albers to
the two journals already mentioned and to
Horn's "Archiv fur Medic. Erfahrungen."
(Callisen, Medicinisches Schriftsteller Lexicon,
bde 1. and 26.) J. P.

ALBERS, JOHANN ABRAHAM, was
born at Bremen in 1772. He studied me-
dicine at the universities of Gottingen and
Jena from 1789 to 1795, in which latter year
he received at Jena the diploma of doctor
in medicine and surgery. He subsequently
visited the universities and schools of Vienna,
Edinburgh, and London, and returned to
Bremen in 1797, where he commenced the
practice of medicine and midwifery. He
was engaged in very extensive practice as a
physician, and pursued his literary labours
with such zeal that he greatly impaired his
health, and brought on the disease of which
he died at Bremen in 1821.

Albers was a man of great learning, of good
judgment, and of acute observation. His
writings, which are numerous, contain good
practical information, and at the same time
show an extensive acquaintance with the
labours of previous writers. It is on this
account, rather than from the novelty of his
Tiews or the originality of his ideas, that
Albers is entitled to notice. He did much
to improve the science of medicine in his
own country by clear descriptions of diseases,
as well as by the introduction of foreign dis-
coveries and improvements, to which he con-
tributed by the translation of several works
into the German language. In 1820 he
visited Paris, and on his return to Bremen
published in the German periodicals several
articles containing an account of the state of
medicine in France, the advance which had
been lately made in that country, and the
physicians to whom they were principally
due. He was the first to make known in
his country the doctrines of Broussais, as
well as the work of Laennec, of which he
translated several chapters into German.
Croup was the subject to which he prin-
cipally directed his attention, and his essay,
"De Tracheitide Infantum" shared with
651

one of a similar nature by Jurin the prize
proposed by the Emperor Napoleon in 1807
for the best treatise on this disease, which
was at that time engaging public attention.
In this work he gave a clear and accurate
account of the symptoms and pathology of
the disorder, and he removed mucli of the
obscurity that liad previously attended it.
He regarded it as decidedly an inflammatory
affection, though accompanied by spasm, and
recommended an antijililogistic treatment with
emetics. He condemned tracheotomj' as dan-
gerous and useless, because it is impossible to
extract the lymph, which by its effusion into
the trachea and larger bronchi is more de-
leterious than when situated in the upper
part of the tube. He related several ex-
periments in which he endeavoured to ex-
cite croup in animals by the application of
irritating substances to the interior of the
trachea, and succeeded so far as to induce
inflammation of its mucous membrane, with
the effusion of plastic lymph and the peculiar
noisy respiration ; but he was doubtful whether
this was true croup. Albers added a preface
to a treatise written by his nephew, Dr. J. C.
Albers of Bremen, entitled " Commentarius
de Diagnosi Asthmatis Millari strictius de-
finienda," Gottingen, 1817, 12mo., in which
he suggested that croup is one and the same
disease with the acute asthma described by
Dr. Millar, and objected to the distinction
which the celebrated Wicliman of Hanover
had attempted to draw between the two
affections. The following is a list of his
works: — 1. " Dissertatio inauguralis medica
de Ascite," Jena, 1795, 4to. ; in which he
attempts to prove the existence of lymphatic
vessels pervading the different tissues, by
which substances introduced into the stomach
are directly conveyed to the several organs
without passing into the circulation. 2.
" Amerikanische Annalen der Arzneikunde,"
Bremen, 1802, 8vo. 3. " Beytriige zur
Anatomie und Physiologic der Thiere."
Bremen, 1802, 4to. 4. " L^eber Pulsationen
ini Unterleibe." Bremen and Leipzig, 1803,
8vo. 5. " Ueber eine die schneUste HiiUe
erfordernde Art von Husten." Bremen,
1804, 8vo. 6. " Das Uebel, das unter dem
sogenannten freywiUigen Hinken der Kinder
bekannt ist." Vienna, 1807, 4to. This treatise
obtained the prize which was proposed, on
the subject of hip-diseases occurring in
children, by the Imperial Academy of Medi-
cine and Surgery at Vienna. 7. " Kritische Be-
merkungen gegen eine Recension dcs Herrn
Geheimrathes Heim iiber Dr. A. F. ^larcus
Schrift die Natur und Behandlungsart der
Hiiutigen Briiune betreffend." Bremen, 1810,
8vo. He here repels a charge, brought
against him by Heim, of concealing a suc-
cessful mode of treating croup. 8. " Com-
mentatio de Tracheitide Infantum, vulgo
Croup vocata." Leipzig, 1816, 4to. 9. "Icones
ad illustrandam Anatomen Comparatam."
u u 2

ALBERS.

ALBERT.

Leipzig, 1818, fol. These plates are in illus-
tration of the class Cetacea. A second
fasciculus was published in 1822, after the
author's death, by Dr. G. Barkhausen of
Bremen.

In addition to these works, Albers com-
municated several papers to English pe-
riodicals. The Medico-Chirurgical Trans-
actions, vol. vii., contain his " Observations
on a change of colour in the skin produced
by the internal use of Nitrate of Silver : "
one of the earliest papers in which the at-
tention of the profession was called to this
effect of the remedy. In vol. viii. is a " Case
of a Foetus retained for several years and sub-
sequently delivered per anum ;" in vol. ix.
a " Case of Inguinal Aneurism cured after
the use of compression." He likewise com-
municated papers to the Edinburgh Medical
and Surgical Journal, and to the Annals of
Medicine ; besides very numerous articles
in several German periodicals, a list of which
is given in a biographical notice of him by
Breschet in the Archives Gcnerales de Me-
dicine, vol. iii. p. 131. G. M. H.
ALBERT ACHILLES, so called because
he had obtained the appellation of " the Ger-
man Achilles," and sometimes, but less fre-
quently, called " the German Ulysses," was the
third son of Frederick I., elector of Branden-
burg. He was born on the 24th of November,
1414, at Taugermiinde ; and in 1438, when his
father, according to the custom of the princes
of those times, shared his dominions among
his children, he obtained the principality of
Anspach ; while of his elder brothers, John
the Alchymist held Baireuth or Bareith ;
Frederick II., electoral Brandenburg; and
Frederick the Fat, the Altmark and Priegnitz.
By the death of Frederick the Fat in 1463,
and of John in 1464, and by the abdication
of Frederick II. in 1470, all these possessions
became reunited in the person of Albert
Achilles, but were partially divided at his
death, and have never been entirely reimited
again. The earlier part of Albert's life was
spent in a succession of knightly exercises,
for which his unusual strength and stature
pre-eminently qualified him. Armed with
only a shield and helmet he contended in a
toui'uey with antagonists fully armed, and
out of eighteen encounters was seventeen
times victorious. Scarcely a battle was fought
in Germany in which he did not take a part,
and he left the recollection of his prowess
not only in his native country but in Bo-
hemia, Silesia, Poland, Prussia, and Hungary.
In a war against Niirnberg (a. d. 1448 —
1450), to enforce the rights which he claimed
over the burghers as burggrave of the city,
he came suddenly, attended by only a small
train, upon a body of eight hundred of their
cavalry. Without hesitation he spurred into
the midst of the enemy, fought his way with
his sword when his spear was broken, seized
the banner of Niirnberg, and surrounded
652

by antagonists shouted " Victory, victory !
No death can be sweeter than under the
banners of the foe ! " When rescued by his
knights the blood was gushing from his
mouth and nose, but he rejected their solicita-
tions to mount in a carriage, observing that
" a knightly prince should not be carried
but ride." Of nine battles fought with the
Niirnbergers in one year Albert Achilles
was victor in eight, and the citizens were
glad to conclude a peace with him in the
year 1450. While these exploits earned him
the name of the German Achilles, he gained
that of the Ulysses by his dexterity in nego-
tiations with Charles the Bold, duke of Bur-
gundy, by which he effected a peace with
Charles, then engaged in the siege of Nuis,
and freed the country of the Armagnacs, or
as the country people called them, " Arme
Gecken" (poor gulls), whom he had brought
with him.

After his accession to the margraviate of
Brandenburg he displayed the same Ulyssean
qualities, but with less success, in the contest
for the succession to the inheritance of the
dukes of Stettin, which the margraves of
Brandenburg disputed with the dukes of
Wolgast. In 1464, when by the death of
Duke Otho of Stettin the old line was ex-
tinguished, the whole country assembled to
his funeral, and Albert of Glinden, a partisan
of Brandenburg, threw the shield and helmet
of the dukes of Stettin upon the coffin in the
grave, and said aloud, " There lies the lord-
ship of Stettin." A resolute partisan of the
other claim, Lorenz Eikstetten, leaped into
the grave, brought the helmet and shield out
again, and replied, " Not so ; we have yet
born heirs and lords, the dukes of Wolgast,
and to them these arms belong." Though
supported by the emperor, Albert's predeces-
sor, the Margrave Frederick had found it
impracticable to enforce his claim, and this
was one of the reasons which led to his ab-
dication. Albert Achilles, who preferred to
reside in Franconia, left the administration
of Brandenburg to his eldest son. Prince
John, and it was only on finding that John
was unable to carry on the war with effect
that he came in person to Brandenburg in
November 1471. His antagonists wei'e still
too strong for him, and he came to an agree-
ment to surrender Stettin to Bogislav, duke of
Wolgast, during his life, on condition of its re-
verting to Brandenburg afterwards. In 1474
the parties met at Prenzlau to effect this
treaty, when each advanced to shake hands,
and the German Ulysses, with a view of
taking advantage of the circumstance, which
was one of the customary ceremonies at in-
vesting with a fief, said, " Thus, dear uncle,
I hand over to you land and people." The
incensed Pomeranian withdrew his proffered
hand, and exclaimed in anger, " No, mar-
grave, that is not the agreement ; before it
comes to that, thrice seven devils shall drive

ALBERT.

through it," mounted his horse, and rode I
away. To get him to return, Albert was
obliged to protest that the whole aifuir was a
jest, while Bogislav clearly gave him to un-
derstand that he saw through his meanness.
This agreement came to nothing, and many
succeeding ones shared the same fate, the
contest between the houses of Brandenburg
and Wolgast lasting till the middle of the
sixteenth century. Albert was more suc-
cessful in his endeavours to enlarge his
territories towards Glogau. His daughter
Barbara, whom he had married to Duke
Henry of Glogau, was left a widow at the
age of ten ; and Albert, who claimed the
possession of her husband's domains, suc-
ceeded in obtaining, as a pledge for the pay-
ment of her dowry, possession of Krossen,
Ziillichau, Sommerfeld, and Bobersberg,
which the house of Brandenburg retains to
this day. Whatever acquisitions in money and
domains he made were applied by Albert
to the support of his splendid and luxurious
court in Franconia, while his vicegerent,
John, was left in a state of contemptible po-
verty. Albert died on the 1st of March, 1486,
during a diet of the empire which elected
the Emjjeror Maximilian, a measure which
was mainly due to him. By a law which
he had established in the year 1473 for the
regulation of the inheritance of his family,
which provided that it might be divided into
three parts, but never into more than three,
he was succeeded in Brandenburg by his
son John, in Franconia by Frederick and
Sigismund, who governed conjointly. But
for the operation of this will the domains
would have been divided into small portions,
as, by his marriages with Margaret of Baden
and Anne of Saxony, Albert had nineteen
children, of whom eleven survived him. He
was remarkable in his own age for the little
estimation in which he held the clergy,
giving the precedence to laymen at feasts at
which both were present, and twice suffer-
ing with much indifference the ban of the
pope. He was also conspicuous for his efforts
to put down the " robber nobles," as they
were called, that is, the German nobility who
made a practice of robbing on the highway.
(Stenzel, Geschichte dcs Picussischen Staats,
i. 232 — 247. ; Pieitssisclie National- Ency-
kloplidie, i. 237—24.5.) T. W.

ALBERT D'AILLY, MARIE JOSEPH
LOLTIS D', due de Chaulnes, the son of
Michel Ferdinand, due de Chaulnes and
Anne Joseph Bonnier, was born in 1741.
He entered the army young, but quitted it
in his twenty-fourth year in order to devote
himself to scientific pursuits. About this
time he was admitted a member of the Royal
Society of London. In 1765 he visited
Egypt. The result of his inquiries in that
country was a memoir on the pit containing
the bird-mummies, entitled " Mcmoire sur la
veritable Entree du Monument Egyptien,
653

qui se trouve a quatre Licues du Caire,
aupres de Sacara ; " published originally in
1767, and reprinted in 1783. In 1769 the
academican appointed to pronounce the eloge
of his father alluded to the young Due de
Chaulnes as already well known by his
taste for physical science and natural history.
He was seized with the passion for chymical
investigations which was at that time epi-
demical among men of science. Several of
his memoirs upon carbonic acid, and its effects
upon the human frame, are very ingenious.
The " Transactions of the Royal Society of
London for 1783 " contain a memoir by the
Due de Chaulnes, " Sur la maniere de pre-
parer avec le moins de perte possible, le
sel fusible d'urine blanc, et pur, et I'acide
phosphorique parfaitement transparent." It
contains the result of experiments commenced
in 1773. Along with his father's courage
and taste for science, Marie Joseph Louis,
due de Chaulnes, had unfortunately inherited
his mother's wayward and imsettled disposi-
tion. This neutralised his many amiable and
excellent qualities, and was the cause that
at the time of his death, which took place
about the beginning of the Revolution, he
was living in such obscurity that the exact
date of that event cannot be ascertained.
(E'loge de M. de Due de Chaulnes; Histoire
de VAcademie des Sciences, annee 1769 ; 3fe-
moire sur la veritable Entree du Monument
Egyptien, Sfc. Paris, 1783-4; Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London,
vol. Ixxiii.) W. W.

ALBERT D'AILLY, MICHEL FER-
DINAND D', due de Chaulnes, was
born at Paris on the 30th December,
1714. The first Due de Chaulnes was Ho-
nore d' Albert, younger brother of the Con-
stable de Luynes. On his marriage with the
heiress of the house of Ailly, he became
bound to assume the name and arms of that
family in addition to his own. On the death
of his son without male heirs in 1701, Louis
Auguste d' Albert, fifth son of the third Due
de Luynes, succeeded to the name and honours
of D' Albert d' Ailly de Chaulnes. INIichel
Ferdinand was the son of Louis Auguste by
a daughter of the celebrated Colbert, and the
youngest of seven children, all of whom died
before him.

Michel Ferdinand, called in his boyhood
Comte de Chaulnes, was educated for the
church, and received in his seventh year the
appointment of a canon of Strassburg. On
the death of his elder brother the Due de
Pequigny in 1731, he resigned his canonry,
and in 1732 obtained a commission in the
Mousquetaires.

From that time till the peace of Aix-la-
Chapelle in 1748 he was almost constantly
engaged in active service. In 1733 he acted
as aide-de-camp of the IMarcchal de Ber-
wick at the sieges of Kehl and Philipsburg.
During the short peace that ensued he was
u u 3

ALBERT.

named aide-de-camp to the king ; in 1 743 lie
served as a volunteer at the siege of Prague ;
in 1744 he was wounded at the battle of
Dettlngen ; in 1745 he held the rank of aide-
de-camp to the king at the battle of Fon-
tenoy, and contributed in no small degree
by his skilful management of the artillery to
the gaining of that victory. He took part in
the battle of LafFeld in 1747, which was the
last military operation of that war.

During the two wars in which he had
served previous to the peace of Aix-la-Cha-
pelle, the Due de Pequigny (which title he
assumed soon after his brother's death) had
repeatedly been appointed a royal commis-
sioner for the exchange of prisoners, and
intrusted with various delicate negotiations.
He was not long after the peace advanced to
be a Duke and member of the Parliament of
Paris, on the resignation of his father in his
favour. He was also promoted to the rank
of lieutenant-general ; received a pension of
six thousand livres ; and was soon after ap-
pointed royal commissioner to the states of
Bretagne. In 1752 he obtained the govern-
ment of Picardy.

He served in Westphalia during the seven
years' war ; he was present at the battle of
Hasterabeck on the 26th July, 1757, and this
appears to have been the last of his fields.
We have now to consider him in the charac-
ter of a zealovis amateur of scientific pursuits.

In 1743 he had been named an honorary
member of the Royal Academy of Sciences,
in the place of Cardinal de Fleury. His first
memoir was read in the academy in 1755,
and is printed in the volume for that year : it
contains a series of experiments on a ray of
light admitted into a dark chamber, and re-
ceived on a sheet of white paper, pierced in
the centre to admit of the passage of the direct
ray. In 1761 the Due de Chaulnes was one
of the academicians who observed the transit
of Venus at Paris. His love for optics and
astronomy led to attempts to improve the con-
struction of astronomical instruments. In 1755
he also presented to the academy a memoir on
his attempts to render instruments of a small
radius more accurate. The substance of this
memoir was published in the academy's
"Description des Arts," in 1768, vmder the
title " Nouvelle Methode pour diviser les In-
struments de Mathematique." The same
volume contains " Description d'un Mi-
croscope et de difft'rents micrometres, destines
a mesurer des Parties circulaires ou droites
avec la plus grande Precision. Par M. le
Due de Chaulnes." In 1767 he communi-
cated some remarks upon achromatic tele-
scopes to the academy, which were printed in
their memoirs for that year. His last pub-
lication was an account of an observation of
the transit of Venus, 3d June, 1769, with a
telescope of three feet and a half, by Dollond :
it is printed in the volume of the academy's
Transactions for 1769.
654

The Due de Chaulnes was remarkable for
gentleness of temper and delicate sense of
honour. He was rigidly pure in his morals,
and strongly imbued with the devotional
turn which characterised many of his family.
His knowledge of history and politics Mas
extensive. He was corpulent, but neverthe-
less active. His conversation was elegant
and playful. He was extremely popular with
those of his own rank, and also with the
poor, towards whom he was very liberal.
His life was embittered by the eccentricities
of his wife [Bonnier, Anne Joseph,
duchesse de Chaulnes], whom he married in
1734.

The Due de Chaulnes died, after a length-
ened illness, on the 23d September, 1769.
{E'loge de M. le Due de Chaulnes ; Histoire de
VAcademie Roi/ale des Scie)iccs, annee 1769,
Paris, 1772 ; Le Pere Anselme, Histoire Ge-
nealogique et Chronologique de la Muison
lioyale de la France, &c. vol. iv.) W. W.

ALBERT of Anhalt. [Albrecht.]

ALBERT I., duke of Austria, was a son
of Rudolph of Habsburg, and born in the year
1248. Rudolph, by his victory over Ottocar
of Bohemia, became master of Austria in
1282, and with the consent of the princes of
the empire he gave the duchy of Austria in
fief to his eldest son Albert, who was thus
raised to the rank of a prince of the empii'e.
At the same time the rights and liberties
which had been granted to Austria by former
emperors were confirmed, and Albert married
Elizabeth, a daughter of Count Meinhard of
Gorz, whom Rudolph made Duke of Carin-
thia. In the administration of his new do-
minions, even during the lifetime of his
father, Albert displayed such tyrannical con-
duct, that the Austrians soon repented of
having accepted him as their duke, and in
1287 he had to quell an insurrection of the
citizens of Vienna, and he only reduced the
city by a protracted blockade and famine.
After the recovery of his capital, his cruelty
knew no limits, and some of the offenders
suffered the most dreadful punishments. His
nobles also became discontented, and Albert
had to put down one conspiracy after another.
On one occasion forty castles belonging to Aus-
trian nobles were razed to the ground at once.
His own tyranny was an example to his
officers and councillors. All complaints that
were brought against them either by indi-
viduals or states were treated with scorn,
and the duke once declared that he would
not even dismiss a groom to satisfy his sub-
jects. In 1290, when King Ladislaus of
Hungary died, Albert induced his father to
declare the kingdom a vacant fief of the
empire, and to give it to him. But Andrew,
the uncle of the late king, frustrated this
scheme by taking possession of the kingdom.
Rudolph was willing to support his son by
force of arms, but his advanced age reminded
him of the necessity of first securing to his

ALBERT.

son the succession of the empire, as he was
anxious to make the empire hereditary in his
family. At a diet -which Rudolph held at
Frankfurt on the Main in 1290, he proposed
to the princes to elect his son Albert king
of Rome ; but the diet had no inclination to
comply with his request, for Albert's cruelty
and avarice had made him hateful not only
to the Austrians, but to all the princes of the
empire. No resolution therefore was come
to, and they only declared that they would
take the matter into consideration. Rudolph,
who had succeeded in all his undertakings,
thus saw himself thwarted in his last and
most sanguine hopes. In the same year Ru-
dolph died, and Albert was his only surviving
son. [Rudolph of Habsburg.]

Gerard of Eppenstein, archbishop of
Mainz, who had been a considerable loser by
Rudolph's abolition of the illegal transit
duties on the Rhine, bore a grudge against
the whole family of Habsburg ; and on the
death of the emperor, he and Siegfried, arch-
bishop of Cologne, induced the other electors
to transfer their votes to him, and thus he
secured the election of his own cousin. Count
Adolphus of Nassau, king of Germany. [ Adol-
PHus OF Nassau.] During the short reign
of Adolphus, Albert was confined to his own
dominions, Austria, Stiria, and the coimty of
Habsburg. His usual misconduct and his
constant attempts to increase his possessions
involved him in wars with his neighbours.
King Andrew of Hungary, Duke Otho of Ba-
▼aria, and the Archbishop of Salzburg, while
on the other hand he was also at war with his
neighbours in Suabia, and in a state of bitter
hostility against Adolphus of Nassau. At first
he withheld from Adolphus the insignia of
the empire which were in his possession ; but
seeing that he had no hope of support from
the princes, he surrendered them at Oppen-
heim, received the confirmation of his fiefs
from Adolphus, and returned to Austria.
But this reconciliation with the king was
only apparent : when Adolphus asked for the
hand of one of his daughters for his second
son, Albert haughtily rejected the proposal,
and from this moment there was open enmity
between the two princes. The exiled Aus-
trian nobles found a refuge at the court of
Adolphus, who threatened the Duke of Aus-
tria with an invasion unless he would keep
peace with his neighbours. In order to get
his hands free against the emperor, Albert
made peace with his brother-in-law. King
Wenceslaus II. of Bohemia, and with Andrew
of Himgary, to whom he gave his daughter
Agnes in marriage, with a large dowry. The
Austrian and Stirian nobles had already
made frequent insurrections, and even at-
tempted the life of Albert. On one occasion 1
poison was administered to the duke, but it j
was discovered before it had taken effect, ]
and his ministers, seeing no other way of
saving their master, are said to have hung
655 '

him up by the legs that the poison might
come out where it had entered ; and it is
further said that the poison came out at one
of his eyes, which he lost in consequence of
its effects. All these rebellious nobles were
now quieted, partly by promises and partly
by threats. Archbishop Gerard of Mainz,
and several other electors whose hopes had
been disappointed by Adolphus, at last de-
posed him, and elected Albert of Austria
king of Germany. In the ensuing contest
between the two rival kings, Adolphus was
killed in battle in 1298. [Adolphus of
Nassau.]

Albert, being sure of his re-election, de-
clared that he had not dethroned the king in
order to step into his place, and he laid down
the crown which had already been conferred
upon him, and allowed the princes to proceed
to a new election. The result was as he had
expected : he was re-elected king of Germany,
and he confirmed and extended the rights
and privileges of the electors, as usual at
elections. Albert was crowned at Aix-la-
Chapelle in 1298, and in the same year his
wife was crowned at Niirnberg ; but Pope
Boniface VIII. not only refused to sanction
the election, but declared that he himself was
the legitimate emperor, and summoned Albert
to Rome to ask pardon for his offences, and
to do penance : at the same time he forbade
the German princes to acknowledge him as
their master, and accordingly released them
from their oath of allegiance. Even Albert's
former friend, the archbishop of Mainz,
allied himself with the pope, partly because
he disapproved of the close alliance which
Albert was forming with Philip le Bel
of France, and partly because Albert de-
manded that his son Rudolph should be
elected king of Rome, and thus be nominated
his successor in the German empire. In
his hostility towards the king, Gerard found
ready associates in the other electors. As
soon as Albert perceived the change which
had taken place, he retracted all the con-
cessions and extensions of privileges which
he had made to the electors. The most im-
portant of these concessions was the power of
levying heavy transit duties on all commodi-
ties conveyed by the Rhine. These duties
formed a considerable part of the revenue of
the Rhenish electors, and they now resolutely
refused to give up any of their rights. Albert,
who had become reconciled with the pope,
sent an embassy to Rome to accuse the elec-
tors of the Rhine as oppressors of the people
and of the other estates of the empire. As
the pope, however, did not immediately pro-
nounce sentence, Albert himself condemned
the electors ; but they took no notice of this
step, and appointed the count-palatine, Ru-
dolph, the son-in-law of the late King Adol-
phus, chief judge of the empire to decide
between them and the king. They also in-
stituted an examination into Albert's late
u u 4

ALBERT.

election. This right of examining an elec-
tion of a king of Rome had hitherto been
exercised only by the pope. When Boniface
heard of the intention of the electors, he re-
quired the archbishops to inform Albert
that -within six months he was to appear at
Rome to submit to a scrutiny into his elec-
tion. Boniface at the same time threatened
the king with severe punishment if he re-
fused to obey. Albert was determined to
resist the summons, although his position was
one of great difficulty, for his alliance with
France, instead of serving as a means to
humble the pope, had only drawn upon
Albert the ill-will of the electors. Having
allied himself with the cities of the Rhine,
which he professed to protect against the op-
pression of the archbishops, Albert descended
the river with a strong force, and defeated his
enemies one by one before they had time to
unite. In 1302 the archbishops of Mainz,
Trier, and Cologne, and the count-palatine,
were compelled to make peace on the terms
dictated by the king, and the Rhine was now
again open to commerce. The friendship of
the pope remained to be gained. Philip
le Bel had in the mean time acted with great
resolution against the pope, and as the alli-
ance between him and Albert had gradually
become cooler, and at last ceased altogether,
the pope, who was anxious to gain Albert's
interest against France, declared him the
lawful king of Rome and Gennany, but at
the same time enjoined him to restore to the
Rhenish archbishops what he had taken from
them, and annulled all the alliances which
Albert had pi-eviously made with kings and
princes. Albert, in return, promised all that
the pope desired, and especially to defend the
holy see against all its enemies. This last
clause was directed against the King of
France, and the pope in his hatred of Philip
went so far as to offer the kingdom of France
to Albert. But Albert, who saw the impos-
sibility of maintaining himself in France,
declared that he could only undertake to
drive Philip out of his dominions on condi-
tion that the pope should secure to him and
his descendants the sovereignty of the Ger-
man empire, with the title of emperor. While
Albert thus conceded to the pope more than
any of his predecessors had done, he also
demanded more than any of theui had ven-
tured to ask. During the negotiations on
these matters, the war against France was
lost sight of, and Philip in the interval foimd
means of getting rid of the pope by a con-
spiracy to which Boniface fell a victim.
[Boniface VIII.] The successors of Boni-
face were drawn into the interest of France,
and were to some extent made dependent
upon that power.

The principal feature in the reign of Albert

is his attempt to acquire for the house of

Ilabsburg as many hereditary possessions as

possible, in order to gain an ascendancy orer

656

the other princes of the empire, and thus to
secure the imperial dignity to his family.
In these attempts the welfare of the empire
was altogether neglected. The possession of
the duchies of Austria and Stiria, together
with numerous other estates in Switzerland,
Suabia, and Alsace, already formed a first-
rate power in the empire ; but Albert did not
think this sufficient either for carrying out
his plans or making a provision for his
numerous family, which consisted of six sons
and five daughters. His first attempt at ag-
grandizement was made upon Holland and
Seeland in 1299, soorr after his elevation.
Here the male line of the hereditary counts
had become extinct, and Albert claimed these
countries as vacant fiefs of the empire. His
attempt, however, to take possession of the
country was unsuccessful, and he was obliged
to give Holland in fief to John of Avesnes,
who had disputed the possession of it with
him. Albert now returned to his estates on
the Upper Rhine, with the intention of ex-
tending them by force, persuasion, or pur-
chase, in order to render these scattered
dominions more compact, and to consolidate
them. Here his undertaking was crowned
with success. He laid the foundation of a
large and compact dominion, extending from
the foot of the glaciers of Switzerland to the
banks of the Danube. Wenceslaus II. of Bo-
hemia, the brother-in-law of Albert, had
similar plans of aggrandizement, and endea-
voured to unite the crowns of Poland and
Hungary with that of Bohemia. Albert,
seeing this, readily complied with the de-
mand of the pope to support the claims of
Charles Robert to the crown of Hungary.
War was declared, and Albert, with his son
Rudolph, entered Bohemia with two armies
(a. d. 1304), but no advantages were gained,
and Albert returned with a large part of his
forces to Suabia to suppress an insurrection.

While Albert was preparing for a second
Bohemian campaign, Wenceslaus II. died, and
his son, who gave up all claims to the crown
of Hungary, made peace with Albert, and
received Bohemia and Poland in fief. In
1306 the young king of Bohemia was assas-
sinated in an insurrection at Olmiitz, and
Albert induced the Bohemians to elect his
son, Rudolph of Austria, as their king.
Austria was now given to his second son,
Frederic. At the same time Albert claimed
Meissen and Thuringia as having been
acquired for the empire by his predecessor,
Adolphus of Nassau ; but the two brothers
Frederic and Diezmann defeated the troops
of the king in a great battle near Liicken,
1307. Soon after this event Albert's son
Rudolph, king of Bohemia, died, and the
Bohemians, highly exasperated at his conduct,
which had in all respects been like that of
his fother in Austria, elected Duke Henry of
Carinthia for their king, who entered his
new dominions at the head of a largo army.

ALBERT.

Albert's attempts to recover Bohemia failed,
for the new king found support with numerous
princes of the empire, and in the beginning
of the year 1.308 the last garrisons of Albert
in Bohemia were annihilated. Albert, how-
ever, made new preparations against Bohemia
and Thuringia.

In the western parts of Albert's dominions
the disaffection was constantly increasing.
The three archbishoprics of the Rhine had
come into the hands of men who were hostile
to him ; but he blindly prosecuted his favourite
schemes, without looking to the right or the
left. All the small estates of Switzerland,
which had been under the protection of the
empire, had been successively added to the
possessions of the house of Habsburg. Only
the three forest-towns (Waldstiidte), Uri,
Schwyz, and Unterwalden, resolutely deter-
mined to preserve their independence and to
remain faithful to the empire, under the pro-
tection of which they had voluntarily placed
themselves. Albert repeatedly refused to
sanction their liberties, though all his pre-
decessors had done so. Independent of his
desire to add their territories to his dominions,
he bore them a grudge for having assisted
Adolphus of Nassau in the battle which
decided the fate of the two kings. When
they petitioned for the usual appointment of
persons among them to represent the empire
and give them protection in its name (Reichs-
vogte), Albert sent theni two of his creatures
who were ready to assist him in any of his
schemes, Hermann Gessler of Bruneck and
Beringer of Landenberg. The tyranny of
these men, who looked upon themselves as
officers of the king sent to a province with
unlimited powers, and the continued refusal
on the part of Albert to sanction the liberties
of the free towns, gave rise to the most
memorable events in the history of Switzer-
land. The Reichsvogte, imitating the example
of Albert's officers in Austria, provoked the
indignation of the people, in order to get an
opportunity of depriving them of their liberties
with some appearance of justice. Albert,
well satisfied with the conduct of his officers,
paid no attention to the complaints of the
Swiss. At last, three men, Werner Stauf-
facher, Walter Fiirst, and Arnold of Melch-
thal, formed a league with others of their
countrymen. They held meetings at night
in a solitary place called Riitli, on the Wald-
stiidter See. The object of the league was to
maintain the liberty of the Swiss, but without
bloodshed, and without encroaching on the
rights of the house of Habsburg. The story
of Tell, which belongs to this epoch, forms
an episode which is more properly told else-
where. [Tell ; Gessler.]

In the night of the first of January, 1308,
the confederates took possession of the for-
tified castles which the Austrians had built
in their territorj% and I^andenberg was com-
pelled to swear that he would not take re-
657

venge on any of the Swiss, and that he would
quit the country. Thus liberty was restored
without bloodshed, and the towns renewed
their old confederacy. Albert was just re-
turning from his Bohemian and Thuringian
campaigns, in 1308, when these events took
place ; but he did not think the matter of
sufficient importance to prevent his preparing
for a second expedition against Bohemia.
About this time Duke John of Suabia, a
nephew of Albert, renewed his claims to
certain portions of the possessions of the
house of Habsburg which belonged to hira
by right of inheritance. Albert, who was
unwilling to divide the estates of Habsburg,
intended to take Meissen, and give it in fief
to Duke John. The frequent disappoint-
ments which the young duke had experienced
in petitioning for the surrender of his estates
at last induced him to form a conspii'acy
with several young nobles who had similar
cause of complaint against the king. Albert's
life was in danger ; but although he was in-
formed of the design of the conspirators, he
did not believe it. In the month of May,
1308, when the king, with his suite, was
going from Brug, in Aargau, to Rheinfelden,
the conspirators contrived to cross the river
Reuss with the king, unaccompanied by the
rest of his suit. WTien they were on the
other side of the river, they suddenly fell
upon Albert, who was riding in the midst of
them. The king perceiving his nephew near
him, called out, " Nephew, help me ! " Duke
John replied, " Here is the help," and thrust
his sword with such violence into the neck
of the king that the point came out in his
chest. The conspirators dispersed in various
directions. John is known in history from
this deed by the name of John the Parricide.
[Johannes Parricida.] A poor beggar
woman who was sitting by the roadside took
up the dying king, who breathed his last on
her lap, on the 1st of May, 1308.

Thus died King Albert in the midst of his
schemes of aggi-andizement. The princes
and states of the empire felt that he had
wronged them, and that in his care for the
prosperity of his own house he had neglected
that of the empire. In their aversion to the
house of Habsburg, the princes not only did
not elect a successor from that family, but
for more than a century they did all in their
power to prevent any member of that family
from being elected the head of the empire.
(J. J. Fugger, Spiegel der Ehren des Erz-
hauses Oesterreich, &c. ; J. Pezzl, Oester-
reichische Biographie, oder Lebensbeschreibun-
gen seiner beriihmtesfen Rcgenten nrid Heldev,
4 vols. 8vo. Wien, 1791, &c. ; J. C. Pfister,
Geschichte der Teutschcn, iii. 90 — 123. ; Joh.
V. Muller, Geschichte der Schweiz. Eidge-
nossenschaft, i. 416, &c.) L. S.

ALBERT IL, duke of Austria, was the
son of Albert I., and bom in 1298. He is
generally surnamed "the Lame." At the

ALBERT.

time of his father's murder he vras only ten
years old, and the dominions of the house
of Habsburg were governed by his three
brothers, Leopold, Frederic the Handsome,
and Otho. Leopold died in 1326, and Frederic
in 1330. In this year Albert undertook the
government of the Habsburg dominions in
conjunction -with his brother Otho. An at-
tempt to poison him, which was made about
this time, was the cause of his lameness.
During this common reign Carinthia and
the Tyrol were given in fief to the two
brothers by the Emperor Henry VII. ; but
the Tyrol was subsequently lost, and the
possession of Carinthia had to be maintained
against several claimants, and the question
was not completely settled until the year
1341. Albert increased the possessions of
his house by his marriage with Johanna, the
daughter of the last count of Pfirt, and soon
after he also acquired Rheinfelden, Schaff-
hausen, Breisach, and Neuburg. Pope John
XXII., in his hostility towards Louis IV.
king of Germany, offered to Albert the im-
perial crown ; but Albert was wise enough
not to accept the offer, and to make peace
with Louis, to whom he remained faithful
during his life. After having thus strength-
ened himself by his alliance with the emperor,
he settled several quarrels among the neigh-
bouring powers, which threatened his do-
minions with destructive wars. In 1335 he
was requested by Pope Benedict XII. to act
as mediator between the Emperor Louis IV.
and the church. King Philip of France also
sought his assistance against the emperor and
his ally King Edward III. of England. But in
these, as well as in other transactions, Albert
conscientiously consulted the interest of the
head of the empire, and never acted against
him. His undertakings against Switzerland
were unsuccessful, although he was supported
by the emperor. The Swiss confederates
perceived that they ran the risk of being
deprived of the fruits of their long struggle
for liberty, and the mountaineers of Schwyz
again took up arms and renewed the old
league of the states of Switzerland. The
banner which had seen the glorious day of
Morgai-ten (1315) inspired them with courage,
and the army of Albert was driven from all
its positions, and at last obliged to leave
Switzerland. From the year 1341 Albert
was at peace with his neighbours, and he
made treaties with Charles of Moravia and
Louis of Hungary. During this happy period
several of the countries belonging to his
dominions, such as Stiria and Carinthia, re-
ceived new codes of laws, which are still in
force, and form the basis of their constitutions.
Albert died at Vienna on the 16th of August,
1358.

Albert II. was an active and intelligent

prince, who husbanded his resources with

great skill, and he has accordingly been justly

honoured with the name of "the Wise." His

658

lameness did not prevent his taking an active
part iu his wars. Sometimes he was carried
to the field of battle in a sedan-chair, and
sometimes he was fastened to his war-horse.
He was the first who endeavoured to intro-
duce the law of primogeniture in his Austrian
dominions ; and this law, although it was not
observed at his death, was afterwards esta-
blished. During his reign Austria was visited
by various calamities, earthquakes, the plague,
and locusts. The Jews, who then began to
be furiously persecuted in Germany, found
protection in his dominions. In 1356, when
Basel was destroyed by an earthquake, he
liberally contributed to its restoration, al-
though this city was hostile to him. (A.
Steyrer, Commentarii pro Historia Alberti II.
Duels Austria, Lipsiaj, 1725, fol.) L. S.

ALBERT III., duke of Austria, surnamed
" with the pig-tail." He is said to have re-
ceived this name from wearing two tails
consisting of locks of his wife's hair. He
was the son of Albert II. and of Johanna,
the only daughter of Count Illrich of Pfirt,
and was born in 1348. After the death of
his father, he shared the government of his
estates with his three brothers, Rudolph,
Frederic, and Leopold. Frederic was killed
in 1367 while hunting, and as he left no
issue, his brothers took possession of the
estates of the family of Habsburg, to which,
in 1363, the Tyrol had been restored by
Margaretha, surnamed Maultasche, after the
death of her son Meinhard. In 1365 Ru-
dolph also died without heirs, and Albert and
his brother Leopold subsequently made se-
veral divisions of their dominions between
them. The last and permanent division was
made in 1379, in which Albert received
Austria, and Leopold had Stiria, Carinthia,
the Tyrol, and the possessions in Suabia.

The reign of Albert III. of Austria is dis-
tinguished for his patronage of the arts and
sciences. Architecture was his favourite art,
and several great buildings still extant, such
as the castle of Laxenburg, show his good
taste. The university of Vienna had been
founded in 1365, but had only the jui-idical,
medical, and philosophical faculties. In
1388 Albert induced Pope Urban VI. to
grant to it a theological faculty. The phi-
losophical faculty, however, owed most to his
exertions ; he acted on the principle that a
sound general education is the best founda-
tion for all professions, and he invited to
Vienna the most distinguished men of the
age to teach the several branches comprised
in a philosophical faculty, especially mathe-
matics, of which the duke himself was very
fond. He died on the 29th of August, 1395.

Albert III. was married twice ; first to Eli-
zabeth, a daughter of the Emperor Charles IV.,
who died in 1373, and then to Beatrice,
daughter of Frederic IV., burggraf of Niirn-
berg, who survived her husband. (J. J.
Fugger, Spicijcl der Ehren des Erzhauscs

ALBERT.

Oesterreich, ^c, 389, Sfc. ; J. Pezzl, Oeslcr-
reichische Biociraphie, odcr Lehensbcschreibuiig
seiner bcruhmtcsten liegenten unci Heklen,
Wien, 1791, &c. 4 vols. 8vo.) L. S.

ALBERT IV., duke of Austria, sur-
named "the Patient," or " Mirabilia Mundi,"
from his dangerous but successful pilgrim-
age to the Holy Land, was the only son of
Albert IIL As he was not satisfied with
the division of the territories made between
his father and his brother Leopold, the
principality of Krain was, after the death
of Leopold, and with the consent of his sons,
the nephews of Albert, added to Austria.
Albert was a man of strong religious enthu-
siasm and great superstition, and notwith-
standing the remonstrances of his mother
and of the Austrian nobles, he undertook a
pilgrimage to Palestine, visited all the me-
morable places of that country, and in 1398
he went through the ceremony of being made
a knight at Jerusalem. In the disputes be-
tween Sigismund, king of Hungary, and his
brother Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia, Al-
bert IV. had no share ; he only took charge of
Wenceslaus, who had been made a prisoner by
Sigismund. Albert treated him kindly, and
also exerted himself to obtain his liberation.
Albert supported Sigismund also in other
wars. In 1404 he marched with him against
Procopius, markgrave of Moravia. During
the siege of Znaim, Procopius persuaded a
traitor to administer poison to Albert, who
was immediately taken ill and conveyed to
Neuburg, where he died on the 24th of
August, 1404. (J. J. Fugger, Spiegel cler
Ehren des Erzhauses Oesterreich, §-c. 401, &c.)

L. S.

ALBERT v., duke of Austria, a son of
Albert IV., was born in 1397. On the death
of his father in 1404, he succeeded him in
the duchy of Austria, but as he was not yet
of ago, the administration was intrusted to
his guardians. In his fourteenth year his
guardians took him to Ofen, and betrothed him
to Elizabeth, daughter of King Sigismund of
Germany, whom he married in 1422, and
thereby obtained Moravia as a dowry, and also
a claim to the crowns of Hungary and Bohe-
mia. In 1424 Albert wished to take pos-
session of Moravia, and to expel the Huss-
ites from the country ; for which purpose he
marched thither with an Austrian army,
strengthened by auxiliaries sent to him by
Sigismund from Hungary. Ziska, the re-
nowned leader of the Hussites, marched from
Bohemia to meet him, but he died suddenly
near the castle of Przihislaw, and Albert
gained the object of his campaign. In 1431,
however, he had to wage a second war against
the Hussites, and on this occasion he slaugh-
tered 4000 of them near the castle of Maidhof,
and carried off 600 prisoners to Vienna. In
the year following he was again successfid
against the Hussites, although he sustained
several reverses. In 1435 he led the armies
659

of Sigismund against the Turks, who had
penetrated into Hungary, and he conducted
this campaign with such skill, that 18,000
Turks fell, and the rest were driven out of
Hungary. Near the close of his life, Sigis-
mund recommended his son-in-law Albert to
the Hungarians as their future king. This
wish was complied Avith, and Albert was
elected and crowned king of Hungary, on con-
dition that if he should also be elected king
of Germany he should not accept this honour,
as Hungary had suffered much through the
'absence of Sigismund, caused by his possess-
ing the two kingdoms. In compliance with
a wish expressed by Sigismund, the electors
of the German empire in 1438 elected Al-
bert V. king of Germany. Albert, who thus
became Albert II. king of Germany, would,
perhaps, not have accepted the offer, accord-
ing to his promise to the Hungarians, as he
saw that he would have enough to do in
Hungary and Bohemia, if the princes of the
empire had not entreated him to accept the
dignity ; and the council of Basel interposed
its influence with the Hungarians to release
him from his oath. The sovereignty of Ger-
many, from which the house of Habsburg
had been excluded for 130 years, was thus
restored to it, and henceforth remained here-
ditary in this family, with the single excep-
tion of the time durmg the war concerning
the succession in Bavaria, down to the dis-
solution of the empire.

Immediately after Albert II. had accepted
the crown of Germany, he convoked a diet
at Niirnberg, partly to deliberate on eccle-
siastical matters, and partly to establish the
peace of the empire. The disputes about
Bohemia prevented his going to Aix-la-
Chapelle to be crowned. Sigismund had re-
commended Albert also to the Bohemians as
their king, and they had long remained un-
decided about the election. The chancellor
Schlick had, indeed, gained the interest of the
Catholic portion of Bohemia for Albei't, but
the Utraquists, who hated him, and were
led by Ptarsco, elected Casimir, a brother of
Ladislaus, king of Poland, who was only
thirteen years old, as their king, on the same
day (6th of May, 1348) that the Catholics at
Prague declared Albei't king of Bohemia.
Albert hastened to Prague and was crowned.
In order to support his brother, the King of
Poland invaded Silesia and Bohemia with a
numerous army of Poles. Albert, supported
by the empire, marched against the enemy,
and received strong reinforcements from
Frederic, the elector of Brandenburg, who
sent his own son Albert, surnamed Achilles,
as their commander. With these forces
Albert II. attacked the Utraquists near Ta-
bor, and blockaded them in that city until
they were compelled by famine to petition
for leave to depart. The Poles were driven
from Bohemia and Silesia, but as the con-
quests of the Turks in Hungary required

ALBERT.

ALBERT

his presence there, Albert could effect no
more than a truce with Poland and the
Utraquists. The diet of Niirnberg, which
was held in the mean while under the presi-
dency of Schlick, could come to no resolu-
tion, and Albert convoked a second diet at
Niirnberg to be held in the autumn of 1438 ;
but here also the claims of the princes and
the cities of the empire could not be recon-
ciled, and another diet was held at Mainz in
1439, in which several ecclesiastical and re-
ligious matters were settled. The council of
Basel was still sitting, and the reconciliation
of the Greek and Latin churches was pre-
paring. Pope Eugenius IV., refusing to obey
the summons of the council, was deposed,
and Felix V. was appointed in his stead
(1439). In the mean time Albert had en-
gaged in a campaign against the Turks, in
conjunction with George, despot of Servia.
Sultan Miirad II. had an immense army at
his command, while Albert had only 24,000
men. The sultan, who entertained great
esteem for Albert, declared that he would not
fight against him, and at the same time sent
to him letters of certain Hungarian grandees
who had formed a plot to betray their king.
Albert's soldiers were suffering severely from
dysentery ; and the king himself was seized
by it, and died on his return to Vienna at
I^angendorf on the 27th of October, 1439, at
the age of forty-two.

His premature death at such a critical
time called forth deep and sincere grief
throughout the German empire. He left no
male heir ; but his wife, who was pregnant,
gave birth to a son called Ladislaus (Postu-
nius), who was the last of the Austrian line
of the house of Habsburg. Albert had re-
ceived a good education, and his tutors
anxiously protected him from the injurious
influence of a licentious court. He was tall,
and of a very robust constitution, which was
hardened by exercise ; his blue eyes were
full of animation, and his countenance, which
combined mildness and gravity, inspired con-
fidence in all who saw him. During the life-
time of Sigismund, Albert was his strongest
support, and on one occasion Albert declared
to him that a prince could have no safer guard
than the affection of his subjects. He pos-
sessed great intellectual powers, and he en-
deavoured to acquire everything that is use-
ful to a prince with the greatest zeal. What-
ever he had once maturely considered, was
executed with incredible quickness. In short,
he was just the man that Germany wanted at
that time. His tutors had inspired him with
great zeal for the religion of his forefathers,
which led him to acts of cruelty towards Jews
and heretics ; but he was never a blind devotee
to the authority of the pope, like Sigismund.
(J. J. Fugger, Spiegel der Ehren des Erz-
hauses Oesterrcich, ^-c. 402, &c. 429, &c.
459, &c. ; J. A. W. Wenk, Historia Albcrti
II., Lipsia;, 1740, 4to. ; Von Hormayr, Ocster-
6G0

reichisclier Plutarch, ii. 92, &c. ; iv. 35. ; J. C.
Plister, Gcschichte der Teutschen, iii. 473 —
481.) L. S.

ALBERT VI., duke of Austria, sur-
naraed " the Prodigal," a son of Duke Er-
nestus the Iron, of the Stirian line of the
house of Habsburg, and a brother of Fre-
deric III. emperor of Germany, was born
in 1418. After the death of his father in
1424, his brother Frederic undertook the
government of his estates for him until 1438.
AVhen the estates were divided between the
two brothers, Frederic obtained Stiria, Carin-
thia, and ICrain, and Albert all the western
parts. Albert bestowed great care on the
education of his subjects. In 1454 he founded
the university of Freyburg, in the Breisgau.
When Ladislaus Postumus, the son of King
Albert II., who besides Austria possessed the
kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia, died
without heirs in 1457, the duchy of Austria
came into the hands of the Habsburg princes
of the Stirian line, namely, Sigismund of
Tyrol, Frederic V. (as Emperor Frederic III.),
and Albert VI., on whose behalf Sigismund
renounced his inheritance. Albert thus re-
ceived Upper Austria. Vienna, the capital,
however, remained in the possession of the
two brothers Albert and Frederic, and of
their cousin Sigismimd : each of them had
his separate residence in the palace of Vienna,
and the city took the oath of allegiance to all
three. The good understanding between the
two brothers, however, did not last long, as
Albert, stimulated by ambition and prodi-
gality, endeavoured to deprive Frederic of
Lower Austria. With this view he supported
in 1461 the rebellious estates of the latter,
on the pretext that, on the division of the
duchy, he had promised the estates to protect
their liberties. Albert relied upon the assist-
ance of King George of Bohemia and Duke
Louis of Bavaria, who were his allies, but
George endeavom-ed to bring about a truce
between the brothers, which, however, was
soon followed by new hostilities, arising from
some disputes between the citizens of Vienna
and the Emperor Frederic. The citizens re-
fused to obey Frederic as duke of Austria,
and besieged him in his own castle at Vienna,
while Albert assisted them and pressed his
brother very hard. ^V^^en Frederic in 1462
informed the princes of the empire assembled
at Regensburg of his perilous situation, they
resolved to send him immediate succour ;
but before it came. King George of Bohemia
advanced with an army to his relief, com-
pelled Albert to raise the siege, and to sign a
treaty at Kron-Neuburg by which he en-
gaged to surrender to the emperor all the
towns and castles belonging to him. Albert
did not keep his promise, and he even made
the citizens of Vienna swear allegiance to
him alone, on which he was put under the
ban of the empire, on the proposition of Fre-
deric, in 1463. Albert made an appeal to

ALBERT.

Pope Pius IT., ■who, however, rejected it, and
excommunicated the duke. These proceed-
ings had no effect upon him, and he reso-
lutely rejected all proposals for a reconcilia-
tion. On the 2d December, 14G3, Albert
suddenly died, and it -was generally believed
of poison. As he left no legitimate issue,
his dominions came to his brother Frederic.
(J. J. Fuggei", Spiegel der Ehren dvs Erz-
liuuses Oe.sterreich, c^c. p. 643 — 733. ; Pfister,
Geschichte der Tcutxchen, iii. 515, &c.) L. S.
ALBERT of Bavarl\. [Albrecht.]
ALBERT LE BELLIQUEUX. [Al-

BRECHT AlCIBIADES of BaIREUTH.]

ALBERT THE BLESSED, a patriarch
of Jerusalem, and legislator of the order of
the Carmelites, -was born about the year
1150 at Castello di Gualtieri in the diocese
of Parma, of a noble family. He became a
monk of the monastery of the Holy Cross at
Mortara, a town between Padua and Vercelli,
and about 1180 -was raised to the dignity of
prior of Mortara, then " violently abducted "
in 1184 to that of bishop of Bobbio, and
after-wards of Vercelli. He remained t-\venty
years bishop of Vercelli, in high esteem both
-with the pope and emperor, Clement in.,and
Frederick Barbarossa, -who employed him to
mediate in their differences. Pope Innocent
III. had also a -warm regard for him, and
several letters to Albert from that pontiff are
in the collection published by Baluze. In
1204, on the death of Monachus, the eleventh
patriarch of Jerusalem, Albert -was chosen
his successor by the prior and canons of the
Holy Sepulchre, and fixed his residence at
Acre, Jerusalem itself being then in the
hands of the Saracens. In 1209 he -was re-
quested to legislate for them by a body of
hermits residing at Mount Carmel, -oho had
adopted that life at the exhortation of a Cala-
brian monk, -who said that the idea had been
suggested to him in a vision by the prophet
Elias. This -was the order -which after-wards
became so celebrated under the name of the
Carmelites or White Friars. The rules
given by Albert were extremely strict. The
brethren -were to remain day and night in
their cells engaged in prayer, unless other-
•wise la-wfuUy occupied, to observe perpetual
abstinence from flesh, and to keep silence
from vespers till tierce the next day. Albert
■was invited by Innocent III. to attend the
Council of the Lateran held in 1215, to sti-
mulate the crusades, but before he left Pales-
tine he -was assassinated on the 14th of Sep-
tember, 1214, at the procession of the exalt-
ation of the Holy Cross at Acre, by a native
of Caluso in the diocese of Ivica, whom he
had reproved for his crimes.

The -works of Albert are as foUo-w : — 1.
" A short Account of the Ceremonies to be
observed by the Bishops of Vercelli on their
first Entrance on their Duties," first printed,
and -with notes, by Ranza, in " II primo in-
gresso dei Vescovi di Vercelli." Vercelli,
C61

1779, Svo. 2. " Synodus Vercellensis," a
body of decrees and statutes for the govern-
ment of that church, not jet published. 3.
" Status Terra; Sanctae," an account of the
State of the Holy Land, the existence of
•which rests on the authority of Trithemius.
4. " Regula Carmelitarum," the rule of the
Carmelites before alluded to, -which is printed
in the fifth chapter of the life of Albert in the
" Acta Sanctorum." {Acta Sanctorum, April,
i. 769 — 802. ; Butler, Lires of the Saints,
iv. 85 — 87. ; Affo, Memorie degli Scrittori
e Letterati Parmigiani, i. 61 — 69.) T. W.

ALBERT, First margrave of Braxdex-
burg, surnamed by his contemporaries " the
Bear," and also " the Handsome," -was the
prince -who first firmly established in the
^larch of Brandenburg the supremacy of the
German race and the Christian religion. He
-was born in the year 1106, and -was a son of
Count Otto of Ballenstadt, of the house of
Anhalt. Early in life, -with the assistance of
the Duke Lothair of Saxony, he made him-
self master of Lo-wer Lusatia against the
-will of the Emperor Henry V. In 1125
Lothair became emperor, and, to strengthen
himself against the house of Hohenstaufen, his
competitors for the imperial throne, he gave his
daughter in marriage to Henry the Proud, duke
of Bavaria, a circumstance -which appears to
have a-wakened the jealousy of Albert. When
in addition to this the emperor conferred on
Udo of Freckleben the vacant fief of Nord-
mark, or the Northern March, his discontent
broke out into open war. Lothair chastised
him by depriving him of the March of
Lusatia, and Albert found himself compelled
to submit ; but on the death of Lothair the
party of the Ghibellines triumphed, and
raised to the imperial throne Conrad III.,
the first of the house of Hohenstaufen. One
of the earliest measures of the new emperor
-was to deprive his rival, Henry the Proud,
the head of the Guelphs, of the dukedom of
Bavaria, and to confer it on Albert. In the
contest that ensued, Albert, though at first
successful in taking Liineburg, Bremen, and
Bardewyck, -was soon glad to come to terms
-with his adversary, and accept as a compen-
sation Brandenburg from the emperor. On
the death of Henry he renewed his attempt,
thinking to obtain an easy triumph over that
prince's successor, a youth often years of age,
Henrj', afterwards surnamed "the Lion;"
but he -was completely defeated by Henry's
mother, Gertrude, and his grandmother,
Richenza, and driven out of Brandenburg
itself. He -was at last glad to obtain peace
(a.d. 1142), on condition of receiving Bran-
denburg and giving up his pretensions to
Saxony. From that time he relinquished his
more ambitious plans, and directed his arms
towards the conquest of the Slavonian race
in Brandenburg. The tribes of that race
were under the government of chiefs, whose
-wars with each other afforded an excellent

ALBERT.

opportunity to the common enemy. In the
year 1147, ■«'hen Conrad IIL and other
princes went on the crusade to the Holy
Land, Albert, with Henry the Lion and the
King of Denmark, made a crusade into the
country of the Obotrites and Luticians, two
of the Slavonic tribes. This expedition
failed owing to the dissensions of its leaders,
but Albert carried on a bloody contest,
and succeeded in establishing himself on
the right bank of the Elbe ; and at last,
in 1157, took Brandenburg, the strongest
fortress of the Hevelians, one of the tribes.
From this event is dated the history of the
March of Brandenburg, the sovereigns of
which have by gradual enlargement of their
territories raised themselves to their present
dignity and importance as kings of Prussia.
From the time of the conquest of Branden-
burg, Albert set himself to improve the con-
dition of the country by inviting into it
colonists of the German races, Flemings,
Westphalians, and Saxons, whom he scattered
over the face of the country among the
Slavonic or native tribes. " The margraves,"
says Stenzel, " had no choice but to become
Slavonic themselves or to make the country
German, and they did the latter." He re-
sided at Salzwedel, but he built or improved
the towns of Frankfurt on the Oder, Berlin,
Bernau, Bernburg, Bernwalde, and Anhalt,
many of which seem to have derived a por-
tion of their names from his own appellation
of "the Bear." He died in the year 1170,
and was succeeded by his son Otho. Some
historians maintain that Albert's occupation
of Brandenburg was not altogether effected
by force, hut that he took peaceable possession
of a considerable part under the will of
Pribislav, one of the native princes. (Stenzel,
Geschichte des Preussischen Staats, i. 23, &c. ;
S. Buchholtz, Geschichte der Churmarck Bra/i-
denhuig, ii.. 1, &c. ; Vollsfdndige Vniversal-
Le.i-ikon, \. 974. ; Preussische National- Ency-
clopiidie, i. 2.30.) T. W.

ALBERT II., margrave of Branden-

BURG. [AlBRECHT.]

ALBERT III., margrave of Brandenburg
and first duke of Prussia, was the son of Fre-
derick the elder of Anspach, and Sophia sister
of Sigismund I., king of Poland. He was
born on the 17th of May, 1490, and educated
by Hermann, archbishop of Cologne, with a
view to an ecclesiastical life ; but as he had a
predilection for a military career, he left a
canoni-y which had been given him at Co-
logne, and spent most of his time with the
army of the Emperor Maximilian in Italy.
It was about this period that the order of
Teutonic knights, which then held possession
of Prussia, began to perceive its inability to
contend with its powerful neighbours the
kings of Poland, who had assisted the sub-
jects of the knights in a revolt against their
power. The order had thus been compelled
to acknowledge, at the peace of Thorn in
662

1466, that for the future it only held its pos-
sessions as a fief from the kings of Poland,
to whom the grand masters were therefore
bound to render homage, an obligation from
which the knights made repeated efforts to
set themselves free. The order, finding that
the kings of Poland were too strong for it,
resolved to change its policy, which had
hitherto been, never to elect a prince for
grand master, for fear the extraneous power
which he possessed should encourage him to
tyrannise over the knights, and, on the con-
trary, to choose one, with a view of making
use of his additional forces for the defence of
the rights of the order. In 1511 Albert of
Brandenburg, then only twenty-one years of
age, was chosen grand master. It was true
that the assistance he could afford was small,
for his father was still living, and he had
seven brothers and several sisters to share
the inheritance ; but great advantages were
expected from his relationship to Joachim I.,
the elector of Brandenburg, his cousin, and
more especially to Sigismund, king of Poland,
his uncle. Albert left Anspach, where he was
then residing, for Mergentheim, where he
received the insignia of his new dignity.
His uncle Sigismund was found, as was ex-
pected, i-eady to cede much to his nephew,
but fear of the indignation of the Poles, his
subjects, withheld him from acceding to Al-
bert's demand to give up his claim to the
homage of the grand master ; the knights on
their side were equally obstinate to efface the
degrading mark of subjection, and a war en-
sued. Albert, to obtain the favour of Joa-
chim of Brandenburg, renounced on his part,
in 1517, the right of redemption of the Neu-
mark, which had been pledged to Branden-
burg, and in return for " a ton of gold," the
sovereignty over the grand master of the
Brothers of the Sword, a branch of the Teu-
tonic knights established in Livonia. He
counted on the assistance of the pope, of
the empire, and of Denmai'k, and incited the
Russian Tzar Vasily to the seizure of Smo-
lensk. But the emperor, on the contrary,
recommended him to take the oath of homage,
and his other expected allies were lukewarm,
so that the war was carried on without the
success he had anticipated ; and after in 1519
refusing to accede to an invitation to peace-
ful negotiations at Thorn with Sigismund, he
was glad in 1521 to accept a four years' ar-
mistice mediated by the empei'or. His go-
vernment was at the same time growing un-
popular from the recklessness with which he
seized on the treasures of the church, and
the high taxes he ingeniously prevailed on
the states to levy on the people. About this
period he left his dominions for a time to
seek assistance in Germany, and was himself
persuaded to assist Christian II., the deposed
tyrant of Denmark, with 12,000 men, in an
attempt to recover his dominions, which
totally failed. At the diet of Niirnberg in

ALBERT.

1524, Albert matle a last and unsuccessful
attempt to induce the empire to assist him in
preserving a country which had been con-
quered by Gernum knights from subjection
to the crown of Poland. It was of no use to
expect assistance from his brothers, who at
that time held their father imprisoned under
pretence of his being deranged, and Albert
had serious thoughts of resigning his sove-
reignty into the hands of Sigismund, or of
Eric of Brunswick, for a sum of money, and
entering the French service. Just before
this time Luther had in an express publica-
tion called on the Teutonic knights to
renounce their vow of celibacy, and many
among the order were inclined to accede to
the call. Luther had a personal interview
with Albert, in which he exhorted him also
to abandon the vows of his order, which were
in opposition to the command of God to " in-
crease and multiply," and to establish a tem-
poral princedom in Prussia. Albert received
the advice with a smile, but gave no positive
answer. lie had already been inclined
towards the doctrines of the Reformation by
the fiery exhortations of Osiander [Osian-
der], and they had spread rapidly in his
dominions during his absence, from the en-
couragement afforded them by his viceregent,
George of Polenz, bishop of Samland, the
first bishop who embraced Protestantism.

The expiration of the four years' armistice
■was approaching, and Albert, in pursuance
of the recommendation of Luther, took
a decisive step, the consequences of which
have been most important. In April, 1525,
Albert swore allegiance to the crown of
Poland, and received Prussia from that crown
as an hereditary fief, to descend, in default of
his own male issue, to his brothers, and only
to revert to Poland in case of the extinction
of the house. Thus ended the government
of the Teutonic knights, -which lasted during
the whole Roman Catholic period of the
history of Prussia, for at the same time that
Albert changed the government from elec-
tive to hereditary, he changed the religion
from Roman Catholic to Protestant. Albert
was received at Konigsberg with the loudest
rejoicings by the states, who tendered him
their homage. Most of the Teutonic knights
resigned celibacy for a married life ; others
who left the country chose a new grand
master, Walter of Kronberg ; and the Empe-
ror Charles V., who saw aifairs taking a dif-
ferent turn from that which he had expected,
invested "Walter with the fief of Prussia, and
proclaimed the ban of the empire in 1530
against Albert, and in 1536 against his sub-
jects. These threats remained without effect,
and Albert occupied himself in remodelling
the government, and commissioning two re-
formers, Joachim Morlin and Martin Chem-
nitz, to reform the ecclesiastical establish-
ment. The greatest real improvement ap-
pears to have been the university which in
CG3

1544 he established at Konigsberg. The
changes in the government consisted in as-
signing to members of the nobility the olfices
of trust and dignity which had previously
been held by the high officials among the
knights. The remaining knights were dis-
contented, and the nobility appear to have
only been encouraged to insist on fresh privi-
leges, as in 1540 they extorted from Albert
what is called " das grosse Gnadenprivi-
legium," or the " great privilege," by which
the fiefs in Magdeburg were not to revert to
the duke till after the extinction, not only of
the male, but the female line, and in 1542
the " kleine Gnadenprivilegium," or " little
privilege," by which the native nobility was
to be more eligible to offices and fiefs than
foreigners, and to enjoy exclusively the
highest offices. The latter years of Albert's
life appear to have exhibited a weakness very
remote from what might have been expected
from the man who had changed a govern-
ment and a religion. For some time he was
completely under the influence of a Croat
named Paul Skalich, and Funk the court
chaplain, Avho involved him in ecclesiastical
disputes with Morlin, induced him to raise
new and unusual taxes in a burdensome
manner, and finally persuaded him to revoke
his will which had been confirmed by the
court of Poland, and make a new one, in
which he bequeathed Prussia to his cousin
Joachim of Brandenburg. In 1566 Sigis-
mund II. of Poland interfered, and after in-
vestigation decreed that the second will of
Albert should be null and void, and the for-
mer continue in force, that Skalich, who had
fled the coimtry, should be declared an out-
law, and Funk, with others of his associates
high in the favour of Albert, should be put
to death by beheading. Albert shed bitter
tears at the execution of Funk, and his life
is supposed to have been shortened by grief
and vexation, which he felt so strongly, that
he repeatedly expressed a wish for death.
He died on the 20th of March, 1568, and his
second wife, Anna Maria of the house of
Brunswick, died on the same day. (^Pretis-
sische National- Encyclopadie, i. 246 — 250. ;
VoUstundige Uiurcrsal-Lexicon, i. 977 — 981. ;
Stenzel, Geschichte des Preussischen Staats,
i. 287, &c.) T. W.

ALBERT, archbishop of Bremen, by
some writers called Albert II., as coming
after Adalbert. He was son of Magnus
the Pious, duke of Brunswick. The year of
his birth is unknown. He was elected arch-
bishop of Bremen in 1362, and occupied the
see thirty-three years, dying in 1395. His
unbounded extravagance, and the extortions
to which it drove him, involved him in fre-
quent quarrels with the citizens of Bremen,
and was the cause of his leaving the diocese
deeply in debt, with many of its estates
mortgaged. His luxurious and effeminate
habits rendered people apt to believe a

ALBERT.

scandalous and indecent story propagated
against him by the dean of the cathedral,
^vho was however obliged publicly to retract
and apologise for it. (Meibomius, JRo-iim
Gennanicarum Scriptores, ii. 66, 67. ; Mo-
reri.) W. W.

ALBERT of Brunswick. [Albkecht.]
ALBERT CASIMIR, duke of Sachsen-
Teschen, was the second son of Augustus IIL, j
king of Poland and elector of Saxony. He i
was born at Moritzburg, near Dresden, on j
the 11th July, 1738. In 1766 he married
the arch-ducliess Maria Christina, daughter of
the Emperor Francis L and of Maria Theresa,
■who on this occasion conferred on him the
principality of Teschen, in the Austrian part
of Sik'sia. His wife having been appointed ,
chief governor of the Austrian Netherlands,
he assisted her in the administration of these
provinces. In consequence of the insurrec- j
tion of 1788, -which he was not able either to
prevent or to quell, he was forced to quit his
residence at Brussels, and he went to Vienna ;
but after the pacification of these provinces
in 1791 he returned to Brussels. In the war
with France in 1792 he commanded the army
which was besieging the fortress of Lille, but
he was obliged to raise the siege ; and after
the battle of Jemappes (6th November,
1792), where he and Beaulieu were defeated,
he left Belgium, which fell into the hands of
Dumouriez. During the next campaign,
Duke Albert Casimir, not being accustomed
to the fatigues and hardships of war, left
tiie army, and thenceforth lived at the court
of Vienna. His wife died in 1798, without
leaving any children. The duke had a
splendid monument erected in honour of her,
which was executed by Canova. He spent
his rich revenue partly upon objects intended
to promote the happiness of the Austrian
people, and partly upon his magnificent col-
lection of works of art. In Maria Hilf, a
suburb of Vienna, he built a splendid aque-
duct to supply the contiguous part of this
city with water. His palace at Vienna con-
tained one of the finest collections of en-
gravings, original drawings by Raphael,
jlichael Angelo, Guido, Van Dyk, and others,
and a great number of the finest paint-
ings. After his death, on the 10th February,
1822, these collections passed into the hands
of his heir, the Archduke ChaWes. (Con-
versations-Lexicon, I. 149.) ^Y. P.
ALBERT, CHARLES D', due de
Luynes, constable of France, descended of a
noble family, the founder of which, Thomas
d' Albert or Alberti settled at Pont Esprit in
Dauphiny about 1414. Some authors have
stated that Thomas was son to a brother of
Innocent VI. This story is unsupported by
any evidence ; but judging by the promotion
he obtained, and the matrimonial alliance he
made, there is every reason to believe that he
must have been a man of good family. His
descendants continued to reside at Pont Es-
6C4

prit, steadily advancing in wealth and power,
(the first who assumed the title of Seigneur
en partie de Luynes en Provence, was Leon,
born 1493 — 1544.) but still ranking only
among the inferior nobility, tUl the time of
the subject of this sketch.

Charles d' Albert, the second son of Ho-
nore d' Albert, governor of Beaucaire and Pont
Esprit, was born at Pont Esprit on the 5th of
August, 1578. He was not baptized till 1592,
the year of his father's death : the ceremony
■was performed in the church of St. Denis,
and Henri IV. stood godfather. Young
d' Albert was presented at court for the first
time on the occasion of Henri's marriage with
Mary of Medici, in 1600.

The family estates had probably been
dilapidated during the civil wars, for it is
certain that he and his brother Honore, after-
wards Due de Chaulnes, and Leon, after-
wards Due de Luxembourg, were extremely
poor when they commenced their career as
courtiers. Charles was appointed by Henri IV.
a page of the chamber ; and on the birth of
the Dauphin, afterwards Louis XIII., all the
three brothers were attached to his person.
Charles, by humouring the tastes and joining
in the amusements of the prince, obtained
great influence over him.

Louis XIII. appointed D'Albei-t, in 1615,
governor of Aniboise, captain of the Tuille-
ries, and councillor of state ; in 1616 he made
him grand falconer. The queen-mother and
the marechal d'Ancre, jealous of D' Albert's
ascendancy over the mind of the young king,
had thoughts of removing him from about
his person ; but, wai'ned by Sauveterre that
Louis must have a favourite, and that D' Albert
was as innocuous a one as he was likely to
meet -nith, they desisted from their purpose.
The knowledge of their intention, however,
was enough to put D' Albert on his guard.
He allied himself with the faction opposed to
the queen-mother and her favourite, and
after the assassination of the marechal, pro-
cured a gift of his estates, which the parlia-
ment had declared forfeited. Aware of the
unfriendly disposition of the queen-mother
towards him, D' Albert never rested till he
procured her banishment.

The king was now completely in his hands.
The Due de Bouillon, the head of the
malcontents in the time of the marechal, ob-
served that " they had only changed their
tavern, not their drink." In 1617 D' Albert
was appointed lieutenant-governor of Nor-
mandy and captain of the Bastile, and
was appointed a judge in the parliament of
Paris. He also strengthened his position by
marrying the daughter of Hercule de Rohan,
due de Montbazon. In 1618 he resigned
Normandy, and was named governor of
Paris and of Picardy. On the 22d of April,
1621, he was made constable of France, and
on the 3d of August following he received
the seals of France. All these preferments

ALBERT.

he retained till his death, whieh took place at
Longuetille, duriiif^- the siege of IMontheurt,
on the 15th of December, 1()21. He had
however outlived the king's affection, who,
like all M'eak-niinded princes, had become
jealous of the master he had given himself.

De Luynes, although he owed his advance-
ment entirely to his agreeable exterior, and
his dexterous compliance with the whims of
the king, alike when piety or childishness
was the humour of the day, displayed some
talent during his ministerial career, but it was
the talent of the intriguer, not of the states-
man. By keeping alive the misunderstand-
ing between the king and his mother, he
maintained himself in place ; by liberating
Henri IL prince of Condo, arrested by order
of Mary of Medicis, he dissolved the union
between the princes of the blood and the
Protestant leaders. Yet the utmost a pane-
gyrist could tind to say in his favour was,
that he had done much good to his friends,
and little injury to his enemies. {Hi.stuire
Gent'alogiqiie et Chroiwloglque de la Maisun
Royale de France, des Pairs et grands Officicrs
de la Couronne et de la Maison dti Roij. Par
le Pere Anselme, continuee par M. de Fourny.
Paris, 1722-33, fol. ; Mercure de la France ;
Recueil des Pieces les plus ciiricuses (pit ont
^tefaites pendant le liigne du Connetable de
Luynes, 1632, (place of printing not men-
tioned,) 8vo. ; Moreri, Dictionnaire Histo-
rique.) W. W.

ALBERT DiJRER. [Durer.]

ALBERT of Freising, of the family Ho-
henburg (according to some authors Haiger-
lohe) Alsatia, was in the year 1345 doctor of
divinity, a prebendary of Costnitz, and chap-
lain to Pope Clement VL, who at that time held
his court in Avignon. Albert's previous his-
tory is unknown. Otho H., bishop of Wiirz-
burg, dying in August, 1345, the chapter of
that see unanimously elected Albert of Hohen-
lohe, one of their own number, as his successor ;
but Clement refused to sanction the election,
and conferred the appointment upon his chap-
lain, Albert of Hohenburg. The pope's legate
arrived in Wiirzburg in October or Novem-
ber, 1345, summoned the chapter to pay
obedience to the papal letters with which he
was accredited to them, and on their refusing
to do so pronounced sentence of excommu-
nication against them. The chapter, having
appealed without success to the pope, ap-
plied for assistance to the son of the King of
Bohemia, Charles of Moravia, who had been
declared emperor by the great feudatories
who had embraced the party of the pope in
opposition to Ludwig IV. The new emperor
endeavoured to mitigate the displeasure of
the pontiff, but in vain. Affairs remained in
this unsatisfactory position till the year 1350,
when the death of John, bishop of Freising,
opened the way to a compromise. Clement
was induced to permit Albert of Hohenlohe
to be again elected bishop of Wiirzburg on

VOL. I.

condition of Albert of Hohenburg being ap-
pointed to the bishopric of Freising, and
the latter concurred in the arrangement upon
receipt of a sum of money from his rebellious
flock. Albert, bishop of Freising, presided
over that see from 1350 to 1359, the year of
his death. The lives of the martyrs St.
Kilian, bishop of Wiirzburg, and his com-
panions St. Colman and St. Totnan (published
in the " Acta Sanctorum, 8 Julii, tom ii. p.
9()f), et seq.") have been by Fabricius and
others attributed to this bishop, but apparently
without any sulhcient grounds. (Geschiclit-
schreiber von dein Biscliofthum Wiirzburg,
zusummen-gctragen von Johann Peter Ludwig,
Frankfurt, 171.3, fol. p. 630. 634.; J. A. Fa-
bricius, Bibliotheca Latiiia medice ct infima:
jEtatis, Patavii, 1754, 4to.) W. W.

ALBERT DE GAPENCOIS [Albert

DE SiSTERON.]

ALBERT in. of Halberstadt was the
grandson of Alhrecht the Great and son of
Albrecht the Fat, the second and third dukes
of Brunswick and Liineburg. The see of
Halberstadt had three bishops of the name :
Albert L was alive about the year 1319 ;
Albert IL died in 1324 ; and Albert III.
occupied the episcopal throne from 1324 to
1359. The last alone seems to merit par-
ticular notice, and that more on account of
the curious light which the events of his life
throw upon the state of society in the north
of Germany in his time, than of any deserts
of his own. On the death of Albert II. of
Halberstadt the majority of the chapter
elected Ludwig of Neyndorp, only four
voting for Albert of Brunswick. The Arch-
bishop of Mayence, however, to whom the
defeated candidate appealed, declared him
lawfully elected, and sentenced his opponents
to pay the expenses of the litigation. John
XXII., who at that time occupied the papal
chair, recognised the election of neither of
the candidates as valid, and nominated
Gisler, a native of Holstein, to the vacant see.
Nevertheless the Archbishop of Mayence
confirmed and invested Albert, who not till
then took priestly orders, and was con-
secrated a bishop in due form. He held the
bishopric by the strong hand till the death
of Gisler ; after which Clement VL con-
ferred the dignity upon Albert of Mansfeld,
who was as unsuccessful as his predecessor.
On the death of Albert of Mansfeld, Inno-
cent VI. declai-ed Ludwig, son of the Mark-
graf of Meissen, bishop of Halberstadt. This
was too formidable an antagonist for Albert,
who at last resigned his bishopric in favour
of the papal nominee, after holding it in
defiance of the head of the church for thirty-
five years. He did not long survive his
abdication. A contemporary but anonymous
author, whose eulogistic life of Albert III.
of Halberstadt was published in 1688 by the
younger Henry Meibomius, records with en-
thusiasm that during his incumbency the

X X

ALBERT.

bisliop made no less than twenty hostile expe-
ditions into neighbouring territories, " be-
sieging their castles and laying waste their
lauds by plundering and fire." Nor do his
conduct and fortune appear to have been any-
thing uncommon in his age. It is mentioned
in the Magdeburg Chronicle that Albert's
brother Henry held about the same time
the bishopric of Hildesheim for thirty-seven
years in defiance of the pope ; and at last
was regularly installed by Innocent IV., into
whose hands he resigned it upon that con-
dition. The narrator of this incident re-
marks, " Doubtless the other brother would
have experienced equal leniency if he had
had proper intercessors in the court of
Rome." {C/ironicon Magdeburgense and Nar-
ratio Historica de Alberto Episcopo Halber-
stadcnse ; both in the second volume of
Ixcriim Germanicarum Tomi Tres, ab Henrico
Meibomio, jun. Helmastadii, 1688, fol.)

W. W.
ALBERT, HEINRICH, born at Loben-
stein in Saxony, June 28. 1604. He studied
the law at Leipzig, and afterwards music
under his uncle, the celebrated Heinrich
Schiitz, then Kapellmeister at Dresden. In
1626 he settled at Kiinigsberg, where he was
appointed organist of the cathedral five years
afterwards, a situation which he held to the
time of his death in 1651. Under the tuition
of his uncle, who had enjoyed the instruction
of Gabrieli, and the society of his eminent
Venetian contemporaries, Albert imbibed an
tvdmiration of the Italian school, which led
him to cultivate with such unequalled success
the construction of melody. This sentiment
is thus expressed in the preface to one of his
collections of songs : — " The compositions of
Italy, full of genius and mind, I examine
with such astonishment, that I almost fear to
exert ray own humble talents in cultivating
an art which is thei'ein carried to such pei'-
feetion." Albert was one of the first Ger-
man composers who furnished his country-
men with airs for a single voice accompanied
by a keyed instrument. Of these he pub-
lished eight collections in the course of se-
veral years, under the title of " Poetisch
Musikalisches Lustwiildlein," or sacred and
secular airs and songs, with accompaniment
for organ, harpischord, or theorbo lute. So
popular were these songs, that, notwith-
standing the prohibition of several German
princes, enforced by heavy penalties, they
were repeatedly pirated. In some of his
prefaces Albert bitterly complains of this in-
vasion of his property, which he calls " his
only little sheep, upon which he depends for
milk and wool." Prefixed to the first set of
his songs are directions to the singer and
the accompanist, which contain some good
advice, though arranged in quaint and
homely language. " The singer," says he, " in
addition to other qualifications, must acquire
the art of distinct pronunciation, taking care
CC6

to defer the sound of the consonant, where a
word so terminates, till the end of the note.
The player must have a correct knowledge
of thorough bass ; he must also use his know-
ledge discreetly, not encumbering the accom-
paniment with every note that he can crowd
into the harmony, nor thumping his instru-
ment as if he were chopping a cabbage."
Recitative, which was a sort of singing new
at this time even in the land of its birth,
Albert seems to have been the first to intro-
duce into Germany. Concerning this he
saj'S — " There are some songs in my col-
lection written in what the Italians call ' lo
stilo recitativo ;' these, which will be known
by their having in general a quaver to each
syllable, must be sung with almost no regard
to time, but uttered with a slow and distinct
delivery." Many of Albert's songs are so
arranged that they may be sung as single
melodies, accompanied by two violins, violin
and violoncello, or by five voices.

It is curious to remark that Lawes in Eng-
land, and Albert in Germany, were both la-
bouring at the same time with equal success
in the same, then novel, department of their
art ; Lawes, in addition to his general popu-
larity, earning the emphatic commendation of
Milton and Waller, and Albert awakening,
by the same means, the sympathy and admira-
tion of his countrymen. It also deserves to
be noticed, as showing how little the early
history of German music is known in Eng-
land, that Burney and Hawkins have not
noticed even the names of Schiitz and Al-
bert, each of whom contributed so essentially
to the advancement of their art in their native
country. The same remark will, of course,
apply to more recent histories of the art pub-
lished in England, which, for the most part,
are mere compilations from the sources above
mentioned.

Several of Albert's songs for one and more
voices will be found in Bekker's " Haus-
Musik in Deutschland." (Bekker's Haus-
Mitsik in Deutschland; Taylor's Grcsham
Lectures.) E. T.

Albert was one of the best lyric poets of
the society of Konigsberg, and of his time in
general, and some of his productions are still
highly valued and read with pleasure. All
are distinguished for their clearness and
simplicity, and for the good sense and the
cheerful and pious spirit which pervades
them. His style is easy, and free from the
affectation and mannerism which in his time
was beginning to spoil the poetry of the
Germans, especially those of Roberthin and
Dach. His productions appeared in the
following collections : — 1. " Arien, &c."
8 parts, fol. Konigsberg, 1638 — 1050 ; re-
printed for the fourth time in the same place
1652 — 1G54 ; a new edition appeared at Leip-
zig, 1657,4to. 2. " JIusikalische Kiirbshiitte,"
K5nigsberg, 1651, fol. 3. " Poetisch Musi-
kalisches Lustwiildlein" (mentioned above),

ALBERT.

Ktinigsberg, 1C52, folio ; reprinted at Leipzig,
1G57. (Mi'iller, BiUiotlwh Deutsc/tcr Duhtcr,
vol. V. ; Wolff, Enci/clopiid. der Ucutsclten
Nationid-literutur, i. p. 31, &c.) L. S.

ALBERT, LOUIS CHARLES D', due
de Luynes, eldest son of the first Duke de
Luynes, was born at Paris on the 25th of
December, 1620. His rank obliged him to
take a part in public affairs, from -which his
retiring disposition would otherwise have held
him back. He was appointed grand falconer
in 1643 ; and chevalier des ordres du roi in
1661. As commander of a regiment he as-
sisted in the defence of the camp before Arras
in August, 1040, and displayed considerable
braver}'.

He was intimately connected with Ar-
nauld, and the rest of the Port Royal theo-
logians. Arnauld's celebrated letters to a
nobleman on the refusal of the cure of St.
Sulpice to administer the sacrament to M. de
Liancourt, were addressed to the Due de
Luynes. The due built the chateau de Vau-
murier for the express purpose of being
near his friends of Port Royal. The author
of the life of Louis Charles, in the " Biogra-
phic LTniverselle " says that the friendly rela-
tion between him and the recluses was intei--
rupted by his marriage (by a dispensation
from Rome) with Anne de Rohan daughter
of his mother's father by a second marriage.
Such a union was not likely to give satisfac-
tion to Arnauld ; but we have no other
authority for this alleged cessation of friendly
intercourse, and the dates do not correspond.
The marriage with Anne de Rohan took
place in 1661, and Arnauld's letters were
published in 1665.

Louis Charles was thrice married : early
in life to Marie Seguier, daughter of the JNIar-
quis d'O, who died in 1651 ; in 1661 to
Anne de Rohan, who died in 1684 ; and
lastly to Marguerite d'Alegre, sister of the
Marquis de Manneville, who survived him.
In 1688 he resigned the duchy of Luynes and
his rank of peer in favour of his son. He :
died on the 20th October, 1690. |

The Due de Luynes is understood to have j
assisted in the compilation of several of the
devotional works which issued from the Port
Royal press ; and in particular of " L' Office
du Saint Sacrament, trad, en Fran^ais avec •
312 le9ons tirees des SS. Pores et autres
Auteurs ecclesiastiques pour tousles Jeudis de
I'Annee. Paris, 1659," 4to. There are also
attributed to him, " Instruction pour ap-
prendre a ceux qui ont des Terres dont ils
sont Seigneurs, ce qu'ils pourront faire
pour la Gloire de Dieu et le Soulagement du
Prochain. Paris, 1658," 4to. " Des Devoirs
des Seigneurs dans leurs Terres suivant les
Ordonnances de France. Paris, 1668," 12mo.
" Relation de ce qui se passa a I'Entree de
Louis XIV. en 1660, au Sujet des Rangs de
MM. les Dues et Pairs de France entr'eux,
et avec les Princes etrangers." (Published
667

with some other pieces on similar subjects
by Dubois de S. Gelais in 1717.) (Le Pere
Anselme, Histuire Gencalogujiie ct Chrono-
hxjKjue de la 3fciison JPoi/ale de la France, i^~c.
Paris, 1728. Lelong et Fontette, Bibliotheque
Historique de la France. P^ris, 1771, fol.)

W. W.

ALBERT, LOUIS JOSEPH D', son of
Louis Charles d' Albert, due de Luynes, by
his second wife Anne de Rohan, was born on
the 1st of April, 1672. His tutor, the Abbe
Jean du Pie, a voluminous but little-known
author of the sixteenth and seventeenth cen-
turies, appears to have cultivated in him his
father's taste for letters, but not his father's
turn for ascetic religion.

Count Albert, as he was generally called,
made his first essay of arms at the battle of
Fleurus (1st July, 1690), where he was dan-
gerously wounded. In 1695, having been
ordered by the king to throw himself into
Namur, he remained several days disguised
in the camp of the besiegers, and ultimately
swam across the Meuse, and entered the town
with their army looking on. He was there
again wounded, while defending a fort in
which his regiment had been stationed.

About the year 1703, Count Albert entered
the service of the Elector of Bavaria, who
gave him the command of his guards. In
1714 the elector sent him as envoy extra-
ordinary to Madrid, where the King of Spain
received him honourably. On the 17tli of
March, 1715, he married a daughter of the
Prince of Berghes, who at that time was
commandant of Brussels ; on this occasion
the Elector of Cologne, brother of the Elector
of Bavaria, appointed the bridegroom grand
bailly of Liege, an office in which he was
installed on the 2d of April following.

Count Albert adhered faithfully to the
court of Bavaria for the twenty-seven years
which ensued, but his story during this
period offers no event of sufficient mark to
require notice here. In 1742 the Elector of
Bavaria, son of his first patron, was elected
emperor by the title of Charles ^TI. Im-
mediately upon ascending the throne he
nominated Count Albert his ambassador ex-
traordinary to the French court, and in the
same year created him prince of Grim-
berghen, a title derived from the territories
he held in Brabant in right of his wife. The
Prince of Grimberghen died on the 10th of
November, 1758.

Two works have been attributed to him ;

but they are both juvenile performances, and

there is room to doubt whether they might

j not more properly be called the works of his

I tutor Abbe Pic. They are described by

Querard, " Le Songe d'Alcibiade, traduit du

! Grec (compose par I'Abbc Pic, public par

i le Prince de Grimberghen). Paris, Didot,

1735," in 12mo. " Timandre instruit par

son General, traduit du Grec par le P. de G.

j (le Prince de Grimberghen, ou plutot par

' X X 2

ALBERT.

TAbbe Pic son Prccepteur). Paris, 1702,"
in 12mo. (Pore Anselme, Histoire Genealo-
gique et Chronologique de la Maison lioycdc de
la France, &,'c. Paris, 1728 ; J. M. Querard,
La France Literaire, 1835.) W. W.

ALBERT, bishop of Lijbeck. He was a
native of Holstein ; his family name was
Crummedick or Krumraendyk. If the ac-
count given of the bishop's age at the time
of his death by the anonymous continuer of
the Chronicle of the church and bishops of
Liibeck compiled by himself be correct, he
must liave been born about the year 1419.
His first ecclesiastical promotion was to be a
canon in the cathedral of Liibeck. He after-
wards resided several years in Rome, and
practised as a notary in the rota. He was
elected bishop of Liibeck by the chapter in
1469, and the election was confirmed by
Paul IL He is accused of having sacrificed
the interests of his bishopric in order to pay
his court to Christiern of Denmark ; and,
whatever the cause, his declining years were
embittered by the amount of his debts and
the importunity of his creditors. The citi-
zens of Liibeck availed themselves of his
necessities to increase the power of their city
at the expense of the bishopric. Bishop
Albert died on the 27th of October, 1489, in
the seventy-first year of his age. The
Chronicle above alluded to is little moi'e than
a catalogue of Lis predecessors from the
foundation of the see of Altenburg (subse-
quently merged in that of Liibeck) to the
year 1459. This outline of his life is ex-
tracted from an anonymous continuation of
his Chronicle, published along with it by
Henry Meibomius in his collection of old
German historians. (Berum Germanicarum
Tomi Tres, edidit Henricus Meibomius, jun.
Helnuestadii, 1688, folio.) W. W.

ALBERT L, archbishop of ]\Lvgdeburg,
(called Adalbert by the writers of his own
and immediately succeeding times, Albert,
the modern form, by later writers,) was the first
of five incumbents of his see who bore the
same name. The year of his birth is un-
known. He was in early life monk in a
convent in Trier (Treves). He received
episcopal consecration, but without the as-
signment of any territorial diocese, on being
placed at the head of a mission for the con-
version of the Russians. This enterprise
failed, and he returned to Germany, but not
witliout having encountered much toil and
danger. He was next elected abbot of the
cloister Weissenburg, near Speier.

The Emperor Otho L cast his eyes upon
the abbot of NN'eissenburg as the fittest person
to give efficiency to the new ecclesiastical
organisation which he had resolved to intro-
duce into the western provinces of his em-
pire, as much for the promotion of general
civilisation as for the propagation of the
Christian faith. Albert accepted the im-
portant trust, and was on the 18th of Octo-
668

bcr, 9G8, consecrated at Rome by John XHL,
archbishop of the newly-erected province of
Magdeburg, and was formally installed on
the 21st of December following by two papal
legates and the Bishop of Halberstadt. His
province consisted of the new bishoprics,
Poseu, Brandenburg, Havelberg, Merseburg,
Zeitz, and Meissen ; the three former sees
had been filled up before they were subjected
to him ; he consecrated the first bishops of
the other three on the Christmas succeeding
his own enthronisation. The archbishopric
of Magdeburg was placed on a footing of
equality with the archbishoprics of Mayence,
Treves, and Cologne, and obtained prece-
dence of the archbishoprics of Salzburg and
Bremen. Albert L held the office till hi*-
death in 981.

He possessed a fair share of the learning
of his age, and was an active and strict dis-
ciplinarian. He visited all parts of his
diocese frequently, and kept in particular a
strict watch over the monasteries. He was
unwearied in his missionary exertions, and
converted many of the Wends who inhabited
the countries east of the Elbe. He was in-
defatigable in his support of the conventual
schools — the only schools in his time. The
school in the Moritz cloister in Magdeburg,
which was more immediately under his con-
trol, supplied for a time the greater part
of Germany with bishops. At his request
Otho IL conferred upon the chapter of Mag-
deburg the right of electing the archbishop.
Albert died in the discharge of his duty : he
was taken ill while visiting the clergy in the
diocese of Merseburg, and being lifted from
his horse, expired in a field bj^ the road side
on the 21st of May, 981. {Chronicon Dit-
mari Episcopi 3Ierseburgensis : ap. Scriptores
lierum Brunsviccnsium, cura Godefridi Gu-
lielmi Leibnitzii, i. 335 — 343. fol. Hanoverae,
1707; Chronicon Magdehurgenne : ap. lierum
Germanicarum Tomos JV-es, ab Henrico Meibo-
mio jun. publicatos, ii. 273 — 277., fol. Ilelmffi-
stadii, 1688 ; Annalista Saxo : ap. Corpus
Historicmii Medii yFvi, a Jo. Georgio Eccardo,
i. 318—331., fol. Lipsia, 1723.) W. W.

ALBERT IL, the eighteenth archbishop
of Magdeburg, filled the see fi-om 1205 to
1233. According to some historians he was
descended from the family of Kefernburg in
Thiiringen ; others represent him as sprung
from the family of Hallermund or of Kirch-
berg. The year of his birth is unknown.
Family influence procured him high eccle-
siastical promotion at an early age ; but, am-
bitious of distinction, or attached to intellec-
tual pursuits, he prosecuted his studies in the
university of Paris, and according to some
writers at a later period in the university of
Bologna, after he had become a dignitary of
the church. From Bologna he visited the
court of Rome, where he ingratiated him-
self with Innocent III., who nominated him,
without consulting the chapter, provost of the

ALBERT.

cathedral of Magdeburg. In 1205 the chap-
ter chose hiiu for their archbishop.

At the time of his election, Germany was
convulsed by the contest between Philip of
Suabia and Otho of Brunswick for the im-
perial throne. Philip immediately sanctioned
the election of the chapter of Magdeburg ;
invested Albert with the temporalities of the
archbishopric ; assisted to regain by force of
arms some castles belonging to IMagdeburg,
which had been seized by his rival emperor ;
and intrusted the archbishop with important
political commissions. Innocent III. conse-
crated Albert on the 24th of December, 1206,
and immediately afterwards raised him to the
dignity of cardinal, in the hope of drawing
him off from his party. The Archbishop of
Magdeburg, however, continued to serve
Philip zealously and faithfully, till that prince
was murdered at T?aniberg by Otho of Wit-
telsbach in June, 1208.

After this event Albert was persuaded by
Innocent III., his early patron, to throw his
weight into the scale of Otho of Brunswick ;
and the accession of the archbishop to his cause
was followed by that of almost the whole of
Germany. Otho was a second time elected
emperor ; and in the fulness of his gratitude
gave large sums of money and extensive
territories to the Archbishopric of Magde-
burg. He promised, moreover, to conlirm
the immunities claimed by the Germanic
church, and to walk in all things by the
advice of the archbishop. In 1209 Albert
accompanied the emperor to Italy, where a
quarrel, the cause of which does not clearly
appear, breaking out between them, the arch-
bishop returned in the course of the same
year to Germany. Otho soon after quarrelled
with the pope, who excommunicated him in
1210. Innocent III. immediately appointed
the Archbishop of Magdeburg his legate in
Germany, for the purpose of enforcing the
sentence of excommunication ; but it was not
till 1211, and till the pope had threatened to
depose him if he persisted in his refusal, that
Albert consented to undertake the invidious
task. No sooner had he yielded to the
instances of the pope, than the emperor pro-
nounced the ban of the empire against him.
The nobility and the e(juestrian order
throughout the territories of Magdeburg re-
fused to act against the emperor, but the
burgesses took party with their archbishop.
Albert strengthened himself by alliances
with Otho's enemies, and it was principally
owing to his prudent management that Fre-
derick II., of the Hohenstaufen family, was
elected emperor in 1212. Otho, regarding
the archbishop as the principal cause of his
misfortune, resolved to concentrate his re-
venge upon him, and, with a few intervals,
the district round IMagdeburg was for se-
ven years ravaged by the troops of the ex-
emperor. In 1213 Albert fell into the hands
of one of Otho's commanders, but was rescued
6G9

by the burghers of IMagdeburg. The death
of Otho in 1218 put an end to these devasta-
tions : his friends submitted to Frederick,
and peace was restored to Germany.

The rest of Albert's life was, with the
exception of a brief feud with John and
Otho, the young JMarkgraf of Brandenburg,
peaceful and prosperous. In 122-3 Frederick
III. appointed him viceroy of the Saxon
territories during his absence, with unlimited
authority. In 1232 the pope authorised him
to excommunicate all who should encroach
upon the rights and property of his province.

Albert II. died in 1233, or in the begin-
ning of 1234. He has enjoyed the reputation
of having been the most energetic, prudent,
and truly great prince who has worn the
mitre in Magdeburg. Having acquired some
knowledge of architecture in Italy, he exer-
cised it in enlarging and adorning his capital.
His benevolence was active and unwearied,
and when the troubles of that rude and
stirring period obliged him to defend himself,
he displayed no mean talents for war. His
archbishopric was too narrow a sphere for
his active and enterprising spirit ; he partici-
pated in every important movement that took
place in his time. It is a weighty testimony
in favour of his judgment and disposition,
that the rich and sturdy bvirgesses of Magde-
burg clung to him on all occasions with
devoted fidelity. He is almost the only
example in Germany of an ecclesiastical
dignitary securing the confidence and afl'ec-
tion of the burgesses of an opulent commer-
cial city. (Chronico?i Maydcbunnnse : ap.
Jleibomii Reruin Gertnanicarum Tomos Tics,
ii. 329,330.; Chronicon Aluntis Sireni ap.
Jo. Burckhardi Menckenii Scriptores lie-
rum Germanicaruin, ii. col. 220. 301. ; Ersch
und Gruber's Alhjemcine Enci/chpadie, v. " Al-

bert II. von Magdeburg.")

W. W.

ALBERT v., archbishop of JMagdebuug,
and according to some chronologists II. of
Mayence (some writers, counting two Adal-
berts and two Alberts as four Alberts, make
him IV. of that name of Mayence), the
youngest son of John Cicero, elector of Bran-
denburg, was born in 1489.

Political considerations, more than his own
merits, procured him at an early age high
advancement in the church. On the 30tli of
August, 1513, he was unanimously elected
archbishop by the chapter of Magdeburg.
On the 9th of September he accepted the
invitation of the chapter of Ilalberstadt to
take upon him the office of administrator of
that diocese. On the 9th of March, 1514, he
was elected archbishop and prince elector of
Mayence. Through the influence which his
brother Joachim, elector of Brandenburg,
possessed with the Emperor Maximilian I.,
Albert found it an easy matter to obtain the
papal confirmation of his election, and a dis-
pensation for continuing to hold all these
wealthy benefices at the same time.
X X 3

ALBERT.

With a view to secure his election to the
electorate of Mayence, he had become bound
to defray out of his own personal funds the
expense of procuring the confirmation of his
election and the pallium from Rome. For
this purpose he was obliged to borrow
30,000 gold florins from Fugger of Augs-
burg. This and other debts contracted at
the imperial and papal courts, in addition to
the dilapidated condition in which he found
the finances of the electorate, i-educed him to
great straits for money. To help him out of [
his difficulties he obtained from the court of j
Rome the appointment of commissioner of
indulgences in his three dioceses for three
years, on the terms of retaining one half of
the money collected and remitting the other
half to Rome. The pope transmitted the
bull to the Emperor Maxuuilian, who, before
delivering it to Albert, extorted from him a
loan, to be paid immediately, of 3000 florins.
The Elector of Mayence selected the Domi-
nican John Tetzel, already notorious as a
preacher of the indulgence, to promote the
sale in his province.

This arrangement involved Albert in a
controversy which he had not anticipated,
and which to a man of his tastes and habits
"was peculiarly disagreeable. He had a
liking for art and literature, and being of
a magnificent and ostentatious disposition,
sought to gather literary men around him as
an ornament of his court. With this view
he carried on an epistolatory coiTcspondence
with Erasmus. As early as 1506 he co-
operated with his brother in founding the
imiversity of Frankfurt on the Oder. The
indulgence, of which he had become one of
the principal brokers, was destined to inter-
fere materially with his wish to obtain the
character of a ^laecenas. When Luther be-
gan to raise his voice against that abuse,
the prior of the Augustine convent at Eifurt
intimated what was going on to the arch-
bishop, who appears to have attributed little
importance to the information. When how-
ever Luther, after publishing his ninety-five
theses in October, 1517, in the innocence of
his heart sent them to Albert, whose popular
manners and literary reputation had gained
his confidence, with a request that he as one
of the heads of the church would exert him-
self to put an end to the evil, the matter
forced itself upon his attention. Annoyed at
this interference with his financial arrange-
ments, the archbishop requested an opinion
from the theological faculty of the university
of Mayence, which declined to pronounce '
judgment in a matter touching the authority ;
of the pope, and advised him to forward the '
theses to Rome, which he did. He gave no
answer to LvUher.

In 1518 Albert, at the intercession of the \
Emperor Maximilian, was raised to the
dignity of cardinal. In return for this ac-
cession of dignity he complied with the
670

urgent solicitations of the pope and the clergy
to banish from his court Ulrich von Hutten,
whose enthusiastic advocacy of Luther's cause
had already rendered him obnoxious to the
court of Rome. In 1519 Albert zealously
embraced the party of Charles V., and con-
tributed in no small degree to his election as
emperor.

In 1520 Luther again appealed on the
subject of the indulgence to the Elector of
Mayence, who this time returned an answer in
very gentle but very indefinite tenns. In 1521,
while Luther was secreted on the Wartburg,
the archbishop began to press the preaching
of the indulgence at Halle with fresh vigour,
after allowing it to relax for some time. He
deposed Kauxdorf, preacher in the cathedral
church there, for his attachment to the new
doctrine, and caused a priest who had married
to be imprisoned. Luther, irritated by these
proceedings, wrote to him in bitter terms on
the 25th of November, 1521, threatening, if
he continued to allow the indulgence to be
preached and to persecute its opponents, to
expose his incontinence to the world, and
demanding an explicit answer within fourteen
days. The cardinal employed his chaplain
Capito to return a soothing answer, con-
fessing that he was a man and far from
immaculate, and promising to redress the
abuses of which Luther complained. Luther
rejoined proudly that he woidd do his duty
without respect of pei'sons, but he abstained
for the time from a public attack upon the
cardinal.

The peasants' war, which broke out in
Thuringia in 1524, filled the cardinal with
apprehensions for the security of his terri-
torial possessions. In this frame of mind
he lent for a time a not unwilling ear to the
representations of the vassals and estates of
the province of Magdeburg, who urged him
(especially the equestrian order) to follow the
example of his cousin the grand master of
the Teutonic order, turn Lutheran, many,
and convert his diocese into a temporal prin-
cipality. At the request of Riihel, the car-
dinal's privy councillor, Luther wrote to
him, urging the beneficial consequences which
would result from his taking such a step.
The measure was too daring for one of
Albert's epicurean disposition ; he allowed
Luther's letter to remain unanswered, and
continued, as befoi-e, a prelate of the Roman
Catholic church.

Up to this time Albert had conducted
himself towards the reformers with a degree
of mildness that had led them to entertain
hopes of the possibility of his being brought
to adopt their views. Though he had broken
with the fiery LTlrich von Hutten, he was
still surrounded by councillors who inclined
to the evangelical party. Both Capito and
Riihel ultimately joined the Lutherans. But
the cardinal, rejecting the inducements held
out to win him to the cause of the Re-

ALBERT.

formation, began to adopt harslicr measures
against it. He joined ■with the rest of the
Roman Catholic princes of the empire in
constraining the emperor to declare Magde-
burg in the ban in September, 1527 ; al-
though his timid disposition induced him to i
interfere to prevent the edict being enforced
after it had passed the seals. I

About this time the circumstances -which
attended the murder of George Winkler, a
Protestant preacher, in a -wood near As-
chaffenburg, a residence of the cardinal, ex-
cited strong suspicions that he -was a consent-
ing party to it. He steadfastly denied all
participation in the crime, and also all share
in a private league which the Roman Catho-
lic princes -were accused of having formed for
the extirpation of the Protestants. The story
of this league was probably a fable ; but the
Landgi-af of Hesse obliged Albert to pay
40,000 florins towards the expense he had
incurred in arming to meet it, before he
would make peace with him.

When the Augsburg confession was pre-
sented to the diet in 1.330, the cardinal made
great exertions to bring about a peaceable
settlement between the Roman Catholics and
Protestants. But though he was willing that
the Roman Catholic and Protestant states
which composed the empire should each re-
tain its own religion, he showed himself every
year more unwilling to tolerate the Pro-
testants in his own territories. The accession
of his own town of Magdeburg to the league
of Schmalkalden irritated him to such a de-
gree, that he again urged the emperor to
publish the ban of the empire against it ;
and again terrified at the possible conse-
quences of his own act, interfered to prevent
the execution of the sentence he had solicited.
In 1534 he banished sixteen members of the
town council of Halle because they would not
receive the sacrament of the Lord's supper
according to the rites of the Romish church ;
and by this step he involved himself in a
controversy with the Elector of Saxony,
who was official protector of the immunities
( Vogt, Advocatus) of that municipality, which
tended to exasperate him still more against
Protestantism and Protestants.

In 1535 he ventured upon an action which
gave rise to discussions that more embit-
tered his hostility to them. He caused his
confidential secretary and treasurer, Hans von
Schenits, to be hanged upon an accusation of
breach of trust preferred by himself Schenits
maintained with his last breath that he was
falsely accused. The brother of Schenits
published in vindication of his memory letters
and other documents, which cast a dark
shade on the character of the cardinal. In
1539 Luther took up the question, and pub-
lished an attack upon Albert, in which he
accused him of having been judge in his
own cause, and of having punished Schenits
more severely than his offence deserved. In
671

the conclusion of his philippic, Luther poured
out upon the prelate all the denunciations for
extravagant expenditure, injustice, and in-
continence with which he had from time to
time been threatening him since 1521. It
was the dammed-up vituperation of twenty
years bursting the mounds which had con-
fined it. The princes of the empire, Pro-
testant as well as Catholic, were angry to see
one of their class so unceremoniously handled;
but this did not weaken the effect of Luther's
terrible lash upon the feelings of his victim,
or on the judgment of the public.

In 1536 the cardinal succeeded in having
his cousin John Albert appointed his coadju-
tor and successor in the see of Magdeburg.
This, however, was a solitary gleam of
triumph amid the vexations which now ga-
thered around him. He continued to the end
of his life to be plagued with the disputes in
which his increasing debts kept him con-
stantly involved with the provinces under his
charge. His cherished project of founding a
Roman Catholic university at Halle for the
repression of Protestant doctrines proved ul-
timately abortive. Instead of recommending
peace and compromise, Albert, his temper now
thoroughly soured, complained of the em-
peror's perseverance in the attempt to ap-
proximate Roman Catholics and Protestants
by means of repeated conferences. He urged
the employment of force, and was, in 1540,
the first prince in Germany who took the
new order of Jesuits under his protection.

Previous to this he had contributed in
1538 to the formation of the Roman Catholic
league, instituted to oppose the league of
Schmalkalden. He died, however, before the
war, which the mere organising of two such
bodies amid the anarchy of the German em-
pire rendered inevitable, broke out. His last
public appearance was at the diet at Speyer
in 1544. He died on the 24th of September,
1545, in his 56th year.

Cardinal Albert, prince, elector, and arch-
bishop of Maj-ence, archbishop of Magde-
burg, and administrator of the bishopric of
Halberstadt, was a character which is fre-
quently to be met with, — the self-indulgent
man, whose susceptibilitj- to the excitement
of elegant luxury, and indulgence to others
with a view to earn indulgence for himself in
return, pass current for estimable qualities,
until trying circumstances reveal how hollow
and worthless they are unless preserved from
corruption by an admixture of sterner in-
gredients of character. His patronage of
literature and his popular manners shed a
deceptive light around his early career. But
when the storm of conflicting opinions arose,
he showed himself alike incapable of making
the least sacrifice for truth, or even defend-
ing the worse cause with energy and man-
liness. His apparent leniency was fear to
provoke attacks upon himself ; he spared
his adversaries when in his power, not from
X X 4

ALBERT.

motives of humanity, but cowardice ; and
he was merciless where he felt he could
strike without danger, as the weak and ef-
feminate always are. (V. L. a Seckendorff,
Coniincntarius Historicus de Lutheranismo,
Frankfurt, 1G88, 4to.; Epistola Friderici My-
conii ad Paulum Ehcrum de Primordiis emen-
datcB Religionis. Witembergae, 1717, 8vo. ;
G. J. Planck, Geschichte der Entstehunf) des
Protestuntischen Lehrbegriffs, Leipzig, 1791-6,
Svo. ; Heinrich, Deutsche Staats- Geschichte,
vols. iv. and v. ; Rathman's Sketch of Cardinal
Albert of Muijence, in Ersch & Gruber's En-
ci/clnpcidie. ) W. W.

ALBERT of Mecklenburg. [Al-

BRECHT.]

ALBERT of Meissen. [Albrecht.]
ALBERT, MICHAEL. [Alberti.]
ALBERT, PAUL D', archbishop of Sens
and cardinal of Lviynes, the second son of
Honore Charles d'Albert, due de Luynes et
Montfort, was born on the 5th of February,
1703. His grandfather, Charles Honore
d'Albert, due de Luynes de Chevreuse et de
Chaulnes, was almost the only nobleman who
had the courage to continue his intimacy
with Fenelon during the disgrace of that
prelate. The father of Paul was killed
during the siege of Landau in 1704, and the
boy, at that time called Comte de JNIontfort,
was educated by his grandfather till 1712,
and after his death by the Duchesse de
Chevreuse. The character and precepts of
Fenelon made a lasting impression on his
mind.

The Comte de Montfort, as was usual with
the younger sons of his family, entered the
army, and obtained the rank of colonel when
only sixteen. But having, in conformity with
the principles he had imbibed from Fenelon,
refused a challenge, he was obliged to quit it.
He took orders; obtained in 1727 the abbey
of Cerisy ; and on the 25th of September,
1729, was consecrated bishop of Baieux.

The Bishop of Baieux was a zealous
asserter of the rights of the Gallican church.
From the day of his installation he began to
labour against the appellate jurisdiction over
the decisions of the church courts asserted
by the parliament of Paris ; and in June,
1752, he signed the representation addressed
by the bishops to the king against the arrets
of the parliament relating to the withholding
the sacraments. In 1753 he was created
archbisliop of Sens.

After this elevation he continued as be-
fore to assert the jurisdiction of the church
against the encroachments of the civil ma-
gistracy, particularly in the provincial as-
semblies of 1755, 1758, and 1760. In 1756
he was created a cardinal by Benedict XIV.
on the presentation of the Pretender to the
crown of England, the papal court having
permitted the house of Stuart to exercise the
right of presentation as if it had still con-
tinued to reign. The Cardinal de Luynes
072

was present at three conclaves; in 1758,
1769, and 1774. He advocated the cause of
the Jesuits. In the assembly of bishops held
in 1761 by command of the king to de-
liberate on the affairs of that order, the
cardinal was the first to sign the opinion in
their favour. A letter in behalf of the
Jesuits and the Archbishop of Paris, ad-
dressed to the pope in 1764, has been
attributed to him. In 1767, as the oldest
cardinal of the Gallican church, he presided
over an assembly of the clergy which met to
protest against the jurisdiction claimed by
the parliaments.

The high moral character of the Arch-
bishop of Sens procured him the appointment
of almoner to the mother of Louis XVI.
He attended her husband the dauphin on his
deathbed. In 1771 he published a pastoral
letter denouncing the general scepticism of
the age, and in particular the doctrines of
the " systeme de la nature."

But though an earnest advocate of the
independence of the church and of its doc-
trines, the Cardinal de Luynes was the
reverse of superstitious. Not long after his
elevation to the see of Baieux, some cases
of pretended demoniac possession were re-
ported to him. He had not only the courage
to declare that the symptoms were entirely
owing to physical causes, but the patience to
examine them minutely in order to disabuse
the credulous populace.

In 1774 he was admitted an honorary
member of the Academie des Sciences. His
grandfather, who had received his education
at Port Royal, had early directed his attention
to science, and he evinced from the first a
predilection for astronomy and the branches
of knowledge more immediately connected
with it. A number of observations made by
him at Sens, at Fontainebleau, and at Ver-
sailles are recorded in the Transactions of
the academy from 1761 to 1772. The
volume for 1768 contains a memoir which
he composed upon the action of the mercury
in barometers the tubes of which are of
different diameters, and have been filled by
different processes. The author of the eloge
of the cardinal relates an anecdote illustra-
tive of his tolerance. " On one occasion a
man suspected of not being very religious
asked his vote for a scientific appointment.
' They tell me,' said the cardinal, ' that you
are a sceptic : if that be true, it is the worse
for yourself, and it is my duty to undeceive
you. In other respects they tell me you de-
serve the place, and you shall have my vote.' "
In a note to this passage it is said, " It was
to the author himself that M. de Luynes
gave this proof of his tolerance." The car-
dinal was not so tolerant in the case of
Espagnac : but the circumstances were dif-
ferent. (EsPAGN.vc, Abbe' d'.) The Cardi-
nal de Luynes died at Paris on the 22d of
January, 1788. (Memoircs pour scrcir it

ALBERT.

I'Histoire Ecclesiastique pendant le dix
livitiime Steele, seconde edition, augmentee.
Paris, 1815-16, 8vo. ; E'loge de M. le Car-
dinal de Lmjnes ; Hi-stoire de VAcademie des
Sciences, annce 1788.) W. W.

ALBERT DE RIOMS, COMTE D',
was born in Dauphiny in 1738 or 1740. He
entered the navj- early in life. He was en-
gaged in active service during the whole of
the war between France and England oc-
casioned by the assistance given by the lat-
ter power to the United States. The court-
martial which sat upon the captains of the
fleet beaten by Rodney off Guadaloupe in
1782 honourably acquitted Count d' Albert,
who was immediately after promoted to the
rank of chef d'escadre. In 1789 he was made
commandant of Toulon, with the title of
lieutenant-general. In this capacity he for-
bade the workmen employed in the arsenal
to enter the national guard or wear the na-
tional cockade. Two carpenters having dis-
obeyed him, he ordered them into confine-
ment. An insurrection of the inhabitants
was the consequence ; his troops deserted
him, and he was thrown into prison to-
gether with some of his officers. The mu-
nicipal council of Toulon, after inquiring
into the circumstances of the case, gave
orders for his liberation ; but not satisfied
with this, he demanded to be heard at the
bar of the National Assembly. The as-
sembly exonerated him from all blame, and
he was soon afterwards appointed to the
command of a fleet of thirty vessels destined
to co-operate with the Spaniards in the war
against England arising out of the disputes
regarding the settlements on Nootka Sound.
His sailors mutinied, and although his con-
duct was approved by government, he was
obliged to relinquish his command from its
being found impossible for him to re-establish
discipline. He soon after joined the emi-
grants at Coblenz, and served in the cam-
paign of 1792. After the retreat of the
Prussians he retired to Dalmatia, and took
no further part in politics. He returned to
France after the 18th of Brumaire, and was
alive in 1806. Count Albert occupies a
place in biography solely from the accident of
his having been one of those whose indis-
creet opposition to the revolution in trifles
helped to precipitate its course. The state-
ment of his case to the National Assembly,
which was printed and is to be found in most
libraries, illustrates the inability of the class
to which he belonged to understand their
position. {Memoire que M. le Comte d' Albert
de Rioms a fait dans la Prison oil il est detenu,
4to. Paris (?), 1789 (?); French and English
Journals of his day ; Biographic des Con-
temporains.) W. W.

ALBERT, SALOMON. [Alberti.]
ALBERT of Saxony. rALBRECHx.]
ALBERT DE SISTERON, ALBER-
TET DE SISTERON, ALBERT DE
673

GAPEN^OIS, ALBERT DE THARAS-
CON. Albert de Sisteron, a gentleman
of Sisteron, who was probably born in
the province of Gapenyois, was a comic,
writer, and lived about the year 1290. He
was the son of the jongleur Nazur, and one
of the troubadour poets who lived in the
time of the counts of Provence. He com-
posed many songs, the airs of which are very
good, and the verses very indiff'erent. He
appears to have been a man of musical
talent and not much intellect, amiable and
agreeable in manners, and a great favourite
with the ladies of his day, to whose praises
he dedicated most of his verses. It is said
that he became rich. He had an amour, or
at all events was in love with the Marquise
de Mallespine, who was accounted one of the
most beautiful, accomplished, and virtuous
ladies of Provence. He made many songs
in her praise, and the lady sent him privately
various presents of cloth, horses, and money,
together with a letter beseeching him to de-
sist from his attentions for a time. He com-
plied with her request, but first sent her
a song in form of a dialogue between the
marquise and himself, commencing thus, —
" Desportas vous Amj- d'aquest amour per aras."
To which the next verse replies —

" Mais conime faray yeu (diz'ieu) mas Amours karas
My poder desportar d'aquest' affection ?
Car certas yeu endury en esta passion
Per vous in'gratament, manias doulours amaras."

Certain ii-agments of his correspondence
with a contemporary, named Rambaud de
Vaqueiras, are curious as displaying some of
the habits and moral feelings of the time.

" Rambaud. You, who have so many times sacri-
ficed your word and your oath to your interest ; yon,
whom the Genoese reproacli with having robbed on
the highway. And the Milanese are not unaware of
it.

" Albert. If 1 have been addicted to pillage, it is
not for love of hoarding, but to have the pleasure of
giving. You, Rambaud, I have seen you in Lombardy
go on foot like a base mountebank ; unlucky in love as
in fortune. It would then have been a charitable alms
to have given you something to eat. KecoUect in what
a state I found you in Favia.

" Hambaud. You are the first man in the world at
a slander, to make all sort of mischiefs, and the last in
merit and in valour."

It would hence appear that robbery was a
very pleasant amusement among the trouba-
dours, and only regarded as a slight indis-
cretion or impropriety.

The poet departed from Provence, and it
was never certainly known what became of
him. According to the Abbot des Isles d"Or
he died of grief at Tharascon, having in-
trusted his songs to the care of a friend
named Peyre de Valieras, or Valernas, who
was to give them to the Marquise Mallespine.
Instead of doing this, De Valieras sold them
to Fabre d'L'zes, a lyric poet, who published
them as his own. But various critics having
recognised them by their style, and also (as
Nostradamus innocently adds) by the confes-
; siou of Valieras, who sold them, the said Fabre

ALBERT.

d'LTzes was seized and -whipped, according to
the law of the emperors, which awarded this
just punishment for plagiarism.

Hughes de Sainct Cezari (probably St. Cyr,
another troubadour) says that Albert was of
Tharascon, and that he sang the praises, not
only of the Marquise Mallespine, but of the
Comtesse de Provence and the Marquise de
Saluces, who were usually in each other's
company, and the paragons of their time for
beauty and virtue. The Abbot des Isles
d'Or says that Albert was of the family of
the counts of Mallespine, a very noble and
ancient family of Italy ; and that he also
composed a book entitled " Lou Pertrach de
Venus," together with various works on ma-
thematics, which he dedicated to the three
ladies above mentioned.

There is an Italian edition of the " Lives
of the Proven9al Poets " by J. Nostradamus
(which contains a biography of Albert) pub-
lished at Lyon in the same year as the French
edition of that work ; and the entire article
on Albertet de Sisteron in the Bibliotheque
of Du Verdier (Vauprivas), published at
Lyon in 158.5, is taken from the French
edition of Nostradamus without acknow-
ledgment. (Nostradamus, Les Vies des plus
ceUhres et anciens Poetes Provensaux, Lyon,
1575 ; Hist. Litter, des Troubadours, tome i.
p. 334, &c. Paris, 1774; Jocher, Allgemein.
Gelehrt. Le.ric, and Adelung, Sup.) R. H. H.

ALBERT of Stade. [Albertus.]

ALBERT of Strassburg. [Albertus
Argentin'ensis.]

ALBERT of Sweden. [Albrecht IL
OF Mecklenburg.]

ALBERT DE THARASCON. [Albert
de Sisteron.]

ALBERT of Thuringia. [Albrecht.]

ALBERT, bishop of Wurzburg, of the
house Hohenlohe, was provost of the cathedral
(Dom-Probst) of Wurzburg in 1345, at the
time of Bishop Otho's death, and was elected
Otho's successor by a unanimous vote of the
chapter. The contest between the pope and
the chapter was not on this occasion a com-
mon struggle for the maintenance of papal
authority on the one hand, and of the inde-
pendence of the see on the other. The high
nobility and the equestrian order of the dio-
cese of Wurzburg maintained that the choice
of the occupant of the episcopal chair had
from the first endowment of the bishopric
been restricted to a member of their families,
and they were anxious to prevent the election
from being thrown open to strangers. The
unsettled state of Germany was in their fa-
vour. The nominee of the chapter only
obtained the confirmation of the pope at last
by consenting to go through the form of a
second election ; and even this tardy sanction
was only procured after his rival was pro-
moted to the see of Freising. Albert of
Hohenlohe contrived to appropriate the re-
venues of Wurzburg to himself during the
674

whole four or five years that the contro-
versy remained undecided. Albert, bishop
of Wurzburg, sometimes called Albert I. and
sometimes Albert II., continued to occupy
the see from the settlement of this dis-
pute, in 1350, to 1372. He was a warlike
and enterprising prince, and, even before the
termination of his dispute with the pope,
succeeded in frustrating an attempt of the
Emperor Ludwig IV. to separate the dukedom
of Franconia from the bishopric of Wiirz-
burg, with which it had for some centuries
been united. The bishop subsequently, at
different times, conducted in person, and with
success, warlike operations against several of
the proud and rebellious nobles of his duke-
dom and bishopric. He was less successful
in three feuds with the citizens of his capital,
Wurzburg, in which he was at different times
engaged ; and was glad enough, on each of
these occasions, to accept the offer of the
emperor (Charles IV.) to mediate in the
dispute. Albert added materially to the
extent of the territory of the bishops of Wiirz-
burg and to their feudal prerogatives ; but he
burdened the episcopal exchequer with debts
to such an extent as at one time to incur a
reprimand from the pope. These debts were
contracted in part in order to pay off the
sums demanded by the court of Avignon
and the bishop of Freising as the price of
their accession to the arrangement in virtue
of which Albert of Hohenlohe was allowed
to retain quiet possession of the bishopric of
Wurzburg, but in part also in consequence of
the projects of aggrandisement in which that
prelate's ambition led him to engage. The
taxes he imposed with a view to relieve him-
self and the diocese of these debts were the
cause of the most serious quarrels between
him and the burghers of Wurzburg. The
means by which he procured a supply of
money on one occasion is characteristic of
the age. In 1348 a great number of Jews
were, in several places in Germany, burned at
the stake and put to death in various ways
upon the allegation that they had poisoned the
wells with a view to destroy the Christians.
Matters were carried with such a high hand
against this persecuted race at Wurzburg,
especially by the rabble, that about eight
days before Easter a number of them shut
themselves up in their houses, and setting
fire to the buildings, burned themselves, their
families, and all their property. By way of
putting an end to these proceedings, Charles
IV. in 1349 imposed heavy fines on the
Jews, and the Bishop of Wurzburg contrived
to reserve as his share of the spoil 1200 marks
of silver from the Jews residing in Rothen-
burg, on the Tauber, as much from the Jews
of Niirnberg, and a grant of all schools,
synagogues, houses, and gardens belonging
to the Jews within his diocese. Bishop
Albert died in 1372. {Geschicht-Schreiber
von dem Bischofthvm Wirtzburg, zusammcii-

ALUEIIT.

ALBERTI.

getraqcn von Johann Peter liUdwig, Frank-
furt, 'l 7 1 3, Ibl. pp. (;;54— 647.) W. W.
ALBERT A'NO DA BRESCIA was a
magistrate of Brescia in the first part of
the thirteenth century, during which time
the Emperor Frederic II. was making war
against the Lombard cities. Albertano was
charged with the defence of the castle of
Gavardo, and on its being taken by Frederic,
Albertano was seized as a rebel, and sent
prisoner to Ci'emona in 1238, where he re-
mained several years. During his confine-
ment he wrote some didactic and moral
treatises in Latin, which were translated into
Italian and published at Florence in 1610.
One is entitled " Delia Forma dell' onesta
Vita," another " Delle sei Maniere del Par-
lare," and a third " Delia Consolazione, e del
Consiglio," which last, it appears, was written
in 1246, and is addressed by the author to
his son. The Latin text of these treatises is
preserved in MS. in the royal library of
Turin, and in the Ambrosian library at
Milan. It seems that Albertano wrote also
some sermons and other minor works which
have not been published. Oudin, " De
Scriptoribus ecclesiasticis," vol. iii., Malvezzi
of Brescia, in Muratori's " Rerum Ital. Scrip-
tores," vol. xiv., and Mazzuchelli, in his
" Scrittori d' Italia," speak of the works of
Albertano; but nothing more than what is
mentioned above seems to be known of his
personal history, nor of the time of his death.
(Tiraboschi, Storia della Letteratura Italianu,
vol. iv. cli. ii.) A. V.
ALBERT AZZO,marqnisofEsTE.[EsTE.]
ALBERTET DE SISTERON. [Al-
bert DE SiSTERON.]

ALBERTI, the name of a numerous
family of artists of Borgo San. Sepolcro. The
oldest of this family of whom we have any
notice is Alberto Alberti, a carver in
wood, and apparently also a painter. He
made wooden statues at Borgo San. Sepolcro
in the middle and early part of the sixteenth
century, and according to Bagllone was the
father of Cherubino and Giovanni Alberti.
In the picture gallery of the academy of
Bologna there is a painting marked " Alberto,
Ds. Se., 1496," which has been interpreted
" Alberto de Sancto Sepidcro : " it is painted
in distemper upon canvass, and represents
the Virgin and Child, with St. Paul on one
side of her and St. Peter on the other.
"Whether this picture was painted by the
father of Cherubino and Giovanni Alberti,
or, which is more probable, by the father
of Alberto Alberti, or either, must still re-
main imdecided.

Giovanni Alberti, Alberto's son, was a
celebrated painter, and unrivalled at his pe-
riod for his admirable foreshortenings of the
figure, for his general effects in perspective,
and for landscape. He was born at San.
Sepolcro in 1558. He is more famous for
his paintings in fresco than in oil, the most
675

considerable of which are the great woi-ks
executed for Clement VIII. in the Sala Cle-
mentina in the Vatican, which was entirely
painted by him, assisted by his brother Che-
rubino. He painted also for the same pontifiF
the ceiling of the sacristy of San. Giovanni in
Laterano, and for Gregoi-y XIII. some fres-
coes in the papal palace of Monte Cavello.
He executed several other works in various
edifices in Rome, by which he acquired both
fame and fortune ; but, to the great regret of
the artists and virtuosi of Rome, a sudden
and premature death terminated his labours
in 1601 in his forty-third year. His pro-
perty, which appears to have been consider-
able, was given by Clement VIII. to his
elder brother Cherubino. Giovanni's portrait
is preserved in the Academy of St. Luke.

Cherubino Alberti was bom at San
Sepolcro in 1552. He was also a painter of
merit, but he is better known as an engraver,
in which character he commenced his career,
and attained great eminence. He however
afterwards took to painting, to which he was
led, probably, by the facilities of employment
and improvement which the extensive en-
gagements of his brother Giovanni afforded
him. He excelled in drawing the figure,
and assisted Giovanni in his great works in
the Vatican and in the church of St. John
Lateran ; he executed also several original
works. The inheritance of his brother's pro-
perty rendered Cherubino independent ; and
although he survived him fourteen years, he
appears to have neglected painting soon after
his brother's death. In his latter years he
seems to have turned somewhat whimsical,
for he spent nearly all his time in making
and trying balistse, constructed after the plans
of the ancients. His house, says his con-
temporary Baglione, was fuU of models of
balista?. He died at Rome in 1615, aged
sixty-three ; his portrait is also preserved in
the academy of St. Luke.

Cherubino's engravings are numerous, and
not uncommon. He worked, says Strutt,
entirely with the graver, and his style is
much after the manner of Cornelius Cort and
Agostino Caracci, and also sometimes that of
Francesco Villemena. He drew well, but,
like many other engravers of that time, he
was very feeble in the chiaroscuro. The
majority of his plates are from his own de-
signs ; but he engraved also many from
Michelangelo, Raphael, Andrea del Sarto,
Polidoro da Caravaggio, and others. The
following are among the best : — Some figures
from the Sistine chapel, St. Jerome, and the
celebrated Pietii, after Michelangelo ; a
Resurrection of Christ and a Holy Family,
after Raphael ; the Miracle of San. Filippo
Benizzo, after Andrea del Sarto ; and the
Children of Niobe and the Rape of the Sa-
bines, two friezes, after Polidoio. Heineken
gives a long list of Cherubino's works ;
among those from his own designs are por-

ALBERTI.

traits of Henry IV. of France, and the popes
Gregory XIII. and Urban VII.

From an apparent error of Orlandi in the
Abecedario Pittorico, Cherubino and Gio-
vanni Alberti have been generally termed
sons of Michele Alberti ; Baglione, however,
■who was their contemporary, distinctly af-
firms that they were the sons of Alberto
Alberti of Borgo San. Sepolcro, a carver in
wood. The only Michele Alberti known is
the Florentine and scholar of Daniele di
Volterra spoken of by Vasari. [Ricciarelli.]

Of Durante Alberti of Borgo San. Se-
polcro, Baglione has given us likewise some
account ; but he does not state that he was
of the same family as the above, although it
is most probable that they were related. He
was born in 1538, and settled in Rome
shortly before the pontificate of Gregory XIII.,
where he executed several altar-pieces, and
other works in fresco and in oil, in various
churches. Baglione speaks of them with
praise, especially a Nativity and Adoration
of the Shepherds in the church of Santa
Maria in the Vallicella. He died in Rome
in 1 6 13. Durante had a son, Pierfrancesco
Alberti, who painted in a similar style with
his father ; he also etched a spirited plate of
an Academy of Painters after a design of his
own, containing many figures, called " Aca-
demia de' Pittori." He died in Rome in
1638, aged 54.

Gandellini speaks of Durante and his two
brothers, Cosuio and Giorgio Alberti, and
terms them all three painters and engravers
of Borgo San Sepolcro. Giorgio died young
in 1590. Heineken conjectures that the
portrait of Henry IV. of France already men-
tioned, which is marked " C. Albert, 1585,"
maj' have been the work of Cosimo. There
was also a Romano Alberti of this family,
who wrote a book on painting, " Trattato
della Nobilta della Pittura," published in
Rome in 1585, and in Pavia in 1604.

There were several other artists of this
name of different families. Francesco Al-
berti of Venice [Moro, Battista del].
Joseffo Alberti, of the Italian Tyrol, was
distinguished as a painter at Trent in the
close of the seventeenth century. He was
born at Cavalese in 1664 ; first studied medi-
cine at Padua, but afterwards took to painting
and architecture ; and after visiting Rome he
returned to the Tyrol in 1682, and established
himself at Trent. He built the chapel of
the Crucifix in the cathedral of Trent ; he
painted also many other pictures, the most
celebrated of which is a Martyrdom of the
young St. Simon of Trent, which is preserved
in the palace of Trent, and is exhibited yearly
to the people in the annual procession in
commemoration of his martyrdom. JosefiFo
Alberti had several scholars, who became
distinguished in the Tyrol.

There were also a Gaspare Alberti, an
engraver, who lived in Italy towards the end
676

of the sixteenth century, who engraved a
plate after the Last Supper by Livio Agresti ;
and an Ignazio Alberti, a painter and
engraver, who lived at Vienna at the end of
the last century, who engraved maps and ob-
jects of natural history. He died in 1802.
(Giordani, Piiiacoteca di Bologna ; Baglione,
Vite de' Pittori, Sfc. ; Strutt, Diet, of Engravers;
Heineken, Diet des Artistes, Sfc; Gandellini,
Notizie degV Intagliatori ; Nagler, Neues All-
gemcines Kiinstler Le.ricon.) R. N. W.

ALBERTI, ARISTO'TILE. [Fiora-
vanti.]

ALBERTI, BENEDETTO, a member
of one of the leading families of the Floren-
tine republic in the fourteenth century, and
himself a man of wealth and of considerable
acquirements. He took the popular side
with Salvestro de' Medici, against the oppres-
sion of the Albizzi, Ricci, and other great
Guelph families, who, under the pretence of
keeping away the Giiibeline faction, had
formed a magistracy or board called " Capi-
tani di parte Guelfa," who had the power of
" ammonire," that is, of depriving any citizen
whom they chose to suspect, of his political
rights, and imprisoning, fining, and banishing
him. It was in fact a system of terrorism.
This state of things lasted from 1371 till
1378. Catherine of Siena, a woman who
enjoyed the reputation of sanctity and of
being inspired, happening to pass through
Florence on her way from Avignon in the
year 1376, whither she had gone to urge
Pope Gregory XI. to restore the papal see to
Rome, was courted by the leading Guelphs,
and was induced to appear publicly at the
board of the capitani di parte, and to express
her approbation of the practice of "ammonire"
as a measure necessary for the peace and
security of the republic.

In 1378 Salvestro de' Medici was elected
gonfaloniere or first magistrate of the re-
public. For the purpose of checking the
insufferable oppression of the capitani, he
proposed a law by which their authority was
limited, and most of the " ammoniti," or
persons suspended from their rights, were to
be reinstated. This project of law was read
by Salvestro to the general assembly of the
people in the great square, and Benedetto
Alberti, showing himself at one of the win-
dows of the town-house, cried out " Viva il
popolo!" which being repeated all about the
city, the people ran to arms. While the
leading popular citizens were forming a Balia
or Commission of Reform, the lower orders
plimdered the houses of the chief of the ob-
noxious families of the aristocracy, as well as
several convents, and broke open the prisons.
In the mean time a new executive council
was appointed ; but the lower orders had felt
their strength, and a few weeks after they
broke out again iuto open insurrection, drove
away the new executive, and took possession
of the town. This kind of servile revolt is

ALBERTI.

styk'd in the history of Florence " il tumulto
del cionipi." The mob was at last brought
back to something like reason by an artisan
of the name of Michele Lando, who showed
great prudence and firmness in the general
confusion, and saved the town from destruc-
tion. A government was formed, in which
the lower ti-ades had the preponderance.
Salvestro de' Medici, Benedetto Alberti,
Giorgio Scali, and Tommaso Strozzi, being
favourites with the lower orders, became the
leaders of the state. A great many of the
higher citizens, being exiled, conspired with
others who had remained in the town ; but
the plot was discovered, and several of them
were seized and beheaded. Filippo Strozzi,
Donato Barbadori, and many more, and espe-
cially Piero degli Albizzi, the leader of the
former government, and therefore obnoxious
to the people, denied all knowledge of the
conspiracy, and the priori or executive hesi-
tated about sending them to the scaffold ; but
Benedetto Alberti having told the priori that
unless they did so the people Mould take the
law into their own hands, the priori ordered
their execution. These things occurred in
1379-80. In 1382 the report of a new con-
spiracy was spread abroad, but one of the
informers being found guilty of perjury the
magistrates condemned him to death. Gior-
gio Scali and Tommaso Strozzi, two of the
popular leaders, went to the town-house and
released him by force. Alberti, who like
Salvestro de' Medici was weary of popular
violence, took the part of the magistrates,
and Scali was arrested and beheaded. As he
was going to the scaffold he perceived his
former friend Benedetto Alberti among the
armed men, and he bitterly reproached him,
adding, " this day is the last of my calamities,
but it will be the first of thine." Strozzi
escaped to Mantua. The government was
again re-formed, and the lower orders were
excluded from any share in it.

Benedetto Alberti had begun by favouring
the lower orders against the oppression of
the graudi or high families, but when he
saw the grandi oppressed and the insolence
of his own party overgrown, he endeavoured
to restore the balance, and caused the more
desperate partisans, Scali and Strozzi, to be
condemned. " In the turmoil of factions
moderate men become odious to all parties.
The populace being now repressed, the party
of the grandi, forgetting the merits and the
services of Alberti, persecuted him. Alberti
might have again roused the popular party,
but either finding it cooled and indifierent,
or perhaps sacrificing his personal interest to
public tranquillity, he chose to go into vo-
luntary exile. He travelled into distant
lands, visited Palestine and the Holy Sepul-
chre, and died at Rhodes on his return. His
remains, being carried to Florence, were
buried with honour. Death having extin-
guished envy, the recollection of his virtues
G77

alone survived him." (Pignotti, Storia delhi
Tv-scano, h. iv. ; Machiavelli, Storie Floren-
tine, b. iii.) A. V.

ALBERTI, GEORG WILHELM, was
born about the year 1723, and studied theo-
logy at Gottingen. After completing his
studies, and obtaining the degree of doctor
of philosophy, he came to England, where he
stayed several years. During this period he
made himself acquainted with the English
language ; but his principal object was to
acquire a thorough knowledge of the state
of religion, theology, and philosophy in this
country, and the works which he afterwards
published on these subjects show that he
succeeded better in this undertaking than
any one who had preceded him. In 1745 he
published, in London, an English Essay
against Hume's " Natural Religion," under
the assumed name of Aletophilus Gottin-
gensis. On his return to Germany he pub-
lished, in 1750, at Hanovei', a work on the
society of Friends in England, called " Na-
chricht von der Religion &c. der Quaker;"
and two years later another work on the state
of religion and philosophy in Great Britain :
" Briefe betreffend den allerneuesten Zustand
der Religion und Wissenschaften in Gross-
britannien," Hanover, 1752-4, 4 vols. 8vo.
These works, which show that the author
possessed great power of observation and 'a
sound judgment, contained, at the time, the
best information respecting England that had
appeared in Gei'many, and were well received.
There is another treatise in Latin, " De Gloria
Dei in facie Jesu Christi," which is men-
tioned in some catalogues of his works with-
out date or place : it is probably his first
production, and may have been written for
the purpose of obtaining his degree of doctor.
During the last years of his life, Alberti lived
as a preacher at Tiindern in Hanover, where
he died on the 3d of September, 1758, at the
age of 35. (Adelung's Supplement to Jocher's
Allgem. Gelchrten-Lexicon, i. 417.; Ersch und
Gruber, Allgcm. Encychpddie der Kiinste und
Wissetischafteji, ii. 3G3.) L. S.

A,LBERTI, GIUSEPPE MATTEO, a
violin player and composer, lived at Bologna
in the beginning of the eighteenth century,
and published there ten concertos for six in-
struments, 1713, and four sinfonias for two
violins, viola, violoncello, and basso continue.
Burney sajs these were simple easy compo-
sitions, and were at one time frequently per-
formed. (Burney, Hist, of Music.) E. T.

ALBERTI, JOHANN, was born on the
6th of March, 1698, at Assen, a market-town
in the Netherlands. He studied at Franeker,
where he chiefly devoted himself to theologj-,
though he also paid considerable attention to
philology. After he had completed his aca-
demical studies, during which he greatly
distinguished himself by his industry, he was
appointed preacher at Hochwoude, in West
Friesland, where he began to make himself

ALBERTI.

known as a writer by his " Observationes sacraj
in Novum Testamentum," Leyden, 1725, Svo.
The favour with which this work was re-
ceived led to his being shortly after appointed
preacher at Crommen ; some years later he
was removed to Haarlem. In 1740 the chair
of theology at Leyden, having become vacant
by the death of F. Fabricius, the curators of
the university gave this distinguished post to
Alberti, who had a short time before been
honoured with a diploma of doctor of divinity
from the same university. Alberti laboured
with the most indefatigable zeal to promote
the study of antiquity, and especially Greek
literature, chiefly with a view to prepare
students for the better understanding of the
Scriptures, and to throw light on the more
obscure passages. Though his health was
very delicate he continued his exertions,
which were almost above his strength. As a
theologian he belonged, like his master
Vitringa, to the moderate party ; a circum-
stance which involved him in various disputes
with the more zealous and strictly orthodox
divines of Holland. He died at Leyden on
the 13th of August, 1762.

Alberti was a profound scholar as well as
a good theologian ; his knowledge of ancient
(especially Greek) literature, and his philo-
logical criticism entitle him to an honourable
place among his learned countrymen. His
greatest merit consists in what he has done
for the Lexicon of Hesychius : all his philo-
logical works bear some relation to this, as
may be seen from the following list of his
works : — 1. " Observationum Criticarura
in Hesychium Specimen," contained in the
" Bibliotheca historico philologico theolo-
gica" of Bremen, vol. viii. part 1. 2. " Peri-
culum Criticum, in quo Loca qusedam tum
Veteris tum Novi Testamenti, tum Hesychii
et aliorum, illustrantur, emendantur." Leyden,
1727, Svo. 3. "Glossarium Graecum in sacros
Novi Foederis Libros ; accedunt Miscellanea
Critica in Glossas nomicas, Suidam, Hesy-
chium, et Index Auctorum ex Photii Lexico
inedito," Leyden, 1735, Svo. 4. After these
preparatory works, there appeared at last his
great and splendid edition of Hesychius,
imder the title "Hesychii Lexicon, cum Notis
doctorum Mrorum integris vel editis antehac,
nunc autem auctis et emendatis, &c. edidit,
suasque Animadversiones perpetuas adjecit,
J. Alberti," Leyden, 1746, fol. The second
volume appeared at Leyden, in 1766, after
the death of Alberti, and was completed by
Ruhnken. A supplement to it was published
in 1792, by N. Schow. Alberti's edition of
Hesychius has superseded all prior editions,
and has scarcely left anything for future
editors to do. Several philological essays by
Alberti are contained in Burmann's and
D'Orville's " Observationes Miscellanese Cri-
ticjc," where they are signed with the as-
sumed name of " Gratianus de S. Barone."
Alberti's works of a more direct theological
678

character are — " Annotationum philologi-
carum in Novum Testamentum ex Philone
Judaeo collectarum Specimen," contained in
the " Bibliotheca historico, philologico, theo-
logica" of Bremen, vol. i. part i. " Oratio inau-
guralis de Theologite et Critices Connubio,"
Leyden, 1740, 4to. ; " Oratio pro poesi Theo-
logis utili," Leyden, 1749, 4to. This work
excited great interest at the time, and was
first translated into Dutch prose and after-
wards into Dutch verse by Peter Merkmann,
Leyden, 1751. He also edited Peter Keu-
chen's " Annotata in omnes Novi Testamenti
Libros. Editio nova et altera parte nun-
quam edita, auctior cum praefatione J. Al-
berti," Leyden, 17 55, Svo. He never read an
ancient writer without making notes, and he
was extremely liberal in communicating his
remarks or discoveries to his friends ; hence
we find remai'ks by Alberti printed in a great
many editions of classical writers which were
published by his friends during his lifetime.
(Strodtmann, JVeues Gehhrtes Europa, xiv.
281. xviii. 479. ; Saxius, Onomast. Litcrar.
vi. 387. ; Ernesti, Thcologische Bibliotli. vii.
127, &c.; Adelung, Supplement to Jocher's
Allgem. GcJehrten-Lexicon, i. 419, &c.) L. S.

ALBERTI, JOHANN GUSTAV WIL-
HELM, born at Hamburg on the 21st Oc-
tober, 1757, was educated at the commercial
academy of that city, under the superinten-
dence of Busch, the well-known writer on
commerce, who treated him with particular
attention. He early entered into business,
and in a commercial tour through Silesia was
led to take notice of the then existing defects
in the linen manufacture. In 1783 he esta-
blished a linen factory at Neu-Weissenstein
in Silesia, carried on the undertaking with
success, exported large quantities to Ame-
rica, and persuaded the government to seve-
ral measures for the benefit of the Silesian
linen manufactui'e. He saw, however, that to
succeed in the long run, it was necessary to
introduce machinery in the preparation of
the flax. After costly experiments, and the
diligent labour of years, he succeeded, about
1817, in bringing to bear the flax-spinning
machinery now in use in Silesia, not however
without the assistance of other ingenious
men, and the support of the government.
His countrymen claim for him the honour of
being " the first to introduce machinery on
the Continent." He died on the 7 th of Ja-
nuary, 1837, at Waddenburg, in his eightieth
year, in the enjoyment of wealth and ho-
nours. {Preussisclic National Encyclopiidie,
i. 226.) T. W.

ALBERTI, LEANDRO, a Dominican
friar, was born at Bologna on the 11th of
December, 1479. Much care was bestowed
upon his education, and at the age of ten he
commenced the study of belles lettres under
Giovanni Garzone, the public professor at
Bologna, in whose school he continued until
1495, Avhen, having made great progress in

ALBERTI.

ALBERT!.

this branch of learning, he entered the order
of St. Dominic. He now applied himself
closely to the study of philosophy under
Vincenzio Barratero and Paolo da Montecelli,
and of theology under Silvestro Prierio and
Giorgio Cacatossico di Casale. In 1525 his
friend Francesco Silvestri, having been
elected general of the order, selected him to
be his associate with the title of provincial
of the Holy Land. In the discharge of the
duties of his office he accompanied his gene-
ral in his visitation of the provinces of the
kingdom of Naples, and afterwards passed
with him into France, where their progress
terminated by the unexpected death of Sil-
vestri. Alberti immediately returned to Bo-
logna, which place he does not appear to have
again quitted. Here he filled the office of
inquisitor-general of the holy inquisition
until the year 1552, at which period he is
supposed to have died. There is, however,
no other evidence of the time of his death
than the fact that his successor in the office
of inquisitor-general was elected in that year.
He never abandoned his favourite study of
polite literature, particularly history, and is
described as a man remarkable for his mo-
desty, piety and affability. He was the
friend and correspondent of the most cele-
brated literati of his time. His works are —
1. " De Mris illustribus Ordiuis Prsedica-
torum Libri Sex in uniun congesti. Bononiae,
1517," folio. In this work he had many
colleagues. 2. " Vita della B. Colomba da
Rieti del terzo Abito della Penitenza del
glorioso Padre S. Domenico sepolta in Pe-
rugia. Bologna, 1521," 4to. 3. " De D.
Dominici Obitu et Sepultura. Bononia;, 1535,"
4to. 4. " Cronichetta deUa gloriosa Ma-
donna di S. Luca del Monte della Guardia e
de' suoi Miracoli dal suo Principio insino all'
Anno 1551, e dell' Origine del Convento delle
venerande Monache di S. Mattia. Bologna,
1539," 4to. 5. " Historia di Bologna Deca
prima, e Libro primo della Deca seconda sin
air Anno 1253. Bologna, 1541, 1543," 4to.
"Libro secondo e terzo della Deca seconda sin
air Anno 1273, dati in luce per opera di F.
Lucio Caccianemici. Bologna, 1588," 4to.
" Supplemento per il quarto Libro della
Deca seconda, dato in luce da Caccianemici.
Bologna, 1590," 4to. " Supplemento ultimo
e Libro quinto. Vicenza, 1591," 4to. This
history-, as printed, did not comprise all that
Albert! wrote for it. The city of Bologna,
in order to show their respect for Alberti,
printed it at the public expense. 6. "Cronica
delle principali Famiglie Bolognesi e delle
piii notabili Cose raccolte in tutti i Libri
Cronicali di Bologna. Vicenza, 1592," 4to.
7. " Descrizione di tutta I'ltalia. Bologna,
1550," folio. An edition of this work was
published at Venice in 1561, with the addi-
tion of a description of the islands belonging
to Italj . It is to be regretted that the author
should have lessened the value of his work
679

by admitting the forgeries of Annius of Vi-
terbo, the true character of which he did not
discover until it was too late. 8. " Vita S.
Raymundi Penaforti : " inserted in the Acta
Sanctorum of Bollandus, tom. i. p. 405. 9.
" Ephemerides ab Adventu Ludovici XII.
Galliae Regis in Italiam usque ad Annum
1552." According to Moreri, this work was
published in the year 1552 ; but it is doubt-
ful whether it has ever been printed. 10.
" Vita B. Jordani Saxonis, Ordinis Prsedica-
torum generalis Magistri secundi ;" inserted
in Surius, Vitae Sanctorum, 1617. February
13. p. 135. 11. " Diatriba de Incrementis
Dominii Veneti :" inserted in Contarini, De
Republica Venetorum, Leyden, 1628, p. 337.
12. " De Claris Viris Reipublicte Venetse :"
inserted in Contarini, p. 429. 13. " Vita
Joannis Bentivoli secundi." 14. " Delle
Donne che sono state illustri nella Domeni-
cana Religione." 15. " Historia; Italica
Lingua manuscripts; Venetiis in Bibliotheca
SS. Johannis et Pauli ut et apud nostros
Insula; Clodice servata;." 16. " Vita B.
Corradini Bornati." 17. " Commentarii is-
torici di Carlo, Duca di Borgogna." 18. " Vita
Hieronynii Albertutii." The last six works
have not been printed. 19. " Vita Joachimi
Abbatis Florensis et Vaticiniorum ejusdem
Explicatio :" printed at Venice in 1527. 20.
" Littera; in Laudem J. F. Pici : " inserted in
the treatise of that writer entitled " De
Animse Immortalitate," printed at Bologna in
1543, in 4to. 21. " Vita S. Hyacinthi :" in-
serted in Surius, August 16. p. 170. (E'chard,
Scriptores Ordiuis PrcBdicatorum, ii. 137. ;
Fantuzzi, Notizie dcgli Scrittori Bolognesi,
i. 146. ; Niceron, Homines illustres, xxvi. 303. ;
Biimaldi, Bibliotheca Bononiensis, 147. ; Ghi-
lini, Teatro d'Hiiomini litterati, 145. ; Mo-
reri, Le grand Dictionnaire Historique.)

J. W. J.
ALBERTLLEON BATTISTA,was one
of the most eminent men of his time, both
for his general learning and scientific attain-
ments, and for his personal character and
accomplishments, though he is now chiefly
known by his reputation as an architect, and
by his writings on architecture and sculp-
ture. He was of a noble Florentine family,
and nephew to the Cardinal Alberto degli
Alberti. The year of his birth, which toge-
ther with other biographical particulars, is
passed over in silence by Vasari, has hitherto
been generally supposed to have been either
1398 or 1400 ; but it is now put beyond doubt
by the Abate Serassi that he was bom on the
18th of February, 1404, and not in Florence,
but at Genoa, where the family had sought
an asylum on being banished from Florence
in 1401. !More than ordinary care was be-
stowed on his education by his father, Lo-
renzo, and at an early age he began to dis-
tinguish himself by his progress in his lite-
rary studies, and by his bodily strength and
activity, his prowess in martial exercises, his

ALBERTI.

skill in horsemanship, and by his talents for
music and painting ; in short, by all the per-
sonal accomplishments of a noble cavalier.
"While he was at Bologna studying the canon
and civil law, preparatory to entering the
church, his father died at Padua, in 1422.
About two years afterwards he composed for
his own amusement his Latin comedy " Phi-
lodoxios," which having been transcribed
without his permission, copies got abroad,
and when questioned on the subject, he pre-
tended that he himself had merely transcribed
it from a recently discovered MS. It there-
fore passed for a long time as a genuine pro-
duction of some ancient Roman dramatist,
notwithstanding it was written in' prose, until
he avowed himself the real author, about ten
years afterwards, when it was as severely
criticised as it had before been praised. As
long afterwards as 1588 it was published by
Aldus Manutius the younger, who was not
aware of its true history, as being from an
inedited Latin MS., and the production of
Lepidus, an ancient comic writer.

At about the age of twenty-four Albert!
was attacked by a nervous disorder, the con-
sequence of his vinremitted application to
literary studies, and being advised to discon-
tinue these studies, he applied himself to the
mathematical and physical sciences, including
architecture, in which he began to give
proofs of his proficiency between 1440 — 1450;
for although he had taken orders, and had
been made a canon of the metropolitan church
of Florence, his pursuits and occupations ap-
pear to have been altogether secular. One
of his earliest, and also that which is gene-
rally esteemed his best architectural work,
is the church, or rather its exterior, of San
Francesco, at Rimini. According to Vasari,
he had previously been employed at Rome
by Nicholas V., who was a very great ad-
mirer and patron of architecture, and for
whom, among other projects, he made a
design for covering the bridge of St. Angelo
with an open loggia or colonnades. But this
story cannot be altogether correct, for though
it is highly probable that he had visited
Rome before he was employed at Rimini, as
above mentioned, it could not have been in
the service of Nicholas, because that pontitF
was not elected till March, 1447. the very
year in which Alberti commenced San Fran-
cesco, which he continued till 1450, and his
being then invited to Rome accounts for the
edifice having been left incomplete. At Rome
he does not appear to have executed much
more than the Fontana Trevi, of which no-
thing now remains, it having been replaced
by the modern fountain and facade designed
by Niccolo Salvi for Clement XIL He is
generally said to have been commissioned
by Nicholas to rebuild the Basilica Vaticana,
an undertaking that would have afforded him
the opportunity of displaying his ability on
the most extensive scale ; yet, almost incre-
C80

dible as it may seem, he is said by Palmicri,
a contemporary chronicler, to have dissuaded
the pope from it ; and even if such were not
the case, the project itself would probably
have been frustrated by the death of Nicho-
las, which happened a year or two afterwards
(1455). Whether this be matter for regret
it is impossible to decide, as Alberti has left
no ideas for such a fabric, but we can well
imagine that he would have conceived it in a
style of more dignified simplicity, and given
it greater character than Bramante and his
successors did.

None of our authorities have arranged
chronologically and affixed their respective
dates to the principal buildings executed, or at
least commenced, by this architect ; we must
therefore speak of them according to place,
and not in order of time. At Florence,
those attributed to him are the facade of
Sta. Maria Novella, rebuilt at the expense of
one of the Ruccellai family ; the Palazzo
Ruccellai (about 1460) ; the chapel of the same
name and belonging to the same family
(date about 1467) in the church of San Pan-
crazio ; and the choir of the Nunziata or
church of the Annunciation. Though Va-
sari speaks of the first-mentioned of these as
being undoubtedly the work of Alberti,
other biographers and critics are of a con-
trary opinion, holding it to be unworthy of
him, as being in a semi-Gothic style, and
altogether difi'erent from his usual manner ;
while it could hardly have been one of his
earlier designs, as that fa9ade was not finished
till 1477, or five years after his death. The
Palazzo Ruccellai in the Strada della Yigna
is, on the contrary, greatly admired, and
passes for his principal work of that class ;
and yet there is quite as much to censure in
it as to commend. It consists of three orders
in pilasters, which taken by themselves
possess much merit, being treated with con-
siderable taste and freedom ; the capitals and
other details differ very much from usual ex-
amples, although the lower order may be called
Doric, and the two upper orders Corinthian.
But these orders do not accord with the
general style and prevailing character in
other respects, which is occasioned by the
front being, in the older Florentine manner,
rusticated in unequal courses, and having to
the two upper orders large arched windows,
each composed of two smaller ones, divided
by a pillar between them ; while the lower
windows are only small squares, and conse-
quently are very unsuited for apertures be-
tween pilasters or columns, except as mezza-
nines over other windows. In another man-
sion of the same name, but distinguished by
being called that of the Strada della Scala,
Alberti is said to have been the first to re-
turn to the mode of placing a horizontal en-
tablature upon columns, instead of springing
arches from them ; and for this he has been
greatly commended by Vasari and others as

ALBERTI.

ALBERT!.

the restorer of true principles and classical
taste. Yet the previous mode is sounder in
principle, and less barbarous in taste, than an
untahlature resting upon columns very wide
apart, -which is generally the case, it being
far less offensive to the eye to cover a ■wide
intercolumn or space "with an arched than
with a horizontal architrave. The choir or
tribune of the Nunziata is a rotunda nearly
seventy feet in diameter, with a dome en-
tirely covered with painting by Franceschini,
and which has therefore very little architec-
tural character. The plan is divided into ten
compartments, nine of them forming as many
arched recesses, which being on a cylindrical
surface, the arches themselves appear dis-
torted ; a defect that has been severely ani-
madverted upon by Vasari and others. Yet
they have passed over in silence one that is
less excusable, because entii'ely matter of
choice, namely, that the remaining compart-
ment, the one open to the nave and connect-
ing it with the tribune, is nearly as wide
again as the rest, and therefore destroys that
symmetry which is looked for in a rotunda.

Besides some other works at Mantua for
the Duke Ludovico Gonzaga, which are not
specified by his biographers, Alberti erected
— or rather designed, for he died just about
the time it was begun — the church of St.
Andrea, which was the last and one of the
best and largest edifices which pass under his
name. After his death the building was car-
ried on by his assistant Silvestro Fancelli
according to the original model, but many
alterations have been made at different times,
and the most unfortunate of all is that occa-
sioned by the present cupola, built by Juvara
about the beginning of the last centur}-. No
such feature seems to have been intended by
Alberti, or provided for in his plan ; and be-
sides being poor in itself, it is so insignificant,
in proportion to all the rest, that instead of
adding dignity to the interior, it is rather a
blemish in it : in other respects there is more
than usual to commend on account of the
happy arrangement, and the no less happy
combination of simplicity of effect and rich-
ness of decoration, in the general design of
the interior. Neither is the fa9ade without
merit, it being a much more sober composi-
tion, less frittered into small parts and over-
loaded with incongruous ornaments, than is
usual with the fronts of Italian churches. It
also derives a certain nobleness of character
from the large archway in the centre, forming
a deep niche or porch, within which is the
principal doorway. The church at Rimini
is however generally considered Albeiti's
masterpiece. Milizia, Quatremere de Quincy,
Algarotti, all extol it very highly ; and the
last, who is scandalised at Addison's saying
" Rimini has nothing modern to boast of,"
calls it one of the most beautiful pieces of
modern architecture in Italy. Yet its merits
and its interest are chiefly relative, as those

VOL. I.

of one of the earliest monuments of its class
belonging to the period of the revival. After
all, Alberti's work in this instance amounts
to no more than recasing an old church,
which is internally in a mixed Gothic style,
and masking it by a new front and sort of
screen along the sides : the former has four
attached columns, between which are three
arches, the centre one rather larger than
the others, and slightly recessed ibr the
door ; the lateral elevations, or rather the one
which has been finished, consists of seven
arches, not forming a gallery, although their
piers are insulated from the wall behind them,
but recesses, each of which contains a large
sarcophagus. These and the piers rest upon
an unbroken stereobate, which is continued
throughout, owing to which and to there
being no other breaks except in the entabla-
ture over the columns in front, the whole is
marked by simplicity and regularity.

The buildings erected or designed by Al-
berti are so very few, and those few rather
to he commended for being free from vices
than for any very striking excellence, that
we may suppose he is as much indebted
for his reputation in architecture to his writ-
ings upon it as to his own performances.
His treatise " De Re J^dificatoria," though
it was prepared some time before, was not
published till after his death, when it was
edited by his brother Bernardo, in 1485. It is
divided into ten books, and is more multifa-
rious in its contents than S} stematic in the
arrangement of them ; and also touches upon
a variety of matters that hardly come within
the province of the architect. The erudition
displayed in it, for the most pait very use-
lessly, obtained for it great reputation among
the learned, and it has accordingly been trans-
lated into several languages : — into Italian
by Bartoli, 1546, and into French by Martin,
1550 ; but it may now be said to be scarcely
known to professional men. His three books
" De Pictura" have also been translated into
more than one foreign language, and even
into modern Greek. Besides several other
works, of which one of the most noted is his
" De Commodis Literarum atque Incommo-
dis," he is said to have written some comedies
in his native tongue. Politian says of him,
that he was also considered an excellent
painter and sculptor ; yet of his merits as a
painter Vasari gives us no very favourable
opinion, and of what he did in sculpture no-
thing is known. Among his contemporari s
he obtained considerable repute by various
mechanical inventions, one of which is espe-
cially noticed by Vasari, who speaks of it as
some wonderful optical instrument or machine
first contrived by Alberti in 1457, the very
same year, he remarks, in which the art
of printing was discovered in Germany by
Gutenberg. He calls it a " modo di lucidare
le prospettive naturali," but his account is so
obscure as to be unintelligible ; and hardly

Y Y

ALBERTI.

less so is that -which, with the view of fur-
ther explaining it, Tiraboschi gives us from
the anonymous biographer of Alberti, whom
he has chiefly followed. The two accounts
almost contradict each other, and are besides
so fancifully expressed, that we can only
guess Alberti's invention to have been on the
principle of the camera-obscura, which op-
tical apparatus is supposed to have been first
made known in the following century by
Giambattista Porta.

The year of Alberti's death is a matter of
some uncertainty. Tiraboschi, however, has
settled that he died at Rome in 1472, and
therefore at the age of sixty-eight. (Tira-
boschi, Storia della Letteratura Ital. ; Vasari,
Vite degli Artefici; Milizia, Vite deyli Arclii-
tetti ; Quatremere de Quincy, Hist, des plus
eel. Architectes.) W. H. L.

ALBERTI, MICHAEL, the son of Paul
Martin Alberti, a Protestant preacher at
Niirnberg, was born at that place in 1682.
His father, designing to prepare him for the
ecclesiastical profession, sent him to the uni-
versity of Altdorf to study philosophy and
theology. After some years diligently spent
there in obtaining a knowledge of these
sciences, as well as in learning the Oriental
languages, he accompanied a youth, in the
character of preceptor, to Jena. In the uni-
versity of Jena he was admitted into the
society of the celebrated physicians Wedel,
Krause, and Slevoigt. The effect of an in-
timacy with them was to excite in him a
strong taste for the study of medicine, and to
induce him to relinquish his previous occu-
pations, and devote himself entirely to it.
With that purpose he went to the university
of Halle, which was then flourishing under
Stahl and Hoffman, and, embracing the doc-
trines of Stahl, he formed a close friendship
■with him ; to which may in great measure
he attributed his subsequent success, as well
as the opinions which pervade his works. In
1704 he received, at Halle, his doctor's de-
gree ; and shortly afterwards, by the advice
of Stahl, commenced private lectures on phi-
losophy and medicine, which were attended
by large classes of students. In compliance
with the request of his father, now advanced
in years, he relinquished the prospects open-
ing to him at Halle, and returned to his
native town ; several students who followed
him thither continued to receive instruction
from him. He was unfavourably received by
his townsmen, and experienced from the
envy of his opponent practitioners much
difliculty in obtaining a degree ; in conse-
quence of which it was not till 1707 that he
was admitted member of the college of
physicians at Niirnberg, and commenced
practice there.

I^pon the death of his father, preferring

a life of tranquillity and study, Alberti

returned to Halle, and again received the

assistance of Stahl. He recommenced his lec-

682

tures on philosophy and medicine, those on
the latter subject being intended to expound
more clearly the abstruse opinions of Stahl.
Though solicited by his countrymen to return
among them, and pressed to accept the pro-
fessorship of medicine at Altdorf, he re-
mained from this time attached to the uni-
versity at Halle. In 1710 he was made extra-
ordinary, and in 1716 ordinary professor of
medicine in that university ; shortly afterwai'ds
extraordinary, and in 1719 ordinary pro-
fessor of philosophy. In 1713 he was ad-
mitted member of the Academy of Sciences
at Berlin, and of the imperial academy of the
" Natune curiosi," under the name of Andro-
nicus. In 1717 he was appointed one of the
physicians to the King of Prussia ; and not
long afterwards, on account of his theological
learning, he was made counsellor of the con-
sistory of Magdeburg. He executed all his
various duties, to the end of his life, with
great ability ; and died at Halle in 17.57,
leaving behind him the reputation of a pious,
indefatigable, and learned physician. He
always adhered closely to the tenets of Stahl,
being one of the few who received his doc-
trines in their fullest sense ; and from the
energy with which he defended them, he may
be considered as the most zealous pupil of
that school. His academic duties were per-
formed with great industry, and he long
maintained the reputation which the univer-
sity of Halle had reached under his illustrious
predecessoi's. More than three hundred dis-
sertations were published under his name, all
of which were publicly defended, and many
of them written, by himself. He also com-
posed several other works of greater import-
ance, which are generally vohmiinous, are
rather theoretical than practical, and intended
chiefly to defend the favourite doctrines of
his master. The following is a list of them :
— 1. " Von der Seele des Menschen der
Thiere und der Pflanzen, Vol. I. and II." Halle,
1707 and 1720, 8vo. 2. " De Energia Na-
ture in Actionibus Vitalibus sine Medico
salutariter exercendis." Halle, 1707, Svo.
3. " De Pedantismo medico." Halle, 1707,
Svo. 4. " Introductio in Medicinam uni-
versam tam theoreticam quam practicam,
Tom. I." Halle, 1718, 4to., including Physi-
ology and Pathology, Tom. IL Halle, 1719,
4to., including Semeiology. Hygiene, Materia
Medica, and Surgery, Tom. IIL Halle, 1721,
4to., including Medical Therapeutics, with
additional observations on Natural Philo-
sophy and Chemistry, Tom. IV. Halle, 172G,
4to., containing a collection of Medical For-
mulfe. 5. " De Htcmorrhoidibus Dissertationcs
practice in volumen collects." Halle, 1719,
4to. This comprises fifteen dissertations,
with a preface by Stahl. Alberti agrees in
his opinion of hajmorrhoids with the views of
that professor, considering them to afford the
safest protection against chronic disorders,
and viewing them as a frequent cause of

ALBERTI.

longevity. C. " De Medicamcntorum Modis
operandi in Corpore vivo." Halle, 1720, 4to.
7. " Mediciaische und Philosophisehe Sehriff-
ten." Ilalle, 1721, 8vo. 8. " Abhaudlung
vom Podagra junger Leute." Ilalle, 1725,
Svo. ; " Ausfiihrlicher Beweis vom Podagra
ohne Salz." Halle, 1725, Svo. 9. " Systeraa
Jurisprudentiae Medicffi, Tom. I., Halle, 1725,
4to. Tom. II., Schneeberg, 1729, 4to. Tom.
III., Schneeberg, 1 733, 4to. Tom. IV., Leipzig
andGorlitz, 1737, 4to. Tom. V. Leipzig and
Gorlitz, 1740, 4to. Tom. VL, Giirlitz, 4to."
10. "Specimen Medicinse theologicu-." Halle,
1726, 8vo. 11. " Tentamen Lexici Medici
realis. Tom. L andlL," Halle, 1727 and 1731,
4to. 12. " De Tortura; Subjectis aptis et
ineptis." Halle, 1729, 4to. 13. " Medic in ische
Betrachtimg von dem Kriiften der Seele nach
dem Unterscheid des Leibes." Halle, 1730,
4to. 14. " De Sectarum in Medicina nosia
Instauratione." Halle, 1730, 4to. 15. "De
Natura humana." Halle, 1732, 4to. 16. " De
Longscvitate Hominis natm-alibus nonnullis
Mediis adjuvanda et promovenda, Regulis
diteteticis accommodata." Halle, 1732, 4to.
17. " Commentarius Medicus in Constitu-
tionem criminalem Carolinam." Halle, 1739,
4to. 18. " Philosophisehe Gedanken von
dem Unterscheid der menschlichen Seele, und
dem Unterscheid des Menschen." Halle, 1740,
4to. For a list of his dissertations see Hal-
ler " Bibliotheca Medicina; Practice," torn.
iv. (Brucker und Haid, Bildcr-sal heutiges
Taijes lebender und durch Gdalirtheit beriihm-
ter Schifftsteller, Augsburg, 1744, fol. ; Coni-
mentarii Lipsenses, tom. vi.) G. M. H.

ALBERTI, SALOMON, is commonly
mentioned by his biographers as having been
a native of Niirnberg ; but it appears, from
an oration pronounced at the time of his
funeral by Polycarp Leyser, that he was
born at Naumburg in 1540, and that a week
after his birth, his father, an eminent archi-
tect of that city, removed with his household
to Niirnberg, and died there in the following
year. Alberti, not being possessed of any
property, was dependent upon the bounty of
friends, and received much assistance from
Andreas Boheim, a patron of science with
whom he became acquainted. He pursued
the study of medicine at the university of
Wittenberg, and obtained his doctor's degree
there in 1574. In 1576 he was appointed to
the chair of anatomy and philosophy in the
same university. In 1592, having been ap-
pointed physician to Frederick William, who
then held the electorship of Saxony during
the minority of Christian II., he removed to
Dresden, where he died in 1600.

Alberti obtained such an acquaintance
with the science of medicine as was rarely
possessed by the physicians of that time,
and his writings bear ample testimony to his
practical knowledge of medicine. But he was
more especially distinguished for his skill in
anatomy ; and his writings and discoveries
683

in that department entitle him to a high
rank among modern anatomists. He gave
the earliest clear description of the coclilea,
though he cannot be considered as its dis-
coverer. He detected the valves in several
veins, and gave an account of the internal
structure of the kidney and ureter, more
especially the renal papillae. The ossa Wor-
miana were also noticed and described by
him before the time of Wormius, from wliom
they are named ; and he gave a more accu-
rate account of the lachrymal and nasal ducts
than had been previously done. He also
observed the valve of the colon before Bau-
hin, whose name it commonly bears ; and
though the original discovery of this valve is
claimed for Varolius, and Mdus Vidius, it
appears about this time to have been made
known by several writers, and by Alberti
among others : he states that he first observed
it in the beaver, and subsequently in man.
The manner in which he announces this
discovery at the end of his dissertation " De
valvulis membraneis quorundam vasorum "
renders it very unlikely that he borrowed his
information from another source. In the
same treatise he candidly confesses that he
was not the first to point out the existence of
the valves in the veins which he describes,
having been informed by a physician at
Niirnberg that Hieronymus Fabricius was
acquainted with them in 1579. He is said
by Haller and other authorities to have been
a pupil of Hieronymus Fabricius at Padua ;
but it is evident from his writings, as well as
from the earlier accounts of his life, that he
never visited Italy. He was well versed in
theology, his attention having been much di-
rected to it during the early part of his edu-
cation, and he often disputed publicly on the
subjects of the religious discussions at that
time pending in Saxony. The following
are his principal works: — 1. Disputatio de
Morbis contagiosis. Wittemberga?," 1574,
4to. 2. "De Morbis Mesenterii etejus quod
Pancreas vocatur. De Ardore Stomachi, and
de Singultu. Wittembergae," 1578. 3. "Galeni
de Ossibus Libellus. Wittemberga>," 1579, Svo.
4. " Disputatio de Lacrymis. Wittembergae,"
1581, 4to. This contains an account of the
lachrymal and nasal ducts ; also of the influ-
ence which the secretion of the tears has in
alleviating the affections of the mind, the
reasons for not checking them in children,
and why they are associated with sighs, sob-
bing, and the like. 5. " Historia plerarum-
que Partium Corporis humani. Wittembergae,"
1585, 12mo. This is a short compendium of
anatomy, containing the account of his prin-
cipal discoveries, and embellished with plates,
many of which are copied from 'N'esalius ;
others are original, as those relating to the
organ of hearing, and representing the ossi-
cula auditus, the fenestra, and the cochlea,
which, if we except the plates of Eustachius,
were first depicted in this book. Another

Y Y 2

ALBERTI.

edition appeared in 1601, in which was added
a description of the valves in the veins of tlie
iipper and lower extremities, first seen by
him in 1579: their use he imagines to be
to prevent a rapid current of blood. Later
editions were published in 1 602 and in 1 630.
6. " Orationes Tres et alia. Norimb." 1585,
8vo. The first contains an account of the
plants most useful in medicine ; the second
describes the nature and efficacy of musk ;
the third gives an abridged history of the
origin and progress of anatomy. 7. " Ora-
tiones Quatuor. Wittembergaj," 1590, 8vo.
The second contains a dissertation on the pas-
sage of the bile into the intestines, in which he
defends the opinion of Fallopius, that it first
passes through the duct towards the intestine,
and then regurgitates into the gall bladder ;
the third is " De Sudore cruento." Appended
to them is a collection of I^atin verses written
hy him on various medical subjects. 8. " Ora-
tio de Mutilate et Surditate. Norimb."
1591, 8vo. 9. "Scorbuti Historia. Witte-
berg," 1594, 8vo. This is also inserted in
a treatise on scurvy by Sennertus. Alberti
considers it to be an hereditary and con-
tagious affection. Other orations are also
said to have been written by him ; for an
account of which see " Mangeti Bibliotheca
Scriptorum Medicoruni," and " Halleri Bib-
liotheca MediciuEC Practicse." (Mochsen,
Beschreibung einer Berlinisclicn Medaillen
Sammhmg, contains an account of his life.)

G. M. H.

ALBERTI, VALENTIN, was born at
Lahn in Silesia, on the 13th of December,
1 (535. His father was a Lutheran clergyman,
who, wishing to educate his son for the
church, sent him to the gymnasium of I>au-
ban, and subsequently to the university of
Leipzig. The son, however, combined the
study of philosophy with theology, and after
the completion of his academical course, he
remained at Leipzig, where he was appointed
professor of logic and metaphysics in 1 663.
He was subsequently appointed to the chair
of theology and philosophy. His love of
knowledge and his industry gradually raised
him to the highest theological honours in
Saxony, and he was six times rector of the
university of Leipzig. He died on the 19th
of December, 1697.

During the seventeenth century, polemics
were the principal occupation of theologians,
and the only means by which they could
obtain reputation. Alberti was a writer of
extraordinary fecundity in this department :
he wrote above two hundred controversial dis-
courses, among which there were thirty-three
against the Jesuit Johann Detz. Most of them
are in Latin, and the rest in German. A list
of those works of Alberti which are best
known is given by Adelung in his Supplement
to Jiicher, i. 44 1 , &c. Most of them are purely
theological controversies, others are phi-
losophical discourses ; and among the latter
684

there is his " Compendium Juris Naturse,"
Leipzig, 1673, 12mo. This work, which has
often been reprinted, was written in opposi-
tion to a similar work of Pufl'endorf. Alberti
also acquired some reputation as a poet, and
many of his poetical productions are con-
tained in the collections of those of liof-
mannswaldau and others, where they bear
the signature " D. K. A." (Jocher, Allgem.
Gelehrtcn-Lexicon, i. 196. ; Adelung's Supple-
ment, i. 441, &c. ; Ersch und Gruber, Allge-
mcine Enci/clopudie, ii. 362.) L. S.

ALBERTI DI VILLANO'VA, FRAN-
CESCO, a lexicographer, was born at Nice
in the year 1737. Nothing is recorded of
his life, except that he prosecuted his studies
with success in his youth, and devoted him-
self to literature. He died at Lucca in the
year 1800. Querard states that his death
took place on the 15th of December, 1801,
but the preponderance of authority is in
favour of the former year. His works are —
1. "DictionnaireItalien-Fran9ois et Fran^ois-
Italien, compose sur les Dictionnaires des
Academies Fran9aise et de la Crusca," 2 vols.
Marseille, 1771-2, 4to. This dictionary
was held in high estimation, and passed
through four editions in the author's life-
time. It has since been several times re-
edited. 2. " Nouveau Dictionnaire Fran^ais
et Allemand et Allemand et Fran^ais, com-
pose sur le Dictionnaii'e de I'Academie Fran-
9aise, enrichi de tons les Termes des Sciences
et Arts par Flatte." 5 vols. 1778, 8vo. 3.
" Nouveau Dictionnaire portatif Fran^ais-
Italien et Italien-Fi-an9ais," 2 vols. Strass-
burg, 1799, 8vo. 4. " Dizionario Univer-
sale Critico Encyclopedico della I^ingua
Italiana," 5 vols. Lucca, 1797 — 1800, 4to. Al-
berti was seized with his last illness while
preparing a new edition of this work for the
press, and he confided the superintendence of
it to Francesco Federighi, who published a
sixth volume in 1805. 5. " La Vite," a poem
in two cantos, which is inserted in the col-
lection entitled Poemetti Italiani, ix. 195.
In addition to the above, two other works
are enumerated in the Supplement to La
France Littcraire, viz. — 6. " Dell' Ednca-
tione fisica e morale <^ontra i Prineipi del
Signor Rousseau di Ginevra." 7. " Traduc-
tion des Nuits d'Young." (Biographle nou-
relle des Contcmporains ; Lombardi, Storia
della Letteratura Iliiliaiia ncl Secolo XVIII.,
iv. 21.; Hebrail et La Porte, Supplement « la
France Litteraire, iii. 2. ; Querard, La France
Litteraire.) J. W. J.

ALBERTINE'LLI, MARIO'TTO, an
excellent Florentine painter. He studied with
Cosimo Roselli, and drew also from the
antiques in the garden of the Medici ; but he
was soon attracted by the style of Era Bar-
tolomeo di San Marco, whom he imitated
with great success, and with whom he formed
a close friendship. They painted many works
together, and when Bartolomeo entered the

ALBERTINELLI.

ALBERTINI.

monastic life, Albertinelli finished some pic-
tures for him which lie liad left in an ini-
pL'rfect state. Albertinelli was of an im-
j)atient temper, and, being offended with tlie
criticisms which were passed upon his Avorks,
lie forsook painting and turned publican : he
however soon became disgusted with his new
occupation, and returned to his former pro-
fession. He executed several valuable works
from religious subjects, in Florence, in Vi-
terbo, and in Rome. He died about 1520,
aged forty-five, having brought on his death
by dissipation. Vasari mentions an excellent
portrait by Albertinelli, of Donna Alfonsina,
the mother of Lorenzo de' Medici. He had
several scholars who became eminent : —
Giuliano Bugiardini, Marcantonio Francia-
bigio, Innocenzio da Imola, and Visino, who
died in Hungarj% (Vasari, Vite de' Pittori,
eye. vol. iii.) R. N. W.

ALBERTI'NI, ANNI'BALE, wrote a
work upon diseases of the heart, entitled
'' De Adfectionibus Cordis, Libri Tres, Venet."
1618,410., and Cesena, 1648, 4to. Haller
{Bibltutli. Med. Prac. t. ii. p. 475.) says it is
" a book such as physicians were accustomed
to write in those days ; very large, but with-
out a single original remark." It is noticed
only that it may be distinguished from the
more important essay on the same subject by
Ippolito Francesco Albertini. J. P.

ALBERTI'NI, FRANCESCO DEGLI,
an Italian priest who lived at the commence-
ment of the sixteenth century. He was born
at Florence, where he was a canon of the
collegiate establishment of St. Laurence, but
resided at Rome as chaplain of the cardinal
of St. Sabina. He seems to have been fa-
vourably noticed by Pope Julius II. The
most important of his works is one on the
anii(iuities of Rome, entitled " Opusculum de
niirabilibus novai et veteris Urbis RomcE "
(Rome, 1505, 4to., again 1510, 4to., again
1515, 4to.; Basel, 1519, 4to.; Lyon, 1520, 4to.;
Rome, 152-3, 4to., with Vibius Sequester and
other writers on the remains of Rome, an
edition which, though not mentioned by Cle-
ment or Mazzuchelli, and therefore some-
times doubted, is in the British Museum).
The work consists of quotations from the
ancients on the subject of Roman buildings,
combined with descriptions of what was
still to be seen. It contains various recti-
fications of Maphteus, or Mafiei, who had
preceded Albertini with a similar work, but
tlie liook is not so full as to supersede INIaffei's.
The later editions, beginning with that of
1510, are generally^ accompanied by a little
treatise in praise of Florence and Savona,
" De I^audibus Civitatum Florentintc et Sao-
nensis," in which Albertini enumerates their
most celebrated citizens, and speaks in a
strain of animation of the merits of Ame-
rigo Vespucci, or, as he styles him, Albericus
Vespulsius. Another acknowledged vrork of
Albertini's is a description of the statues and
685

pictures at Florence, " Memoriale di niolte
Statue et Picture sono nella inclyta Cipita
di Florentia," Florence, 1510, 4to., a book
of the utmost rarity. Gorio also attributes
to Albertini the collection of Roman in-
scriptions entitled " Epigrammata antiqua
Urbis," Rome, 1521, 4to., which is generally
ascribed to Mazocchi the printer, who signs
the dedication, but wliom Gorio accuses of
gross dishonesty for so doing. In the dedi-
cation to the " Opusculum de niirabilibus
Romfc " Albertini speaks of having written
a similar work, " De Stationibus et Reliquiis
Romse," and in that to the " Statue di Flo-
rentia" of a work not then terminated,
entitled " Le Magnificenze et Bellezze di
Firenze," but nothing more is known of
either. It is stated by Negri that Albertini
also wTote several dissertations in Latin,
" On Confession," " On the Sacrament,"
&c., none of which appear to have been
printed. (Negri, Istoria dryli Scrittori Fio-
rentini, p. 181. ; Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d' Italia,
i. 321. ; Moreni, Biblioyrafia della Toscaria,
i. 19. ; Platner, Bunsen, &c., BescJircihting
der Stadt Pom, Vorrede, xxiii. ; Gorius,
Jnscriptionum antiquarum, pars iii. Praf. p.
xxiii. T. W.

ALBERTI'NI, GIORGIO FRANCESCO,
by his monastic name, Giorgio Maria, a mo-
dern Italian theologian, was born on the 29th
February, 17-32, at Parenzo, in Venetian
Istria, and belonged to the same family which
had produced Paolo Albertini the Servite, born
about 14.30. In his thirteenth year, Giorgio
assumed the habit of St. Dominic, and after
completing his studies in Venice, he com-
menced his career as a preacher, and soon
became famous all over Italy, in particular at
Rome, Naples, Venice, and Padua. In 1787
he was summoned to Rome by the Cardinal
I AntoncUi, and commissioned by Pius VI. to
investigate the singular question. If it was
consistent with religion to allow the Arme-
nians of the Roman Catholic church living
in the Turkish empire, in order to avoid the
persecutions tliey sustained from the mem-
bers of the independent Armenian church,
to conform to the calendar of that com-
munion, and occasionally exercise acts of de-
votion in their places of worship? Many
theologians, and among others the Abate
Zaccaria, had answered in the affirmative,
and their opinion was supported by the in-
fluence of the ilarquis of Serpos, a learned
Armenian, author of the " History of the
Armenian Nation." Albertini maintained
the negative in a long and erudite disserta-
tion in two volumes, which drew on him
many enemies, and for the publication of
which he could not, to his great disappoint-
ment, obtain the necessary sanction. He
solicited, in consequence, his dismissal from
Rome, but received in return a jiapal rescript
appointing him to the chair of dogmatic
theology in the college of the Propaganda,

' Y Y 3

ALBERTINI.

the same which had been occupied hy Cardi-
nal Orsi. About three years aftei'W'ards, the
principal chair of theology in the university
of Padua was vacated by the death of Father
Antonio Valsecchi. This professorship had
been occupied during about three centuries
by Dominicans, and the priests and friars of
other orders were jealous of the uninterrupted
succession, which seemed to argue that none
but a Dominican was capable of filling the
chair. They petitioned the " Riformatori
agli Studi," as the managers of the university
are called, to break through the routine ; but
Valsecchi had himself recommended Albertini
as his successor, the influence of the Domini-
cans prevailed, and Albertini, though absent
from the Venetian states, received, without
solicitation, the contested chair. He occupied
it till 1807, when it was suppressed by the
new government of Italy, and declining, on
account of his age, to accept three appoint-
ments as a professor which were offered him
elsewhere, he retired to his native town of
Parenzo, and continued teaching theology in
the seminary there till his death on the 29th
of April, 1810, at the age of seventy-eight.

Tiie works of Albertini are — 1. " Disserta-
zione apologetica intorno le Msite delle Chiesi
Cattedrali per acquistare il Giubileo," Venice,
1777 ; a curious apologetic dissertation in
favour of the practice of visiting cathedral
churches to obtain the same religious privi-
leges \yliich are granted by the popes to those
who keep the jubilee. 2. " Elemcnti di
Lingua Latina," Venice, 1780 ; an introduc-
tion to the Latin language, in which he pro-
poses a new method of learning it, which has
been considered too rigidly methodical.
3. " Osservazioni," &c., Ferrara, 1781 ; some
observations, published anonymously, in op-
position to an irreligious French publication,
"Le Philosophe Militaire," and to an answer
to it by Count Francesco Riccati, entitled
" L'Antifilosofo," which was, in Albertini's
opinion, hardly more orthodox than the work
which it professed to answer. 4. The answer
to a question proposed in 1784 by the aca-
demy of Padua, " If, considering man in his
physical and moral relations, it can be de-
monstrated by the unassisted light of reason
that he is not such as he ought to be, and as
he left the hands of his Creator ? " Aibertini's
answer obtained the prize, and the com-
mendation of Cesarotti. 5. " In Funere re-
verendissimi Patris, Paschalis da Varisio,"
Rome, 1791 ; a funeral oration on P. da Va-
risio, general of the Franciscans, which is
distinguished for eloquence and pure Latinity.
6. " Dissertazione dcU' Indissolubilitii del
Matrimonio," Venice, 1792 ; a dissertation on
the indissolubility of marriage, supported
by passages from the Gospel. 7. " Piano
geometrico e scritturale," &c., Venice, 1797 ;
a " geometrical and scriptural plan to fix a
correct point in the chronology of the world,"
which is an attempt to prove that the death
686

of Jesus Christ took place on the day and
hour assigned to that event by the Roman
Catholics. In his old age he resumed the
same subject, but his later work does not
appear to have been published. 8. " Analisi
contenente la triplice Confutazione," &c.,
Venice, 1803 ; a triple confutation of a
work entitled " Discourse of a Philosopher,"
of a dissertation of the Abate Baldi, and of
the " Reflections of a Canon on the End of
the World." This work provoked an ano-
nymous reply attributed to Baldi, " On the
Errors of Father Albertini," Rome, 1805.
9. " Acroasi ossia la Somma di Lezioni
teologiche," Padua, 1798, Venice, 1800 —
1802 ; a summary of his theological lectures,
in five volumes, to which he afterwards added
a sixth, entitled " Scholia," Venice, 1808.
It was assailed with vehemence by Pellegrini,
one of the disappointed competitors for the
chair of Padua, in a work entitled " In
P. G. INI. Albertini Acroases Animadversio-
num theologicai-um Specimen," Vienna, 1803.
Pellegrini was the warmest opponent of the
doctrines of his successful rival with regard
to the indissolubility of marriage, in which
Albertini supported the same views as Father
Nachi, which were also adopted and defended
by the present pope, Gregory XVI., who was
a friend and admirer of Albertini's. In reply
to his adversary, Albertini composed in eight
days. 10. " Epistolae Dissertazione," &c. Pa-
dua, 1804; an epistle and disseitation with
regard to the marriage question. This was
not considered in general so successful as the
attack ; but the decision of the pope, which
was given by a brief in favour of the doc-
trines of Nachi, left the triumph of orthodoxy
with Albertini. Some time before his death
he committed to the flames, in spite of the
remonstrances of his relations and friends, the
sermons which had originally established his
fame ; but he left behind him several un-
published works. (Anonymous Life in Ti-
paldo, Biograjia degli Italiani illustri, i. 123
— 128.) T. W.

ALBERTI'NI, GIOVACCHI'NO, an Ita-
lian dramatic composer who resided at Rome
towards the close of the eighteenth century,
where he produced his opera " Virginia " in
1786. For several preceding years he had
filled the office of Jlaestro di Capella to the
King of Poland. His opera of " Circe " was
brought out at Hamburg in 1785. He ap-
pears to have passed the latter part of his
life in Italy, and to have written occa-
sionally for the theatres of its different states.

E. T.

ALBERTINI, IPPO'LITO FRAN-
CESCO, was born in 1662 at Crevalcore.
He received his early education and studied
medicine under Malpighi, to whom he was
nearly related, at Bologna. After obtaining
his doctor's diploma in 1689, he went to
Rome, and having spent some time there in
the study of his profession, returned to

ALBERTINI.

Bologna, where he passed the rest of his life :
he died in 1738. He was for three years
assistant physician to the Hospital of Santa
Maria della Morte ; and when Malpighi was
called to Rome to be physician to Pope
Innocent XH., he was appointed professor
of medicine in the university of Bologna,
and became the most popular physician in
that city.

Albertini was the author of two short
essays which were published after his death
in the first volume of the Commentaries of
the Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bologna.
One of them is entitled " Animadversiones
super quibusdam difficilis Respirationis Vitiis
a loBsa Cordis et Pra?cordiorum Structura
pendentibus; " the other, " De Cortice Pe-
ruviano Commentationes qu£cdam." The
former, which was read to the academy in
172G has considerable interest by being the
first essay in which an attempt was made to
distinguish the symptoms of the several
diseases of the heart, and to connect each of
the chief signs observed during life with the
changes of structure discovered after death.
The author gives a very clear account of the
general signs of disease of the heart, and of
many of the secondary affections which it
produces ; such as hremoptysis, vertigo,
apoplexy, and oedema of the lungs, which
last he carefully distinguishes from hydro-
thorax, and points out as the chief cause of
the dyspnoea in extreme cases of diseased
heart, and in acute dropsy. He urges also
that these affections of the lungs are me-
chanically produced by the obstruction of
the circulation, and are not dependent on
any change of structure in the lungs them-
selves, or on any fault in the blood. In
speaking of the main purpose of his essay, he
confesses that he is unable to describe the
symptoms of many of the affections of the
pericardium, and limits himself to the dis-
cussion of the dilatations of the auricles,
ventricles, and great blood vessels. He says,
though with much diffidence, that those
affections which are attended by a preter-
natural, long-continued, vibrating pulsation,
and a distinct beat, are to be referred to
diseases of the aneurismal kind, that is, to
dilatations of the left auricle or ventricle, of
the whole heart, or of the great arteries ;
and that those in which there is only a
motion without such a pulsation, or scarcely
any perceptible motion at all, are diseases of
the varicose kind, that is, dilatations of the
right auricle or ventricle, or of the pul-
monary artery and vein. He recommends
that mode of treatment of the aneurismal dis-
eases which was practised to a greater ex-
tent by his friend Valsalva, and which is
therefore commonly called " Valsalva's me-
thod," consisting in reducing the patient to
the lowest degree of weakness by repeated
bleedings and starvation. [Valsalva.]

Imperfect as it is, the essay pi'oves the
6S7

author to have been a careful observer, and
a diligent cultivator of morbid anatomy. It
is, moreover, very honestly written ; and by
showing the obscurity in which the pathology
of the heart was at that time enveloped,
enables one better to appreciate the value of
the labours of those, such as Morgagni,
Corvisart, and Laennec, by whom in the
following century it was brought to a degree
of accuracy greater than has been attained
in the study of the diseases of any other in-
ternal organ.

Albertini was the immediate predecessor
of Battista Morgagni, who in all his works
speaks of him with the highest respect, and
has recorded several cases illustrative of his
skill in diagnosis. The two essays already
mentioned were published under the title
" H. F. Albertini, Opuscula," by M. H. Rom-
berg, at Berlin, in 1828, in a small 8vo.
volume, with a preface by the editor con-
taining a life of the author, and a notice of
a manuscript left by him with the title
" Consultationes MediciE " in the library of
the university of Bologna. J. P.

ALBERTINI, JOIIANN BAPTIST
VON, was born on the 17th of February,
1769, at Neuwied on the Rhine. He be-
longed to a Moravian family, and received
his education in the establishments of that
sect at Niesky and Barby, where he formed
an intimate friendship with Schleiermacher.
Schleiermacher left the Moravians, but Al-
bertini remained faithful to them, and in his
twentieth year he was appointed teacher at
the educational establishment at Niesky,
where he remained until the year 1804, occu-
pying himself chiefly with the study of the
ancient and oriental languages, and with ma-
thematics and botany. The results of his
botanical studies appeared in a work which
he edited together with L. von Schweinitz,
under the title " Conspectus Fungorum in
Lusatise superioris agro Niskiensi crescen-
tium, &c. Lipsije, 180.5." To the " Monu-
mentum Pacis," which appeared in 1814 at
Breslau, as a monument of the general re-
storation of peace in Europe, Albertini con-
tributed a Syriac inscription. During the
period subsequent to 1804, however, he de-
voted hunself entirely to the spiritual welfare
of the Moravian communities at Niesky,
Gnadenberg, and Gnadenfrei, and acted as
their preacher. In 1814 he was raised to
the dignity of bishop of the Moravians, and
seven years later he became a member of
the governing body of the Moravian com-
munities (Direction der Briider-Unitiit). From
1824 he held the presidency in the con-
ferences of the elders of the sect. He died
at Berthelsdorf, near Herrnhut, on the 6th of
December, 18-31, deeply lamented by all who
had known him. The Moravians lost in
him a true-hearted, active, and sincere
minister, who was as disinterested and be-
nevolent as he was richly endowed with
Y Y 4

ALBERTINI.

mental powers and distinguished for his ac-
quirements.

During the last twenty-six years of his
life, which Albertini devoted to the spiritual
prosperity of the body of Christians to which
he belonged, he made the best possible use
of the power intrusted to him, by doing good
wherever he could, and diifusing the true
spirit of Christianity among the Moravians
both by his own example and by his sermons,
which must be classed among the best spe-
cimens of German pulpit oratory, and are
certainly the best that were ever delivered
among the Moravians. They are almost im-
equalled for beautiful simplicity of style and
pure Christian feeling. They are published
in two collections ; one bears tlie title
" Dreissig Predigten fiir Mitglieder und
Freunde der Briidergemeine," 1805, 8vo.,
without place. The third and best edition
of these sermons is that of 1829. The second
collection of thirty-six sei'mous bears the
title " Sechs und dreissig Reden an die
Gemeine in Herrnhut, in den Jahren 1818 —
1824 gehalten." Gnadau, 1832, 8vo. Alber-
tini also possessed great poetical talent, which
he applied to writing better hymns than
those M-hich had been sung at the meetings
of the Moravians. The peculiarities, how-
ever, by which the Moravian hynms have
always been distinguished, and which have
drawn upon them much ridicule, but which
are intimately connected with the religious
viewsof that body, laid Albertini under certain
restraints, which prevented him from fully
displaying his poetical powers, and obliged
him to adopt certain forms and images,
which, though not perhaps unpoetical, ap-
pear strange to readers in general. But
notwithstanding this, his sacred hymns are
masterly productions. The author has breathed
into them his own religious inspiration, his
deep and pure feeling, and his strong love
of all mankind, and has often clothed his
thoughts in the most beautiful imagery.
These hymns were pablished under the title
" Geistliche Lieder f lir Mitglieder und
Freunde der Briidergemeine." Bunzlau, 1821,
Svo. A second edition appeared in the same
place in 1827, Svo. (Wolff, Enajchpad. dcr
Dcutschen NationalUteratur, i. 32, &c. ; Gelzer,
Die deutsche poctische Literatur, p. 46 1 .) L. S.
ALBERTI'NI. [Mocchi, Francesco.]
ALBERTINI, MUSSA'TO. [Mussato.]
ALBERTINI, PA'OLO, a monk of the
order of Servites in the fifteenth century.
As he is frequently called by old authors
Father Paul of the Servites only, without
mention of his surname, he has often been
confounded with Father Paul Nicok'tti, who
preceded him, and with the celebrated Father
Paul Sarpi, the defender of the cause of the
Venetians :igainst the church of Rome in the
seventeenth century. Albertini was born
about 1430, entered at the age often into the
order to which he belonged, and made the
688

full profession of it in 1446. In 1458 he occu-
pied the chair of philosophy at the university
of Bologna, hut soon resigned it to awaken the
dormant love of study in his order at Venice,
and in the following years he acquired high
reputation as a preacher at Rome, at Venice,
at Bologna, and especially at Florence. In
1471 he was the first of twenty-five candi-
dates proposed to the Venetian senate for the
bishopric of Torcello, but was unsuccessful.
In 1475, during the dogeship of Piero Moce-
uigo, he was sent ambassador from Venice to
the Porte, and in the same year he died,
somewhat suddenly, at Venice.

Albertini left four works : three in Latin,
" On the Knowledge of God," " On making
a Christian Testament" (" De condendo
Christiano Testamento "), and " On the Rise
and Progress of the Order of the Servites ; "
the fourth, partly in Latin and partly in Ita-
lian, a " Commentary on Dante." None of
them appear to have been printed, but it
is probable that from the increased avidity
for ancient commentaries on Dante, the
last of these works will not long remain
in the obscurity of the library at Padua,
where it at present exists in manuscript, A
portrait of Albertini from a medal struck
during his lifetime in 1472, is given in the
Museum Mazzucliellianum, a circumstance
which renders it the more extraordinary that
no mention is made of him in the great work
of Mazzuchelli, " Gli Scrittori dTtalia." From
the inscription round this medal, " M. Paulus
Venetus : or: Servor. memorie fons," or
" Paul the Venetian, the source of the me-
mory of the Servite order," the inference lias
often been drawn that Albertini was remark-
able for a sti'ong memory. The expression
would rather seem to be intended as a compli-
ment to his work on the history of the order
he belonged to. In his epitaph Albertini is
stated to have been not only well acquainted
with Latin, but with Greek and Hebrew.
(Agostini, Notizie degli Scnttori Vencziani,
i. 548 — 555. ; Tiraboschi, Storia della Lette-
ratiira Itali'ina, edit, of 1783, vi. 288. ; Fos-
carini, Delia Lttlvratura Veneziana , i. 355. ;
De Comitibus Gaetani, Museum Mazzuchel-
Uaniim, i. 73, cScc.) T. W.

ALBERTI'NO. [Franciabigio.]

ALBERTI'NUS, ^GI'DIUS, a German
satirist, was born in the year 1560 at De-
venter in the Netherlands. Respecting his life
very little is known, except that for many
years he was private secretary to the Elector
Maximilian of Bavaria. He died at Munich
on the 9th of March, 1620.

The works of Albertinus show that he was
a zealous Roman Catholic. They are aU
written in German ; and as at that time nearly
everything was written in Latin, especially
in the southern parts of Germany, and very
few persons cared about writing their native
tongue with purity and correctness, Albertinus
deserves praise for having ventured to use his

ALBERTINUS.

ALBERTOLLI.

mother tongue. His style ho^-ever paitakes
of all the faults of the age : it is bombastic,
and frequently interlarded with foreign words
and phrases, which German authors of that
time, half ashamed of writing in their native
tongue, appear to have used merely to show
their learning. But Albertinus possessed in
a high degree the talent of seeing and vividly
describing the ftnilts and follies of his con-
temporaries. The object of his satires is to
teach and improve his readers, though the
lessons are often given in a coarse form. He
is in every respect one of the forerunners of
Abraham a Sancta Clara, to whom he bears
the greatest resemblance. His works were
in his time extremely popular, especially in
Southern Germany, but at present they have
fallen into almost complete neglect. The
most celebrated among them are — 1 . " Land-
storzer Guzmann von Alfarache, Miinchen,"
1G16, 2 vols. 8vo., reprinted in 1618 and
1631. A third volume was added in 1632
by Martin Freudenhold. The whole work
is a free translation of a Spanish novel. 2.
" Luclfers und Christi Konigreich und See-
lengejaide,oder Narrenhatz. Mlinchen," 1G17,
4to. 3. " iEgidii Albertini Hirnschleiffer.
Coin," 1645 and 1686, in 12mo. This work
is one example of a whole class of writings
then popular in Germany, that is, allegorical
explanations of works of art, such as statues
and paintings. Albertinus also published a
great number of translations from the Italian,
Spanish, and English, among which are
Baxter's General Description of the World,
and Guevara's Letters. A complete list of
all his works is given by Adelung in his
Supplement to Jocher's " Allgemeines Gelehr-
ten-Lexicon," i. 44.5, &c. (Jocher's AUgem.
Gelehrt.-Lex. J. 197., with Adelung's Supple-
ment ; Wolif, Enci/chpacl. dcr Deutficlien JS'a-
IkmaUiteratur, i. p. 36.; Qerv'mws, GeschicJite
(Icr Poetisch. National-Litcratur der Deutsc/wn,
iii. 143. 29G. 372. 383, &c.) L. S.

ALBE'RTO FIORENTINO, an Italian
sculptor, who was employed at Milan between
1366 and 1378. (Cicognara, Storia della
Scnltura.) R. N. W.

ALBERTOLLI, GIA'COMO, nephew of
Gioeondo, was a native of Bedano, in the
territory of Lugano, where he was born in
1761. He received his education as an
artist at Venice, in which city he remained
till 1797, when he was invited to Padua,
where he was made professor of civil
architecture, first at the seminario, and
afterwards at the university. Being dis-
missed or resigning in consequence of poli-
tical changes in that part of Italy, he went
to Milan, then the capital of the Cisalpine
republic, and was there appointed successor
to Giuseppe Piermarini^as public teacher of
architecture. In this capacity he showed
great ability and diligence. It was his prac-
tice not to confiue his instruction to the usual
routine, but to take the students to examine
689

the various works of architecture in the city,
and to point out to them ci'itically their re-
spective merits and defects. This method
of teaching obtained him great reputation,
and secured the attachment of his pupils.
His death was occasioned by an attack of
apoplexy in the street, 6th of June, 1805.
(Tipaldo, Biografia degli Ituliani Illustri.)

W. H. L.

ALBERTOLLI, GIOCONDO, an Italian
architect, of whose family little is known, ex-
cept that his father was of the same profes-
sion, was born at Bedano, July 24. 1742. He
was first put to school at Aosta, where he
remained, however, no more than a year, for
so little disposition did he show to learn any-
thing, that his father thought it would be
better to keep him at home under his own
eye. Accordingly he continued at home un-
til the age of eleven, when, having shown a
decided inclination for drawing, he was placed
as pupil under an artist at Parma, in w hich
city he had an opportunity of attending the
lessons given by the different professors at
the Academy of the Fine Arts, and benefited
more especially by those of the Abate Peroni.
After ten years successfully devoted to pre-
paratory studies, he began to obtain commis-
sions in his profession as architect ; though
it was not until 1770 that he liad an oppor-
tunity of adequately displaying his peculiar
talent for architectural decoration. In that
year he was employed by the Grand Duke
of Tuscany (afterwards Leopold II.) to design
the improvements and embellishments of one
of his villas near Florence. He took with
him as his assistants his brother Grato and
some of the other pupils from the academy
at Parma, whom he left to carry on the work,
after having staid as long as his own personal
superintendence was necessary. He now pro-
ceeded to Rome, where he spent some time
in studying both the remains of ancient and
the chief productions of modem architecture.
He next visited Naples for the same purpose;
and was there engaged by Carlo, son of the
celebrated Luigi Yanvitelli, to assist him in
designing and modelling some of the orna-
ments for his church DeU' Annunziata ; after
which family affairs compelled him to return
home to Bedano in 1773.

It was about this time that Giuseppe Pier-
marini, the eminent Milanese architect, pro-
posed to confide to Albertolli the interior
decorations of the Palazzo Reale at 3Iilan,
which he was then building. Accordingly
Albertolli proceeded thither in March, 1774;
and such a cordial intimacy was formed be-
tween him and his employer, that in a short
time Piemiarini left him to follow his own
taste. So general was the satisfaction he gave
in a branch of the art peculiarlj- congenial to
his talents, that he was soon looked upon as
the restorer of sound principles in it ; and, fol-
lowing the example of the court, many of the
more opident Milanese nobles began to fit up

ALBERTOLLI,

ALBERTOLLI.

their palaces in a similar style. Albertolli
was appointed professor of decorative archi-
tecture in the Academy of Fine Arts which
was founded at Milan in 1775 by Maria
Theresa; and he was employed to design and
execute the interior embellishments of the
imperial villa at Monza, erected by Pier-
marini, 1775-9.

In the mean while, in order to furnish his
numerous pupils at the academy with more
suitable studies of architectural ornament and
detail, he caused a series of his own compo-
sitions, chiefly those which he had actually
executed, to be engraved; which first pub-
lication of the kind by him appeared at Milan,
1782, under the title of " Ornamenti Diversi."
Encouraged both by its favourable reception
aud by the friendly advice of Prince Kaunitz,
he brought out, in 1787, a work of some-
what diffei'ent character, entitled " Alcime
Decorazioni di nobili Sale," and dedicated it
to that minister. To these succeeded, in 1796,
his " Miscellanea per i Giovani studiosi del
Disegno," and, in 1805, his " Corso Elemen-
tare di Ornamenti Architettonichi."

Besides the immediate influence of these
publications upon his own pupils and the
rising generation of architects in Italy, they
contributed not a little to diffuse a better
taste in Germany and France, and to extend
their author's reputation through those and
other countries. By his own countrymen he
was considered a high authority in all mat-
ters of ornamental design and architectural
decollation. Of his elegant fancy and taste
in interior embellishment ample proof is
afforded by the various splendid apartments
he executed in the palazzo of Prince Belgio-
joso, and in those of the Marchese Cassendi,
the Marchese Arconato, and Conte Antonio
Greppi. Among his other works may be
mentioned the new facade of Palazzo Melzi
on the Corso di Porta Nuova at Milan, and
the noble villa belonging to the same family
at Bellagio on the Lake of Como. He is also
said to have designed some of the ornamental
parts of the Arch of the Simplon, or Arco
della Pace, at Milan, of which Cagnola was
the architect.

After performing his duties at the academy
for many years with a zeal highly creditable
to himself, and no less advantageous to the
pupils, he was compelled to resign his office
there, in 1812, in consequence of a disorder
in his eyes. He afterwards fortunately reco-
vered, and was enabled to continue his fa-
vourite studies and pursuits for nearly thirty
years. He attained an age of which the
annals of literature and art afford few similar
instances, for he did not die imtil November
1840, retaining not only all his faculties, but
his mental energy and his zeal for art, almost
to the last.

The works above mentioned are only an
inconsiderable portion, as to number, of what
he actually designed. He was extensively
690

employed in modelling candelabra, ciboria,
chalices, and other pieces of church furniture
and adornment, and works of orificeria of all
kinds. He also designed various catafalchi
and altars ; among the latter, the splendid one
in the church of San JIarco at Milan. Neither
was he without considerable ability in paint-
ing, although his productions in that art are
few. One of them, an altar-piece represent-
ing the Holy Family, has been engraved by
Mercoli. The title of Cavaliere, usually pre-
fixed to his name, arises from the order of the
Iron Crown having been bestowed upon him
by Napoleon in 1809. (Forster's ^at<2e;YK?i(7;
Nagler, Kiinstler Lexicon.) W. H. L.

ALBERTOLLI, RAFAELE, son of
Giocondo, distinguished himself as an en-
graver both in mezzotinto and etching, and
executed many portraits of individuals of
note. He also assisted his father in teaching
the pupils at the academy of La Brera at
Milan ; and, like him, displayed superior
taste in ornamental design. He died in 1812,
at the age of forty-two. (Tipaldo, Biografia
clecjli Italiani Illustri.) W. H. L.

ALBERTO'NI, PA'OLO, a Roman painter,
of the school of Carlo Maratta. He was en-
rolled as a member of the Academy of St.
Luke in 1695, and died shortly afterwards.
There are pictures by him in the church of
San Carlo on the Corso ; in Santa Maria of
the Campo Marzo ; and in other churches
in Rome. (Orlandi, Abecedario Pittorico.)

R. N. W.
ALBERTRAN'DY, JAN CHRZCICIEL,
or JOHN CHRISTIAN, bishop of Zeno-
polis, was born at "Warsaw in the year 1731.
His father was by birth an Italian. On the
death of his mother, which occurred when he
was very young, he was placed entirely under
the care of the Jesuits, and educated in their
pul)lic school. Here his progress was so
rapid, and the ability he displayed so extra-
ordinarj-, that at the age of fifteen he was
admitted into the order, and immediately on
the completion of his novitiate, namely, in
his nineteenth year, was sent as public tutor
to the college of Pultusk : he subsequently
filled the same important post at Plovzko,
Nieswiez, and Wilna. Before he had at-
tained his twenty-fourth year he had pub-
lished occasional poems in Polish and Latin,
and several learned treatises on ancient
geography and history, and on astronomy.
He was a good linguist, having made himself
master of the Latin, Greek, Hebrew, En-
glish, German, French, and Italian languages,
several of which he spoke and wrote with
facility. In the year 1760, bishop Zaluski,
having determined to throw his extensive
library open for the benefit of the public,
appointed Albertrandy his librarian. This
post he occupied four years, during which
time he drew up a very elaborate catalogiie
of the entire collection, stated to contain
200,000 volumes. In 1764 the Prince

ALBERTRANDY.

Lublenslvi confided to his charge his grandson,
Count Felix Lubienski, afterwards minister
of justice in the duchy of Warsaw. At this
period Albertrandy employed his leisure in
translating into Polish Macqucr's History of
the Roman Republic, in 2 vols. 8vo., and
Schmidt's History of Poland, in 1 vol. 8vo.,
both which translations he published at War-
saw in 17 08. He also contributed largely to
a Polish periodical, called the " Monitor of
Warsaw," the first number being written by
him, and many essays afterwards. He sub-
sequently edited the work entitled " Zbior
Zabow przyiemnych i pozytecznych" ("A
collection of useful and entertaining essays"),
in prose and verse, in IG vols., of which
more than one half were written by himself.
In the year 1770 he accompanied his pupil
into Italy, to the Academy of Siena, and
afterwards to Rome. The growing inclina-
tion of the young Lubienski for the study of
antiquities, particularly numismatics, at-
tracted the attention of his instructor, who
applied himself with redoubled diligence to
this science, and in the course of two years
gained for himself a place amongst the first
numismatists of Europe. On his return to
Warsaw, in 1773, he was much employed by
the chancellor Mlodzieiowski, and was also
actively engaged with the newly appointed
educational commission, which had been
charged with the preparation of elementary
works. Two years later. Count Felix Lu-
bienski, having presented his collection of
coins to King Stanislaus with a request that
they might be continued under the care of
Albertrandy, the king appointed him keeper
of his medals, and subsequently his lecturer
and librarian, and keeper of his prints. Al-
bertrandy, anxious to avail himself of the
royal confidence for the good of bis country,
proposed to the king to collect from foreign
countries the various scattered notices re-
lating to Poland. He was in consequence
sent into Italy in 1782, and in the course of
three years had gleaned from the Vatican
and sixteen other libraries in Rome, and
also from various collections in other places,
their most important contents relative to
Poland, the whole comprising 110 volumes,
in folio, a work which is truly astonishing,
when regarded as brought together by the
labour of one man within so short a time.
He shortly afterwards went to Sweden upon
a similar mission, and obtained most import-
ant materials from the libraries of Stockholm
and Upsal, and also from that of the Count
de Brahe, the whole of which materials he
transcribed with his own hand. In the latter
library he experienced much difficulty, not
being allowed to make any transcripts. He
was therefore compelled to confine himself to
a careful perusal of what he required, and to
write it down from memory. The product
of these two journeys formed a most valuable
collection of historical materials in almost
691

200 folio volumes, which are stated to have
been deposited in the library of Pulawy,
by Prince Czartoryski. King Stanislaus, as
an acknowledgment of the extraordinary
merit of Albertrandy, presented him with
the great medal of merit, and the cross of the
order of St. Stanislaus, and made hira bishop
of Zenopolis. His modesty is said to have
been the sole impediment to his attaining the
highest ecclesiastical honours of his country.
When seventy years of age he was unanimously
called upon to preside over the newly formed
Royal Society of the Friends of Science of
Warsaw, and he continued to direct its ope-
rations with the greatest activity and zeal,
enriching its Transactions with numerous
papers (particularly a description of the
antiquities and medals of the cabinet of King
Stanislaus Augustus) until his death, which
took place on the 10th of August, 1808. In
addition to the works mentioned above, Al-
bertrandy published at Warsaw, in 1801, " A
Dissertation upon Manners and Customs ; "
which he likewise translated into Latin. He
left in MS. " A History of Poland during the
three last Centuries," " The Chronology of
Polish History until the Time of AVladis-
laus IV.," and many other compositions ; the
greater portion of which were presented to
the university of Wilna by his family. Of
these the following were published at War-
saw between the years 1822 and 1827, by
Professor Ignace Onacewicz of the univer-
sity of W^ilna. 1. " A Dissertation on the
Sun, regarded as a Pagan Divinity." 2. " His-
tory of the Reign of Henry of ^^alois," 2 vols.
3. " History of the Reign of Cassimir Jagel-
lon," 2 vols. 4. " History of the Reign of
Wladislaus the Wamenian." 5. " History
of the Reigns of Alexander and John Al-
bert," 2 vols. {Hallische Allgcmeine Litera-
tur-Zeitung, 1809, p. 363.; Entsiklopcdicheski}/
Leksikon ; Bentkowski, Historya Literaturi/
Polsk'mj, ii. 605 — 611.; Rabbe, Biographie
Universelle des Contemporains.') J. W. J.

ALBERTSEN HAMILTON, HENRIK,
a modern writer of Latin poetry was born
at Copenhagen in 1592. He was descended
from a Danish family of consequence, which
would appear from his second name to have
become connected with a Scottish one. He
was early distinguished for his poetical
talents, and in 1608, in his seventeenth year,
delivered in public, before the professors of
the university of Copenhagen, a metrical
panegyric on St. John the Baptist, a circum-
stance to which he was fond of alluding in
his subsequent writings. We find him soon
after pursuing his studies at the imiversityof
Giessen, where he obtained the friendship
and admiration of James Gruter, who speaks
of him as famous throughout Germany for
his poetical compositions. On his return
home, after further travels, he obtained a
situation in the German Chancery, or office
for managing the affairs of the King of

ALBERTSEN.

ALBERTUCCI.

Denmark's Geraian dominions. After re-
maining there three years, he set out anew
on his travels in 1(519, with the king's per-
mission, visited the principal cities and courts
of Europe, and finally proceeded to Egypt,
■where he died.

Albertsen's published works are — 1.
" Disputatio de Principiis seu Causis Rerum
naturalium," Giessen, 1609, 4to., a disserta-
tion on the causes of natural appearances or
phenomena ; and, 2. " Musica Adolescentiae
Venus" Giessen, IGIO, 8vo., a collection of
Latin poems, which is reprinted in Rost-
gaard's " DeliciBc Poetarum Danorum." The
author speaks in his preface of the great
pleasure the composition of these poems had
afforded him, and they are by no means
devoid of the power of affording pleasure
to the reader, though Albertsen was affected
■with the taste of his time, and seems to
have been in particular fond of composing
anagrams, of which we sometimes find no
less than three on the same set of letters.
Albertsen was probably the earliest Danish
traveller in Egypt. (Life prefixed to the
Poems in Rostgaard, Delicia, Sfc. vol. i. ;
Worm, Forsog til ct Lexicon over Danshe
IVors/ie og Islamlskc Icerde 3I(end. i. 15, &c.)

T. W.
ALBERTUCCI DE' BORSELLI, GL
RO'LAMO, an Italian pi'eacher and chroni-
cler of merit, was born at Bologna about the
year 1432. His father, Pietro Albertucci,
perished in battle in 1445, a circumstance
which is recorded in the Chronicle of the
son, who adds, " Let no one Avonder that
among the nobles I mention this man, who
was but a common soldier, for he was the
father of me who write this history." Giro-
lamo assumed the habit of St. Dominic, be-
came a popular preacher, and rose to the
dignity of prior of the convent of Bologna,
and of inquisitor-general, at that time an
office of the first importance and honour. He
died of pleurisy in the year 1497. There
has been much discussion about the number
and titles of his works ; but Fantuzzi, who
appears to have investigated the subject with
care, states them as follows : — 1. " An-
nalcs Bononienses ab Anno 1418 usque ad
Annum 1497." These interesting annals of
Bologna were printed by Muratori in the
twenty-third volume of his great collection,
" Scriptores Rerum Italicarum," not, as stated
by Fantuzzi, in the twenty-fifth. 2. Chro-
nicon seu Epitome Gestorum ab Orbe con-
dito usque ad Annum 1497." Fantuzzi shows
that the first portion only of this Chronicle,
from the creation of Adam to the birth of
Christ, is entirely the production of Alber-
tucci. The second part, which is called
" Cronica JIartiniana cum Additionibus Fra-
tris Hieronymi de Bononia," is a revised
and augmented edition of the Chronicle of
Brother Martin the Pole, up to the year 1270,
coutmued by Albertucci to the year 1488.
692

3. " Chronicon Generalium Magistrorum
Ordinis Prffidicatorum " (" A Chronicle of
the Grand Masters of the Order of Preachers,"
to which Albertucci himself belonged.) 4.
" Chronicon seu Descriptio plurium Italitc
Civitatum " (" A Description of various
Cities of Italy "), mentioned with high praise
by Leandro Albert! in his own description of
Italy. 5. " Historia Poutificum Rojuanorum
a S. Petro ad Alexandrum VI." (" A History
of the Popes from St. Peter to Alex-
ander VI."). 6. " Annales Ordinis Prsc-
dicatorum " (" Annals of the Order of
Preachers "). 7. Annales Ceenobii Bono-
nienses ab Instauratione Vita) Regularis ad
nostram usque .lEtatem " (" Monastic Annals
of Bologna from the Institution of Monastic
Rules to the times of Albertucci "). 8,
" Tabula de Viris illustribus Ordinis Prssdi-
catorura " (" A Table of the illustrious Men
of the Order of Preachers "). 9. " Forolivii
Annales ab Anno 1397 usque ad Annum
1433" ("Annals of Forli from 1397 till
1433 "). 10. " Tabula de Doctoribus asseve-
rantibus Beatissimam Matrem original! Pec-
cato aliquando fuisse obnoxiam " (" A Table
of the Doctors who affirm that the Blessed
Virgin was liable to original Sin"). 11.
" Sermones de Tempore per totum Annum "
(" Sermons on the Fasts, Festivals, &c. for
all the Year "). These sermons have great
merit, and are mentioned with commendation
by numerous authors. Many of the other
works could not be found in the time of Fan-
tuzzi in the Dominican library at Bologna,
and are only known from the mention of
them by Leandro Albert!, in his work on the
illustrious men of the order of Preachers.
(Fantuzzi, Notizie deyli Scrittori Bolognesi,
!. 156 — 160. ; Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d' Italia,
i. 325, &c.) T. W.

ALBERTUS AQUENSIS (by some au-
thors called Albericus), a canon and sacrist
of the cathedral at Aix-en-Provence. He
is supposed to have died in or about the
year 1120. He com.posed, in twelve books,
a history of the first crusade from oral
communications made to him by persons
■who had taken a part in it. The work com-
prises the period from 1095 to 1120. The
style without being elegant is sufficiently
clear and devoid of exaggeration : the great
defects of the work are the writer's omission
of dates and the manner in which he dis-
figures proper names. This chronicle, which
is entitled " Chronicon Hierosolymitanum,"
was first published by Reineccius at Helm-
stiidt in4to. in 1584, but ■without the author's
name. Hoesehelius, in the preface of his
edition of the Alexias of Anna Comnena,
in 1610, attributed the Jerusalem Chronicle
to Albert of Aix, but without stating his
authority ; somewhat later, Gretser found a
MS. copy of it in the library of St. Martin
at Louvain. Bongars has included the work
in his collection of historians of the crusade,

ALBERTUS.

entitled " Gesta Dei per Francos," published
in 1611. Vossius, Fabricius, the Benedictines
in their " Histoire Literaire de la France,"
and the Sammarthani in their " Gallia Chris-
tiana," have merely repeated what they
learned from Gretser. (Histoire Literaire de
la France, par des Religieiix Benedictins de la
Congregation de S. Maur, Paris, 1756, x. 277,
278., where the other authorities are enu-
merated.) W.W.

ALBERTUS ARGENTINENSIS. Men-
tion of a priest of this name, dean of the
canons of Strassburg, occurs in a chartulary
of the cathedral of that city in the year 1356,
as appears from an extract published in
Schopflin's " Alsatia Diplomatica." But
Schijpflin has shown, on the authority of
a MS. which he discovered at Bern, that the
chronicle narrating the events of the years
1270 to 1378, attributed by so many authors
to Albert of Strassburg-, was in reality com-
piled by Mathias of Neufchatel, chaplain to
Berchthold, bishop of Strassburg, 1328 —
1353. (Jo. Daniel. Schoptiini Alsatia ^vi
Mcrovingici Carolingici Saxonici Salici
Suevici Diplomatica, Manhemii, 1772 — 1775.
fol. pars ii. p. 212. ; Adelung, Supplement to
J<Jcher's Allgemeitien Gelehrten Lexico, Leip-
ziir, 1784.) V/.W.

^VLBERTUS ARNHEIMUS, a Carthu-
sian monk. His family name was Kivet ; but
he is more generallj- kno-nTi by the appellative
derived from Arnheim, his native town. He
was bora in 1369 ; took the vows in the
monastery of his order near Wesel, in the
duchy of Cleves, in his fortieth year; and
died president of the house in which he made
his profession on the 17th of May, 1449, in
the eightieth year of his age. He compiled
a book of reference, in which the duties of
the Christian were illustrated by examples,
which was long preserved in MS. in the
convent at Roermunde. The title and divi-
sions of this work, in which it will be ob-
served that the vices are dilated upon in more
than twice the number of chapters allotted to
the virtues, are stated by his biogi-aphers as
follows : — " Referendarimn Exemplorum in
Tomos Duos, Sept.m Distinctiones partitiuu.
Distinctio 1. De Yenerabili Sacramento, cap.
93. 2. De S. Cruce, cap. 39. 3. De Beata
Maria, cap. 91. 4. De Nativitate Domini,
cap. 77. 5. De Virtutibus, cap. 61. 6. De
Vitiis, cap. 147. 7. De Defunctis, cap. 63."
{Bihliotheca Coloniensis, cura et studio Josephi
Ilartzheim, Colonise Augusts Agrippinen-
siuni, 1747, fol. p. 324.) W. W.

ALBERTUS BRIXIENSIS, a pupil of
St. Thomas Aquinas, and consequently old
enough to have commenced his studies before
the saint's death, which happened in 1274.
Eeliard mentions that it was Albert de
Brixia who was said to have had a vision
of Thomas Aquinas in a state of glory after
his death. According to Passevinus, Albert
was alive in 1314. He compiled a com-
603

pendium of casuistry (" Surama de Casibus
ConscienticC "), and a manual of instruc-
tions for priests (" Summa de Sacerdotiura
Instructione." (Fabricius, Bibliotheca Latina
Media; et Infimce jEtatis ; Echard, Scrip-
tores Ordinis Pradicatorum.) W. W.
ALBERTUS CAMPENSIS. [Pighius,

ALBERTUS DE FERRARILS, a native
of Piacenza : the period at which he lived
and wrote is unknown. Fabricius mentions
having seen an edition of a treatise on the
canonical hours bearing his name, which had
no date, but had evidently been printed before
1500. This treatise was reprinted by Ziletti
in his collection of law tracts. The author
represents it as a more complete exposition of
the subject than any which had preceded it ;
but professes, at the same time, that it has
been compiled mainly for his own instruction.
He explains the origin and nature of the
canonical hours, discusses who are warranted
to celebrate mass, and examines various pleas
for dispensation from the duties annexed to
the seven canonical hours. There is an earnest-
ness in the tone of the work that bespeaks
sincerity ; but the author treats all argu-
ments, however trifling, with the same em-
phasis, to a degree that sometimes pi-oduces
the effect of irony. For example, he argues
the question whether holders of pluralities
are bound to perform the services of each
canonical hour once for every benefice they
possess, with a gravity which has all the
effect of a sneer at the abuse, though any-
thing so nearly approaching to a joke appears
totally alien to the turn of the writer's mind.
(Fabricius, Bibliotheca Latina Media et Jn-
fima: yEtatis ; Franciscus Zilettus, Tractatus
Universi Juris in unum Conyesli, Yenetiis,
1584, fol.) W. W.

ALBERTUS GEMBLACENSIS, by
some writers called Albertus Lobiensis. He
was a native of Lobes in the diocese of Liege,
and having entered the order of St. Benedict,
rose to be abbot of Gembloiu-s. He flourished
about the year 980. He was tutor to Bur-
chardt, elected bishop of Womis in 996, who
is supposed to have been instigated in the
first instance to compile or compose his
spurious decretals by his tutor. Sigbert of
Gemblours attributes some lives of the saints,
which have been lost, to Albertus. Trithe-
mius makes mention of an ode by him in
praise of the saints (" Cantus in honores
Sanctorum"). (Fabricius, Bibliotheca Latina
Medice et Infimce JEtatis ; Adelung, Supple-
ment to Jocher's Alhjcmeines Gelehrtin- Lexi-
con.) AV. W.
ALBERTUS DE JA'XUA, so called from
his being a native of Genoa, a Dominican,
was elected master of the order in the general
chapter held at Marseille on the 26th of
:^L^y, 1300. He held the office only three
months, dying on his way to Rome on the
26th of August in the same year. He had

ALBERT us.

ALBERTUS.

studied at Paris, and obtained the degree
of bachelor in that university, but he had
been sent by the order to teach at Mont-
pellier before he obtained the degree of
doctor. Rovetta ascribes the folio-wing works
to him : — " Commentarii in iv sententiarum
Libros;" " Postilla in Psalmos;" "Super
Libros Priorum, Prajdicamenta, et Sex Prin-
cipiorum ; " " Epistola ad universum Ordinem
encj'clica." The last alone appears to have
been printed. (Echard, Scriptores Ordinis
PrcEdicatorum.) W. W.

ALBERTUS MAGNUS. Some authors
have assumed that Magnus was a latinized
form of the surname Gross or Grot : it is,
however, explicitly stated by the writers
nearest his own times, that the epithet was
bestowed upon him on account of his dis-
tinguished learning and virtue. All are
agreed that he was descended from the counts
of BoUstadt, and was born at Lauingen, on
the Upper Danube.

The date of his birth has been a subject of
controversy : by some he is said to have been
born in the year 1193 ; by others in the year
1205. The former are most likely in the
right. We have no positive account of the
year in which he was born ; but all his early
biographers concur in stating that he died in
1280, and all who mention his age at the time
of his death represent him as having then
completed his eighty-seventh year. Fabricius,
who states him to have been in his seventy-
fifth j'ear, gives no authority for his asser-
tion, and probably altered the customary ac-
count of his age to reconcile it with a story
to be noticed immediately. According to
this account he must have been born in 11 93 :
those who represent him as born in 1205 do
so in oi'der to reconcile two statements : first,
that Albertus was admitted into the order of
the Dominicans by Jordanus, after he had
become master by the death of St. Dominic
(1222) ; and that he was only sixteen years
old at the time of his admission. This
account of his age at the time of his being
received into the order is not only irrecon-
cilable with that of his age at the time of his
death, but rests upon a misunderstanding.
The Albertus admitted by Jordanus in his
sixteenth year was of the family of Franken-
berg on the Maine, not of Bollstadt on the
Danube : the story is told in detail by Thomas
de Cantimprato.

From the time of his birth in 1193 to that
of his reception into the order of the Domi-
nicans in 1222, the infonuation we have
respecting Albertus is meagre iu the extreme.
He is said to have studied at Paris, and after-
wards at Padua. It was at Padua that he
formed the acquaintance with Jordanus, which
led to his becoming a Dominican. He ad-
verts in his commentary on Aristotle's
Meteora to his residence in Padua, which in
his treatise " De Natura Locorum" (the Pe-
culiarities of different Places), he repre-
694

sents as having been long distingiiished by
its literature ; and mentions a visit which
" when a young man " he paid to Venice.

The materials for the biography of Albertus
from the time of his taking the vows till his
being appointed to teach in the convent of his
order in Paris (1245) are equally scanty. He
is said to have studied theology (it would ap-
pear that his studies before he became a friar
were entirely secular, and that it was his
literary eminence and personal qualities alone
that had made Jordanus so anxious to gain
him for the order) for some time, but whe-
ther in Ital}-, at Paris, or at Cologne, is
doubtful ; and afterwards to have officiated
as teacher in the seminaries of his order at
Hildesheim, Freiburg in the Breisgau, Ra-
tisbon, Strassburg, and Cologne. At Cologne
he had Thomas de Cantimprato for a hearer
from 1232 to 1236; and Thomas Aquinas'
(who followed him to Paris) from 1244.
Some authors have said that Jordanus, when
he went to the Holy Land in 1236, appointed
Albertus vicar-general of the Dominicans in
his absence, and that Albertus held the office
till the election of Hugo de Sancta Clara, after
the death of Jordanus in 1238 ; but this cir-
cumstance is neither mentioned in the re-
cords of the order, nor by any contemporary
author.

In 1245, he was sent to Paris by the master
or the chapter of his order, for the purpose of
obtaining the degree of doctor, or master as
it was then more frequently called. For the
attainment of this dignity it was then required
that the candidate should teach in the schools
three years. The first year he lectured as
bachelor in the school of some master or
doctor ; at the close of that year, if the mas-
ter was satisfied with him, he was presented
to the chancellor for his licence, and lectured
a second in a school of his own as licen-
tiate ; the third year he conducted his school
as doctor, with a bachelor under him, whom
he in turn presented to the chancellor as
worthy to be made a licentiate. The secular
clerks, after this three years' probation, either
settled as lecturers in Paris, or sought pro-
motion in other universities. But the Domi-
nicans (and probably the members of other
orders also) were at the disposal of their
superiors : the three years' teaching in the
Jacobine convent was a duty imposed in suc-
cession upon the most distinguished friars,
who at its termination were appointed to
discharge the duties for which they seemed
best fitted in the provinces where they were
most likely to be useful. Albertus lectured
upon theology during the three years that he
remained at Paris, and at their close was sent
back to Cologne. Before he left Paris he took
part in the convocation of prelates and doc-
tors, who, under the direction of the cardinal-
legate Otho, sentenced the Talmudic writings
of the Jewish doctors to be burned.

On his return to Cologne about the end of

ALBERTUS.

AL13ERTUS.

1248, Albertus was appointed by the general
chapter of his order, which met that year at
Paris, senior regent of the school -which they
established at Cologne. In 1249 he accom-
panied the Emperor William of Holland, who
visited Cologne on his return from his coro-
nation at Aix-la-Chapelle to Utrecht, to
assist in the organisation of a new Dominican
convent in that city. In the same year the
citizens of Cologne expressed their admira-
tion of and confidence in him, by selecting
liim to be their advocate with the arch-
bishop in some dispute regarding the pri-
vileges of their fair : two years later they
chose him, along with Hugo of Santa Clara,
to arbitrate in a dispute they had with the
same prelate about the mint and tolls ;
and on many other occasions we find them
availing themselves of his counsels and good
ofiices.

In 1254 Albert was elected prior of the
province of Germany, in the provincial chap-
ter held at Worms. Next year he was sent
to Rome to plead the cause of the Dominicans
in their dispute with the university of Paris,
which Alexander IV., at the request of St.
Louis, had undertaken to terminate by a
judicial sentence. This controversy had
originated as early as 1240, when the uni-
versity, jealous of the growing reputation of
the teachers of the mendicant orders, had
attempted to exclude them from its privi-
leges. It was a period of intellectual activity,
and the church had been alanned by the pro-
mulgation of heretical opinions in various
quarters. Some of the most enthusiastic
spirits of the age had enrolled themselves in
the recently-instituted mendicant orders ; and
their anxiety to raise the reputation of them-
selves and the bodies to which they belonged,
rendered it necessarj- for them to keep at the
head of the intellectual movement. It was
difficult for them to promulgate new views,
without lending a handle to their enemies to
accuse them of heresy. In 12.52, William de
St. Amour published his " Periculum Mundi,"
a vehement attack upon the theology of the
mendicant orders ; which was answered in
terms quite as vehement by Albertus' distin-
guished scholar Thomas Aquinas. The friars
were anxious that Albertus should plead their
cause at Rome, but so averse was he to leave
his more tranquil eraploj-ment of teacher, that
a special mandate from the pope was necessary
to oblige him to undertake the journey. He
spent the close of 1255 and the greater part
of 1256 at Rome; but though the influence
of the Dominicans was great at the papal
court, he was unable to bring the business to
a satisfactory conclusion, and left it at his
departure to the charge of Thomas Aquinas.
Albertus, during his stay in Rome, held the
olfice of reader to the pope ; and at the request
of the pontiff and cardinals delivered lectures
on the gospel of St. John and the canonical
epistles.

695

In 1259 Albertus was present at the general
council of the order at Valenciennes, and
resigned the dignitj- of provincial prior. He
was appointed to assist the four masters of
theology in the Dominican seminary at Paris,
in preparing regulations for the schools of
the order.

In 1260 he was again forced from his be-
loved literary avocations, being appointed
bishop of Ratisbon by Alexander IV. A
German bishop was in those days not only
called upon to discharge the civil duties of a
secular prince ; he was constantly involved
in feuds, and obliged to conduct warlike
operations. Albertus held the office which had
been literally forced upon him for three
years, and then resigning it into the hands of
Urban IV., retired again to his cell at Co-
logne, where he continued to teach and com-
pose books till within three years of his
death.

The archbishop of Cologne and the
bishops of Strassburg and Basel requested
him at times to discharge the episcopal func-
tions within their dioceses, and hence the
frequent mention of churches consecrated
and ordination bestowed by him during the
latter part of his life. An expression in his
system of theology (" Summa Theologise'")
has led some to infer that he was present at
the second council of Lyon in 1274 ; but the
phrase implies no more than that the book
was composed after that council. In 1277,
however, affection for the memory of a
favourite scholar drew the old man from his
retirement. A report having reached Co-
logne that the orthodoxy of the writings of
Thomas Aquinas had been called in question
at Paris, he expressed a wish to go there to
defend them. His friends represented in
vain the fatigue of the journey and his own
age and infirmities. Taking with him Ugo
of Luca, and some other friars, he travelled
to Paris, convoked a meeting of the univer-
sity, and announced publicly that he was
there for the purpose of maintaining that the
writings of Aquinas were replete with piety
and wisdom.

This was the last flash. His contemporary
Tholomseus de Luca informs us that about
three years before the death of Albertus, his
memory entirely deserted him. The decay
of his physical powers was slow and gentle,
and his time was passed in exercises of
devotion. He died on the 14th November,
1280.

A collection of the works generally attri-
buted to Albertus was published at Lyon in
1651, in twenty-one folio volumes, edited by
Pierre Jammy, a Dominican monk, under the
control and supervision of three successive
masters of the order. No great critical judg-
ment is displayed either in the selection of
the works or the revision of the text, but no
editions of the separate works are much
better. There has been absolutely nothing

ALBERTUS.

done towards ascertaining satisfactorily what
works attributed to Albertiis are genuine, and
obtaining an uncorrupted text. Even a satis-
factory catalogue of the existmg editions and
manuscripts is a desidei'atum. The best is
contained in Echard's " Scriptores Ordinis
Prscdicatorum," which work contains also
the only judicious biography of Albertus yet
published. The following remarks upon
the writings of Albertus refer to them in the
form in which they appear in the edition of
Jamniy.

There is great difficulty in classifying
the works of Albertus, so as to obtain a
correct estimate of his system, owing to his
having been more a man of great erudition
than a comprehensive and coherent thinker.
He had read more than he had thoroughly
digested ; his mind in some measure broke
down beneath the extent and variety of his
learning. He had a taste for information of
every kind ; but the multiplicity of inquiries
into which this universality prompted him to
enter, rendered it impossible for him to retain
them except by the mere formal memory.
When any branch of science was mentioned,
his tenacious memory recalled what the au-
thors he had read delivered concerning it,
their arrangement, and manner of dividing
the subject. He had acuteness enough to
detect any self-contradiction into which an
author might fall in discussing any one
science ; but not to detect the incompatibility
of the theory of a metaphysician with the
theory of a mathematician. Hence there is
no coherence, no pervading principle in his
writings on theology, morals, or metaphysics.
Each treatise has a formal completeness in
itself ; but neither throws light upon the
others, nor receives it from them. They are
for the most part mere repetitions of what he
lias learned from others ; at the utmost, where
the original work was fragmentary, he has
endeavoured to patch it up in the same style.
To compensate in part this essential de-
fect, he had a vigilant and shai'p eye to
the phenomena of external nature, and a
singular talent for clear exposition. His
style and manner are too formal ; the lo-
gical framework is pedantically ostentatious ;
but what he knows himself he makes clear to
others.

Albertus held that there were three essential
branches of the philosophy of existences —
the sciences of physics, metaphysics, and ma-
thematics. The objects ot these inquiries he
conceived to exist independent of the act or
will of man. The science of morals (ethics)
he distinguished from them as relating to our
own acts, not to the acts of nature ; and poli-
tics he treated as a supplementary depart-
ment of morals. I^ogic he defined to be the
method of all sciences, but capable of being
expounded as a science. He added to these
another science, theology ; that is. Christian
theology, or the theology of the church ; for
09 G

metaphysics, which he treats of as a science
independent of this, he likewise calls
theology.

Albertus' logical treatises are contained in
the first volume of his collected works. They
consist of — one book on predicables and one
on the ten predicaments ; one on the six
principal predicaments or forms of thought ;
four books on abstract reasoning, viz. two
on the prior analytics, treating of the inven-
tion of the syllogism, and two on the pos-
terior analytics, treating of the application of
the syllogism or demonstration ; eight books
of topics, or the application of abstract rea-
soning to practical questions ; and two books
on fallacies or sophisms. In all these trea-
tises except one, Albertus professes to adhere
implicitly to the writings of the Peripatetics,
especially Aristotle. In great part of them,
however, he appears to have known Aristotle
only at second hand ; the Arabian philoso-
phers are his principal authorities. It does
not clearly appear whether he was conversant
with their writings in the original. The
exception alluded to is the" work entitled
" Sex Principia," which is merely a sup-
plement to that on predicaments, and is no-
thing more than an abstract of a work by
Gilbert Poi-netanus. Viewed as a system of
logic, these treatises have no great value, but
an acquaintance with them is necessary to the
thorough understanding of the other works
of their author.

Albertus' system of physics is expounded
in the eight books on physics, four books
on the world and heaven, two books on
generation and corruption, four books on
meteors, five on minerals (these are con-
tained in the second volume of his collected
works), one book on the nature of places,
seven books on vegetables and plants (in the
fifth volume), twenty-six books on animals
(which occupy the sixth volume). By phy-
sics Albertus means the knowledge of sub-
stances as opposed to metaphysics or the
doctrine of abstract ideas on the one hand,
and to mathematics, or the doctrine of ab-
stract forms, on the other. It includes the
natural history and experimeutal science of
modern inquirers. It appears to have been
Albertus' favourite pursuit, and is perhaps that
in which he appears to most advantage. In
the treatise upon physics and some of the
others he professes, as usual, to follow Ari-
stotle, but adds, that he has inserted " digres-
sions " for the purpose of clearing up diffi-
culties, and supplying omissions ; and these
digressions are among the most interesting
and instructive parts of the works. The
extensive reading and observation of A Ibertus
are not more wonderful than his sobriety of
judgment and the bold inferences by wliich
he at times comes close upon the discoveries
of modern science. In support of this as-
sertion it is only necessary to refer to what
he says on the subject of local climates, on

ALBERTUS.

the colours of the clouds, on the rainbow, and
on the generation of metals. He denies, on
the strength of experliuents which he had
tried upon the substance produced by some
alchemists and called gold, the possibility
of transmuting metals.* In his digression
upon gardening he writes with the enthu-
siasm of an amateur, and displays an intimate
acquaintance with the experiments of grafting
and inoculating. His twenty-four books on
animals evince no contemptible proficiency in
comparative anatomy.

There is a treatise " De Anima " (On the
Soul) in three books, in the third volume of
Jammy's edition, which its author appears
from the preface to have considered as form-
ing a subordinate part of his system of phy-
sics, as a preliminary inquiry necessary to be
instituted before he proceeds from treating
of stones and minei-als to discuss animated
bodies. " Granted," he says, " that the soul,
its acts and passions, are not a moveable sub-
stance, which is the subject of natural philo-
sophy or physics, yet the soul is an essential
principle of some such bodies, and therefore
falls within the scope of natural science."
This is a very valuable treatise, especially
that part of it which relates to the origin of
our knowledge, and to the physiology of the
senses.

The thirteen books of metaphysics (Jammy,
vol. iii.) are perhaps the most eloquent of all
Albertus' writings. It is a theory of the
sciences (Wissenschafts-lehre), quite in the
sense in which that term is used by Fichte.
Its object is to demonstrate the origin of
scientific knowledge, the limits of the know-
able and the unknowable. The dignity of
the subject seems to have inspired the author
to a flight above his wonted poM-ers. He
declares, indeed, at the close, that he has ad-
vanced nothing but what is to be found in
the writings of the Peripatetics. This appears,
however, to have been said solely for the
purpose of averting imputations of innova-
tion. The work, more than any other he
has compiled, is his own ; although in it,
perhaps more than any other, the mantle of
the old philosophy seems to have fallen upon
him.

In the introduction to his treatise on phy-
sics, Albertus declares it to be his intention
" to render intelligible to the Latins the
three essential parts of philosophy — phj'sics,
metaphysics, mathematics. First, by the
grace of God, we will complete natural
science, then we will treat of the whole of
mathematics, and finish our work with divine
science (metaphysics)." It is uncertain whe-
ther this be meant to imply that he, any

* This .ilone would (le enough to render the treatise
" De A!clij-mia," published by Jammy among the
Miscellanea in his twenty-first volume, suspicious ;
but its whole tenor is unlike Albertus. There is .in af-
fectation of concealing an esoteric meaning under its
more apparent doctrines totally alien to his good sense
and sincerity.
VOL. I.

' more than the other " Latins," understood
Greek or Arabic. It is not impossible that
he may have understood them, but there is no
positive evidence that he did. His acquaintance
with Hebrew appears to have been confined to
a knowledge of the alphabet. Valleoletanus
mentions that he had seen compendiums of
arithmetic, music, geometry, perspective, and
astronomy composed by Albertus. Burghamius
asserts that he wrote commentaries upon
the arithmetic and music of Boethius, the
geometry of Euclid, the Almagest of Ptolemy,
and the perspective of Alacenis or Alcionis.
Apparently both authors speak of the same
works. We have seen none of them, nor
are we aware that they have ever been
printed. It is evident, however, from the
physical treatise of Albertus, that he had some
knowledge of mathematics, and that he was

; acquiiinted with the Syntaxis of Ptolemy.

j What have been called the Ethics of Al-
bertus are merely a translation of the ten
books of the Nicomachean Ethics of Aristotle,
with a preface divided into five chapters.
Albertus also composed a marginal commen-
tary on the politics of the same philosopher.
These two works constitute the fourth volume
of the collected works.

The " Summa TheologijE," which fills the
seventeenth and eighteenth volumes of
Jammy's edition is a systematic exposition of
the Christian system. In the exordium the
author undertakes to demonstrate that theo-
logy is a science, by which he appears to
have meant that dogmatic theology was sus-
ceptible of being treated in a scientific form.
The work is a specimen of the vigorous
formal exactness which has been mentioned
above as characteristic of Albertus. It is diy
and repulsive in the extreme, but very clear.
Keeping in view the object of the author to
furnish clergymen with the necessary in-
formation for the defence and propagation of
their creed, it must be regarded, on account
of its exhaustive character and excellent
arrangement, a masterly work.

It would exceed the limits of a work of
this kind to proceed with a similarly minute
account of the minor works of Albertus, and of
his commentaries on the Psalms, several of
the prophets, the evangelists, and the writings
attributed to Dionysius the Areopagite. But
the contents of Jammy"s twelfth volume must
not be passed unnoticed. It contains a num-
ber of sermons and prayers adapted to the
gospel for every Sunday in the year. The
author mentions that the sermons were com-
posed at the request of some friends ; that he
has avoided intricate questions and all show
of learning, aiming at the instruction of the
unlettered laity ; and that any clergyman,
disposed to make use of them, might preach
the whole or part of one at a time as seemed
most expedient. The discourses are short,
neat, and practical. The prayers breathe a
spirit of fervid devotion. When the reader

7. Z

ALBERTUS.

reflects that Albertus was one of the main
ornaments of " the order of preachers," in
the first flush of its j'oung enthusiasm, that
he appears from contemporary writers to
have first obtained reputation as a popular
preacher, and that he was on two occasions
employed to " preach the cross," the propriety
of not passing unnoticed this part of his
works win be apparent.

All that we know of Albeitus as an author
or as a man is calculated to inspire us with
respect for him. If his writings do not
evince the subtle intellect of his scholar
Thomas Aquinas, or the comprehensive ge-
nius of his master Aristotle, they evince an
enthusiastic love of knowledge, an extra-
ordinary power of persevering labour, and a
pure and elevated disposition. Though fre-
quently called to take part in public business,
both civil and ecclesiastical, he was free from
ambition : his cloister cell was his favourite
abode ; adding to his store of knowledge, and
communicating it to others his favourite oc-
cupation. Yet such was his reputation for
integrity that laymen selected him as umpire
in disputes with dignitaries of the church who
were his personal friends, and popes consulted
him even when the interests of his order might
have been supposed to bias his opinion. A
noble spirit of disinterested love and gene-
rosity is evinced by his disregarding the in-
firmities of age in his anxietj' to defend the
posthumous honour of a scholar, whose re-
putation had almost eclipsed his own. When,
in addition to these qualities, his influence in
promoting the progress of knowledge in Eu-
rope is taken into account, his being the first
to present the students of the middle ages
with an encyclopa-dia of knowledge, it is
easy to enter into the feelings of those who
bestowed upon hira the name of " Great."
There are not many among those to whom
that abused epithet has been applied, who
have so well desei-ved it. (Jacobus Echard,
Scriptures Ordinis Pradicatorum, LutetiiE
Parisiorum, 1719-21, fol. i. 162—183. ;
Bead Alberli McKjni, Batisbo7iensis Episcopi
Ordinis Piadicaturum, Opera qua hacteniis
habueri potuerunt. Sub Revmis. PP. FF.
Thoma Turco, Nicholao Rudolphio, Joanne
Baptista de Marinis, ejusdem ordinis ma-
gistris generalibus, in lucem edita studio et
labore R. A. P. F. Petri Jammy, ejus-
dem ordinis, Lugduni, 1651, fol.; Rud.
de Novimagio, Legenda Lileralis Alherti
Ma(jni, Colonise, 1490, 4to. ; B. Gauslinus,
Synopsis Vita: Albert i Mcigni, Yenetiis, 16.30,
8vo. ; Bula?us, Historia Universitatis Parisien-
sis, 166.5 — 1673, fol. ; Thomas Cantipra-
tensis, Miracidorum et Exemplorum memora-
hilium sui Temporis Libri duo, Duacum,
1605, 8vo.) W.W.

ALBERTUS METENSI.S, a monk of the
order of St. Benedict in the monastery of
St. Symphorien at Metz, lived about the be-
ginning of the eleventh century. Eccard
698

has published some of the writings of this
Benedictine in his " Corpus Historicum Medii
iEvi," under the title " A Treatise on the
Changes of Time." It consists in reality of
two or rather three separate pieces. The
first (De Diversitate Temporum) is addressed
to Burchardt, bishop of Worms (996 — 1025),
and contains, in two books, a narrative of the
feuds and intrigues of the nobles and prelates
on the Meuse and Lower Rhine, and the in-
cursions of the Normans, from 1002 to 1018.
The second is a kind of appendix to this
work, containing the profession of faith of a
priest who had embraced the Jewish re-
ligion, along with a confutation of it by
Albertus. The third is a history of the times
of Otho III. (973 — 983), in which a dispro-
portionate space is assigned to the account
of that emperor's adventures after his defeat
bj' the united Greeks and Saracens in Apulia.
The narrative seems intended to illustrate
the wisdom and sanctity of Dietrich, at that
time bishop of Jletz, and is addressed by
Albertus to Constantine, abbot of St. Sym-
phorien (died 1024), with a request that he
would correct any errors in it. One of these
narratives being dedicated to Burchardt and
the other to Constantine, they must of ne-
cessity have been composed the one previous
to 1025, the other previous to 1024. The
narrative in the former reads like the story
of an eye-witness, and this leads to the in-
ference that the author was an adult about
the commencement of the eleventh century.
Beyond this nothing is known of him.
Possevin attributes to him a Chronicle from
the beginning of the world to 1038. Fa-
bricius remarks that it has never been
printed, and Adelung questions whether it
ever existed. The title " De Diversitate
Temporura " appears rather ambitious for the
brief work published by Eccard ; and the
letter from Burchardt prefixed to it has the
appearance of refei'ring to a larger work.
Probably what Eccard has published is only
a fragment of the work referred to by
Possevin. Albertus' style, though not rising
above the average of his age, is sufiiciently
clear and picturesque. His book throws
considerable light on the state of society in
the Netherlands in his time. (Calmet, Bib-
liotheqxie Lorraine; Fabricius, Bibliotheca
Latina media et itifinice ^tatis ; Adelung,
Supplement to Jocher's Allgemeines Gclehrten-
Lexicoji ; Eccard, Corpus Historicum Medii
Mvi, vol. i. c. 91—131.) W. W.

ALBERTUS DE SAXO'NIA. A ma-
nuscript copy of his commentary on the
Alfonsine tables, preserved in the Dominican
library at Bologna, purports to have been
written by his own hand in the year 1331.
George Lockhart, a master of arts of the
university of Paris, calls him, in 1516, "one
not destitute of natural acuteness or ac-
quired reputation, who flourished in the
university of Paris about two hundred years

ALBERTUS.

acfo." Echard, after examining t?ie rivalry
of the Dominican friars and the canons of
St. Augustine to claim him for their re-
spective orders, comes to the conchision that
lie was a layman. Echard enumerates the |
following works attributed to Albertus de
Saxonia : — 1. " Alberti de Saxonia Commen-
tarius in posteriora Aristotelis." 2. " Sophis-
mata Alberti de Saxonia." 3. " Super octo !
Libros Physicorum." 4. " Alberti de Sax-
onia super de Ccelo et Mundo Libri Sex." 5.
" Super Libros de Generatione et Con-up-
tione. Alberti de Saxonia de Anima ; in
parva Naturalia; super Libros X. Ethicorurn."
All these topics have been handled by Al-
bertus Magnus in treatises contained in the
printed collection of his works. The follow-
ing works of Albertus de Saxonia, one of
which has been printed, must be interesting
as calculated to throw light on the histoiy
of mathematical science during the middle
ages : — 1 . " Commentarium super Tabulas
Alphonsi Regis ad Judicia Astronomifc." In
1719 a MS. copy of this treatise existed in
the Dominican library at Bologna ; it began,
" Tempus est mensura motus." 2. " Ex-
cellentissimi Magistri Alberti de Saxonia
Tractatus Proportionum cum aliis pra;cipue
Augustini Niphi. Venetiis, 1496," folio. Al-
bertus' treatise on proportions fills three sheets
of this book, and begins " Proportio com-
muniter accepta," &c. An abridgment of
this tract has been published with the title
" De \'elocitate Motuum F. Alberti de Sax-
onia Ordinis Praedicatorum ; Opus redactum
in epitomen a F. Isidoro de Isolanis Me-
diolanensi Ordinis Predicatorum. Lugduni,
15S0, 4to. pp. 14." (Echard, Scriptores Ordi-
num Prcedicatorum.) W. W.

ALBERTUS SIGEBERGENSIS, a Be-
nedictine of the monastery of Sigeberg in
the diocese of Cologne. He lived about the
year 1540. He compiled a history of the
popes from Gregorj- IX. to Nicholas V., which
is cited by Oudin. He also compiled a his-
tory of the Roman emperors from Augustus
to Frederic V. Both works were extant in
MS. in the imperial library at Vienna in
1784. (Adelung, Supplement to Jiicher's
Alhjeineines Gelehrten-Lexicon ; Fabricius,
Bibliothcca Latina media et infimce ^tatis.)

W. W.

ALBERTUS STADENSIS, abbot of the
monastery of St. Mary, at Stade, and reputed
author of the Chronicle which goes by his
name. The time and country of his birth
are unknown. Some writers make him an
Italian, and in support of this opinion the
Italianised form of many German proper
names in the Chronicle has been adduced.
The earliest event in his life that is known
with certainty is his election, in 1232, to be
abbot of the Benedictine monastery in the
suburbs of Stade, in which he is said to have
previously been prior. He held this office
till 1240, but his reign was a stormy one
699

In 1236, disgusted with the lax observance
of the rule of St. Benedict which continued to
prevail in the monastery, notwithstanding all
his efforts to enforce it strictly, Albertus visited
Rome, and obtained from Gregory XI. letters
charging the chapter of Bremen to enforce
the adoption of the Cistercian reform In' the
Benedictine monks of Stade. The abbot
continued for three years to solicit, in the
archiepiscopal court of Bremen, the exe-
cution of the papal decree, but in vain. In
1240, tired of the protracted contest, he re-
signed his office ; and having received the
sanction of the pope, he joined himself to
the order of Minorite Friars. Olearius states
that he was some years afterwards made
general of the order. Albertus is said to have
been alive in 1260. The belief that he is
the author of the Chronicle attributed to him
rests upon an uncontradicted tradition ; and
the temper in which the controversy between
the refoi-ming abbot and his refractory monks
is there nan-ated renders the tradition ex-
tremely probable. The Chronicle bears at
the outset to have been compiled in the year
1240, but includes events which happened in
1256. In narrating the events of the year
1202, mention is made of 1240 as the year
of writing ; but when mention is made of the
invention of the paschal cycle by Dionysius,
abbot in Rome in 532, the author says, " in
the present year" — that is, 1256. The most
useful part of this woi"k is that which relates
to the history of the noi'th of Germany during
the period which intervenes between the close
of the history of Adam of Bremen (1072)
and 1256. It is uncritical and partial, but
evidently written by a person resident in
that country. It contains several episodes
calculated to throw light upon the prevailing
opinions and state of science in the age in
which it was composed. At p. 57 a. (of the
edition published at Helmstiidt by Reineccius
in 1587) is a pretty correct statement of the
use of cycles in reckoning time, and the prin-
ciples upon which they are constructed. At
178 a. are some arithmetical puzzles; ex-
amples of the kind of arithmetical formulae
a German abbot of the thirteenth century
was proud to be master of. At p. 183 a. are
various itineraries to Rome and Palestine ;
and at p. 168. a scheme of the nativity of the
Emperor Frederic II. The itineraries are
wound up with remarks upon the moral in-
fluence of pilgrimages, not very much unlike
those made by Erasmus some centuries later.
The best edition of Albertus' Chronicle is that
which we have quoted above; although it is
said by those who have examined the MS.
now or formerly presented at Helmstiidt to
be disfigured by some unportant errors ; and
the best account of the author's life is that
compiled from the work itself by Tobias
Eckhard, which Mazzuchelli and other later
writers have implicitly followed. The addi-
tional circumstances mentioned by A-arious
z z 2

ALBERTUS.

ALBI.

ecclesiastical writers are scarcely supported by
sufficient evidence. (^Chronicon Alberti, Ah-
batis Slcidensis, a condito Orhe usque ad Aitc-
toris jEtatem id est Annum Jesa Chrisii 1256
deductum, et nunc priinuni cvu![/(tfum, Helmtc-
stadii, 1586, 4to. ; Vita Alberti Stadensis Ab-
batis Chronici Auctoris, qua summam ex ipso
concinnata. Auctore Tobia Eckhardo, Gos-
laria", 1726, 4to.) W. W.

ALBERTUS TREVESA'NUS.amonk of
tbe abbey of St. Matthias at Treves. That
monastery was distinguished in the ninth
and tenth centuries for a succession of able
teachers, of whom Albertus was one. He
succeeded Diethelra in the office of scholastic
in 932, and continued in the direction of the
schools for twenty-four years and three
months. He survived till 980. He composed
respectably both in prose and verse, com-
piled instructions for young ecclesiastics who
wished to prosecute liberal studies, and added
to the chronicle entitled " Gesta Treve-
rorum" the events of his own time. (Calmet,
Bibliotheque Lorraine.') W. W.

ALBERTUS, Count of Tusculdm. [Al-

BERICIIS L]

ALBERUS, ERASMUS. [Alber.]
ALBERY, GEORGE. [Aulbery.]
ALBET. [Zio, Alberto.]
ALBEYDA'HWr. [Is.ma'i'e.]
ALBL HENRI, was born in the year
1590, at Bolene, a town of Provence, in the
Comte Venaissin. He entered a Jesuits'
college at the age of sixteen, and after com-
pleting his education he taught philosophy
five years, scholastic theology for the same
period, and moral theology two years more.
He was afterwards elevated to several digni-
ties of the order, becoming rector successively
of the colleges of Avignon, Aries, Grenoble,
and Lyon. He died at Aries on the 6th of
October, 1659. Albi's published works are —
1. " La Vie de S. Gabin, Martyr." Lyon, 1624,
12mo. 2. " La Vie de la Mere Marie-Jeanne
de Jesus, Fondatrice des Religieuses Au-
gastines." Paris, 1640, 12mo. 3. " La Vie
de la Soeur Catherine Vanini, converse de
Sienne." Lyon, 1665, 12mo. 4. " Eloges
Ilistoriques des Cardinaux Francois et Etran-
gers mis en Parallele." Paris, 1644, 4to.
This is Albi's principal work, but it does
not bear a high character for research. Ac-
cording to Le Long it was reprinted with
the title " Histoire des Cardinaux illustres
qui ont etc employes dans les Affaires d'Estat,
par le Sieur I)u Verdier; " but this is pro-
bably a mistake. 5. " L'Anti-Tlieophile
paroissial ; " an answer to a work said to be
translated from the Latin of a Capuchin of
Flanders, called " Le Theophile paroissial,"
the design of which, according to Benoist
Puys, the translator, was to reprove " the
liberty of some preachers, members of a re-
gular company, who had allowed themselves
to declaim publicly against the parochial
mass." In this reply Albi not only strongly
700

defended the preachers in question, of whom
he was one, but also seized the opportunity
to indulge in a personal attack on his oppo-
nent. His work was anonymous, a fact not
forgotten in Puys' reply, which was soon
followed by an " Apologie pour I'Anti-
Theophile paroissial," in which Albi en-
endeavoured to mask this weak point, with-
out exposure to himself, by placing in the
title-page the name of " Paul de Cabiac,
Pretre Regulier." This production was the
last of the series. The whole appeared at
Lyon in 1649 ; and in the year following the
controversialists made up their differences, a
formal document testifying to that effect
being drawn up, dated 25th of September,
1650, and witnessed by the principal autho-
rities of Lyon. Baillet, who tells us that
the dispute throughout had excited the
greatest attention in that city, does not in-
form us whether Albi appeared on this oc-
casion in his own name, and acknowledged
his anonymous publications. He took no
further part in controversy, the list of his
works being completed by three books of
devotion ; 7. " L'Art d'aimer Dieu." Lyon,
1634, 24mo. ; Paris, 1636, 12mo. 8. " Du
Renouvellement d'Esprit." Lyon, 1651, 4to.
9. " De la Conception immacuk'e de la
Vierge." Grenoble, 1654, 4to. ; and by, 10.
"Grammaire Fran^aise." Lyon, 1657, 8vo.
{Bibliotheca Scriptorum Societatis Jesu, Opus
inchoatum a Ribadeneira, recognitum a Sot-
vello, p. 322. ; Niceron, 3Ic moires pour servir
a r Histoire des Hommes illustres, xxxiii. 403. ;
Le Long, Bibliotheque Historique de la France,
i. 533. iii. 151, &c. ; Baillet, Jugemens des
Savans sur les principaux Ouvrages des
Auteurs, vii. 244, et seq.) J. W.

ALBICA'NTE, GIOVA'NNI AL-
BE'RTO, a Milanese poet of some celebrity
in his time, who lived in the middle of the
sixteenth century. He received the laurel
crown from the hands of the Duke of Milan,
and is praised by Doni for his " ingegno
ammirabile," who also speaks of him as a
poet, "di fertilissimo ingegno." He was fond
of satire, and his temper was extremely
violent : to this latter circumstance, probably,
may be attributed the various literary dis-
putes in which he was involved with many
writers, particularly Pietro Aretino and
Doni. Indeed so remarkable was he for his
sarcastic turn, that to threaten any one with
the pen of Albicante became a common
mode of intimidation. Mazzuchelli has given
a very full account of the controversy with
Aretino (to whose envy Albicante declares
himself to be indebted for much of the cele-
brity he enjoyed), and refers to a very rare
work entitled " Abbattimento Poetico del
divino Aretino e del bestiale Albicante oc-
corso sopra la Guerra di Piemonte," &c.
This work, however, is nothing more than a
poetical account of the quarrel, written by
Aretino himself, who commenced the attack

ALBICANTE.

ALBICUS.

by his " Capitolo," which is a most severe
critique upon the "Guerra di Piemonte,"
in acknowledgment of a present of the poem
from its author. His principal pieces are —
1. " Al gran Marchese del Guasto : Notomia
d'Amore del famoso Albicante furibondo.
Bressa, 15.38," 8vo. 2. " Historia della
Guerra del Piemonte. Milano, 1538," 4to.
3. " Trattato del' intrar in Milano di Carlo
V. con le proprie Figure de li Archi, &c.
Mediolani, 1541," 4to. 4. " Selva di Pianto
sopra la Morte dell' illustrissinio Sig. Don
Antonio d'Aragona. Milano, 1543," 4to. 5.
" Lettera al Doni con un Sonetto sopra il
Duca Cosmo, con la risposta del Doni in
lode del detto Sonetto e dell' altre sue
Opere. Roma, 1547," 4to. 6. " Intrada in
ISIilano di D. Filippod' Austria Re di Spagna.
Yenezia, 1549," 4to. 7. " II sacro e divino
Sposalizio del gran Philippo d' Austria e della
sacra Maria d'Inghilterra, con TUnione ed
Obbedienza data alia Cattolica Fede. Milano,
1555," 4to. 8. " Le gloriose Gesta di Carlo V.
Roma, 1567," 8vo. In addition to these
he wrote many sonnets and other minor
pieces, which are not worth particularising.
It has been conjectured that Albicante may
have edited the editions of Berni's Rifaci-
mento of the Orlando Innamorato, pub-
lished in 1541 and 1542, from the circum-
stance of sonnets by him being prefixed to
them ; but there does not appear to be any
means of verifying this supposition. The
time of his death is not known. His poems
have been by several writers attributed to
Giulio Cesare Albicante, a monk, but the
circimistance of the latter not being born
until 1545 settles at once the question of his
claim to all excepting the " Gesta di
Carlo v.," which was published in 1567,
when Giulio was twenty-two jears of age ;
but as the author, who merely calls himself
Albicante, states that it was written eight
years before, when Giulio Cesare was only
fourteen years of age, there is little ground
for supposing that he had any greater share
in the authorship of this piece than in that
of the other poems. (Argellati, Bibliotheca
Scriptorum Mediolanensium, i. 17. ii. 1934. ;
Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d' Italia ; Quadrio,
Delia Storia d'ogni Poesia, iv. 139 — 143.)

J. AV. J.

ALBICASTRO (properly Weissenburg),
HEINRICH, a dillettante composer and
performer on the violin, was born in Switzer-
land, and lived in the beginning of the
eighteenth century. He was an officer in the
allied army during the war of the Spanish
succession. After the conclusion of the
war he printed, at Amsterdam, nine sets of
sonatas for the violin, which (published
without his name) are said in the title-
pages to be composed by D. B. W. Cavaliere.
(Walther, 31usicalisclies Lexicon.) E. T.

ALBICUS, SIGISMUNDIS, Albik, Al-
bicius, or Albericus, who is commonly called
701

Albicus of Prague, was born at Unczow or
Miihrisch Neustadt in Moravia. AMiile
young he went to the university of Prague,
where he gave his chief attention to the
study of medicine, in which he gained great
reputation, and which he afterwards taught
at Prague lor nearly thirty years. He also
studied both civil and canon law, and to
perfect himself in the knowledge of them
went for some time to Italy, where, in 1404,
he received at Padua the diploma of doctor
of laws. In 1409 Wenceslaus I\'., king of
Bohemia, to whom he had for many years
been physician, appointed him archbishop of
Prague against the consent of the canons.
But he held this office for only a short time ;
and in 1413 exchanged it for the priory of
Wissehrad, with which the pope allowed
him to bear the title of archbishop of
Cacsarea. The reasons of his retirement
from the see of Prague are uncertain. By
some it is ascribed to his having been un-
willing or unable to resist the progress of
the doctrines of Huss, whose followers he
treated with so much lenity that the Roman
Catholic writers of the time accused him of
being their partisan. By others he is said
to have resigned because he was too penurious
to endure the expense of holding so im-
portant and public a post ; and this seems
of the two explanations the more probable,
from the circumstances that Conrad, the for-
mer prior of Wissehrad, with whom he ex-
changed offices, gave him with the priory a
good smn of money, and that the Hussites
thought him so httle their friend that after
his death they destroyed his tomb. After
his retirement from Prague he lived for a
long time in seclusion at Wissehrad ; but
as the disturbances occasioned by the Huss-
ites increased, he went first to Moravia, and
then into Hungary, where he died in 1427.
He is admitted by contemporaries of all par-
ties to have been a very learned man. Long
after his death three medical essays by him
were published together, with the titles
" Praxis medendi. Regimen Sanitatis, Regi-
men PestilentiiP," 4to. Leipzig, 1484 and
1487. He wrote also a treatise, " De Quercu,"'
which has not been published. (Ignatius de
Born, Effigies Virorum ernditorum atque Arti-
ficum Buhemice et Moravia.) J. P.

ALBIGNAC, LOUIS ALEXANDRE,
BARON D', was born at Arrigas in Gascony
in 1739, of a family which was allied to the
ancient barons of Arre. He entered the army
at the age of sixteen, and was at the siege
of the castle of St. Philip in ^Minorca in
1756, when that fortress was surrendered
by General Blakeney to the Due de Riche-
lieu. Albignac afterwards held a military
command in Corsica till the year 1772,
when he proceeded to India. He was with
the French garrisons on the coast of Coro-
mandel in 1778, when the English governor
Hastings, foreseeing the outbreak of a fresh
z z 3

ALBIGNAC.

•war between the French and English, re-
solved to strike the first blow, and sent Sir
Hector Monro to attack Pondicherry before
hostilities were formally declared. Albignac
commanded the garrison of Pondicherry
under General Bellecombe. With a small
force he made a protracted defence, and the
place capitulated on honourable terms. He
served with distinction in the succeeding
campaigns, which were signalised by the
irruption of Hyder Ali, the ally of the
French, into the Carnatic, and terminated by
the fall of the French dominion in India.
After the peace of 1783 Albignac returned
to France. Upon the outbreak of the revo-
lution, he commanded the troops of the line
in the department of Gard, and in 1791
received the thanks of the Constituent As-
sembly. He commanded the force which
wrested Avignon and the Comtat Venaissin
from the pope, and annexed them to the
republic. He joined the army of the Alps
imder Kellcrmann, and afterwards passed
(1793) to the army of the Rhine which was
commanded by Custines. Under the Direc-
tor}- he commanded the tenth division. In
1798 he retired, after forty-six years' service,
and died at Vigan, near the place of his birth,
in 1820. {Biog. Univ. Siipp.) H. G.

ALBIGNAC, PHILIP FRANCOIS
MAURICE, was born at Milhaud, in the
Rouergue, in 1775. He was of the same
family as Louis Alexandre, but belonged to a
different branch. He was brought up a
page at the court of Louis XVI., and after
the revolution he followed the emigrant
princes to Coblenz, and entered the Aus-
trian service. When the revolution of De-
cember 1799, commonly called the 18th
Brumaire, raised Bonaparte to supreme
power, Albignac returned to France with
many other French nobles, and he entered the
imperial guard under Laval-Montmorency.
In 1808 he entered the service of Jerome
Bonaparte, king of Westphalia,^ and com-
manded the van of the tenth division of the
German army. At this time he pursued
Sehill through the north of Germany with-
out success, but took the town of Domiz.
He afterwards quarrelled with Jerome, and
returning to France, received a staff appoint-
ment under marshal Gouvion-St. Cyr, who
commanded the sixth division of the grand
army with which Bonaparte invaded Russia.
He was adjutant to St. Cyr at the action
near Polotsk, Oct. 1812, where St. Cyr re-
pulsed the Russian general Wittgenstein.
When Bonaparte landed from Elba, Albignac
adhered to the Bourbons, and the Duke of
Angouleme being imprisoned at Pont St.
Esprit, he found means to open a commvmi-
cation with him. He received full powers
from the duke, and among other services he
went on a mission to Louis XVIII., then at
Ghent. He returned to France with Louis
after the battle of Waterloo, and became for
702

a short time secretary at war under the second
restoration. He then obtained the place of
governor of the military school at St. Cyr.
In 1822 he retired from the service, and died
in 1824. (Biog. Univ. Supp.) H. G.

ALBIN, or ALWYN, bishop of Brechin,
was born about the beginning of the thir-
teenth century, and was elected to the
bishopric of Brechin in Scotland in the year
1243. He was witness to a charter of Wil-
liam de Brechin, given at the foundation
of an hospital in that city, called the Maison
Dieu, which William erected for the health
of the souls of William and Alexander III.,
kings of Scotland, John earl of Huntingdon
his brother, Henry his father, and Juliana
his mother. In the year 1260 Albin was
appointed an umpire in a controversy be-
tween Archibald, bishop of Moray, and some
of the canons of that see. During his epis-
copate, Othobon, the pope's legate a latere,
came into England and held a national synod.
He summoned the Scottish prelates to appear
before him by their commissioners, and to
bring with them a contribution of four merks
for every parish, and six merks for every
cathedral church. Albin was one of the
bishops who appealed to the king against this
extortion, and who, on their advice, prohibited
the clergy from paying this assessment. He
sent the bishop of Dunkeld, then chancellor
of the kingdom, partly to declare his reasons
for refusing the legate's demand and partly
to observe his proceedings. On his return,
he brought with him some synodical acts or
constitutions which had been agreed on for
the church and realm of England, and which
Othobon was desirous of imposing on the
Church of Scotland. Albin, with the other pre-
lates, met, and after deliberation they rejected
Othobon 's constitutions, declaring " that they
would acknowledge no statutes but such as
proceeded either from the pope or from a
general council." Albin was bishop of Brechin
twenty-six years, and died in the year 1269,
at an advanced age. (Keith's Cat. of Scottish
Bishops ; Spottiswood's Histon/.) T. S.

ALBIN, ELEAZAR, an English artist
who lived in London in the early and the
middle part of the eighteenth century. He
painted in water colours, and is known only
for his illustrated works on natural history,
of which he published several ; as natural
histories of insects, birds, spiders, &e., with
coloured plates from drawings from the life
by himself ; some of the plates were also
engraved by him. A " Natural History of
Spiders," published in London in 1793, by
Mr. T. Martyn, who possessed some of
Albin's original drawings, is partly a repub-
lication of a work by Albin, of whom Mr.
]Martyn says in his preface, " His inform-
ation in general is loose, miscellaneous,
and unmethodical, though sometimes it is
^musing, and often instructive ; but he prin-
cipally excels in the fidelity and correctness

ALBIN.

with ■which his subjects are delineated, both
as to their size and distinctive marks."

Albin, according to his own account, in his
" History of English Insects," published in
1749, was a teacher of drawing and painting
in water colours ; and was led more espe-
cially to the study of objects of natural
history, through the widow of Dr. How the
physician, for whom he made many drawings
of insects. He was afterwards mucli em-
ployed by Sir Hans Sloane, and also by
Mary Capell, Duchess Dowager of Beaufort,
upon drawings of the same description. In
1731 he published a costly worlv, in Latin,
upon English insects, under the following
title : — " Insectorum Anglian Naturalis His-
toria : illustrata Iconibus in Centum Tabidis
a;neis elegantur ad Vivum expressis, et istis,
qui id poscunt, accurate etiam coloratis ab
Authore, Eleazare Albin, Pictore. His ac-
cedunt Annotationes ampla?, et Observationes
plurimrc insignes, a Guil. Derham, R. S.
Socio habita-," 4to. London. In 1749 he
published it in English with the same plates,
dedicated to the Princess of Wales : " A
Natural History of English Insects, illus-
trated with a hundred copper-plates curiously
engraven from the life, and exactly coloured
by the author, Eleazar Albin, painter," &c.
The plates are dated 1713 and 1714, and have
each a special dedication to some distin-
guished personage ; they are engraved by
H. Terasson, Vander Gucht, Albin himself,
and some others. He published also in
1731, " A Natural History of Birds, illus-
trated with two hundred and five copper-
plates, engraven from the life, and exactly
coloured by the Author ; to which are added
notes and observations by W. Derham, with
indexes," 3 vols. 4to. London. In 1737,
" A Natural History of English Song Birds,
and such of the foreign as are usually brought
over and esteemed for their singing, &c. ;
to which are added figures of the cock, hen,
and egg of each species, exactly copied from
nature, by Eleazar Albin," 12mo. London :
of this little book the author published a
second edition in 1759 ; and a third was
published at Edinburgh in 1776.

The dates of Albin's birth and death are
unknown. He is not mentioned by Walpole
in the " Anecdotes of Painting in England,"
nor is any account of him given in any of
the biographical dictionaries. From what
has been stated above, however, he appears
to have been actively employed in his pro-
fession from 1713 and earlier imtll 17.59.
He most probably published several other
works besides those mentioned in this notice.
Coloured copies of both the Latin and the
English editions of his Natural History of
English Insects are in the collection of Sir
Joseph Banks in the British Museum.

R. N. W.
ALBIN, HENRY, one of the clergy who
were ejected in consequence of the Act of
703

Uniformity, was born at Batcomb, June 20.
1024, educated at a school at Glastonbury,
and at the university of Oxford, and ejected
for nonconformity, first from the living of
West Cammel in IGGO, and afterwards from
that of Duniet, in Somersetshire, in 1CG2. He
spent the rest of his life at his native place,
preaching occasionally in private houses,
there and at Spargrove, Frome Selwood,
Shepton Mallet, Brewton, and Wincanton.
He died on the 25th of September, 169G, in
his seventy-third year, leaving behind him a
high character for piety, prudence, industry,
and learning. He wrote — ^ 1. " A Practical
Discourse on loving the World, on 1 John, ii.
15." 2. " The Dying Pastor's last Farewell
to his Friends in Frome Selwood, &c., 1697,
8vo." (Palmer's JVonconformist's Memorial,
ii. 360.) P. S.

ALBI'NA, GIUSEPPE, called Sozzo, a
painter, sculptor, and architect of Palermo,
the scholar of Giuseppe Spatafora. He ex-
ecuted two statues, one of St. Sebastian
and one of St. Rock, placed on each side of
one of the gates of Palermo, by which he
acquired considerable reputation. He ex-
ecuted also other works, in his different
capacities, for the viceroy Marcantonio
Colonna, and various men of rank in
Palermo. Besides the notice of him in the
" Elogi " of Antonio Veneziano, Albina is
mentioned by Francesco Baroni and Man-
fredi, in their work entitled " De Panor-
mitana Majestate," iii. 2., which is inserted in
vol. xiii. of the " Thesaurus Antiquitatum et
Historiarum Italisc, Neapolis, Sicilite, &c." of
Grajvius ; the work contains Albina's por-
trait (copied and printed in a collection of
twenty portraits of celebrated men, published
by Pieter Vander Aa, at Leyden), and the
following Latin epigram : —

" Extinctum Pictura siiura deploret akimnum,
Funereaqiie obeat nobile veste caput.
Praefica Pictoris raoestffi Pictura sit urnae,
Et lepetat querulo carmine Sozzus obit."

He died at Palermo in 1611, and left a son,
Pietro Albina, who promised to have far
surpassed his father as an artist, but he died
still young in 1626. (Heineken, Diction-
naire des Artistes, ^-c. ; Fiorillo, Gcschichte
der Mahler ey, vol. ii!) R. N. W.

ALBI'NEUS, NATHAN, was a physician
in the seventeenth century, who published a
work on Chemistry at Geneva, in 1653, en-
titled " Bibliotheca chemica contracta," 8vo.
This volume consisted of three distinct works:
the first of these works was introductory, and
consisted of an alchemistical poem by J. A.
Angurellius, called " Chrj-sopceiffi," to which
were added two shorter poems, one entitled
" Vellus aureum," by the same author, and
the other " Carmen aureum," by Albineus
himself. The second work consisted of a
treatise on the uses of mercury and sulphur,
and was entitled " Cosmopolitan novum Lumen
chemicum, duobus constans Tractatibus de
z z 4

ALBINEUS.

ALBINI.

Mercurio scilicet et de Sulphure." The third
consisted of a series of dogmata in physical
science under the title " Anonymi Galli En-
chiridion PhysicBC restitutae et arcanuni her-
meticfc philosophitc Opus." No further notice
seems to exist of this author than the fact of
his havini^ published the above -work. E. L.
ALBINI, ALESSANDRO, a distin-
guished Bolognese painter of the school of
the Carracci, born at Bologna in 1568. There
are several pictures by him in the churches
and other buildings of Bologna and its vicinity.
He also assisted the Carracci in some of their
numerous works. Albini painted for the
funeral pomp in honour of Agostino Carracci,
celebrated in Bologna in 1602, a very spirited
l^icture of Prometheus descending from hea-
ven with the fire stolen from the chariot of
the sun, in order to animate his statue of
Pandora. To the picture was attached the
following motto, — " Sunt commercia coeli."
He executed also an excellent picture of St.
Benedict raising the dead for the convent of
San Michele in Bosco, near Bologna, which
was considered one of the best paintings of
the Bolognese school. The picture has since
perished, but there is an etching of it by
J. M. Giovannini. Albini died in 1646.)
Malvasia, Felsina PitUice ; Crespi, Vite de
Pittort Bohgnesi, ^c. ; Giordani, Pinacotcca
di Bologna.) R. N. W.

ALBINI, FRANZ JOSEPH, son of Cas-
par Anton Albini, chancery-director of the
landgrave of Hesse, was born at St. Goar on
the Rhine in 1748. Franz Joseph was sent
to prosecute his legal studies at Pont-a-
Mousson, Dillengen, and Wiirzbvirg. He
took the degree of doctor of laws in the last-
mentioned imiversity ; in what year his
biographers do not mention. About the year
1768 he was busy endeavouring to acquire
an acquaintance with legal practice, under
the immediate direction of his father, who
had by this time been appointed assessor to
the imperial court (reichs-kammer-gericht)
at Wetzlar. The years 1769 and 1770 were
spent by Franz Joseph at Vienna, where he
attended the supreme court (reichs-hof-rath)
to increase his practical knowledge.

His political career commenced while he
was yet only two and twenty, by his receiv-
ing the appoijitment of councillor of state
(Hof-und Regierungsrath) to the Prince-
bishop of Wiirzburg. In 1774 he was elected
assessor to the court at Wetzlar, and thus be-
came his father's colleague. The manner in
which he discharged the duties of this office
for thirteen years procured for him through-
out Germany the reputation of an able and
industrious lawyer ; and to this character
it was principally owing that Friedrich
Karl, elector of Mayence and chancellor of
the empire, appointed him, in 1787, private
secretary to the chancery at Vienna. This
office brought Albini into direct intercourse
with the Emperor Joseph II., who conceived,
704

in addition to a high opinion of his talents,
a warm personal affection for him. Albini
managed the Latin department of the chan-
cery for a few months ; was then placed at
the head of the German department, and had
the charge of both during 1788. The empe-
ror was at this period intent upon a project
for giving a more national character and
better organisation to the government of the
empire. Albini was employed in this busi-
ness, and to that end despatched in 1789 on
a special mission to several of the German
courts. In 1790 Joseph II., when attacked
by the illness which proved fatal to him, re-
called Albini to court, but the emperor was
dead before he arrived.

Albini discharged the duties of his office
in the chancery at the election and coronation
of Leopold III., but resigned immediately
after the solemnity, and accepted an appoint-
ment in the court of the Elector of Mayence.
That court had for some time been equally
distrusted by the parties of Prussia and Aus-
tria. The elector, an amiable but imbecile
old man, was entirely guided by his favour-
ites, and changed them frequently. The
credit of the electoral court both in financial
and political respects had sunk to the lowest
ebb, when in 1790 Albini was placed at the
head of its domestic and foreign affairs. It
was immediately felt that a powerful will
had assumed the direction of public business;
and when in 1792, on the death of von Seck-
endorf, Albini took the charge of finance
minister also into his own hands, the paper
issued by the Mayence government imme-
diately rose in value above that of any other
German state. Albini had a definite plan in
view, and he worked with order and punc-
tuality. His last business every evening was
to make a note of what had been done during
the day, and what was to be done on the
morrow. " By this means," he was wont
to say, " were I to die during the night,
business would not be at a stand for a
single moment."

Upon the sudden death of Leopold II. in
1792, Albini acted as delegate for Mayence
at the election of Francis II. He decided the
irresolute elector to dismiss Villars the
French envoy at his court ; and was present
at the interview of the emperor and the King
of Prussia in the palace of Blayence. From
this time till the death of the elector in July,
1802, Albini was the real ruler; his prince
left everything to his management. During
the occupation of Mayence by the French La
1792, Albini retired with the elector to
Aschaffenburg ; but no sooner was the town
retaken by the Prussians in 1793, than the
minister re-entered it. His first care was to
place the troops of the electorate on a more
respectable footing, and in this he succeeded
so well that from 1794 to 1797 they were as
efficient as any body of men in the German
army.

ALBINI.

Albini attended the congress at Rastadt in |
1797 as representative of the Elector of May-
ence, and for seventeen montlis he acted as
president of its deliberations. If moral cou-
rage and fertility in resources could have
availed, his counsels would have prepon-
derated, but the armed force in the back-
ground turned the scale. The negotiations
proved fruitless, and the war broke out again,
embittered by the indignation excited in
France by the murder of the French envoys.
Albini, who while the congress was sitting
had been the boldest and most uncompro-
mising asserter of German interests, was
lovidest in his denunciation of this violation
of the law of nations. He prepared instruc-
tions for an investigation into the transaction
which could scarcely have failed to elicit the
truth had it been allowed to proceed.

The civilian's services were now in less
request, and Albini turned to discharge the
military duties of a ruler. By his indefati-
gable activity the whole adult male popu-
lation of the electorate (the Laudsturm) was
brought under arms ; and on the first of Sep-
tember, 1799, he took the field at their head
with the rank of master- general of the ord-
nance. It is sufficient evidence of the talent
he displayed in this new ■ vocation that the
Archduke Charles repeatedly placed Austrian
brigades under his command. In the spring
of 1800 the greater part of the Mayence
contingent was ordered to join the Austrian
army : Albini was left with a weak detach-
ment. In this condition Augereau sent him
warning that hostilities were about to be re-
newed. The moment the truce was at an
end, Albini fell upon an advanced division
of the enemy, beat it out of the field, and got
possession of the military treasure (kriegs-
kasse) of the Dutch troops, and effected his
retreat without loss. He then took up a posi-
tion on the flank of Augereau, and harassed
him in his advance in a way that was bit-
terly complained of by the French general in
his reports to the Directory. A distinguished
French general was detached against him ;
but Albini with his weak force made good
his position till the suspension of arms which
preceded the peace of Luneville.

The ratification of the arrangements by
which the then reigning Elector of Mayence
was declared to be the last, had not taken
place in July, 1802, when the Elector Frie-
drich Karl died. Carl Theodor von Dalberg
had been elected coadjutor and successor of
the Elector of Mayence in 1787 ; but as af-
fairs stood, it was doubtful whether his claims
would be recognised. Albini acted with cha-
racteristic decision and promptitude. The
moment the elector was dead, he despatched a
courier to the coadjutor ; mounted on horse-
back and administered the oath of allegiance
to the troops, which had not been disbanded ;
returned to the palace and received the ad-
hesion of the civil officials ; and then threw
70.5

himself into a carriage to proceed to Ratis-
bou. On the road he was met by the new
elector, who had with equal promptitude re-
paired to that city and made the necessary
arrangements. All parties were thus taken
by surprise, and the succession of Carl Theo-
dor remained unchallenged.

Amid all the changes of title and territory
which fell to the lot of Carl Theodor during
his unhappy reign, from 1802 to 181.3, Albini
was his prime minister and most confidential
adviser. But both were involved in the vor-
tex of Napoleon's stormy activity, and directed
more by his will than their own. The bur-
densome and thankless toil of the minister
during this period was to alleviate as much as
possible to the subjects the pressure of events
over which he had no control. In 1802 he
was busy securing indemnities for the civil
servants grown grey in office, who were
thrown idle without any means of support.
In 1803 he was of essential service in his
master's territories, by protecting them from
the licentiousness of the soldiery on their
marches and countermarches. \\lien Von
Dalberg was created by Napoleon Fiirst
Primas of the Confederation of the Rhine,
Frankfurt assigned him as a capital, and
orders given to organise the new state in the
French fashion, the legal experience of Albini
was of essential service in adapting the new
forms to the existing state of society. The
year 1813, which put an end to the grand
duchy of Frankfurt, also put an end to Albini's
ministerial careei*.

From 1813 to 1815 he continued in a state
of inactivity, undermining his health by the
fretful impatience with which he endured
his constrained and unwonted idleness. To-
wards the close of 181.5 the Emperor Francis
appointed him his ambassador to the diet
of the Germanic Confederation. He repaired
immediately to Frankfurt, but his strength
was exhausted. Aware of approaching death,
he retired to his property at Dieburg, where
he died on the 8 th of January, 1816.

Albini was decidedly hostile to revolu-
tionary principles, and struggled against
them both in the cabinet and the field. But
he was an honourable opponent, and this was
acknowledged by the partisans of the re-
volution, even in the heat of the contest. In
politics he belonged, like many of his most
distinguished countrymen of his age, to the
school of Burke. Something of professional
pedantry he carried into his diplomatic
career ; but though tenaciously attentive
to forms, he valued them as contributing
to the despatch of business. He was just
and benevolent, and possessed in a high
degree both civil and military courage. His
manner to strangers was dry and reserved.
His greatest weakness was his propensity to
dwell with undue complacency in conversa-
tion on the importance of his own actions. He
married in 1773, and was survived by his

ALBINI.

■widow, a son, and two daughters. (Zeitge-
nossen, Dritten Dandes zwcite Ahthvilung,
Leipzig, 1818, 8vo.) W. W.

ALBI'NI, WILLIAM DE, was the son
of a Norman baron who accompanied William
the Conqueror in his invasion of England,
and was rewarded with the lordship of
Buckenham, in Norfolk, and the office of
king's butler. Little is known of the younger
Albini previous to his marriage with Adelais,
queen dowager of Henry I., who possessed the
castle of Arundel and other extensive estates
in Sussex in dower from the king. De Albini
is said to have advised the descent of Queen
Matilda on England ; but, though he joined
in receiving her at Arundel, and fortifying
the castle against Stephen, he took no part in
the contest after her departure for Bristol
[Adelais]. When Matilda's son Henry
renewed the contest in 1153, De Albini joined
King Stephen, with whom he had then long
been friendly. The rival armies came in
sight of each other at Wallingford ; but be-
fore joining in battle, a trifling accident oc-
curred, of which the Earl of Arundel took
advantage to settle the matter in dispute
without bloodshed. Stephen's horse became
restive, and threw his master thrice ; and
this causing some hesitation among his sol-
diers, who considered it as a bad omen, the
Earl of Arundel stepped forward, and in an
eloquent harangue set before the king the evils
of civil war with such effect that a truce was
at once concluded, and before the end of
the year the treaty of peace was ratified, by
which Stephen agreed that the crown on his
death should come to Henry. On the ac-
cession of Henry, in 1154, one of his first acts
was to confer on De Albini and his heirs for
ever the possessions he had acquired by his
marriage, together with the earldom of Sus-
sex, the livery of the third penny from the
pleas of the county, and other honours and
emoluments. In 11G4, on the flight of
Thomas a Becket from England, the Earl of
Arundel was sent, with the Archbishop of
York and others, on a mission to the pope.
It is remarkable that on this occasion, while
the bishops displayed the utmost violence in
their language, the lay Earl of Arundel was
extremely moderate in speech. His address
to the pontiff, as given at length in Gervase,
though it sets out with bespeaking indulgence
on the ground of the earl's illiteracy — that is
to say, his ignorance of Latin — gives ample
proof, before the close, that no allowance was
needed on the score of want of eloquence. Un-
fortunately, the earl's conciliatory views did not
meet the approval of the bishops ; the pope's
proposals for an accommodation were rejected,
and the mission returned unsuccessful. In
1173 the earl of Arimdel distinguished him-
self in the war in Normandy caused by the
rebellious sons of Henry, and in the same
year, in conjunction with the justiciary and
the high constable, De Lucy and De Bohun,
706

he defeated the Earl of Leicester and a body
of Flemings in the pay of the King of France,
who had landed at Dunwich, taken Norwich,
and threatened to overrun the country. At
this battle, which took place at Fornham, in
Suffolk, both the earl and countess of Leicester
were taken, with all the knights in their
train ; and, according to some historians, no
less than ten thousand Flemings were left
dead on the field. This was De Albini's
last important service. After founding the
abbey of Buckenham, and joining in many
religious benefactions, he died at Waverley,
in Surrey, on the 12th of October, 1176, and
was buried at Wymondham Abbey, in Nor-
folk, which had been founded by his father.
He was succeeded by WiUiam, his eldest son,
besides whom he had three sons and three
daughters by Queen Adelais.

Much controversy has taken place on the
question, whetlier De Albini became earl of
Arundel solely by his marriage with Adelais,
by which he became possessed in her right of
the castle, and, according to most writers, of
the earldom, or whether he was raised to the
dignity in his own person, either by Matilda,
as asserted by some historians, or by Stephen.
Much light is thrown on the point, so far as
it can be at tliis distance of time, by the re-
port of the lords' committee on the dignity
of a peer, which was drawn up by the late
Lord Redesdale. That report is opposed to
the opinion that the earldom of Arundel was
originally conveyed by the possession of the
castle, though a solemn decision of parlia-
ment to that effect was given in 1433, since
which period it has been held that the castle
carried with it the earldom. The opposite
view to that of Lord Redesdale is sup-
ported at great length in Tierney's " History
of Arundel." (Gervase, in Decern Scriptores,
1373. 1395. Brompton, in ibid. 1086. 1089. ;
Dugdale, Baronage, i. 118.; Annules Wa-
verleienses, in Gale, Historia Anglicance Scrip-
tores, ii. 161. ; lieport of the Lords Committee
on the Diqniti/ of a Peer, p. 408, &c. ; Tierney,
Histon/ of Arimdel, p. 117. 169, &c.) J. W.

ALBI'NIUS, LU'CIUS, a Roman plebeian,
who, when the rest of the citizens, after the rout
on the Alia in b. c. 390, were flying from the
Gauls, conveyed in his own cart, from which
he had obliged his wife and children to dis-
mount, the Flamen of Quirinus, and the
vestal virgins with the sacred things they
were bearing away, in safety, to Ca?re. (Livy,
V. 40. ; Valerius Maximus, i. 1. 10.)

W. B. D.

ALBI'NIUS, LU'CIUS PATER'CULUS,
one of the original tribunes of the commons
on the first institution of the tribunate as a
national magistracy in b. c. 492. The name
is sometimes, but less correctly, written Albi-
nus. (Livy, ii. 33. ; Asconius, in Ciceronis
Cornelianam, p. 76. vol. ix. of Orellius' Cicero.)

W. B. D

ALBINO, GIOVANNI (in Latin Al-

ALBINO.

binus, Joannes), a Neapolitan statesman and
historian, who lived in the latter part of the
fifteenth century, is stated by the Italian bio-
graphers to have been of the to^Tn of Castel-
iiiccia, in the diocese of (^apaccio, which is in
the province of Principato Citra. He studied
under Pontano and Panormitano (Beccadelli);
and it appears from published documents
that he became abbot and commendator of
the abbey of S. Pietro del Piemonte di Ca-
serta, and librarian to Alfonso II., duke of
Calabria, the son and eventually the successor
of Ferdinand I. in the throne of Naples.
Some authorities also call Albino abbot of
S. Agnolo at Fasanella. He stood high in
the favour and confidence both of King Fer-
dinand and Duke Alfonso, the latter of
■ffhora styles him his counsellor, and appears
to have relied greatly upon his advice both
in civil and military alfairs. In February
1495, after Alfonso, who had become king
the preceding yeai% had abdicated in favour
of his son Ferdinand, Chai-les VIII. of France
entered and took possession of Naples ; upon
which Albino, as one of the chief adherents of
the expelled Aragonese house, was declared
a rebel and deprived of all he possessed by
order of the French king's lieutenant and
vicar-general, the Comte de Montpensier ;
but when the French were driven out a few
months after, it may be presumed that Albino
returned along with Ferdinand II. and reco-
vered his property. The date of his death is
not recorded ; but we hear nothing of him
after the year 1496. He is the author of a
work relating to the transactions of his own
time and country, in many of which he was
personally concerned, entitled, in the original
edition printed in 4to. at Naples in 1.589,
" Joannis Albini Lucani de Gestis Regum
Neapo. ab Ai-ragonia, qui extant libri qua-
tuor." As it has been preserved, the work,
which was published by the author's grand-
nephew Ottavio Albino, consists only of the
first, second, and fifth books, which are oc-
cupied with militarj- operations carried on by
Alfonso while he was duke of Calabria ;
and the sixth, the subject of which is the
contest with the French under his son Ferdi-
nand ; but a good deal of information with
regard to the events of the intermediate space,
of which Albino's narrative is lost, is con-
tained in a collection of instructions, patents,
and letters, mostly addressed to him by the
members of the Aragonese royal family, which
is appended to the history. The volume,
which is of great rarity, consists of 446 pages ;
of which the history, in Latin, fills 1.54 ; the
appendix of documents, some in Latin, some
in Italian, 286 ; and a Latin oration delivered
by Albino at the coronation of his friend
Alfonso (styled Alfonso II.), which im-
mediately follows the history, the remaining
six. The Abbe Lenglet du Fresnoy, who
in his " Methode pour ctudier I'Histoire"
(iii. 361.) describes this work as extremely
707

rare, and j-et very curious, and adds that
it is still more rare to find added to it the
letters of the same author, had probably
never seen the appendix of letters, which are
not written by Albino, but addressed to him.
Mazzuchelli says that the volume was re-
printed at Naples in 1594. Both the his-
tory and the letters are reprinted in the fifth
volume of the " Raccolta di tutti i piii rino-
mati Scrittori dell' Istoria Generale del Regno
di Napoli," 4to. Napoli, 1769 ; and the same
impression was also published in a separate
volume. (Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d' Italia,
who refers to Tafuri, Storia dexjli Scritt. nati
nel Regno di Najioli, iii. 373., and to Volpi,
Chronologia de' Vescovi Pestani, &c. 192 —
194.)

The Joannes Albinus whose Latin poems
are contained in the first part of the " De-
licise Poetarum Germanorum hujus supe-
riorisque sevi illustrium, 12mo. Francof." (p,
183 — 370.), and who is erroneously entered
in the new catalogue of the British Museum
Librai-y as the same person with the Neapo-
litan historian, was a Saxon, and appears to
have lived at least half a century later than
Giovanni Albino. Among his poems is one
of some length, in hexameters, on the anni-
versary of the battle of SieA'erhausen, which
was fought between Albert, margrave of
Brandenburg, and Maurice of Saxony, in
1553. Another is an historical poem entitled
" De Mutationibus Regnorum, deque Qnatuor
in Mundo ^Monarchiarum Serie ; " a third is
devotional, " De Veteri et Nova Pentecoste,
deque prsccipuis Filii Dei . . Beneficiis ; " the
rest are Nuptial ia, Funebria, Epigrammata,
&c. G. L. C.

ALBINO'NL TOMMASO, a diligent
composer of operas, an agreeable singer, and
a skilfid perfoi-mer on the violin, was born at
^'enice. The period of his birth and that of
his death can only be inferred from the
commencement and conclusion of his public
career. He wrote more than fifty operas be-
tween the years 1694 and 1741, but such of
these compositions as survive indicate rather
a readiness of writing than any bright or ori-
ginal thought. In instrumental composition
he was more successful, perhaps because
he wrote less. (Gerber, Lexicon der Ton-
kdnstJer.) E. T.

ALBINOVA'NUS, CAIUS PEDO, a
Roman poet, a friend and contemporary of
Ovid, who addressed to him the tenth letter
of the fourth book of his "Epistolse ex
Ponto." Respecting his life nothing is
known. He appears to have tried his talent
at various kinds of poetry, and we have
reason for believing that he wrote an epic
poem on the exploits of Germanicus, and that
the twenty-three verses preserved in Seneca,
which are known under the title " De Na-
vigatione Germanici per Oceanum Septen-
trionalem," are a fragment of this epic poem.
These verses describe the voyage of Ger-

ALBINOVANUS.

ALBINUS.

manicus through the Amisia (Ems) into the
Northern Ocean, which took place in a. d.
16. Albinovanus is said to have excelled
in epic poetry, and he is also said to have
written epigrams, but none are extant.

There are three Latin elegies which Jo-
seph Scaliger, and many others after him,
have ascribed to Albinovanus. The titles of
these elegies are — 1 . " Consolatio ad Liviam
Augustam de Morte Drusi." 2. " De obitu
Majcenatis ; " and, 3. " De Maecenate mori-
bundo." The first of them is ascribed to
Ovid in several ancient MSS., and also by
several modern scholars, such as Passerat,
Casp. Barth, and others. The poem is well
written, and is indeed not unworthy of the
age of Augustus ; but there is not the
slightest evidence to render it probable that it
is the work of Albinovanus. As regards the
two other elegies, which Jos. Scaliger likewise
attributes to Albinovanus, without however
finding many followers, they are altogether
unworthy of the Augustan age, no less than
of the character of Albinovanus's style, which
Quinctilian calls " sidereum," on account of
its sublimity. The language is indeed pure
Latin, but the whole manner of treating the
subjects betrays a writer of a much later age.
(Seneca, Suasoria, 1. ; Tacitus, Annul, ii.
23. ; Martial, v. 5. ; Quinctilian, x. 1. vi. 3. ;
Seneca, Epist. 122.; Wernsdorf, Poetce La-
tini Minorcs, iv. p. 34, &c. 229, &c. ; Bur-
mann, Anthologia Latina, ii. 121.)

The fragment of Albinovanus on the voy-
age of Germanicus is printed in Burmann's
" Anthologia Latina," ii. 121, &c., and in
Wernsdorf 's " Poeta; Latini Minores," iv. The
elegies are also printed in Bui'mann's " Antho-
logia Latina," ii. 119, &c.; and in Wernsdorf 's
" Poeta; Latini Minores," iii. 155, &c. The first
edition of all that is ascribed to Albinovanus
was by Theodorus Corallus, Amsterdam, 17 03,
8vo., which contains the notes of Jos. Scaliger,
Lindenbrog, and D. Heinsius. It was reprinted
at Amsterdam in 1715, and again at Niirnberg
in 1771, but without the notes. The most
recent edition is that of J. H. F. Meineke,
which contains the text and a German trans-
lation in verse, Quedlinburg, 1819, 8vo.

L. S.

ALBFNUS, a Roman procurator of Ju-
da-a in the reign of Nero (perhaps a. d.
63, 64, and the early part of 65). He was
appointed to the government of the pro-
vince on the death of Portius Festus. His
government is described by Josephus as a
tissue of abuses of every kind ; he plun-
dered the unfortunate provincials covertly
and openly ; oppressed them with heavy
taxes ; took bribes from their relatives to
release such as had been imprisoned by
the local authorities, or by former pro-
curators, on a charge of robbery ; and con-
ceded, for a similar consideration, oppor-
tunities of creating disturbance to the more
wealthy and seditious Jews, while those of
708

quieter disposition were plundered with im-
punity. He did, indeed, at the beginning of
his administration, exercise some severity
against the Sicarii or assassins, of whom he
wished to clear the country ; and when he
heard that Florus was coming to succeed him,
he made some severe examples of the more
atrocious criminals then in custody. The
wickedness of his administration was how-
ever thrown into the shade by the greater
atrocities of his successor, Gessius Florus,
who goaded the Jews to the revolt which
issued in their ruin. Tacitus has mentioned
a Luceius Albinus, procurator of Mauretania,
who was slain in the civil war between Otlio
and Vitellius (a. d. 69). Possibly he may
have been the same person as the procurator
of Judffia. (Josephus, Jewish Antiq. book xx.
c. 10. ; War, bookii. c. 14. ; Tacitus, Hint.
lib. ii. c. 58, 59.) J. C. M.

ALBI'NUS ('AAgr^os), a contemporary of
Galen, who consequently was living in the
latter part of the second century a. d. He
wrote an introduction to the Dialogues of
Plato (Eliraywyri ils tovs TlAdTwvos Aia\6yovs\
which was printed by Fabricius in his Bib-
liotheca (1st ed.), and again by Fischer in
the third edition of Four Dialogues of Plato,
Leipzig, 1783, 8vo.

The authorities which speak of Albinus
have been collected by Fabricius. {Bibliuth.
GrcEC. iii. 158.)

This Albinus Platonicus has sometimes
been confounded with a Latin writer of the
same name, who is mentioned by Boethius
and Cassiodorus. He wrote on geometry,
on the Dialectical works of Aristotle, and on
music. Cassiodorus {De Musica, c. 5.) says
that he had the work of Albinus in his library
at Rome, and had read it : the work was
brief. (Fabricius, Biblioth. Grcec. iii. 158.
459.) G. L,

ALBI'NUS, abbot of St. Augustin's, Can-
terbury, assisted Bede in the writing of his
" Ecclesiastical History of the English
Nation." He was a learned man, having
acquired a considerable acquaintance with
the Greek language and perfect knowledge
of the Latin, under the instruction of
Theodore, archbishop, and Adrian, abbot
of Canterbury, the latter of whom he suc-
ceeded in 708. Among other portions of
Bede's history for which he quotes Albinus
as his authority, are the acts of Pope Gre-
gory's missionaries and their siiccessors in
the province of Canterbury and the parts
adjoining. There is a letter from Bede to
Albinus in which he thanks him for again
assisting him in this work. He died in 732.
(Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica Gcntis Anglo-
rum, book V. chap. 20., and the introductory
letter to King Ceolwulf in the same
history ; William Thorne, Chronicle.)

A. T. P.

ALBI'NUS, BERNARD, was born at
Dessau, where his father was consul, in 1653.

ALBINUS.

He was descended from an ancient Fran-
conian family, whose original name, Weiss,
had been altered to Von Weissenliiw, by the
Emperor Ferdinand III., when he confirmed
the title of nobility granted them by his pre-
decessor Maximilian I. The name of AI-
binus was first assumed by Peter von Weis-
senlciw, professor of poetry and mathematics,
at Wittenberg, in whose house the grandfather
of Bernard took refuge when reduced by
misfortune to extreme poverty.

Bernard Albinus received his early educa-
tion at home, and at the schools of Dessau
and Bremen vmder Henry Alers. On its
completion he went to Leyden ; and having
studied medicine and anatomy under Dre-
lincourt and others, received his doctor's
diploma in 1676. He visited Paris to study
surgery, and after travelling through great
part of France, returned to Holland in 1680.
In 1681 he was appointed professor of medi-
cine in the university of Frankfort on the Oder;
and he soon after added to his medical lec-
tures others on geometry and algebra. At
this time also he wrote most of his essays,
and had so high a reputation as a practitioner,
that he was frequently called to give his
advice to the German and Polish princes,
who resided far from Frankfort ; among these,
Frederick William, elector of Brandenburg,
sent for him to Potsdam, and appointed him
his physician. He held this office till the
elector's death in 1688, and then returned to
his professorship at Frankfort. In 1694 he
was offered the chair of medicine at Gro-
ningen ; but the new elector, Frederick, re-
tained his services by adding 600 florins
a-year to his income, and promising him the
first vacant canon's stall in the cathedral of
Magdeburg. In 1696 Albinus married; and
in 1697, being appointed physician to the
elector, went to Berlin, where he lived in the
most familar intercourse with his master. In
1700 he was invited to the professorship of
anatomy and surgery at Leyden, but the
elector would not spare him, and offered to
ennoble him ; an honour which Albinus de-
clined from the same modesty and love of
retirement which had hitherto induced him to
conceal his noble origin. In 1702, anxious
for domestic quiet and a scientific life, he
added his own petition to that of the heads
of the Leyden universitj', and at length per-
suaded the king (the Elector of Branden-
burg had in 1701 assumed the title of king
of Prussia) to let him accept the offered pro-
fessorship. For the rest of his life he devoted
himself to his lectures, of which the reputa-
tion contributed materially to increase the
number of students at Leyden. He died in
1711, leaving eleven children, of whom three
became professors of medicine.

Bernard Albinus appears to have been a
man of singular modesty, prudence, and kind-
ness of disposition. In whatever situation he
was placed he obtained the love and respect
709

of those around him ; and it was probably
to these qualities and to his excellence as a
lecturer, more than to any great talent or
success in medical science, that he owed the
reputation which he long and generally en-
joyed. His works are all brief dissertations
and orations : their titles are as follow ; and,
with the exceptions indicated, they were all
published at Frankfort, in 4to. — I . " De Cata-
lepsi," 1676. 2. " De Adfectibus Animi,"
1681. 3. "DeFonticulis," 1681. 4. "DeVe-
nenis,"1682. 5. " De Sterilitate," 168.3. 6.
" De Elephantiasi Java; nova;," 1683. 7.
" De Atrophia," 1684. 8. " De iEgro Me-
lancholia Hypochondriaca laborante," 1684.
9. " De Poris Corporis humani," 1685. 10.
" De Salivatione Mercuriali," 1684. 11.
" De Thea," 1685. 12. " De sacro Freyend-
waldcnsium Fonte," 1685. 13. " De Cervo
Glande plumbea trajecto," 1686. 14. " De
Missione Sanguinis," 1686. 15. " De Can-
tharidibus," 1687. 16. " De Hydrophobia,"
1687. 17. " De Paracentesi Thoracis et Ab-
dominis," 1687. 18. " De Melancholia,"

1687. 19. " De Phosphoro liquido et solido,"

1688. 20. " De Massa; Sanguines Corpus-
culis," 1688. 21. " De Somnambulatione,"

1689. 22. " De Pravitate Sanguinis," 1689;
23. " De Diabete vera," 1689. 24. " De
Apoplexia," 1690. 25. " De Epilepsia,"

1690. 26. " De Pica," 1690. 27. " De Car-
dialgia," 1691. 28. " De Incubo," 1691. 29.
" De Fame canina," 1691. 30. " De Taran-
tismo," 1691. 31. " De Mania," 1692. 32.
" Vomica Pulmonum," 1693. 33. " De Dy-
senteria," 1693. 34. " De Morbo Hun-
garico," 1693. 35. " De Paronychia," 1694.
36. " De Febre Quartana," 1694. 37. " De
Atherapeusia Morborum," 1694. 38. " De
Elephantiasi," 1694. 39. " De Polypis,"
1695. 40. "De Tabaco," 1695. 41. " De
Polypis (Narium)," 1695. 42."DeCataracta,"
1695. 43. "De iEgilope," 1695. 44. " De
Partu difficili," 1696. 45. " De Pleuritide
vera," 1696. 46. " De Abortu," 1697. 47.
"De Partu naturali," 1697. 48. " De Ortu
et Progressu Medicina;. Leida;, 1697." 49.
" Oratio de Incrementis et Statu Artis
Medica;. Leida?, 1711." 50. " Oratio in
Obitum J. J. Ravii. Leida^, 1719." There
is also an essay by him in the " Acta Na-
tural Curiosorum," Dec. II. Ann. IV. Obs. 94. ;
and his lectures were published with the
title " Caussa; et Signa Morborum, Gedani,
1792-5." (Boerhaave, Oratio Academica de
Vita et Obitn Bernhardi Albini, Lugd. Bat.
1721, 4to. ; Haller, Bibliotheccc.) J. P.

ALBINUS, BERNARD SIEGFRIED,
the eldest son of Bernard Albinus, was born
at Frankfort on the Oder, in 1697. He
received both his classical and his medi-
aal education at Leyden, and showed in his
early years an intellect considerably superior
to that of his fellow-students. He studied
medicine in the university under his father
and the other professors, and received addi-

ALBINUS.

tional instruction from Ruysch and Rau, in
Avliose labours he freiiuently shared. In 1718
ho went to Paris to study at the hospitals,
but in the following year was recalled to
Leyden to take the office of reader in ana-
tomy and surgery. In 1721, on the death of
his father, he was unanimously elected to the
professorship of those sciences, and for more
than twenty years from that tune he entirelj'
devoted himself to the study and teaching of
them. In 1745 he was chosen professor of
therapeutics, and he remained in this office
till his death in 1770.

Bernard Siegfried Albinus, though the best
anatomist of his time, was not a great dis-
coverer. The knowledge of many single
facts is due to his investigations ; but he was
not the author of any important principle in
anatomy or physiology. His merit consists
in the accuracy with which he investigated
all the subjects of his study, the clearness
and completeness of his descriptions, and
the care which he bestowed on the delinea-
tion of the various structures of the body.
In all these he was unequalled ; and he thus
contributed more than any of his predeces-
sors to render descriptive anatomy an exact
science. The commencement of that close
study of anatomy by which it is now nearly
perfected in its adaptations to sui'gery may
be traced in the publication of his works.
The engravings of the bones and muscles by
Vaudelaar have never been surpassed in
fidelity, and have rarely been equalled in
beauty of execution. They are said to have
cost Albinus 30,000 florins, for the artist
lived for several years under his roof, and
many of the first engravings were destroyed
for trivial inaccuracies or defects.

The woi-ks of B. S. Albinus are — 1. " Oratio
inaug. de Anatome Oomparata, Leid. 1719,
4to." in which he treats of the ovular gene-
ration of animals as compared with that of
plants. 2. " Oratio qua in veram Viam qua?
ad Fabrica; Corporis liumani Cognitionem
ducit, inquiritur. Leid. 1721, 4to." 3. "Index
suppellectilis Anatomiaj quam legavit J. J.
Ravius. Leid. 1721, 4to.," containing a life
of Rau, and an account of his method of
lithotomy described as Albinus had often
seen him operate. [Rau.] 4. " De Ossibus
Corporis humani. I^eid. 1726, 8vo.," a manual
for students. 5. " Historia Musculorum Homi-
nis. Leid. 1734, 4to." At the time of its
publication this was esteemed, and justly, the
most complete work on descriptive anatomy
that had ever appeared. 6. " De Arteriis et
Venis Intestinorum Hominis. Leid. 1737,
4to. ;" a remarkably accurate description,
with a plate by L' Admiral. 7. " De Sede et
Caussa Coloris iEthiopum et CEeterorum
Hominum. Leid. 1737, 4to." The pigment
is here described, not as a network, but as a
continuous membrane, and its seat is more
accurately explained than it was before. 8.
" Icones Ossium Foetus Humani. Leid. 1737,
710

4to." 9. " Tabula; Sceleti et Musculorum Cor-
poris humani. Leid. 1747, fol. max." An edi-
tion of this, Albinus' greatest work, was pub-
lished at London in 1749, and again in 17()9 ;
and an English one of very inferior merit at
Edinburgh in 1777. 10." Tabula Septem Uteri
gravidi. Leid. 1748, fol. max." An appendix
to this was published in 1751. 11. " Tabulre
Ossium humanorum. Leid. 1753, fol. max."
12. " Tabula Vasis chyliferi cum Vena Azygo,
&c. Leid. 1757, fol." 13. " De Sceleto hu-
mano, Leid. 1762, 4to." 14. " Annotationes
Anatomica?," published in eight books or parts
between 1754 and 1768. They consist for the
most part of short essays in anatomy, with se-
veral weU-executed plates : an analysis of their
contents may be found in Haller, "Bibliotheca
Anatomica," t. ii. p. 128., and in Portal,
" Hist, de I'Anatomie et de la Chirurgie,"
t. iv. p. 553. They contain also Albinus'
parts of the long controversy in which he
angrily engaged with Haller and others
respecting his claim to the discovery of the
human membrana pupillaris, and some other
less important structures. He edited the
works of Harvey and Fabricius ab Aquapen-
dente at Leyden in 1757, and, with Boer-
haave, those of Vesalius in 1725. Twice
also he edited, with notes, the " Tabula; Ana-
tomica;" of Eustachius. In the " Epheraerides
Natura; Curiosorum" there is an account by
him of the pha;nomena of digestion in a man
whose ileum had an external communication,
so that it was possible to ascertain the time
in which different substances passed through
the upper part of the digestive canal ; and
he was the author of several additions to the
Bibliographia Anatomica of Douglas, pub-
lished at Leyden in 1744. (^Cornmenturii de
Ixchus in Scientia naturali et MeiUcina
gesti.s, Lipsia;, 1771, t. xvii. p. 543.) J. P.

ALBINUS, CHRISTIAN BERNARD,
the second son of Bernard, was professor of
anatomy at Utrecht, where he died in 1752.
His works are — 1. " Specimen Anatomicum
exhibens novam teuuium Hominis Intesti-
norum structuram. Leid. 1722, 4to., and
1724, 8vo. ;" and 2. " De Anatome prodente
Errores in Medicis, Trajecti ad Rhenum,
1723, 4to." and 3. " Diss, de Igne. Leid. 1725,
8vo." They are of trivial importance. (Hal-
ler, BihliothcccE.) J. P.

ALBI'NUS, CLO'DIUS, whose complete
name, according to his medals, was Decimus
Clodius Ceionius Septimius Albinus, was a
native of Adrunietum in Africa. His father's
name was Ceionius Postumius, and his mo-
ther was Aurelia Messalina. He derived his
descent from the Roman Postumii and Ceionii
Albini ; and he received the appellation of
Albinus from the whiteness of his body at
the time of his birth. His youth was spent
in Africa, where he made only moderate
progress in Greek and Latin learning. From
his boyhood he showed a predilection for a
military life. He entered the army at an

ALBINUS.

early age, and became known to the Antonini
through LoUius Serenus, Bifhius Maicianus,
and Ceionius Postimiius, with whom he had
family connections. He served as a tribune
in a body of Dahnatian cavah-y, and succes-
sively in the fourth and first legions. During
the rebellion of Avidius Oassius, in the reign
of M. Aurelius Antoninus (a. d. 175), he kept
the Bithynian armies faithful to the emperor.
There is extant a letter of Aurelius in which
he acknowledges the services of Albinus, and
declares his intention to the person to whom
it is addressed, to honour Albinus with the
consulship. On the accession of Commodus
(a. D. 180), Albinus was removed to a com-
mand in the Gauls, where he gained great
reputation by defeating the Frisian nations
beyond the Rhine. Commodus offered to con-
fer on him the title of Caesar and other
privileges, but Albinus prudently declined
these honours, either foreseeing that the fall
of Commodus was near, or from knowing
his jealous disposition. He was in the com-
mand of the armies in Britain when a false
report arrived of the death of Commodus.
In the harangue which he made to the sol-
diers on this occasion, he said that the se-
nate should resume their former power, which
would be the only means of preventing such
men as Vitellius, Nero, and Domitian from
exercising their tyranny : Commodus, he
said, would have been a better governor, if
he had feared the senate. For these reasons,
he said, he had declined the title of Caesar ;
he hoped that no one else would take it ; and
that the senate would hold the supreme
power and distribute the provinces. The
close of his speech, if truly reported, shows
that bis profession of regard to the senate
was more nominal than real : " Let the
senate make us consuls ; and why do I say
the senate ? I mean yovi yourselves and
your fathers, for you will be senators." These
professions, however, secured the affection of
the Roman senate, who preferred Albinus to
all the competitors for the imperial power.
The report of this harangue reached Com-
modus, who immediately sent Junius Severus
to supersede him ; but Commodus appeal's to
have been assassinated before anything was
done ; at least there is no evidence that Al-
binus ever lost the command in the Gauls
and Britain.

Albinus is said to have suggested the
assassination of Pertinax, the successor of
Commodus, though this is stated so vaguely
by Capitolinus that it is difficult to know
what he means. Albinus was still in Gaul
or Britain with his army when Pertinax lost
his life. On the death of Pertinax (a. d. 193)
Julianus was named Imperator by the senate
in Rome, Septimius Severus by the army in
lUyricum, Pescennius Niger in the East, and
Clodius Albinus in Gaul. According to an-
other statement, Severus conferred on Al-
binus the title of Caesar in order to keep him
711

quiet, and to gain time for his contest with
Pescennius Niger, his most formidable rival.
It seems certain that Severus made a show
of sharing the supreme power with Albinus.
There is a medal of Albinus extant which
appears to have been struck on the occasion
of some compact between them, by which
Severus associated Albinus with him in the
empire ; the inscription isCoNcoRDiAE Avgg.
In the year a. u. 194 Albinus was consul with
Severus. After the defeat of Niger, Severus,
wishing to secure the succession to his sons, and
fearing the favourable disposition of the senate
towards Albinus, attempted to get rid of him
by assassination. He sent him a most friendly
letter, a copy of which is preserved by Capi-
tolinus, in which Severus addresses him by
the title of Caesar and brother in the empire.
The bearers of the letter had instructions to
assassinate Albinus, but he suspected the
treachery, and, by putting them to the tor-
ture, extracted from them a full confession.
It is not stated where Albinus was when he
received this treacherous message, but he was
probably in Britain, for it is stated that he
moved his forces from Britain to Gaul on
hearing that Severus, finding his treachery
discovered, was advancing upon him from
the East with his usual promptitude.

A bloody and decisive battle was fought
by the two armies, which mustered on each
side 150,000 strong, near Lugdunum (Lyon).
Albinus was defeated, and lost his life ; ac-
cording to some accounts he committed
suicide (a. d. 197). Lugdunum, which Al-
binus had occupied before the battle, was
taken and burnt by the soldiers of Severus.
The head of Albinus was brought to Severus,
who sent it to Rome with a letter to the
senate, in which he upbraided them for their
attachment to Albinus. Albinus left a son,
or according to some authorities, two sons,
who, with their mother, were put to death by
Severus.

Albinus reigned as Ca>sar and Augustus
for three years and eight months in Gaul,
Britain, and Germany. There are few me-
dals of his time, which is explained by the
fact that the colonies in those provinces
which he possessed were not accustomed to
coin. His title on some of his medals is
Imperator Ctesar Clodius Septimius Albinus
Augustus. The time of his birth, and con-
sequently his age, is unknown ; but Seve-
rus, in his own Memoirs, states that he was
advanced in years when he acquired the im-
perial power, and that he was older than
Pescennius Niger. Severus left on record
his unfavourable opinion of the character of
Albinus ; but the testimony of so perfidious
an enemy cannot be received, and from other
evidence it appears that Albinus was entitled
to respect. For his virtues and good qualities
in his early years at least we have the evi-
dence of M. Aurelius Antoninus in a letter
which is preserved by Capitolinus. iElius

ALBINUS.

Cordus, a collector of all kinds of scandal,
accuses him of incredible gluttony ; it is not
improbable that as he advanced in years he
grew indolent and addicted himself to plea-
sure. It is recorded of him that he was
hated by his wife, was a hard master to his
slaves, and savage towards his soldiers. His
punishments were cruel, and he never par-
doned. He was well acquainted with agri-
culture, on which he wrote a treatise : he
was also said to be the author of a collection
of stones called Milesian. (Julius Capito-
linus, Clodius Albinus ; Herodian, lib. iii. ;
Dion Cassius, lib. 73. 75. ; Rasche, Lexicon
Univ. Rei JVumariir.) G. L.

ALBINUS FLACCUS. [Alcuin.]

ALBINUS.. FRI'EDRICH BERNARD,
the youngest son of Bernard, was born at
Leyden in 1715, and died in 1778. In 1745
he succeeded his brother Bernard Siegfried
in tlie professorship of anatomy and surgery,
and in 1771 in that of therapeutics. His
works are — 1. " Disputatio de Deglutitione.
Leid. 1740, 4to." 2. "Specimen Philosophicum
Inaugurale de Meteoris ignitis. Leid. 1740,
4to." 3. " De Dissensione Anatomicorum.
Leid. 1747, 4to." 4. " De Ambulatione, de
eaque utili et necessaria. Leid. 1769, 4to."
5. " De Natura Hominis. Leid. 1775, 8vo."
This last, which is his chief work, consists
of little more than a series of aphorisms in
physiology, chiefly founded on the precepts of
his brother, Bernard Siegfried, whose opinions
he seems to have inherited with his profes-
sorships. A catalogue of the anatomical
museum left by Bernard Siegfried is added in
an appendix. (^Commentarii de Jiebus, ^~c.
Lipsiaj, t. xvii. xxii.) J. P.

ALBINUS, JOHANN GEORG, (the
elder,) was born on the Gth of March, 1624,
at Under-Neiza, near Weissenfels, where his
father was pastor. He studied theology and
philology at Leipzig, and afterwards became
rector of the public school at Naumburg in
1653. This post he subsequently exchanged
for that of pastor of the church of St. Otho-
mar in the same town, where he died on the
25th of May, 1679.

During the seventeenth century, several
societies were formed in Germany by poets
and others, who were fond of cultivating
their native language, which was then much
neglected. Albinus joined one of these so-
cieties, which had been founded at Hamburg
by Philip von Zesen and others, and which
bore the name of the Deutschgesinnte Ge-
nossenschaft, or the Rosengesellschaft. Each
member assumed a name which answered in
some way to that of the society : Albinus
assumed that of the Bliihende (the blooming),
and as a member of this society he wrote
various poems, which exhibit all the defects
and the bad taste of the age. The mixture
of bombastic declamation and vulgar ab-
surdity can scarcely be carried further than
it is done in these poems, which are chiefly
712

religious. He also wrote one drama. His works
are — " Geistlich geharnischter Krieges-
Held, Oder Soldaten-Lieder und Gebethe."
Leipzig, 1675. " Jiingstes Gericht und ewiges
Leben." Leipzig, 1753, 4to. " Himmelflam-
mende Seelen-Lust der Sulamithin, oder Hu-
gonis Pia desideria in prosa et ligata." Frank-
furt, 1674, 12mo. " Immergriinendes Lob der
christlichen Kaufmannschaft." Leipzig, 1652,
4to. " Eumelis, ein dramatisches Gedicht."
Jena, 1657, 8vo. " Geistliche und weltliche
Gedichte," Leipzig, 1659, 4to. (J. B. Liebler,
Nachrichten von Johann Georg Albini Leben
undLiedern, Naumburg, 1728, 8vo. ; Adelung,
Supplement to Jocher's Allgem. Gelehrt. Lexic.
i. 478, SiC. ; Gervinus, Geschichte der poet.
National-Literatur der Deutschen, iii. 274.
345. 422.) L. S.

ALBINUS, JOHANN GEORG, (the
younger,) the son of the former, was born
at Naumburg. Concerning his life scarcely
anything is known, except that he studied
jurisprudence at Jena, that afterwards he
lectured for some time at Erfurt, and then
returned to Jena, where after the year 1714
we hear no more of him.

Albinus wi'ote two Latin dissertations on
subjects of jurisprudence, "De Jure Misera-
bilium," Jena, 1680, 4to., and " De Delinquente
Defenso," Jena, 1714, 4to., which are not worth
much. He acquired more reputation by his
poetical works, which he wrote in German.
He had greater poetical talents than his father.
He belonged to the poetical society of the
Pegnitzschafer, and wrote chiefly idyls. Their
principal defect is an affectation of simplicity,
and extravagant sentimentality. They were
published under the following titles : " Der
Jungfrauen und Junggesellen Kurzweilige
Erquickstunden." Zeitz, 1685, 12mo. " Die
chursiichsische Venus, vorstellend der siich-
sischen Helden und Heldinnen Beilager."
Zeitz, 1 686, 12mo. Some of his sacred hymns
have long been very popular, though they are
full of religious sentimentality, and a reader
of the present day could scarcely believe that
they were written in earnest. (Dietmann's
Chursiichsische Priestcrschaft, vol. v.; Wetzel's
AnaJecta Ili/mnica, i. 45. ; Adelung, Supple-
ment to Jocher's Allgem. Gelehrt. Lexic. i. 479.;
Gervinus, Geschichte der poet. National-Litera-
tur der Deutschen, iii. 303. 337.) L. S.

ALBINUS JOHANNES. [Albino
Giovanni.]

ALBINUS, JOHANNES, a native of
Coburg, studied in the university of Leipzig,
where he afterwards became assessor of the
philosophical faculty and professor of poetry.
The latter office he held from the year 1585
till his death in 1607. During the period of
his appointment in the university he was
five times rector and five times dean of the
philosophical faculty, and introduced various
useful changes in the statutes of the univer-
sity, for which he is still gratefully remem-
bered.

ALBINUS.

There are extant by him three Latin ora-
tions and several Latin poems, -which are
among the best of the kind that were then
produced in Germany. They appeared im-
der the following titles: " Oratio in memo-
riam Mauritii Electoris Saxonife. Lipsiae,
1572, 4to." "Orationes Duae in obitum Elec-
toris Augiisti. Lipsia?, 1586," 4to. "Carmen
Heroicuni de Pugna memorabili inter illus-
trissimum Principem Mauritium et Albertum
Marchia; Brandenburgensis ad Pagum Siver-
shusen. Lipsiae, 1585," 4to. " Poematum
Libri Duo. Lipsis, 1591," 8vo. This volume
is a collection of all the works of Albinus
which are mentioned before. (J. H. Ernesti,
Oratio de Professoribus Poetices Seculi X VII.
Lipsiensibus ; Adelung, Supplement to Jocher's
AUgem. Gelehrten-Lexic. i. 478.) L. S.

ALBINUS, PETRUS, a German historian
who lived during the latter half of the six-
teenth century. He was a native of Schnee-
berg in the Erzgebirge, and belonged to the
noble family of Weise, which name he
Latinised into Albinus. He studied at Leip-
zig and Frankfurt on the Oder, and after he
had obtained his degree of bachelor, he re-
sided for some time at Lauban in Silesia, about
the year 1553. He was afterwards appointed
professor of poetry in the university of AVit-
tenberg, and historiographer to the Elector of
Saxony. During the latter years of his life,
in the reign of the electors Augustus and
Christian L, Albinus lived at Dresden as pri-
vate secretary to these electors successively.
He died on the 1st of August, 1598.

Albinus was one of the most industrious
historians that ever lived, but most of his
works are written with such bad taste, that
it would be impossible to read them now.
These defects however arise more from the
fashion of writing history then prevailing,
than from his own want of judgment or
skill. The countries whose history he has
chiefly illustrated are Saxony and Meissen
(^Nlisnia). Some of his works are written in
German, and others in Latin. They are
chronicles of particular departments of his-
tory, genealogical woi'ks, historical disserta-
tions, and Latin poems written on various
occasions. The following are most worthy of
notice : — 1. " Meissnische Land-Chronika,"
Wittenberg, 1580, 4to. (an improved edition
appeared at Dresden, in 1590, fol., and
was reprinted in 1610.) 2. " Meissnische
Berg-Chronika," Dresden, 1590, fol., re-
printed 1610. These two works are, pro-
perly speaking, only the first two parts of a
large work in ten folios, each of which con-
tained one particular part of the history of
Meissen, as the author himself states at the
close of the volume first mentioned. But
with the exception of the first two volumes
nothing has ever been published, and some
of the subsequent volumes, perhaps all, are
still extant in MS. in the archives at Dres-
den. 3. " Progj-mnasmata Saxonum His-

VOL. I.

toriae, in quibus pleraque sunt, qua? de
antiquissimis Saxonum regibus, &c." Wit-
tenberg, 1585, 8vo. 4. " Commentatiuncula
de Wallachia," Wittenberg, 1587, 4to. 5.
"Genealogia Comitum Leisnicensium deducta
a majoribus Viperti Bellicosi," Wittenberg,
1587, 8vo. To flatter Count Henry of Ran-
zow, Albinus had this same work reprinted
in 1587-8, under the title " Vipertus,
sive Origines Ranzovianae," 4to. 6, " Neu
Stammbuch und Beschreibung des uralten
Koniglichen Geschlechts und Hauses Sach-
sen," Leipzig, 1602, 4to. 7. " Historia von
dem uralten Geschlechte derer Grafen und
Herren von Werthern," the last editions of
which appeared at Leipzig, 1705 and 1716,
fol. 8. Historiae Thuringorum nova; Speci-
men," printed in Sagittarius's " Antiquitates
Regni Thuringici." A considerable number
of his works have, like the eight volumes of
his history of Meissen, never been printed.
(Adelung's Supplement to Jocher's AUgem.
Gelehrten-Lexic. i. 4S0, &c., where a com-
plete list of his works is given.) L. S.
ALBIO'SO, MARLO, a Sicilian musician
and poet, bom at Nasi. He was a canon of
the order of the Holy Ghost, and died in
1686. He published " Selva di Canzoni
Siciliani," Palei-mo, 1681. E. T.
ALBISSON, JEAN, was born at Mont-
pellier, and educated with a view to prac-
tising at the bar. Before the revolution he
was keeper of the archives to the states of
Languedoc. Having embraced the party
of the revolution, he held from 1790 to 1800
various administrative and judicial appoint-
ments in the department of Herault. In 1800
he was nominated one of the commissioners
of the appellate tribunal of -Herault ; in 1802
he was. on the presentation of that depart-
ment, elected a tribune by the senate ; and
in 1804 he was one of the commission upon
whom devolved the task of proposing that
Bonaparte should be created emperor. For
this sei-vice he was created a councillor of
state and member of the Legion of Honour.
He took an active part in preparing the Code
Civile, the Code de Procedure, and the Code de
Commerce. In 1806 the Legislative Council
nominated him assistant to the imperial pro-
curator-general. In 1807 the preparation of
several titles of the Code d'lnstruction Cri-
minelle was referred to him. He died on
the 22d January, 1810, of a painfiil and linger-
ing disease. Besides a number of occasional
addresses and reports on various branches
of legislation, Albisson published the follow-
ing works : — " Lois municipales et econo-
miques du Languedoc, ou recueil des ordon-
nances, edits, declarations, arrets du conseU,
du Parlement de Toulouse. Montpellier, 1 780,
, et annees suivantes," 4to. " Discours sur
rOrigine des Municipalitt-s Diocesaines du
Languedoc, sur leur Formation, sur leur Na-
ture, et sur leur Influence dans I'Assemblee
j Generale. (Pour servir d'lntroduction au
' 3 A

ALBISSON.

ALBITTE.

Tome IV. des Lois Municipales, &c.) Avig-
non, 1787," 8vo. " Lettre d'un Avocat a un
Publiciste, a I'Occasion de la procliaine As-
semblee des Etats-Gencraiix du Royaume.
Avignon, 1791," 8vo. " Melanges de Legis-
lation, oil Notions Elementaires de Legisla-
tion a rUsage des Eleves de I'Ecole centrale
de I'Heraiilt. Montpellier, an x. (1802)." 8vo.
(^Eloge Funehre prononce par Faure, Moniteur,
27 Janvier, 1810; Code Civil Frangais, suivi
de V Expose des Motif s des Rapports, Opinions,
et Discours, Paris, 1806, 12mo.; Supplement
a la Bioyraphie Universelle, voce " Albisson,
Jean.") W. W.

ALBITTE, ANTOINE LOUIS, one of
the most violent Jacobins of the French re-
volution, and afterwards a humble satellite
of the Emperor Napoleon. The year of his
birth is not stated by any of his biographers,
but he is said to have only just completed
his studies at the time M-hen the violence
of his principles procured his election as a
member of the Legislative Assembly for the
department of the Lower Seine, in September,
1791. His profession was that of an advo-
cate, which he carried on at Dieppe ; but even
before the events of July, 1789, he was cap-
tain of a company of national volunteers. The
subjects he was foremost in discussing in the
Assembly were of a military nature, and he
was named a member of the military com-
mittee. Amongst other measures which he
took a prominent share in discussing was
one for the augmentation of the gendarmerie,
which he warmly opposed as dangerous to
liberty. He denounced the ministers Nar-
bonne and Bertrand de Molleville as guilty
of incapacity and treason, and proposed their
impeachment. After the defeat of the French
troops at Tournay, in April, 1792, he made
the proposal to take away from the generals
the power of making regulations, and to
give the common soldiers a greater share in
courts martial. On the 11th of July he pro-
posed the demolition of all the strong places
in the interior of the kingdom, on account
of the danger of their affording shelter to
counter-revolutionists. On the morning after
the memorable 10th of August he and his col-
league Sers proposed and carried the resolu-
tion that every statue of a king should be
destroyed, and a statue of Liberty erected in
its stead. He was sent in September with Le-
cointre-Puyraveaii to the department of the
Lower Seine, to disarm suspected persons and
deport the priests who refused to take the oath.
He executed his commission with great seve-
rity, and in return was elected by the depart-
ment to the National Convention. Here he
was of the number of those who voted, on the
21st of December, against allowing Louis XVI.
counsel on his trial, and shortly afterwards
for putting him to deatli. On the 23rd of
March, 179.3, he carried the decree that emi-
grants taken prisoners in foreign countries
should be massacred, whether found with or
714

without arms. In Paris he was always the
ardent opponent of the Girondins, and the
proposer or supporter of the most violent
measures ; but it was in the country, and as
commissioner to the armies of the republic,
in which he attained the military rank of
adjutant-general, that his atrocities were
carried farthest. He was present in this
character at the siege of Lyon and at the
partial demolition of that city after its cap-
ture, at the operations of Carteaux against the
insurgents of the south, and at the opening
of the siege of Toulon, where he made the
acquaintance of Bonaparte, which was useful
to him in after-life. His cruelty was accom-
panied with luxury and avarice: at Bourg he
is said to have bathed every morning in the
milk that was brought for the consumption
of the town. His success and his excesses
seem at this time almost to have turned his
brain : he amused himself by having the pope,
the king of England, &c. guillotined in effigy;
and when one day at the Theatre Frangais
the pit applauded the hemistich in Chenier's
" Caius Gracchus,"

" Des lois et non du sang,"
" Let us have laws, not blood,''

he rose in anger, and vociferating impreca-
tions on the audience, shouted out, " Let us
have blood, not laws." In the formula of ab-
juration which he drew up for the signature
of the priests of the department of the Ain,
he not only compelled them to renounce
the " trade of priesthood," but to add : " I
equally renounce, abdicate, and recognise as
falsehood, illusion, and imposture, every pre-
tended character and function of priesthood,
and swear, in the face of the magistrates and
the people, whose omnipotence and sove-
reignty I recognise, never to avail myself
of the abuses of the trade of priest, which I
renounce, but to maintain liberty and equality
with all my strength, and to live and die for
the support of the one indivisible democratic
republic, under penalty of being declared in-
famous, perjured, and an enemy to the people,
and of being treated as such." Albitte sent
to the Jacobins at Paris a list of his victims
in the departments and of the priests whom
he had " unpriested," and requested to be re-
cognised, though absent, as a member of the
society, an exception which was made in his
favour. He solicited also a sanction of his pro-
ceedings from the commune of Paris, then
a more powerful body than the Convention
itself, and obtained it. The fall of Robes-
pierre, however, brought him in danger.
Numerous denunciations of his conduct were
sent in to the Convention from the depart-
ments, and one from the administrators of
the district of Bourg was referred to a com-
mittee. Albitte, thus pressed by danger, joined
in a conspiracy to re-establish the reign of
terror, which burst out in the insurrection
of the first of Prairial in the year 3 (the 20th

ALBITTE.

May, 179.5), one of the most terrible days of
the whole revolution. It was on this occa-
sion that the insurgents broke into the Con-
vention, compelled that assembly to pass
several decrees at the point of the sword, and
after murdering Ferand, one of the members,
presented his head on a pike to the president
Boissy d'Anglas. After a desperate contest
in the hall of the Convention, the insurgents
were defeated and driven out, and the legis-
lative body revoked the decrees it had jiassed
under the influence of force, and voted, at the
proposal of Tallien, the instant arrest of the
members who had dared to bring them for-
ward or to countenance the conduct of the
insurgents. Albitte was ably defended by his
younger brother Jean Louis, also a represent-
ative of the Lower Seine, who on this occa-
sion broke through a course of habitual inac-
tion ; the decree for his arrest was nevertheless
passed, but it was found that during the confu-
sion he had escaped. He was condemned in
default of appearance ; his colleagues were
sentenced to death, and committed suicide in a
body to avoid the guillotine. Albitte remained
concealed till the general amnesty for revolu-
tionary offences issued on the 26th October,
1795, (the 4th Brumaire, year 4,) soon after
which he was appointed by the Directory-
municipal commissary at Dieppe. On the
overthrow of the Directory by Bonaparte he
became a warm partisan of his old acquaint-
ance, who rewarded his zeal by naming him
sub-inspector of reviews, a post which he
maintained during the imperial government.
He accompanied Napoleon in this capacity in
the invasion of Russia, and died of cold, fa-
tigue, and hunger, on the retreat from INIoscow,
on the 25th December, 1812. It is said that
he maintained existence during three days
with the remains of a flask of brandy, which
in his last moments he shared with one of his
unfortunate companions, the only act of bene-
volence that is recorded in his histoiy.

The name of Albitte is appended to various
political pamphlets, four of which are in the
great collection of tracts on the French revo-
lution preserved at the British Museum. The
two of most interest are — 1. " Albitte, repre-
sentant du Peuple, envoye pres I'Armee des
Alpes aux braves Soldats et Gardes Nationaux
en requisition commandes par le General
Carteaux" (published at Valence) ; an address
to the soldiers of Carteaux, in his character of
envoy to the army, in which, after the custom-
ary denunciations of the policy of " Pitt and
Coburg," he as usual cxhoi'ts the soldiers to
" exterminate the brigands." 2. " Lettre du
Citoyen Albitte a son Collegue Dubois Cranco,"
dated at Commune- Afifranchie, the new name
given to Lyon, in the year 2 (1794) ; a de-
fence of himself from the charge of having
wrongfully accused his colleague, in which
he states some particulars of his former life
which appear to have escaped the notice of
his biographers. The others in the Museimi
715

are, Observations respecting some prizes made
by a French privateer, and a Report on a new
invention of the Sieur Barthelemi de la Reco-
logne connected with the manufacture of gun-
powder. (Arnault, &c., Uioyrap/iie dcs Cvn-
teniporains, i. 80, &c. ; Rabbe, &c. Biuyrciphie
des Contemporains, i. 61, &c. ; Life, by Fallot,
in Biographic Universelle, Ivi. (or Istof Suppl.)
147, &c. ; Buchez et Roux, Histoire Fuile-
mentaire de la lUvolution Frangaise, xxxvi.
359.; Pamphlets of Albitte.) T. W.

A' L B I U S, R I C A R D U S, or Richard
White, an English Jesuit, known only as the
author of two works ; the first, " Hemi-
sphserivmi Dissectum," Rome, 1646 and 1648,
which Lalande puts down in his astronomical
catalogue, but which is (Dechales, i. 2.3.) a
work on pure geometry, after Archimedes
and Euclid. The other work (Montucla, iv.
628.), with the title " Chrysa?spis, seu Quad-
ratura Circuli " (place and date not given),
was on the quadrature of the circle, which
White, like many others, imagined himself
to have obtained. But there is one pecu-
liarity about his case, namely, that he was
afterwards convinced of his error, a state to
which it is not upon record that any other
squarer of the circle was ever brought.
Richard WTiite is sometimes confounded with
his contemporary Thomas White, also a Ro-
man Catholic priest. A. De M.

ALBIZZI, a Florentine family, originally
from Arezzo, which acted a leading part in
the history of Florence during the fourteenth
and fifteenth centuries. The Albizzi were
" popolari," or a popular family, and belonged
to the great Guelph party. Lando degli
Aldizzi was repeatedly one of the priori or
members of the executive towards the end
of the thirteenth century. His son Compagno
or Pagno was elected one of the priori in
November, 1301, and was one of the Neri
party who proscribed the Bianchi, or op-
posite faction. He is mentioned by Dino
Compagni (book ii.) as a powerful and vio-
lent party man. His brother Filippo was
one of the priori in 1317, and was afterwards
made Gonfaloniere. Piero, son of Filippo,
was several times one of the priori, and be-
came the acknowledged leader of the burgher
aristocracy, which, under the pretence of
maintaining the preponderance of the Guelph
pai'ty and keeping out the Gulbeline or
noble aristocracy, enforced a system of pro-
scription, and established the board of the
capitani of the Guelph party, which could
deprive any obnoxious citizen of his political
rights. [Alberti, Benedetto.] Piero degli
Albizzi, having overcome the rival family of
the Ricci, became in reality the head of the
Florentine republic ; and although an attempt
was made, in 1372, to restrain his power, he
retained his influence as the head of his
powerful Guelph party, together with his
friends Strozzi and Lapo di Castiglionchio.
In 1378, Salvestro dei Medici and Benedetto
3 A 2

ALBIZZI.

Albert! roused the people to overthrow the
tyranny of the capitani, and the insurrection
and anarchy of the lower orders called
ciompi were the result. In the following
year, 1379, Piero degli Albizzi, with many
more of his party, was arrested under a
charge of treason against the republic. The
judge could find no sufficient evidence against
Piero, but the people loudly demanded his
death, threatening to destroy all his relatives ;
and Piero, in order to save his family, ac-
knowledged the charges brought against him,
and was beheaded. His nephew, Maso or
ToMJiASO DEGLI Albizzi, was exiled. A re-
action took place in 1382, by which Bene-
detto Albert! and other leaders of the people
were banished or put to death, and the exiled
leaders of the Guelph aristocracy, among
whom Tommaso degli Albizzi was foremost,
were recalled. In 1393, Tommaso was made
Gonfalouiere di Giustizia, or chief magistrate,
and as such he proscribed the family of
Alberti and their friends to revenge the
death of his uncle Piero. Tommaso then
became the acknowledged leader of the Flo-
rentine republic, which he continued to be
till his death. He had a great share in the
ultimate success of the war against Pisa, by
which that state became subject to the Flo-
rentines in 14 G. He was sent on several
embassies, among others to Queen Joanna II.
of Naples, in 1414. Tommaso died in 1417,
at seventy years of age, leaving his eldest
son, RiNALDO, under the care of his friend,
Niccolo d'Uzzano, who retained his influence
as leader of the republic.

Uzzano was prudent and moderate, and he
managed to maintain internal peace for seve-
ral years, during which Florence attained a
high degree of commercial prosperity. But
Rinaldo degli Albizzi, being hot-headed and
rash, began first to intrigue against, and after-
wards to quarrel with, the rival family of Me-
dici, which had become very popular. In 1430
Rinaldo led the republic into a war with
Lucca, against the advice of old Niccolo
d'lTzzano. Filippo Maria Visconti, duke of
Milan, sent an army to the assistance of
Lucca, under Piccinino, a celebrated condot-
tiere, who routed the Florentines. In 1432
Niccolo d'Uzzano died, and Rinaldo, being
no longer checked by his prudent advice, ran
into desperate measures, and determined to
ruin his rival, Cosmo de' Medici, the most
popular man in Florence. In September,
1433, Rinaldo, having won over to his side
the gonfalouiere and other magistrates, caused
Cosmo to be arrested under some frivolous
pretence, intending to have him put to death ;
but, through fear of the people, he was only
banished to Padiia, and afterwards to Venice.
In the following year, 1434, at the new elec-
tion of the executive, the party favourable to
the Medici recovered the ascendancy, Cosmo
was recalled, and Rinaldo degli Albizzi was
exiled, and many of his friends were banished
716

or executed. In 143G Rinaldo went to the
court of Filippo Maria Visconti, duke of
Milan, to excite hmi to war against Florence.
He remained an exile the rest of his life, and
died at Ancona in 1452. Some of his sons
settled at Gaeta, and others at Cesena and
Imola.

Anton Francesco degli Albizzi, grand
nephew of Rinaldo, was in the service of the
Florentine republic in 1527 and 1529 as
commissary at Pisa and Arezzo. In 1530,
after the taking of Florence by the troops
of Charles V. and of the Medici, he was
exiled. He joined in the attempt of Filippo
Strozzi in 1537, was taken with him at
Montemurlo by the soldiers of Duke Cosmo
de' IMedici, and was beheaded. His cousins,
descended from Luca, a younger brother of
Rinaldo degli Albizzi, remained at Florence,
and one of their descendants was made, in
1639, Marquis of Castelnuovo by the Grand
Duke Ferdinand II. de' Medici. This branch
of the Albizzi still continues to exist at Flo-
rence. (Pignotti, Sto?-ia delta Toscana ;
Ammirato, IJelle Famiglie nobili Florentine ;
Reumont, Tavole cronologiche e sincronc dclla
Sturia Fiorentina ; Mecatti, Sioria geneahgica
della Nohilta e C'dtadinanza di Fircnze.)

Antonio Albizzi, of another branch of
the family, born at Venice in 1547, went to
live at Florence, and was the founder of the
Academy degli Alterati. Having embraced
the doctrines of the Reformation, he was
obliged to expatriate himself, and he retired
to Kempten in Germany, where he published,
in 1600, a genealogical and historical work,
" Principum Christianorum Stemmata." He
died at Kempten in 1626. Hiiberlin of Got-
tingen published his life in 1740. Tommaso
degli Albizzi, born at Florence, went in his
youth to France as page to Maria de' Bledici,
who was married to Henry IV. in 1600. He
became imbued with the doctrines of the Re-
formation, and published some controversial
book at Lyon in 1624. The aifair, however,
was hushed up, and he was allowed to return
to Florence, where, by prudent conduct, he
contrived to live in peace, though still sus-
pected of heterodoxy. Professor Rosini, in
his " Monaca di Monza," has introduced
Tommaso degli Albizzi among the historical
characters of his novel.

The Franciscan monk Bartolomeo Al-
bizzi of Pisa, author of the work on the
Conformities of the Life of St. Francis with
that of Jesus Christ, was not of the same
family. [Albizzi, B.]

In the seventeenth century there was
Cardinal Francesco Albizzi of Cesena, de-
scended of the old Florentine stock, who
wrote several learned works on canon law : —
1. " Sulla Giurisdizione dei Cardinal! nelle
Chiese di loro Titolo." 2. " SuU' Incostanza
da ammettersi, e no, nel Diritto." And, 3.
a reply to the famous Sarpi : " Risposta alia
Storia dell' Inquisizione di Fra Paolo Sarpi."

ALBIZZI.

ALBIZZr.

He died in 1684, at ninety-one years of age.
(Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d' Italia ; Tiraboschi,
Storia della Letteratura Ikiliurui.') A. V.

ALBIZZI, BARTOLOME'O, (Bartholo-
niaeus Albicius or Pisanus) was born at lli-
vano in Tuscany, but was surnamed " of
Pisa" from professing the order of St. Francis
in that town, where he lived from 1343. The
work which alone has rendered him notorious
is the " Conformities of the Life of St. Francis
with that of Jesus Christ." He presented
this work to the chapter-general of his order
assembled at Assisi in 1399, who testified
their high approbation of his labour, and re-
warded it by presenting him with a dress
that had belonged to the saint himself. He
died two years after, at a very advanced age,
in the convent of Pisa, the 10th of December,
1401. Wadding (Annales Minorum, ix. l.")S,
159.) has described Albizzi as preaching suc-
cessfully for sixty years; as called upon to
teach theology at Bologna, Padua, Pisa, Siena,
and Florence ; as adhering strictly to the
spirit of his monastic vows, and performing
many miracles by the merits of saints and by
the virtue of relics which lie carried about
with him. The remains of the acts and
monuments of the order of St. Francis are
mostly derived from Albizzi, who is said to
have been a voluminous writer. Among his
less-known writings are — 1. " Opus Confor-
mitatum B. Virginis cum Christo." 2. " De
Vita et Laudibus B. ^lariaj Virginis, Libri ^'I.
nunquam antea in Lucem, nisi nunc, editi."
Venice, 1596, in 4to. 3. " De Laudibus Sanc-
torum." 4. " De Verbis Domini." 5. " Ex-
positio in Regulam S. Francisci." 6. " Summa
Casuum Conscientire " (unless this be merely
one of the various names of a similar work by
another Bartholomew of Pisa). 7. " Sermones
Quadragesimales de Contemptu ilundi sive de
triplici Mundo," written in the year 1397,
but printed at Milan by Ulderic Scinzenzelcr
in the year 1488, in 4to., and again edited
by John ^Mapelli, Milan, 1503, in 4to. 8.
" Sermones Quadragesimales, qui continent
multarum Quaestionum et Casuum Consci-
entire Resolutiones. Lugduni. Romanus Mo-
rin, 1519," 8vo. These titles are from the lists
by Wadding in his Scriptores Ordinis ilino-
rum, from Henri Willot's Athens? Franciscan-
orum, and Prosper INIarchand's Dictionnaire
Ilistorique. 9. His other work, " The
Conformities of the Life of St. Francis
with that of Jesus Christ," has a history of
its own from the number and variety of the
attacks and defences it has sustained. The
manuscript is preserved in the library of
the Duke of Urbino. A first edition, one
of the early works of the press, without prin-
ter's name or date, is known to be in folio,
and to have been printed at Venice. A copy,
supposed unique, is mentioned as belonging
to the Hohendorff library. The second
and third editions were mere abridgments
printed at Venice, the one in 1480 and the
717

other in 1484, under the title " Li Fioretti
di San Francisco assimilati alia Vita ed alia
Passione di nostro Signore" (" Flowers of
the Life of St. Francis assimilated to the Life
and Passion of our Lord"). In refutation of
this there was written some time after, by
Pietro Paolo Vergerio, " Discorsi sopra i
Fioretti di S. Francisco," for which discourses
he was declared a heretic, and his book was
placed in the Index Expurgatorius.

Only two more editions of the Life of
St. Francis were published previously to the
Reformation, which from their fulness and
rarity are of the highest value and pro-
duced the earliest refutations. The first
is in folio, Milan, 1510, and was entitled
" Opus aureiE et inexplicabilis Bonitatis et
Continentiffi Conformitatum scilicet ^'ita3
beati Francisci ad Vitam Domini nostri Jesu
Christi." The preface is by Francis Zeno,
vicar-general of the Italian Franciscans.
The second is also a Milan edition, in 1513,
with the same title. A refutation of this
work appeared in Germany in 1531 ; and it
has often been printed since in Germanj-.
The Wittenberg edition of 1542 has the title
" Der barfiisser Monch Eulenspiegel und
Alcoran" (" The barefooted Monks' Jester
and Alcoran"). This edition has a preface by
Martin Luther ; but the refutation itself was
written by Erasmus Alber, who, according
to the advertisement to the reader, visited
the convent of Franciscans by the Elector of
Brandenburg's order, and found this book of
the Conformities esteemed there like another
Koran. He therefore abridged and refuted it.
Various Latin paraphrases of this I'efutation
appeared from 1542 to 1561 under titles be-
ghming " Alcoranus Franciscanorum." A
French translation of this refutation by Conrad
Radius (Geneva, 1556, in 12rno.) contains his
notes and preface, and soon after Badius added
a second volume of his own extracts from the
Conformities. The whole goes bv the title
of " L' Alcoran des Cordeliers." " The re-
futation has also appeared in Flemish. These
assaults on this work were so vigorous that
the Franciscans sent forth new editions much
modified, which are as follow : — The first,
" Liber aureus inscriptus Liber Conformita-
tum, &c., denuo editus a Jeremia Bucchio
Sodali Franciscano." It was printed at Bo-
logna in 1590, in folio. The second modi-
fied edition, the seventh in all, still more
changed from the original, is called " Antiqui-
tates Franciscana?, sive Speculum Vita; beati
Francisci et Sociorum, per Philippum Bos-
quierum," Cologne, 1623, in 8vo. But the
work was also defended against its refutations
in " Apologeticus pro Libro Conformitatum
adversus Alcoranum Franciscanorum, Auc-
tore Henrico Sedulio," &c. Antwerp, 1607,
in 4to. A third refutation is by Luke Osian-
der, entitled " Ein schoner wolriechender
Rosenkrantz zusammen gebunden auss dem
kostliehen Ubertrefiiichen Buch der Francis-
3 A 3

ALBIZZI.

ALBO.

caner Miinch, welches sie ' Librum Con-
formitatum' nennen " (" A beautiful sweet-
smelling Garland of Roses collected out of
the delicious excellent Book of the Francis-
can Monks which is called ' Liber Conformi-
tatum,' ") printed at Tiibingen, 1591, 1594, in
4to. A counter refutation to this refutation
by Michael Anisius, entitled " Freundliche
Zairreissung dess schonen und -wolriechenden
Rosenkrantzes, welch ein Stutische Grass-
IMagd, Hocselea genannt, auss dem Kostlichen
iibertrefflichen Buche, derer Franciscaner
Monche welches sie ' Liber Confonnitatum'
nennen, abgebrochen," &c., was printed at
Ingoldstadt, 1592, 8vo. (" A friendly rending
of the beautiful and sweet-smelling Garland
of Roses which a Grass-woman plucked from
the delicious excellent Book of the Franciscan
Monks called ' Liber Confonnitatum.' ") The
other principal refutations are — 4. The col-
lections by J. Wolfius in his " Lectiones mira-
biles et recondita;," at article " Franciscus."
5. The ninth chapter of the " Legende
doree, ou Sommaire de I'Histoire des Freres
Mendians de I'Ordre de St. Dominique et de
St. Francois." In this is a short but exact
summary of the Conformities. 6. " Fran-
ciscus Prophano-Redivivus, das ist," &c.
printed at Halle in 1615, in 4to.

The Conformities however have been re-
produced under various shapes on different
occasions, especially in " Prodigium Naturte
et Gratifc Portentum, hoc est, Seraphici P.
Francisci Vitae Acta ad Christi Domini
Vitam et Mortem regulata et coaptata a Petro
de Alba et Astorga," Madrid, 1651, in folio.
The Conformities, which in Albizzi's work
amount to forty, are here spread out into four
thousand varieties. (Prosper ^larchand, Dic-
tionnaire Historique ; Fabricius, Bibliotheca
Lai. Med. et Inf. JEt. i. 131. ; Bibliothique dcs
Sciences et des beau.v Arts, iv., 318.) A. T. P.

ALBO, R. ISAAC (UPX pnV' "1;, a
German rabbi, a native of Ratisbon, and
brother to R. Petachia and R. Nachmiah
(Nehemiah) of Ratisbon. He lived in the
twelfth century, and was a pupil of R. Judah
Chasid (the Pious). He was one of the
authors of the " Tosephoth," or Supplement
to the Ghemara. He must not be confounded
with R. Isaac Hazaken, or the elder, who
was also one of the authors of the " Tose-
photh," but who, instead of being the pupil,
was the preceptor of R. Judah Chasid. (Wol-
fius, Biblioth. Hebr. i. 648. 655. ; R. Gedalia,
Shalshel. Hakkab. p. 54. ; R. Abrah. Zacuth.
S. Jiichasin, p. 124.) , C. P. H.

ALBO, R. JOSEPH (U7i< fpV "I), a
celebrated Spanish rabbi, who is called by
David Ganz the divine philosopher, was a
native of Soria in Old Castile, near the
source of the river Duero. He was born
towards the latter part of the fourteenth
century. He exercised his rabbinical func-
tions at Montalvan in the district of Alcaiiiz
in Aragon, which synagogue he represented
718

as one of the learned rabbis who in the
year 1412 were engaged in the celebrated
public discussion with Jerome a Sancta
Fide, which was held in the presence of the
antipope Benedict XIII. The victory in
this dispute was loudly proclaimed by the
monks throughout Christendom as having
fallen to the ex-Jew Jerome, to the great
scandal of the Jews, especially in Spain,
where their religion and institutions were
every day more calumniated, and where
many are said in consequence to have gone
over to Christianity. To vindicate the honour
of his nation and the cause of his religion,
and to confirm the faith of those who were
wavering, Joseph Albo produced in the
year a. m. 5185 (a. d. 1425) his famous work
called "Ikkarim" ("Foundations or Prin-
ciples") of the Jewish faith. In this noble
work he not only illustrates and supports the
articles of his own religion, but attacks with
considerable power those of the Christian
faith and practice which are opposed to them.
He did not long survive the completion of
this his gi-eat work, but died in the year
A.M. 5188 (a. D. 1428), hardly three years
after its completion, according to Bartolocci
and most of the Jewish chronologists. De
Rossi fixes his death in a. d. 1430, but does
not say on what authority. Plantavitius,
with singular inaccuracv, has given a. d.
1390 as the date of his'death. The "Se-
pher Ikkarim" reduces the fundamental
articles of the Jewish faith to three heads.

1. The existence of God. II. The Mosaic
law, which is declared to be from God.
III. The doctrine of a future state of re-
ward and punishment. The whole work is
divided into four "maamarim" or disser-
tations. 1. Treats of the various religious
and sects into which mankind are divided,
and ends by announcing the three fundamental
articles of the Jewish faith as above ; it is
divided into twenty-six chapters or heads.

2. Treats of the first article, namely, the
existence and unity of God ; it consists of
thirty-seven chapters. 3. Declares the
second article, namely, the divine origin of
the Mosaic law, and consists of thirty-seven
chapters. 4. Which consists of fifty-one
chapters, treats of the third article, that is, of
rewards and punishments in this life and
that to come. Throughout this work the
author has brought all the powers of an acute
and philosophic mind to bear upon the most
important points in dispute between the Jews
and Christians. While he defends his own
faith, he does not spare the doctrines of the
Romish church, especially the mass, the doc-
trine of transubstantiation, as well as the
Trinity, the genealogy of Christ, the change
of the Sabbath, and the other doctrines of
the New Testament. The " Sepher Ikkarim "
was first printed at Soncino, in the duchy of
Milan, a. m. 5246 (a. d. 1486), in 4to. ; at
Venice, by Romberg, a. m. 5281 (a. d. 1521);

ALBO.

ALliO.

and at Rimiui, a.m. 5282 (a. D. 1522), 4to.;
again at Venice by Jo. de Phari, a. m. 5304
(a. D. 1544); then at Lublin in Poland, a.m.
5357 (a. D. 1597); and, lastly, at Venice,
A. SI. 5384 (a. D. 1624). Wolff says that he
also saw in the library of R. Oppenheimer
an edition of Salonichi (Thessalonica), a. m.
5281 (a. D. 1521); which library contained
also the very rai'e edition of \'enice, a. m.
5304, above noticed, as well as that of Lublin,
and a manuscript copy of the work. The
rarest and most esteemed edition, however,
is the first, printed at Soncino ; all the sub-
sequent editions are more or less curtailed,
especially as regards the twenty-fifth chapter
of the third maamar or dissertation, which
treats more especially of the Christian doc-
trines. The " Sepher Ikkarim " was also
published with a voluminous commentary by
R. Gedalia ben Solomon, a Polish rabbi, with
the title " Etz Shatul" ("A Tree planted")
(Psalm i. 3.) : it was printed at Venice by
Pietro and Lorenzo Bragadino, a. 3I. 5378
(a. d. 1618), in folio. The reason for adopt-
ing this title of " Etz Shatul " is thus given
by R. Gedalia himself in the preface to his
commentary : " As a tree when planted has
roots, branches, and foliage, so in this work
the commentary forms as it wei'e the root,
the indices of scriptural texts are as the
branches, and the quotations from the ' mi-
drashim,' or allegorical expositions, are as
the leaves, which altogether make up the
planted, that is the living and growing, tree."
No complete translation of this interesting
work has yet been published, though it has
been partly translated by many celebrated
oriental scholars, as Buxtorff, Hulsius, and
Scherzer, as well as Andr. Eisenmenger,
who gives many passages from it in his
" Judaismiis Detectus." Wolff says that Es-
dras Edzard had a complete Latin version
in the handwriting of Jo. Buxtorff, and that
after his death it passed into the hands of his
son, who was pastor of the Lutheran church
in London. Gilbert Genebrard published a
translation of those parts of this work in
which Christianity is attacked, including the
whole of the twenty-fifth chapter of the third
" maamar," with a defence of the Roman
Catholic doctrines therein assailed, in bis
work, " Contra R. Josephiun Albonem, R.
Dav. Klmchium, et alium quemdam Judaeum
anonymum nonnullos fdei Christiana arti-
culos oppugnantes ; " printed at Paris by
Martin Le Jeun, a. d. 1566, in 8vo. Pro-
fessor Paul Fred. Opitius of Kiel had a copy
of the " Ikkarim," with manuscript notes by
Genebrard. Besides the various printed and
manuscript copies of the Oppenheimer library,
there are in the Bodleian library three
printed copies, namely, the first edition of
Soncino, a. d. 1486; that of Rimini, 1522;
and the " Etz Shatid," or " Ikkarim" with
the commentary of R. Gedalia ben Solomon,
^'enice, 1612.
719

There is also among the ma-

nuscripts in the Bodleian one partly on vellum
and partly on paper, with the title " Sepher Ha
Ikkarim Lehar Joseph Albo" ('' The Book of
the fundamental Articles of the Rabbi Joseph
Albo"), bearing date a. m. 5253 (a. d. 1493),
in folio, very clearly written. There seems
to be only one opinion among the learned as
to the great merit of this work. Father Bar-
tolocci says, " Throughout this whole work
the Jew shows himself to be a man of an
acute and philosophic mind." Andrew Ma-
sius, in his Index of Jewish Authors, sub-
joined to his commentary on the book of
Joshua, calls the " Ikkarim" a learned work
written in a philosophic spirit ; and Grotius,
in his Commentary on Matthew, v. 20., calls
the author " a Jew of the keenest intellect."
Richard Simon also gives this work the pre-
ference over all others which treat on the
Jewish religion ; and Jo. Molther, in his
" Chronologia Judaica," p. 37., speaks of a
certain Matthew Vehiiis, who was converted
bj' this work either to Judaism or Arianism.
Some learned men, indeed, both Jews and
Christians, have been struck with this singu-
larity, that he has reduced the fundamental
articles of their faith to three, whereas
Maimonides and their other great men have
made them thirteen. Albo accordingly re-
duced the other ten, and among them the
expectation of the advent of the Messiah, to
mere secondary doctrines. According to
the " Siphte Jeshenim" he also wrote, 2.
" Meah Daphin " (" A Hundred Leaves "),
which also treats of the articles of the Jewish
faith ; R. Shabtai no doubt here copies the
*' Shalshelleth Hakkabbala," p. 61. According
to the " Sepher Juchasin" he also wrote, in
the Spanish language, 3. " Elenchtico contra
Hagmon (pDJH)" ("A Treatise against the
Cardinal or Bishop"). This work was
directed against the pseudo-bull of the anti-
pope Benedict which he published against
the Jews immediately after the disputation
between the ex-Jew Jerome and the rabbis.
The council of Constance having elected in
the interim Martin V. to the papacy, the
Jews of Aragon and Catalonia refused
obedience to the antipope, whom they called
Friar Peter, and appealed to the new pope,
then residing at Florence, whom (not know-
ing his true name) they call Mark. Thus
the " Shalshelleth Hakkabbala," p. 113., says,
" The Jews came before the pope, who was
called Mark of Florence, complaining against
Friar Peter" (the Cardinal Pedro de Luna,
which was the name of Benedict XIII.)
" concerning this matter, and the Jews were
sent away absolved. This work, therefore,
by Joseph Albo was written in Spanish most
probably for the purpose of informing the
new pope of the injustice of the bull issued
by the antipope against his nation. (Bar-
toloccius, Biblioth. May. Rabb. iii. 776. 796
—798. ; Wolfius, Biblioth. Hebr. i. 503 — 505.
iii. 381, 382. iv. 848. ; De Rossi» Dizionario
3 A 4

ALBO.

ALBOIN.

Storico degl Aid. Ebr. i. 43, 44. ; Id. Biblioth.
Judaic. Anticrist. p. 14., et Annali Ehr. Ti-
pogr. del Sec. XV. p. 44. ; Buxtorfius, Biblioth.
liabb. p. 317.; Plantavitius, Biblioth. Rabbin.
No. .524. ; Imbonatus, Biblioth. Lat. Hebr.
p. .55.; R. Gedalia, Shalsh. Hdhhabbah, p. 61.
113.; Abr. Zacuth, S. Jachasin, p. 134.;
Hottingerus, Biblioth. Orient. CI. iii. 20. ;
Urus, Catal. MSS. Orient. Biblioth. Bodl.
i. 53. ; Hyde, Catal. Libror. impress. Bibl.
Bodl. i. 24. ; R. Simon, Hist. Crit. du Vieux
Test. p. 540.) C. P. H.

ALBOIN, son of Alduiu, chief or king of
the Longobards, a nation of ancient Ger-
many, who are described by Tacitus {German.
40.) as being a tribe of the Suevi. In the
general movement of the northern nations
towards the south, -which took place in the
fourth and fifth centuries of our sera, the
Longobards migrated from the shores of the
Baltic to the baulcs of the Danube, and after
defeating the Heruli, they occupied Pannonia,
in the first part of the sixth century. Here
they came in contact with the Gepida; who
had settled in part of Dacia and of Moesia
Superior ; and a war ensued between the two
tribes, in which the Longobards under their
king Alduin totally defeated the Gepidie.
Young Alboin distinguished himself in this
war, and killed with his own hand the son of
Thorisin, king of the Gepidse. After the
death of Alduin (about a. d. 553), Alboin suc-
ceeded him as king of the Longobards, and
carried on a fresh war against the Gcpida?, in
which he nearly exterminated that tribe (a. d.
566), killed Cunimund their king, and forced
his daughter Rosamund to become his wife. In
the year 568 Alboin with all his tribe invaded
Italy, being invited, as some say, by Narses,
the successful general of Justinian, whom his
successor Justin had disgraced. A party
of Longobards had previously served as
auxiliaries in the successful campaign of
Narses in Italy against the Goths. Alboin
first invaded the province of Forum Julii or
Friuli, over whicli he placed his nephew
Gisulfus as duke or governor. He next oc-
cupied the country of tlie Veneti. On cross-
ing the river Piave he was met by Felix,
bishop of Treviso, to whom he granted a
diploma for the security and protection of his
see and its property. The Longobavds were
at that time Arians. The onlj' towns which
resisted Alboin were Padua and ^lantua. In
the following year Alboin conquered the
Milanese territory, and afterwards a part
of Liguria. Ticinum, the modern Pavia,
made a stout resistance, and was not taken
till the year 572. Meantime, however, the
Longobards crossing the Po occupied the
provinces of iEmilia and Thuscia or Tuscany
and Umbria, as far as Spoletum. Ravenna
and other towns in the neighbourhood were
defended by the exarch Longinus. It would
appear that the progress of the Longobards
was in some degree facilitated by the schism
720

of the Archbishop of Aquileia, who had as-
sumed the title of patriarch and asserted his
independence of Rome, and opposed the de-
crees of the fifth oecumenic council of Con-
stantinople. The see of Milan was also in a
state of schism with Rome. Cardinal Noris
observes that these metropolitans submitted
themselves willingly to the Longobards, who,
being Arians, could protect them against
Rome, and the eastern emperors who ruled at
Rome.

Alboin, irritated at the obstinate defence of
Ticinum, had sworn to put all the inhabitants
to the sword ; but on entering the eastern
gate, after the town through famine had sur-
rendered at discretion, his horse fell under
him and would not rise again, when one of
Alboin's attendants suggested to him that this
was perhaps a wai'ning to him to spare the
poor inhabitants. Upon this Alboin abjured
his oath, and his horse rose up, and he rode
to the palace of Theodoric, where he fixed
his residence. Such is the account of Paulus
Diaconus, the historian of the Longobards.

In the year 573, Alboin, being at Verona,
after drinking deeply at a great banquet,
ordered a cup to be brought which he had
made out of the skull of Cunimund, and in-
vited his wife Rosamund to drink out of it.
Paulus Diaconus testifies that he saw the
cup nearly two centuries afterwards in the
possession of King Ratchis. This insult
roused Rosamund to deadly vengeance. She
conspired with Helming, her foster-brother
and armour-bearer to the king, and, by a
curious stratagem, the queen induced Pere-
deus, a brave Longobard captain, to assist
them in murdering Alboin, which they ef-
fected while the king was taking his after-
noon sleep. Alboin was generally regretted
by the Longobards, for he had some great
qualities mixed with his native ferocity.
Rosamund escaped to Ravenna with her
daughter Albswinda and her paramour Hel-
ming, whom she married. Longinus the ex-
arch, wishing to marry Rosanmnd, induced
her to get rid of Helming, and to marry
himself, promising her that he would make
her queen of Italy. The treacherous woman
assented, and administered poison to Hel-
ming as he came out of the bath. Helming
soon felt the effects of the poison, and he com-
pelled his wife, at the point of the sword, to
drink the renuiinder ; and thus they both
died. Longinus sent Albswinda, with the
treasures that Rosamund had brought with
her, to the Emperor Justin at Constantinople.
(Paulus Diaconus; Marator'i, Annali d' Italia ;
Sigonius, De Beqno ItaVue.) A. V.

ALBON, CLAUDE-CAMILLE-FRAN-
COIS COMTE D', was descended from, or at
least was of the same ancient Lyonnese family
with, Jacques d'Albon, Marechal St. Andre,
the famous captain of the time of Henry II.
of France. He was born at Lyon in 1753,
and spent the greater part of his short life in

ALBON.

visiting foreign countries, and in acquiring
a literary notoriety by writing books and
otherwise. He began to publish as soon as
he was out of his minority, and his works
amount altogether to nearly a dozen ; among
which may be mentioned a boyish declama-
tion against conquerors, entitled " Dialogue
entre Alexandre et Titus," which appears to
have been originally printed in or before 1774;
a collection, in 8vo., of "ffiuvres Diverses,"
stated to have been read by him to the
Academy of Lyon on the day of his recep-
tion, 1774; an " Eloge" on Quesnay, the
founder of the Economistes, of whose views
he was a great admirer, 8vo. 1775 ; a poem
entitled " La Paresse," a pretended trans-
lation from the Greek of Nicander, 8vo.
1777 ; a " Discours," 8vo. 1784, in which
he maintains that the age of Augustus was
far outshone both in science and literature by
the age of Louis XIV. ; an " Eloge" upon
Court de Gebelin, 8vo. 1785, &c. But his
most curious and characteristic performance
is a sort of survey of the entii-e social con-
dition of the principal nations of Europe,
which first appeared in 1779 and the follow-
ing years, in 3 vols. 8vo., under the title of
" Discours Politiques, Historiques, et Cri-
tiques, sur quelques Gouvernemens de
I'Europe," and was afterwards extended, or
recast, and re-published in 4 vols. 12mo. in
1782, with the new designation of " Discours
sur I'Histoire, le Gouvernement, les Usages,
la Litterature, et les Arts de plusieurs
Nations de I'Europe." Of the four volumes,
the greater part of the first is devoted to
England, the remainder to Holland ; the
second is occupied with Switzerland and
Italy ; the rest of the subject of Italy is dis-
cussed in the third ; and the fourth goes over
Spain and Portugal. The work is not desti-
tute of talent ; there is a certain degree of
spirit and buoyancy in the writing ; and
many of the remarks are acute and sen-
sible enough. But the self-possession and
self-satisfaction with which the count pro-
ceeds in all circumstances, whether he hap-
pens to know anything about what he
is talking of or not, is very amusing. The
great object of his discourse (or discourses
rather, for there are two of them) on Eng-
land, is to prove that the English govern-
ment, instead of having any character of
freed(mi about it, according to the vulgar
notion, is really the most despotic that has
ever existed. The king, he maintains, is in
fact perfectly absolute, the constitution being
essentially and practically a mere monarchy,
only with a crowd of inconveniences not to
be found in states purely or openly mo-
narchical ; and as for the people, tb.ey are
less free and more oppressed than most of the
other nations of Europe. The principal con-
sideration by which he makes all this out is
the circumstance that it is a prerogative of
the crown both to convoke and to dissolve
721

the parliament when it chooses. The Count
d'Albon died at Paris in 1789. He is
remembered not only for his books, but for
a market which he built in the town of
Ivetot, in Normandy, of which he was pro-
prietor, with the following Latin words cut
over the gateway : — " Gentium commodo,
Camillus III." (Camille III., for the accom-
modation of the nations) ; and for the gar-
dens around his chateau at Franconville, near
Paris, which were laid out in the English
style with great taste, and of which a set of
views was published, in 19 plates, in an Svo.
volume, in 1784. {Biographie Universelle.)

G. L. C.
ALBON, MARQUIS DE FRONSAC.
[Andre', Saint.]

ALBO'NI, PA'OLO, an excellent land-
scape painter of Bologna of the beginning of
the eighteenth century. After practising for
some time in Bologna, Rome, and Naples, he
went, in 1710, to Vienna, where he remained
about thirteen years, when he was deprived
of the use of his right side by an attack of
paralysis. He returned in consequence to
Bologna in 1722, and commenced painting
anew with his left hand ; his pictures, how-
ever, after this accident, although surprising
under the circumstances, were very inferior
to his previous works. He painted some-
thing in the style of Ruysdael and other
Dutch masters. His daughter, Rosa Alboni,
also excelled in landscape painting. Alboni
died in 1730. (Crespi, Vite de' Fitlori Bo-
lognesi, Sfc.) R. N. W.

ALBORE'SI, GIA'COMO, a celebrated
architectural painter of Bologna, where he
was born in 1632. He first studied the
principles of architecture and perspective
under Domenico Santi, and afterwards be-
came the scholar of Agostino Mitelli, whose
daughter he married. Alboresi excelled in
architectural painting in fresco, and executed
many great works both in public and in pri-
vate buildings in Bologna, Florence, and
Parma. The western facade of the cathedral
at Florence was painted by him, assisted by
Antonio Maria Pasio. The figures in his
pictures were painted by Fulgcnzio Mondini,
the scholar of Guercino, until 1664, when
he died ; they were afterwards painted by
Giulio Ccsare Milani. Alboresi died in 1677,
aged forty-five. (Malvasia, Filsina Pittrice;
Crespi, Vite de' FiUo?-i Bolognesi, §-c.)

R. N. W.
ALBORNO'Z, DIE'GO FELrPE,a canon
and treasurer of the church of Carthagena,
who lived in the middle of the seventeenth
century. He is said to have been born of a
noble family, but nothing appears to be
known either of the place or period of his
birth, or when he died. He was a man of
great ability, learning, and eloquence, and
wrote a work of much merit, entitled " Car-
tilla politica y Cristiana," published at Ma-
drid in 1666, in 4to., consisting of articles on

ALBORNOZ.

the virtues and vices, in alphabetical order.
He also published at Madrid in 165S, in 4to.,
" Las Guerras civiles de Inglaterra," which
is a translation from the Italian of Maiolino
Bissaccioni. (N. Antonius, Bibliothecu His-
pana Nova, i. 308.) J. W. J.

ALBORNOZ, GIL or ^GFDIUS DE,
■was born of a noble family at Cuen^a in
Spain about the beginning of the fourteenth
century. He studied at Saragossa, and after-
■wards at Toulouse, and, having taken holy
orders, became chaplain and privy councillor
to Alfonso XI. king of Castile, who made
him archdeacon of Alcantara, and afterwards
caused him to be raised to the archiepiscopal
see of Toledo. He accompanied Alfonso in
his expedition against the Moors in Anda-
lusia, which ended in the defeat of the Moors
and the capture of the town of Algesiras.
After the death of Alfonso in 1350, his suc-
cessor Pedro, styled "the Cruel," continued his
favour to Albornoz, until Albornoz ventured
to remonstrate with him against his adulterous
connection with Maria de Padilla. The king
and his paramour resolved to get rid of their
troublesome monitor ; and Albornoz, to save
his life, was obliged to fly from Spain. He
repaired to Avignon, where Pope Clement
VI. was then residing, who soon after made
him a cardinal. Albornoz also enjoyed the
favour of Clement's successor. Innocent VI.,
who appointed him his legate in Italy, and
intrusted him with the recovery of the papal
states, which, during the absence of the popes,
and at the instigation of the Emperor Louis of
Bavaria, had been occupied by several power-
ful families, Ordelaffi, Malatesti, Vico, and
others. Alboruoz, having collected a body
of mercenaries of various nations, proceeded
to Italy in the summer of 1353. He first
repaired to Milan in order to sound the arch-
bishop Giovanni Visconti, who was lord of
the Milanese, and who had also obtained
possession of Bologna, notwithstanding the
claims of the popes on that city. The arch-
bishop received the legate with aU respect,
and professed in general terms his devotion
to the papal see. Albornoz, partly in order
to lull the jealous suspicions of Visconti, re-
solved not to move at first towards Romagna,
but to march direct through Tuscany towards
Rome. The first enemy he had to encounter
was Giovanni Vico, tyrant of Viterbo. While
at Siena, Albornoz availed himself of some
dissensions which had arisen among the
citizens of Perugia, to recover possession of
that important city in the name of the pope.
He then despatched messengers to the great
German company of mercenary adventurers
commanded by the notorious Fra Moriale,
who had formerly served in the Neapolitan
wars under the standard of Louis of Hungary,
but who were now wandering about Italy
and plundering the territories of those towns
which would not save themselves from spo-
liation by paying money. These freebooters.

to the number of 8000 men, were at that
time ravaging the territory of Todi, not far
from Perugia. Alboi-noz, fearing that they
might join his enemies, attempted to engage
them for the service of the pope ; but they
refused, saying that they preferred living as
they then did. Albornoz then requested
that at least they woidd not turn their arms
against the pope, and he promised money
and other favours to their chief Moriale,
who came to terms, and, moving his men
from Todi, led them north of the Apennines
into the Marches. Albornoz then marched
from Perugia to Montefiascone, where he
took up his winter quarters previous to at-
tacking Vico of Viterbo. In the mean time
he managed to win over to his side the citi-
zens of Orvieto. Vico, on hearing of this,
marched against Orvieto, took it, and put to
death several of the chief men, and levied
heavy contributions upon the citizens. Al-
bornoz, whose troops were inferior in num-
ber, especially in cavalry, and whose treasury
was low, was obliged to look on, and act on
the defensive. Having at last contrived to
seduce, partly by bribes and partly by spiritual
threats, a body of the enemy's cavalry, he
attacked Vico in the spring of 1354, and de-
feated him between Orvieto and Acquapen-
dente. He then reduced several towns in the
neighbourhood ; and Vico, finding himself
forsaken by most of his partisans, made offers
of surrender. Albornoz allowed him a safe
conduct for himself and family, and even ap-
pointed hun governor of Corneto. By this
act of clemency he won general favour ; and
not only Viterbo, but Narni, Terni, and the
whole of Umbria, submitted to him. The
pope was displeased with the indulgence
shown to Vico ; but Albornoz explained to
him the motives of his conduct, and urged
the necessity of such policy. He now
marched northwards against the brotliers
Malatesti, lords of Rimini. He had previously
sent to Rome Cola di Rienzi, the demagogue,
who had been confined for some time m the
prison of Avignon, and whom Albornoz had
induced Pope Innocent to release, thinking
he might be a useful instrument. Cola was
received at Rome with great honour, and he
began to put down the turbulent Roman
barons and to enforce order. He also seized
and put to death Fra Moriale, the freebooter
chief. Cola being shortly after murdered in
a popular insurrection, the supremacy of the
pope was temporarily re-established at Rome.
The Malatesti, being defeated by the troops
of Albornoz, entered into an arrangement
by which they submitted to the pope, restored
Ancona and other towns, and retained Ri-
mini, Pesaro, and Fano as vassals and tri-
butaries of the see of Rome. Polenta, lord of
Ravenna, did the same ; and Gentile da
Mogliano, lord of Ferrao, was obliged to
surrender himself into the hands of the k'gate.
Ordelaffi, lord of Forli and Ccsena, and JNIan-

ALBORNOZ

ALBORNOZ.

fredi, lord of Faenza, still held out. In the
year 1356 Albornoz preached a crusade
against them, and granted ample indulgences
to those who contributed money for this ob-
ject. Having by these means collected men
and money, he first marched against Ascoli,
which he took, as well as Faenza, by capitu-
lation. Forli and Cescna still held out.
About this time some intrigues in the papal
court of Avignon caused Albornoz to be re-
called by the pope -, and the legate, having
assembled at Fano a general parliament of
the cities of Romagna in April, 1357, made
known his recall ; but he was enti-eated by
all who were present to defer his departure
for some months. In the mean time an in-
surrection, encouraged by the legate's secret
correspondence, broke out at Cesena with the
cry of " The Church for ever ! " and the town
was entered by the troops of the legate and
plundered. Francesco Ordelaffi, lord of
Forli, also surrendered to the legate ; and
thus the whole Romagna was restored to
the papal allegiance. Albornoz returaed to
Avignon, but in the following year he was
sent again to Italy by the pope, who saw
the mistake he had made in recalling him.
On his return to Italy, Albornoz went to
Naples to appease some dissensions between
Queen Joanna I. and several refractory
barons. On this occasion Albornoz instituted
an inquiry into a sect of heretics called
Fraticelli, who were numerous in the king-
dom of Naples. The sect originated in a
division among the friars of the order of St.
Francis, and had been denounced in a bull
dated 1318 by Pope John XXII. The Em-
peror Louis of Bavaria protected the Frati-
celli, being in a manner his allies, against the
court of Avignon. They were originally men
who aspired to a higher degree of spirituality
than the rest of their brethren, who professed
an absolute renunciation of all property,
whether personal or common, as being the
rule of evangelical perfection, and as having
been practised by Jesus Christ and his dis-
ciples. This made them especially obnoxious
to the wealthy clergj% and to the papal court
of Avignon in particular. The Fraticelli
were persecuted by the Inquisition both in
Italy and the south of France. Benedict XII.
had excommunicated them in a bull dated
1335, in which he made a long enumeration
of the heads of their heresy. Among them
were enthusiasts, who exaggerated the merits
of St. Francis, and assimilated hira to Jesus
Christ. As usual in such eases, the Fraticelli
were accused by their enemies of heinous
crimes and of shameless profligacy, of which
Genesius de Sepidveda, the biographer of Al-
bornoz, gives most incredible details. The
torture, which was applied to some of them,
was a sure means of making them confess any
atrocity. Sepulveda says that the cardinal
was so shocked at the confessions of the ac-
cused that he caused a number of these Fra-
723

tlcelli, both men and women, to be seized
and burned alive.

In 1360 Albornoz took possession of the
important city of Bologna by a secret treaty
with Giovanni da Oleggio, who, being go-
vernor of it for the Visconti of Milan, had
made himself independent some years before.
Barnabo Visconti remonstrated with Albornoz
in support of his claims to Bologna, but the
legate replied by asserting the anterior rights
of the papal see over the same city. Visconti
sent an army to recover Bologna, but the
legate surprised and defeated it, and then he
formed a league against Barnabo with the
Marquis d'Este of Ferrara, Carrara lord of
I Padua, and Feltrino Gonzaga lord of Reggio.
Pope Urban V., who had succeeded Innocent
I VI., solemnly excommunicated Barnabo.
After some defeats Barnabo sued for peace,
which was concluded in March, 13C4.

In 1367 Pope Urban V. determined upon
visiting his Italian dominions, which had
been restored to him through the exertions of
Cardinal Albornoz. He met the cardinal at
Viterbo. After a few interviews, the pope
one day demanded abruptly of Albornoz an
account of his fifteen years' administration.
The legate ordered a cart loaded with the keys
of all the towns and fortresses which he had
taken to be brought into the court of the
palace, and told the pope that he had spent
his own property in recovering those places for
His Holiness. The pope, struck with this sig-
nificant indication of the obligations which he
owed the cardinal, took him to Rome, where
the cardinal asked and obtained leave to re-
sign his commission as legate. Albornoz
returned to Viterbo, where he died three
months afterwards, in August, 1367. His
will, which is annexed to his life, written in
Latin by Genesius de Sepulveda, provided,
among other things, for the erection of a
Spanish college at Bologna. He was one of
the most remarkable men who have wielded
at the same time the crosier and the sword.
(Muratori, Annali d' Italia ; Vita del Car-
dinale Albornoz tiadotta da F. Stefano da
Murcia Rettore del Collegia dcyli SpagnuoU in
Bologna, 1590.) A. V.

ALBO'SIUS JOANNES, or AILLE-
BOUT, a French physician of the sixteenth
; century, was born near Autun, practised me-
[ dicine at Sens, and was physician to Henry III.
of France. He published in 1587 an ac-
count of a foetus which had remained in the
uterus of a woman at Sens for twenty-eight
years, and had acquired the hardness of
stone by the deposition of earthy matter in
all its tissues. The title of his work is " Por-
tentosum Lithopa;dium, sive Embrj-on petri-
factum Urbis Senonensis, in Utero per Annos
28 contentum," Sens, 1582. It contains a
succinct account of the case, and a short
commentary, both of which are well written.
The strangeness and novelty of the event (for
at that time no similar case was on record,

ALBOSIUS.

ALBRECHT.

though there are now several well-authenti-
cated examples of it), excited great curiosity,
and the book was reprinted in various forms.
Simon de Provanchere published the case
with a commentary in French, and Corda^us
inserted it at the end of his " Commentarius
in Librum priorem Hippocratis Coi de Mu-
liebribus," with which it is also published in
Spachius's " Gynseciorum," p. 739. (with a
coarse engraving of the mother and child at
p. 479.), and in Bauhin's " Gynseciorum Libri
Tres." Rosset also wrote an account of the
case, with his explanation of it, in the form
of a dialogue in Latin verse, in a work which
he called " Scleropalfficyematis, sive Litho-
paedii Senonensis . . . Causae," and which
forms an appendix to his " 'To-ripoTo/xoTOKia,
id est, Csesarei Partus Assertio." In the
copy of the latter inserted in Spachius's " Gy-
nseciorum," p. 463., are two cases of large
abscesses of the abdomen opened by the
actual cautery, which were communicated by
Albosius, of whose merits Rosset speaks very
highly. {Life in Biographie Medicale.)

J. x .

ALBRECHT ACHILLES. [Albert.]
ALBRECHT, ALCIBIADES, margrave
of Baireuth, son of Casimir, margrave of
Brandenburg, and grandson of the Elector
Albert Achilles, was born at Anspach on
the 28th of March, 1522. At the division
of the Franconian principalities in 1541
Baireuth fell to his lot. He was a dissipated
and reckless soldier of fortune. He ori-
ginally enlisted under the banners of the Duke
of Alba, but was taken prisoner on the 2d
of March, 1547, in one of his first battles,
by the Elector of Saxony. Recovering his
liberty he entered the service of the em-
peror, and in 1551 laid siege to Magdeburg
at the command of the Elector iMoritz of
Saxony. Next year we find him concluding
a treaty with France at Chambord in the
name of the Protestant princes of Germany,
against whom he had been hitherto fighting,
and carrying on war as a French partisan
against the city of Niirnbergand the bishops
of Bamberg and Wiirzburg, whom he forced
to cede some of their lands to him. In the
course of the same year he made peace with
the imperial court upon the condition that he
should be allowed to retain his new ac-
quisitions. Hereupon "Wiirzburg, Bamberg,
and Niirnberg entered into an alliance with
the Elector Moritz with a view to recover
their lost territories. The allied forces gained
a victory over the margrave Albrecht at
Sievershausen in the Hanoverian territories
on the 9th of April, 1553, but the elector
fell in the battle. The troops of the allied
powers following up their advantage not-
withstanding this loss, entered the territory of
Baireuth, and on the 2'2d of June took and
destroyed the fortress of Plessenburg. Al-
brecht after this disaster led an unsettled life
as an exile, wandering from one court of the
724

south of Germany to another. He died of
consumption on the 8th of January, 1555,
while on a visit to his cousin the margrave
of Baden at Pfortzheim. (Lang, Geschichte
des Fiirstenthums Baireuth. Gottingen,
1801.) W. W.

ALBRECHT L, prince of Anhalt : the
year of his birth is unknown. He succeeded
his father some time between the years
1290 and 1293, but the exact date is uncertain.
His reign constitutes an ara in the history
of North Germany from the circumstance of
his having prohibited the use of the Wendish
language in his courts of justice. After the
murder of the Emperor Albert I. in 1308,
he took an active part in the intrigues which
preceded the election of a successor to
the imperial throne. Albrecht I. of Anhalt
was liberal in his donations to the church.
He died in 1316. (Beckmann, Historie des
Fiirstenthums Anhalt. Zerbst, 1710, fol.)

W. W.

ALBRECHT II., prince of Anhalt, son
of Albrecht I., was, as well as his brother
Waldemar I., a minor at the time of his
father's death. The brothers reigned con-
jointly till the death of Albrecht, which
happened in 1362. Their relative Waldemar
of Brandenburg having died childless in
1320, their claim to be his heirs was un-
contested by any member of the family ;
but the Emperor Ludwig IV. claimed the
]\Iark of Brandenburg as a fief that had
lapsed to the crown, and bestowed it upon
his own son. It might be anger on account
of this treatment, or it might be a belief of
the story told by the "Waldemar generally
admitted to have been a mere pretender, that
induced them to support in 1348 the claims
of that adventurer. The principality of
Anhalt suffered severely during the war to
which his pretensions gave rise, which lasted
till 1355. The burden of government during
the greater part of this war lay upon Al-
brecht, for ^Valdemar undertook a journey
to the Holy Land in 1343. Albrecht stood
high in the confidence of the Emperor Charles
IV., and it is as one of his counsellors
that his name is appended to the golden bull
promulgated at Metz in 1356. Albrecht
died in 1362, leaving his sons to the care of
his brother, who only survived him a few
years, falling in battle against Bishop Gerard
of Hildesheim in 1367. There were two
other princes of the name of Albrecht in
this family ; but neither of them calls for
more particular notice. (Beckmann, Historie
des Fiirstenthums Anhalt. Zerbst, 1710, fol.)

W. W.

ALBRECHT of Austria. [Albert.]

ALBRECHT, BALTHASAR AUGUS-
TIN, a German historical painter, born at
Berg, near Munich, in 1687. He studied
painting in Munich, spent some years in Italy,
and returned to Munich in 1719, when he
was appointed painter to the court, and in-

ALBRECHT.

ALBRECIIT.

spcctoi' of the gallery. In the abbey church
of Schwarzach, at Ingolstadt, at Eichstiidt, at
Landshiit, and at Diessen in Bavaria, there
are altar-pieces by him. He died at Munich
in 1765. (Lipowsky, Baierisches Kiiiisikr-
Lexicon.) R. N. W.

ALBRECHT I. of Bavaria, the third
son of the Emperor Ludwig V. (who by the
extinction of the family of Lower Bavaria
had succeeded to the whole territory), by his
second wife Margareta of Holland, succeeded
in the year 134"J, along with his two elder
brothers, to the joint sovereignty of Lower
Bavaria and the provinces of Holland, Zea-
land, Hainault, and Friesland. A family
compact entered into in 1353 gave the Ne-
therland provinces, along with the district
of Straubing and twenty-two communes in
Bavaria, to Ludwig's sons Wilhelm and Al-
brecht along with their mother. Margareta
died in 1356, and Wilhelm became insane in
1358. Albrecht then assumed the reins of
government, and guided them as admini-
strator for his insane brother and himself
till 1388, when the former died without
heirs. Albrecht continued to govern in
his own right till his death in 1404. He
resided alternately at the Hague and Straub-
ing, and left the reputation of a clement
prince without distinguishing himself parti-
cularly either in civil or military capacity.
His second son Albrecht, whom the Bavarian
genealogists call Albrecht H., died before
him, according to some in the year 1387, ac-
cording to others in the year 1399. (Arn-
pekhius, Chronicon Bojoariorum ; Pezius,
Tliesauri Anecdotorum novissimi, t. iii. pars
iii. ; Joannes Adlzreitei', Boicce Gentis An-
nales, pars ii. ; Ersch und Gruber, Allge-
vieine Eiwijclopndie, voc. " Baiern.") W. \V.
ALBRECHT IK. of Bavaria, the great
grandson of Stephen II., brother of Wilhelm
and Albrecht I., whose portion of Lower Bava-
ria was divided at his death into three parts
by his sons. Albrecht III. descended from
Johann, the third son, who received Miinchen
and the territory dependent on it for his
share. Albrecht, the son of Ernst I., is called
in history " the Pious," a name which he ap-
pears, like many other princes, to have owed
to his weakness and want of character. In
youth he married clandestinely Agnes of
Pernau, the daughter of a barber or keeper
of a bath, whom his enraged father, on the
discovery of the misalliance, caused to be
drowned in the Danube, in October, 1436.
Arnpekhius says that the young prince was
long atflicted in consequence ; but his mar-
riage with Anna of Brunswick took place in
the same year. In 1438 Albrecht became
duke of Baiern-Miinchen by the death of his
father. His reign was peaceable, but he left
public business in a great measure to his
wife. Having quarrelled with her towards
the close of his life, he associated his two
eldest sons with him in the government. He
725

was subject to frequent attacks of the gout,
and his chief occupations were music and
hunting. On the death of the Emperor Al-
bert II. the Bohemian crown was offered to
the Duke of Baiern-Miinchen by the nobles
of that country, but he declined it, as likely
to involve him in struggles incompatible
with his indolent disposition. He died in
February, 1460. (Arnpekhius, Chronicun
Bojoariorum ; Adlzreiter, Boicce Gentis An-
nales; Ersch und Gruber, ^4/A/e;/ie/7(e Enajclo-
pddic, voc. " Baiern.") W. W.

ALBRECHT IV. of Bavaria, called by
historians Albrecht the Wise, the son of Al-
brecht III., was born on the 14th of Decem-
ber, 1447. It was the prudence and resolu-
tion of this prince that laid the foundation of
the greatness of his family.

In early life he and some of his brothers
were sent to Rome for their education. He
made such progress in his studies, that in
after life the rude nobles of Upper Germany,
who were jealous of his superiority over
them, called him in mockery the writer
(der schreiber).

Albrecht was under age when his father
died in 1460. By the will of Albrecht III.
his two eldest sons were to govern jointly
the hereditary territories of their family.
John III. and Sigismund accordingly as-
sumed the government, but the former dying
without heirs in 1463, Albrecht IV. suc-
cceeded as next in order to the joint re-
gency. This arrangement lasted only for
the next two years. Sigismund, an unam-
bitious self-indulgent man, resigned the task of
prince to his brother Albrecht. Christopher,
the fourth brother, an ambitious prince, and,
on account of his courage and taste for magni-
ficence, a favourite with the nobles, claimed
to be admitted to a share in the government
on the resignation of Sigismund. A league
was formed among the equestrian order of
the duchy to support his claims. The con-
troversy was referred to tlie arbitration of
Ludwig of Bavaria, of the line of Landshut,
who pronounced in favour of Albrecht.
Christopher and his partisans refused to
acquiesce in the decision of the arbiter, but
Albrecht broke up the confederacy by his
politic arts. Christopher persisting in his
intrigues, his brother caused him to be
arrested, and, in spite of the remonstrances
of his vassals and the mediation of the em-
peror, kept him a prisoner till thiily-six of
the equestrian order became securities for
his future good behaviour. Albrecht, as
soon as he found himself secure in the
possession of undivided authority, turned his
attention to the extension, consolidation, and
permanent organisation of his states, and
found therein ample occupation for the rest
of his life.

Passing over many acquisitions which he
made from time to time, he redeemed in
1481 Stadt-am-hof, which his predecessjis

ALBRECHT.

had mortgaged to the bui'ghers of the im-
perial free town Ratisbon ; and in 1486
he persuaded the citizens of Ratisbon
themselves to do homage to him as their
liege lord. This acquisition however he was
obliged to abandon on account of the thi-eats
of the Emperor Maximilian I., who refused
to allow so important a city to be alienated
from the empire. In 1493, on the extinction
of tlie house of Abensberg, Albrecht pur-
chased that valuable territory from the em-
peror, and incorporated it with his dominions.
The death of George the Rich, whose
grandfather had united the inheritance of
the Ingolstadt and Landshut branches of the
Bavarian family, without male heirs in 1503,
opened to Albrecht the prospect of once more
reuniting the whole of Bavaiua into one duke-
dom. The rival pretensions of the female
heirs of George gave rise to a war, at the
termination of which Albrecht found himself
in undisputed possession of the greater part
of Bavaria as it had been possessed by his
ancestor the Emperor Ludwig V.

The states (landstiinde) of Bavaria, which
had been rising into importance under the
feeble princes who governed fragments of
Bavaria, retained under Albrecht IV. the
powers they had acquired, although it was
reserved for the reign of his son to give
them the constitution, which they retained
with little or no alteration till 1808. It
was principally in the administrative ar-
rangements of the central government that
Albrecht's talent for legislation was felt.
He obtained the pope's leave for two of the
ablest prebendaries of every cathedral in
his territories to reside permanently at his
court, without having their salaries stopped
on account of their absence from their
ecclesiastical duties. By this arrangement
he secured the assistance of a body of
well-educated counsellors without entailing
any additional expense on the public revenue.
He instituted a strict superintendence over
the convents and monasteries, and punished
the licentiousness of their inmates by the
imposition of forced loans, which were ap-
plied to alleviate the burdens of his subjects,
and defray the expenses of his territorial
acquisitions. It was principally the free-
dom of the mhabitants of Stadt-am-hof from
the exactions and the aggressions of the
lawless nobility in their vicinity, which the
paternal government of Albrecht insured
to them, that induced the burghers of Ratis-
bon to think of subjecting themselves to
the feudal superiority of Bavaria.

To give permanence to the state he had
in a manner founded was the last care of Al-
brecht. He had married in 1487 Kunigunde,
a daughter of the Emperor Frederick III., by
whom he had three sons. Alarmed lest
Bavaria should again after his death be par-
titioned into a number of petty territories, he,
with the consent of his only surviving brother
726

Wolfgang, and the sanction of the land-
stiinde, concluded a family compact, by which
it was ordained that in all future time the
eldest prince should succeed to the undivided
political superiority in the duchy of Bavaria,
and that the younger brothers should receive
merely the title of Graf along with an annual
pension. This compact, finally arranged in
the year 1506, laid the foundation of the Ba-
varian state.

Albrecht IV. died on the 10th of IMarch,
1508. (Arnpekhius, Chronicon Bojoarivruni.
The author of this chronicle composed it
under Albrecht IV. Adlzreiter, Boicce Gen-
tis Annales ; Heinrich, Deutsche Reichs-
geschichte ; Ersch imd Gruber's Allyemeine
Eiicyclupiidie, voc. " Albrecht IV." ; Herzog,
voc. " Baiern.") W. W.

ALBRECHT V. of Bavaria, son of Wil-
helm IV., was born in 1528, and succeeded
his father in 1550. The Bavarian historians
call him " the Magnanimous." The prominent
characteristics of his reign are attributable on
the one hand to his love of the fine arts, on
the other to his attachment to the Romish
church, dispositions which have been in-
herited by his descendants.

Albrecht V. was liberal to such scholars
as took up their residence either at his uni-
versity at Ingolstadt, or his capital Miinchen.
The musical establishment of his chapel-royal,
under the direction of Orlando Lasso, was the
most celebrated of its day. He was a mu-
nificent patron of poets, painters, sculptors,
and architects. The expenses occasioned by
his indulgence of these tastes were a constant
source of discussion between him and the
diets of his states-general (Landstiinde), of
which during his reign four were held at
Landshut, five at Miinchen, and two at In-
golstadt. These debates generally ended,
after the diet had duly represented the im-
poverishment of the country and the neces-
sity of reduced taxation, with the duke's
granting the complainants an extension of
their privileges, and the stiinde taking upon
themselves the payment of his debts. In
virtue of these compromises, Bavaria obtained,
in 1552, a general police edict (Landes-
polizeiordnung) ; in 1557 the confirmation
of the privileges and jurisdiction of the
equestrian order ; and in the course of Al-
brecht's reign no less than thirty additional
charters (Freibriefe) to the thirty-four granted
by his ancestors.

The devotional turn of the duke showed
itself in his liberal donations to churches and
monks, and especially to the Jesuits. The
favour he showed to this new order excited
the jealousy of the Landstiinde, who com-
plained of them as a substitute for an inqui-
sition, and demanded liberty of conscience.
The convention of Passau in 1552, and the
religious peace of Augsburg in 1555, having
proved luiavailing to restore tranquillity, Al-
brecht sent his counsellor Baumgarten to

ALBRECIIT.

ALBRECHT.

Trent in 1561, to solicit the abolition of the
Cflibacy of the clergy and the concession of
the administration of both elements of the
Lord's supper to the laity. Had the council
yielded, he was willing for the sake of peace
to have conceded these points ; but as it stood
firm, he adhered to the decision of the church.
The consequence was considerable discon-
tent among the equestrian order, and a par-
tial conspiracy in 1564-5, which was crushed
before it came to ahead. Albrecht's judicious
lenity prevented any renewal of the attempt,
and the subject of religion was not again
introduced at any diet held in his time.

Albrecht V. died on the 22d of October,
1579. (Adlzreiter, Boicce Gentis Amudes,
pars ii. lib. xi.) W. W.

ALBRECIIT of Brandenburg. [Al-
bert.]

ALBRECHT IL, margrave of Branden-
burg, son of Otho I., reigned from 1205 to
1220. During the first year he had his bro-
ther Otho n. for a colleague, but the death
of that prince whhout heirs, in 1206, left
him to the undivided enjojinent of power.
Albrecht was a partisan of the Emperor Phi-
lip of Suabia ; but after the murder of Philip,
in 1208, he submitted to his rival Otho IV.
He remained true to his new allegiance even
after the pope had set up Frederick IL of the
Hohenstaufen family in opposition to Otho.
When Otho betook himself to a private life
in 1215, Albrecht tendered his submission
to Frederick, who, respecting his character,
accepted it graciously.

A war which Albrecht began with his
namesake, the Archbishop of Magdeburg, in
support of the claims of Otho IV. to the
throne, was continued from motives of pri-
vate hostility. Albrecht was dissatisfied with
his deceased brother's liberality to the church,
at the expense of the territories of Branden-
burg, and endeavoured to regain some lands
which had been granted by him to the Arch-
bishop of Magdeburg. This feud kept Al-
brecht II. in fidl emploj-ment during the rest
of his life, and was the source of many suf-
ferings to the subjects of Brandenburg, long
after his death. Albrecht was succeeded by
his two sons Johann I. and Otho III. (Scrip-
tores Rerum Bramlenburgensiiim. Franco-
furti ad Viadrum, 1751, 4to. ; Ziedlitz, Staats-
beschreibung Preussens. Berlin, 1828 ; Stein
in Ersch und Grubcr's Allgemeine Enci/clopd-
die, voc. " Albrecht IL, Markgraf von Bran-
denburg.") W. W.

ALBRECHT of Bremen. [Albert.]
ALBRECHT, duke of Brunswick, called
by historians " the Great," son of Duke Otho
the Child, was born in 1236. Through his
father, Albrecht was a descendant of Matilda
of BavaTiaand Saxony, daughter of Henry II.
of England. His father dying in 1252, Al-
brecht gave in his sixteenth year an indica-
tion of his daring and energetic character, by
taking the reins of government into his own
727

hands, and assuming the office of guardian of
his younger brothers. In 1254 he married
Elizabeth, daughter of Sophia of Brabant,
with whom he lived seven years in a child-
less marriage. He was knighted on the
occasion of the tournament held in honour of
his nuptials.

Not long after his mai'riage he was in-
volved in a feud with Gerhard, archbishop
of Mayence. Hostilities were carried on after
a desultory fashion for a considerable time ;
but in 1258, while Albrecht was engaged in
the siege of Asseburg, Gerhard and his allies
made an incursion into the district of Giittin-
gen. VVilke, the duke's principal officer in
that quai'ter, fell upon them unexpectedly:
the archbishop was taken prisoner, and
obliged to purchase his freedom with the
outlay of a considerable part of the money
with which Richard of Cornwall had pur-
chased his vote at the imperial election. The
garrison of Asseburg, notwithstanding the
failure of this attempt at a diversion in its
favour, made such an obstinate defence that
Albrecht was glad to get possession of the
castle on the condition of allowing the garri-
son to march out with the honours of war.
Hostilities were terminated towards the close
of the year by the election of Albrecht's
brother Otho to be bishop of Hildesheim.
He immediately turned his arms against the
margrave Heinrich of Meissen, having em-
braced the cause of his wife's brother in the
disputes regarding that territory. He ac-
quired some fame, but little profit, in this
campaign.

After the death of his wife Sophia (1261),
Albrecht engaged in a kind of knight-errant
expedition to Denmark, in hopes to win for
himself a wife and a crown. He succeeded
in liberating Queen Margaret from the prison
in which she and her son, afterwards Eric
IV., were kept by the Count of Holstein ;
was appointed regent of the kingdom, and
flattered with expectations of the queen's
hand. His government, however, partly on
account of a natural severity of disposition,
and partly on account of his yielding too
much to the queen's excessive appetite for
revenge, was so oppressive, that the Danes
rebelled, and in 1263 he returned to his own
country.

Here he learned that during his absence
the fortune of the war in Meissen had turned
against his brother-in-law. He assembled
the neighbouring nobles at a tournament in
1263, and having persuaded them to join
him, bi'oke immediately into the territory of
Meissen. He was taken prisoner, and only
recovered his liberty, after two years' con-
finement, upon ceding eight tovms and castles
to the margrave, and paying in addition a
ransom of 8000 marks.

After recovering his liberty he proceeded
to England for the purpose of marrying
Adelheid of Monferrato, a niece of the Queen

ALBRECHT,

ALBRECHT.

of England. This alliance, it appears from
letters in Rymer's Fcedera (i. 751. 738.), had
been contemplated at an earlier period, but
had been broken oif, probably in consequence
of his Danish engagement. A letter of
Henry III. to the collectors of the customs in
London (Ilymer, i. 838.) intimates that the
duke had contracted debts in the city on that
occasion which he was unable to discharge,
and directs them to furnish him with the
means. Notwithstanding this high matri-
monial alliance, Albrecht's finances continued
in such a dilapidated condition that when the
Hohenstaufen line became extinct by the
execution of Corradino in 1268, he, who had
the best claim to the lauds in Suabia, of which
that family had deprived his ancestors, was
unable to take part in the scramble for their
succession. He appears to have obtained
more for others than for himself : the privi-
leges granted in 12G6 by Henry HI. to the
merchants of Llibeck trading to London
appear to have been conceded at the request
of the Duke of Brunswick.

The income of the Duke of Brunswick was
not increased by the partition of the terri-
tories comprised within the dukedom between
himself and his brother Johann, which was
projected and carried into effect in 1268-9.
It is possible, however, that this arrange-
ment gave him the power of inti-oducing
better order into the management of his
finances : at least from this period his re-
sources seem to have kept steadily improving.
Johann received for his share Liineburg and
the lands between the Deister and the Leine ;
all the rest fell to Albi'ccht, with the excep-
tion of the town of Brunswick, which they
continued to possess in common, exercising
also in common all rights of feudal and terri-
torial superiority.

Albrecht had now attained his thirty-sixth
yeai", and from this time forward his career
is unmarked by any such self-sacrifices as
engaged him in the wars of his brother-in-
law, or any such romantic projects of aggran-
dizement as lured him to Denmark. It woidd
extend this sketch to an undue length to re-
capitulate all the acquisitions of territory
which he made in the course of the next
eiglit years. They were chiefly at the ex-
pense of his own feudal vassals, or the neigh-
bouring nobles : sometimes he obtained grants
from the free towns for defending them
against the rapacious knights in their vicinity.
The policy of conciliating the towns then
rising into importance, of which the solicita-
tion of privileges for the merchants of LUbeck
at Ivondon was the first indication, was
steadily adhered to by Albrecht. He pro-
tected the citizens of Hamburg, Liibeck, &c.,
while in his territories ; and conferred ex-
tensive privileges on many of his own towns.
On the other hand he rather sought to place
himself in opposition to the church. That
two of his brothers were bishops (at Hildes-
728

heim and Verden) was only in so far of ad-
vantage to him that it relieved him from the
necessity of maintaining them. With all the
rest of the prelates in the north of Germany
(and sometimes even with them) he was
almost constantly engaged in hostilities. His
first enemy, the Archbishop of Mayence, was
his enemy to the last. Unable to gain any
advantage over him by ai-ms, this prelate
had recourse to excommunication ; but this
Albrecht endured with an equanimity rare
in that age. He paid great attention to the
proceedings in the provincial law courts in
his states, and often presided in person.

Rudolf I. intrusted Albrecht in 1277 with
the management of the imperial domains in
Nether Saxony. The duke's brother Johann
dying about the same time, he obtained as
guardian of his infant nephew the entire con-
trol in bis portion of the duchy. The con-
centrated power thus placed in his hands the
experience of ten years of skilful and states-
manlike government promised to enable him
to turn to account. He did not however long
survive this augmentation of his power : he
died on the 15th of September 1279, in the
forty-third year of his age, before he could
accomplish any of the great undertakings
which were expected from him, leaving his
sons by a third wife, Heinrich and Al-
brecht, heirs to his territories. ( Versuch
einer pragma tischen Geschichte ties durch-
lauchtiystcn Hauses Braunschweig und Liine-
burg, Braunschweig, 1764, 8vo. ; Origines
GuclJiccE, edidit C. L. Scheidius, Hanoverte,
1753, fol. iv. G — 18 ; Rymer's Fadera, vols.
i. and ii.) W. W.

ALBRECHT the Corpulent (der feiste,
pinguis) of Brunswick, the second son of
Albrecht the Great, is the common ancestor
of the reigning house of Brunswick, and its
junior branch the royal house of Hanover.
His mother acted in his name from the death
of his father, 1279 till 1282, when Albrecht,
having been knighted by Magnus, king
of Sweden, appears to have assumed the
management of his own affairs. In 1286
Albrecht formed a compact with his elder
brother Heinrich, to the effect that the ter-
ritories which both had acquired by marriage
should be held in common like those which
had devolved to them by right of inheritance ;
that the ecclesiastical fiefs should be adminis-
tered in common, and neither should grant a
temporal fief to any vassal without the con-
sent of the other ; that neither should alienate
any lands, or appoint stewards or similar
officers, without the other's consent ; that nei-
ther should engage in hostilities without the
other's consent ; and that both should take
care to live so economically as to prevent the
lands of the duchy from being burdened with
debt. These amicable relations between the
brothers did not last long. In 1288 Albrecht
and a younger brother, Wilhelni, embraced
the party of Sigfried, bishop of Hildesheim,

ALBRECHT.

who was at war with Heinrich, and besieged
their brother in the town of Helmstiidt.
These hostilities terminated in a compromise.
In 1291 the three brothers were in arms
against the bishop, but their alliance was not
very cordial: Albrecht and Wilhelm con-
cluded a separate peace, and Heinrich was
obliged to follow their example. Wilhelm
died in 1292. Albrecht, on what grounds it
does not appear, laid claim to be his sole heir,
and Ileinrich's opposition again led to a war
between them. The period at which these
hostilities terminated and the final arrange-
ment of the brothers respecting the contested
succession are unknown. Albrecht was ex-
pensive in his habits, and notwithstanding the
compact of 1286, he sold more lands and pri-
vileges than he acquired. It was to his
necessities much more than to his liberality
or talent as a ruler that many important im-
provements made in the laws of the duchy
and their administration in his day were
owing. Helmstiidt and Brunswick obtained
important extensions of their liberties in re-
turn for sums advanced to their needy master ;
and in 1293 the judicial organisation of his
territories was materially improved by an
ordinance published at Miinden, apparently
in return for pecuniary assistance from the
Landstiinde. Albrecht the Corpulent died in
1318, leaving by his wife Rixa a large family,
of which the three brothers Otho, Magnus,
and Ernst succeeded to his lands and dignities.
Albrecht became bishop of Halberstadt, and
Heinrich bishop of Hildesheim. {Versuch
eincr pragmutischen Geschichte des durchlauch-
tigsten Houses Braunschweig und Lmiehurg.

Braunschweig, 1764, 8vo.)

W. W.

ALBRECHT II. of Brunswick was great
grandson of Albrecht the Great. The por-
tion of the ducal possessions which fell to the
share of. his grandfather Heinrich the Won-
derful (Mirabilis) had, after being divided
between his father Ernst and uncle Hein-
rich, been reunited in the person of the
former, on the death of the latter's sons with-
out issue. The united territory was governed
in common by Ernst, Albrecht II., and three
brothers of the latter, the two elder of whom
died before him. The surviving brother,
Friedrich, being the youngest of the family,
took little concern in public aflFairs till after
the death of Albrecht, and hence Albrecht
is generally regarded as sole regent of the
branch of the Brunswick family known by
the designation of Braunschweig-Gruben-
hagen from 1361 to 1384. He has the re-
putation of having been an admirer of his-
torical writings : his character as a ruler is
less favourable. From his castle Salz der
Helden he made predatory inroads into the
territories of his neighbours like a common
" Raub-ritter" of the time. Nor was he suf-
ficiently master of that disreputable profession
to gain by it. The margrave of IVIeissen re-
duced him in 1365, notwithstanding his castle

VOL. I.

was defended by a cannon said to have been
the first ever fired in Lower Saxony, to such
extremities, that he was glad to purchase
peace by ceding some of his best towns. His
necessities obliged him to pawn many lord-
ships to neighbouring nobles, and to sell pri-
vileges to the burghers of the more powerful
towns. It thus happened that he left his
dukedom materially curtailed and burdened
with debts to his successors. It may be
worth notice that Albrecht and his brothers
were the first to introduce the white horse,
the family arms, in their privy seals. {Ver-
such einer pragmatischen Geschichte des durch-
luuchtigsten Uuuses Braunschweig und Liine-
burg. Braunschweig, 1764, 8vo.) W. W.
ALBRECHT IIL of Brunswick, grand-
son of Albrecht II., succeeded along with
his two brothers, Ernst and Heinrich, to the
uncontrolled exercise of their hereditary
power on the death of their uncle and guar-
dian, Otho, in 1439. The three brothers
reigned conjointly till 1463, when, on the
death of Heinrich, Ernst retired to a convent,
and left Albrecht to govern alone in his own
name and the name of Heinrich's son, a
minor. In 1481 a division of the territory
between Albrecht and his nephew took place.
The former survived this transaction five
years, dying in 1486. Albrecht III. without
possessing distinguished, talents was a re-
spectable statesman ; he is memorable
chiefly for his efforts to improve the con-
dition of the mining population of the Harz,
and to render the working of the mines more
productive. An Albrecht IV. of this family
is mentioned by its historians, but he died
before his father in 1456, and, although ad-
mitted according to the custom of the time
and country to a share in the government,
can scarcely be regarded as having been ac-
tually a reigning prince. ( Versuch einer prag-
matischen Geschichte des durcMuuchtigsten
Hauses Braunschweig und Liineburg. Braun-
schweig, 1764, 8vo.) W. W.
ALBRECHT CASIMIR. [Albert.]
ALBRECHT, REV. CHRISTIAN, one
of the pioneers of Christian missionary opera-
tions in the interior of South Africa, was a
native of Suabia, in Germany, but the date
of his birth we have not been able to ascer-
tain. He was originally connected with the
Netherlands Missionary Society, but became
an agent of the London Missionary Society,
by whom he was sent to South Africa. He
arrived at Cape Town on the 19th of January,
1805, whence he proceeded in company with
some other missionaries into the wild and
desolate region of Namaqualand, to intro-
duce the knowledge of Christianity to the
savage tribes by whom it is inhabited. Some
of the dangers and difficulties of this benevo-
lent undertaking may be conceived from
the memoir of Africaner, from which
also may be seen the success which attended
the efforts of the devoted men with whom
3 B

ALBRECIIT.

ALBRECHT.

Albreclit was associated ; but a much fuller
account of both is given in the -work referred
to at the close of this article. Albreclit com-
menced his labours among the Namaquas on
the 31st of January, 1806, and in May, 1810,
he left his station at Warm Bath, north of the
Great Orange river, and made a visit to the
colony in company with his brother Abra-
ham, who had accompanied him to Africa,
and Avho shortly afterwards died from the
effect of the climate, coupled with the hardships
to which he had been exposed. While in the
colony, Christian Albrecht married, at Cape
Town, Miss Burgman, a lady of Dutch family,
who entered zealously into all her husband's
views. But a few months however had
elapsed after their return to Warm Bath,
when the missionai'ies were compelled by a
threatened attack from Africaner and his
followers to fly fi'om that station. Thej- and
the natives under their instruction, after
suffering many privations, and being com-
pelled for some time to shelter themselves in
holes dug in the ground, at length took refuge
in the colony, whence Albrecht and his wife
again returned early in 1812. Albrecht's
wife died in that year at Silver Fountain, on
the border of the colony, but her husband
returned into Namaqualand, and assisted in
the re-establishment of the mission at Pella,
south of the Great Orange river, where about
five hundred of the former congregation at
Warm Bath were collected. lU health obliged
Albrecht once more to return to Cape Town,
where he died suddenly on the 25th of July,
1815, " leaving behind him," as observed by
Mr. Moffat, " a bright testimony of zeal, love,
and self-denial, seldom equalled." (Motiat's
jMissionanj Labours and Scenes in Southern
Africa, chaps, v. and vi. ; Communication from
the Lo7idon Missionary Society.^ J. T. S.

ALBRECHT of Freisixg. [Albert.]
ALBRECHT OF HALBERSTADT, a
German poet who lived in the early part of
the thirteenth century. Concerning his life
we know nothing, except that in the year
1212 he was staying with the landgrave Her-
mann of Thuringia in his castle of Zechen-
bach.

Albrecht is chiefly known to us as a
translator of the poetical works of other
nations into German, and his productions
are classed among those of the German
Minnesingers. The following works of his
are extant: — 1. " Tschionadulander," that
is, the history of Titurel and the guardians
of the holy graal (properly called sang real,
the real blood of Jesus Christ) which Joseph
of Arimathea is said to have brought to
England. The emerald vessel in which it
was supposed to have been contained was
brought in 1100 fi-om Palestine to Genoa;
and this circumstance gave rise to various
poetical works of the kind in Southern
Europe. That of Albrecht is a free transla-
tion of a French romance by a writer of the
730

name of Kyot or Gujot : Albrecht was as-
sisted in his task by his contemporary, the cele-
brated poet Wolfram von Eschenbach. Ma-
nuscripts of this work exist in the libraries
of Dresden, Hanover, and the Vatican.
There is also a printed edition of it, pub-
lished in 1477 without place, in folio, which
is extremely scarce. [Wolfram von Es-
chenbach.] 2. "Gamuret" is a transla-
tion of a similar romance by the same French
writer. Albrecht only translated the first part
of it ; the remainder is translated by Wol-
fram von Eschenbach. The whole is con-
tained in the folio volume of 1477 mentioned
above. 3. A metrical translation of " Ovid's
Metamorphoses," which Albrecht undertook
in 1210 at the request of Landgrave Hermann.
In a strict sense it can scarcely be called
a translation, inasmuch as Albrecht has
omitted several parts, added and altered
others, and also inserted several moral re-
flections of his own. It was first printed
under the title " Metamorphoseon Libri XV.,
verdeutscht durch Albertum von Halberstadt
um das Jahr 1210, auf Befehl Hermann's,
Landgrafen in Thiiringen, und gedruckt zu
Mayntz, 1545, fol." This is the oldest Ger-
man translation of Ovid ; the language of
Albrecht, however, was considered too harsh
b}- the writers of the sixteenth century, and
Georg Wickram of Colmar, without possess-
ing any knowledge of Latin, undertook to
remodel Albrecht's translation, and to make
it more readable. This altered edition ap-
peared at Mainz in 1551, fol., and was re-
printed at Frankfurt in 1564 and 1580, in 4to.
This edition of Wickram was subsequently
again remodelled by an anonymous writer
at Frankfurt in four successive editions,
1609,1625, 1631, and 1641, in 4to. (Adelung,
Magazin der Deutschen Spraclie, ii. 3. 12, &c.;
Koch, Kompendium der Deutschen Literatur-
Geschichte, i. 35. 97. ; ii. 219. 306. ; Jordens,
Lexikon Deutscher Dichter und Prosaisten, iii.
611, &c. ; Gervinus, Gcschichte der National-
Literutur der Deutschen, ii. 45, &c. 2d edit.)

L.S.

ALBRECHT of Halberstadt. [Al-
bert.]

ALBRECHT of Holland. [Albrecht L
of Bavaria.]

ALBRECHT, JOHANN FRIEDRICH
ERNST, was born in 1752 at Stade in
Hanover, and studied medicine at Erfurt.
After having finished his studies and taken
his degree as doctor of medicine, he went
to Reval as private physician to Count
Mannteufel. After staj-ing a few years with
the count he lived successively at Erfurt,
Leipzig, and Dresden, and occupied himself
chiefly with novel-writing. Afterwards he
set up as a bookseller at Prague ; but not
succeeding in business, he undertook the
management of the theatre at Altona, where in
his later years he resumed the practice of his
medical profession, and died in the year 181G.

ALBRECHT

ALBRECIIT.

AlbrecTit was one of t]ie most prolific
German novelists of the last century, but
none of his works rise above mediocrity,
although some of them were much read.
There is a class of German readers who
devour even the worst novels, whether they
are the productions of German writers,
or translations from foreign langiiages, and
even writers of doubtful merit are thus
raised to a temporary popularity by the
great demand for novels. Nearly all the
works of Albrecht have fallen into complete
oblivion. The following list contains those
which had at the time the greatest popu-
larity : — 1. " Waller und Natalie," 2d edition,
Leipzig, 1782, 3 vols. 2. " Liebe istein wun-
derlich Ding," Hamburg, 1787, 2 vols. 3.
" Faust der Zweite," Stettin, 1782, 2 vols.
4. "Sophie Berg," Leipzig, 1782, 2 vols. 5.
" Laura di Sola," Hamburg, 1782, 2 vols. 6.
" Therese von Edelwald," Frankfurt, 1784,
2 vols. 7. " Lauretta Pisena," 2d edition,
Leipzig, 179.5, 2 vols. 8. " Dreierlei Wir-
kungen," Leipzig, 1782-90, 8 vols. 9. " Die
Familie Eboli," Dresden, 1791, 4 vols. 10.
" Dramatische Werke," Dresden, 1790. 11.
" Die Familie Medicis," Leipzig, 1795,
2 vols. 12. " Sammlung neuer Schauspiele,"
Hamburg, 1804. 13. " Maria de Lucca,"
Altona, 1801. 14. " Ulrika della Marka,"
Hamburg, 1802, 2 vols. 15. "Die Kreuz-
fahrerinnen," Leipzig, 1804. (WolfiF, Enaj-
clopaedie der Deutschen NationalUteratur, i.
40.) L. S.

ALBRECHT, JOHANN LORENZ,Doet
laureate, also cantor and musical director in
the cathedral of Miihlhausen in Thuringia,
was born near that city in 1732. He studied
music under P. C. Rauchfuss, the organist of
Miihlhausen, and afterwards theology at
Leipzig. The date of his musical appoint-
ment is 175S, and of his death 1773. His
musical works are chiefly elementary, cri-
tical, and historical. (Gerber, Lexicon der
Tonkiinstler.') E. T.

ALBRECHT, JOHANN LUDER, a lec-
turer on law at Leipzig. He was a native of
that town, the son of a respectable merchant,
and born in 1721. He studied in the uni-
rersity there from 1746 to 1750 : in 1751,
he obtained the degree of bachelor, in 1752
that of doctor. He lectured on law from the
time he took his degree of doctor till his
death on the 4th of January, 17G7, but does
not appear to have obtained an appointment
as professor. He deserves a place here, not
for his legal eminence, but as being one of
the earliest writers in Germany to direct at-
tention to the means of extending the com-
mercial industry of his native country. He
published — 1. " Disputatio de vera Jurisdic-
tionis veteris indole ej usque usu hodierno."
Leipzig, 1752, 4to. 2. " Der Englische Kauf-
mann oder Grundsiitze der Englischen Hand-
lung, aus dem Franzijsischen iibersetzt; nebst
einer Vorrede von den Mitteln, wie Deutsch-
731

land, durch die Handlung reich werden
kimne." Leipzig, 1764, 8vo. This is the
publication in which he pomts out the possi-
bility of enriching Germany by increasing
its trade. (Adelung, Supplement to Jocher's
Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexicon.) W. W.

ALBRECHT, JOHANN SEBASTIAN,
was born at Coburg on the 4th of June,
1695, where his father was a tradesman. He
studied at Jena and also at Leyden, and
travelled through Holland and Germany
during the period of his studentship. He
took his degree of doctor of medicine at Jena
in 1718. On his return to Coburg he com-
menced with diligence the practice of his
profession. In 1730 he was elected a member
of the Academy of Natural History of
Coburg, and in 1 734 he was appointed pro-
fessor of natural philosophy in the gjmnasium
of the same place. In 1737 he was made
the district physician of Coburg. During
his studies at Jena he presented two theses,
the one on asthma, the other on the action of
lead, which were printed at Jena in 1707
and 1718. In 1742 he published a work on
a disease prevailing amongst horned cattle,
entitled " Kurzgefasster Unterricht von der in
der Niihe bin und her sich einschleichenden
Hornviehseuche und wider dieselbe dienende
Mittel," 4to. Coburg. His other publications
are on various departments of natural history,
which he cultivated with much zeal. In
1734 he published a work on fossils, " Pro-
gramma quo recentiorum plerorumque Phy-
sicorum Sententia Fossilia qua?dam figurata
universalis Diluvii esse Testimonia ex an-
tiquioribus Ingeniorum Monumentis adstruit
et affirmat," 4to. Coburg. In 1 747 he edited
an edition of the botanical works of Jungins,
under the title "Joachimi Jungii Opuscula
Botanico-Physica, omnia coUecta, recognita
et revisa, novisque Annotatiunculis illustrata
cura J. S. Albrecht, M.D. Coburgi."

Albrecht devoted much attention to the
observation of those departures from normal
growth in the animal and vegetable kingdom
called monsters. Several papers on this sub-
ject, although he did not understand the real
nature of these abnormal growths, will be
found in vols. v. vi. vii. viii. of the " Acta
Physico-Medica Academiae Casarese Na-
turae Curiosorum." He died at Coburg in
the year 1774. (Adelung's Supplement to Jo-
cher's Allgem. Gelehrten-Lexicon.) E. L.

ALBRECHT, JOHANN WILHELM,
born at Erfurt in 1703, was the son of J.
Andreas Albrecht, a member of the senate
of that city. Having completed his pre-
liminary education at Erfurt and Gotha, he
commenced the study of medicine at Jena in
1722. He afterwards went to Wittenberg,
and still further to advance his knowledge
of anatomy and operative surgery, he visited
Strassburg, and spent six months in Paris. In
1727 he returned to Erfurt and received his
doctor's degree, his inaugural dissertation
3 B 2

ALBRECHT.

being " De Morbis Epidemicis." In 1729 he
■was appointed extraordinary professor of
medicine in the university of the same place,
and gave lectures on various medical subjects,
as well as demonstrations in anatomy. In
1 734 he was invited to Gottingen, and made
professor of anatomy, surgery, and botany, in
the university which had been recently esta-
blished there. He was the first regularly
appointed professor in the medical depart-
ment of this university, and was suc-
ceeded in his office by Haller. In addition
to his lectures on several medical subjects, he
likewise gave instruction in mathematics,
and by too great assiduity in the performance
of his duties hastened his death, which oc-
curred at Gottingen in 1736. His works are
as follow : — 1. " Observationes anatomicse
circa duo Cadavera masculina. Erford."
1730, 4to. 2. " Tractatus physicus de Tem-
pestate. Erford." 1731, 8vo. He denies that
the weather is influenced by the course of
the stars, and exposes the folly of those phy-
sicians who pretend that they can determine
the proper period for bleeding and other
treatment by the position of the stars and the
phases of the moon. There are also added
observations on the lymphatics of the stomach.
.'5. " Tractatus physicus de EfFectibus Musices
in Corpus animatum. Lips." 1734, 8vo. In
this he gives a discourse on the nature of
sound and the structure of the ear. He shows
the power which music possesses of inducing
and curing diseases, and states that it has
often proved very beneficial even in cases of
the plague. He applies to it the term " Mu-
sica Medicatrix." 4. " De vitandis Erroribus
in Doctrina medica. Got." 1734, 4to. 5. " De
vitandis Erroribus in Medicina mechanica.
Got." 1735, 4to. 6. " Dissertatio de Spiritu
Vini, ejusque Usu et Abusu. Got." 1735,
4to. 7. " De Loco quodam Hippocratis de
Natura, quoe nulla priccedente Disciplina, quae
Opus sit in Homine perficit, male explicato.
Got." 1735, 4to. 8. " Parsenesis ad Artis
medicae Cultores. Got." 1735, 4to. This
contains several anatomical Observations.
He also wrote in the " Commercium Lite-
rarium " three papers : — " De CamphoraB
Usu in Purpura et Inflammationibus in-
ternis, 1735;" " De Vulnere Capitis, cum
Iseso Cerebro, Trepannatioue Sanato ;" " De
Vi Corticis Peruviani in sistendis Gan-
grena et Sphacelo a Causa Interna natis,
1736." It is necessary to distinguish hhn from
JoHANN Peter Albrecht, a native of Hil-
desheim, who in 1673 published a dissertation
" De Lue Venerea," and wrote several other
papers : and also from Johann Melchior Al-
brecht, a pupil of Haller, at whose suggestion
he wrote " Experimenta quadam in vivis
Animalibus prajcipue circa Tussis Organa
exploranda instituta." Gottingen, 1751, 4to.
(John Matth. Gesner, Biographia Academica
Gottingensis, Hal. 1768, tom. i. ; Haller, Bib-
liotheca Anatomica, tom. ii.) G. M. H.

732

ALBRECHT of Magdeburg. [Al-
bert.]

ALBRECHT I. of Mecklenburg was
born in 1319. He is called Albrecht II. by
the genealogical writers of his country, it
being their custom to enumerate every
member of a noble family ; but he is the
first who attained to princely rank as a duke
of the Roman empire. He was stiU a minor
when his father Henry IV. of Mecklenburg
died in 1329. He took upon himself, with the
consent of his guardians, the government of
his hereditary territories in 1335. He sur-
vived till 1379, and, except during the last five
years of that long period, his brother Johann,
the eighth of that name in the Mecklenburg
family, was associated with him in the go-
vernment. Albrecht carried on several wars
with varying success against his neighbours
the dukes of Pomerania, for the possession of
the isle of Riigen, but was obliged to re-
linquish it to them. In July, 1348, the Meck-
lenburg territory was created a dukedom of
the empire by Charles IV., who conferred
upon Albrecht, his brother, and their heirs, the
title of dukes of Mecklenburg and princes of
the Vandals. In 1354, Albrecht, at the so-
licitation of the Hanse Towns, undertook an
expedition against the piratical nobles of
Schwerin and Ratzeburg, in which he ob-
tained a complete victory. In 1359, the last
count of Schwerin having died without heirs,
Albrecht, who had claims to the succession,
purchased the rights of his competitors, and
annexing the lands to his duchy, assumed the
title of count of Schwerin in addition to his
previous titles. Albrecht was ambitious of
extending his territory, but he was also
careful to preserve order and justice within
it. His dying injunctions to his sons were,
to keep the roads within their dominions
secure for merchants, and to preserve a good
intelligence with the great commercial towns.
Albrecht L died on the 19th of February, 1379,
leaving by his wife Euphemia, three sons and
two daughters. (Matthias Joannes Beehr,
Berum Mecleburgicartim Lihri Octo. Lipsiae,
1741, fol.) W. W.

ALBRECHT II. of Mecklenburg, son
of Albrecht I., is the third of that name in
the family tree, the second who was a duke
and prince of the Roman empire. The year
of his birth is unknown. He was elected
king of Sweden, while his father was still
alive, in 1363, by the states-general, who
had declared Magnus Eriksen and his son
Ilako incapable of governing.

The beginning of Albrecht's reign was
disturbed by the hostile eflbrts of the ad-
herents of the old dynasty. In the first
battle Magnus was taken prisoner, and Hako,
severely wounded, fled into Norway. "Wal-
demar, king of Denmark, showing a dispo-
sition to assist the fugitive prince, Albrecht,
in order to win him to his party, made haste
to conclude a treaty by which he ceded to

ALBRECUT.

ALBRECHT.

Denmark sonie of the most valuable of the
Swedish provinces. Albrecht was about the
same time persuaded by his father to repay
assistance he had received from him by the
cession of a part of the Swedish territory.
The irritation created among the Swedes by
these arrangements encouraged Hako in 1.371
to invade Sweden with a body of Norwegian
troops. Albrecht was obliged to purchase
the support of the clergy and the nobles by
conferring privileges upon them, -which de-
prived the crown of almost all its power. By
this means, however, he secured their co-
operation against the immediate danger which
threatened him. Hako was obliged to con-
clude a peace with the prince who had sup-
planted his family, and to rest contented with
having obtained the liberation of his father
and the settlement of an annual pension upon
him.

Nothing -worthy of commemoration oc-
curred till 1382. Albrecht was during the
interval exciting additional discontents in
the minds of his subjects by his breach of
the promises made to them in the hour of
danger, and by his preference of foreign
favourites. In the course of that year Hako
died, and All)rccht, relieved from his appre-
hensions of so formidable a rival, undertook
to recover the pi-ovinces ceded to Denmark
by force of arms. His extravagance had
emptied his treasury, and the states-general,
a-ware of its impoverished condition, were as
much averse to the attempt to recover the
provinces as they had been to the giving of
them up. Albrecht commenced the war
regardless of their opposition, and having ob-
tained an accession to his private funds by
the death of his brothers Heinrich, who died
childless in 1383, and Magnus, -who died in
1384 or 138.5, leaving only one son and two
daughters, minors, he carried ou hostilities
with some advantages till 1387.

Oluf, king of Denmark, died in 1387, and
the bold and ambitious Margareta, who suc-
ceeded him, lent an unwonted energy to the
counsels of Denmark. It -was soon evident
that her object was to unite Denmark,
Norway, and Sweden vmder one crown. Al-
brecht now found himself engaged in a con-
flict with a princess who was far his superior
in genius, and supported, in addition to this
superiority, not only by the Danes and Nor-
wegians, but by no inconsiderable portion of
the Swedes, He was defeated in the battle
of Falkopping, on the 2 1st of September, 1388,
and lost at once his crown and his liberty.

He was detained a prisoner by Margareta,
whom he had irritated by his taunts, till
1395. In that year his nephew Johann,
duke of iMecklenburg, brought about a con-
vention between Albrecht and the Queen of
Denmark, in virtue of which he was, upon
being restored to liberty, to pay to her
00,000 marks of silver, or in case he could
not raise the money, give up his claims to
733

Sweden. Nine of the Ilanse Towns became
security for his fulfilling the terms of the
treaty, and for that purpose their troops oc-
cupied Stockholm. Albrecht was released
from confinement, but it was not till 1405
that, feeling his utter weakness, he testified
his acquiescence in the arrangement made for
him, and retired into a convent. He died
in 1412. (Matthias Joannes Beehr, Rcrum
Mecleburgicat-um Libri Octo. Lipsite, 1741,
fol. ; Sartorius, Geschichte des Hun seat ischeri
Bundes. Gottingen, 1802, et seq. 8vo.)

W. W.

ALBRECHT III. of Mecklenburg, son
of Albrecht II., who was for a time king
of Sweden, is called by genealogists Albrecht
V. : the Albrecht intervening between them
was an elder brother, who bore for a short
time the empty title of king of Denmark,
and died before his father. The year in
which Albrecht III. was born is not men-
tioned by the family historians, but the dis-
pute between his mother and his cousin
Johann XIII. of Mecklenburg, for the office
of guardian, shews that he was a minor at
the time of his father's death in 1412. He
was declared of age in 1414, and concluded
in the same year a treaty with his cousin, by
which they divided the lands of the duchy
between them, both continuing to exercise the
ducal prerogative, and retaining equal au-
thority over the Hanse Towns, Wismar and
Rostock. From this time till the death of
Johann in 1422, the two princes, except for
a short interval, have only one history. The
interval alluded to is that during which Al-
brecht assumed (for none of the Swedes ap-
pear at any time to have recognised his right)
the title of king of Sweden. This was in
the year 1416-7. Albrecht was besieged in
Schleswig by Eric VIII., and obliged to
purchase personal safety by resigning all
claim to the crown. In 1416, Johann and
Albrecht took an active part in restoring the
authority of the senates of Liibeck and some
other Hanseatic to-wns, which were for a time
subverted by democratic insurrections. In
1419 the same princes founded the univer-
sity of Rostock. A war broke out in the
same year between them and Frederick I.,
elector of Brandenburg, which lasted till
1421. Johann, dying in 1422, left the care
of his infant children to his cousin, who did
not long survive him. Albrecht died at Tan-
germiinde in 1423, in the midst of the festi-
vities preceding his marriage with a daugh-
ter of Frederick I. of Brandenburg, for the
purpose of consummating which he had visited
that town. On his deathbed he recommended
his nephews to the protection of his good
tow'ns Rostock and Wismar. (Matthias Joan-
nes Beehr, Rerum Mcclcburgicarum Libri Octo.
Lipsia?, 1741, fol.) W. W.

ALBRECHT IV. of Meckienbttrgh (ac-
cording to the genealogists Albrecht VII. ;
their Albrecht VI. was a son of Johann,
3 B 3

ALBRECHT.

duke of Mecklenburg, of the Stargard line)
along -n-ith his brothers Magnus III. and
Balthasar II. succeeded their father Heinrich
X. in 1477. During the next six years the
names of all three brothers, Albrecht's stand-
ing first, are inserted in the charters and
other state papers of the duchy : Magnus
■was, however, the real governor. Albrecht
died without issue in 1483, in the forty-fifth
year of his age. (Matthias Joannes Beehr,
Rerum Mecleburyicarum Libri Octo. Lipsise,
1741, fol.) "\V. W.

ALBRECHT V. of Meckxenbdrgh (called
by the genealogists Albrecht VIII.) governed
the duchy in conjunction with his elder bro-
ther Heinrich, from the death of their father
in 1503 till 1547. Their brother Eric, who
was nominally their colleague for a few years
(he died in 1508), took scarcely any part in
public afl'airs.

From 1503 to 1521 uninterrupted har-
mony appears to have prevailed between the
brothers. Even during this period, however,
the marked difference between their characters
showed itself. Albrecht distinguished himself
at tournaments ; Heinrich barely acquitted
himself respectably. Albrecht was a fre-
quent visiter of the imperial court ; Heinrich
only attended it w hen escape was impossible.
Heinrich, as the elder brother, exercised the
chief authority in their territories ; and as
yet Albrecht offered no opposition to this
arrangement, although the pacific and even
timid polic}- of his brother must have often
galled his more daring and ambitious spirit.

Albrecht married, in 1521, Anna the
daughter of Joachim I., elector of Branden-
burg ; and from the time of his contracting
this alliance he began to evince discontent
with the subordinate part he had hitherto
played. In 1523 he undertook a journey to
Spain, for the purpose of obtaining from the
Emperor Charles V. an injunction to his bro-
ther to make a division of their hereditary
territories. Heinrich expressed no open dis-
content at the step taken by his brother ; but
the Landstiinde opposed the project of a par-
tition, and it was allowed to fall to the
ground. In 1525 a family compact was
concluded by the brothers allotting certain
domains for the sustenance of each, and re-
cognising their common authority over the
principal lands of the dukedom.

Charles \. had not granted the desires of
Duke Albrecht without demanding some ser-
vice from him in return. The emperor ex-
acted a pledge from the duke that he would
lend his aid to re-establish Christian II. of
Denmark, whose subjects had deposed him.
Charles promised to indemnify Albrecht for
any outlay he might incur in this under-
taking.

The Lutheran doctrines were about this

time making rapid progress in Mecklenburg,

as in every other of the German states. The

political and fanatical insurrections which

734

subsequently terrified many of the princes of
Germany had not yet occurred. The ques-
tion was regarded, in a great measure, as a
mere monkish controversy. Neither of the
brothers took a decided part. At first they
favoured the reform preachers, so far as to
protect them from violence. In 1524 Al-
brecht's own chaplain preached in favour of
Luther. In 1526 both brothers signed a
proclamation against the innovations in re-
ligious matters issued by the Archduke of
Austria, the Elector of Brandenburg, and
some other princes of the empire. In 1530
they attended the diet, at which the con-
fession of Augsburg was presented, and kept
aloof from the Protestants.

Albrecht's ambition led him ultimately to
embrace the Roman Catholic party. In 1527
he gave refuge in his states to the catholic
clergy whom Gustavus Vasa had banished
from Sweden, extending this protection to
them more in their character of political par-
tisans of Christian II. than of religious
confessors. But in 1531 the honours heaped
upon him during a visit to the imperial court
rendered him a willing agent of the imperial
policy. In 1532 Christian was taken pri-
soner, and the Swedes of his party, hopeless
of obtaining his release, began to cast their
eyes upon Albrecht of 3Iecklenburg (one of
whose ancestors of the same name had al-
ready worn the Swedish crown) as his suc-
cessor. Albrecht lent a willing ear to the
proposal, and thus entered the field as the
head of the Swedish Roman Catholics against
the king who had introduced the Reforma-
tion into that kingdom. His brother's pro-
testant tendencies, and the succour he antici-
pated from him, served however to neutralise
his religious zeal.

In 1535 Albrecht, as ally of Christian II.,
undertook an expedition into Denmark. He
occupied Copenhagen ; was besieged there
by Christian III. ; and Charles \., who was
then engaged in his African expedition, lend-
ing no ear to his prayers for assistance, he was
forced to surrender. The state of Albrecht's
finances forbade his renewing the struggle.
The emperor at his request issued a mandate
to the Landstiinde of Mecklenburg to con-
tribute to the expenses of the war ; but the
injunction was evaded on the plea that the
money was re<iuired to guard against an in-
vasion which the Swedes were threatening.
Albrecht was equally unsuccessful in his
solicitations that the emperor would keep
his promise to repay the expenses he had
incurred in the Danish wars : he left the
claim at his death as a legacy to his sons.

From 1536 to 1546 nothing of moment
occurs in the history of Albrecht. Feeling
in that year the infirmities of age growing
upon him, he attended the diet at Ratis-
bonne for the purpose of commending his
sons to the protection of the emperor. He
procured commissions for the two eldest in

ALBRECHT.

the anny wliii'h the Elector of Brandenburg
was bringing to attack the Elector of Saxony
and Philip, landgrave of Hosse. He was, not-
withstanding his ailments, persuaded to take
upon himself the command of the army raised
by the emperor in Westphalia to invade
Pomerania. Albrecht and his sons became
in this manner prominent warriors in the
catholic ranks, his brother Ileinrich having
some years before embraced the protestant
religion. The painful spectacle of brother
arrayed in arms against brother was averted
by the death of Albrecht, which happened on
the 10th of January, 1547 ; and might perhaps
have been prevented, even if he had survived,
by his brother's want of resolution. (Mat-
thias Joannes Beehr, Rerum MecleburgicarMii
Libri Octo. Lipsise, 1741, fol.) W. W.

ALBRECHT, margrave of Meissen,
(son and successor of Otho the Rich,) called
" the Proud " by some writers, reigned from
1190 to 1195. During the life of Otho, Al-
brecht, irritated by his attempt to transfer the
inheritance to his younger brother Dietrich,
kept him for some time a prisoner, and, ob-
liged to release him by the emperor's com-
mands, still carried on a war against him.
Albrecht, after his father's death, took for-
cible possession of a large sum of money,
which he had deposited for security under
our Lady's altar in the monastery of Alten
Zelle. Dietrich, to whom his father had
left the territory of Weissenfels, laid claim
to a share of the treasure, and on receiving
a denial, formed an alliance with some of the
neighbouring prelates who were inimical to
Albrecht. Their imited forces proved in-
adequate to keep the field against the
margrave ; and Dietrich, being obliged to
seek additional assistance, was reduced to
the necessity of marrying, in 1193, Yutta,
daughter of Hermann, landgrave of Thiirin-
gen, who, according to the chroniclers, was
" very ugly," in order to obtain the support
of her father. An attack, made upon the
lands of Weissenfels in Januai-y, 1195, was
repelled by Hermann and Dietrich. About
the same time that he experienced this defeat,
the margrave learned that the Emperor
Heinrich VL was concerting measures to
deprive him of the rich mines which were
wrought within his territory : the otherwise
unprosperous state of his affairs led Albrecht
to endeavour to avert this storm by making
his peace at court. With this view he un-
dertook a journey to Italy, where the em-
peror then was, but returned without effecting
his purpose. He died at Meissen on the 21st
of Jime, 1195, while engaged in his prepara-
tions to resist the Imperial troops concentrat-
ing on his frontier. His death, and that of
his wife, which took place only thirty days
later, have been attributed to poison, some
writers imputing the crime to the emperor,
and others to the monks of Alten Zelle. Our
accounts of Albrecht, as well those that are
735

favourable to him as those that are other-
wise, are derived from writers infected with
the spirit of party, and little reliance is to be
placed upon them. Enough however appears
to indicate a bold and reckless spirit and
stormy career. {Eiitwiirff einer Historic
cicrcr Pfalzsgraffai zu Sachsen. Erfurt, 1740,
4to. ; Ersch uud Gruber, Alli/cmeine Ency-
clopddie, voc. "Albrecht der Stolze.")

W. W.

ALBRECHT L, elector of Saxony, was
the second elector of the Anhalt family. Ilis
father Bernhard succeeded to the electorate
in 1180, on the deposition of Heinrich the
Lion. Albrecht commanded the GeiTnan
forces in the war of 1227, which terminated
in regaining the part of the empire north of
the Elbe which had been usurped by the
Danes. He concluded a long but not very
memorable life in 12 GO. He married He-
lena, daughter of Otho the Child, duke of
Brunswick, who survived him thirteen years.
(Heinrich, Deutsche Reichs-geschichte. Jena,
1789, 8vo. ; Menckenius, Scriptores Rerum
Germanicarum, pracipue Saxonicarum. Lip-
sise, 1728-30, fol.) W. W.

ALBRECHT IL, elector of Saxony, was
the second son of Albrecht I., after whose
death his sons Johann and Albrecht exer-
cised the electoral privilege in common, but
arranged a partition of the territory by a fa-
mily compact, in virtue of which the family
separated into two branches. Johann was the
ancestor of the Sachsen-Lauenburg line,
Albrecht of that of Sachsen-Wittenberg.
Though the brothers exercised the electoral
rights in common, their descendants became
too numerous to continue the arrangement.
The electoral dignity was adjudged to the
descendants of the younger brother, on the
plea that it was inseparable from the pos-
session of the Wittenberg territory. Al-
brecht II. died in 1297. During his life-
time he must have been regarded as a
powerful prince, for Rudolf of Hapsburg at
the time of his election to the empire deemed
the support of the Elector of Saxony cheaply
purchased with the hand of his daughter.
This princess survived her husband, and died
in 1323. (Heinrich, Deutsche Reichs-ge-
schichte. Jena, 1789, 8 vo.; Menckenius, S'cr//)-
tores Rerum Germanicarum pracipue Saxoni-
carum. Lipsia?, 1728-30, foh) W. W.

ALBRECHT IIL, elector of Saxony, son
of the Elector W^enzeslaus by a princess of
Padua. Albrecht succeeded his brother Ru-
dolf in 1419, and died without male heirs in
1422. He was the last elector of the Anhalt
family, and was succeeded by Friedrich the
Warlike, margrave of Meissen. (Entwurff
einer Historic derer Pfalszgrajf'en zu Sachsen.
Erfurt, 1740, 4to. ; Menckenius, Scriptores
Rerum Germanicarum, pracipue Saxonicarum.
Lipsia?, 1728-30, fol.) W. W.

ALBRECHT the Courageous ( Animosus),
dixke of Saxony, a younger son of the Elector
3 B 4

ALBRECHT.

Friedricli the Mild, was born on the 17th of '
July, 1443. He was kidnapped in 1455, along
with his elder brother Ernst, by Kunz von j
Kaufiugen, but rescued somewhere among the
Erzgebirge. [Ernst, elector of Saxony.]
He spent a good part of his eai-ly life at the
court of the Emperor Friedrich III., his
mother's brother ; and the attachment he
then formed to the house of Austria induced
him to dedicate to its service many of the
best years of his life.

Albrecht married in 1464 Zedena, daughter
of Georg von Podiebrad, king of Bohemia.
His father died in the same year, and was
succeeded in the hereditary territory of
Meissen and part of Thiiringen by his sons
Ernst and Albrecht, who governed them
jointly till 1485, Ernst exercising as elector j
exclusive authority in the territory of Wit- '
tenberg, to which the electoral dignity was
attached. In 1482 Wilhelm HI. of Thii-
ringen, their uncle, died without nearer heirs,
and some dispute regarding their respective
rights in the inheritance led to a division
of their possessions in 1485. The elder
brother divided the lands and left the choice
of either portion to Albrecht : he chose
Meissen. Albrecht thus became the founder
of the Albertine line of the Saxon family, (the
present royal family of Saxony), as his
brother became the founder of the Ernestine
line, of which the ducal families of Saxony
are branches.

The principal events in the life of Al-
brecht during the joint government of the
brothers were these : — In 1466 they con-
quered Plauen. In 1471 Albrecht, on the
invitation of some of the Bohemian barons,
advanced at the head of a strong force to
Prague, in expectation of obtaining the
crown ; but the election falling in favour of
Wladislaus, a Polish prince, he returned dis-
appointed. In 1472 the brothers purchased a,
number of lordships in Silesia and elsewhere : j
this they were enabled to do by the abundant
produce of their silver mines. In 1475
Albrecht commanded the Saxon contingent in
the army of Friedrich III. in the war against
Charles the Bold of Burgundy. In 1476 he
made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, an
account of which, with a careful enumeration
of the ample indulgences he earned thereby,
compiled apparently by one of his attendant
priests, has been preserved by Menckenius.
In the war between the emperor and Matthias
Corvinus, king of Hungary, Albrecht in his
brother's absence dischai-ged the olBce of
imperial standard-bearer.

The brothers had their residence in Dresden
from the timeof their father's death till 1480 ;
Albrecht for the next five years resided at
Tliarand ; after the treaty of partition in
1485 he made Dresden his capital. His
frequent absence from home on the emperor's
service provoked complaints from the Land-
stiinde, which led in 1488 to his transferring
736

the government of the duchy to his eldest
son Georg.

Albrecht received in 1487 the command
of an army against Matthias, king of Hun-
gary, and was so successful in checking his
incursions that this prince declared he was
more afraid of Duke Albrecht alone than the
whole imperial army. Maximilian (after-
wards the first emperor of that name) em-
ployed Albrecht in 1488 to quell the dis-
turbances in the Netherlands. His exploits
on this occasion procured for him from the
Lanzkneehts under his command the title of
the German Roland, and were the occasion
of his being appointed by Maximilian, after
that prince had ascended the imperial throne,
hereditary governor-general of Friesland
(July, 1498). The inhabitants of Friesland
revolted during his absence, and besieged his
son Heinrich in Franeker. Albrecht relieved
him, and died not long after, on the 12th of
September, 1500.

Notwithstanding the treasures the duke
derived from his silver mines, his latter days
were embarrassed by accumulated debts. The
great expense he incurred in the service of
the house of Austria in two wars in Hungary,
and two in the Netherlands, were never re-
paid him except by empty dignities, or emptier
promises of succession to certain territories on
the extinction of the reigning families. The
annoyance resulting from his pecuniary em-
barrassments is supposed to have hastened
his death. Yet he retained to the last a
devotion to the Austrian interest (perhaps
more properly to the prerogative of the
emperor) which was inherited by his de-
scendants.

Notwithstanding this lavishing of treasure,
and his almost continual absence from Dres-
den, he was not inattentive to his duchy, nor
did he neglect arrangements for consolidating
and strengthening his family dominions. In
1486, he established a permanent executive
council (Landesregierung) at Dresden ; in
1488, a supreme court of justice, with appel-
late jurisdiction, at Leipzig ; in 1499, with
consent of the emperor and his sons, he con-
cluded a family compact by which his younger
son Heinrich renounced his claims to the
Saxon possessions on being nominated his
father's successor in Friesland, and Georg and
his heirs, the eldest son always succeeding to
the undivided dukedom, were invested with
the hereditary territories. This was the foun-
dation of what is now, though sorely curtailed
in extent, called the kingdom of Saxony.
(Menckenius, Scriptores liervm Germanica-
nim prrrcipue Saxonicarnm. Lipsiae, 1728-30,
fol. ; Hasse, in Ersch und Gruber's Ency-
clopdilie, voc. " Albrecht der Beherzte.")

W. W.

ALBRECHT, SOPHIE, was born in
1757 at Erfurt, where her father, J. P.
Baumer, was professor of medicine and phi-
losophy. After his death, in 1771, when

ALBRECHT.

she Avas only fourteen years of age, she
married Johann Friedrich Ernst Albrecht,
who, when a student, had lived in the house
of her father, and had thus become acquainted
with her. In 1783, with the consent of her
husband, she joined a company of actors who
Avere then performing at Mainz, under the
iiianagement of Grossman, and in 1785 she
joined Bondini's company at Di'esden. Sub-
secjuently she returned to her husband at
Altona. After his death in 1816, she
retired to a suburb of Hamburg, where
she spent the remainder of her life in
very straitened circumstances, and died in
18;57.

The poems both lyric and dramatic of
Sophie Albrecht are, with very few ex-
ceptions, of an inferior kind, although she
certainly possessed deep feeling and poetic
power. These qualifications and her reputa-
tion as an actress procured her the favour
of the public. She was a woman of very
superior talent to her husband, and would
probably have produced something better
if she had not paid so much deference to his
judgment. Her best poems are those of the
descriptive and sentimental class : her prose
works have, on the whole, less merit than
her poems. Her poems and some prose
essays were published at three different
times, and form three volumes. The first
bears the title " Gedichte und Schauspiele,"
Erfurt, 1781, Svo.; the second, "Gedichte
und prosaische Aufsiitze," Erfurt, 1785, Svo. ;
the third, with the same title as the second,
appeared at Dresden, 1721, Svo. Her best
novels are — 1. " Aramena, eine Syrische
Geschichte," 3 vols. Berlin, 1782-86. This
novel is based upon an old German story
written by Anton Ulrich, duke of Bruns-
wick. 2. " Graumiinnchen, oder die Burg
Rabenbiihl, eine Geistergeschichte altdeut-
schen Ursprungs," Hamburg and Altona,

1799, Svo. 3. Legenden aus den Zeiten der
Wunder und Erscheinungen," Hamburg,

1800, Svo. 4. " Ida von Duba, das Miidchen
im Walde," &c., Altona, 1 805, Svo. Many
of her poetical productions are also contained
in periodical publications, and others have
been set to music and are still popular. (An
intei'esting description of her extraordinary
but amiable character is given in Giesecke's
Handbnch fiir Dichter und Literatoren,
i. 13, &c. ; Meusel, Gclchrtes DcutschJund,
i. 47. ix .18. xiii. 15. ; Jordens, Lcxihon Dcut-
scher Dichter und Prosaisten, vi. 549, &c. ;
Wolff, Encyclopaedie der Deutsckcn Nationul-
Uteratur, i. 40, &c.) L. S.

ALBRECHT the Degenerate (Degener),
landgrave of Thuringen, son of Heinrich,
surnamed the Hammer, margrave of Meissen,
was born in 1240. Gi-eat pains were taken
with his education. In 1254, while yet a mere
boy, he was married to Margareta, daughter
of the Emperor Friedrich II. In 1262 mar-
grave Heinrich made a division of his territo-
737

ries, by which Thuringen and the Saxon pa-
latinate were allotted to Albrecht, Landsberg
and some minor lordships to his younger
brother Dietrich. In consequence of this ar-
rangement Albrecht was called, till the death
of his father in 1288, landgrave of Thuringen,
and under this title he is more frei|uently
mentioned in history than under that of
margrave of Meissen.

Albrecht distinguished himself early by
valour and military skill in the war of suc-
cession in which his father was involved for
his lands in Thiiringen ; and in 12G8 he
added to his reputation in a crusade against
the unconverted Prussians. As a prince his
character was respectable, till he was blinded
by an unlawful passion for Kunigunde of
Eisenberg. At the suggestion of this wo-
man, by whom he had an illegitimate son
(Apitz), he attempted to have his wife, who
had brought him three sons, murdered in the
Wartburg, in June, 1270. She escaped in
consequence of the relenting of the men em-
ployed to murder her, and took refuge in a
convent, where she died in the month of
August following. Dietrich, Albrecht's bro-
ther, took her children under his protection.
Albrecht stood at this time in hostile relations
both to his brother and father : the latter had
been obliged in May, 1270, to provide for his
security by extorting from his son a solemn
oath that he would neither attack his terri-
tories nor plot against his life. Albrecht
married his mistress Kunigunde in 1272.

Albrecht obtained, soon after, the legitima-
tion of Apitz, by an imperial rescript, with
the view of making him his heir in Thiirin-
gen. He was compelled to settle the lands of
Pleissen on Heinrich, the eldest son of his first
wife, and the Saxon palatinate on the second,
Friedrich with the bitten cheek. Albrecht's
discontent with this compulsory arrange-
ment led to a war between him and his bro-
ther Dietrich in 1275, in which the former
was victorious. A hollow truce ensued, during
which the brothers engaged as allies of Otto-
kar of Bohemia in his war against Rudolf I.,
which terminated in 1277.

The restoration of peace to the empire was
the signal for the renewal of the domestic
broils of the family of Thiiringen. Albrecht
undertook to compel by force of arms his le-
gitimate sons to cede their right to Thiiringen
in favour of his legitimised bastard. In 1281
he drove Heinrich out of Pleissen. In 1283
he made Friedrich a prisoner, and treated
him with great cruelty in the Wartburg.
Diezmann, his third son by Margareta, ap-
pears to have kept on good terms with his
father, for in 1283 he was in possession of
the territory which had been taken from
Heinrich.

In 1284 Albrecht's brother Dietrich died,
and was succeeded by his son Friedrich the
Stammerer : Heinrich, margrave of Meissen,
died in 1290. Albrecht and Friedrich the

ALBRECHT.

ALBRECHTSBERGER.

Stammerer took possession of Meissen, Dres-
den and the adjoining territory excepted,
which had been bequeathed by Heinrich to
his third son, Friedrich the Little. This ar-
rangement gave rise to a new family feud, in
which Friedrich the Stammerer and his
uncle Albrecht were allied against the sons
of the latter. Diezmann, Albrecht's third
son, wrested the Nether Lausitz from Fried-
rich the Stammerer in 1288 ; and in the same
year Friedrich with the bitten cheek took his
own father prisoner. \Vhen Albrecht, at
the intercession of the Thiiringian nobles,
recovei-ed his freedom in January, 1291, he
gave vent to his hatred of his sons by selling
all his rights in Meissen to his son Friedrich
the Stammerer. On the death of this prince,
in August, 1291, the sons of Albrecht seized
his inheritance without consulting their father.
Albrecht revenged hhnself by selling more of
his domains. The Emperor Adolphus of Nas-
sau purchased his rights in Thiiringen and
Meissen, and in his attempt to occupy them was
engaged in a war against Friedrich with the
bitten cheek and Diezmann, who kept posses-
sion both against Adolphus and his successor
the Emperor Albert I. till after Diezmann's
death in 1.307. The emperor was tired of
the fruitless strife ; Apitz was dead, and even
the inveterate Albrecht began to feel the
aimlessness of his struggles. The Land-
gravine Elizabeth,whom Albrecht had married
in 1290, brought about a reconciliation be-
tween him and his surviving son. Friedrich
was left in possession of Meissen, and in
addition to this his father relinquished Thii-
ringen to him, in return for an annual sti-
pend. Albrecht, after concluding this arrange-
ment, retired to Erfurt, where he died in
1314. (Menckenius, Scriptores Rerum Ger-
manicurum prcecipiie Saxonicamm, Lipsiae,
1728-30, fol.) W. W.

ALBRECHTSBERGER, JOHANN
GEORG, was born at Kloster-Neuburg, near
Vienna, February 3. 173G. The curate of
St. Martin's Church, Leopold Pittner, having
remarked his early love of music, undertook
to give him instruction in thoi'ough bass and
organ-playing. The organ which the curate
procured for his young pupil is still preserved
as a precious relic. His attention to his
musical studies was unremitted. On his
little clavichord, placed across his bed, he
used to play himself to sleep, and his first
morning duties were regularly devoted to it.
In order to prosecute his studies, he entered
the college of the Benedictine abbey at
Molk, where he completed the usual course
of classical education, and afterwards filled the
situation of organist there for twelve years.
It was the custom of the choir of this church
to perform little dramatic compositions during
the carnival, at one of which the Emperor
Joseph II. chanced to be present, who,
struck with young Albrechtsberger's singing,
gave him a ducat. He now applied himself
738

diligently to the study of the great Italian
and German masters, especially Pergolesi,
Caldara, the Bachs, ilandel, Fux, and Graun.
After a few years the emperor again visited
Molk, and heard him on the organ with such
satisfaction, that he promised him the situa-
tion of his principal organist whenever it
should become vacant. Some time after-
ward he went to Raab as organist, then to
Mariataferl, and finally to Vienna as kapell-
meister in the choir of the Carmelites. Here
he became acquainted with Mann, then chief
organist of the imperial chapel, with Renter,
and with Haydn. In 1772 the emperor ful-
filled his promise by appointing Albrechts-
berger to the situation Avhich the death of
Mann rendered vacant, and in 1792 he suc-
ceeded Leopold Hoffmann as kapell-meister at
the cathedral of St. Stephen. Here his public
career began. He addressed himself dili-
gently to composition, and became known as
one of the most accomplished instructors of
his time. What he enabled others to do by
imparting that power which is the result of
knowledge, and without which even genius
can only grope its doubtful way, the works
of some of the most eminent composers of his
time testify. A little while before his death,
he composed a Te Deum, which he intended
for performance at the conclusion of the
peace of Vienna, and the return of the em-
peror to his capital ; but he did not live to
accomplish his design. A few days before
his end, he requested his wife to retain the
score until the occurrence of some important
event in the imperial family, and then to
present it as the last effort of a grateful
and faithful subject to his prince. On the
marriage of the Emperor Leopold with
her Royal Highness Caroline Augusta of
Bavaria, it was presented to him by one
of Albrechtsberger's daughters, and re-
ceived, as it deserved, with cordial kindness,
and requited with more than empty thanks.
The infirmities of age neither ruiSed his
temper, nor blunted the love of his art ; and
on the 7th March, 1809, he died, as he had
lived, in the faith, and with the resignation
of a Christian. His mortal remains rest in
the same burial-ground with those of Mozart ;
and a few months afterwards those of their
common friend Haydn were deposited in the
same spot. Albrechtsberger had out of
fifteen children but one surviving son and
two daughters. Among his pupils the most
eminent were Beethoven, Hummel, Mos-
cheles, Eybler, Seyfried, F. Schneider, and
Weigh His published works consist chiefly
of fugues for the organ, as well as for stringed
instruments, and elementary treatises. His
celebrated " Treatise on Harmony, Thorough
Bass, and Composition " has been translated
into English and published by Cocks. The
Chevalier de Seyfried collected and published
a complete edition of Albrechtsberger's theo-
retical works, which, he justly says, " form a

ALBRECHTSBERGER.

ALBRET.

truly classical and complete system, which
neither the lapse of time nor the caprice of
fashion can change or destroy." Similar
testimony to their excellence is thus given
by an enidite English musician : — " The
theoretical works of Albrechtsberger are
among the most enlarged and scientific dis-
quisitions that have appeared ; their author
having not only the mind of a practical and
experienced musician, but also the power of
communicating clearly and philosophically
the principles on which he combined and
wrote." Of this laborious and learned writer's
unpublished compositions more than 250,
chiefiy masses, litanies, motets, and offer-
tories, are preserved in the library of Prince
Nicholas von Esterhazy-Galantha. (Sej-
fried. Memoir of Albrechtsberqer.^ E. T.

ALBRET, ALAIN, lord of, was great
grandson of Charles of Albret, constable
of France, killed at Agincourt, a.d. 1415
[Albret, Charles, lord of], and grand-
son of Charles second lord of Albret of
that name, a warrior of some distinction in
the English wars of Charles VIL Alain
was born about a.d. 1443, and succeeded his
grandfather in the lordship a.d. 1471, and
afterwards acquired the county of Dreux.
He married Fran(;oise of Blois, daughter of
the Count of Penthievre, and by virtue of
this marriage claimed for his children the
right of succession to the duchy of Brittany,
which the house of Blois had long dis-
puted with that of Montfort, then in posses-
sion of the duchy. He joined the league of
the French princes and nobles against Anne
of Beaujeu, regent during the minority of
her brother, Charles YIIL (a.d. 1486), but
submitted upon the approach of the regent's
army. An offer from Fran9ois IL duke of
Brittany and his confederates, of the hand of
Anne, eldest daughter of Fran9ois, and heiress
to the duchy, induced Alain, who was now
a widower, to join the malcontent party again.
He assembled a body of three thousand or
four thousand men, and began his march
toward Brittany, which the French had in-
vaded; but was compelled to capitulate (a.d.
1487) at Nontron, in Perigord, to the forces
which the regent had ordered to oppose him.
He engaged to renounce his alliance, and to
give hostages for his fidelity, but broke
through his engagement, and appeared in
Brittany with a force equal to his former
army, which he had brought by sea from
Fontarabia. The Duke of Brittany, who
had been in the mean time somewhat relieved
from the pressure of the French ai'my, de-
layed the marriage, which was indeed most
unsuitable, Anne being a mere child of ten
or twelve years old, and Alain forty-five,
with a large family by his first wife, and
rough and forbidding in person, manners,
and disposition. Violent jealousies ensued ;
and Alain was charged with the design of
murdering the Duke of Orleans, who was
739

! one of those concerned in delaying the mar-
riage. He escaped from the battle of St.
Aubin de Cormier, in which the Bretons and
their allies were defeated by the French
(a. d. 1488), and remained in the duchy,
hoping to obtain the hand of Anne from
those who on the death of Duke Franyois
! succeeded to the management of affairs. He
! went to Spain to solicit the aid of Ferdinand
\ and Isabella in behalf of the Bretons and
their confederates ; some Spanish auxiliaries
were sent to Brittany, but neither their arrival
nor the countenance of the King of England,
Henry VIL, enabled Alain to succeed in his
suit. When Anne was espoused by pro-
curation (a.d. 1490) to Maximilian, arch-
duke of Austria, Alain, enraged at his dis-
appointment, made his peace with the King
of France, now out of his minority ; and, in
consideration of a full pardon and a sum of
money, beside other advantages, delivered up
to the French the city and castle of Nantes,
which he had surprised. In 1503 Alain was
placed by Louis XII. at the head of an army
destined to invade Spain, on the side of Bis-
cay; but he attempted nothing of importance,
and his army gradually wasted away under
the difficulties of a mountainous country and
failing supplies. Jealousy of the marshal of
Gie, his colleague, and the apprehension of
exciting Ferdinand of Spain to attack Navarre,
the queen of which had married Alain's son,
are supposed to have restrained Alain from
more vigorous operations. He died at Castel
Jaloux, in Guienne, a.d. 1522. (Simonde de
Sismondi, Histoire des Frangais ; Mczeray,
Histoire de France; Lobineau, Morice, and
Daru, Histoire de Bretagne ; L'Art de veri-
fier les Dates.) J. C. M.
ALBRET, CHARLES, lord of, constable
of France in the fifteenth century. He
was son of Arnaud Amanieu, lord of Albret
in the Landes of Gascogne, and of Mar-
guerite, daughter of Pierre (Peter) I., duke
of Bourbon. A sister of Marguerite had
married Charles V. of France, so that Charles
d' Albret was cousin-german to the king,
Charles VI. He held the lordship of Albret,
the viscounty of Tartas, and the office of
great chamberlain, in all which he succeeded
his father ; and in 1407 or 1408 the county
of Dreux was given him by Charles VI., in
acquittance of a sum of money which had
been due to his father. The county of Lucca
in Italy was also granted him by the same
king in payment of another sum, but the
Lord of Albret never was able to realise any
benefit from this grant. In 1402 he was
appointed constable of France ; and in the
same year officiated as one of the sponsors
of Prince Charles, afterwards Charles VII.
From A.D. 1403 to a.d. 1406 he was en-
gaged in carrying on war with the English in
Limousin and Guienne ; he attempted in vain,
by a correspondence with some of the towns-
men, to gain possession of Bordeaux, then in

ALBRET.

ALBRIC.

the power of the English, but he succeeded in
taking several smaller fortresses. In 1407,
at the time of the murder of the Duke of
Orleans, he was at Paris, and subsequently
took part with the Orleans or Armagnac
party against the Bourguignon or Burgimdian
faction ; in consequence of which (a.d. 1411)
he was declared by the Burgundians (in
whose power Charles VI. then was) to be
deposed from his office, and the Count of
St. Pol was chosen in his room. He was
again recognised as constable by an edict
after the treaty of Bourges (a. d. 1412),
but a subsequent edict confirmed the title
of St. Pol. On the flight of the Duke of
Bourgogne or Burgundy from Paris and the
restoration of the supremacy of the Ar-
magnacs (a.d. 141.3) he was fully restored.
He took part in the subsequent hostilities
against the Duke of Burgundy, and was
present at the siege of Soissons, a. n. 1414.
On the apprehension of the invasion of
France by Henry V. of England, the constable
was appointed to command the French army,
with power equal to that of the king himself.
He commanded at the disastrous battle of
Agincourt or Azincourt, 25th of October,
141.5, when he fell with a great number of the
chief nobility of France in a defeat which
was mainly owing to his incapacity and pre-
sumption. (Juvenal des Ursins, Histoire
de Charles VI.; Monstrelet, Chroniques ;
Mezeray, Histoire de France; Simoude de
Sismondi, Histoire des Frangais ; L^Art de
verifier les Dates.) J. C. M.

ALBRET, HENRI OF. [Henri II.
king of Navarre.]

ALBRET, JEAN OF, son of Alain, lord
of Albret and of Fran^oise of Blois, was born
about A. D. 1460. [Albret, Alain, lord
OF.] In 1484 he married Catherine, queen
of Navarre and countess of Foix, and was
united with her in the government of her
states. [Catherine, queen of Navarre.]
He showed little ability or vigour ; and when
Navarre was occupied by Ferdinand the
Catholic, king of Spain, he retired, after a faint
attempt at resistance, to the French side of
the Pyrenees. On the death of Ferdinand
he attempted to recover Navarre, but his
troops having been defeated, and he having
failed to take St. Jean Pied du Port (a. d.
1516), he gave up the enterprise. On this oc-
casion his wife said to him, " If nature had
made you Catherine and me Jean, we should
still have had the sovereignty of Navarre."
Jean of Albret died at Pau the same year.
{L'Art de verifier les Dates ; Mezeray, His-
toire de France; Anquetil, Histoire de France.)

J. C. M.

ALBRET, JEANNE OF. [Jeanne,
queen of Navarre.]

ALBRIC (called also Albricus, Albricius,
Albericus, or Alfricus), an English philo-
sopher and physician, of whose personal his-
tory little is known.. He was born in London,
740

and is conjectured by Leland {Comment, de
Scriptor. Britan. cap. 289.) to have lived in
the reigns of John and Henry III. at the
beginning of the thirteenth century ; though
Moreri, Chaufepie, and other authorities sup-
pose him to have belonged to the eleventh.
He studied first in the imiversities of Oxford
and Cambridge, and afterwards travelled in
foreign parts in order to make still further
progress in learning. He is said to have
been a great philosopher, an able physician,
to have been well acquainted with polite lite-
rature, and to have had also a great talent for
science. Several of his works are still in
existence in different English libraries, but
none of them (as far as the writer is aware)
have ever been published. (Bale, Scrip-
tor. Illustr. Magn. Britann.; Moreri, Diet.
Hist.; Chaufepie, Nouv. Diet. Hist, et Crit.;
Fabricius, Biblioth. Med. et Inf. Latin ; Biogr.
Univers.) W. A. G.

ALBRICCI, ORA'ZIO. [Mocchi, Fran-
cesco.]

ALBRI'CI, VINCENZO, a Roman com-
poser and organist, was for a time in the
service of Christina, queen of Sweden. About
the year 1660 he was I'esiding at Stralsuad,
whence he went to Dresden, having been
appointed by John George II. his vice-kapell-
meister, where he enjoyed a high degree of
musical reputation and influence. When, on
the death of this prince, his large musical
establishment was broken up and dismissed,
Albrici, in 1680, accepted the situation of
organist in St. Thomas's Church at Leipzig.
Here he remained but a short time, having
yielded to the entreaties of his son that he
would not officiate in a Lutheran church.
His next residence was Prague, whither
he went in 1682, and held the appointment
of organist of one of the churches in that
city till his death. Notwithstanding the
tei'ms of respect and admiration with which
Albrici is spoken of by his contemporaries,
it does not appear that his published composi-
tions were many. Some of them doubtless
exist in the libraries of Dresden and Prague,
and Breitkopf 's collection of manuscript com-
positions (1761) contained the following
pieces : — 1. " Te Deum," for two choirs, with
instrumental accompaniments. 2. " Kyrie,"
for voices. 3. " Mass," for voices. 4. " Symbo-
lum Nicsenum," for voices and instruments.
5. " The 150th Psalm," for voices and in-
struments. (Gerber, Lexicon der Tonkiinstler.)

E. T.

ALBRION, DOMINGO DE, a Spanish
sculptor, who, together with Nicolas Larraut,
executed towards the close of the sixteenth
century the statues of Aaron and Melchisedek
in the chapel of the sacrament in the cathe-
dral of Tarragona. Ponz praises these sta-
tues for their correctness of design and the
tasteful simplicity of their draperies. (Ponz,
Viage de Espaiia ; Bermudez, Diccionario
Ilistorico, Sfc.) R. N. W.

ALBlllZZI.

ALBUMAZAR.

ALRRI'ZZI, or ALBERI'CI, ENRI'CO,

an Italian liist<n-ical painter, born in the
nc'ijilibourhood of Bergamo in 1714. He
studied under Ferdinando Cairo, at Brescia,
where many of his best pictures are pre-
served ; the church De' Miracoli contains
several. He died in 1775. (Averoldo, Scclte
rUlure di Brescia; Tassi, Vite de' Pittori,
A-c. Berqamasrhi.) R. N. W.

ALBRI'ZZI, ISABELLA TEOTO'KI,
born at ('orfu about 1760, -was the daughter
of Count Teotoki, who belonged to one of
the first families in the Ionian islands. She
married, at Venice, the patrician Giuseppe
Albrizzi, who was one of the state inquisitors,
but a man of a very diiferent character from
■what people are apt to suppose an inquisitor
to be. Isabella was fond of literature and
of the arts, and her house at Venice was
much frequented by men of distinction, both
natives and foreigners. She has been called
by Bjron, in a note to his Marino Faliero,
the Venetian De Stael ; but Ippolito Pinde-
monte pays her a different and more delicate
compliment when he styles her, in one of his
epistles, "the wise Isabella." A woman of
learning, wit, and fashionable accomplish-
ments, she was no less distinguished for her
domestic worth, and the care she bestowed
upon her family. She travelled at various
times about Italy and France, and she became
acquainted with Alfieri, Cesarotti, Cicognara,
Spallanzani, Mustoxidi, Foscolo, Rosini, Ca-
nova, Visconti, Denon, D'Hancarville, Cuvier,
MiUin, Humboldt, and Madame de Genlis.
She wrote several works, which are charac-
terised by delicacy of taste and sound criti-
cism. 1. " I Ritratti," 8vo. Brescia, 1807,
has been often reprinted. In this work she
delineates in brief but happy touches the
moral and intellectual character of several of
her distinguished contemporaries ; among
others, Alfieri, Cesarotti, Pindemonte, Fos-
colo, and D'Hancarville. 2. " Vita di Vit-
toria Colonna ;" an Italian historical cha-
racter of the sixteenth century. 3. " Opere
di Scultiira e di Plastica di Antonio Canova,"
4 vols. 8vo. Pisa, 1831. This is one of the
best works on the productions of the great
modern Italian sculptor. She also wrote a
funeral eulogium on Giustina Renier Michiel,
a Venetian contemporary lady, author of an
interesting work on the origin of the 'S'ene-
tian national festivals. Countess Albrizzi
died at Venice in 1835. (Tipaldo, Biografia
dcgli Italiani illutitri del Secolo X.VIII. e dti
ContemporaneT.) A. V.

ALBUCASIS. [Abu-l-kasim.]
ALBUMAZAR, a corruption from Abu
Ma'shar, is the " kunya " or appellative of a
celebrated Arabian astronomer named Ja'far
Ibn Mohammed Ibn 'Omar Al-balkhi, who
was born at Balkh, in Khorasan, about a. h.
2G0 (a.d. 77G-7). Albumazar, who followed
the profession of the law, is Said to have been
at first a decided enemy to philosophy and

741

the study of the natural sciences, which he
considered as incompatible with true religion.
However in the forty-seventh year of his
age he began to study mathematics and
astronomy, and became in time one of the
most renowned astrologers of his age,
although he cannot be denied the merit of
having also made some important astro-
nomical observations. The astronomical tables
known by his name " Zij Abu Ma'shar,"
were made from his own observations.
He wrote the following works : — 1. " Kitiibu-
1-mudakhel 'ila ahkami-n-nojum " (" The
Book of Introduction to the Science of the
Laws of the Stars, or Astrology"). A copy
of this work is in the Bodleian library.
(NicoU's Cat. No. 272.) It is divided into
eight "makalat" (discourses), each of which
is subdivided into a certain number of
"fossul" or chapters. It was translated into
Latin, and printed at Augsburg under this
title, " Introductorium in Astronomiam Albu-
masaris abalachi octo continens Libros par-
tiales. Augustas Vindelicorum 7 idus Fe-
bruarii, 1489, 4to. ; " afterwards reprinted at
Venice in 1506. 2. " Kitabu-1-kiranat fi ah-
kami-n-nojum" ("The Book of Conjunc-
tions : on the Laws of the Stars "), which
was likewise translated into Latin and printed.
3. " Albumasar, de magnis Conjunctionibus ;
ac eorum Profectionibus : Octo continens
Tractatus ; " printed by Erhard Ratdolt, Augs-
burg, 1489, 4to., with the same woodcuts
as in the former work. In the colophon it
is stated that the work was revised by Jo-
hannes Angelus (Magistri lohanuis Angeli
Viri peritissimi diligenti Correctione). It was
repi'inted at Venice in 1515, 4to. Abu
Ma'shar is said to have written a treatise
on astrology, entitled " Oluf" ("Thousands
of Years"), in which, among other strange
propositions, he maintains that the world was
created when the seven planets were in con-
junction in the first degree of Aries, and will
end when they shall assemble in the last
degree. We have still bj' him another treatise
on the same subject, which was also trans-
lated into Latin, and published for the first
time at Venice by Giovanni Battista Sessa,
without date : Albumasar " Flores Astro-
logie;" reprinted at Augsburg by Erhard
Ratdolt, in 1488, under the title of " Flores
Albumasaris."

Albumazar was a contemporary with
the celebrated Arabian philosopher Al-kindi,
but he proved his bitterest enemy, and
never ceased to persecute him as long as
he lived. He died at Wasit in a.h. 272
(a.d. 885), at a very advanced age, since
he is reported to have been upwards of one
hundred years old. His life and a list of his
writings, amounting to about fifty, chiefly on
astrology, were given in Arabic and Latin
by Casiri, from an anonymous Ijiographical
work in the Escurial " Arabica Philosopho-
rum Bibliotheca." Some of his works are

ALBUMAZAR.

ALBUQUERQUE.

preserved in that library, Nos. 913. 932. 971.
(Casiri, Bib. Arab. Hisp. Esc. i. 330. ; Abu-
1-faraj, //(if. Dyn. p. 161.; Delambre, Hist.
de VAstron. au moyen Age, Paris, 1819 ; Ibn
Khallekan, Biog. Diet, transl. by De Slane,
i. 325.; D'Herbelot, Bib. Or. voc. " Abu-
Maaschar.") P. de G.

AL-BU'NF (Abu-l-'abbas Ahmed Ibn
Abi-1-hasau 'Ali Ibn Yusuf), a Mohammedan
divine, who \Trote chiefly on the art of
divination and the construction of talismans.
He was a native of Bunah, now Bona, the
Hippo Regia of the Romans, but resided
mostly at Fez or Telemsan, in which latter
city he filled the office of mokri or reader of
the Koran in the mosque. According to
Ilaji Khalfah {Lex. Bibl. sub. voc. " Shems"),
Al-buni died in a.h. 625 (a. d. 1227-S). He
wrote several works, of which the following
are best kno'mi : — 1. " Shemsu-1-ma'arif "
(" Sol Scientiarum "), being a mystical treatise
on the names and attributes of God ; copies
of which may be found in the Escurial
library. No. 920., as well as in the library of
the British Museum. 2. " Al-lama'tu-n-nu-
raniyyah-fi'-I-auradi-r-rabbaniyyah" ('* Raj's
of Light : on the Manner of addressing the
Lord in Prayer"), of which there is a copy in
the royal library at Paris, No. 687. 3. A com-
mentary upon his own " Shemsu-1-ma'arif "
which is in the Escurial library. No. 9-il.,
and several more. (Al-makkari, Moham.
Dijn. i. 406. ; D'Herbelot, Bib. Or. sub. voc.
" Albouni, Bouni ; " Haji Khalfah, Zex. Bibl.
voc. " Shems, Latayef," &c.) P. de G.

ALBUQUERQUE, ALFONSO DE, (or,
as the Portuguese write his name, AF-
FONSO D'ALBOQUERQUE,) surnamed
" the Great," and " O Marte Portuguez " (the
Portuguese Mars), owing to his great ex-
ploits, was born in a. d. 1453, at a country
villa near the town of Alhandra, about twenty
miles from Lisbon, and not at Melinda in
Africa, as generally stated. He was the
second son of Gonsalvo d'Alboquerque, lord
of Mllaverde, who was descended of a bastard
branch of the royal family of Portugal. In
his youth he was page to Alfonso V. of
Portugal, and joined the expedition which
that king led, in 1480, to the assistance of
Ferdinand, king of Naples, then at war with
the Turks, as well as that sent to the relief of
the fort of Gracuza at the mouth of the river
Luk (Luco), near Earache, in 1489. He
was next appointed equerry (estribeiro) to
King John II. In 1503 he accompanied
his cousin (or, as some call him, uncle) Don
Francisco d'Alboquerque to the East Indies,
and distinguished himself by his courage and
good conduct. The object of the expedition
was to assist the King of Cochin, who had
been attacked by the Zamorin of Calicut, his
implacable enemy. Unable to resist his ad-
versary, the King of Cochin had been com-
pelled to abandon his dominions ; but, on the
arrival of the Portuguese, the balance of
742

victory was q licklj^ changed. The forces of
the Zamorin were immediately driven from
Cocliin, and the fugitive prince was reinstated
in his kingdom. In return for their im-
portant services the King of Cochin granted
the two Albuquerques permission to build a
fort, which may be considered as th:- foun-
dation of the Portuguese empire in the East
Indies.

After this exploit the two Albuquerques,
leaving behind them a squadron of three
ships, and one hundred and fifty men in the
fort at Coc'iin, set sail for Europe with a
very rich cargo. Francisco and the ships
under his command were never heard of
more ; but Alfonso arrived at Lisbon July 1 6.
1504. He was favourably received by the
king, who sent him out to India again, in
1506, in command of a squadron composing
part of a fleet of sixteen ships under Tristan
Da Cunha. For a time the two commanders
carried on a successful warfare against the
Moorish cities on the eastern coast of Africa,
until Da Cunha, sailing for the Indies, left
Albuquerque in command of the Arabian
seas. No sooner was he left to himself than
he determined upon imdertaking something
more glorious and profitable than the piratical
warfare in which he had been engaged, and
he formed the design of attacking the small
island of Ormuz, at the mouth of the Persian
Gulf, which was at that time one of the
great emporiums of the East He appeared
in sight of Ormuz Sept. 25. 1507, after re-
ducing on his voyage there most of the chief
trading towns between the Red Sea and the
Persian Gulf. His message to the king,
whose territory he invaded, was in these
terms : " I come not to bring war, but peace :
peace, however, is not to be obtained unless
by paying tribute to the king my master,
who is so great a lord that it is better to be
his vassal than to command empires." Seyfu-
d-din (or Ceifadin, as the Portuguese authors
write his name), was at that time king of
Ormuz, but the government was really in
the hands of a eunuch, named Koji-Attar,
who advised him to reject tlie demands of
Albuquerque and to prepare for the attack.
After the shipping and part of the town had
been burnt, Koji-Attar admitted the Por-
tuguese into the town ; but as soon as he
saw the handful of men to whom he had
surrendered, he took up arms again and com-
pelled Albuquerque to evacuate the place.
Albuquerque sailed for the island of Socotra,
off Cape Guardafui.

In 1508 Albuquerque received from Lisbon
a secret commission authorising him to su-
persede Don Francisco d' Almeida, viceroy of
the Indies. He accordingly set sail for the
coast of Malabar, and arrived at Cananor.
Having communicated his orders to Almeida,
who was alread}' prejudiced against him by
the report of some officers who had served
under him at Ormuz, Almeida declined

ALBUQUERQUE.

to surrender the government, and finally
threw him into prison at Cochin, where he
remained three months. The arrival of the
great marshal of Portugal with a numerous
fleet restored Albuquerque to liberty. Al-
meida set sail for Portugal, but he was
killed in the Bay of Saldanha, in South-
ern Africa, in an affray with the natives
[Almeida, Francisco d'] ; and Albu-
querque was appointed general and com-
mander-in-chief of the Portuguese possessions
in India.

The first measure of Albuquerque's go-
vernment was to attack Calicut. The mar-
shal, having entreated Albuquerque to em-
ploy him in this service, obtained the
command of a squadron. Jealousy of Albu-
querque, whose division had first effected a
landing, induced the marshal to venture too
far into the city in hopes of gaining posses- j
sion of the Zamorin's palace, in which he
succeeded; but the Indians having rallied, he |
■was surrounded and slain with most of his
men. Albuquerque, in attempting to rescue
him, -was desperately wounded, and the Por-
tuguese were obliged to return to their ships.
Albuquerque next turned his arms against
Goa, one of the most important commercial
cities of India, which he took, but was
unable to hold. That city belonged to the
Sultan of the Deccan, and was governed by an
Arab named Ildekhan, who, like most go-
vernors on that coast, paid little obedience to
his sovereign. He was absent from Goa
when the Portuguese attacked it, but he lost
no time in collecting a large force and march-
ing against the Portuguese ; and after a series
of well-conducted attacks regained possession
of his city, and compelled Albuquerque to
shut himself up in the citadel. After an ob-
stinate defence, which lasted several months,
the Portuguese evacuated the citadel and
took to their ships, August 15. 1.510. In
the course of the year Albuquerque, having
received strong reinforcements from Lisbon,
attacked Goa a second time, the garrison of
which made a most obstinate I'esistance, but
were at length overpowered and put to the
sword (Nov. 2.5. 1510). Albuquerque erected
a fort and coined silver and copper money at
Goa, which he designed to make the capital
of the Portuguese dominions in the East.
In 1559 it became the seat of the govern-
ment, and of an archbishop and primate of
the Indies.

Albuquerque's next exploit was still more
brilliant. A detachment of the fleet, which
had been sent out the preceding year, was
specially ordered to proceed to Malacca under
the command of Diogo de Vasconcellos, to
revenge the death of several Portuguese who
had been murdered by the natives in 1509.
But either from jealousy of that commander,
or from a wish to monopolise every oppor-
tunity of acquiring fame in India, Albu-
querque forbid ^'asconcellos to sail to his
7-13

destination imder pain of death ; and when
that general actually set sail for Malacca, he
was stopped by a superior force, imprisoned,
and sent back to Portugal, and three of his
otficers were put to death. Vasconcellos once
removed, Albuquerque himself undertook the
expedition to Malacca, and sailed from Cochin
in May, 1511, with an armament of nineteen
ships and fourteen hundred fighting men.
On arriving off the coast of Sumatra he re-
ceived friendly messages from some of the
kings of that island ; but the Arab rulers of
Malacca, having united their forces, pre-
pared for resistance. They however were
defeated, the city was taken, and immediately
peopled by Malayans and other natives of
the East. Immense wealth was obtained on
this occasion. The fifth of the spoil reserved
for the King of Portugal is said to have been
bought on the spot by merchants for 200,000
gold cruzadoes ; and if we believe the Por-
tuguese writers, three thousand pieces of
cannon were taken. After building a church
and a fort at Malacca, despatching friendly
embassies to the kings of Siam, Pegu, and
other neighbouring princes, and leaving a
strong garrison in Malacca, Albuquerque set
sail for the coast of ilalabar ; but on his
passage there, near the coast of Sumatra, he
encountered a violent storm which desti'oyed
the greater part of his fleet. His own vessel
struck on a rock and was dashed to pieces.
As he was putting off from the wreck in the
long-boat he saw one of the crew fall from
the ship's mast into the sea, upon which he
plunged in after him and saved him from
certain death.

AlbuqiTcrque reached Cochin with the
scattered remains of his fleet at the end of
February, 1512. No sooner had he landed
than he determined to proceed to the relief
of Goa, which in his absence was hard
pressed by Ildekhan ; but finding his army
greatly reduced in numbers by the casualties
of war and shipwreck and the garrison which
he had left at Malacca, he was obliged to
wait for reinforcements from Portugal. At
last, on September 3. 1512, he set sail for
Goa. Ildekhan and the Zamorin of Calicut,
thinking all further resistance hopeless, sued
for peace, and the Portuguese empire in
India was more firmly established than ever.

In 1513 Albuquerque received orders from
Lisbon to prosecute the war in the Red Sea.
Seeing India quiet, he sailed with the whole
of the Portuguese fleet to attack Aden, a
considerable commercial town of Arabia.
His force, which was much larger than usual,
amounted to one thousand Portuguese, and
four hundred Malabar soldiers commanded
by Portuguese ofiicers ; he was nevertheless
repulsed by the inhabitants, and compelled
to put to sea. Albuquerque then entered the
Red Sea with the first European fleet that
had sailed in its waters ; but having ex-
perienced much hardship and danger on his

ALBUQUERQUE.

voyage, he returned without achieving any-
thing of importance.

Albuquerque's last enterprise was a second
attempt upon Ormuz. Ever since his failure
at that place he had suffered his beard to
grow, having made a vow never to shave it
until he had taken Ormuz. His power being
now increased, he proceeded to accomplish
his design. The King of Ormuz, a weak
and spiritless prince, made no resistance ; he
admitted the Portuguese into the citadel,
surrendered all his artillery, and allowed the
flag of Portugal to be placed on his own
palace. He moreover assigned the Por-
tuguese a large and commodious house for
their factory. Soon after the accomplish-
ment of his favourite design, Albuquerque
felt himself indisposed, and was obliged to
return to Goa. At the mouth of the Persian
Gulf Albuquerque met a Portuguese vessel
bearing despatches from Lisbon, and was in-
formed by the captain that Suarez had been
appointed governor of India, and that Pereii'a
and Vasconcellos had been promoted to high
oflices. " What ! " exclaimed Albuquerque
in utter astonishment, " Suarez governor !
Pereh-a and Vasconcellos, whom I sent to
Portugal as criminals, intrusted with high
command ! To the grave, miserable old man !
to the grave : it is high time ! '' His illness,
aggravated by vexation, proved fatal. He
died December 16. 1515, in his sixty-third
year. His body was conveyed to Goa, aud
buried in the church of our Lady, which he
had built ; but about the close of the sixteenth
century his bones were transported to Por-
tugal.

Albuquerque has undoubted claims to the
epithet " graude," which the gi'atitude of his
countrymen has affixed to his name ; and the
afi'airs of the Portuguese in India were raised
by him to the highest state of prosperity.
But it must be borne in mind that he had to
contend with people who were far inferior to
him in all the muniments of war. The Portu-
guese historians represent him as scrupulously
honest and just, though severe ; but, on the
other hand, where territory was to be gained
for his country, or fame for himself, he was
stopped by no consideration of right and
wrong. His character is well exemplified in
a scheme which he is said to have proposed
to the Emperor of Ethiopia for destroying
the commerce of Egypt, and converting that
fruitful land into a barren desert, by turning
the course of the Nile. Albuquerque left a
son, also named Alfonso, who wrote a history
of his fiither's campaigns under the following
title : " Comentarios do grande Alfonso Dalbo-
querque Capitao Geral e Governador da
India," &c. Lisbon, 1557, foL, and ib. 1576,
fol. (Barbosa Machado, Biblivth. Lusit. Hifit.
i. 23.; JiAYYos, Decada Seyunda ; Faria, Asia
PorttKj. vol. i. part ii. cap. 10. ; Ribadeneyra,
Hist, de la India, Oriental, lib. ii. cap. 9. ;
JNIaffei, Hist. Ltd. lib. v. ; Lafiteau, Hist, dcs
714

Decouvertes, Sfc. des Portiiyais, SfC. p. 520. ;
Mariz, Dialvyos de varia Uistoria, Coimbra,
1584.) P. de G.

ALBUQUERQUE, ANDRE', a Portu-
guese general, descended fi-om the great
Affonso Albuquerque, was appointed viceroy
of India in 1591. During his government he
took by storm the fortress del Morro, other-
wise called Pena de Chaul, one of the strong-
est places in India ; gained a signal victory
over a petty king of those parts named
Masico ; and defeated the King of Acheen,
in Sumatra, in a naval engagement. He was
replaced in 1597 by Dom Francisco de Gama.
Another Andre' de Albuquerque, who is
said to have been a nephew of the preceding,
was general of the Portuguese cavalry during
the war between Portugal and Spain, and was
killed at the battle of Elvas in 1659. (Lafi-
teau, Histoire des Decouvertes et Conquetes dcs
Portuyais dans le Nouveau-Monde, Paris,
1733, 2 vols. 4to., and Moreri's Spanish Trans-
lation.) P. de G.

ALBUQUERQUE, BRAS AFFONSO,
son of the great Affonso de Albuquerque,
was born at Alhandra in 1500. His Christian
name was at first Bras ; but when his father
made himself known by his exploits, he was
persuaded by King Manoel of Portugal to
change it into Alfonso. Albuquerque fol-
lowed at first the profession of arms, and had
the command of a vessel of war. He was
afterwards appointed " 'N'eedor " or manager of
the royal patrimony, in which capacity he
distinguished himself by his zeal and his in-
tegrity. Having been promoted to the office
of president of the senate, he performed great
services during the dreadful plague which
ravaged Lisbon in 1563, and by his wise
regulations succeeded in arresting the pro-
gress of the epidemic disease. He died at
Lisbon in 1580. He wrote several works,
among which the following are the most im-
portant : — 1. " Comentarios do Grande Affonso
Dalboquerque Capitao geral, e Governador da
India, &c." Lisbon, 1557, fol., afterwards
reprinted in 1576. This contains an account
of his father's campaigns, and was translated
into French by Jean Marnef, Paris, 1579,
4to. ; " Tratado da Antiquidade, Nobreza, e
Descendencia da Familia dos Alboquerques."
This is a genealogical history of his own
family. It was never printed, but it is quoted
by P. Anto. Caet. Sousa in his " Apparat. a
Hist. Gene, da Casa Real Portug," p. 38. § 17.
In the " Cancionero" by Resende (Lisbon,
1516) are some poems attributed to Albu-
quercpie. (Barbosa IMachado, Bib. Lusit.
i. 26. ; N. Antonius, Bibliotheca Hispana
nova, i.) P. de G.

ALBUQUERQUE, DUARTE COELHO
DE, marquis of Basto and count of Per-
nambuco in Brazil, made his first campaign
in that country under his uncle, Mathias de
Albuquerque. Having been apjwinted go-
venior of San Salvador conjointly with a

ALBUQUERQUE.

Portuguese officer named Bagnuolo, he de-
fended that city when it was besieged by the
Dutch in 1638. When the revolution broke
out which separated Spain from Portugal,
and the whole of Brazil fell into the hands of
the Portuguese, Albuquerque retired to Ma-
drid, and was rewarded by Philip IV., who
appointed him gentleman of his bedchamber.
He died at Madrid in 1658. Albuquerque
wrote an account of the war of Brazil with
the Dutch from 1630 to 1639: " Memorias
diarias de la Guerra del Brazil por Discurso
de nuevo Anos empezando desde el mdcxxx."
Bladrid, 1 654, 4to. (Southey, Hist, of Brazil,
i. 447.) P. de G.

ALBUQUERQUE, JUAN ALFONSO
DE, a favourite of Peter (the Cruel) of Cas-
tile, was descended from the royal family of
Portugal. He was one of the courtiers of
Alfonso XL, by whom he was appointed
tutor to his son and heir, Peter. Instead,
however, of instilling into the mind of his
pupil sentiments of virtue, Albuquerque fos-
tered rather than checked his vicious pro-
pensities, and thought only of securing his
favour. Accordingly, when in 1350 Peter
succeeded his father Alfonso, — who died of
the plague before Gibraltar, — he raised Al-
buquerque to the post of great chancellor of
Castile, and intrusted the entire management
of affairs into his hands, whilst he launched
himself in the career of vice and dissipation.
Intimately allied with the queen-mother, a
woman of designing temper and revengeful
disposition, Albuquerque made common cause
with her, and they mutually assisted each
other in their plans. One of their first acts
was to prevail upon the j'oung king to
order the execution of Leonor de Guzman, a
lady of considerable influence at court, who
had been Alfonso's mistress. Upon the death
of her royal paramour, Leonor, dreading the
resentment of the queen-mother, had retired
to the city of Medina Sidonia, which formed
part of her apanage. Through the per-
fidious persuasion however of Albuquerque,
who pledged his word that she had nothing
to fear from the king, she proceeded to
Seville ; but no sooner had she entered that
city than she was arrested by Peter's order,
and placed under a guard in the Alcazar.
From Seville she was soon removed to Car-
mona, and thence to Talavera, where she was
despatched by poison. Albuquerque's next
victim was Garcilasso de la Vega, Adelantado
mayor * of Castile, a nobleman who had
rendered himself obnoxious by presuming
to advise the king to dismiss his unprin-
cipled favourite. Garcilasso was accused
of conspiring against Peter, was summoned
to his presence, and put to death before
his eyes. Soon after his accession, Peter
had become deeply attached to a lady of

* The office of the Adelantado mayor, one of the
most importaiit in Castile, was hereditary. Its duties
consisted in guarding the frontiers against the Moors.
VOL. I.

rank, named Dona Maria de Padilla ; and
so great was his infatuation, that although
early in 1353 he had been prevailed
upon to marry Blanche de Bourbon, the
daughter of Pierre de Bourbon, he de-
serted that princess two days after her mar-
riage ; and notwithstanding the just remon-
strances of John of Valois, king of France,
who was her near relative, he continued to
live with Maria as before. Perceiving that
Dona Maria, who was an ambitious and de-
signing woman, had prevailed upon Peter to
confer the most lucrative offices upon her own
relatives, and that he himself was daily losing
his master's favour, Albuquerque decided, if
possible, to avert the blow, and he accord-
ingly represented to the king the propriety of
dismissing her from court, and quieting the
anger of the French by showing a little more
attention to his wife Blanche. But it was too
late. No sooner had the favourite given his
counsel, than, unable to control his passion,
Peter banished him from court, and de-
prived him of all his honours and emolu-
ments. Albuquerque retired to his estates,
where he long meditated revenge. At last,
profiting by the rising of some Castilian
noblemen who had been ill-treated by the
king, he took up arms and joined them. Being,
however, defeated by the royal forces, he
was obliged to take refuge in Portugal, by
whose king, (John I.), he was kindly re-
ceived. Peter tried in vain to secure the
person of Albuquerque. He sent an embassy
to Lisbon to demand the surrender of his
favourite, and threatened the Portuguese
king with his vengeance. His threats, how-
ever, were disregarded ; and Albuquerque
again joined the revolted barons. He was
carrying on the war with great vigour and
success, when he died suddenly in 1354, not
without suspicion of having been poisoned
by a Jewish physician named Paul, whom
Peter had bribed. (Mariana, Hist. Gen. de
Esparia, lib. iii. cap. 16.) P. de G.

ALBUQUERQUE, MATHI'AS DE, a
Portuguese general officer descended from
the same family, served against the Dutch
in Brazil. Having distinguished himself
by his bravery as well as by his talent
in the art of fortification, he was in 1628
intrusted with the government of the pro-
vince of Pernambuco, and soon after with
the command of all the Portuguese forces
until the arrival of Don Fadrique de Toledo.
Being recalled to Europe in 1635, Albu-
querque took an active part in the revolution
which separated Portugal from Spain. Hav-
ing succeeded Count d'Obidos in the com-
mand of a division of the Portuguese army,
betook Alniendral, Alconchel, Villanuevadel
Fresno, and other fortified places in Estrema-
dura ; and in 1644 gained the important vic-
tory of Campo Mayor, where the Spaniards
under Torrecusa were completely defeated.
As a reward for his services on this occasion
3c

ALBUQUERQUE.

ALBUTIUS.

John IV. made Mathias count of Allegrete,
and raised him to the dignity of grandee
of Portugal. The campaign of 1645 pro-
mised fair to be as prosperous as that of
the previous year, or 1644. Albuquerque
commenced by the taking of Telena ; but
having soon after quarrelled with Vascon-
cellos, another Portuguese general acting in
concert with him, he achieved nothing, asked
for permission to leave the service, which
he obtained, and repaired to Lisbon, where
he died in 1646. (Southey, Hist, of Brazil,
1. 440. ; Laclede, Hist. Gen. de Portugal.)

P. de G.
ALBUS OVI'DIUS JUVENTI'NUS.

[OVIDIUS.]

ALBU TIUS, a physician at Rome, who
may be mentioned to give an idea of the
wealth acquii-ed by some of the medical men
in that city about the beginning of the
Christian sera. He is said by Pliny {Hist.
Nat. xxix. 5. ed. Tauchn.) to have gained
two hundred and fifty thousand sesterces per
annum, i. e. (reckoning with Hussey, " An-
cient Weights and Money, &c." the mille
nummi or sestertium to be worth, after the
reign of Augustus, 7/. 16s. 3d.), about one
thousand nine hundred and fifty -three pounds,
two shillings, and sixpence. W. A. G.

ALBUTIUS, CAIUS, surnamed SILUS,
or, according to Jerome {Ap. Euseh. Cliro-
nicon, Olymp. 193. 3., B.C. 6.) Silo, a Ro-
man orator, born at Novaria in Cisalpine
Gaul, where he held for some time the office
of ffidile. On one occasion, as he was de-
ciding a cause, the parties against whom
he was giving judgment dragged him by
his feet from the tribunal. He immediately
left the city and went to Rome, where he was
received into the house of the orator Lucius
Munatius Plancus, under whom he studied
rhetoric so successfully that he soon became
able' to put his master to silence. He then
set up a school of his own, where he was
accustomed to declaim in every different style,
he occasionally pleaded causes, but at length
retired from the forum altogether, in con-
sequence of two events recorded by Suetonius.
The first of these was the loss of a cause by
an imprudent challenge to the defendant,
who was accused of impiety towards his
parents, " to swear by the ashes of his father
and mother, which lay unburied ;" the se-
cond was the danger he incurred by an in-
vocation to Brutus, whose statue stood in
the court at Mediolanum (Milan), where he
was speaking.

At an advanced age, being troubled with
a painful disease, he retired to Novaria, and
having called together the people, and ex-
plained to them in a set speech the reasons
of his determination to end his life, he
starved himself to death. (Suetonius, De
Claris Rhetoribus, c. 6. ; Seneca, Controvers.
iii. Prooem.) P. S.

ALBU'TIUS, or ALBU'CIUS, TITUS,
746

a Roman, who lived in the latter half of the
second and the beginning of the first century
before Christ. He went to Athens in his
youth, where he became perfect in the
Epicurean philosophy, and where also he ac-
quired so much of Greek tastes and manners
that he took less pride in his Roman birth
than in his Grecian education, and thereby
incurred the ridicule of his contemporaries,
especially of Lucilius the satiric poet, who
put an attack upon him into the mouth of
Q. Mucins Scffivola the augur. During his
government of Sardinia as propra!tor (b. c.
105) he gained certain insignificant successes
over some robbers, for which he held a kind
of triumph in the province, and requested a
" supplicatio " at Rome, which was refused
by the senate. On his return to Rome
(b. c. 103) he was accused of maladminis-
tration (repetvmdaj) by C Julius Ca;sar ;
Cn. Pompeius Strabo, who had offered him-
self as accuser, not being allowed to under-
take the office, because he had been quaestor
to Albutius. Caesar undertook the case at
the request of the Sardinians. Albutius
was condemned, and went into exile to
Athens, where he applied himself with great
equanimity to the study of philosophy, the
consolations of which, Cicero remarks, he
would not have needed if he had kept to the
principles of Epicurus by not meddling with
public affairs.

Albutius left behind him some orations,
of which Cicero speaks slightingly. He is
known to have failed in his prosecution of
Q. Mucins Scasvola the augur, for malad-
ministration (repetundse) in his government
of the province of Asia.

Varro {De Re Riistica, iii. 2. §. 17.) men-
tions a Lucius Albutius as a learned man,
who wrote satires in the manner of Lucilius ;
and some suppose him to be the same person
with Titus Albutius the philosopher. This
supposition requires us to assume that the
name is wrongly given in Varro. (Ernesti,
Clavis Ciceroniana ; and Orelli's Onomasticon
Tullianum, art. " Albutius.") P. S.

ALCACO'BA(or ALCAZOVA) SOTO-
MAYOR.'SIMON, a Portuguese nobleman
who in 1 522 entered the service of Charles V.
He had acquired, even at that time, the repu-
tation of an able navigator and learned geo-
grapher. His earlier history, and the reason
why he left his native country to enter a
foreign service, are unknown. Charles was,
when he engaged Alca^oba, equipping a fleet
in consequence of a report that some French
vessels had been despatched to the West
Indies. Alca5oba's appointments indicate the
high opinion entertained of him : he was no-
minated to the command of a ship, and placed
in the royal household, with an annual salary
of fifty thousand maravedis, and other fifty
thousand for his equipment.

In 1524, when the kings of Portugal and
Spain nominated each a certain number of

ALCACOBA.

arbiters to settle tlie line of demarcation be-
tween their possessions in the eastern Archi-
pelago, Alca(,'oba was one of those nomi-
nated by Charles V. The Portuguese arbiters
however refused to act along with him and
another of the Spanish party, on the ground
that they were Portuguese subjects, and had
entered the Spanish service without licence
from their sovereign. Ilerrera saj'S " Alca-
5oba denied this" (whether that he was a
Portuguese subject, or that he had not per-
mission to enter a foreign service, does not
clearly appear) : but Charles, unwilling to
give umbrage to the Portuguese, appointed
another in his stead.

The Portuguese and Spanish kings having
been unable to come to an understand-
ing respecting their claims in the Mo-
luccas, Alca^oba was appointed, in 1527, to
the command of a fleet destined to protect
the Spanish interests in those regions. He
was immediately despatched to Coruiia to
hasten the equipment of his squadron, but
does not appear to have got ready for sea
when, in 1529, the cession of the Moluccas
by Spain to Portugal caused it to be put out
of commission.

Thus thrown out of employment, Alca^oba
volunteered in the same year his services to
discover and subdue, at his own expense,
two hundred leagues of coast on the South
Sea, from Chinchu, the termination of the
grant to Francis Pizarro, in a southern di-
rection towards the Straits of Magalhaens.
The agreement was concluded on the same
day with that of Pizarro, but was not carried
into effect. In 1534 another contract was
entered into by the king and Alca9oba, by
which the latter undertook to sail through
the Straits of Magalhaens, and discover and
settle at his own cost two hundred leagues
on the coast of Peru from the Adelantado of
Diego de Almagro southwards.

Alca^oba sailed from Gomei'a on the 8th
of October, 1534, in two good ships well vic-
tualled, and carrying 250 seamen and sol-
diers, and reached the coast of Patagonia on
the 17th of January 1535. Having encoun-
tered rough weather in attempting to pass the
Straits of Magalhaens, he returned and landed
his men at Puerto de Lobes ; but after ad-
vancing a short way inland, was obliged, in
consequence of bad health, to resign the
active command to his lieutenant, Rodrigo de
Isla, and return to the ships. A part of the
troops under Rodrigo having mutinied on
account of the hardships they encountered,
made their way back to the ships, murdered
Alca9oba, the pilot, and two or three others,
and threw their bodies into the sea. A son
of Alca5oba who accompanied him on the
voyage escaped narrowly. The mutineers
quarrelled soon after among themselves :
Roderigo de Isla availed himself of the dis-
pute to re-establish his authority, and after
putting the ringleaders to death, abandoned
747

the enterprise and sailed for the Spanish set^
tlements to the north. (Antonio de Herrera,
Historia General de los Hechos de los Castel-
lanos en las Islas y Tierra Firme del Mar
Oceaiio, Madrid, 1730, fol.) W. W.

ALCADI'NUS, an eminent physician of
Syracuse, whose father's name was Gersinus,
and who studied philosophy and medicine at
Salerno, and afterwards taught these sciences
himself at the same place. He was physician
to the emperors Henry VI. (a. d. 1190 —
1198) and Frederick II. (a.d. 1212 — 1250)
during their residence in the kingdom of
Naples, and died at the age of fifty -two. It
was at the command of Frederick II. that he
composed a poem, " De Balneis Puteolanis "
(" On the Baths of Pozzuoli,") in elegiac
verse. Of this poem, however, eighteen
strophes, or epigrams as they are called, are
ascribed to a certain Eustasius or Eustatius
de Matera, who is said to have lived under
Charles II. of Naples (a.d. 1285—1309), and
to have written a work, " De Natura et
Temperie Hominis" ("On the Nature and
Temperament of Man"). A manuscript at
Naples, written on parchment in the thirteenth
century, and beautifully illuminated, contains
thirty-four of these epigrams, and is merely
entitled " De Balneis prope Neapolim." Two
manuscripts in the Vatican library, (one of
the fourteenth century on parchment, the
other of the fifteenth on paper,) both men-
tion Eustatius as the author, and say nothing
about Alcadinus ; while on the other hand
a manuscript at Naples of the seventeenth
century on paper ascribes the work partly
to Alcadinus and partly to Eustatius. A
paper manuscript of the end of the fifteenth
or the beginning of the sixteenth cen-
tury, in the university library at Marburg
in Hesse Cassel, contains thirty epigrams
without making any mention of the author's
name. Jo. Elysius, in the beginning of
the sixteenth century, (Collectio de Balneis,
Venet. fol. 1553, p. 212.), mentions Alca-
dinus as the author of thirty-one epigrams,
each consisting of twelve lines, on the baths
of Pozzuoli, and adds that the same person
composed rather earlier a work on the
triumphs of Henry VI., and another on the
actions of Frederick II., to which the epilogue
of the poem "De Balneis Puteolanis" alludes.
Jo. Franc. Lombardus, who wrote somewhat
later, but in the former half of the sixteenth

century (i)e Balneis Piiteol. . . . Spiopsis),

portions out the poem, and ascribes to Alca-
dinus the prologue and epilogue and seven-
teen epigrams ; to Eustatius he attributes the
remaining nineteen epigrams. As the poem
is not very often met with, the epilogue men-
tioned above will serve as a specimen of the
versification of the age.

" Suscipe, sol mundi, tibi quern transmitto libellum,
De tribus ad dominum tcrtius iste venit.
Primus habet partes civilis in arte triumplii,
(or, I'ntrios civili in arce triu»ip/ios,)
Mira Federici gesta secundus habet.
3 c 2

ALCADINUS.

ALCiEUS.

T.-im loca, qiiam vires, quain nomina pene sepulta,

Teitius orbatas (or Euboicas) iste reformat aquas.
Ca2saris ad laiideni trcs scripsimus ecce libellos,

Firmius est verbum quod stat in ore trium.
Si vacat, annales vetcruni lege, Ceesar, avorum.

Pauper in Augusto nemo poL-ta fuit ;
Euboici vatis, Caesar, reminibcere vestri,

Ut possit nati scribere facta tui."

The poem was first published at Naples,
ISC'), 4to., by Sigism. Mayr, under the name
of Eustatius de Matera. (Paciaudi, De Sacris
Christian. Balneis, ed. 2. Rom. 1658, 4to.,
cap. 6. p. 50.) It was published a second
time at Venice, 1587, 4to., under the same
name; and a third time at Naples, 1596, 4to.,
and ascribed to Alcadinus. It is also to be
found in several collections ; for instance,
in Jo. Franc. Lombard! " Eorum quae de
Balneis aliisque Miraculis Puteolanis scripta
sunt Synopsis," Naples, 1547,4to., ed. Matth.
Cancer, and Venice, 1566, 4to., impens. Anelli
Sanviti ; also in " Italia Illustrata Varior.,"
Frankfort, 1600, fol. ; and in GriEvii et Bur-
manni " Thesaurus Aotiquitatum et Histo-
riarum Italia;," torn. ix. p. 4. In the " Col-
lectio de Balneis," Venice, 1553, fol., ap.
Juntas, p. 203 — 208. ; and in Jul. Cas. Ca-
pacii " De Balneis Liber, ubi Aquarum, qua;
Neapoli, Puteolis, Bajis, Pithecusis extant,
Virtutes, &c.," Naples, 1604, 4to. ap. Constant.
Vitalem. (Choulant, Handbuch der Biicher-
kunde fiir die iiltere Medicin, Leipzig, 1841.)

W. A. G.
ALC^US ('AA«:a?os) of Mitylene, the
earliest of the ^olian lyric poets. The most
active and eventful part of his life falls be-
tween about 615 and 602 b. c, and his own
history is closely connected with the poli-
tical occurrences in his native island during
that time. AIcecus belonged to one of the
noble families of Mitylene, which were en-
gaged in a struggle with the democratical
party. Men of influence placed themselves
at the head of their respective parties : the
leader of the nobles was Melanchrus, who
involved his country in a civil war. The
party hostile to him was headed by two
brothers of Alcseus, Cicis and Antimenidas,
in conjunction with Pittacus. About the
year b. c. 612 a battle was fought in which
Melanchrus was slain. Alcaeus does not
appear to have joined his brothers in their
contest against Melanchrus, who is even men-
tioned with great praise by the poet, un-
doubtedly because he acted on behalf of the
nobles, who had in AIckus a vehement and
passionate partisan. Some years after these
events, during a war between Athens and
Mitylene, which was carried on in Asia for
the possession of the maritime town of
Sigeum in Troas, Alcaius served in the
Mitylenean army under the command of
Pittacus. The islanders were defeated, al-
though Pittacus slew Phrynon, the most
gallant Athenian, in single combat, B. c. G06.
The spirit that breathed in the poems of
Alcseus procured him the character of a man
748

of courage ; yet he fled in battle, and lost his
armour, which the Athenians took and dedi-
cated in the temple of Athena (Minerva)
at Sigeum. Alcsus does not appear to have
returned to Mitylene immediately after the
close of this war. The struggle between the
two parties in Mitylene now became fiercer,
as we may infer from the fact that a number
of persons successively placed themselves at
the head of the popular party to defend its
rights against the oligarchs. These leaders
of the people, who are sometimes called
tyrants, and sometimes sesymnetse were Myr-
silus, Megalagyrus, the Cleanactids, and
others, the last of whom was the wise Pit-
tacus. During these struggles Alcseus en-
deavoured by his poetry to rouse his party to
a resolute resistance. The popular party
however gained the upper hand, and the
oligarchs were expelled from the island.
Pittacus, who was invested with the office of
sesymnetes from 590 to 580 B.C., thwarted
all the attempts of the nobles, and especially
of Alcseus and his brother Antimenidas, to
recover their estates and to effect their re-
turn. The poet continued to attack the
popular party with the greatest bitterness in
his poems ; but at last, seeing that all hopes
were lost, he went abroad and visited distant
countries, and among others Egypt, while his
brother Antimenidas traversed a great part
of Asia, and served with distinction in the
army of the Babylonians. Alcseus is said
to have at last become reconciled to Pittacus.
The year and place of his death are un-
known.

The poems of Alcseus were chiefly ad-
dressed to particular friends, and at first they
seem not to have been much known beyond
the island of Lesbos, partly because they
were written in the iEolic dialect, and partly
perhaps because they had only a local and
temporary interest. But subsequently they
were considered by all the Greeks as master-
pieces ; and among the nine lyric poets in
the Alexandrian canon, Alcaius occupied,
according to some authorities the first, and
according to others the second place. Ari-
stophanes and Aristarchus prepared the first
correct editions, in which the poems were
divided into at least ten books, and great
care was taken to insure the correct repre-
sentation of the metre. It is not known how
the poems were arranged in these editions,
except that the hymns formed the com-
mencement. Besides these hymns, the poems
of Alcseus consisted of odes, patriotic war
songs, erotic and symposiac songs, and epi-
grams. All were characterized by strong
passion and enthusiasm. With Alcseus, as
with most poets of the .^olic school, poetry
was the outpouring of his deepest emotions,
excited by the occurrences of the time in
which he lived. Independent of their high
poetical merits, the loss of the poems of
Alca5us is much to be regretted, as th<'y

ALGOUS.

ALCyEUS.

■would have enabled us to gain a clearer in-
sight into the public and private life of the
i^olians. The metrical structure of the
poems of Alca^us was generally lively, and
they appear, like the odes of Horace, to have
consisted of strophes of the same metre (mo-
nostrophic poems). One particular kind of
strophe which is frequently used by Horace
is called the Alcaic, and is said to have been
invented by Alca'us.

The number of fragments of Alcffius still
extant is considerable, and from them, as
well as from the frequent imitations of Ho-
race, we are able to form a pretty correct
idea of their general character. The first
collection of these fragments was made by
Henry Stephens, in his Fragments of the
nine principal Lyric Poets, Paris, 1560, 8vo.
Another collection worth noticing is that by
F. Stange, Halle, 1810, in 8vo. A more com-
plete collection was made by C. J. Blomfield,
in the " Museum Criticum," 1814, vol. i.,
whence they have been incorporated in
Gaisford's " Poeta) Gra;ci Minores." The
most recent collection is that by A. Matthiae,
Leipzig, 1827, 8vo., to which additions and
supplements have been made by Welcker,
Seidler, Osann, and Bergk, in several philo-
logical journals of Germany. There were
many ancient treatises on the poems of Al-
cseus, but they are all lost.

The most important among the modern
essays on Alca;us are — Plehn, Leshiacorum
Liber, p. 169 — 175.; Bode, Geschiclde dcr
Lijrischen Dichtkunst der Hellenen, ii. 378,
&c. ; Miiller, History of the Lit. of Ancient
Greece, i. 166, &c. There is a spirited
translation, or rather imitation, of one of the
fragments of Alcseus by Sir W. Jones. L. S.
ALCiEUS ('AAreaios), a native of Messenia,
was the author of a number of epigrams still
extant in the " Anthologia Gra;ca." Some of
the epigrams bear the simple name of Alcajus,
while in others the epithet " Messenius " is
added, so that in many cases it is uncertain
which Alcseus is meant. It is generally sup-
posed that the Messenian poet was a con-
temporary of Philip in. of Macedon, and
that he is the poet mentioned by Plutarch
{Flamininus, 9.), though others think that he
was the Epicurean philosopher, who together
with other philosophers of the same school
was expelled from Rome in b. c. 174. (/Elian,
Var. Hist. ix. 12.; Fabricius, Biblioth. Grceca,
iv. 459.) L. S.

ALC^US ('A\Ka7os), the son of Miccus,
a Mitylenean, who afterwards removed to
Athens. According to Suidas he wrote ten
comedies which belonged to the class called
the old Attic comedy. He was a contempo-
rary of Aristophanes, for in the year b. c.
388 he contended with one of his comedies,
" Pasiphae," for the prize with the second
Plutus of Aristophanes, but he only gained
the fifth prize, as has been inferred from a
very obscure passage in Suidas. The title of
749

this comedy, as well as those of four others,
" Endymion," " Ganymede," " Callisto," and
" The Holy Marriage " (Iffjhs yauor), all of
which represented mythological subjects,
seem to indicate that Alcieus belonged to the
period of transition from the old to the
middle Attic comedy, and that in many of
his plays he followed the principles of the
latter school. Besides the five comedies
mentioned above we know the titles of three
others, " The Adulterous Sisters " {a5e\<pal
tioixivojx^pai), the " Comodotragccdus," and
" Palffistra," which is the name of a courtezan.
A few fragments of the comedies are still
extant in Athenaeus and the grammarians.
(Casaubon, On Athenaus, iii. 206. ; Fabricius,
Biblioth. Grac. ii. 282. and 405. ; Bode,
Geschichte der Dramat. Dichtkunst der Hel-
lenen, ii. 386.)

Suidas also mentions an Athenian Alcseus,
a tragic poet, whom some call the earliest of
the tragic writers in Greece. Macrobius
{Saturnal. v. 20.) quotes a passage from a
tragedy called " Caelum," which he ascribes
to Alca3us. Beyond this nothing is known
about him. L. S.

ALCALA' Y HERRE'RA, ALFONSO
DE, a Spanish poet of the sixteenth century,
was born at Lisbon, September 12. 1599,
but was originally from Toledo. He is said
to have been by profession a merchant, but
he devoted all his leisure hours to the culti-
vation of literature. He wrote — 1. " Jardin
anagramatico de divinas Flores Lusitauas,
Espanholas, e Latinas, em o qual se contao
683 Anagramas, e seis Hymnos Chrono-
logicos." Lisbon, 1654, 4to. ("The Garden
of divine Flowers, Portuguese, Spanish, and
Latin, containing Six hundred and eighty-
three Anagrams and Six chronological
Hymns") 2. " Corona y Ramillete de Flores
salutiferas, Antidoto del Alma, &c." Lisbon,
1677, 8vo. ; a collection of Spanish poems
on sacred subjects. 3. " Novo Modo cu-
rioso, Tratado, e Artificio de escrever, assim
ao divino como ao humano, &c." (or "A
new Treatise on the Art of writing on mun-
dane, as well as divine. Subjects"). Lisbon,
1679, 8vo. 4. "Medita9oens de Santa Brigida
ti-aduzidas de Latin em Portugez" ("The
Meditations of St. Bridget, translated from the
Latin into Portuguese"). Lisbon, 1678, 4to. ;
and several other works, chiefly Portuguese,
the list of which may be seen in Barbosa and
Nicolas Antonio. But the work by which
Alcala is best known is a collection of novels
entitled " Varies Efiectos de Amor en cinco
Novelas exemplares y nuevo Artificio para
escrivir Prosa y Verso sin una de las Letras
vocales " (" Several Effects of Love exhibited
in five exemplary Novels, or a new Art of
writing Prose without one of the Vowels") ;
printed at Lisbon, 1641, 8vo., and ib. 1671.
The first novel, entitled " Los dos Soles de
Toledo (" The two Suns of Toledo"), is
written withoiit a ; " LaCarro9a de lasDamas"
3 c 3

ALCALA.

ALCAMENES.

("The Carriage of the Ladies"), -which is
the second, without e ; and so respectively the
other three, called " La Perla de Portugal "
("The Pearl of Portugal"), "La Peregrina
Hermitana" (" The fair Pilgrim and Her-
mit"), "La Serrana de Cintra" ("The
country Girl of Cintra"). The last edition
of these novels contains, besides, a long letter
■written without the letter a. This idle whim
is not original ; the same having been prac-
tised by Tryphiodorus, whom Addison so
pleasantly ridicules as one of the lipogram-
matists or letter-droppers of antiquity. In the
eighteenth century a Spaniard named Juan
Martinez de jMoya followed in the track of
Alcala, and wrote a novel entitled " Meritos
disponen Premios" ("Good Deeds call for a
Reward") without the letter a. Alcala y
Herrera is erroneously called Alcala y He-
naresinthe " Biographic Universelle." (Bar-
bosa Machado, Biblioth. Lusit. i. 27. ; Nico-
laus Antonius, Bihliotheca Hispana Nova,
i. 9.) P. de G.

ALCALA', PEDRO DE, an Hieronymite
monk belonging to the congregation of
Alcala de Henares in the province of Gua-
dalajara, accompanied Ferdinand and Isabella
to the conquest of Granada. On the taking
of that city in 1492 he was attached to the
new church, and being well versed in the
Arabic language, was employed as a mission-
ary to preach the gospel to the Moorish po-
pulation of Granada. Alcala wrote an Arabic
grammar in Spanish, the first published in
any vernacular language in Europe, " Arte
para ligeramente saber la Lengua Arabiga,"
together with a Spanish and Arabic dictionary,
" El Vocabulista A rabigo en Letra Castellana,"
in which the Arabic words are given in
Roman letters. There are two editions of it,
one of 1.501, the other of 1505, both in 4to.
This work is considered a great bibliogra-
phical curiosity, and is greatly sought after
on account of its extreme rarity. It was
the second book printed at Granada, the
first, " Vita Christi," bearing the date of 1495.
(N. Antonius, Bib. Hisp. Nov. ii. ; Schnurrer,
Bibl. Arab. p. 16.) P. de G.

ALC A'MENES ("AA/ca/ieVrjs), an Agid, was
the tenth king of Sparta, Aristodemus in-
cluded. He ascended the throne b. c. 779, and
reigned thirty-eight years. In his reign the
town of Helos was finally subdued, and accord-
ing to Pausanias he commanded in the first
expedition of the first Messenian war (b. c,
743). Without any previous declaration of
war, his troops marched in the dead of the
night against Amphea, a border town of
Messenia. The gates were open as in the
time of peace, and entering without re-
sistance, they massacred the inhabitants
in their beds and at their altars. Before
the fifth year of this war Alcamenes was
dead. (Pausanias, iv. 5. .3. ; Eusebius, Citron.
i. 166. ; Clinton, Fast. Hell. Appcn. 6. i.)

R. W— n.
750

ALCA'MENES ('AAKo^ueVjjs), one of the
most eminent in the list of ancient sculptors,
was a native of Athens, and a scholar oiF
Phidias. He lived in the fifth century be-
fore the Christian gera. Alcamenes is dis-
tinguished for his works in marble, in bronze,
and also in the mixed materials so much in
use in that time. His most celebrated pro-
duction was a statue of Venus, always re-
ferred to by ancient writers as the 'AcppoSirr]
iv To7s Kriirois, or Venus of the Gardens ; a
work of such extraordinary excellence, that
it was said Phidias himself had assisted in
finishing it. Alcamenes and Agoracritus
[Agoracritus] executed two statues of
Venus, which were submitted to the judgment
of the Athenians. That by Alcamenes ob-
tained the majority of votes ; not, we are told,
from the superiority of the work, biit because
the Athenians chose to give the preference
to their own countryman. Agoracritus was a
native of Paros. It has been a question whe-
ther the Venus " eV Ki)7ro(y " was the chosen
statue. A strong argument against this being
the case is found in the circumstance of the
Venus of the Gardens being always men-
tioned with unqualified commendation ; while
the statue made in competition with Agora-
critus is admitted to have gained its distinc-
tion merely or chiefly from the accident of
the artist being a fellow-citizen of his judges.
The Garden Venus was admired especially
for the extreme beauty of the bust or neck,
the arms, and the hands. Pausanias mentions
several works by Alcamenes ; among them
a statue of Dionysus, of ivory and gold, at
Athens ; a statue of Mars in the temple
of that god ; two of Minerva ; and a colossal
statue of Hercules. One of the statues of
Minerva is said to have been executed in
competition with his master, Phidias. Alca-
menes, according to this account, was sur-
passed by Phidias from not having calculated
at first the effect his work would have when
elevated to the height from which it was in-
tended ultimately to be viewed. But the story
is very improbable, and deserves little atten-
tion. Two statues, one of Procne, meditating
her plot against her child, and one of Itys, are
also mentioned. They were at Athens. Pau-
sanias speaks of a statue of Hecate by Alca-
menes which was in the Acropolis at Athens,
and observes that Alcamenes was the first
artist who represented this goddess in her
triple or tripartite form. Alcamenes also
executed the sculptures in the posterior pedi-
ment of the temple of the Olympian Jupiter :
they illustrated the battle of the Lapithse and
Centaurs. The subjects are given at length
in the description of Pausanias, who also re-
marks in this place that Alcamenes enjoyed
a reputation second only to Phidias. To
these works may be added a statue of an
Athlete, in bronze, distinguished by the epi-
thet of " encrinomenos," and a statue of ^-
sculapius at Mantiuea. Cicero (iV. D. i. 30.)

ALCA.MENES.

ALCANDRIN.

and Valerius Maximus (viii. 11.) speak in
terms of great praise of a statue at Athens,
by Alcanienes, of Vulcan. The sculptor
had indicated the lameness of the god, but
had managed it in so masterly a manner that
no positive deformity was discernible by
■which the general excellence of the work
was impaired. (Pausanias, lib. i. ii. v. viii.;
Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxxiv. 8. xxxvi. 5. ; Lucian,
De Imagg.') R. W. jun.

ALC A'MO, CIULLO D', a Sicilian, sup-
posed to be the earliest writer of Italian
poetry, and to have lived towards the end of
the twelfth century. The proper form of his
Christian name is Vincenzo, the augmentative
form of which is Vincenciullo, and Ciullo is a
Sicilian form of abridgment. He is called
of Aleamo, from a castle of that name about
twenty miles from Palermo. The only pro-
duction of this writer still extant is a " Can-
zone" or " Cantilena," reprinted by Allacci
and afterwards by Crescimbeni in his
"Comentarj intomo aUa sua Istoria della
volgar Poesia." In this poem occur these
lines : —

" Se tanto avere donassimi quanto a lo Saladino,
E per ajunta quanta lo Soldano."

" If thou shouldst give me as much wealth as Saladin
has, and in addition what the Soldan has."

From these words it was inferred by some
writers, and among others Allacci, better
known in England as Leo Allatius, that
Ciullo d' Aleamo must have written the poem
between the year 1187, in which the name of
Saladin became famous in the West from his
taking Jerusalem, and 1193, in which his
career was closed. Crescimbeni was of
opinion that this evidence was not satisfac-
tory, as even in our own days it is common
to make use of the name of Croesus in a
similar way, as an example of enormous
wealth, although he has been dead some
thousands of years. Tiraboschi observes
that Crescimbeni's argument would be sound
if the poet had merely said " the wealth of
Saladin," but since the expression he uses is
" as much wealth as Saladin has," he is inclined
to restore to him his honours as the father of
Italian poetry, which are entirely based on
the inference drawn from these lines. The
poem itself is written in imitation of the Pro-
vencal poets, and it is agreed on all hands
to be utterly unworthy of notice, except from
its antiquity. The earliest mention of it is
by Dante, who quotes a line of it in his
" Convito," as an example of ruggedness and
inelegance. (Crescimbeni, X' Istoria della
volgar Poesia, and Comentarj intomo alia
sua Historia, vol. i. p. 99, &c., ii. parte ii.
7 — 11., where the canzone is given entire ;
Tiraboschi, Sloria della Letteratura Italiana,
edition of 1777, iv. 308. ; Mazzuchelli, Scrit-
tori r/' Italia, i. 352.) T. W.

ALCANDRIN or ARKANDUM. These
are the corruptions of the name of some Arabic
writer, whose work on astrology " De Veri-
751

tatibus et Predictionibus Astrologicis, was
published in Latin at Paris in 1542, by R.
Roussat, a writer on anatomy. It was several
times translated into French. There are one
or two old English astrological works which
go by this name. (Lalande, Bill. Astron.)

A. De -M.

ALCA'NTARA, DIE'GO DE, a Spanish
architect contemporary with the celebrated
Juan de Herrera, and employed by him in
preparing his designs for the Escurial in
1572. In consequence of the ability he
showed on that occasion, and in other matters
intrusted to him by Herrera, he was ap-
pointed to succeed Geronimo Gili, in 1575,
as surveyor of the works at the royal villa or
palace of Aranjuez ; and in 1584 at the
cathedral of Toledo, as he previously had
been of the Alcazar in that city. He also
superintended the building of the chui-ch and
convent belonging to the order of San Jago
at Ucles (1583). It does not however ap-
pear that he was employed as the sole archi-
tect of any building, or that any was executed
entirely from his designs, notwithstanding
the very high terms in which he was recom-
mended by Herrera to Philip II. for his su-
perior abilitj^ as an architect. But as he
died (at Toledo, April 11th, 1587) at an
early age " siendo mozo," it is said, although
he must have been between thirty and
forty, it is probable that had he lived a few
years longer, he would have had oppor-
tunities put in his way, from which, whatever
talent he showed, his want of experience at
first, and the necessity of accepting engage-
ments imder others, had till then excluded
him. That he had acquired the favour and
good will of Philip, may be taken for granted,
as that king bestowed on his widow and three
children an annual bounty of forty fanegas
of wheat. He is also said by Bermudez to
have practised sculpture with much success,
though none of his works in it are specified
by that writer. (Llaguno, Noticias de los
Arquitectos y Arquitcctura de Espaiia ; Ber-
mudez, Diccionario de los Professores, &c.)

W. H. L.

ALCA'NTARA, SAN PEDRO DE, a
zealot of the fifteenth century, and founder of
a monastic order, a brief notice of whose ex-
traordinary mode of life will illustrate the
state of religious asceticism at that period in
Spain. He was born in 1499, at Alcantara,
in the border province of Estremadura, and
entered the order of Saint Francis, of which,
in 1538 and 1542, he was provincial. His
extreme love of solitude induced him to
withdraw to the mountain of Arrabida on
the coast of Portugal, near Cape Espichel,
where he established the order alluded to,
which was approved in 1554 by Pope Julius
III. Saint Theresa, his countrjwoman, a
voluminous and eloquent writer, gives the
following account of a visit which she made
him : — " He told me," says she, " if I re-
3 c 4

ALCANTARA.

ALCAZAR.

member right, that for the space of forty
years he had only slept an hour and a half
during each twenty-four hours, and that this
partial victory over sleep was the greatest of
all his penitential labours, his only means of
success being either to kneel or stand con-
tinually ; when he did repose, it was seated,
and with his head leaning against a piece of
wood fixed in the wall ; he could not lie along
if he so would, for his cell was, as is well
known, only four feet and a half in length.
During all these years he never covered his
head with his cowl, even in the hottest sun
or heaviest rain. He walked barefoot ; his
covering was a vest of hair-cloth, as tight as
could be borne, and over it a loose habit of
the same material. He told me that in very
cold weather he put it off and left open the
door and window of his cell, in order that by
afterwards closing them and wrapping him-
self up he might content his body the more
with good shelter and repose. He usually
took food only once in three days : an ex-
clamation at this moved him to inquire
whereat I wondered, for to those who inured
themselves to it, he said, it was not only pos-
sible but light. A companion of his assured
me that he went sometimes eight days with-
out eating ; this would be while he was in
prayer, for he had long periods of inspiration
and great extacies ; of which I was once a
witness. His poverty was extreme, and in
his youth he had suffered terrible mortifica-
tions : he told me that he had passed three
years in a convent of his order, and not known
a single brother but by his voice, for he
had never once lifted his eyes from the
ground, and whatever road he had occasion
to go, it was only by following the footsteps
of the other friars that he could pursue it.
He never looked at women, and he cared
nothing whether he coidd see or were
blind. But he was very old," says the good
lady saint, " when I talked with him ; and
so spare indeed that he looked like a
figure made up of the roots of trees. With
all his sanctity," she concludes, " he was
very affable, but of few words, except in
answering questions, and then his speech was
very savoury, for he had a delicate imder-
standing." He died on the 18th of October,
1562, and was canonised by Pope Clement
IX. About two leagues from the port of
Setubal (frequently called St. Ubes), and at
the southern base of the verdant Sierra de
Arrabida, still exists the famous sanctuary
and convent of San Pedro de Alcantara.
Brotherhoods of the order (Frailes Alcan-
tarinos) are found in various parts of the
Peninsula. (^Obrasy cartas de Santa Teresa
de Jesus, 6 vols. 4to. Madrid, 1793; Mi-
fiano, Diccionario Geograjico, Sec, article
" Setubal," Madrid, 1826. ; Dictlonnaire
Uiiiversel Historique, Sfc. neuvieme cditiun par
une Societede Savans, tome xiv. Paris, 1810.)

w. c. w.

ALCA'ZAR, ANDREAS, (Alcazar, or
Valcacer,) was born at Guadalajara, and was
chief professor of surgery in the imiversity
of Salamanca, where he published, in 1.575, a
work entitled " Chirurgise Libri Sex, in
quibus multa Antiquorum et Recentiorum
subobscura Loca hactenus non declarata,
interpretantur." It treats of wounds of the
head, thorax, and abdomen, of wounds and
other affections of the nerves, of the morbus
Gallicus, and of the prevention and cure of
the plague. The greater part of that which
relates to wounds is taken from the works of
Galen and Guy de Chaidiac. In the first
book, which was printed separately with the
title " De Yulneribus Capitis," Salamanca,
1582, Alcazar describes and gives drawings
of a trepan which he invented. Its centre-
pin could be lifted up without taking the
saw from the head, so that the boring could
be completed in one operation ; and there
was a cylinder round the saw which could
be lifted up or let down so as to adapt the
same saw to bones of different thickness.
The former of these improvements is I'e-
tained to the present time.

The most interesting of the six books is
that on syphilis, for the treatment of which
Alcazar was in his day much renowned,
though his method seems to have been only
that which was generally used. He maintained
(lib. vi. p. 171.) that the disease was of ancient
origin, and that its great outbreak in Europe
at the end of the fifteenth century was due to
the soldiers of the armies of Alfonso V., king
of Aragon, and of John, son of Rene, duke
of Anjou, being supplied with human flesh
for food in the scarcity which prevailed
during the war between those princes about
the year 1456 ; a story which he took from
Leonardo Fioravanti, who, if he did not in-
vent it, certainly received it on very bad
authority. [Fioravanti, Leonardo.] As-
true has given a complete analysis of this
book. (Astruc, De Morbis Vencreis, Libri
novem, p. 792. ed. 1740, 4to. ; N. Antonius,
Bibliotheca Hispana Nova.) J. P.

ALCA'ZAR, BALTASAR DE, a Spanish
poet who lived at Seville about the beginning
of the seventeenth century. He was the
author of several short poems, called by the
Spaniai'ds " redondillas." No collection was
ever made of them, but Pedro de Espinosa, a
native of Antequera, published several " le-
trillas" and " madrigales" in his collection
entitled " Flores de Espafioles ilustres,"
Valladolid, 1614, 4to. Quintana, in his
" Tesoro del Parnaso Espanol" (Paris, 1840,
4to.) has likewise published one of Alcazar's
best redondillas. P. de G.

ALCA'ZAR, LUIS DE, a Spanish Jesuit,
descended from noble and rich parents,
was born at Seville in 1554. At the age of
seven years he swallowed a silver medal,
which being stopped in the larynx put his
life in the utmost danger. He was almost

ALCAZAR.

ALOEDO.

suffocated, when by a sudden effort the medal
was disengaged and was thrown out by
coughing. The physicians having declared
his death unavoidable, his delivery was
regarded by his parents and by himself
as a miracle, and it was attributed to the
direct interference of God. Young Alcazar
secretly formed the design of devoting him-
self entirely to his Saviour, and he carried
it into execution, notwithstanding the grief
of his parents, whose only son he was. In
1569 he entered the society of Jesuits, and
after having taken orders, he first taught
the philosophy of Aristotle, and afterwards
divinity, at Cordova and at Seville. Com-
bining great learning with an amiable cha-
racter and uncommon generosity and charity,
he was universally beloved in his native
town, Seville, where he lived the greater part
of his life. At his death, which took place
on the ItJth of June, 1613, all Seville was in
mourning, and a great number of citizens
were present at his funeral. Alcazar, whose
name is also written Alcasar and Alcazar,
laboured principally to explain the Apo-
calypse ; his opinions are very ingenious,
and show a great deal of solid learning. His
■works are — 1. " Vestigatio Arcani Sensus in
Apocalypsi. Accessit Opusculum de Sacris
Ponderibus et Mensuris. Antwerpise, 1604,
fol. ; 1619, fol. Lugduni, 1626, foL" 2. "In
eas Veteris Testamenti Partes quas respicit
Apocalypsis, nempe Cantica Canticorum,
Psalmos complures, multa Danielis, aliorum-
que Librorum capita, Libri V. Accessit de
Malis Medicis Opusculum. Lugduni, 1631,
fol." (N. Antonius, Bibliotkeca Hispana
Nova, ii. 18. ; Alegambe, Biblioth. Script.
Soc. Jes. sub voc. " Ludovicus Alcazar.")

W. P.
ALCAZAR. [Paret y Alcazar.]
ALCAZAR Y PEMPICILEON, DON
LUIS DE GONGORA, a Spanish noble,
lived in the seventeenth century, and is the
author of a work on the grandeur of the
republic of Genoa : " Real Grandeza de la
Serenisima Republica de Genova escrita en
Lengua Espaiiola. " Madrid, 1665. This work
has been translated into Italian by Carlos
Esperon, D. D. Genoa, 1669, fol. (N. An-
tonius, Bibliotkeca Hispana Nova, ii. 37.)

W. P,
ALCAZOVA. [Alca^oba.]
ALCEDO, ANTONIO DE. Less is known
than could be desired of the life of this de-
serving geographer. He was a native of
Spanisii America ; he published his " Dic-
tionary of American Geography " at Madrid,
1786, after having been twenty years engaged
in compiling it ; he was at the time of its
publication a colonel in the royal guard, and
states in his preface that his studies had been
often interrupted by his military avocations.
This brief account comprehends almost
everything that is known of him. Alcedo
mentions in his preface that it was his inten-
753

tion, instead of quoting his authorities at the
end of each article, to give in the last volume
short sketches of the lives and writings of
each, in the manner of Nicolas Antonio,
arranged in alphabetical order. It is nuich
to be regretted that he did not keep his word,
for even notices as meagre as those of An-
tonio would have been a material addition
to the deficient biography of Spain. Alcedo
mentions that some of his accounts of places
were drawn from personal observation, but
more obtained from the library of printed
and manuscript works relative to America
and oral communications of a distinguished
person who had filled for forty years high
ofiices in the Indies. He also states that he
had access to oflScial documents, and had re-
ceived valuable information from Don Juan
Manuel Moscoso, bishop of Cuzco, Don Jo-
seph de Ugarte, the Franciscan Pedro Gon-
zalez de Agueros, the Capuchin Francisco
de Ajefrin, and others. The work is com-
piled with a good deal of critical accuracy,
and fills a gap in the history as well as the
geography of Spanish America. Thomson
mentions that the jealousy of the Spanish
government occasioned the suppression of
the work; "that the copies which escaped
were very few ;" that " a very small number
of copies, not exceeding five or six, exist
in this kingdom ;" and that " the late en-
' deavours to procure any from the Conti-
' nent have always been unsuccessful, even
when attempted by official pursuit, and at
unlimited expense." There are two copies of
the Spanish Alcedo (1786) in the library of
the British Museimi. The book is entitled
" Diccionario Geographico-Historico de las
! ludias occidentals o America : es a saber de
i los Reynos del Peru, Nueva Espaiia, Tierra
Firme, Chile, y Nuevo Reyno de Granada.
Escrito por el Coronel D. Antonio de Alcedo,
Capitan de reales Guardias Espafiolas. Ma-
drid, 1786, 4to. Tomi V." It has been trans-
lated into English by Mr. G. A. Thompson,
I whose translation (with considerable additions
I from more recent authors) was published in
London in five volumes in 1812-15. An
Atlas to Alcedo was published in 1816 by
A. Arrowsmith. (Alcedo's Preface to his
Dictionanj, and Thompson's Preface to his
Translation.) W. W.

A'LCET AS QAXKeras), a brother of Per ■
diccas, one of the favourites and generals of
Alexander the Great. In the wars that fol-
lowed the death of A lexander, A 1 cetas seconded
the ambitious views of his brother, Perdiccas,
and co-opei'ated with him against Ptolemy,
Antipater, and Antigonus. Mhen Perdiccas
invaded Egj-pt to attack Ptolemy (b. c. 321),
he joined Alcetas with Eumenes in the com-
i mand of Asia Minor. On the death of Per-
diccas (b. c. 321), Alcetas and Eumenes were
condemned to death by the Macedonians in
Egypt, and Antigonus was intrusted with the
! prosecution of the war against them. Alcetas

ALCETAS.

ALCHABITIUS.

retired to Pisidia, where he had hoped to
find a permanent refuge, and to become
master of the district. With this view he
had made every effort to conciliate the good
will and affection of the Pisidians, and with
their assistance, and in concert with Attains,
the admiral of Perdiccas, he endeavoured to
make head against Antigonus. He was
however defeated, and obliged to take refuge
in Termessus, a very strong city in Pisidia.
Here he and his Pisidian friends held out for
some time, till at last the old men of the
city, who were in the interest of Antigonus,
engaged to deliver Alcetas up, if Antigonus
would draw the younger citizens (the friends
of Alcetas) out of the town by a feigned
attack. This was done, and the old men then
fell upon Alcetas, who, to avoid being taken,
slew himself. (Diodorus, xviii. c. 45, 46. ;
Thirlwall, History of Greece, vii. 233.)

R. W— n.
A'LCETAS ('AAKeVas), the son of Tha-
rypus, king of Epirus about B.C. 370, was an
ally of Jason, the celebrated Tagus of Thes-
saly, and also of Athens. In b. c. 373, to-
gether with that prince, he appeared at
Athens to intercede for Timotheus the Athe-
nian general, when accused before the Athe-
nian people of negligence in the discharge
of his duty. Through their joint influence
Timotheus was acquitted. Till the death of
this Alcetas the states of Epirus were go-
verned by one king : on his decease his two
sons, Neoptolemus and Arybbas or Arymbas,
agreed to divide the kingdom equally be-
tween them. (Demosthenes, Timoth.; Clin-
ton, Fasti Hellen. ii. 110.; Pausanias, i. 11.
3.; Thirlwall, Hist, of Greece, v. 61.)

R. W— n.
A'LCETAS CAA/ceVas), king of Epirus,
was the son of Arybbas, or Arymbas, and the
grandson of the Alcetas mentioned above.
His temper was so ungovernable that his
father banished him, so that his younger
brother iEacides succeeded to the throne.
On the death of iEacides, the Epirots ap-
pointed Alcetas as his successor, but he com-
mitted such outrages that his subjects put him
to death, together with his two sons. He was
for some time (about B.C. 315) engaged in
hostilities with Cassander, the son of Anti-
pater, which however ended in an alliance
being made between them. He was succeeded
by Pyrrhus, who invaded Italy b. c. 280.
(Pausanias, i. 11. 5. ; Diodorus, xix. c. 88. ;
Thirlwall, Hist, of Greece, vii. 316.)

R. W— n.
A'LCETAS CA\(feras), the eighth king of
Macedonia, according to Eusebius, and the
fourth from Perdiccas. He reigned twenty-
eight or twenty-nine years, and flourished
about b. c. 580. (Clinton, Fasti Hellen. ii.
221.) R. W— n.

ALCHABI'TIUS, an Arabian astrologer,
whose real name was 'Abdu-l-'aziz. He
lived in the reign and at the court of Seyfu-
754

d-daulah ( Abii-1-hasan 'Ali), sultan of Aleppo,
of the dynasty of Hamadan, about the middle
of the tenth century of our sera. His works
were known among the Arabs of Spain,
by whom they were communicated to the
Christians. As early as the twelfth century,
Joannes Hispalensis translated into Latin
a treatise by him on judicial astrology,
which was printed for the first time at
Venice, in 1481, by John and Gregory de
Forlivio, with a commentary by John of
Saxony. " Libellus Ysagogicus Abdilazi (id
est Servi gloriosi Dei : qui dicitur Alcha-
bitius ad Magisterum) (sic) Judiciorum As-
trorum : interpretatus a loanne Hispalensi,
scriptumque in eundem a Johanne Saxonie
editum utili Serie connexum," 4 to. Re-
printed at Venice by Erhard Ratdolt, 1482,
4to. ; at Venice, 1502, 4to. ; and lastly, at
Leyden, without date. This last edition
contains also a short treatise by Petrus
Turrelli, " De cognoscendis Infirmitatibus."
(Delambre, Hist, de VAstron. au Moyen Age,
p. 168— 171.) jP. de G.

ALCHADE'B, R. ISAAC BEN SO-
LOMON BEN ZADDIKTHE LEVITE

a Spanish rabbi who lived and wrote during
the latter part of the fifteenth .century.
Wolff calls him " Alcadeph" (fiynn^N), but
upon what authority he does not say. Al-
chadeb, or rather Chadeb, both in Hebrew and
Arabic, means the hunchback ; al is the Arabic
article ; whence we infer that this soubriquet
had been bestowed on some one of his an-
cestors during the dominion of the Moors in
Spain. He was a celebi-ated astronomer ;
his works are — 1. " Orach Selulah " (" The
Paved Way") {Prov. xv. 19.), which treats of
the calendar, the Hebrew festivals, and other
matters connected with the sacred year, and
the division of time among the Jews ; it is
among the manuscripts in the library of the
Vatican, on paper, and was written a. m.
5242 (a. D. 1482). 2. " Leshon Hazahab"
("The Wedge of Gold") (Jos/(. vii. 21.),
which treats of the various weights and mea-
sures mentioned in Scripture and their
names : it was printed at Venice, in 4to., ac-
cording to Buxtorf and De Rossi, but pro-
bably without date, as no year is given.
3. " Maasse Chosheb" ("The Work of the
Artist") {Ezod. xxi. 1.), which is a work on
arithmetic. All these three works were
among the manuscripts of R. Oppenheimer's
library, and should consequently be in the
Bodleian library at Oxford : the " Orach Selu-
lah " was also in the royal library at Paris, and
in De Rossi's collection, who possessed no
less than three manuscript copies. 4. " Keli
Chemdah" ("The precious Instrument"),
which treats of the planetary system, also of
the construction of the artificial globe, and
of the astrolabe : this work is among the
paper manuscripts of the Vatican library.
Wolff also mentions a manuscript which was

ALCHADEB.

ALCIIINDUS.

in the library of tlie Oratory at Paris, which
explained the construction of some mathe-
matical instrument, which both he and De
Rossi are of opinion is the " Keli Chemdah "
of Alchadeb. 5. Bartolocci, under " Isaac
ben Tzadik Alcharib (nnn^x)' °^ (^^ ^^
says others call him) Alchadeb," says this
author wrote " Derec Selulah " (" The Paved
Way"), a title taken from (^Jer. xvin. 15.),
the negative particle " lo " (not) being omitted,
which, he says, are astronomical tables,
written against the tables of R. Immanuel
Bar Jacob Baal Hackenaphaim : they are
among the paper manuscripts in the Vatican,
and were written a. m. 5242 (a. d. 1482).
This is not the same work as the " Orach
Selulah," though by the same author. Bar-
tolocci has given this author three times
over, yet he evidently considers them all as
the same person, for he attributes the " Orach
Selulah" to them all three. (Bartoloccius,
Biblloth. Mag. Rabb. iii. 890. 920. 925. ;
Wolfius, Biblioth. Hebr. i. 648. iii. 553. ;
De Rossi, Dizion. Storic. degli Aid. Ebr.
i. 45.) C. P. H.

ALCHER, a Cistertian monk of the abbey
of Clairvaux in the twelfth century, is the
author of a treatise entitled " De Anima,"
or otherwise, " De Spiritu et Anima," This
treatise is published among the works of
Hugo de S. Victore, where it forms the second
dissertation " De Anima," and among the
works of Augustin, (tom. iii. of the Cologne
edition, 1616), to both of which writers, as
well as to others, it has been incorrectly at-
tributed. It is also published in the eighth
part of Tissier's " Bibliotheca Cisterciensium."
The following treatises, found in most editions
of Augustin's works, have been ascribed to
Alcher : — " De diligendo Deo ; " " De Medita-
tionibus;" " De Contritione Cordis;" " Ma-
nuale;" and " Soliloquium." (Adelung, Sup-
plemeiit to Jocher's AUgemeines Gelehrten-
Lexicon.) A. T. P.

ALCHFRED. [Ajlfred.]

ALCHFRID, otherwise AHLFRID, or
EALFRID, or ALUCHFRID, or ALUC-
FRID, son of Oswio, king of Northumbria,
has usually been assumed to be the same
person with Aldfrid, or Alfred, the illegiti-
mate son (or supposed son) of Oswio, who
became king of Northumbria in 685, upon
the death of Oswio's son and successor Eg-
frid. Dr. Lingard, however, appears to have
shown that they were two distinct persons,
and that this is clearly the account given
by Bede, the only original authority. On
this view, all that is known of Alchfrid will
fall to be related under the name of his
father Oswio, during whose reign he acted a
conspicuous part, and with whom he was
associated in the regal authority, but after
whose death he is no more heard of (Bede,
Eccles. Hist. iii. ; Eddius, Vita S. Wilfridi, in
Gale, XV Scriptores, fol. Oxon. 1691, p. 46,
&;c. ; Lingard's Hist, of Eng. i.) G. L. C.
755

ALCHINDUS, or ALKINDUS (Abu Jii.
suf Ya'kub Ibn Is'hdk Ibn As-sabbah Al-kin-
di), an Arabian astrologer and physician, was
born at ]3asrah about the close of the eighth
century of our a;ra. He descended in a di-
rect line from Amru-1-kays, chief of the
Arabian tribe of Kindah, and hence his pa-
tronymic Al-kindi, which the Latin writers
of the middle ages corrupted into Alchindus.
His father, Is'hdk, had bee^ Siihibu-sh-shor-
tah, or captain in the guards under the
khalifate of Al-muhdi, and that of his son
Hariin Ar-rashid. "When still young, Al-
kindi repaired to Baghdad, then the court
of Al-mamun, and devoted himself to the
study of the mathematical and philosophical
sciences, which that enlightened monarch
was then fostering in his states. He soon
became so learned in them, as to deseiTe
from his contemporaries the surname of
filosuf (the philosopher). Al-kindi wrote
upwards of two hundred different works on
philosophy, logic, music, geometry, arithmetic,
astronomy, medicine, &c., a list of which,
classed under different heads, may be seen
in the " Arabica Philosophorum Bibliotheca,"
published by Casiri, with a Latin trans-
lation.

The following were translated into Latin
during the middle ages : — 1. " De Tem-
porum Mutationibus, sive de Imbribus," which
was edited by Joannes Hieronymus a
Scalingiis, Paris, 1540, fol., and seems to
be an extract from a larger astronomical
work by Al-kindi. Another Latin translation
of this work had already appeared at Venice.
" Alkindus-Sophar Astrorum Indices, de
Pluviis et Ventis ac Aeris Mutatione." Venice,
1507, 4to. 2. " De Rerum Gradibus." Argento-
rati (Strassburg), 1531, fol. with the " Tacuini
Sanitatis," by EUuchasem el Imithar (Abu-1-
hasan Mokhtar ?) Medici de Baldath, and
the treatise " De A^irtutibus Medicinarum
et Ciborum," by Alben Gnefit (Ibn Wafid ?).
3. " De Medicinarum compositarum Gra-
dibus investigandis Libellus" (the subject of
which is the same with that treated in the
above); Venice, 1584, 8vo. ; besides former
editions of Venice, 1561 and 1603. He also
wrote " De Ratione sex Quantitatum ; de
Quinque Essentiis ; de Motu Diurno ; de Ve-
getalibus ; de Theoria Magicarum Artium ;"
which last work gave him the reputation of
being a magician, as happened with the best
natural philosophers of the middle ages. Ibn
Khaldun in his " Historical Prolegomena"
{Brit.Mus. No. 9574. fol. 189.) says, that Al-
kindi wrote for the Khalif Al-mamun a hook
entitled " Sefr," in which he predicted the rise
and fall of empires, the change of dj-nasties,
and other remarkable events. " The work,"
adds that author, " was kept with the greatest
care among the treasures of the khalifs ; but
on the taking of Baghdad by the Tartars
iinder Holagu, it perished together with
other invaluable treasures of literature."

ALCHINDUS.

ALCIATI.

(Casiri, Bib. Arab. Ilisp. Esc. i. 353. ; Abu-
1-faraj, Hist. Dtjn. 179.) P. de G.

ALCIA'TI, A'NDREA, a celebrated
lawyer in Milan, was born at Alzato in the
Milanese, on the 8th of May, 1492. He was
an only son ; his parents were noble, and his
father Ambrogio had held the office of de-
curion in Milan, and had been sent on one
occasion ambassador to Venice.

After studying the classics in Milan under
Giano Parrasio, he was sent in his fifteenth
year to study law at the university of Pavia,
where his teacher was Giasone Maino : he
afterwards went to Bologna, where he placed
himself under Carlo Ruino. In 1513, while
still a student, Alciati published a commen-
tary on the last three books of the Codex of
Justinian : he boasts in his preface that he
wrote it in the space of fifteen days. He
obtained the degree of doctor in 1514, and,
returning to Milan, practised as an advocate
for the next three years, and was, although
he had not attained the legal age, admitted
a member of the Collegio de' Giureconsulti.
The reputation acquired as a practising
lawyer, he increased by his publications.
His Paradoxes (" Paradoxorum Juris Civilis
Libri sex)," were published in 1517, and were
followed in 1518 by a work which he en-
titled " Prsetermissorum Libri duo," a kind
of scrap-book.

He was appointed, towards the close of the
same year, professor of civil law in the uni-
versity of Avignon, where he remained till
November, 1521. His first course of lectures
was attended by seven hundred pupils, and
Leo X. conferred on him the title of count
palatine of the Lateran. This promising
dawn was soon overcast : a pestilential disease
broke out in Avignon and frightened away
the students ; the municipal rulers wished
to reduce his salary, and paid it irregularly,
and Alciati returned to Milan.

In Milan he resumed the practice of the
law with such success that he was promoted
to a high office in the state, which however
he soon resigned, alleging that the discharge
of its duties interfered with his studies. He
was an inhabitant of Milan in 1524, how
much longer does not appear. He returned
to Avignon, and was called thence to fill a
chair of civil law in the university of Bourges
in the spring of 1528.

He remained at Bourges from 1528 to
1532. As usual, he soon grew tired of his
appointment, and intrigued for a professorship
in Bologna. He was retained at Bourges
however for the period mentioned, first by a
pension of three himdred crowns, which was
obtained for him from the King of France in
1530, and afterwards by flattering com-
pliments from the king and dauphin, each of
whom at different times attended one of his
lectures.

About the end of 1532 Alciati returned
to Itiily, Francesco Sforza, duke of Milan,
756

j having conferred upon him the appointment
of professor in Pavia, an annual salary of
fifteen hundred crowns, and the honorary
title of senator. He continued professor in
Pavia till 1537, when that district having
become the theatre of war, he was obliged to
suspend his lectures. Alciati's history during
the remaining eighteen j^ears of his life is
little more than an enumeration of his fre-
quent and fickle changes from one university
to another. He lectured on law four years
in Bologna, two in Pavia, four in Ferrara,
and three in Pavia. He died at Pavia in
1550, according to some on the 12th of
January, according to others on the 14 th of
February.

The frequency with which Alciati trans-
ferred his services from one university to
another marks a fickle character, but his
success in obtaining new appointments as
soon as he threw up the old implies the ex-
istence of a respect for his talents. This was
not owing to the justice or depth of his legal
knowledge, for his works are of the character
that might have been anticipated from the
precocious boy who boasted that he could
compose a commentary on three books of the
Codex in fifteen days. His deficiency in
legal attainments was detected both by the
university jurists and the practising lawyers
of his day : his admirers and supporters were
the men in high station who wished to shine
as patrons of literature. His recommendation
to them was a certain superficial readiness
and brilliancy. His conversational smart-
ness, carried into the professor's chair, earned
him the encomiums even of Erasmus ; but
time has not confirmed even the belles-lettres
reputation of Alciati.

The works of Alciati are more numerous
than valuable, yet have been often reprinted.
His law publications, his " Annotations on
Tacitus," his "Emblems," and some tracts on
antiquarian and philological subjects, are col-
lected in six volumes folio, published at Lyon
in 1560. This collection has been several
times reprinted. The most important of the
juridical works are commentaries on the
Digest, on some titles of the Codex, and
some tables of the Decretals : " Paradoxorum
Juris civilis Libri VI. ;" " De Verborum Obli-
gationibus ;" " De Appellationibus ; " " De Ver-
borum et Rerum Significatione ; " " De Ver-
borum Significatione Libri IV. ; " " Tractatus
de Prtcsumptionibus ;" " De singular! Cer-
tamine ;" "De Magistratibus, civilibusque et
militaribus Officiis Liber ; " " Dispunctionimi
Juris Libri IV. ; " " Parergorum Juris s.
obiter Dictorum Libri XII." His nephew and
heir, Francesco Alciati, afterwards cardinal,
caused a selection of his uncle's legal opinions
to be published : this appears to be the book
entitled " Responsa nunquam ante hac edita,"
published at Lyon in 1561, and frequently
reprinted. Zilettus has included several of
Alciati's dissertations in his great collection of

ALCIATI.

law tracts. The literary work of Aleiati which
has been most generally praised and most fre-
quently reprinted is his " Eniblemata," short
moral allegories in Latin verse, of which the
English reader may form a conception by
imagining Quarles's Emblems stripped of their
Calvinistic theology. He published a se-
lection of Latin epigrams, " Epigrammata se-
lecta ex Anthologia Latiua," and a glossary
to Plautus, along with an essay on his metres,
" De Plautinorum Carminum Ratione," an-
nexed to the Basil octavo edition of Plautus
in 1568. Aleiati left in MS. a history of
Milanese aiFairs, " Rerum Patriae, sen His-
toric Mediolanensis Libri IV., published at
Milan in octavo in 1625, and inserted in the
second part of Graevius's Thesaurus. A
number of his unpublished writings are pre-
served in various Italian libraries. (Mazzu-
cheUi, Scrittori d' Italia ; Andres Aleiati
Jurisconsulti Mediolanensis Commentaria et
Tractatus, Lugduni, 1560, fol. ; the Life of
Aleiati prefixed to the edition of his Em-
blemata, published by Claude Mignault in
1581.) W. W.

ALCIATI, FRANCESCO, born on the
1st of February, 1522, was nephew of Andrea,
educated by him, and left heir of the money
•which his penurions disposition had led him
to accumulate. After the death of his uncle
he was appointed professor of civil law in the
imiversity of Pavia. In -was his good fortune
in this capacity to become tutor to St. Carlo
Borromeo, who, fascinated by the elegant ac-
complishments of his preceptor, zealously pro-
moted his interests at the papal court. Called
to Rome by Pius IV., Francesco was appointed
referendary to the pontiff, and apostolic
nuncio to the king of Bohemia ; and then in
succession bishop of Aria, Clarmont, and
Civitate near Benevento. The last-mentioned
benefice was conferred upon him on the 5th
of September, 1561, and he held it till a short
time before his death. He was created car-
dinal, with the title of Santa Maria in Portico,
on the 12th of March, 1565. He held at dif-
ferent times several honorary and also several
lucrative appointments at court, among others
that of confessor to Pius V. He died on the
19th of April, 1580, leaving his nephew,
Cesare Aleiati, his heir. He published no-
thing of his own, but a MS. collection of
his private letters was preserved in the
Ambrosian library at Milan, and a IVIS. col-
lection of his legal opinions in the library of
the Visconti. He published a collection of
his uncle's legal opinions. (Mazzuchelli,
Scrittori d' Italia.) W. W.

ALCIATI, GIOVANNI PA'OLO, is
generally called a Milanese, but he says him-
self that his native country was Piedmont.
He was rich, of good family, and had borne
arms. "With a view to form or freely pro-
fess his opinions on religion, he withdrew
to Geneva, where he was admitted to the citi-
zenship, and attached himself to the Italian
757

Protestant refugees who from the year 1551
had formed a church in that place. In the
year 1558 the minister and elders of this
Italian church, remarking among its members
differences of opinion respecting the doctrine
of the Trinity, desired the council of Geneva
to permit them to prepare a particular con-
fession of faith to which every member of
their church should be obliged to subscribe.
This w^as levelled at the heretical opinions of
V. GentUe, G. Blandrata, and Aleiati. The
proposal of the Italian consistory commu-
nicated by Calvin to the council was con-
firmed, and after a conference of three hours'
duration between Calvin and such as had
any doubts upon the articles of faith thus
drawn up, they were signed on the 18th of
May, 1558, by the Italian Protestants with the
exception of six or seven individuals, who,
however, were induced to sign some time
afterwards through fear of being expelled
from Geneva. Bayle quotes the authoritj' of
Calvin to show that, among others, Aleiati
signed the formulary of the Italian church
at Geneva. But here a difiiculty occurs as to
the movements of Aleiati. Beza (letter 81.
and Life of Calvin) leaves it in doubt
whether Aleiati left Geneva before or after
the trial of GentUe in September 1558 was
concluded, and he attributes his leaving simply
to the stings of conscience (" solo mala con-
scientise \aihiere adactus"). The notes in
Spon's history of Geneva (edition of 17-30)
refer to a trial of Aleiati, to his being deprived
of his citizenship in the year 1559, and to
his being banished for life from the city and
territories of Geneva as a favourer of the
opinions of Servetus. On the other hand,
Peter Martyr, in a letter dated Ziirich, 1 1th of
July, 1558, informs Calvin that " Joannes
Paulus Pedemontanus," by which name
doubtless Aleiati is meant, had been seen
there, had been exhorted not to disturb the
unity of the church, and to conform to the
formulary of the Italian church at Geneva,
but without effect, and that he had been per-
suaded by Bullinger to leave Ziirich, and
had withdrawn to Chiavenna. And yet,
again, about the time at which Aleiati is thus
supposed to be withdrawing to Chiavenna,
he must have been employed in obtaining
the release of Gentile from prison in Gex,
where he had retired in 1558, and had begun
to spread opinions which had been condemned
at Geneva.

Aleiati and Blandrata at last went to
Poland, and were admitted to communion
with the Reformed churches there. After
a time heretical opinions respecting the
Trinity spread among these churches, though
checked by letters from Calvin and by dis-
sensions among the innovators themselves,
which in 1565 occasioned the resolution of
the diet of Petrikow, ordering them to sepa-
rate from the Reformed churches, and to form
a distinct congregation. Aleiati retired to

ALCIATI.

Danzig, where, after some years' residence,
he died. A small congregation of Socinians
subsisted secretly for some time after in Dan-
zig, but gradually died away. Its connection
with Alciati is not ascertained, nor are the
dates fixed of these late events in Alciati's
life. The " Bibliotheca Anti-Trinitariorum "
says that he wrote two letters to Gregorio
Pauli in 15(34 and 1565, dated from Hus-
terilts, in which he maintained that Jesus
Christ did not exist before he was born of
the Virgin. The dissensions in Poland had
been increased by Gentile, who was invited
thither by Alciati and Blandrata, and he is
represented by Beza (letter 81.) as charac-
terising Alciat as a ^lohammedan, and Blan-
drata as a Samosatenian. From the charge
of Mohammedanism, repeated by more than
one writer, Bayle has defended Alciati, and
says " it is certain Alciati's heresy was the
true Socinianism." Mosheim, while he says
" it is not easy to determine the particu-
lar charge against Alciati," concludes that
he " inclined to Arianism, and did not enter-
tain such low ideas of the person and dignity
of Jesus Christ as those that are adopted by
the Socinians." This would seem probable
from the evidence brought forward by Bayle
himself Nor does Mosheim allow that Al-
ciati can properly be called a Servetian, as is
usual with writers of the sixteenth century,
because he differed from Servetus in general
as well as upon his peculiar doctrines re-
specting the Trinity. (Bayle, Dictionnuire
Critique, voc. " J. P. Alciat," " V. Gentilis,"
" G. Blandrata;" Mosheim, Ecclesiastical
Histon/, book iv. chap. iv. sections 6, 7, 8.
and notes ; Spon, Histoire de Geneve, rectijiee
et augmentee, 1730, notes p. 303, 304.)

A. T. P.

ALCIA'TI, GIOVANNI PA'OLO, a na-
tive of Milan and a Jesuit, who was professor
of rhetoric in the society's college at Brera
in the Milanese, about the year 1724. He
published in that year a congratulatory address
to the Dominican monks on the election of
Benedict XIII., who was a member of their
order. (Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d' Italia.)

W. W.

ALCIA'TI, MELCHIORE, was the son of
Giovanni Paolo Alciati, a patrician of Milan,
and Francesca de' Conti Balbini. He was pro-
fessor of civil law at Pavia, and died, accord-
ing to Sitoni in December, 1613, according to
Piccinelli in 1618, at Torre de' Corvini. in
the territory of that city. He published a
treatise on the relative precedence of the great
feudataries of the empire, doctors of common
law, &c., entitled " De praecedentia inter feu-
datarium Ca>sarei, Pontificiinque Juris doc-
toreni, et feudatarium habentem annexatum
Comitatus et Marchiaj dignitatem. Ticini apud
Vianum," 1600, 4to. Four other juridical
treatises are attributed to him ; but the writers
who mention them do not state the time and
place of their publication, or give any clue to
758

their tenor. The titles are — " De acquirenda
Possessione;" " In Ca?sareas Constitutiones
Status Mediolani;" "De novi operis nuntia-
tione;" "De Ordine Graduum Status Me-
diolani." Some rhymes by Melchiore Alciati
are to be found in a little volume entitled
" Componimenti di diversi nel Dottorato
di Leggi dell' Abate Francesco Sorbellone.
In Pavia per gli Eredi de Girolamo Bartoli,"
1599, 8vo. (Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d' Italia.)

W. W.
ALCIA'TI, TERENZIO, born at Rome in
1570, descended from a noble and rich family
which was originally from Milan. In 1591
he entered the order of the Jesuits, and after-
wards taught philosophy during five years,
and divinity during seventeen years, at the Je-
suits' college in Rome. He subsequently be-
came studiorimi prsefectus at this college' and
held the ofiice during thirteen years, where-
upon he was appointed vice-praepositus of the
House of Profession at Rome. Esteemed by
the cardinals for his great learning, he was
appointed censor by the Sancta Congregatio
Sacri Ofiicii ; the Sancta Congregatio Rituum
chose him their consultor, and he became di-
rector of the Pcenitentiarise Vaticana;. In the
ninth general congregation of the Jesiuts,
Alciati was the deputy of the Roman province.
The general of the Jesuits chose him to pre-
side as vice-provincial over the assembly of
the Jesuits of the province of Rome, but he died
of apoplexy on the 12th of November, 1651,
at the moment when he was going to discharge
these functions. He is the author of several
works on divinity, which are written in Ita-
lian, and which he published under the name
of Eminius Tacitus. Alcgambe gives the
titles of them translated into Latin : " Vita
P. Petri Fabri primi Sociorum S. P. N. Ig-
natii. Romae, 1629, 8vo.:" this book is a
translation of the Latin work of Nicolaus Or-
landinus. " Oratio de Passione Dominus quam
habuit ad Clementem VIII., Anno 1602.
Romse, 1641, 12mo." Alciati was commis-
sioned by Pope LTrban VIIL to refute Sarpi,
the author of the " Istoria del Concilio Tri-
dentino," but death prevented him from ac-
complishing this work. However, he had col-
lected very valuable materials, of which Car-
dinal Pallavicini afterwards made use for his
" Istoria del Concilio di Trento." (Alegambe,
Bibl. Script. Sue. Jes. sub voc. " Terentius
Alciatus ; " Jocher, Alhjcm. Gelcrhten-Lexi-
con, sub voc. " Alciato.") W. P.

A'LCIBIADES ('AA/cigiaSTjs), son of Clei-
nias, an Athenian remarkable for his ability
as a soldier and statesman, for the great and
varied influence which he exercised over the
fortunes of Greece, and for the versatility
and splendour of his talents, was born about
B.C. 452-0, when Athens was rapidly rising
to its highest power. In early youth he
seemed marked out for distinction by the
most brilliant endowments of person, of
Station, and of intellect. Though high an-

ALCIBIADES.

cestry conferred no direct political privileges,
it was not iudift'erent in his own eyes, or
those of his fellow-citizens, that he descended
from the noblest families of Athens. By his
father's side he traced his ancestry into the
heroic ages, through Ajax up to Jupiter ; and
his mother Deinomache was one of the Alc-
mseonidac. He inherited one of the largest
fortunes of Athens, swelled by the savings of
a long minority ; and with his wife Hipparete,
daughter of Hipponicus, he received ten ta-
lents, the largest dowry that had been given
in Greece. His person was remarkable for
beauty, an advantage which he abused to
licentiousness. His powers of mind were
extraordinary, and he enjoyed peculiar
advantages in their cultivation ; being the
ward of Pericles, who was connected with
him on the mother's side, and the favourite
pupil and companion of Socrates. But his
great qualities were alloyed by a frivolity of
mind, shown in the importance which he
attached to pre-eminence and display, and in
a childish love of notoriety, which constantly
led him into wanton and offensive excesses.
And he is liable to the graver charge of an
intense selfishness, which postponed truth,
justice, and patriotism to self-aggrandizement,
or to the gratification of a headstrong will.
The advice which he is said to have given to
Pericles when at a loss in what palatable
shape to render his accounts to the state, may
be taken as an index of his character : " It
would be better to study how to avoid render-
ing them at all."

The life of Alcibiades by Plutarch begins
■with a long series of very amusing stories, to
which we can only refer. At the age of
eighteen, according to the Athenian law, he
attained his majority. In B.C. 432 he served
at the siege of Potidsea, in company with So-
crates, who there saved his life in battle. On
that occasion, the crown and suit of armour,
the prize of the most distinguished com-
batant, was awarded to Alcibiades, at the
instance of Socrates, to whom it appears to
have been more justly due. Eight years
later, at the battle of Delium, Alcibiades in
his turn saved the life of the philosopher.
Their intimacy has caused Alcibiades to fill
a prominent place in the dialogues of Plato.
They sought each other's society from widely
different motives : " Socrates saw in him
many elements of a noble character, which
might be easily perverted; abilities which
might greatly serve or fatally injure his
country ; a strength of will capable of the
most arduous enterprises, and the more dan-
gerous if it took a wrong direction ; an ar-
dent love of glory, which needed to be puri-
fied and enlightened ; and he endeavoured
to win all these advantages for truth, virtue,
and the public good. It was one of the best
tokens of a generous nature in Alcibiades
that he could strongly relish the conversation
of Socrates, and deeply admire his exalted
759

character, notwithstanding his repulsive ex-
terior, and the wide difference of station and
habits by which they were parted .... But
their intimacy produced no lasting fruits. It
was the immediate object of Socrates to mo-
derate the confidence and self-complacency of
Alcibiades, to raise his standard of excellence,
to open his eyes to his own defects, and to
convince him that he needed a long course of
inward discipline before he could engage
safely and usefully in the conduct of public
affairs. But Alcibiades was impatient to
enter on the brilliant career which lay before
him. The mark towards which his wise
monitor directed his aims, though he felt it
to be the most truly glorious, was not only
distant and hard to reach, but would probably
have diverted him from the darling objects
of his ambitious hopes. He feared to grow
old at the feet of Socrates, charmed into a
fine vision of ideal greatness, while the sub-
stance of power, honours, and pleasure slipped
away from his grasp. He forced himself
away from the siren philosophy which would
have beguiled him into the thraldom of reason
and conscience, that he might listen to the
plainer counsels of those who exhorted him
to seize the good which lay within his reach,
to give his desires their widest range, to cul-
tivate the arts by which they might be most
surely and easily gratified, and to place un-
bounded confidence in his own genius and
energy. Before he entirely withdrew from
the society of Socrates, he had probably begun
to seek it chiefly for the sake of that dialectic
subtlety which Socrates possessed in an un-
rivalled degree, and which was an instrument
of the highest value for his own purposes.
His estrangement from his teacher's train of
thinking and feeling manifested itself not so
much in the objects of his ambition as in the
methods by which he pursued them. It be-
came more and more evident that he had
lost not only all true loftiness of aim, but all
the sincerity and openness of an upright soul ;
and the quality which in the end stamped his
character was the singular flexibility with
which he adapted himself to tastes and habits
most foreign to his own, and assumed the
exterior of those whose good will he desired
to gain." (Thirlwall, Hist, of Greece, chap.
XX iv.)

To keep himself before the eyes of the
people suited both the temper and the policy
of Alcibiades. Many of his eccentricities
seem to have been directed to this end. He
served, like all Greek citizens, in the army,
and, as has been stated, with credit. He had
a powerful and persuasive eloquence, which
he used unscrupulously ; " flattering the
people in the mass," says Andocides, " and
despitefully using any individual." He la-
vished his wealth, sometimes in idle frolic or
prodigal magnificence, sometimes in a more
serious and well-considered splendour. " He
was not only liberal to profusion in the legal

ALCIBIADES.

and customary contributions with -which at
Athens the affluent charged themselves, as
well to provide for certain parts of the naval
service as to defray the expense of the public
spectacles, but aspired to dazzle all Greece at

the national games He contended at

Olynipia with seven chariots in the same
race, and won the first, second, and third, or
fourth crown, — success imexampled as the
competition. He afterwards feasted all the
spectators : and the entertainment was not
more remarkable for its profusion and for
the multitude of the guests than for the new
kind of homage paid to him by the subjects
of Athens. The Ephesians pitched a splendid
Persian tent for him ; the Chians furnished
provender for his horses ; the Cyzicenes, vic-
tims for the sacrifice ; the Lesbians, wine and

other requisites for the banquet Reflecting

men could not but ask whether any private
fortune could support such an expenditure, and
whether such honours were in harmony with
a spirit of civic equality." (Thirlwall, 76.)
And such a doubt might well be increased by
his light and fearless violations not only of
individual rights and persons but of the ma-
jesty of the public tribunals and of religion.
" At these things," says Plutarch, " the best
citizens of Athens were much offended, and
were afraid withal of his rashness and inso-
lency : " and he goes on to quote a passage
from iEschylus applied to Alcibiades by Ari-
stophanes, to the effect that a lion's whelp
should not be brought up in a city, but that
■whosoever rears one must let him have his
own way.

The family of Alcibiades had been con-
nected with Sparta by the respected tie of
hereditary hospitality. That tie, which had
been broken by his grandfather, Alcibiades
wished to renew, and to constitute himself
the head of the Spartan party. But the
Spartan government, jealous probably of his
temper and ignorant of his power, preferred
to retain their connection with Nicias, the
recognised leader of the aristocratic party ;
and thereon Alcibiades went over to the
opposite extreme. His first public measure
seems to have been a proposition for increas-
ing the tribute paid by the Athenian allies,
which was doubled in amount, he being one
of the commissioners appointed to effect the
change. This appears to have been before
the peace between Athens and Sparta,
B.C. 421. Soon after that peace he came
forward as the advocate of the democratic
party against the Spartan alliance ; and by a
clever and unscrupulous trick, in which he
outwitted the Spartan ministers, obtained the
enactment of a treaty of alliance with Argos,
Ells, and Mantineia (b. c. 420). This meant
little less than a declaration of hostilities
against Sparta, and soon led to open war.
In B. c. 419 Alcibiades was elected one of
the board of generals (strategos) ; and he
bore an active part in the complicated wars
760

and negotiations carried on in Peloponnesus
during the next three years, a period un-
marked by any leading events in his personal
history. He is however charged with having
been a leading agent in procuring the atro-
cious decree by which the male citizens of
Melos were put to death by the Athenians,
their lands occupied by Athenian settlei-s,
and their families enslaved ; a transaction
infamous in history under the name of the
Melian massacre.

At this time Alcibiades and Nicias were
the unquestioned leaders of the democratic
and aristocratic, the war and peace parties :
the latter desirous above all things to secure
by a good understanding with Sparta that
power and wealth which had grown up so
wonderfully in some sixty years ; the former
eager to extend them, and open new prospects
of conquest, gain, and glory to the young,
the needy, and that large class of citizens
who in one way or another were to be fed
at the public expense. The only man who
could be formidable to either was Hyperbolus,
Cleon's successor as leader of the lowest
class of citizens. He had the boldness to
threaten Alcibiades with ostracism, but was
himself banished under that strange law,
through the co-operation of the two leaders,
of whom Nicias hated him on political, as
heartily as Alcibiades on personal, grounds.
Soon after (b. c. 415) the cardinal event of
the war came under discussion, the inter-
ference of Athens with the affairs of Sicily.
That she did interfere was principally due to
Alcibiades, whose arguments are presumed
to be faithfully represented by Thucydides
in the speech ascribed to him (vi. 16 — 18.).
A powerful armament was voted, in the
command of which he was joined with Ni-
cias and Lamachus. But before it sailed, the
general exultation was damped by a strange
occurrence, never clearly explained. One
morning most of the Hermse (stone figures
of Mercury placed in the streets as .guardian
images) were found defaced. This was a
great sacrilege, and raised an extraordinary
commotion. Inquiry was made ; rewards
were offered to witnesses and informers ; and
finally, a charge of profaning the Eleusinian
mysteries, connected with the mutilation of
the HermEC and the existence of a plot against
the democracy, was brought against Alci-
biades. To the charge of profanation the
excesses of his youth gave colour : the rest
of it had not even plausibility. Alcibiades
begged for a trial before he was sent out in
so high a command. But his enemies had
the ear of the people, and it was not their
object to give him a fair hearing : it was
therefore voted that he should proceed with
the fleet, and return when summoned to
answer the things laid to his charge. On
reaching Sicily, those hopes of powerful
support by which the expedition had been
recommended were found to be futile. The

ALCIBIADES.

commanders differed in their views : finally,
those of Aleibiades were adopted. But be-
fore his talents eould tell, he was recalled to
stand his trial ; and trial, in the then temper
of the people, he held equivalent to condemn-
ation. He escaped on the voyage ; and, not
appearing, was pronounced accursed, and sen-
tenced to death with confiscation of property.

Whether or not Aleibiades was capable of
carrying to a prosperous issue the great hopes
with which the Sicilian expedition was un-
dertaken, his colleagues and successors proved
unequal to the task. [Nicias ; Demo-
sthenes.] He threw his talents into the
opposite scale, and appeared at Sparta as the
avowed enemy of his country. {Thucyd. vi.
89 — 92.) By his advice, a Spartan was given
to command the Syracusans, a very sparing
yet effectual aid; and a permanent station
was fortified and garrisoned by the Spartans
at Deceleia, a town of Attica, about fifteen
miles from Athens, to the great inconve-
nience and injury of that city. The total
loss of the Sicilian armament (b. c. 413)
gave new spirits both to the open enemies
and the discontented allies of Athens. By
the ready agency of Aleibiades, the is-
lands and Ionia were urged into revolt ;
and a treaty was concluded between Sparta
and Tissaphernes, satrap of Ionia, on terras
more favourable to the Pei'sian interests than
to the honour of Greece (b. c. 412). But
about this time the cordiality and unity of
purpose of Aleibiades and the Spartans de-
clined. By the annual change of magistrates,
a party unfriendly to him came into office :
and the king, Agis, hated him, believing
him to have seduced his wife, Timcea. This,
indeed, Aleibiades is said to have avowed,
intimating that he was governed not so
much by any preference for the lady as by
ambition that his posterity should fill the
throne of Sparta ; and it is a remarkable but
not solitary instance of the levity with which
he would let the indulgence of a whim cross
deep schemes of policy. In this and in other
respects he strikingly resembles a man much
inferior to himself, the second Duke of
Buckingham. According to the secret and
crafty policy of Sparta, the commander of
the army in Asia was instructed to get rid of
Aleibiades as a dangerous person. But he
was warned of the danger, and took refuge
with Tissaphernes, a Persian satrap.

Whatever party Aleibiades attached him-
self to, that party always seems to have taken
a start from that moment. Such had been
the case when he was driven fi-om Athens ;
such was now the case when he was driven
from Sparta. He soon estranged Tissa-
phernes from his new allies, made him re-
duce their pay, upon which the Spartan power
of maintaining a fleet greatly depended, and
led him to see that the policy of Persia was,
not to substitute the ascendancy of Sparta on
the coasts of Asia Minor for that of Athens,

\'OL. I.

but to preserve the one to counterpoise the
other. He fascinated Tissaphernes by his
unrivalled talents of social intercourse ; and
the notoriety of his favour, and belief in his
power, soon reached and made a deep im-
pression in the Athenian armament then
quartered at Samos. Of the rich Athenians
a large proportion was disgusted by the length
of the war, and by the pressure upon property
which it occasioned. One heavy burden was
the obligation of acting as trierarch, or cap-
tain of a ship, which involved a great expense
for the equipment of the vessel, and was com-
pulsory upon men of a certain fortune. An
influential party in the Samian armameut was
therefore well disposed to embrace the ad-
vantages consequent on the restoration of
Aleibiades, backed by the wealth of Persia :
and that he coupled his restoration with the
establishment of an oligarchy, professing that
he could not feel secure so long as the govern-
ment rested in the party which had banished
him, was probably an additional inducement
to further his plans. A deputation was sent
to Athens headed by Pisander, who speedily
obtained a decree by which he with ten others
was authorised to negotiate with Tissa-
phernes and Aleibiades. But nothing was
effected, in consequence of the excessive
demands of Aleibiades, who appears to have
resorted to that method of concealing the
truth, that his influence was not sufficient to
induce the satrap to break absolutely with
the Peloponnesians. Meanwhile that revo-
lution at Athens still proceeded which lodged
(B.C. 411) the sovereign power in the council
of Four Hundred. But the temper of the Sa-
mian armament was changed. Thrasybulus
and Thrasyllus, officers of subordinate rank,
but men of talent, had gained a command-
ing influence in the absence of the leading
oligarchists. An oath to support the demo-
cracy was imposed upon persons suspected of
favouring the new government ; and Alei-
biades was recalled by a vote of the soldier-
citizens, who, in the abeyance of the con-
stitution, claimed the sovereignty as vested
in their assembly. His first action was an
important benefit to his country, inasmuch as
he prevented the army from returning to
Athens to restore the constitution by civil
war. And in the course of the same year
which had witnessed the revolution, the
Four Hundred were overthrown without the
agency of the army ; the sovereign power
was vested in a selected body of five thousand
citizens ; and Aleibiades and other exiles were
recalled.

His promises to bring the gold of Persia to
relieve the Athenian exchequer proved vain :
as Tissaphernes had deserted the Peloponne-
sian, so now he deserted the Athenian interest.
But under the command of Aleibiades a suc-
cession of brilliant victories — at Oynossema
and Abydos (b. c. 411); at Cyzicus (b. c.
410) ; in the two following years the acqui-
3 D

ALCIBIADES.

sitlon of Chalcedon and Byzantium ; the
renewal of Athenian supremacy throughout
the Hellespont and Propontis, whereby the
control of the Euxine, and a lucrative re-
venue derived from tolls levied on ships
passing through the straits, were secured ; — ■
all these successes testified the ability with
which the affairs of Athens were now con-
ducted. Four years after his recall (b. c.
407), Alcibiades for the first time since his
banishment returned to Athens : he was
enthusiastically received ; his property was
restored ; the records of the proceedings
against him were sunk in the sea ; the curse
publicly laid on him was as solemnly re-
voked; and he was appointed commander-
in-chief of the forces by land and sea. He
signalised his abode in Athens, where he
staid four months, by conducting the annual
procession to celebrate the mysteries at Eleu-
sis ; a ceremony which had been discontinued
since the occupation of Deceleia. Returning
to the scene of war, his first action was an
unsuccessful attempt on the island of Andros.
Soon after, while the fleet was quartered at
Notium, near Ephesus, a general engagement
was brought on, in his absence and against
liis express orders, by the rashness of his lieu-
tenant, Antiochus ; when the Peloponnesian
fleet, commanded by Lysander, gained the
advantage. This, though attended with no
material loss, was enough to disgust the
Athenians, who seem to have considered Al-
cibiades' past successes only as giving them
a claim on him for more brilliant exploits.
It was urged that the wealth of the state was
squandered upon himself and his favourites ;
and the luxurious indulgence of his habits
gave plausibility to the charge. He was su-
perseded, and thereon retired to his estates
in the Thracian Chersonese, on which, in
anticipation of such an event, he had built a
castle, thinking it unsafe to return to Athens.
Formerly, when he made his escape on being
recalled from Sicily, he is reported to have
replied to the question, whether he did not
dare trust his country ? " In everything else ;
but as to my life, not even my mother, lest
by mistake she should put in a black ball
for a white." The same mistrust influenced
him now, and that it was a just one is shown
by the proceedings which very shortly en-
sued upon the battle of Arginusa;.

Here ends the public life of Alcibiades. He
held no further office ; and the only thing
recorded of him is that he endeavoured by
his advice, being then resident on the spot,
to prevent the final defeat of the Athenians
at jEgos-potami, B. c. 405. After the capture
of Athens and the establishment of the ty-
ranny of the Thirty he was condemned to
banishment. Not thinking himself safe in
Thrace, he passed into Asia, and was honour-
ably received by Pharnabazus. He was about
to visit the court of Persia, or probably had
begun his journey, apparently with the hope
762 ' I

I of gaining over Artaxerxes to help in the
enfranchisement of Athens, when the house
; in which he slept was surrounded at night
[ by a band of men, who set it on fire, and
j when he rushed out sword in hand, (for no
[ one, says Plutarch, awaited his onset,) de-
spatched him with missiles, b. c. 404. The
authors of this deed are unknown . it is charged
; severally upon the jealousy of Pharnabazus,
the fear and hatred of the Spartan govern-
ment, and the revenge of a noble family,
one of whose sisters he had seduced. Al-
cibiades left a son of the same name, of no
repute or eminence, and a fortune which,
contrary to public expectation, proved smaller
than his patrimony. From the terms of the
statement we may infer that his patrimony
had not been greatly diminished, which is
quite as surprising. (Thucydides; Xenophon,
Hellen. ; Plutarch, Alcibiades ; Thirlwall's
Hist, of Greece, vols. iii. and iv.) A. T. M.
A'LCIBIADES, one of the Christian
martyrs at Lyon, a.d. 177, concerning whom
the following story is related by Eusebius
(Hist. Ecc. V. c. 3.), from the epistle of the
churches at Vienne and Lyon, which was
written at the time. Alcibiades, being an
ascetic, lived only upon bread and water.
While the martyrs were in prison, one of
them, named Attains, declared that it had
been revealed to him that Alcibiades did
wrong in not using the creatures of God, and
was therein an occasion of scandal to other
Christians. Upon this Alcibiades partook of
any kind of food indifferently, giving God
thanks, according to that which is written,
1 Tim. iv. .3, 4. P. S.

ALCI'DAMAS ('AAKiSa^ar), a native of
Etea, a city of iEolis in Asia Minor. He
was a pupil of Gorgias and a contemporary
of Isocrates, whose life extended from B.C.
436 to B.C. 338. He wrote a treatise on
Rhetoric, a panegyric on Death, and a few
other works of which only the titles are pre-
served. There are extant under the name of
Alcidamas two orations or rhetorical essays
entitled respectively 'OSuo-cret'j )) Kara Xla\a-
/jiiiSovs TTpoSoaias, " Ulysses, or against Pala-
medcs for treachery," and Ufpl tS>v tovs ypa-
TTTohs \6yovs ypacpovrwv •!) iripl Xo(pi(TTwv, " On
those who make written discourses, or on So-
phists." The first is a frigid rhetorical effort,
in which Ulysses is made to appear as the
accuser of Palamedes, whose treachery to the
Greek cause at the siege of Troy is the sub-
ject of the speech. The second is written in
disparagement of those who delivered written
discourses : it is said that such persons know
nothing of rhetoric and philosophy. This
oration contains many commonplace and
trivial remarks mixed up with some that are
sufliiciently pertinent and true. The remarks
in the seventh chapter on the great superi-
ority of an extemporary speech over a written
discourse pronounced from memory, are good.
Tzetzes speaks of having read many orations

ALCIDAMAS.

ALCIMUS.

of Alcidamas ; and he adds that Alcidamas
foiiiul fault with Isocratcs, a statement wliich
may either be grounded on this oration on the
Sojjhists, or may be derived from independent
evidence. The laborious diligence of Iso-
crates and his practice of composing written
discourses point him out as precisely one of
the class against whom the oration is aimed.
It is however doubtful if these orations are the
genuine work of Alcidamas. Of the two the
second has the more merit.

These two orations were first printed in
the collection of Greek Orators by Aldus
Manutius, Venice, 1513; they are also con-
tained in Reiske's edition of the Greek Ora-
tors, 1774 ; and in Bekker's Attic Orators,
1823. They were translated into French by
Auger, 1781, 8vo., and into German by Dil-
thev, 1827, 4to. (Fabricius, Bibliotlt. Grcec.
ii. 776.) G. L.

ALCI'MACHUS, a Greek painter of un-
certain age. He probably lived about the
time of Alexander the Great. He was cele-
brated for a picture of the victory of the fa-
mous Athenian Pancratiast Dioxippus, who, at
the Olympic games, contended naked with
a Macedonian completely armed, and van-
quished him. (Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxxv. 13.)

R. N. W.

ALCIMENES ('AAki^eVtjs), a comic poet
of Athens, who appears to have been a con-
temporary of jEschylus. Beyond this cir-
cumstance, which is inferred from the fact
that Tynnichus, a younger contemporary of
jEschylus, was a great admirer of the works
of Alcimenes, nothing is known about him.
The name of one of his plays has been made
out by conjecture in the following manner.
Among the works of the lyric poet Alcman,
Suidas mentions one called " The Female
Swimmers" (Ko\vix§waai). This poem, which
appears to have been a drama, is ascribed by
PtolemjEus Hephtcstion to Alcraanes, which
some writers consider to be a mistake for
Alcmaeon, that is, Alcman. But in the same
page of Hephaistion, "the Female Swimmers"
is ascribed to Alcimenes, which is therefore
the name which, as some critics think, is to
be substituted in the other passage for Alc-
manes. This play, if it was one, must have
had great merits, as Tynnichus is said to
have been so fond of it that he would not
part from it even at night. (Suidas, \.'A\ki-
fi.ivt]s and 'A\K/j.dv ; Ptolema-us Hephaest.
p. 30., ed. Roulez ; Bode, Geschichte der
drawn t. Dirlitfiinist der Hellevcn, ii. 171, &c.)
Suidas also mentions a tragic writer of the
name of Alcimenes, whom he calls a native
of Megara. (^leineke, Historia Critica
Comicorum Gra-corum, p. 481, &c.) L. S.

AL'CIMUS ('AXki/uos), called also Jacimus
or Joachim ('Ia/cei;uos), a high priest of the
Jews in the time of Judas Maccabseus. He
was of the race of the priests, but not entitled
to tlie dignity of high priest. In the per-
secution of Antiochus Epiphanes he aposta-
7G3

tized, and was afterwards made high priest
by Demetrius Soter (b. c. 1.59). According
to Josephus he had been already appointed
to that office by Antiochus. He was esta-
blished in his office by means of an army
which Demetrius sent under Bacchides into
Judaea, but he soon disgusted the Jews by
his treacherous cruelty, in putting to death a
large party of his opponents, who had gone
to him under a promise of safe conduct. In
a very short time the successes of Judas
Maccaba?us compelled Alcimus to leave
Juda;a. He went to Demetrius, and induced
him to send another aiTny against Judas
under Nicanor, which was entirely defeated
at Capharsalama. A third army, composed
of the choicest troops of Syria, was sent into
Juda?a under Bacchides and Alcimus ; Judas,
who had merely a handful of men with him,
was defeated and slain, and Alcimus was
again established at Jerusalem, where he
died very shortly afterwards, from a stroke
of palsy which came upon him while he was
in the act of pulling down the wall of the
Temple, which divided the court of the Gen-
tiles from the court of the Israelites (b. c.
159, 160.) (1 Maccabees, vii. ix. ; Josephus,
Jewish Antiq. xii. c. 9. § 7.) P. S.

A'LCIMUS ALE'THIUS, a Latin writer
of the fourth century. He was a rhetorician,
and taught at Burdigala, now Bordeaux, as
we learn from Ausonius, who addressed
him in a strain of the highest compliment in
his " Commemoratio Professorum Burdiga-
lensium." He is noticed also by Jerome,
who, in his Chronicle ad Ann. Christi 360,
mentions him as one of the first rhetori-
cians and teachers in Aquitania; and by C.
Sidonius Apollinaris (Epist. lib. v. ep. 10. ;
lib. viii. ep. 11.) as having been a teacher of
rhetoric at Nitiobriges (now A gen), and a
man of nervous eloquence. His name writ-
ten at length appears to have been Latinus
Alcimus Avitus Alethius. The only remains
of him are seven short poems, which, consi-
dering the age in which he lived, are re-
markable for their elegance. They are given
by Meyer in his " Anthologia veterum I^a-
tinorum Epigrammatum et Poematum," 2
vols. 8vo. Leipzig, 1835. From an expres-
sion of Ausonius that the writings of Alci-
mus conferred more honour on the Emperor
Julian than the imperial dignity, and more
honour on Sallust (prefect of Gaul) than the
consulship, it has been supposed that he com-
posed a history of his own time ; but this
conjecture rests on no solid foundation, and
it is more likelj- that he had celebrated them
in some rhetorical panegyrics. (Wernsdorf,
Poeta Latini Minores ; Meyer, Anthologia.)

J. C. M.

ALCI'NOUS ('AAKiVoys), a Platonic phi-
losopher whose period is uncertain. It seems
most probable that he lived under the early
Roman emperors. He wrote an introduction
to the philosophy of Plato, under the title of
3 D 2

ALCINOUS.

ALCIPHRON.

'EiriTO^Tj ?) SiSacrKaAiK^i/ Twu nAdrcovoj Soy-
^uaraic, " An Epitome or Manual of the Doc-
trines of Plato : " in the editions the title is
given with some variations. This introduc-
tion is sometimes described as perspicuous
and elegant, but it has little value as an ex-
position of the Platonic doctrines. The Pla-
tonists of this period, such as Albiniis, Alci-
nous, and Maximus Tyrius, lived at a time
in which we must not expect to find a correct
and complete exhibition of Plato's philosophy.
The work of Alcinous is an instance of the
practice of the later philosophers of ascribing
to the founders of their schools the notions of
those who came after them. Among other
instances mentioned by Ritter, we find Alci-
nous attributing to Plato an acquaintance
with all the forms of the syllogism, because
he uses them ; an inference which leads us
to form a low opinion of the writer's philo-
sophical talent. That somewhat of the spirit
of Plato should pervade those who made his
works their study, may be reasonably ex-
pected. Thus Alcinous declares that God
cannot be known in and by himself, and that
there is no mode of expression for his nature ;
we can only attempt by negations or ana-
logies, or by ascending from the lower to the
highest, to form for ourselves the illimitable
idea of God.

Alcinous represents the Soul of the Uni-
verse (v ^vxv •'■ov k6ij}xov) as always existing,
and not created by God, who only fashions it
and calls it into activity, that by the contem-
plation of him it may receive the forms and
ideas of his thoughts. Thus the idea viewed
with reference to God is the knowledge of
him, with reference to man it is the first ob-
ject of knowledge, with respect to matter
(uAtj) it is its measure, with respect to the
world of sense it is an example or instance,
and with respect to itself it is an essence
{ohffia). (Ritter, Geschichte der Philosophie,
iv. 249, &c.)

Alcinous first appeared in the Latin version
of Pietro Balbi which was published at Rome
with Apuleius, 1469, fol. The Greek text
was first printed in the Aldine edition of
Apuleius, 1521, 8vo. The latest print of the
Greek text is by J. F. Fischer, Leipzig, 1783,
8vo., in his edition of four dialogues of Plato :
the text of Fischer is from the edition of
Alcinous which is at the end of the second
edition of Maximus Tyrius by D. Heinsius,
Leyden, 1614, 8vo. It was translated into
French by J. J. Combes-Dounous, Paris,
1800, 8vo. ; and into English by Stanley in
his History of Philosophy.

Another Alcinous, of whom nothing is
known, is the author of some Latin epigrams
which are printed in Burmann's Anthologia
Latina. G L.

ALCrONIO PIETRO. [Alcyoxius.]

A'LCIPHRON ('AXK:i(/>pw), a rhetorician
or sophist, whose age can onlj- be conjectured
from his writings, which are among the few
764

extant specimens of Greek epistolary compo-
sition. He appears to have been an imitator
of Lucian, without, however, approaching
the freedom and purity of his model ; and if,
as some have thought, he is himself imitated
by Aristsenetus, we have only to fix his date
between the two, a. d. 150 and 350 (?).
His epistles may be divided into four classes,
Piscatory, Amatory, Parasitic, Rustic,
and are chiefly valuable as exhibiting a
picture of domestic manners. It is how-
ever doubtful if the letters represent the
manners of the age of Alciphron ; they are
considered by some critics as merely a piece
of patchwork made up of shreds of former
writers. The style is deformed by a per-
petual affectation of minute Atticisms, to
which the good keeping of the characters
is sacrificed : peasants and fishermen speak
and write with the art of Demosthenes and
Lysias. The utmost praise which can be
conceded to him is that of a certain naivete
or point ; he had thoroughly imbibed the
spirit of the new comedy, and makes tis
pleasantly acquainted with the courtezans
and parasites of Greece. The first edition
of Alciphron, comprising only forty-four
epistles, is in the collection of Aldus Manu-
tius, Venice, 1499, 4to. They were edited
by Bergler, Leipzig, 1715-1718, who added
twenty-eight letters, and by Wagner, Leipzig,
1798. The letters of Alciphron were trans-
lated into French by the Abbe de Richard,
with notes, Amsterdam and Paris, 1785,
3 vols. 12mo., and into English by Munro
and Beloe, London, 1791. In 1801, Bast
published an inedited epistle of Alciphron.

Alciphron, the philosopher of Magnesia on
the Mseander, mentioned bj' Athenajus (i. 31.
ed. Casaub.) is supposed to have been a dis-
tinct person, chiefly, it would seem, on the
ground that it is difficult to suppose a philo-
sopher to be author of such epistles. (Wag-
ner, Prcfat. in Alciph. Epist. ; Fabricius,
BibUoth. GrcEc. i. 588.) B. J.

ALCrSTHENE, a female of uncertain age
and country, mentioned by Pliny as having
attained distinction in painting ; he notices
particularly a picture of a " dancer " by her.
{Hist. Nat. XXXV. 40.) R. N. W.

ALCM.EON ('AA/f/Ltaioir), a very celebrated
natural philosopher of antiquity, was the son
of Pirithus, and a native of Crotona. He was
a pupil of Pythagoras, and must have lived
therefore in the sixth century before Christ.
According to Chalcidius {Comment, in Plat.
Tim. p. 368. ed. Fabric), he was the first per-
son who dissected human bodies ; but this
fact is doubted by Le Clerc and Sprengel,
among other reasons, because he was a Py-
thagorean, and therefore had an especial
horror of dead bodies. He is therefore ge-
nerally supposed to have confined his dissec-
tion to animals ; but even this was a most
important step, and a great improvement on
the method of learning anatomy by the ca-

ALCM.l^ON.

ALCM.'EONID^E.

sual inspection of victims offered in sacrifice,
the dressing of wounds, &c. He is supposed
to have discovered the Eustachian Tube, as
Aristotle mentions, in order to correct, his
statement that goats breathe through their
ears. {Hi.st.Aiiim. lib. i. cap. 9. §1. ed. Tauch.)
This would seem to prove that he had ob-
served the canal leading from the ante-
rior and inner part of the tympanum to the \
fauces ; and, if we suppose that in the animal '
which he dissected, the membrana tjTnpani
had been accidentally destroyed, we may
easily account for his strange assertion. He
supposed the reasoning portion of the soul to
be situated in the brain, according to the
doctrine of his master Pythagoras. He thought
that the sense of hearing was caused by the
vacuum in the ear, into which the external
air penetrates, because all hollow bodies are
sonorous ; smell he attributed to respiration ;
and taste he supposed to be owing to the
softness, moistness, and heat of the tongue.
He considered that the first part of the body
that was formed in the embryo was the head,
as being the seat of the reason ; and that the
foetus did not receive its nourishment by the
mouth or by the umbilical cord, but that
the whole surface of its body absorbed the
nutritive juices like a sponge. He is also
the earliest author who has left a theory con-
cerning sleep, which takes place, according
to him, when the blood retreats into the
larger vessels, and ceases when this fluid ,
again disperses itself over the whole body; [
when, however, there is a complete stagna-
tion, death ensues. Nothing remains of his
works except the titles of a few of them. He
is said by Diogenes Laertius (De Vit. Philo-
soph. lib. viii. c. 5.) to have been the earliest
writer on natural philosophy (jpvcnKhs x6yos),
and by St. Isidorus Hispalensis ( Or/jf. lib. i.
c. 39.) to have invented fables {fabida).
(Le Clerc, Hist, de la Medecine ; Fabricius,
Bibltotheca Graca, xiii. 48. ed. vet. ; Sprengel,
Hist, de la Medecine ; C. G. Kiihn, De Philo-
soph. ante Hippocr. Medicina Cidtor. in Acker-
mann's Opuscula ad Historiam Medicina per-
tinentia, Norimb. 1797, 8vo., and in Kiihn's
Opuscula Academica Medica et Philologica,
Lips. 1827, 1828, 2 vols. 8vo.) W. A. G.

ALCMiEO'NID^i; {'AKKnatuvlBai), one of
the most illustrious among the Eupatrid
(noble) families of Athens. It traced its
pedigree to Alcmajon, who, being expelled
by the Dorians from the Messenian Pylus,
migrated to Athens about the year B.C. 1100.
Down to the end of the Peloponnesian war,
there were members of this family who exer-
cised the greatest influence in Athens. Me-
gacles, the sixth of the archons for life, and
Alcmseon, the last of their number, are called
Alcmffionids, but as the ofiice of archon for
life, according to all accounts, belonged ex-
clusively to the descendants of Medon, it has
been supposed that Megacles and Alcmteon
were connected with the Alcmsconids merely
765

on their mother's side. The first historical
personage who was certainly an Alcmtconid
is the archon Megacles, who, in the year b.c.
612, in his zeal for the aristocracy of Athens,
in conjunction with his associates, murdered
Cylon in the sanctuary of the dreaded god-
desses (Eumenides). Alcmaon, the son of
this Megacles, performed some kind services
to the ambassadors whom Croesus, king of
Lydia, had sent to Delphi to consult the
oracle, and when Croesus was informed of
this, he invited Alcma;on to Sardis. In
order to reward his friend, the king per-
mitted him to take from the royal treasury
as much gold as he could carry at once. The
greedy Athenian put on a wide vest, and the
largest boots he could find, and after having
filled every part of his dress, he even covered
his hair with gold dust. The king, on seeing
the contrivance of Alcmajon, burst into a fit
of laughter, and not only allov.ed him to
keep the treasure with which he had loaded
himself, but gave him, in addition, as much
again. This circumstance is considered by
Herodotus as the foundation of the wealth
for which the Alcmajonids were subsequently
distinguished ; and he adds that henceforth
Alcmfeon kept chariots and four, with which
he gained a victory in the Olympic games,
perhaps the first that was ever won by
an Athenian citizen. Two generations later
the wealth of the house of the Alcma?onids
, received a further increase through the mar-
riage of Megacles, the son of Alcma?on, with
I Agariste, the daughter of Cleisthenes, of
Sicyon. [Megacles.] The sons of this
I Megacles were Cleisthenes, the reformer of
: the Attic constitution, [Cleisthenes,] and
I Hippocrates. The latter became the father
of Megacles, the father of Isodice, who was
married to Cimon, and of Agariste, the wife
of Xanthippus and mother of Pericles. The
son of the reformer Cleisthenes was hkewise
: a Megacles, whose daughter Dinomache was
j married to Cleinias and became the mother
I of Alcibiades. (Pausanias, ii. 18. 7. ; Hero-
dotus, vi. 125, 126. ; Isocrates, De Bigis,
c. 10. ; Plutarch, Cimon, 4.; Boeckh, Ad Pin-
1 dari Pijth. vii. 300, &c.) L. S.

ALCMAN ('AAHT/^ay), the lyric poet of
Sparta, was originally a Lydian of Sardis,
and for some time a slave in the house of
Agesidas, a Spartan. He was however sub-
sequently emancipated, though it is not pro-
bable that he gained the full rights of Spartan
citizenship. In one of the fragments (No. 11.)
of his poetry, still extant, he makes a chorus
of virgins say of himself "that he was no
man of rough and unpolished manners, no
Thessalian or ^"Etolian, but sprung from the
lofty Sardis." The statement of Siudas that
he was of Messoa, one of the districts of
Sparta, is incorrect, or only means that the
residence of his old master was situated
there. According to the ancient chrono-
logists, by some of whom he is called
3 D 3

ALCMAN.

AI.CMAN.

Alcmseon, lie lived about b. c. 671 — 631,
aud was a contemporary of the Lydian king
Ardys. This period agrees with the state-
ment in Suidas, that he was older than
Stesichorus and the preceptor of Ari ^n ;
and there are some allusions in his extant
poems which refer to the same age : con-
sequently he lived at a time when music had
already been improved by the Spartan poets
Thaletas and Terpander, and when the Spar-
tans themselves, after the successful termi-
nation of the first Messenian war, had both
leisure aud inclination for the arts and re-
finements of life. From some of the frag-
ments of his poetry it would appear that he
devoted hhnself to the cultivation of poetic
art, and invented some new metrical forms.
In one of these fragments he thus expresses
himself : " Come, muse, clear -voiced muse,
lead off for the maidens with a song of varied
melody in a new form ;" and he elsewhere
alludes to the originality of his various me-
tres. Hence, according to the Latin metrical
writers, several different forms of verses
were known by the name of " Alcmanica
metra." The poetry which he composed was
generally choral, and consisted of Parthenia,
or songs sung by choruses of virgins, besides
hymns to the Gods, Pteans, prosodia or proces-
sional songs, and bridal hymns. These were
generally sung or represented by choruses of
young men or maidens, who however were
not, as in the choral odes of Pindar, invaria-
bly identified with the character of the poet,
nor the mere organ by which he expressed
his thoughts and feelings. On the contrary,
many of Alcman's parthenia contain a
dialogue between a chorus of virgins and the
poet, an'l in most cases the virgins speak in
their own persons. Still he was both the
leader and teacher of his choruses ; and
sometimes we meet with addresses of the
maidens to the poet, sometimes of the poet
to the maidens joined with him. In one
beautiful fragment written in iambics he
thus addresses them : '■ No more, ye honey-
tongued, holy-singing virgins, are my limbs
able to bear me ; would that I were a
Cerylus, which with the halcyons skims the
foam of the waves with fearless breast, the
sea-blue bird of spring." Alcman was also
noted for erotic poems, of which he was by
some considered the first Greek writer, and to
the licentious spirit of which his character was
said to correspond. ( Athenseus, xiii. 600. ed.
Dind.) These were probably sung by a single
performer to the cithara. Another species of
his compositions was the clepsiambic, con-
sisting partly of singing and partly of com-
mon discourse, the accompaniment of which
was an instrument similarly named. (Hesy-
chius, s. V.) In this, as well as in other
forms of his poetry, he is thought to have
imitated an older poet, Archilochus. The
metre of the peculiar anapaestic verses (e/xSa-
TTifita), sung by the Spartans as they advanced
766

to battle, was also attributed to Alcman ; but
we cannot from this infer that he composed
war-songs, for there is no trace of it in any of
his fragiuents, nor anything corresponding in
the general character of his poetry: and
though he made use of the anapjcstic metre, it
was only in connection with other rhythms,
and iiOt in the same way as the war-poet Tyr-
t£Eus. It appears, then, that the compositions
of Alcman were somewhat varied in metre
and poetic character, as they were in dialect.
This variety may in some measure be at-
tributed to his blending the characteristics of
the Phrygian poetry and music with those
of the Laconian, as well as to his imitation
of Archilochus, Terpander, and Thaletas.
He is generally considered as the first poet
who imparted to the Spartan dialect any
grace and polish, and so far modified its
peculiar asperities as to make it suitable for
poetry. (Pausan. iii. 15.) This dialect how-
ever does not in his poems appear in its
genuine state, though many Spartan idioms
are found in them, but rather with such an
admixture of the language of epic poetry,
that it forms a poetical diction, based indeed
upon the peculiarities of the Spartan language,
but elevated and refined by the union of
other elements. These peculiarities how-
ever are not equally striking in all Alcman's
compositions ; they are most prominent and
frequent in fragments of a joyous and hearty
character, which pourtray his own way of
life, and hie fondness for eating and drinking,
to which he was much addicted ; so much so
in fact that he is described as the " gourmand
Alcman" (o va^Kpayos 'AAKfidv, Athen. x.
416.) But even in his poems of this description
there is a mixture of the iEolic dialect, for
which some persons account by the fact that
lyric poetry was in lOduced into Peloponnesus
by an /Eolian of Lesbos, called Terpander.
In the remaining fragments the dialect has but
a slight tinge of the Doric, and resembles the
epic, especially in the hexametric poems, and
others of a dignified and stately character.
The strophes of his choral compositions con-
sist partly of verses of different kinds, and
partly of repetitions of the same kind ; but
there are no instances in which a strophe and
antistrophe occur in connection with an
epode or third strophe, as was usual in the
later choral poetry of Greece. Some of his
odes consist of fourteen strophes with an
alteration in the metre after the seventh,
which was probably connected with a change
in the character and ideas of the poetry.

The extant fragments of Alcman, though
some of them are very beautiful, scarcely
warrant the admiration which the ancients
have expressed of him ; but this may be from
their extreme shortness, or because they arc
very unfavourable specimens. They are
however distinguished by lively conceptions
of nature, and abound in those personifications
of the inanimate which charactei-ised the

ALCMAN.

ALCOCK.

earliest Greek poetry : thus the dew (in
Greek, Ilersa) is called by him the daughter
of Zeus and Selene, of the God of heaven
and the moon. Miiller {Literature of Greece,
p. 197.) thus speaks of him: "He is re-
markable for simple and cheerful views of
human life, connected with an intense en-
thusiasm for the beautiful in whatever age
or sex, especially for the grace of virgins.
A corrupt, refined sensuality neither belongs
to the age in which he lived nor to the cha-
racter of his poetry ; and although perhaps
he is chiefly conversant M-ith sensual existence,
yet indications are not wanting of a quick
and profound conception of the spiritual."
We may however observe that the terms in
which the ancients spoke of the licentiousness
of Alcman's erotic poetry are so strong that
we cannot well acquiesce in such a favourable
representation of it. According to Plutarch
and other writers Alcman died of the same
kind of disease as Sulla, the morbus pedi-
cularius. The Fragments of Alcman were
first printed in H. Stephens' collection of the
poems of the nine chief lyric poets, Paris,
IG.iO, 8vo. The last edition is by F. T.
Welcker, Giessen, 1815, 4to. (Pausanias, iii.
15. 2. ; Suidas, Alcman ; Eusebius, Chron.
Armen. Ohjmp. 30. 4. ; Pliny, Hist. Nat. xi.
3.3. ; Plutarch, Sulla, c. 36. ; Clinton, Fast.
Hell. i. 189. 195.) R. W— n.

ALCO, or ALCON, a statuary of whose
date and country there is no notice in any
ancient writer. He was the author of a
statue of Hercules, of iron, at Thebes. He
is said to have made choice of this material
in allusion to the hardy patience of the god
he had to represent. Alco probably lived
in the earlier ages of sculpture, and some
antiquaries have placed him in the eighth
century before Christ. (Pliny, Hist. Nat.
xxxiv. 14.) R. W, jun.

ALCOCK, REV. GILBERT, a puritan
clergyman, who was silenced for noncon-
formity. All that is known of him is that on
the 3d of April, 1671, he presented a petition
to the convocation on behalf of himself and
other sufferers for nonconformity, in which
he alleges that the ceremonies retained in the
Church of England are the causes of stumbling
to Christians, of dishonour to God, and of
joy to wicked men Concerning the treat-
ment to which nonconformist ministers were
subjected, he says, — " If a minister preach
true doctrine and live virtuously, yet omit the
least ceremony for conscience sake, he is im-
mediately indicted, deprived, cast into prison,
and his goods wasted and destroyed ; he is
kept from his wife and children, and at last
excommunicated, even though the articles
brought against him be ever so false." But
on the other hand, — " Those who observe
your ceremonies, though they be idolaters,
common swearers, adidterers, or much worse,
live without punishment and have many
friends."

767

The above passages are quoted by Brook
from a copy of the petition in the " MS.
Register" of Mr. Roger Maurice, a very
valuable document for the history of the early
puritans. (Brook's Lives of t/ie Puritans,
i. 170.) P. S.

ALCOCK, JOHN, (Alcok, Alkok,) was
born at Beverley in Yorkshire, and educated
in Cambridge, in which university he re-
ceived the degree of doctor of laws in 1461.
In this year Alcock held the living of St.
Margaret's, New Fish Street, London. On
the 29th of April, 1462, he was made dean
of the Chapel Royal, St. Stephen's, Westmin-
ster, and he enjoyed in succession prebends
in three cathedrals, namely, of South Aulton,
Salisbury, in 1468 ; of Brownswood, St. Paul's,
from the 1 6th of December in the same year ;
and of Husthwait, York, from the 21st of
January, 1478. In July, 1473, he resigned
the vicarage of Caster St. Trinity in the
diocese of Norwich into the hands of the
Bishop of Norwich, and accepted instead, on
the 28th of May, the church of Wrensham.
Some of his prefei-ments were probably
gained by services in the state, for on the
29tli of April, 1462, he was made Master of
the Rolls. Edward IV. sent him ambassador
to John II. king of Castile, in 1470, and
on the 26th of August, 1471, Alcock was,
at the head of the English commissioners,
empowered to treat with other Scotch com-
missioners concerning the truce between the
two kingdoms, and mutual reparation for the
violations of it committed by both parties
during the late troubles in England. These
negotiations with Scotland were not termi-
nated till 1473. In the mean time Alcock
was made bishop of Rochester, having licence
granted March 17. 1471, for his consecration
" without the church of Canterbury," but he
still appears in the above commission in
August, 1471, as aiaster of the Rolls (" Ma-
gister Johannes Alkok custos rotulorum can-
cellarise nostrse, legum doctor.") On the 20th
of Septembei', 1473, he became keeper of the
great seal until the former chancellor, the
Bishop of Bath and Wells, should recover his
health. A patent of the 13th year of Edward IV.
(1474) creates the Bishop of Rochester tutor
of the Prince of AVales and president of his
council (" pfcdagogus principis ac pra;sidens
concilii sui"); another in the next year makes
Anthony Woodville, Earl Rivers, governor
of the prince (" gubernator principis hospitii
ac totius status sui") and in the next year
there is a commission to Edward, prince of
Wales, concerning the government of Wales.
It was now that Edward IV. sent Bishop
Alcock and Earl Rivers with the prince to
reside in the marches of Wales, and to hold
the prince's court at Ludlow ; and this was the
original of the council in the marches of
Wales. There is in the town hall of Shrews-
bury, in a book of records belonging to the
town, a memorandum, by which it appears
3 D 4

ALCOCK.

that " JoTin, hysliop of Worcestr, p'sident of
my lord prince councell," with others of the
council, made there on the 10th day of April,
1479, two ordinances for the good of that
town, " by thassent and aggrement" of its
officers and inhabitants. This memorandum,
proving that John Alcock (now bishop of
Vv^orcester) exercised the power of a lord
president of the council of the marches, has j
been correctly copied only in Owen and
Blakeway's History of Shrewsbuiy. Alcock
was translated by papal bull, in 1477, from I
the see of Rochester to Worcester, of which
see the temporalities were restored on the
25th of September.

Besides presiding in his council, Bishop
Alcock was the principal religious instructor
of Prince Edward, and in the year 1483 was
removed from this charge by the protector,
Richard, duke of Gloucester, although he
was not imprisoned, like others of the young
king's most faithful servants. This is ex-
pressly mentioned by the contemporary John
Ross, although John Russell, bishop of Ro-
chester, is called by Godwin and by others
the prince's tutor. Ross also remarks Alcoek's
iidelity and careful training of the prince in
religion and virtue ; and yet after the death
of Edward V. Alcock is found at the court of
Richard III. At the time when ambassadors
came from Spain, the Bishop of Worcester
is among the five bishops named as present
with the king, and on the 20th of Septem-
ber, 1484, he heads the commission to treat of
the marriage between Prince James of Scot-
land and the daughter of the Duke of Suf-
folk. But this connexion with King Richard
did not hinder Bishop Alcoek's being em-
ployed by Henry VII. as one of his com-
missioners, in 1486, to ratify the truce with
Scotland, nor even prevent his being made a
second time Lord Chancellor for a year and
a half, from March 6. 1486 ; and it is re-
markable that he was afterwards president
of the council of another Prince of Wales,
Arthur, son of Henry VII. This is proved
by an order of that prince's council, dated
Hereford, January 31. 1494, which is sub-
scribed by " Jo. Ely, R. Powes," and others,
the first of whom was John Alcock, who, in
1486, by a second translation, had become
bishop of Ely. The bulla provisionis for
this bishopric was given October 6., and the
royal assent and restitution of the tempo-
ralities are dated December 7. 1486.

His political career must have closed soon
after, for on April 27. 1494, bishop William
Smyth acted as president of the council
established in the Marches of Wales. All
are agreed as to the piety of his private life.
Bale records his studies, abstinence, and
virtue, and declares that no man in England
had higher reputation for sanctity. Alex-
ander Barklay wrote a lamentation on the
death of the " gentle cocke " — a play upon his
name which is observed also in the bishop's
76S

own works. He added to every one of his
episcopal residences, especially Ely palace,
where he built the "hall with the gallery."
(Robertus Stewarde, Continuatio Histvria
Elicnsis, in Wharton's Anglice Sacra.) The
east window of the choir of St. Giles, Mal-
vern, records his rebuilding of that church,
and, as well as a window in Malvern St.Mary's,
bids a prayer for the soul of John Alcock,
bishop of Worcester. There is an error pro-
bably in the former calling him chancellor or
president of the council in the first year of
Edward IV. He much enlarged Wesbury
church, and rebuilt it on the north side. In
Hull he foimded a school, and in 1484 built a
chantry on the south side of Trinity Church,
in which his parents were buried, and endowed
it for a chautor. These acts were done by
him as bishop of Worcester. As bishop of
Ely the church of St. Mary's, Cambridge, is
said to be indebted to him, though he cer-
tainly was not the greatest contributor to
the building. His greatest work, however,
was the founding of Jesus College, Cambridge.
The dilapidated and almost deserted Priory
of St. Rhadegund Barnwell being suppressed,
he obtained a grant from Henry \'II. to
restore the building from its ruins and to
convert it into a college ; and accordingly,
in 1496, a master, five fellows, and six scho-
lars were inducted by him into the revenues
of his nunnery. He was an excellent archi-
tect, and was controller of the royal works and
buildings under Henry VII. {Watt's Bihlio-
graphia.) At the east end of the north
aisle of Ely Cathedral is a chapel which bears
his name, being built by him in 1488, and in
which he was buried under a monument
which has remained defaced since 1621. He
died at Wisbeach, most probably October 1.
1500. His writings are — 1. " Galli Cantus
ad Confratres suos Curatos in Synodo apud
Barnwell," printed in 4to. 1498, at Loudon,
by Pynson, and by Wynkyn "Worde. 2.
" Mons Perfectionis ad Carthusianos," Lon-
don, 1501, 4to. 3. " Spousage of a Virgin to
Christ," 1486, 4to. 4. A poetical paraphrase,
in English, on the seven penitential psalms,
wliich is in the Worsley library. 5. " Abbey
of Selnt Sperite that ys founded in a Place
that ys clepyd ' Conscience.' " This was
published in Latin at London, 1531, in 4to.,
and again in English at Westmestre by
Wynkyn Worde, in 4to. There are three
MS. copies of it in the library of the uni-
versity of Cambridge, and one in the Harleiaa
collection, Codex 2406. art. 41. It is an
allegory of an abbey of the Holy Spirit, in
which Charity is the abbess. Wisdom prioress,
and Meekness subprioress. It contains " the
charter of the Holi Gost ;" an account of
how the abbey was destrojed, and the abbess
and her fair convent found again ; and, in
the last chapter, how God put his four daugh-
ters to the abbess of the Holy Ghost, namely,
Mercy, Truth, Peace, and Righteousness.

ALCOCK.

Besides these are one book of homilies, one
of meditations, and a sermon on Luke viii. 8.
{Rvtuti Scotia et Culcndarium Rotulorum
Patentium in Turri Londinensi ; Godwin, De
Pncsulibus ; Tanner, Bibliothccu Brit. Hib.;
History of Slirticsbunj, by Owen and Blake-
way, i. 231, 232. 261, note ; Johanuis Rossi
JJixiuria Jirgum Anylia, edited by Thomas
Ilearne, p. 212. 217. ; The Hinturie of Cam- '
bria, translated by H. Lloyd, continued by
David Powell, D.D., London, 1584, p. 380,
&c. ; Antiquities of Worcester Cathedral, by
Thomas Abingdon ; "Wharton, Anylia Sacra;
Newcourt, Repertorium Londinense ; Leland,
Itineranj, i. 55. ii. 111.) A. T. P.

ALCOCK, JOHN, was born in London,
April 11th, 1715. When seven years of age
he entered the choir of St. Paul's, Mr. Charles
King being at that time master of the boys :
at fourteen he was articled to Stanley, himself
a very young man, though organist of the
Temple and of St. Andrew's, Holborn. In
1737 he was elected organist of St. Andrew's
church at Plj-mouth, where he published
" Six Suites of Lessons for the Harpsichord," ^
and " Twelve Songs." About five years
afterwards he accepted the appointment of
organist at Heading, where he published " Six
Concertos for Instruments," and " Two Col-
lections of Psalm Tunes, original and se-
lected." In 1749 he was elected organist of
Lichfield Cathedral (being appointed at the
same time to the incompatible situation of vicar
choral) and master of the boys. In 1755 he
took his bachelor's degree at Oxford, and five
years afterwards resigned the situation of
organist and master of the boys at Lichfield,
retaining only his place of vicar choral. He
was then elected organist of Tamworth and
Sutton-Coldfield, which ofiices he was allowed
to hold in addition to that which he possessed
in Lichfield Cathedral. He took his degree
of doctor in music at Oxford in 1765. Al-
cock's reasons for resigning his post as or-
ganist of the cathedral may be conjectured
from his own words. " I had to teach the
lads twice every day, and personally to play
at church ; thus I was unable to attend my
scholars in the country more than two days
in a fortnight, my son (though perfectly
competent) not being allowed to take my
duty. Some of the vicars were permitted to
be absent four or five months together, while
I can affirm that in twenty-two years I have
but twice missed attendance so long as a
week. Yet with all this strictness towards
me, the cathedral service is sadly disregarded.
All the time I was organist, there was not a
book in the organ-loft fit for use but what I
bought or wrote myself, for which I never
was paid one halfpenny." This neglect of
their libraries has been common to cathedral
dignitaries in general, and its necessary con-
sequence is the loss of much, if not most, of
their valuable contents.

In 1771 Dr. Alcock published his volume
769

of twenty-six anthems. It is by this work
that his merits as a composer must be tested,
and they will suffice to give him a respectable
rank among his contemporaries. The date is
affixed to every composition, of which some
had been written nearly half a century before
their publication. Z\lauy are solo anthems,
in which the composer's object seems rather
to have been the exhibition of some singer's
flexible voice than to give just expression
to words, an error into which too many
second-rate church writers have fallen.
Among his full anthems will be foimd a few
which claim a much higher rank. Among
these are, " Unto thee have I cried, O Lord ; "
" Hold not thy tongue, O God ; " and " Why
standest thou so far oti ? " In 1770, his glee
" Hail, ever-pleasing solitude," gained the
Catch-club prize, perhaps then deservedly,
for Webbe, Stevens, and Dr. Cooke had net
revealed the polish and variety of which glee
writing is susceptible. In 1802 Dr. Alcock
published another collection of psahn-tunes,
selected and originaL He died at Lichfield
in 1806, at the advanced age of ninety-one,
having been more than twenty years the oldest
vicar-choral of the cathedral, where he con-
tinued to attend in his place nearly to the
close of life. His son was organist of Nevi'-
castle-under-Lyne. (Bingley, Musical Bio-
grapht/ ; Dr. Alcock's Anthems, &c.) E. T.
ALCOCK, THOMAS, was born at Roth-
bury in Northumberland in the year 1784.
Having received his preliminary education at
a school in the neighbourhood, he selected
the medical profession, and was apprenticed
to a surgeon at Newcastle-on-Tyne. In 1805
he became resident medical officer at the
Sunderland Dispensary, and in 1806 or 1807
commenced his medical studies in London,
in Mr. Brookes' school of anatomy and at the
Westminster Hospital. Having received his
diploma at the CoUege of Surgeons, he en-
tered upon his professional duties as a gene-
ral practitioner in London, and met with
such success as to induce him in 1825 to
devote himself to the practice of surgery
alone. In 1813 he obtained the appointment
of surgeon to St. James's workhouse, w hich
j he held till 1828. In 1823 he made a visit
, to Paris, in part to ascertain the efiects of the
chlorides of soda and lime ; and on his return
he published the results of his investigations
I in an " Essay on the Lse of the Chlorurets
of Oxide of Sodium and Lime as powerful
disinfecting Agents, and of the Chloruret of
Oxide of Sodium as a Remedy of consi-
derable EfBcacy in the Treatment of Hcspi-
j tal Gangrene, phagedenic, syphilitic, and
! other ill-conditioned Ulcers, Mortification,
I and various other Diseases." London, 1827,
8vo. In this treatise the author introduces
I in a more prominent manner than had been
I previously done in England, these agents,
which had for some time been extensively
1 employed in France by M. Labarraque. He

ALCOCK.

ALCUIN.

describes the mode of their preparation, en-
deavours to collect ihe scattered information
relating to the subject, and adds some further
observations which were the result of his own
experience. In 1828 Mr. Alcock undertook
to give lectures on surgery at a school in
Little Dean Street. He died in 1833. He
possessed considerable talent, and was favour-
ably known to the profession as a practitioner
of much industry and ingenuity.

About the year 1824 he delivered lectures
on some of the practical points in surgery to
the students of the late Borough Dispensary,
which appeared in the Lancet for the years
1825-6. They were afterwards published,
with many additions, as a separate woi-k by
him under the title of " Lectures on practical
and medical Surgery." London, 1830, 8vo.
They do not contain many new facts or
inductions, but give some good practical
instructions on subjects which are frequently
omitted in systematic medical and surgical
works, especially with regard to the investi-
gation of disease and the taking of cases :
the rules which he lays down are well de-
serving attention, though, perhaps, they are
too strict to be generally followed. These
lectures, moreover, contain some judicious
remarks on venesection, and the accidents
which may arise from it. He also published
a plate, representing a section of the leg
after amputation below the knee ; London,
1826, folio ; and the " Practical Observations
on the Diseases of Children, by the late
Charles Haden, with additional Observations
and a biographical Notice of the Author."
London, 1827, 8vo. He communicated several
papers to various medical journals, as, '" An
Essay on the Education and Duties of the
general Practitioner in Medicine and Sur-

gery;

■ Practical Observations on Fractures

of the Patella and Olecranon ;" and "A Case
of congenital Division of the Palate in which
Union of the divided Parts was effected,"
which were published in the " Transactions
of the associated Apothecaries and Surgeon-
Apothecaries," 1823. In his " Observations
on the Inflammation of the Mucous Mem-
brane of the Organs of Respiration," pub-
lished in the " Medical Intelligencer," vol. i.,
he shows the close relation between the
severe forms of measles, small-pox, scarla-
tina, and hooping cough, and the inflamma-
tion of some part or parts of the mucous
membrane of the organs of respiration.
He published also " Observations on the suc-
cessful Treatment of Syphilis in its primary
Stage without Mercury," in the " Medical
Repository" June, 1814, and "An Essay on
the Treatment of Laceration of the Peri-
neum," in the " London Medical and Phy-
sicalJournal," September, 1820. (MS. Com-
munication.) G. M. H.
ALCUIN, whose complete name is Flaccus
Albinus Alcuinus, is thus distinguished from
others of tlie name Albinus. His name
770

Alcuin is apparently only a slightly modified
form of the Saxon name Alcwin or Alchwin.
In his letters to Charlemagne he sometimes
calls himself simply Albinus, and sometimes
simply Flaccus. In some of his letters he
styles himself Albinus Magister. It has been
stated by some writers that for some reason
or other he changed his name Alcuin into
Albinus; but Einhard (Eginhard) in his life
of Charlemagne speaks of the two names as
distinct ( Albinus, cognomento Alcuinus), and
he gives Albinus as his real name, by which
alone he is often designated both by himself
and others. The name Flaccus was evidently
an addition, made after the fashion of the
times ; and Albinus also may have been an
assumed name.

The principal authorities for the life of
Alcuin are his own works, particularly his
Letters, and an anonymous Life in Latin, the
author of which, as it is concluded from a
passage in the Life, wrote before the year
A. D. 829. This anonymous writer cites
Sigulfus, a pupil of Alcuin and his successor
in the abbey of Ferrieres, as his authority.
Sigulfus had been the teacher of this author
of the Life of Alcuin.

Alcuin was born at York in England of a
noble family If the year 735 is correctly
given as the year of his birth, he could not
have been a pupil of Bede, as it is sometimes
stated; for Bede died in or about 735. Alcuin
was educated in the cloister school of York,
where he had for his teachers Egbert, arch-
bishop of York, and afterwards Aelbert, or
Albert. It has been conjectured that he ac-
companied Aelbert to Rome on a mission for
the purchase of books. In his youth he was
actively employed in the school at York ;
and on the promotion of Aelbert to the see
of York in 766, Alcuin had the charge of the
school, which he superintended to the year
780. On the death of Aelbert, and the pro-
motion of Eanbald to the see of York in 781,
Alcuin went to Rome to receive the pallium
for him. At Parma he met with Charlemagne,
who invited him to settle in his dominions, an
offer which Alcuin accepted. After complet-
ing his mission he came to the court of Charles
in 782, with whom he lived on terms of the
closest friendship to the end of his life.

Charles immediately provided for Alcuin
by giving him the abbey of Ferrieres in the
diocese of Sens, and that of St. Lupus at
Troyes. Alcuin was the most learned man
of his age, and Charles, though he had re-
ceived no I'egular education, possessed a
vigorous understanding and a taste for know-
ledge. Einhard says that he studied rhetoric,
dialectic, and astronomy under Alcuin. The
example of the king was followed by others,
and the family and court of Charles became a
kind of school of which Alcuin was the head.
At that time the court had no fixed residence,
and Charles was much engaged with his
Saxon wars. Alcuin seems to have constantly

ALCUIN.

followed him, for he speaks of being distracted
by secular occupations and the fatigues of his
various journies. It was accordingly during
the winter months, the period of cessation from
hostilities, that the king and his master chiefly
devoted themselves to their studies.

Alcuin paid a visit to England about 790,
but he was again in France about the year
793, and never left it again. The heresy of
Felix, bishop of Urgel, and of Elipandus,
bishop of Toledo, about this time brought
Alcuin forward as a controversialist. The
heresy, which consisted in maintaining that
the Son was adopted of the Father and was
not his proper son, had spread from Spain
across the Pyrenees. A synod was convened
in 794 at Frankfort on the Mam, at which
Alcuin assisted, and in which the heresy of
Felix and Elipandus was confuted out of scrip-
ture. iFntg. Vet. Script. De Gest.CaroUMagni ;
Duchesne, Hist. Francor. Script, ii. 207.) Al-
cuin had previously been on terms of friendly
communication with Felix, and had addressed
a kind letter to him with the view of reclaiming
him from his heresy. In order to resist the
progress of these opinions, and to confirm the
Catholic faith in the dominions of Charles,
Alcuin wrote a work intituled " Liber Albini,
quem edidit conti'a Hseresin Felicis," which
was first printed in Froben's edition of Alcuin's
■works. It consists of a collection of passages
from the Scriptures which are opposed to the
opinions of Felix, and of like passages from
the Greek and Latin fathers ; and, conform-
ably to the plan on which it was written, it
contains little by Alcuin himself, and is free
from all personalities.

It was about the year 796 that Alcuin, be-
ing weary of the busy life which he had led
about the person of Charles, obtained from
him the abbey of St. Martin at Tours, to
which he retired. Here he devoted himself
with his usual activity to the restoration of
monastic discipline and the revival of learn-
ing. As books were scarce, he founded a
library, which he partly furnished from Eng-
land, and to which he added by causing va-
luable books to be transcribed. He succeeded
in establishing a school, which imder his su-
perintendence became the chief place of learn-
ing in the kingdom of the Franks : so great
indeed was its reputation that scholars flocked
to it from all parts, and an old chronicler ex-
presses his admiration of Alcuin's labours by
declaring that " the modern Gauls or Franks,"
as he calls them, had become the rivals of the
ancient Romans and Athenians. From this
school there came some of the most dis-
tinguished scholars of the following age, as
Rabanus Maunis, Hatto, Sigulfus, and others.
Alcuin also diligently employed himself during
his retirement at Tours in his studies, the
fruits of which were several learned works,
some of which were intended for the purposes
of instruction.

His increasing age and infirmities, which
771

he often refers to in his letters, at last con-
fined him altogether to his abbey at Tours ;
and on this ground he excused himself from
complying with Charles's request to assist at
the ceremony of his coronation as emperor
at Rome (a.l. 800). He also resigned his
two abbeys, which Charles gave to his scholars
Fredegisus and Sigulfus ; and he spent the
last few years of his life in the tranquil re-
tirement of St. Martin's. His last employ-
ment was the revision of the Latin text of the
Bible, which he had undertaken at the request
of Charles. He died on the lOth of May, 804,
and was buried in the church of St. Martin ;
an inscription by himself, in Latin elegiacs,
was put on his tomb.

In the year 803 the monks of St. Martin
drew on themselves the displeasure of King
Charles, by sheltering an ecclesiastic who had
been sentenced to imprisonment by Theodulf,
bishop of Orleans. Theodulf obtainedCharles's
warrant for the apprehension of the offender,
who was accordingly seized, but rescued by
the monks of St. Martin's and the populace.
Charlemagne, in a letter still extant (Froben,
i. 174.), gave the monks a steiTi rebuke for
their resistance to his authority. Alcuin had
resigned his abbacy before this event, though
he was still living at St. Martin's. The in-
ference that he incurred the displeasure of
Charles on this occasion is not supported by
the letter, though it is addressed to Alcuin and
the monks. The letter alludes to Alcuin as
having been sent to them for their edification
and to wipe away their evil fame ; but Alcuin
is not expressly blamed ; nor can he be con-
sidered as comprehended among the monks,
who are termed by the king the ministers of
the devil, and ordered to come to him and
make satisfaction for their crime. Alcuin, as
appears from a letter (p. 169. lb.), was how-
ever anxious to maintain the privileges of
the church.

The intellectual and moral character of
Alcuin will best appear from a rapid survey
of his principal writings. The first collection
of Alcuin's works was made by Andre du
Chesne (Quercetanus), " Alchuini Abbatis, &c.
Opera qute hactenus reperiri potuerunt omnia,
studio et diligentia Andrea? Quercetani
Turonensis, Lutet. Paris. 1617, fol." But this
is superseded by the much more complete
and critical edition of Froben, prince-abbot
of St. Emmeram at Ratisbon — " Beati Flacci
Albini seu Alcuini Opera post primam Edi-
tionem de novo collecta, multis Locis emendata
et Opusculis primum repertis plurimum aucta
variisque Modis illustrata, cura ac studio
Frobenii S.R.I. Principis et Abbatis ad S.
Emmeranumi. Ratisbonre, 1777," 2 vols. fol.

The epistles of Alcuin in Froben's edition
amount to two hundred and thirty-two,
among which are included a few epistles of
Charlemagne in answer to Alcuin. There
is prefixed to them a " Synopsis Epistola-
rum," which gives a general view of the

ALCUIN.

contents of each letter : tlie period which they
comprise extends from the year 787 to the
beginning of the next century. It is how-
ever certain that this is not a complete col-
lection of Alcuin's epistles, and indeed Pertz
has recently discovered others. The cor-
respondence of Alcuin generally relates to
topics of business or to ecclesiastical matters :
it never assumes the character of learned dis-
quisition or philosophical discussion. The
letters are addressed, among others, to
Popes Adrian I. and Leo III., Oifa, king
of the Mercians, and to various bishops
and other ecclesiastical persons. In one of
them addressed to Bishop Aginus he respeet-
fuUj' reminds him of his promise to give him
some relics of saints (aliquas sanctorum re-
liquias). The letters to Charlemagne, thirty
in number, are the most interesting in the
collection. The mild temper, the sincere ,
piety, and the unaffected humility of the man,
ai-e apparent in all his correspondence. To-
wai'ds Charles his letters show the most pro-
found devotion and respect; and yet the cor-
respondence between the great king and his
teacher is in the style of friendship : Alcuin
addresses Charles by his assimied name of
David, to which he sometimes adds " most
beloved" (dilectissimus). Though his Latin
style is far from being free fi-om unclassical
expressions, it is flowing and perspicuous : he
wrote Latin with ease and perfect freedom
from all affectation. His letters are often
concluded by some Latin verses. They are
among the best specimens of the Latinity of
the middle ages.

The numerous theological writings of Al-
cuin may be divided into exegetical or
expository, dogmatical, and polemical. His
exegetical writings are not based on a phi-
lological study of the Scriptures, and bear no
resemblance to the class of writings which at
the present day are designated by that term.
Alcuin followed iu the steps of Bede and
others his predecessors, and accordingly he
adopted their allegorical mode of exposition.
His works of this class are contained in the
first volume of Froben's edition. His " In-
terrogationes et Responsiones in Librura
Geneseos," otherwise entitled " Quffistiuuculoc
Albini in Genesin," consists of two hundred
and eighty short questions on the signifi-
cation of passages in the book of Genesis,
with the answers : this work was subse-
quently translated into Anglo-Saxon, and
there are said to be many MSS. of this
version. The " Enchiridion seu Expositio
pia ac brevis in Psalmos poenitentiales ; in
Psalmum cxviii. et graduales," was written
at the request of Arnon (otherwise known
under the assumed name of Aquila), arch-
bishop of Salzburg, who wished to have an
exposition of the penitential psalms from
Alcuin. This exposition, which may serve
as a sample of Alcuin's method, is a com-
ment on the words of the psalms, in the form
779

of edifying reflections, principally taken from
the works of Ambrosius, Jerome, and Au-
gustine ; or as Alcuin expresses himself in
the introduction, he took the writings of the
holy fathers who have at great length
examined every verse of the psalms, and
culled from their remarks the choicest
flowers to satisfy his friend's demand. His
most complete commentary is that on the
Gospel of St. John, in seven books, " Com-
mentaria in S. Joannis Evangelium," which
was written at the request of Gisla, a sister
of King Charles, and her friend Rechtruda.
In his letter to Gisla prefixed to the com-
mentary, which is in reply to the well-written
letter of the two ladies in which they made
their request, Alcuin speaks of the sources
whence he drew his chief materials : Au-
gustine, Ambrosius, the homilies of Pope
Gregory, and Bede, and other holy fathers :
— " he adopted," he says, " the opinions and
the words of all those writers, rather than
trust anything to his own presumption, and
he used the utmost caution, aided by divine
grace, in laying down nothing contrary to
the opmions of the holy fathers." This
passage shows Alcuin's profound submission
to the authority of the church, which cha-
racterises all his writings : it shows also that
neither bold original views nor a disposition
to question received opinions formed any
part of his intellectual character. In one of
his letters to Adrian I. he acknowledges the
pope as the vicar of St. Peter and theheir of
his wonderful (mirifica) powers. The sin-
cerity of the acknowledgment cannot be
questioned.

Among Alcuin's dogmatical wi-itings there
is a treatise on the Holy and Indivisible
Trinity (" De Fide Sanctae et Individual Tri-
nitatis Libri Tres"), which is accompanied by
a letter to Eling Charles. This was one of
the latest of his works, having been written
about the year a. d. 803.

Of the polemical writings of Alcuin, a
work against the heresy of Felix has been
already mentioned. But he wrote another
and more complete work, at the command of
Charles, in reply to a work of Felix, no
longer extant, in which Felix had supported
his erroneous views. In this work, which is
entitled " Contra Felicem Urgelitammi Epis-
copum Libri Septem," Alcuin found it ne-
cessary to follow the order observed in the
book which he had undertaken to confute,
and accordingly he makes the alleged con-
fusion and want of method in his adversary's
book an apology- for whatever want of method
may be imputed to his own. Alcuin's main
object is to support the true doctrines of the
church by the testimony of the holy fathers,
such as Jerome, Augustin, Gregory, and
others, as Alcuin states in one of the two
letters to Charles which are prefixed to the
work.

Alcuin also Avrote certain works which

ALCUIN.

may be assigned to the class of morals, one
of which, on the duty and advantages of
confession, is addressed to the youths of the
school of St. Martin's. He also -wrote various
treatises which belong to the class of religions
formularies, such as " Liber Sacramentorum,"
" De Psahnorum Usu," and others.

The grammatical works of Alcuin are of
no value at present further than to show
what were the studies of that age, and as
monuments of the indefatigable industry of
this excellent man. There ai'e extant a
treatise on grammar, " De Grammatica,"
which is chiefly confined to the forms of
words ; a small treatise on orthography ;
a dialogue on rhetoric and virtues between
Alcuin and Charles ; and a short treatise on
dialectic, also in the form of a dialogue be-
tween Alcuin and Charles. In this treatise
he defines dialectic to be " the rational dis-
cipline of inquiring, defining, and discussing,
and also efficient in distinguishing truth from
falsehood." Thus he uses the term in the
sense in which it was used by some ancient
writers, and in a wider sense than the term
logic is now generally used by writers on
logic. There is also attributed to Alcuin
" De Cursu et Saltu Luntc ac Bissexto," a
treatise on the course of the moon and on
the mode of determining the festivals of
the church which depend iipon it. It
has been inferred from a letter of Alcuin
to King Charles, that he was acquainted
with the true figure of the earth ; but such
an inference is not necessarily derived from
this letter. Besides this, Alcuin, who was
well acquainted with the Latin writers, and
probably with some of the Greek writers
also, could not be ignorant that the spherical
form of the earth was well known to the
ancient Greek geographers and astronomers
of the Alexandrian school.

A work entitled " Disputatio Puerorum per
Interrogationes et Responsiones " was first
printed by Froben, who attributes it to Alcuin,
though it is not expressly assigned to Alcuin
in the MS. which contains this and other
works of his. This work, which is chiefly
taken from Isidore's Origines, is a kind of ca-
techism in the form of question and answer :
it treats of God and his attributes, on the na-
ture of man, on matters of faith, and the like.

There are no historical writings by Al-
cuin ; and even his biographies are in the
nature of homilies and intended for religious
edification. The following works are by
Alcuin : — L " Scriptum de Vita S. Martini,"
according to some MSS. a homily which was
intended for the feast of St. Martin, or a kind
of panegj'ric on the virtues of this saint.
2. " Vita S. Vedasti Episcopi Atrebatensis,"
a work of the same kind on St. Vedastus,
bishop of Arras, which seems to have been
founded on an earlier work. 3. " Vita
S. Richerii," also founded on a previous
work. 4. " De Vita S. Willibrordi," or a
773

Life of St. Willibrod, a native of Northum-
berland, the apostle of the Frisians and the
first bishop of Utrecht, wliicli was written at
the request of the Archbishop of Sens : this
life is written twice ; in prose for the purpose
of being read to the brethren in the church,
and in verse for private reading and edifica-
tion.

The Latin poetry of Alcuin was first col-
lected by Duchesne ; but the edition of
Froben is more complete, and the various pieces
are better arranged according to their sub-
jects : the doubtful or spurious pieces are
placed in an appendix. The greater part of
his poetry is in hexameter verse and in Latin
elegiacs. Many of the pieces are short, and
the subjects of them are very varied, such as
stories from the Old and New Testament ;
inscriptions for various churches, altars, and
statues ; exhortations or moral verses ; epi-
taphs, epigrams, and enigmas; and there is a
tolerably long poem in Latin elegiacs, en-
titled " De Rerum Humanarum vicissitudine
et clade Lindisfarnensis Monasterii," ad-
dressed to the monks of Lindisfarne on the
occasion of their sufferings from the Danes
in 793, in which Alcuin descants on the un-
certainty of all human things and suggests
topics of consolation and exhortation. An-
other still longer poem consisting of more
than 1650 hexameter verses, and now uni-
versally assigned to Alcuin, is entitled
" Poema de Pontificibus et Sanctis Ecclesiai
Eboracensis." It is a poetical history of the
bishops and holy men of the church of York
up to the time of Alcuin, and was probably
written about the year 785.

There are other poems attributed to Al-
cuin, the authenticity of which is doubtful.
One of them, which consists of above 500
hexameter verses, is entitled, " De Carolo
Magno Rege et Leonis Papa; ad eundem ad-
ventu," or " Carolus Magnus et Leo Papa ;"
it begins with a very long and tedious pane-
gyric on Charles ; the main subject is the
meeting of Charles and Pope Leo III. in or
about 799. Many of the lines are vigorously
written, and show that the author was fami-
liar with the classical Latin poets. Canisius
assigns this poem to Alcuin for the following
reasons : it is known that Alcuin wrote on
the exploits of Charles ; the style resembles
Alcuin's ; sometimes he calls Charles by the
name of David. The author of the poem
was certainly a contemporary of Charles ; but
some critics collect from it that he was a
young man, and Alcuin in the year 799 was
far advanced in years.

Alcuin's models in his Latin poetry were
the classical Roman poets, whom he had
carefully studied. The versification is easy
and generally correct. If he sometimes fails
in observing certain niceties both of expres-
sion and metre, it must be remembered that
his was not an age of critical study such as
we now live in. Yet though his verses are

ALCUIN.

not free from blemishes, he possessed much
facility, and his command of the Latin, as he
understood it, was undoubtedly greater than
most modern scholars possess. Some of the
faults observable in Alcuin's poetry may be
due to transcription ; others are to be im-
puted rather to carelessness than ignorance :
he wrote much, and often with great rapidity,
for he wrote with ease. Yet it is easy to select
short passages from some of his poems which
have great merit and hardly any faults.

As to the authorship of the " Libri Carol ini
Quatuor " there is great difficulty. Some
writers have assigned this work to Alcuin,
though there is no direct evidence of his
being the author ; and others, as Froben, who
has omitted it in his edition, consider that
Alcuin had nothing to do with it. This
work first appeared in 1549 in 12mo. :
" Opus illustrissimi et excellentissimi seu
spectabilis Viri Caroli Magni nutu Regis
Francorum, &c., contra Synodum quse in
Partibus Grsecise pro adorandis Imaginibus
stolide sive arroganter gesta est." This work
was directed against the synod of Nicrca,
held in 787, which had re-established the
veneration (jrpoaKvvriais) of images. ' The
decree of the synod was forwarded to
Adrian I. at Rome, and by him to Charles in
792, who sent it to Alcuin, then in England,
aud requested him to confute it. Alcuin con-
futed the decree in a work, not now extant,
in which he showed that such veneration was
inconsistent with the Scriptures and the early
fathers. The decree of the synod of Nice
was afterwai'ds condemned at the sjTiod of
Frankfort (794), at which Alcuin assisted.
The " Libri Carolini Quatuor " were pro-
bably written about the time of the synod of
Frankfort : at least there seems sufficient
reason to assign them to the period of Charles's
reign, and it is highly probable, if this sup-
position is true, that Alcuin had some share
in their composition. The work is expressly
directed against the decree of Nicaja as to
images, and is written with some bitterness
against the Greeks ; which is so far an argu-
ment against Alcuin's having had a share in
it. The assertions of the Nicene sj-nod are
examined one by one, and refuted by refer-
ence to the Bible, and St. Jerome and St. Au-
gustin, with much logical skill. The use of
images is not altogether rejected ; it is con-
sidered to be consistent with biblical truth
to possess but not to adore images and pic-
tures (quod ilia; non haberi sed adorari a
nobis inhibeantur) ; nor should they be re-
jected as ornaments of churches and memo-
rials of past events ; it is only the adoration
(adoratio) of them which should be abomi-
nated.

Alcuin, the most learned man of his age,
was the friend and adviser of one of the most
energetic and able princes that ever sat on
a throne. In his enlarged schemes for the
restoration and encouragement of learning,
774

Charles was aided by the industry and know-
ledge of Alcuin. Theology was the principal
pursuit of Alcuin, but with him it was prac-
tical rather than speculative : its object was
to secure a virtuous life. From some ill
understood expressions of his own, and from
a passage or two in the anonymous Ljfe, it has
been inferred that Alcuin was unfavourable to
secular studies. That the founder of schools,
the restorer of ancient learning, the diligent
student of Roman antiquity, should, even in
his old age, have condemned or discouraged
such pursuits, would require strong evidence.
The fact is exactly the reverse. He distinctly
states that secular learning is the true foun-
dation on which the education of youth should
rest ; grammar and discipline in other philo-
sophical subtleties are recommended ; and
he states, consistently enough, as any Chris-
tian may do at the present day, that by cer-
tain steps of (human) wisdom the scholar
may ascend to the highest point of Christian
(evangelica) perfection. With him every
thing is subordinate to religion, and when
secular studies come in comparison with
theological, the superiority of the theological
is emphatically asserted. But this does not
lead to the inference, and his writings dis-
tinctly contradict it, that he was unfavour-
able to the studies in which he excelled and
which he recommended by his precepts and
his teaching. The activity of Alcuin was
the striking part of his intellectual character.
In originality, in large and comprehensive
views, he was eminently deficient ; he did
not possess more than a reasonable amount of
dialectic skill ; abstruse speculation and philo-
sophical inquiry were beyond his sphere.
He was too good a son of the church to
transgress the limits which were prescribed to
her children. His learning and his prodigious
industry made him the first man of his age ;
and his honesty of purpose and his services
to education entitle him to our grateful re-
membrance. He was a good, but not a great
man.

A list of the editions of Alcuin is given
by Mr. Wright in his very useful work
entitled " Biographia Britannica Literaria,"
London, 1842 ; and abundant references
to the numerous editors and commenta-
tors of Alcuin, in a well-digested article on
Alcuin in Biihr's " Geschichte der Ro-
mischen Literatur im Karolingischen Zeit-
alter," which has been chiefly followed for
the facts here stated. The latest life of
Alcuin is by F. Lorenz, Halle, 1829, which
was translated into English by Jane Mary
Slee, London, 1837, 8vo. G. L.

ALC YO'NIUS, or ALCIO'NIO, PIE'TRO,
a distinguished scholar who lived at the com-
mencement of the sixteenth century. He was
born, as appears from a passage in his work
on exile, between 1490 and 1500, and in the
city of Venice, as appears from the testimony
of his contemporary Gii-aldi, for Alcyonius

ALCYONIUS.

himself was anxious to conceal the place of
his birth. He studied the Greek language
under Marcus Musurus of Candia, then pro-
fessor at Venice, on whose death in 1517 he
was an unsuccessful candidate for the vacant
place. At that time he gained his living by
acting as corrector of the press, and, it is stated
by some authors, in the celebrated establish-
ment of Aldus Manutius ; but Mazzuchelli
denies that his employment by Aldus is sup-
ported by contemporary authority, though he
admits that Alcyonius corrected the press for
the first edition of his own treatise " De Ex-
silio" which was published by Aldus in 1522.
In the same year he left Venice for Florence,
where, by the patronage of the Cardinal
Giulio de' Medici, he obtained the professor-
ship of the Greek language with a handsome
salary, to which the cardinal added a pension
of ten ducats a mouth to engage him to trans-
late Galen's treatise on the parts of animals from
the Greek. On the election of his patron to the
papacy in the following year, under the name
of Clement the Seventh, Alcyonius became
eager to transfer his residence to Rome, but
was refused permission to leave Florence by
the Signoria, or executive government, on the
ground that no one was yet provided to fill his
situation. He therefore left Florence without
their leave, in December, 1523, but found
himself disappointed in his hopes of prefer-
ment at Rome. The only situation he could
procure was the chair of eloquence at the Ro-
man gymnasium, and the troubles of the times
prevented the regular payment of his salary.
In September, 1526, the chamber assigned
him in the Apostolic Palace, contiguous to
that of Berni the poet, was plundered by the
troops of the Colonna faction, and in 1527,
when the Constable de Bourbon took Rome
by storm, Alcyonius was driven to take
refuge in the castle of St. Angelo with his
patron Clement. The treatment he received
from the pope was so little in accordance
with what he considered due to his merits,
that on the restoration of quiet at Rome he
joined the faction of the cai'dinal Pompeo
Colonna, the enemy of Clement VII. In a
few months after he died at that city, before
attaining his fortieth year.

With regard to the character of Alcyo-
nius, all those who had opportunities of
knowing him speak with aversion, and he
is alluded to in terms of strong contempt by
Giraldi and Berni. He is accused of gluttony
and drunkenness, vanity, pride, and caprice.
His printed works are not numerous, com-
prising one volume of translations, and one
of original matter, both in Latin. The volume
of translations is from Aristotle, and contains
'• On Generation and Corruption," " On
Meteors," and "On the World," and the
books " On Animals," commonly called the
Parva Naturalia. These were published
at Venice in 1521 by Bemardinus Vitales,
and were frequently reprinted in subse-

quent editions of Aristotle ; but the ori-
ginal edition, of which there is a copy in the
British Museum, is rare. The correctness of
the translation was impugned by Juan Gines
Sepulveda, the Spanish scholar, who had
himself translated the same portions of Ari-
stotle, in a separate work, entitled " Errata
Petri Alcyonii in interpretatione Aristotelis
a Jo. Genesio Sepulveda collecta." The
criticism was so biting, that Alcyonius
bought up and destroyed all the copies of
it he could obtain, in consequence of which
it became so rare that it is not included
either in Mylius's edition of Sepulveda,
" Opera quaj reperiri potuerunt omnia, "
Cologne, 1602, or in that of the Spanish
Academy of History, " Opera cum edita,
tum inedita," Madrid, 1780. Another accu-
sation which was brought against Alcyonius
was that his style was too Ciceronian, and
that he had paid more attention to imitating
the manner of Cicero than to reproducing the
matter of Aristotle. This complaint may
perhaps be adduced as collateral evidence to
exonerate him from a charge which was pre-
ferred in connection with his original work,
" Medices Legatus de Exsilio," Venice,
1522 (from the press of Aldus). This is a
dissertation on the evils and consolations of
exile, thro-mi into the form of a dialogue
between three of the Medi.;i family, from one
of whom, Giovanni de' Medici, then papal
legate to Bologna, aftei wards Pope Leo X., it
derives its title. Both the general arrangement
and the turn of style are imitated from Cicero,
and with so much success that it was for a
long period commonly believed that Alcyonius
had plagiarised a large portion of the com-
position from the lost treatise of Cicero,
" De Gloria." The story received, indeed, a
" local habitation " from Paul Manutius, who
stated that the treatise " De Gloria " was in-
cluded in the catalogue of the books of Ber-
nardo Giustiniani, who left his library to a
convent of nuns of which Alcyonius was the
medical attendant, that the volume was after-
wards missing, and that it was taken for cer-
tain that Alcyonius, who had free access to
the books, had dexterously purloined it, more
especially as his treatise " De Exsilio " con-
tained some passages that seemed too good
for his own composition. Mazzuchelli and
Tiraboschi have shown that this story rests on
no solid grounds. The only direct witness
against Alcyonius is Paul Manutius, who was
his personal enemy : the evidence deduced
from an examination of the work is all in
favour of the accused. The style is of an
even tenor throughout ; the subject of exile
is strictly adhered to, which does not seem
closely connected with that of glorj-, and allu-
sions to recent events and manners, which
form in fact the most interesting feature in
the took, occur too frequently to allow of
the insertion of a passage even of moderate
length enth'ely from the hand of Cicero.

ALCYONIUS.

ALDABI.

These arguments are so strong that an im-
partial reader is inclined to wonder at the
confidence with which a subsequent writer,
Coupe, in some remarks appended to a not
very faithful French translation of Alcyonius,
in his " Soirees Litteraires," expresses his opi-
nion that the treatise on Exile is nothing" else
than the treatise on Glory disfigured, in order
not to be known, and says that he recognises
almost throughout " the manner of Cicero
in dialoguing ; his plans, his divisions, his
abundance, his harmony, his sensibility, his
morals, and his enchanting Tariety." The
" Jledices Legatus" was reprinted by Mencken,
in conjunction with some similar works, in
his " Analecta de Calamitate Literatorum,"
Leipzig, 1707, 12mo. Alcyonius left a num-
ber of manuscripts, comprising some trans-
lations from the Greek, some Latin poetry
and orations, a tragedy on the death of
Christ, and some letters, none of which have
been published. They are enumerated by
Mazzuchelli, in his very elaborate article on
this author. (Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d' Italia,
i. 376 — 383.; Tiraboschi, Storia della Lette-
ratiira Italiana, edit. 1772, i. 242.; Coupe,
Soi?-ees Litteraires, xvi. 1 — 55.; Works of
Alcyonius referred to.) T. W.

ALDABI, R. MEIR IBN (called Si-
phardi, or the Spaniard (h^-j^x |3S "fitQ "1
'TISD), a Spanish rabbi who lived and
wrote during the middle and latter part of the
fourteenth century ; he was the nephew of the
celebrated Rab or Rav Asher [Asher bex
Jechiel], and was the author of " Shevile
Emuna" ("The Paths of Faith'), a work
of gi-eat authority among the Jews ; it is
divided into ten paths or treatises as follows :
— L On the existence and attributes of the
Creator. II. Of the creation of the world,
of the spheres and their motions, and of the
stars. III. Of the creation of Adam and
Eve. IV. Of the formation and growth of
man in the womb. V. On the means for
preserving the health of the body. VI. On
the soul and its faculties, and on intellectual
light. VII. On the soul's health. IX. On
the rewards reserved for the pious, and the
punishments to be suffered by the ungodly.
X. Treats of the deliverance of Israel, the
advent of the Messiah, and resurrection of
the dead, and on the future life. There is a
very copious extract from the first chapter
of the tenth path of this famous work
in the treatise on the advent of the Messiah
at the end of the Bibliotheca Lat. Hebr. of
Imbonati ; the notes to chapter i. of Jac.
Voisin's translation of R. Israel on the soul
may also be consulted. [Israel Ben Moses. ]
The " Shevile Emuna" is also frequently cited
by Allard Uchtmann in his annotations and
observations on the " Bechinath 01am." [Jf-
DAJAH Ben Abraham Happenini.] The
" Shevile Emuna " was completed in the
year 5120 (a.d. 1360), as appears by a note
of the author at the end: it was fir.st printed
776 I

at Trent by Joseph Otheling, a.m. 5319
(a.d. 1559), 4to.; afterwards at Amsterdam
by Dan. de Fonseca, a.m. 5387 (a.d. 1027),
4to. ; and finally at the same place by Jos.
Probs, or Proops, a.m. 5468, (a.d. 1708), in
small 8vo., in the square Hebrew letter.
(Bartoloccius, Biblioth. Mag. Rahb. iv. 15. ;
Wolfius, Biblioth. Hebr. i. 745. iii. 667. iv.
896. ; De Rossi, Dizion. Storic. degli Aut.
Ebr. i. 45, 46. ; Imbonatus, Adventus Messiee,
p. 46—53.) C. P. H.

j ALDARI, R. AARON ABU {\r-\rMi "T
] 1-ly^^x 13^?)' '^^^ ^^ called by the Siphte
Jeshenim, Ben Gerson, the son of R. Gerson,
is the author of a commentary on the Pen-
tateuch, which together with the commen-
; taries of three other rabbis, namely, R.
Jacob Kanisal, R. Samuel Almosnino, and
R. Moses Albelda, was printed at Constan-
tinople in one volume folio without date.
We find no further account of this writer,
or of the time at which he lived. (Wolfius,
Biblioth. Hebr. i. 114.) C. P. H.

ALDAY, JOHN. We know nothing of
this writer except as the translator of a French
work that was highly popular in the middle
of the sixteenth century: " Theatrum Jlundi;
the Theatre or Rule of the World, wheria
may be scene the running Race and Course
of every Man's Life, as touching Miserie and
Felicitie, &c., written in the French and Latin
Tongues by Peter Boaistuau, &c." There
were three editions of this translation, the
last and the most correct of which appeared at
London in 1581. Boaistuau's work contains
many passages of quaint satire upon the
j manners of his age which Alday has trans-
lated with considerable spirit. (See extracts
in Dibdin's edition of More's " Utopia.") There
are also in Boaistuau's work several pieces in
j verse, which are also translated by Alday with
I some elegance. (See Ritson's " Bibliographia
Poetica," also " Bibliograghical Memoranda,"
Bristol, 1816.) Dr. Dibdin is of opinion that
there are resemblances between particular
passages in Burton's " Anatomy of Melan-
choly" and Alday's translation of Boaistuau;
and he gives a page or two in support of
this opinion, referring generally to Burton's
" Love Melancholy," which occupies more
than two hundred pages of that remarkable
work. Burton, the most voracious of readers,
was no doubt familiar with Alday's book.
But such supposed general resemblances
are often more fanciful than real. C. K.

ALDE, H. VAN, a painter and engraver
wlio lived at Amsterdam in the middle of the
seventeenth century. Heineken enumerates
three pieces after him — the portrait of
Caspar de Charpentier, an ecclesiastic of
Amsterdam, engraved by Van Aide in
1650 ; and the portraits of Admirals Ruyter
and De Witte, engraved in folio after A'an
Aide, by Mich. Mouzyn. (Heineken, Dic-
tiunnaire dcs Artistes dont nous armis des
Estampes.) R. N. W.

ALDEGATI.

ALDEGREVER.

ALDEGATI, MARCO or MARCAN-
TO'NIO, a poet, was bora at Mantua, and
lived at the end of the fifteenth century ; he
was professor of poetry at Ravenna in
1483. None of his -works (with one ex-
ception) appear to have been printed, but
the following is as copious an account of
them as can be obtained: — 1. An elegy
prefixed to a poem by Matteo Chironio upon
the passage of the Emperor Frederic III.
through Ravenna, preserved in manuscript
at Ravenna in the library of the Abbe Gi-
nanni. 2. A mutilated Latin poem in twelve
books, entitled " Gigantomachia," deposited
in the library of the Marquis Ferdinando
Aldegati at iSIantua. From the events alluded
to in this poem, it must have been written
between the years 1495 and 1511. .3. Giam-
battista iloreali of Modena also had in his
possession twenty-eight verses of the com-
mencement of another poem called " Hercu-
leidos," written in praise of the ancient Her-
cules, and dedicated to Hercules I. duke of
Ferrara. In this poem the author notices the
Gigantomachia. 4. .\n elegy on the death of
Galeotto, lord of Faenza, in 1488, published
in the " Biblioteca Codicura Manuscriptorum
Monasterii S. Michaelis Venetiarum prope
Musianum," p. 16. 5. Four books of elegies
preserved in the Laurentian library at
Florence ; a particular account of which (with
copious extracts) is given by Bandini in his
" Catalogus Codicum Latinorum Bibliothecaj
Mediceaj Laurentiana?," vol. iii. p. 829 — 847.

6. Three books of amorous elegies in praise
of one Cinzia, which were in the possession
of the Abbe Matteo Luigi Canonici of Venice ;
preceded by a dedicatory epistle, in verse, to
Cardinal Francesco Gonzaga, legate of Bo-
logna. At the end of the third book are the
following lines : —

" Mantua me gcnuit, fecit me Cynthia vatcm,
Aldegiittorum gloria dicar ego."

7. Another elegy, written by him in 1488,
on occasion of the discovery of the municipal
statutes of Ravenna, which had been long
lost, was found in that city by the Marquis
Camillo Spreti, and presented by him to
Cardinal Luigi Valenti. The above account
being taken from Tiraboschi, the statement
as to the respective possessors of Aldegati's
works refers of course to the period when
Tiraboschi published his book, viz. 1771.
(Tiraboschi, Storia della Letteratura ItdUnna,
vi. 1391.) J.W.J.

ALDEGREVER, HEINRICH, a cele-
brated German painter and engi-aver of the six-
teenth century, was born at Soest in Westpha-
lia in 1502. Of his family nothing is known,
but whilst still young he was induced to visit
Niirnberg, through the reputation of Albert
Diirer, with whom he placed himself as a
scholar. Aldegrever applied himself diligently
to painting and to engraving, acquired great
skill in both arts, and became one of the most
distinguished of the old German masters. He

VOL. I.

worked very much in the style of Albert
Diirer, and it is probably for this reason that
he was sometimes called Albert of Westpha-
lia ; Sandrart calls him Albrecht Aldegraf in
his text, yet inscribes his accompanying por-
trait " Henrich AldegriEf a Soest Westphalus."
He is called also Albert by Nagler in his
Kiinstler Lexicon, but this is an error ; liis
correct name is Henry Aldegrever, which,
with the date of his birth, we learn from
two portraits of himself engraved by himself,
both of which are in the print room of the
British Museum. His ni»nogram consists of
an H and an A in one character, with a small
G between the lower part of the legs.

Although Aldegrever painted several pic-
tures and acquired a great reputation as a
painter, he appears to have practised paint-
ing only for a few years, and to have after-
wards devoted himself exclusively to engi-av-
ing, chiefly from his own designs. He ranks
in the first class of what are termed the " little
masters," so called from having engraved
principally plates of small dimensions, and in
a minute and laboured style. He worked
almost entirely with the graver, having etched,
according to report, only one plate, which is
very scarce ; it represents Orpheus playing to
Eurydice, with the date 1528. He cut also only
one plate in wood : it is without date. Alde-
grever's plates are very numerous ; they amount
to considerably more than three hundred, and
bear dates, according to some writers, from
1522 until 1562, andaccording to others, from
1525 until 1558. The date of his death is
not accurately known ; it is supposed to be
1562, His engravings are well and finely
executed, hut they are strictly Gothic in style ;
his figures, though generally correctly drawn,
are frequently hard and sometimes lean, and
his draperies are stifl' and sharp, like the
greater part of those of Albert Diirer, whose
style he never forsook.

Aldegrever's paintings are of the same cha-
racter as his engravings, but they are not
numerous ; they are chiefly remarkable for a
richness of colouring. Sandrart speaks with
praise of some works in the churches of Soest,
and also two wings which Aldegrever painted
to a picture by Albert Diirer in a church in
Niirnberg. In the town-hall of the same
place there is a picture of Shadrach, Meshach,
and Abed-nego in the fiery furnace, by Al-
degrever ; and there are also some pieces by
him in the galleries of Munich, Schleissheim,
and Vienna. In the gallery of Munich there
is a very excellent portrait of a man with a
red beard. The gallery of Berlin also pos-
sesses a remarkable picture by this master ;
it represents the last judgment, and contains
a great variety of figures.

As Aldegrever's prints are very numerous,
our space will admit only of mention of some
of the most prized : — Two portraits of him-
self, one without and the other with a beard,
with name and age, and the dates 1530,
3 E

ALDEGEVER.

ALDEGUELA,

ictatis xxvni, and 1537,setatisxxxv ; a por-
trait of Martin Luther, 1540 ; one of Philip
Melanchthon, of tlie same year ; and two others
of John of Leyden, king of the Anabaptists,
and of the fanatic Bernard Knipperdolling,
taken after their arrest and imprisonment,
by the bishop of Miinster : many small plates
illustrating the biblical histories of Joseph
and his brethren; Thamar and Absalom;
David and Bathsheba ; Adam and Eve driven
from Paradise ; Lot and his daughters ; Judith
and Holophernes ; the good Samaritan ; Su-
sannah and the Elders ; the rich man and
Lazarus, &c. : also several from profane his-
tory and ancient mythology ; Romulus and
Remus exposed upon the banks of the Tiber ;
Tarquin and Lucretia ; Mutius Scaivola be-
fore Porsenna ; the battle of Hannibal and
Scipio ; Marcus Curtius about to leap into the
gulph ; Titus Manlius ordering the execu-
tion of his son, in which Aldegrever has in-
troduced an instrument very similar to the
guillotine used by the French during the Re-
volution, it bears the date 1553 ; Medea and
Jason ; thirteen plates of the labours of Her-
cules, which are very scarce, and are reckoned
among Aldegrever's best works: he executed
likewise many allegorical pieces ; also a West-
pluilian marriage procession in twelve pieces,
and two others in eight pieces ; a plate sup-
posed to represent the Count D'Archambaud
killing his son immediately before his own
death, with this inscription, " Pater, ne post
suam mortem filius degenerans male periret,
eum obtruncavit ;" this design is remarkably
well drawn : a man with a sword surprising
a monk and a nun together in a field ; eight
plates illustrating the empire of death ; six
plates of people of both sexes accompanied by
death, dated 1562 ; and a number of anabap-
tists naked in a bath. In the opinion of
Bartsch, the last two works mentioned are
not by Aldegrever.

Besides the above, and many others not here
enumerated, Aldegrever executed a great
variety of ornamental designs for silversmiths,
and also for booksellers. Heineken, in his
" Dictionnaire des Artistes dont nous avons des
Estampes," has given a complete list of Alde-
grever's plates ; and the greater part of them
are minutely described in the " Peiutre Gra-
veur" of Bartsch. R. N. W.

ALDEGUELA, JOSEF MARTIN DE,
a Spanish architect of considerable repute in
his day, was born at Manzaneda, in the dio-
cese of Teruel, 1730. He was a pupil of Josef
Corbinos of Valencia ; and almost as soon as
he quitted him and set up for practice him-
self, he was appointed to superintend the
building of the church and college of the
Jesuits at Teruel. So satisfactorily did he
acquit himself on that occasion that he was
shortly afterwards engaged by Don Isidro
Carvajal, bishop of Cuenca, to finish the
church of San Felipe Neri, which he was
erecting in that city at his own expense.
778

From this time his professional character was
established. Returning to Cuenca, he was
employed on the church of the Nuns of S.
Pedro, the church and convent of S. An-
tonio, those of the Franciscan Nuns de la
Concepcion, the Hospital, and other edi-
fices. At Malaga he constructed the new
aqueduct which supplies that city with water
from about the distance of two leagues ; he
was also employed there on the college of
S. Telmo, and rebuilt the church of the Au-
gustines. He was next commissioned by the
council of Castile to complete the bridge at
Ronda ; a noted and extraordinary work of
its kind, which is carried across a ravine
whose sides are nearly perpendicular and
210 varas or Spanish yards in depth. At
Ronda he also erected some public buildings.
In 1793 he accompanied the engineer Do-
mingo Belesta and his pupil Silvestre Bonilla
to Granada, for the purpose of surveying and
taking plans of the jialace of Charles V. in
the Alhambra, it being the intention of the
government to convert that pde of building
into a college for educating two hundred Ame-
rican youths of good family from the Spanish
American colonies ; but that scheme was
never carried into effect. Aldeguela died at
Malaga in 1802. (Cean Bermudez, in Appen-
dix to Llaguno's A^oticias de los Arquitectos y
Arquitectura de Espana.) W. H. L.

ALDERE'TE, BERNARDO DE, a Spa-
nish Jesuit, a native of Zamora, where he was
born about the close of the sixteenth century.
He is said to have entered when very young
into the society of the Jesuits, among whom
he acquired such reputation for learning and
ability, that he was appointed reader of theo-
logy at that society's college in the imiversity
of Salamanca, and he was the first of his
order upon whom the university conferred
the degree of doctor. He died at Salamanca
in 1657. He wrote the following works: —
1. " Commentaria et Disputationes in tertiam
Partem S. Thomas de sacris incarnati Verbi
Mysteriis et Perfectionibus." Leyden, 1652,
fol. 2. " De Visione et Sententia Dei." lb.
1662, fol. 3. "De Voluntate Dei, Prsedesti-
natione, et Reprobatione." Salamanca, 1657,
4to. (N. Antonius, Bibl. Hisp. Nov. ii. 220.)

P. de G.

ALDERE'TE, or ALDRE'TE (as his
name is written in some of his works), BER-
NARDO JOSE' DE, a writer on the history
and the ecclesiastical antiquities of Spain, was
born at Malaga in Andalusia, about the middle
of the sixteenth century. He had atwin-brother
named Jose de Alderete, who has often been
confounded with him, as both were eccle-
siastics, both wrote on ecclesiastical subjects,
and there was Also a very close personal re-
semblance between them. Jose obtained a
prebend at Cordova, which he resigned in
favour of his brother Bernardo, in order to
enter the society of Jesuits. Bernai'do was
appointed grand vicar (vicario general) by

ALDERETE.

the Archbishop of Seville, Don Pedro de
Castro ; but he obtained permission to reside
at Cordova. He was one of the best Spanish
■writers of his time, and gained great celebrity
for his knowledge of Greek, Hebrew, and
Arabic. The year of his death is not known.
Alderete was the author of the following
works : — 1. " Origen y Principio de la Lengua
Castellana," Rome, 1606, 4to., afterwards
reprinted at Madrid in 1674, with the
" Tesoro de la Lengua Castellana," by Sebas-
tian Covarrubias de Orozco. This is by far
the best work on the origin of the Castilian
or Spanish language. The author, who was
learned in the Hebrew and Arabic languages,
goes deeply into the subject, which he treats
with uncommon skill. 2. " Varias Antigue-
dades de Espana, Africa, y otras Provincias,"
Antwerp, 1614, 4to. ; and ib. 1724, 4to. ; a
work of great erudition on the history and
antiquities of Spain and Africa, dedicated to
Don Pedro de Castro y Quinones, archbishop
of Seville. 3. " Relacion de la Iglesia y Prela-
dos de Cordova," or the ecclesiastical history
of Cordova, with a list of its bishops, saints,
martyrs, &c. This was never printed, but
Gil Gonzalez Davila made use of it for his
collection intituled " Theatro de las Iglesias
de Espana," Madrid, 1645-50, fol., in which
the ecclesiastical history of Cordova is chiefly
taken from the above work by Alderete. 4.
" Relacion de la Planta de la Capilla Real y
de su Estado temporal y espiritual." This is
an account of the royal chapel founded in the
cathedral, formerly the mosque, of Cordova,
by Ferdinand III. of Castile and Leon. 5.
" ^aivofj.4va, sive coruscantia Lumina, trium-
phalisque Crucis Signa, sanctorum Martyrum
Albensium Urgavonensium Bonosi, Maxi-
miani et alioruni. Sanguine purpurata." This
work, which relates to the discovery made at
Arjona in Andalusia of the bodies of some
Spanish ecclesiastics put to death by the
Arabs, and known as the martyrs of Arjona,
was published in the form of a letter to Pope
Urbanus VIIL, Cordova, 1630, fol. Alderete
■wrote also a work on the antiquities of
Andalusia, which was never printed ; and
others, the titles of which are given in
Nicolas Antonio. Augustus Pfeiffer, in his
" Fasciculus Disputationumphilosophicarum,"
in the sixth essay " De Lingua Protoplas-
torum," speaks in very high terms of Al-
derete, whom he calls " Scriptor Hispanus
doctissimus." (N. Antonius, Bib. Hi.sp. A'ov.
i. 220.) P. de G.

ALDERETE, DIEGO GRACIAN DE,
the son of Diego Garcia, keeper of the ar-
mour (armero mayor), of Ferdinand and Isa-
bella, was born about the end of the fifteenth
century, and died at a verj^ advanced age, in
the reign of Philip II. His father sent him
to study at Louvain, under the celebrated
Luis Vives, and he became well versed in
Greek, Latin, and philosophy. Charles V.
made him one of his secretaries ; and after
779

the death of that emperor, he was retained
in the same situation by his son and successor
Philip II., and enjoyed great favour at court.
He is extolled by his countrymen as a man
of piety and leai'ning. His works are prin-
cipally translations, such as a Spanish version
of Xenophon, " Las Obras de Xenophonte
divididas en tres Partes," Salamanca, 1552,
fol. ; another of Thucydides, " La Historia
de Thucydides," Salamanca, 1564, fol.; and
one of the moral works of Plutarch, " Las
obras Morales de Plutarco." Alcald, 1542,
fol., and Salamanca, 1571, fol. He also trans-
lated from Isocrates, Dion Chrysostom,
Agapetus the Deacon, &c., besides a Spanish
version of the history of the African war
under Charles V., written in Latin by Calvete
de la Estrella, " La Conquista de Africa en
Berberia, escrita en Latin per Christoforo
Calvete de la Estrella," Salamanca, 1558,
8vo., and another of the " Arrets d' Amour,"
by Martial d'Auvergne, " Arrestos de Amor."
Salamanca. He published also a collection
of different treatises on the art of war, trans-
lated from the Greek, Latin, and French.
Barcelona, 1566, 4to. (N. Antonius, Bib.
Hisp. Nova, i. 286.) P. de G.

ALDERETUS. [Amatcs Lusitancs.]

ALDERI'NUS, COSMO, a Swiss com-
poser of the sixteenth century. He published
" Hymni Sacri a 4, 5, and 7 voc." Bern,
1553. E. T.

ALDERI'SIO, ALBERTO. Mazzuchelli
calls him " a celebrated lawyer of the last
century," that is, of the seventeenth. He was
a native of Morcone in the district Picentini
in the kingdom of Naples. His life can only
be traced by the dates of his publications. He
published at Naples in 1671 a treatise on the
interdict for the restitution of possession
" De Assistentia ad germanum Intellectum
Regiae Pragmaticse, sive Continuationes ad
eundem Tractatum Horatii Barbati de restitu-
torio Interdicto, ac de revocanda Possessione
sive de Assistentia prsestanda") ; in 1675, at
the same place, a treatise on symbolical con-
tracts (" Tractatus de symbolicis Contracti-
bus"); in 1683, still at Naples, on the dif-
ferent classes of heirs (" De Ha^redibus illis-
que diversis Tractatus"); and in 1686, also
there, on actions in matters of inheritance
("Dehseroditariis Actionibus"). That all these
were published in his lifetime appears from
the dedications prefixed to them. (Mazzu-
chelli, Scrittori d' Italia ; Adehmg, Supple-
ment to Jocher's Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexi-
con.) W. W.

ALDERSON, JOHN, M.D., was born at
Lowestoft in Suffolk, in the year 1758. Hav-
ing been for some time surgeon in the Nor-
folk militia, lie went to Hull and commenced
practice there about the year 1788. Shortly
afterwards he removed to Whitby in York-
shire, but did not long remain there, and
returning to Hull soon laid the foundation of
an extensive practice as a physician, which,
3 E 2

ALDERSON.

for moi"e than forty years, he cuUivated ■with
eminent success and credit. He died in 1829,
having for many years filled the offices of
physician to the General Infirmary as well
as to the Lying-in Charity of Hull. By his
abil ity, benevolence, and liberality, he held a
very high place in the estimation of all -within
his district (which for a provincial one was
unusually extended), and statues were by
general subscription erected to his memory,
and placed in front of the General Infirmary
and in the hall of the Mechanics' Society. He
was the brother of Dr. James Alderson, late
l^hysician at Norwich, and father of the present
Di-. James Alderson of Hull. Dr. Alderson
took great interest in literary as well as
medical subjects, and endeavoured to excite
the mercantile part of the town in which
he lived to the cultivation of the arts and
sciences. He was a warm and active patron
of the philosophical societies in Hull ; on
sevei'al occasions he acted as president and
delivered addresses to the members, in which
he pointed out that " commerce and literature
have always gone hand in hand," and that
" literature is indispensable to the happiness
and prosperity of a commercial town."

The following treatises were published by
Dr. Alderson: — 1. " An Essay on the Nature
and Origin of the Contagion of Fevers." Hull,
1788, 8vo. His observations principally refer
to the contagion which gives rise to jail or
hospital fever. He considers the matter of
contagion to be an excretion from the lungs,
gives proofs that it may be generated in con-
sequence of a number of persons being con-
fined in a small space, and points out the
most effectual means of purifying the air and
arresting the progress of the disease. 2. " An
Essay on the Rhus Toxicodendron, with cases
of its effects in paralytic affections and other
diseases of great debility." Hull, 1794, 1796,
1804, and 1811, 8vo. This treatise contains
the first account of experiments performed in
this country, to ascertain the power of the
Toxicodendron as a medicine. The botanical
characters and habits of the plant are first
described, and then several cases are related
in which the beneficial influence of the re-
medy had been observed. They are princi-
pally cases of nervous affections, as hemiplegia,
paralysis from lead, chorea, &c. In small
quantities it acted as a gentle aperient, pro-
ducing also slight convulsive actions of the
limljs ; larger doses were followed by vertigo,
with nausea and more general cramps. The
spasmodic movements of chorea gradually
subsided under its influence. .3. " An Essay
on the Improvement of poor Soils." London,
1802 and 180.5, 8vo., showing how much
agriculture may be improved by attention to
a proper mixture of earths, and by a suc-
cession of plants dissimilar in their habits
from each other. 4. " An Essay on Appa-
ritions," read in 1805 at one of the meetings
of the Philosophical Society at Hull, first
780

published, unknown to the author, in the
Edinburgh Med. and Surg. Journal in 1810,
reprinted by him, and appended to his fourth
edition of the Essay on the Rhus Toxicoden-
dron in 1811, and published as a separate
work, London, 1823, 8vo. In this essay Dr.
Alderson relates several cases in which hal-
lucinations of various sorts clearly depended
upon bodily ailments, and ceased with the re-
turning health of the suflerers ; and he refers
their causes, not to the perturbed spirits of
the dead, but to the disordered functions
of the living. This production is supposed
to have formed the groundwork of Ferriar's
" Essay towards a Theory of Apparitions,"
and also of Dr. Hibbert's " Philosophy of
Apparitions." He also communicated " Geo-
logical Observations on the Vicinity of Hull
and Beverley," in Nicholson's Journal, vol.
iii. 1799. Frost's " Address to the Literary
Society at Hull, 1831," contains a brief account
of Dr. Alderson's life. (MS. Communication.')

G. M. H.

ALDES, THEODORE. [Slade, Mat-
thew.]

A'LDFRID, otherwise ALFRED, EAL-
FRED, AELFRED, ALFRIDE, ELD-
FRID, and EALDFERTH, king of Nor-
thumbria, was, according to Bede, of ille-
gitimate birth, and was thought to be the son
of King Oswio or Oswin. Dr. Lingard con-
ceives that the general assumption of later
writers, that he was the same person with
Oswio's son Alchfrid, has been derived from
a mistake of William of Malmsbury. Alch-
frid appears to have been legitimate, whether
he was younger than his brother Egfrid, who
succeeded to the throne on the death of Os-
wio in 670, or, being elder than Egfrid, had
died before his father. In either case, if he
was a diiferent person from Aldfrid, or
Alfred, he was certainly dead before the
death of Egfrid in 685. During the reign of
Egfrid, who is said to have sought his de-
struction, Alfred had taken refuge among the
Irish monks of Hy, or lona, in the Hebrides ;
and there he acquired a knowledge of letters
and a love of study, which he retained during
his life, and which procured hun, in his own
day, the name of the learned king. There
also he first became acquainted with Adom-
nan. [Adomxan.] The war against the
Picts, in which Egfrid met his death, at the
battle of Nechtansmere, or Dunnechtan, seems
to have been occasioned by the protection
given to Alfred in the Pictish territory.
This event, at any rate, placed Alfred on the
Northumbrian throne, to which, we are told,
he was called by the unanimous voice of the
thanes or nobles. Eddius, in his " Life of
St. Wilfred," designates him Hex Sapientis-
simiis (the most wise king) ; and Bede de-
scribes him as most learned in the Scrip-
tures, (vir in Scripturis doctissimus). He
is said to have governed his kingdom with
great wisdom, and to have materially pro-

ALDFRID.

ALDIIELM.

moted the civilisation of his suhjects, both
by his strict administration of justice and
through the learned men he drew to his
court from other parts of Britain. But
he seems scarcely to have retained the
eminent place which had been held among
the Anglo-Saxon princes by his immediate
predecessors ; and the only military event
that marks his reign is an expedition against
the Picts in 699, which he did not conduct in
person, but placed under the command of the
Alderman Beorht or Berht, whose fortune it
was to be signally defeated and slain. The
consequence of this and the previous victory
gained by the Picts from Egfrid seems to
have been a considerable curtailment of the
Northumbrian territory : it is probable that
the debateable tract, on the eastern side of
the island, extending from the Tweed to
the Forth, which had been long settled by
a Saxon population, and which came in
a later age to be known by the name of
Lodonia (signifying the Marches or Bor-
ders), still surviving in the name Lothian
retained by the principal part of it, passed
from this date under the dominion of the
Picts. The most memorable passage of the
domestic history of Alfred's reign is his con-
test with the famous bishop Wilfrid, which
will fall to be noticed under that name. Al-
fred died on the 24th of December, 705 ; and
was succeeded by his son Osred, then a child
in his eighth year, his only issue, as far as is
recorded, by his wife Cyneburg, or Kenburg,
daughter of Penda, king of Mercia, (Bede,
Eccl. Hist. iv. v. ; Saxon Chronicle; Eddius,
Vita S. Wilfridi, in Gale, XV Scriptores,
fol. Oxon. i691, pp. 74, &c. ; Bale, Scrip-
tores Maj. Brit. i. 87. ; Pits, Dc Reh. Angl.
p. 115. ; Tanner, BibUulh. Brit. Hib., both at
" Alfredus," and again at " Ealfredus," where
he, or 'NVilkins his editor, forgetting the former
article, erroneously asserts that no mention i
of this most learned king occurs either in j
Bale or Pits ; Biog. Britan. " Aelfred ;" Lin- j
gard. Hist. Eng.; Allen's Vindication of the j
ancient Independence of Scotland.) G. L. C.
ALDHELM, SAINT, a distinguished Saxon
ecclesiastic, is stated in his life, supposed to
have been written by William of Malmsbury,
to have been the son of Kenter (otherwise
Kenred, or Conred), a near relation, but not,
as some asserted, the nephew, of Ina, the fa-
mous king of Wessex, who reigned from 089
to 728. Aldhelm was probably born in Wilt-
shire ; but although, besides the nearly
worthless modern notices of him by Bale,
Pits, and Dempster, and a more elaborate
compilation from ancient documents by Le-
land, we have two early lives of him, one of
which, at least, goes into considerable detail,
the date of his birth can only be conjectured.
The earliest of the two original lives is by
Faricius, an Italian, who became a monk of
IMalmsbury, and died abbot of Abingdon in
1117: it is printed in the Antwerp " Acta
781

Sanctorum" from the only known manu-
script, which is in the Cotton library (Faus-
tina B 4). The other life, of which Wil-
liam of Malmsbury, the historian, has been
rather assumed than proved to be the author,
is of much greater extent, and exists in va-
rious manuscripts. It is found however in
two very different forms, the one being ap-
parently a very brief compendium of the
other. The compendium, of which only one
manuscript is known (Cotton MS. Claudius
A 5), was printed by Mabillon, in 1677, in
the " Acta Benedictinorum," Sfficulum iv.,
part. i. p. 726, &c. : he obtained a loan of the
Cotton 3IS. through Sir Joseph Williamson,
secretary of state. The full life was printed
in 1691 at London by Henry Wharton in
the second volume of his " Anglia Sacra,"
pp. 1 — 49. ; and the same year at Oxford by
Thomas Gale in his " Historise Britannictr,
&c., Scriptores XV," pp. 337—382. Gale's
edition came out first, but Wharton's had
been printed off before it appeared. The
transcripts from which they printed are sup-
posed by Wharton to have been both made
from the same original, a manuscript in
the library of Trinity College, Cambridge,
written about the end of the fifteenth cen-
tury, in a very difficult hand ; the conse-
quence of which is, that the two editions
exhibit many variations. Wharton boasts
that on the whole his is by far the more
correct. But the text of the manuscript is
evidently as corrupt as the writing is bad ; so
that the narrative of the shorter life is for
the most part more satisfactory so far as it
goes. The notion of the writer with regard
to the age of Aldhelm, as to which, however,
he confesses that he had no distinct inform-
ation, is, that he was probably born some
years before 640 ; but this is quite incon-
sistent with what he goes on to relate, that
his first teacher, under whom he was placed
by his parents when a little boy, was the
celebrated Adrian, who came over with The-
odore, and established a school in Kent. It
is quite certain that Adrian did not arrive in
England till the close of the j'ear 670. The
state of the fact, however, with regard to one
material sentence in the narrative may re-
quire to be correctly stated. The words
" Ibi pusio Grsecis et Latinis eruditus Uteris"
(instructed there when a little boy in the
Greek and Latin), which in the shorter life
printed by Mabillon immediately follow the
statement about his having been put under
the care of Adrian to be taught the first ele-
ments of learning (primis imbuendus de-
mentis), clearly do not refer to Aldhelm at all,
as they stand in AATiarton and Gale (the latter
of whom, by the bye, quietly omits " pusio"
altogether), but to Meildulf, or INIeldun, to
whom the writer attributes the origin of the
monastery and town afterwards called from
him ^lealdubery, and by corruption Mealmes-
bery or Malmsbury. Leland's account is,
' 3 E 3

ALDHELM.

that this Melldulf (or Maildulphus, as he calls
him) was Aldhelm's first teacher ; that under
him he was instructed in Latin ; that he then
went to Canterbury to acquire dialectic and
rhetoric, and that there also he was taught
Greek by Adrian and Theodore. In the life
attributed to William of Malmsbury a pas-
sage is given from a letter of Aldhelm's in
which he styles Adrian the teacher of his
rude infancy — " meseque rudis infantiai ve-
nerando prseceptori Adriano." If this letter
be genuine we cannot suppose that Aldhelm
was older than fourteen, or fifteen at the
most, when he became a pupil of Adrian's ;
and his birth therefore could scarcely have
happened before 655 or 656 at the earliest.
In the letter, which is addressed to Adrian,
Aldhelm goes on to observe that during a
second period of attendance in the school in
Kent (dum post prima elementa iterum apud
vos essem) he had been attacked by an ill-
ness which had compelled him to return
home ; and this had happened about three
years before his writing the letter. His bio-
grapher's account is, that after returning to
Wessex from his first residence in Kent he
had assumed the religious habit in the mo-
nastic community at Malmsbury which had
arisen out of the school established by Meil-
dulf This society he now rejoined ; and at
length his eminent acquirements placed him
at the head of the seminary, which under his
direction obtained such reputation as to be
resorted to by scholars both from Ireland
and France. He and his brethren were
afterwards formed into a regular monastery,
Aldhelm being made abbot, according to the
charters exhibited by the house in later
times, by Leutherius, bishop of Winchester,
in 675 ; but, as Aldhelm could scarcely have
been then twenty years of age, the proba-
bility is (as Mr. Wright suggests in his
" Biographia Britannica Literaria," p. 213.),
that the charters were forgeries, and that the
foundation of the abbey of Malmsbury is to
be dated some years later. Aldhelm's other
biographer, Faricius, relates that he afterwards
paid a visit to Rome on the invitation of
Pope Sergius I. ; and it has been supposed
that he probably accompanied Ceadwalla,king
of Wessex, who went to Rome to be bap-
tized, and died there in 689. In 705, appa-
rently without resigning his abbacy, he was
made the first bishop of Sherborn, then dis-
joined from Winchester ; and he died at a
place variously called Dunting, Dulting, or
Doulting, near Westbury in Wiltshire, on
the 25th of May, 709. That is the day as-
signed to him in the Roman calendar ; his
right to a place in which at all, however, has
been disputed.

The works of Aldhelm that have come
down to us are all in Latin, and are partly in
prose partly in verse. Some epistles written
to him as well as by him are in the collec-
tions of the " Epistola; S. Bonifacii," 1629 and
782

1789 ; in Usher's " Veterum Epistolarum Syl-
loge," 1632 and 1696 ; in Wharton's Auctua-
rium to Usher's " Historia Dogmatica," 1690 ;
and in the " Bibliotheca Maxima Patrum,"
1677, &c. His most famous composition is
a treatise on the virtue of chastity, which
has been variously described as all in prose,
all in verse, and partly in prose partly in
verse. There are in fact two works by Ald-
helm on this subject. That which he wrote
first is in prose, and, having been held in
great estimation among our Saxon ancestors,
exists in several manuscripts. At its close
the author intimates his intention of treating
the same theme in verse ; and the perfonn-
ance thus promised has also been preserved.
Fabricius, inhis " Bibliotheca I^atinalnfima! et
Media; ^tatis," states that one of these trea-
tises, which he calls " Liber de Virginitate,"
was published in quarto at Deventer by Jac.
Faber in 1512 ; but, although the same state-
ment is repeated by other biographers or
bibliographers, none of them that we have
met with mentions whether this was the
prose or the metrical work. The prose trea-
tise is said to have been published at Paris,
"apud Mich. Somnium" (al. Sonnium), in
1576 ; and it is contained in the Basle col-
lection entitled Orthodoxographia, and in
several of the Bibliotheca; Patrum ; but the
best edition of it is that given by Henry
Wharton at the end of his " Beda; venera-
bilis Opera qua;dam Theologica, &c." 4to.
Lond. 1693, p. 283 — 369. The metrical
work (sometimes entitled " De Laude Vir-
ginum," sometimes " De Laude SS. Patrum et
Virginum,") was published by Canisius, as
he seems to suppose for the first time, in his
" Antiqua; Lectiones," fol. Ingolstadt, 1G08,
torn. V. par. 2. p. 798. ; and it is also contained
in the re-arranged edition of that work by
Basnage, fol. Antwerp, 1725, tom. i. p. 709.
In both editions it is followed by another
poem, entitled " De Octo principalibus Vitiis"
(sometimes spoken of as " De Pugna Octo
principalium Virtutum"). Both of these
performances are in hexameter verse ; as are
also a collection of riddles entitled " JEn'ig-
mata," which are said to have been first
printed at Basle in 1557, and an edition of
which, in 12nio., was published by the Jesuit
Martin Debrio, at Mentz, in 1601. All these
poems are also contained in most of the col-
lections entitled Bibliotheca; Patrum. Ald-
helm has the reputation of having been the
first of his countrymen who wrote anjthing
in Latin verse ; and a work of his, now lost,
is quoted in the life attributed to William of
Malmsbui'y, in which he seems to saj- that
he had therein for the first time irafolded to
his countrymen the rules of Latin prosody
and metre. In respect of all that appertains
to taste in composition, both his verse and his
prose are vicious in the extreme. But his
linguistic knowledge was certainly remark-
able for that age. His biographer Fabricius

ALDIIELM.

ALDINI.

assures us that he knevr Greek almost as •well
as if it had been his native tongue, and that
he could also read the Old Testament in the
original Hebrew. His acquaintance with the
Greek language is evident from his writings
that remain. Aldhelm (whose name is in the
Latin of the middle ages written variously
Aldhelmus, Adelmus, Anthelmus, Althelmus,
Adelhelmus, Aldelinus, &c.) is said to have
also excelled in Saxon poetry ; but none of
his verses in his native tongue are now
known to exist. (Besides the ancient bio-
graphies, the editions of Aldhelm's works, and
the other sources quoted in the article, see
Bede, EccJes. Hist. v. 19. ; Leyserus, Histo-
ria Poefarmn Medii ^vi, p. 198, &c., and
Wright's Biotjraphia Britannica Literaria.
vol. i. 1842.) G. L. C,

ALDINI, GIOVANNL nephew of Gal-
vani,the discoverer of galvanism, and brother
of the count Antonio Aldini, a distinguished
Italian statesman, was born at Bologna on the
10th of April, 1 762. From his earliest years he
showed a predilection for the study of natural
philosophy. In 1798 he was appointed to suc-
ceed Canterzani, who had been his own instruc-
tor in physics, in the university of Bologna.
He was one of the earliest and most active
members of the National Institute of Italy, to
the foundation of which he contributed, and
in 1807 he was made a knight of the Iron
Crown and a member of the council of state
at Milan. Though thus in favour with Na-
poleon's government, he preserved, like his
brother, his credit with the Austrians, and
continued in the enjoyment of their patronage
and protection till his death on the 17th of
January, 1834. He left his philosophical in-
struments and a large sum in money to found
a public institution in Bologna for the
instruction of artisans in physics and che-
mistry.

The most conspicuous merit of Aldini was
his activity in endeavouring to render public
such discoveries either of himself or others as
he conceived likely to be of public use. He
was well acquainted with the modern lan-
guages, fond of travelling, and indefatigable
in conveying scientific intelligence from one
end of Europe to the other. The three
principal objects which engaged his atten-
tion at different periods, were the medical
uses of galvanism, the discovery of his illus-
trious uncle ; the utility of gas, particularly
in the illumination of lighthouses, and the
advantages of a fire-proof dress for persons
engaged in ext-inguishing conflagrations.
The following is a list of such of his works
as we can find: — 1. and 2. Two Latin dis-
sertations on galvanism, mentioned by his
biographer, Rambelli, who does not give
the titles. 3. " Precis d'Experiences gal-
vaniques," Paris, 1803, 8vo. ; an account of
some interesting experiments made by Aldini,
principally upon the bodies of dead anintals.
This work was translated from the French
783

manuscript into English, and published under
tlie title of " An Account of the late improve-
ments in Galvanism, by John Aldini," Lon-
don, 1803, 4to., with an appendix, containing
experiments upon the bodies of executed cri-
minals, performed by Aldini in Newgate and
Bologna. The title-page contains an engrav-
ing of a gold medal presented to the author
as a token of respect by the medical profes-
sors and pupils of Guy's and St. Thomas's
hospitals. 4. " Essai theorique et experimen-
tal sur le Galvanisme, avec une serie d'Ex-
periences," Paris, 1804, 4to.; an important
work, in which numerous experiments are
methodically arranged. The dedication, which
is to Bonaparte, commences thus : " That day
will be for ever memorable in the history of
galvanism on which, though hardly arrived
in Italy, you permitted me to develope before
you the principal experiments of this science,
in the midst of the vast political and military
occupations with which you were surrounded."
5. " Osservazioni sul Flusso del Mare." Milan,
8vo. Obervations on the tide of the sea, con-
sidered as a motive power for mills, a work
which owed its origin to the expression of a
wish on the part of Eugene Beauliarnais, then
viceroy of Italy, that the ebb and flow of the sea
into the lagunes might be turned to some use-
ful account. 6. " Sperienze suUa Leva idrau-
lica." Experiments on the hydraulic lever. Mi-
lan, 1811, 8vo. 7. " Saggio esperimentale suU'
esterna applicazione del Vapore all' acqua dei
Bagni, &c." Milan 1818, 8vo. Essay on the ex-
ternal application of steam to the water of baths
and to silk-weaving. 8. " General Views on the
application of Galvanism to medical purposes,
principally in cases of suspended Animation."
London, 1819, 8vo. The dedication, which is
to the Royal Humane Society, is dated from.
London, June 15th, 1819, and in the notes
Aldini expresses his acknowledgments to
Mr. Pettigrew, secretary of the Humane So-
ciety, for his assistance in enabling him to
publish the dissertation in English. 9. " Sag-
gio di Osservazioni sui mezzi atti a migliorare
la costruzione e I'illuminazione dei Fari."
Milan, 1823, 8vo. " Selection of observations
on the best means of improving the construc-
tion and illumination of lighthouses." The
frontispiece of the work is a view of the light-
house at Trieste, the first illuminated with gas,
a circumstance on which Aldini dwells with
much national pride. The subject was one
that he had studied with care during his last
visit to England, and he repeatedly acknow-
ledges his obligations to the courtesy of the
brethren of the Trinity House, and of Ste-
venson, Brewster, and Playfair. 10. "L' Art
de se preserver de Taction de la Flamme."
Paris, 1830, 8vo. "The art of preserving
oneself from the action of flame." 11. "A
short account of experiments made in Italy,
and recently repeated in Geneva and Paris,
for preserving human life and objects of value
from destruction by Fire." London, 1830, SvW
3 E 4

ALDINI.

ALDOBRANDINI.

12. " Experiences faites a Londres," &c.
Paris, 1830, 8vo. An account of similar ex-
periments made in London. The three last
■works are devoted to the description of a
kind of asbestos armour invented by Pro-
fessor Aldini, by which he proposed to
render the wearers proof against the effects
of fire. The experiments made on the in-
vention in Paris and London appear, ac-
cording to the published accounts, to have
had a satisfactory result so far as the pro-
tection was concerned, but the invention has
never been brought into general use, chiefly,
it may be supposed, from the expensive na-
ture of the equipment, and from its being
found somewhat cumbrous in the active ex-
ertions which firemen are expected to make.
At the end of the eleventh work in the list,
Aldini announced his intention of publishing
a larger treatise in English, to be entitled
" The Art of preserving firemen and work-
men from the action of Flame, and of saving
human life in cases of Fire ;" but it does not
appear that this work, which was probably to
be an augmented translation of the tenth in
the list, was ever published. This list of his
works is probably imperfect, though collected
from several different sources. Many of
them were translated into several languages,
and one, according to Rambelli, was ren-
dered into Turkish. {Life, by Rambelli, in
Tipaldo, Biogntfia dcgli Italiani illtistri del
Secolo XVJJI.,'ir. 287, &c. ; Henrion, An-
nuaire Bkyraphique, i. 10. ; Querard, La
Litterature Fntni^aise contemporaine, i. 16.;
Catalogue of Printed Books in the British
Museum. London, 1841, i. 170.; Works of
Aldini quoted.) T. W.

ALDl'NI, TOBI'AS, a native of Cesena
in Italy, was physician to Cai'dinal Eduardo
Farnese in the early part of the seventeenth
century. He was also curator of the bo-
tanic garden at Rome belonging to this
prelate. In 1625 he published a work con-
taining a description of some of the rarer
plants contained in the Farnese garden,
with the title " Exactissima Descriptio ra-
riorum quarundara Plantarum quae conti-
nentur Rom;c in Horto Farnesiano. Roma;,"
folio. The work was illustrated with figures
of the plants described, Miiich are very well
executed. It contains the first account of
the Acacia Farnesiana, which was introduced
into the Farnese garden in 1616, and has
since become naturalized in Europe. This
work is said to have been written by Peter
Castellus, who was also a physician at Rome,
and some have supposed that Aldini was only
an assumed name ; but Bartholin, who was a
friend of Castellus, says that Aldinus was
only assisted in this work by Castellus. No
allusion is made to this circumstance in the
book. (Jocher, Allgem. Gelehrt-Lcricon, and
Adelnng's Supplement ; Ersch and G ruber's
AUqcm. Encyc.^ E. L.

ALDOBRANDI'NT, a Tuscau family
784

originally from the village of Larciano, near
Pistoia, but settled at Florence in the twelfth
century. They are mentioned bj- the chro-
nicler Dino Compagni as belonging to the
high Guelph or Neri party. Several members
of the Aldobrandini family filled public offices
in the republic as priori and gonfalonieri.

SiLVESTRO Aldobrandini, bora in 1499,
distinguished himself as a jurist, and was for
a time professor of law at Pisa. On the fall
of the republic in 1530 he was exiled with
many others, as being opposed to the Medici.
He then entered as a civilian the service of
Alfonso, duke of Ferrara, and afterwards of
Guidobaldo, duke of Urbino. He was next
employed by Pope Paul III. in various admi-
nistrative offices, and at last was made fiscal
advocate at Rome. Pope Paul IV. made him
a member of the board of administration
called " consulta." Silvestro died at Rome
in 1558. He wrote several works on juris-
prudence:— 1. " Commentarium in Lib. I. In-
stitut. Justiniani." 2. " Institutiones Juris
civilis." 3. " De Usuris." He left several
sons, one of whom, Ippolito Aldobrandini,
was made pope in 1592. [Clement VIII.]
Another son, Giovanni Aldobrandini, was
made bishop of Imola, and afterwards cardinal,
by Pius v., in 1570. He was employed in
several important missions, and died in 1573.

ToiMAso Aldobrandini, another brother
of Clement VIIL, was made secretary of
briefs by Pius V. in 1567. He was a dis-
tinguished scholar. He made a Latin version,
with notes, of the Lives of the Philosophers, by
Diogenes Laertius, which was published at
Rome in 1594, folio ; and he wrote a Latin
commentary on the work of Aristotle " On
the Sense of Hearing." The translation of
Diogenes and the notes have some merit.
The commentary on the work of Aristotle
does not appear to have been published.

There were two cardinals Aldobrandini,
nephews of ClementVIII. ; one of them, Pietro
Aldobrandini, was made archbishop of Ra-
venna. He was a learned man and a patron
of learning. He wrote " Apophthegmata de
perfecto Principe." The other cardinal,
Cinzio Aldobrandini, was a great friend
of Tasso, who dedicated to him his " Gcru-
salemme Conquistata." Another nephew of
Clement VIIL, Count Gian Francesco Aldo-
brandini, was made general of the papal
troops, and was sent by his uncle to Hungary
in 1695 with a bodj' of 6000 men to assist the
Emperor Rudolf II. against the Turks. He
made several campaigns in Hungary, and
died at Waradin in 1601. His son, Sil-
vestro Aldobrandini, was made a cardinal,
and his nephew Giangiorgio, was made
prince of Rossano in the kingdom of Naples.
Olimpia Aldobrandini, the only daughter
and heiress of Giangiorgio, married first
Paolo Borgheso, prince of Sulmona; after
whose death she married Camillo Pamfili,
nephew of Innocent X. The bulk of the

ALDOBRANDINI.

ALDONZA.

Aldobrandini property passed into the Bor-
ghese family, in which the second son bears
the title of prince Aldobrandini. The Villa
Aldobrandini on the Quirinal Mount at
Rome contained the celebrated ancient fresco
painting called " Nozze Aldobrandine," wliich
was found in the thermae of Titus, and which
is now in the museum of the ^'atican. There
is another Villa Aldobrandini at Frascati,
which is a splendid country seat, though now
neglected ; it belongs to the Borghese. (Biagio
Adimari, Memorie Istoriche di diverse Famiglie
nobili; Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d" Italia; Me-
catti, Storia Genealogica della Nobilta e
Cittadinanza di Firenze ; Giovanni Stringa,
Vita di Clements VIII. in the Continuation
of the Vite dei Pontefici of Platina and Pan-
vinio.) A.V.

ALDONZA, queen-consort of Ramiro II.,
king of Leon, who reigned from a. d. 931 till
95 L Of this queen a singular story is told
by two chroniclers, one of them the author
of the " Livro velho das Linhagens de Por-
tugal," a work of the thirteenth centurj' ; the
other Don Pedro, count of Bracelos, son of
Don Diniz, king of Portugal, who reigned
from 1279 to 1323. It is to this effect: Ra-
miro fell in love with the sister of Alboazar
Albucadam, or Abencadam, a Moorish king
whose dominions extended at that time from
Gaya to Santarem. He demanded her in
marriage of her brother, who inquired how
he could marry her when he had a wife yet
living. Ramiro replied that Aldonza was
within the prohibited degrees of consan-
guinity, and the church, if applied to, would
part him from her ; but Alboazar was not
content with this answer, and said moreover
that he had promised his sister to the King
of Marocco. Ramiro, indignant at his dis-
appointment, carried off the Moorish lady by
force, and Alboazar, being defeated in the at-
tempt to rescue her, repaid the injury in kind
by seizing the Queen Aldonza at Minhor and
carrying her off to the castle of Gaya. The
king of Leon was as indignant as if he had
given no provocation. He sent for his son
Don Ordono and his bravest knights, and set
out in his galleys for Gaya. He reached it
at night, left his galleys in the Douro, covered
with green cloth, so that they could not be dis-
tinguished from the trees which then lined
both banks of the river, and went alone, in
the dress of a beggar, to spy out the best
means of attack, after charging Ordono and
his companions to remain quiet in the galleys
till they should hear him sound his horn, and
then to I'ush to his aid. Alboazar was gone
out for the chase, but in the morning Al-
donza sent out a Christian damsel named
Perona (according to the Count de Bracelos,
but the other chronicler says it was a Moorish
damsel named Ortiga) to fetch water from
the spring to wash her hands. The damsel
found an old beggar by the side of the spring,
who asked her for water to drink, and in the
785

act of drinking dropped from liis moutli into
the pitcher, unknown to her, a ring. \Vhen
the queen went to wash her hands the ring
dropped out, and she recognized the token of
King Ramiro. She sent for the beggar, and
when she had him in private she asked, " Ra-
miro, what brings you here ? " to which he
replied, " The love of thee." " You have no
love for me," answered the queen, " since you
carried away Alboazar's sister, whom you
must love more ; but go into this chamber,"
which she pointed out, " and I will get rid of
these ladies who are about me and come to
you soon." Ramiro waited in the chamber
till he heard Alboazar return from the chase,
when the queen accosted him with the ques-
tion, " If you had Ramiro here, what would
you do with him ? " The Moor replied,
" What he would do to me : I would put him
to death." " Then you have him safe," said
Aldonza, " in that chamber." Ramii'o, hearing
this, called out to the Moor that since he'had
carried off his sister he had been stung with
remorse, and that he had come to put himself
in his hands with the view of doing penance
for his crime, which he would do, if allowed,
by sounding his horn till the breath was out of
his body. Alboazar was not imwilling to let
him go free ; but the queen addressed him in
language almost as energetic in the original
as in the powerful lines in which it has been
rendered by Southey —

" O Alboazar," then quoth she,
" Weak of heart as weak can be.
Full of revenge and wiles is he.
Look at those eyes beneath that brow, —
I know Ramiro better than thou :
Kill him, for thou hast him now :
He must die, be sure, or thou."

Alboazar being tlms prevailed upon took
his captive out to the court-yard to let him
die in the manner he solicited, by sounding his
horn till the breath was out of his body. At
the blast of Ramiro, Oi'dofio and all his com-
panions rushed up from the galleys, a general
slaughter of Alboazar and all the Moors took
place, and Aldonza was taken captive. Or-
dono wept at hearing the tale of her trea-
chery, and said, " It does not become me to
speak, for she is my mother." Aldonza her-
self wept, and when Ramiro asked her for
what, she replied, " Because thou hast killed
a man who was better than thou art." Or-
dofio at this called out to his father, " This
is a devil — what will you do with her, for
perhaps she may escape ? " Ramiro then
ordered a millstone to be tied round her neck,
and she was thrown into the sea. It was be-
lieved by the people that it was for these
words spoken against his mother that Ordono,
surnamed the Bad, was afterwards deprived
by Providence of the crown of Leon.

Such is the story told by the Count of
Bracelos ; that of the other chronicler differs
from it in some particulars, principally in
making no mention of any quarrel between
Ramiro and Alboazar previous to the ab-

ALDONZA.

ALDRED.

duction of Aldonza, and thus assigning no
sufficient motive for the treachery of the
queen, and in stating that a certain Ortiga with
■whom Ramiro lived after Aldonza's death
"was the Moorish damsel whom she had sent
out to draw water on that eventful morning,
and whom Ramiro first saw on that occasion.
Florez treats the whole story as a romance,
hut admits that in a donation cited by Brito in
his " Monarquia Lusitana" (Brito was how-
ever a great forger of documents) a certain
" Artigia" is mentioned as the mother of
two children by King Ramiro. The story,
even if merely considered as a tradition, is
not without its value. It has been made the
subject of a spirited poem by Southey.
(Conde de Bracelos, Nobiliario, quoted by
Southey, Poetical Works, vi. 122 — 127. ; Livro
Velho das Linhagens de Portugal, given in
Sousa, Provas da Historia Genealogica da
Casa real Portitgueza, i. 212 — 214.; Florez,
Memorias de las Reynas Catholicas, i. 106,
&c.) T. W.

ALDRED, commonly called the Glossator,
or the Presbyter, is the author of an Anglo-
Saxon gloss or interpretation, interlined on
the celebrated copy of the Four Latin Gos-
pels known by the name of the Durham
Book, or St. Cuthbert's Book, in the Cot-
tonian library (MS. Nero D iv). This ap-
pears from an Anglo-Saxon inscription in his
own handwriting on the last leaf of the ma-
nuscript, which informs us that the original
Latin text was written by Ealdfrid, bishop of
Lindisfarne (who occupied the see from a. d.
688 to 721) ; that the illuminations (which
are very elaborate and beautiful) were the
work of his successor Ethilwald; that the vo-
lume was bound and adorned with precious
stones by BLlfrid the anchoret ; and that,
lastly, Aldred glossed or translated the Latin
into English. The expressions in which Al-
dred describes himself are in Latin, and are,
in the body of the statement, " Aldred Pres-
byter, indignus et miserrimus ;" and in a mar-
ginal note, " Alfredi natus, Aldredus vocor ;
Bonse mulieris filius eximius loquor." This
venerable volume, still in perfect preservation
in so far as regards the writing, every line of
which is as distinct as if it had been newly
finished, that of the Latin text in particular
being remarkably brilliant, remained till the
Reformation in the cathedral church of
Durham, of which it was accounted one of
the chief treasures, and where it had always
been regarded with the deepest veneration by
the people, as various notices in the old
chroniclers testify. Aldred's gloss, the writ-
ing of which, in a current Saxon hand, is
very neat and beautiful, is interesting and
important in a philological point of view as
the most ample existing specimen of the
Northumbrian Anglo-Saxon, or of what is
sometimes called the Danish dialect of the
language, that is, the dialect produced by an
admixture of Danish forms. From this cir-
786

cumstance, among others, it is supposed that
the Aldred of the Durham Gospels is the same
person who appears to have glossed another
Durham volume, the contents of which have
been lately printed by the Surtees Society
under the title of " Rituale Ecclesise Dun-
elmensis," 8vo. Lon. 1840. On one of
the leaves of this manuscript is what the
editor, Mr. Stevenson, calls " an apparently
autograph memorandum" in Saxon, record-
ing that four collects which precede it were
written by Aldred the Provost (se profast)
near South Woodgate, at Acley (Aclea) in
Wessex, for Aelfsig the bishop, in his tent.
This is supposed to have been Aelfsig, or
Alfsig, the last bishop of Chester -le-Street,
the period of whose episcopacy is from a. d.
968 to 990, although there was also an Alfsig
who was bishop of Winchester from 951 to
958. It is deserving of notice, however, that
the four collects, of which alone Aldred here
claims the writing, are in Latin ; and also
that, although the other contents of the book,
which ai'e very miscellaneous, have an An-
glo-Saxon interlineary gloss, this memoran-
dum is stated by Mr. Stevenson to be in a
later hand than that gloss, and moreover to
be, with the four Latin collects, " written on
a leaf from which the earlier writing has
been erased." The gloss of the ritual is
in the same northern dialect with that of the
Durham Gospels. " We are here presented,"
says Mr. Stevenson in his preface, " with by
far the most copious, as well as the earliest,
and consequently the purest, specimen of the
ancient language of Northumbria which has
yet been given to the public. Not only does
it supply words unknown to our lexicogra-
phers, Somner and Lye, neither of whom had
the opportunity of inspecting it ; but, what is
perhaps still more valuable, it illustrates some
points in the structure and history of the
Saxon language, which, without its aid, might
perhaps have remained for ever in obscurity."
Some facts confirmatoiy of this statement are
mentioned by Mr. Kemble in his Essay on
the History of Anglo-Saxon Runes, in the
28th volume of the Archa?ologia, 4to., Lon-
don, 1840, p. 358. Although tradition calls the
manuscript printed by the Surtees Society the
ritual of King Alfred, or Aldfrid, of Nor-
thumbria, who came to the throne in 685,
Mr. Stevenson conceives that no part of the
writing is older than the commencement of
the ninth century. Mr. Thorpe, in the preface
to his " Analecta Anglo-Saxonica," (8vo. Lon.
1834,) p. iv., states that the Durham Book was
then " about to appear in a quarto volimae,
through the munificence of the university of
Cambridge ;" but it has not j^et been published.
On the subject of that manuscript, and espe-
cially of Aldred's gloss, the reader may con-
sult Selden's preface to the Historia An-
glicance Scriptores X, (fol. Lon. 1C52) p. xxv.
xxvi., and H. Wanley's Librorum Vett.
Septentrionalium Catalogus, (forming the se-

ALDRED.

cond volume of Hickes's Thesaurus, fol. Oxon.
1705,) pp. 250—253. G. L. C.

ALDRED, also called Ealredus, Alredus,
Alfredus, Aldredus, was archbishop of York
in tlie eleventh century. He was originally
a monk of Winchester, and afterwards abbot
of Tavistock. In 1046 he was made bishop
of Worcester by Edward the Confessor. In
1050 he took a journey to Jerusalem through
Hungary, the first ever attempted by an
English bishop. Upon his return he was
sent by Edward the Confessor to the Emperor
Henry II. respecting the return to England
of his nephew and his nephew's son Edgar,
then at the court of the King of Hungary.
He stayed a year in Germany, where he
learned that ecclesiastical discipline of which
he afterwards introduced the practice into
England. He administered the see of Wilton
for three years during the absence of Bishop
Herman, and the see of Hereford for four
years from 1056. In the year 1060 Aldred
was promoted to the archbishopric of York,
but he retained, with the king's consent, the
see of W^orcester in commendam. Stubbs
says that four of his predecessors had done
the same, but William of Malmsbury affirms
that this commendam was simoniacally ob-
tained and not warranted by precedents. In
the following year, accompanied by Tostin,
earl of Northumberland, and the newly-
made bishops of Hereford and Wells, he
went to Rome for his pallium, which how-
ever Pope Nicholas II. refused, and deprived
him also of his former dignities on the alleged
ground of simony. Thus disappointed, he
left Rome with his companions, but in passing
the Alps, according to the story of William
of Malmsbury, the party, being plundered,
was obliged to return to Rome. On this
occasion the earl's remonstrances procured
not onlj- redress for the party, but the pallium
for Aldred, who was confirmed in his arch-
bishopric on condition of resigning the see of
Worcester. By the king's consent Aldred
retained twelve towns or manors belonging
to the see of Worcester, but through the care
of the bishop (Wulstan) whom Aldred pro-
cured to be named his successor, this was the
limit of the misapplication of these revenues.
William of Malmsbury asserts that Aldred
chose Wulstan as his successor because he
thought he was a man of feeble character,
and that his own acts of rapacity would escape
notice under cover of W^ulstan's simplicity
and character for sanctity. But the arch-
bishop was deceived in his estimate of the
new bishop. Aldred's acts of ecclesiastical
mimificence and discipline include the re-
building of St. Peter's, Gloucester, in 1058 ;
the building refectories for the canons at
Y^ork and at Southwell ; the finishing of the
one at Beverley, and the introduction of a
uniform habit for the clergy of his province.

Aldred had great influence with Edward
the Confessor. Harold, his successor, who
787

had put the crown on his own head, was
waiting for Aldred's recovery from illness in
order to be consecrated by him ; but in the mean
time he lost his crown and life at the battle
of Hastings. After assembling in London,
and coming to no definite resolution, Aldred
with the other English nobles and Edgar
Atheling made their submission to W^illiam
the Norman at Berkhamsted. W'illiam, like
Harold, refused to be crowned by the Arch-
bishop of Canterbury, whom both of them
thought likely to be deprived for simony :
he was accordingly crowned by Aldred, and
the king and the archbishop lived on good
terms. On one occasion, when the arch-
bishop expostulated with him, William is
said to have knelt at his feet till he was ap-
peased. After a year, however, Aldred fled
into Scotland with Edgar, and thus broke his
allegiance to W^illiam. He died on the 10th
of September, 1069, and was buried in York
Cathedral. Disgust at the cruel exactions of
the Conqueror is said by Malmsbury to have
been the cause of his death ; and he publicly
pronounced a curse on the king, and died
before William could excuse himself Stubbs,
however, ascribes his sickness to grief at the
invasion of the Danes under Sueno, who had
landed in the Humber, and the consequent
troubles at York.

Dempster (^Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis
Scolorum) says that he was the author of a
treatise entitled " Pro Edgaro Rege contra
Tyrannidem Normanorum,'' in which the
whole matter of the English succession is
cleared up. (Willielmus Malmburiensis, De
WiUielmo Primo, lib. iii., and De Gestis Pon-
tiftctim AngJorum, lib. iii. ; Stubbs, Acta Ebo-
ruccnsium Episcoporum, col. 1701, et seq. ;
Wharton, Ariglia Sacra ; Leiand's Collectanea,
Sir John Haywood, Lires of the three Nor-
man Kings, London, 1613; Godwin, De Prcc-
snlihus ; Chronicon Anqlia, per Johannem
Abbatem Burgi S. Petri".) A. T. P.

ALDRIC, or ALDRI'CUS, ST., was born
in the district of Maine in France, it is com.-
monly supposed about the year S 00, although
some ascertained dates in his subsequent his-
tory seem to require that the event should be
placed a few years earlier. According to his
legendary biography, the earlier portion of
which is without dates, his father was Sy-
onius, a Gaul ; his mother Gerilda, a German,
or Frank ; both of ancient and noble descent.
But another life of him, entitled " Gesta
Domni Aldrici, a Discipulis suis," printed by
Baluze in his " Miscellanea," makes his father,
whom it calls Sion.to have been also a Frank
or Saxon ; and it is probable that he was at
least of a Frankish family, though he may
have been a Gaul by birth. Aldric was
trained up from childhood under the eye of
Franco, the first of that name, bishop of Le
Mans ; he was then taken by his father at
the age of twelve to the court of the Emperor
Charlemagne ; and after Charlemagne's death

ALDRIC.

(in 814) he remained in the service of his
son and successor Louis the Pious (other-
wise designated the Feeble, and the Debon-
naire). It is affirmed that he was suddenly
inspired whh the puvpos.? of becoming an
ecclesiastic while praying in the church of
St. Mary at Aix-la-Chapelle. It was with
difficulty that the emperor was prevailed
upon to part with him ; but, having taken
holy orders, he was admitted first a canon,
and, after a year, deacon, of the cathedral of
Metz. AVhen he had been about three years
here, it is stated that his friend and patron
Gondulphus, the bishop of the see, died ; an
event which is known to have happened in
823. Gondulphus was succeeded by Drogo
(a natural son of Charlemagne), who, holding
Aldric in the same regard as his predecessor,
appointed him precentor of his cathedral,
after he had been consecrated a priest. As
precentor, or senior cantor, he taught singing
to great numbers of pupils ; it is mentioned
that he was considered particularly skilled in
the Roman mode of singing the church ser-
vice (Romanus cantus), as also in grammar.
These and his other acquirements led to his
being, after a time, appointed to the dignity
of primicerius, an office which, it is explained,
gave him the superintendence of all the clergy
and monasteries of the diocese. The em-
peror then recalled him to court, and made
him his confessor. About four months after,
on the death of a second Franco, bishop
of Le Mans, Aldric was elected to fill the
vacant see, in the year 832, according to both
the ancient biographies. He is reckoned the
twenty-third, or by another account the
twenty-second, bishop of Le Mans. The
next year he was driven from his see by the
rebel sons of the emperor ; but he was re-
stored on appealing to the pope, Gregory IV.,
although, according to some authorities, not
till Charles the Bald had overcome his half-
brother Lothaire at the bloody battle of Fon-
tenay, in 841. But it appears that he was
present at the council or synod of Worms
in 835, and at that of Aix-la-Chapelle in
836, from which he was deputed to convey
the determinations of the council to Pepin,
king of Aquitaine. He was also present
at the council of Paris in 846, and at that of
Tours in 849. (Baluzius, Capitularia liegiim
Francorum, ii. 764.). Aldric has received
the highest character for the wisdom with
which he governed his diocese, and his
public-spirited exertions in the building of
churches and other pious works, among
which is mentioned his constructing an
aqueduct for supplying the town of Le
Mans with water, as well as for his sanctity,
humility, and other Christian virtues. He
is stated to have been often sent for to coui't
to give his advice about secular affairs, to
his great annoyance. Several miracles are
also attributed to him, which need not be
detailed. The latest authentic notice of
788

him is in an act of the council of Solssons
in 853, from which It appears that his
attendance at the council had been pre-
vented by a stroke of paralysis, under which
he was then suffering (paralysi dissolutus).
It is in the Capitularia published by Ba-
luze, 11. 51. He probably died soon after this,
although the legend of his life makes him to
have lived to the year 856, and then to have
been carried off by a slow fever. None of
his writings remain, with the exception of a
few rules of discipline and other short frag-
ments, which have been printed by Baluze
and Mabillon in his " Vetera Analecta : "
a collection of canons, or capitularies, as they
were called, which he is said to have drawn
up for the use of his clergy, has perished.
The day assigned to him In the Roman calen-
dar is the 7th of January, which is said to be
that on which he died. The life of St. Aldric,
printed in the " Acta Sanctorum" of BoUan-
dus and his associates, is a Latin translation
made by BoUandus from a French life, pub-
lished (it Is not stated In what year) by Pe-
trus Vlellus, which Vlellus professed to have
turned into French from a Latin life com-
piled from ancient MSS. by Joannes Moreau.
Of Moreau's work, though it is said to
have been published, Bollandus had been
unable to obtain a copy, and it appears to
have been also unknown to the authors of
the " Hlstoire Litteralre de la France ; " but
we suppose It is a portion of the work which
the latter speak of (vol. v. p. 149.) as the
" Nomenclature ou Legende Doree des
Eveques du Mans," said to have been pub-
lished, in Latin, in 1572, by Jean Moreau,
D.D. and canon of Le Mans, and to the MS.
of which Bollandus and his associates or suc-
cessors occasionally refer. (Bollandus, Acta
Sanctor. Januarii, i. 387 — 389. ; Baluzius,
Miscellanea, dlgesta per Jo. Dominic. Man-
sum, 4 torn. fol. Lucse, 1761-4, tom. 1.
p. 79 — 83. ; Baluzius, Capitularia licgiwi
Francorum, 2 tom. fol. Par. 1667, tom. 11.
p. 51. 764. 1445. ; Histoin' Literaire de la
France, vol. v. 1740, p. 141—144.) G. L. C.
ALDRICH, HENRY, eminent as a scho-
lar, a divine, and a musician, the son of a
gentleman of the same name In Westminster,
was born there in 1647, and educated in the
collegiate school of that city under Dr. Busby.
He was admitted a student of Christ Church,
Oxford, in 1662, and having been elected on
the foundation, took his master of arts degree
in 1669. He soon afterwards took holy
orders, and obtained the living of Wem in
Shropshire, but he continued to reside in his
college, of which he became one of the most
eminent tutors and distinguished ornaments.
On the 15th of February, 1681, he was in-
stalled a canon of Christ Church, and in the
following May took the degrees of bachelor
and doctor In divinity. During the reign of
James II. he was a consistent and able
champion of Protestantism, both by preach-

ALDRICH.

ing and -writing ; Bishop Burnet ranks liim
among those who "examined all the points
of popery with a solidity of judgment, a
clearness of arguing, a depth of learning, and
a vivacity of writing, far heyond anything
that had before that time appeared in our
language:" and when, on the accession of
King William, Massey, the Roman Catholic
dean of Christ Church, fled his country. Dr.
Aldrich was appointed his successor, and was
installed June 17. 1689. He was one of the
ecclesiastical commissioners appointed by
King William III. on the 13th of September,
16S9, for introducing an alteration in some
parts of the church service, in order to re-
concile religious differences among English
Protestants, but he took little or no part in
the proceedings. In conjunction with Dr.
Peter Mew, bishop of Winchester, Thomas
Sprat, bishop of Rochester, and Dr. William
Jane, regius professor of divinity in the
imiversity of Oxford, he excepted to the
manner of preparing matters by a special
commission as Ihnitiug the Convocation, and
opposed all alterations whatever. He con-
tinued to discharge the duties of his station
in the university with dignity, urbanity, and
assiduity ; he was zealous to improve and
adorn his college, to increase its usefulness,
to extend its resources, and to perpetuate its
reputation. In 1702 he was chosen pro-
locutor of the convocation, and closed his
laborious and exemplary career at Christ
Church on the 14th of December, 1710.

Himself a sound and accomplished scholar,
he endeavoured by every means in his power
to foster the love of classical learning among
the students of his college, and presented
them annually with an edition of some Greek
classic which he printed for this special pur-
pose. He also published a system of logic
for their use, and at his death bequeathed
to his college his valuable classical library.
Dr. Aldrich was a proficient in more than
one of the arts : three sides of what is called
Peckwater quadrangle, in Christ Church
College, and the church and campanile of
All Saints in the High Street, Oxford, were
designed by him ; and he is also said to have
furnished the plan, or at least to have had a
share in the design, of the chapel of Trinity
College, Oxford.

Dr. Aldrich, among other sciences, cul-
tivated music with ardour and success. As
dean of a college and a cathedral he regarded
it as a duty, as it undoubtedly was in his
case a pleasure, to advance the study and
progress of church music. His choir was
well appointed, and every vicar, clerical as
well as lay, gave his daily and efficient aid in
it. He contributed also largely to its stock
of sacred music ; and some of his services
and anthems, being preserved in the collec-
tions of Boyce and Arnold, are known and
sung in every cathedral in the kingdom.
His musical taste was founded on the best
789

and purest models of church writing — those
especially which Palestrina and Carissimi
have bequeathed to the world ; and, in ad-
dition to his own compositions, he adapted
words from the English version of the Scrip-
tures to many movements from their masses
and motets, a task which he executed with
consummate skill. Of these it is to be re-
gretted that a few only are in print or in
use. Nor did Dr. Aldrich disdain to employ
his musical talents in the production of fes-
tive and social harmonj'. Catch singing was
much in fashion in his time ; and in his well-
known catch, " Hark, the bonny Christ Church
bells," he has made himself and his college
the subject of merriment. He afterwards
wrote and used to sing a Greek version of
this catch. He was an inveterate smoker,
and another of his catches in praise of
smoking is so constructed as to allow every
singer time for his puff. He was at once the
instructor, the head, and the friend of his
choir. Di\ Hayes, whose career at Oxford
began after that of Dr. Aldrich had ter-
minated, and who reaped the advantage of
the dean's labours, bears ample testimony to
the excellence of his choral discipline, in his
" Remarks on Avison's Essay." He had
weekly concerts and rehearsals in his own
room, and established a music school in his
college, where he fostered talent and re-
warded diligence. Thus the service at Christ
Church was then a finished exhibition of
the finest sacred music. Every piece was
carefully selected, and as carefully per-
formed.

Nor did his intention to aid the cultivation
of the art, and of church music in particular,
end with his life. He had with great judg-
ment and assiduity procured from Italy a
large and valuable collection of the com-
positions of its early masters, those especially
of the writers already mentioned. These he
bequeathed to his college, where they still
remain ; but there is no catalogue of them,
and they are difficult of access. The Aldrich
library contains the papers which its founder
prepared for a " Treatise on Music ; " and
among them an essay on the music of the
Greeks, and the uses to which music was
applied by the ancients ; subjects which few
men possessed all the requisite knowledge to
investigate in a like degree. These remain
apparently in their original portfolios. We
may guess, from the dean's classical taste,
bis ample means, and his unwearied industry,
what a store of musical wealth is here locked
up ; but we can do no more than guess. The
timely care of Dr. Tudway and the liberality
of the celebrated Earl of Oxford have pro-
cured and preserved a large number of Dr.
Aldrich's compositions, which, with the rest
of the Harleian collection, are in the British
JIuseum. The following extracts from Dr.
Tudway's autograph letters will show the
zeal and success with which he executed his

ALDRICH.

commission to collect the best antliems and
services of the English church, ^vhieh at
that time existed only in MS. and in the
libraries of the several cathedrals and col-
leges for which they were written. The
letters, which are addressed to the learned
Humfrey Wanley, the earl's librarian, extend
from the years 1715 to 1720.

" I flatter myself very much I shall answer
the trust my Lord and you have confided to
me in making this collection, which I know
assuredly there is no such thing in the
world." ..." I inclose a catalogue of such
pieces as I have been able to procure of Dr.
Aldrich's ; and if my Lord will please to send
it to Dr. Stratford at Christ Church, they will
see what is wanting to complete his works,
and send them in score as desired."

It seems, however, from a subsequent
.etter, that Tudway's other correspondents
were more anxious than Dr. Aldrich's suc-
cessor to complete the required list, for he says
that he has " received from a correspondent or
two at York and Ely the whole works of Dr.
Aldrich, so that Dr. Stratford need not give
himself any farther trouble."

It appears by the following extract that
Tudway was especially enjoined by his noble
employer to include all Dr. Aldrich's compo-
sitions in his collection ; but in consequence
of his being also restricted to four volumes,
he was compelled to omit many services and
anthems that he had obtained. This is deeply
to be regretted, for the reprehensible indif-
ference to the preservation of their musical
libraries which has been generally manifested
by the deans and chapters of our cathedrals
has occasioned the total loss of no small por-
tion of their valuable contents.

" Since my last I have received from Exeter,
Winchester, Ely, Oxford, and Westminster,
many excellent pieces, with expectation of
more, so that I am puzzled to know which to
omit. I have now by me so many produc-
tions of two hundred years, that they cannot
anything near be comprised in four volumes.
Dr. Aldrich's works alone, which I am com-
manded, you know, to have complete, take
up above two hundred pages. I have been
more obliged to honest James Hawkins [of
Ely] alone than to all the cathedrals in Eng-
land and Ireland."

The other works of Dr. Aldrich, not enu-
merated above, are as follow: — 1. "A Reply
to Two Discourses lately printed at Oxford,
concerning the Adoration of our blessed Sa-
viour in the Holy Eucharist." 4to. Oxford,
1G87. This was an answer to two discourses
by Obadiah Walker. 2. " A Defence of the
Oxford Reply to Two Discourses lately
printed at Oxford, &c." Oxford, 1G88, 4to.
This second tract was an answer to O. Wal-
ker and Abraham Woodgate. He edited,
with a Latin version, in 8vo., 3. " Xeno-
phontis Memorabilia." Oxford, 1690. 4. "Xe-
nophontis Sermo de Agesilao." Oxford, 1 G9 1.
790

5. " AristejE Historia LXXII. Interpretum."
i Oxford, 1692. 6. " Xenophontis de re
Equestri," Oxford, 1693. 7. " Epictetus et
Theophrastus." Oxford, 1707. 8. " Ignatii
Sancti Martyris Epistolaj." Oxford, 1708.

9. " Platonis, Xenophontis, Plutarchi, Luciani
Symposia." Oxford, 1711, 8vo., but only
with the Greek text. 10. " Artis Logica;
Compendium." Oxford, 1691, 8vo., which is
still used as a text-book upon logic in the
university of Oxford. 11. "Elements of
Geometry : " this was written for the use of
his pupils, but never printed. 12. Of his
poetry there are two Latin pieces in the
" Musse Anglicanaj ;" one on the accession of
William III., the other on the death of the
Duke of Gloucester ; and he has the credit
of several fugitive pieces in Latin. 13. " Ele-
mentorum Architecturae pars prima." An
edition of this work, with a translation by the
Rev. Philip Smythe, under the title " Ele-
ments of Civil Architecture, according to
Vitruvius and other Ancients, and the most
approved practice of modern Authors, espe-
cially Palladio," was published at Oxford in
1789, in 4to. 14. Dean Aldrich was con-
cerned in the publication of Gregory's Greek
Testament, printed in folio at Oxford in 1703.

15. To him and Bishop Sprat was intrusted
the publication of Clarendon's History, and
they were charged by Oldmixon with having
altered and interpolated that work ; but the
charge was refuted by Atterbury, in a pam-
phlet entitled " The late Bishop of Rochester's
Vindication of Dr. Aldrich from the Re-
flexions of Oldmixon." 1731, fol. 16. Aldrich
wrote some notes for Havercamp's edition
of Josephus.

The following list of Dr. Aldrich's compo-
sitions is the only one that has yet appeared
in print.

In Boyee's Cathedral Music • — 1. Morn-
ing and Evening Service in G. 2. An-
them, " Out of the deep." 3. Anthem," Oh give
thanks."

In Arnold's Cathedral Music : — 4. Morn-
ing and Evening Service in A. 5. Anthem,
" We have heard with our ears " (from Pa-
lestrina). 6. Anthem, " I am well pleased "
(from Carissimi). 7. Anthem, " Oh praise
the Lord."

In Page's Harmonia Sacra : — 8. Anthem,
" God is our hope." 9. Anthem, " O Lord
God of our salvation."

Iti the library of Gresham College : —

10. " Thy beauty, O Israel," composed on
the death of Michael Wise.

In the Tudway Collection, Vol. 11. : —

11. Anthem, "Why art thou so vexed?"

12. Anthem, " My heart is fixed." 13. An-
them, " The eye of the Lord." 14. Anthem,
" O God, the King of Glory." 15. Anthem,
" Hold not thy tongue " (from Palestrina).

16. " Give ear, O Lord." 17. Anth:m,
" Behold now praise the Lord." 18. An-
them, " I look for the Lord." 1 9. Anthem,

ALDRICH.

" O Lord, rehuke me not." 20. Anthem,
" Oh how amiable." '2 1 . Anthem, " Haste thee,
O Lord" (from Carissimi). 22. Anthem,
" For Sion's sake" (from Carissimi).

In Vol. IlL : — 23. Anthem, " OLord, grant
the king a long life." 24. Evening Sei'vice in
F. 25. Anthem, " Comfort ye my people."
2G. Anthem, " Who is this that cometh from
Edom?" 27. Anthem, " O Lord our go-
vernor." 28. Anthem, " O God, thou art
my God." 29. Anthem, " Have mercy upon
me."

In Vol. IV. : — 30, Anthem, I -will love
thee, O Lord." 31. Anthem, " The Lord is
king." 32. Anthem, " Give the king thy
judgments." 33. Anthem, "If the Lord him-
self." 34. Anthem, " O Lord, I have heard
thy voice."

(BioyrapJiia Britannica, Kippis's edit.;
Hawkins, Hintury of Music ; Hailekin MSS. ;
Hayes, Dr., liiinarks on Avisoii.) E. T.

ALDRICH, ROBERT, otherwise called
Aldridge, and, by his Latinized name, Al-
drisius, and Aldrigus, was born at Burnham
in Buckinghamshire. He was edvicated at
Eton and King's College, Cambridge, of
which society he became a fellow, and after-
wards provost of Eton. In 1531 he was
made archdeacon of Colchester ; in 1534,
canon of Windsor and registrar of the order of
the Garter ; in 1537, chaplain and almoner of
Queen Jane Seymour and bishop of Carlisle,
the temporalities of which see were restored
to him in August 1537. He died at Horn-
castle in Lincolnshire, March 5th, 1555.

In his youth he acquired some reputation
by assisting Erasmus in the collation of
manuscripts, and there are several letters to
him from Erasmus, who commends his elo-
quence

His first writings were chiefly against
Robert Whittington, a grammarian of the
time : — 1. " Epistola ad Gulielmum Horman-
num," in Latin verse, inserted in Antibos-
sicon, a book of this Horman, who was vice
provost of Eton. 2. " Epigrammata varia,"
among which there is a letter against Whit-
tington.

As registrar of the order of the Garter he
translated into Latin and abridged the " Re-
gistrum Chartaceum," which his predecessors
had written in French, added an account of
the institution of the order, and continued
the register at least till he was made bishop.
These three pieces are printed in the " Re-
gister of the most noble Order of the Garter,
called the Black Book, London, 1724," which
contains also the opinions of Bishop Wren,
Mr. Vincent, and Mr. Ashmole, who praise
the Latinity at the expense of the fidelity
of his abridgment.

As bishop of Carlisle, his replies to " Que-
ries put concerning some Abuses of the Mass"
are printed in Burnet's " History of the
Reformation," part ii. book. 1., Collection of
Records, No. 25. Wood, in his " Athenae
791

Oxonienses," mentions also resolutions con-
cerning the sacraments, and concerning
bishops, priests, and other matters relating
to the Reformation, by Aldrich. Leland has
pronounced the panegyric of his friend in the
" lUustrium Virorum Encomia." (Wood,
Athena Oxonienses ; Tanner, Bililiothecu Bri-
tannico-Hibernica ; Bale, Scriptores Britan-
nia Majoris.) A. T. P.

ALDRIDGE, REV. WILLIAM, was
minister of the congregation of Calvinistic
Methodists in Jewry Street, London, from
1776 to 1797. He was born at Warminster in
Wiltshire, in the year 1 737, and his first strong
impressions of religion were received when
he was in his twenty-fourth year. Wishing to
become a minister, he entered the Countess
of Huntingdon's College at Trevecca, in
South Wales (since removed to Cheshunt in
Hertfordshire). During his residence at the
college he preached at various places in
England.

In September, 1771, Lady Huntingdon re-
ceived an anonymous letter, urging her to
send a minister to Margate, in the Isle of
Thanet. She sent Mr. Aldridge, who took
with him the Rev. Joseph Cook, a student in
the college, who afterwards died a missionary
in South Carolina. They began to preach in
the streets ; and, meeting with considerable
success, they preached in several other places
in the Isle of Thanet. After a short time
they were invited to Dover, where Mr. Ald-
ridge, who was a fearless man, and anxious
to attract attention, preached his first sermon
on Sunday afternoon in the market place,
where a crowd collected and pelted the
preacher, who then broke off his sermon by
inviting the people to attend at the pres-
byterian meeting-house in the evening, where
he preached to a large congregation with
considerable effect.

Mr. Aldridge and Mr. Cook now preached
at Dover and Margate alternately ; but the
former was soon summoned by the countess
to the Mulberrj'-garden chapel in Wapping,
where he gave the people so much satis-
faction, that they requested Lady Hunting-
don to allow him to continue with them.
Upon the refusal of this request, Mr. Aldridge
left the countess's connection, and accepted
the pastorate of the church in Jewry Street
in 1776, where he remained the rest of his
life. He died on Tuesday morning, the
28th of February, 1797, in the sixtieth year
of his age, and was buried in Bunhill Fields
on the 7th of ^larch.

As a preacher he was skilful, energetic,
and successful. One proof of his success is
the fact that he introduced into the Christian
ministry sixteen or seventeen young men
from his own congregation.

He published a work entitled, " The Doc-
trine of the Trinity stated, proved, and
defended ; " and " A Funeral Seraion on the
Death of the Countess of Huntingdon."

ALDRIDGE.

ALDRINGER.

(Wilson's Dissenting Churches, i. 129. ; Life
of the Countess of Huntingdon, ii. 130 — 137.)

P. S.

ALDRIGHETTI was born at Padua in
1573. After acquiring his preliminary educa-
tion in that place, he went to Bologna, and
passed several years there in the study of medi-
cine. On his return to Padua he became a pupil
of Hieronymus Fabricius. He subsequently
went into France as medical attendant to an
embassy of Venetian senators, and accom-
panying one of them into Germany, was
called in to attend the Emperor Rudolph II.
Again returning to his native place, he
obtained in 1590 the second chair of medi-
cine ; the office thus devolving upon him
was principally to give lectures on the
third book of Avicenna. In 1613 he was
appointed to the second chair of medicine
extraordinary, which he held till the end of
his life. He died of the plague at Padua in
1631. His writings are — 1. "Herculis Saxonia;
Tractatus perfectissimus de Morbo Galileo,
seu Lue venerea, Francof. 1600," 8vo. Her-
cules Saxonia was public professor of medi-
cine at Padua, and the above work consists
of his lectures and opinions on the venereal
disease, collected and published by Aldri-
ghetti. 2. " Oratio qua 111. ac Rev. Petro
Valerio, Patavium accedeuti, gratulabatur."
Patav. 1663, 4to. This was published by
his son. Several treatises left in manu-
script are mentioned by Mazzuchelli, and
also in the " Bibliothectc Patavinte" of To-
masini ; amongst them an incomplete trea-
tise on the venereal disease, with numerous
lectures, including those which he delivered
on the third book of Avicenna as well as on
the aphorisms of Hippocrates and the "Ars
Parva " of Galen. (Mazzuchelli, Scritfori
d Italia.) G. M. H.

ALDRINGER, ALTRINGER, or AL-
DRINGEN, JOHANN, a field-marshal in
the thirty years' war, was born in the duchy
of Luxemburg, of obscure parentage. He is
said to have accompanied some barons who
were going to France as a servant, and while
with them, to have become as great a profi-
cient in languages and other knowledge as
his masters. On passing afterwards into
Italy, he obtained employment, first as secre-
tary with the Count Madrueci, and after-
wards in the chancery of Madrueci, bishop of
Trent, but was treated with such indignity by
his fellow secretaries, that in despair he aban-
doned his situation, and while walking on the
road towards Innspruck, uncertain what course
he should take, determined to adopt the trade
of the first passenger he should meet, who
happened to be a Milanese soldier returning
home from the wars of Germany. From a
common soldier in the imperial army, Al-
dringer soon rose, by his talents as a clerk,
to the posts of sergeant, sergeant-major, and
lieutenant, and by his bravery as lieutenant
to the rank of captain and colonel, under
792

which last title, but in reality with the
power of a general, he was sent in command
of the expedition against Mantua in 1630,
when he took and plundered the city. He
returned to Germany in 1631, and received
at Erfurt the news of the defeat of his com-
mander Tilly, by Gustavus Adolphus, at
Leipzig. After Tilly's death he was raised
to the rank of field-marshal, united his forces
with those of Wallenstein, and was strongly
suspected of entering into the schemes of that
commander against the Emperor Ferdinand.
To this cause was ascribed the inactivity of
Aldringer when his forces were united with
the Spanish army under the Duke of Feria in

1633, and both armies melted away without
advantage to the imperial party in inaction
and disease. Before the death of AVallenstein,
however, his relation to Aldringer had
changed, and the latter, when summoned to
the presence of his commander, thought it
safest to disobey. In the letters patent of the
Emperor Ferdinand against Wallenstein and
his adherents, dated February the 18th, 1634,
Aldringer is mentioned along with Gallas,
Piccolomini, and other officers, whose orders
the troops are directed to follow. In June,

1634, shortly after the death of Wallenstein,
Aldringer was killed on the bridge of Lands-
hut, while defending the passage of the river
Iser against the Swedes, and it was strongly
suspected that he fell by the hand of one of
the citizens of Landshut, or of his own sol-
diers, by vhom he was more feared than
loved, on account of his avarice and cruelty.
He had become rich by the plunder of
jMantua, and, among other acquisitions, had
laid his hands on the IMantuan library,
which contained some valuable manuscripts,
which he left to his brother, John Mark,
bishop of Seckau. Another of his brothers,
Paul, was bishop of Tripoli, and suifragan of
Strassburg. The circumstance that two of
them had risen so high in the church seems
to prove that both must have possessed un-
common abilities, or that the family of Al-
dringer was not so obscure as has been sup-
posed. (Gualdo Priorato, Historie delle Guerre
di Ferdinando II., edit, of 1643, p. 289.;
VoUslandicje Universal Lexicon, i. 1103.; F.
FiJrster, Wallenstein uls Feldlierr und Landes-

filrst, 269, &c.) T. W.

ALDROVANDI'NL The name of a Bo-
lognese family of artists of the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries, originally of Rovigo, dis-
tinguished as architectural and decorative
painters in fresco and in distemper.

Giuseppe Alduovaxdini, the scholar of
Gio. Andrea Sirani, is better known as the
father of Tommaso and Domenico Aldi-ovan-
dini than for his own works ; he was a de-
corative and scene painter. Heineken men-
tions an engraving after one of his works —
" Veduta del Fuoeo artificiale, nel Campi-
doglio, 1727. Giuseppe Aldrovandini inv.
et del. Andrea Rossi sc."

ALDROVANDINI.

Mauro ALDROVANDINI, the bfotlier of
Giiisej)pe, born in 1649, died in 1680, ac-
quired a great reputation as an architec-
tural and a scene painter, and ahhough he
died in his thirty-second year, he executed
many excellent works in various cities of
Italy. He worked in company with Carlo
Cignani, in the decoration of the town-hall
of Forli. Jlauro left an infant son, Pompeo
Agostino, by whom he was eventually sur-
passed.

Tomma'so ALDROVANDINI, the son of
Giuseppe, was born in Bologna in 1653 He
was instructed in the first principles of his
art by his uncle Mauro, and became a very
celebrated painter in the same department.
He executed works in many cities in Italy ;
in 1704 he painted, in company with Marc-
antonio Franceschini, the great council
chamber at Genoa. He died in Bologna in
1736, in his eighty-third year. His younger
brother Domenico, also the scholar of Mauro,
was likewise a good painter of perspective ;
he executed several excellent works in fresco
at Parma.

PojiPEo Agostino Aldrovandini, the
son of Mauro, was born in Bologna in 1677 ;
he was the scholar of his cousin Tommaso
Aldrovandini, whom he excelled in execu-
tion, and he became in his department the
most celebrated painter of his period in Italy.
But his reputation was not limited to his own
country ; he was much employed in Dresden,
in Prague, and in Vienna; in which cities,
in the churches, the palaces, and the theatres,
he executed many excellent works. Heine-
ken states that he worked together with his
father in Dresden, for Augustus II. ; but this
is impossible, for, according to his contempo-
rary Orlandi, his father died in 1680, while
Pompeo was still an infant.

Pompeo painted in oil, in fresco, and in
distemper (a secco) : his drawing was cor-
rect, and his chiaroscuro very effective, and
he was in execution elaborate. He died in
Rome in 1739. There are three folio plates
of triumphal arches from the designs of Pom-
peo Aldrovandini : one in honour of Pope
Clement XII., one in honour of Innocent
XIII., both engraved by J. 3Iassi ; and the
third in honour of Benedict XIII., engraved
by Westerhout. GiosefFo Orsoni and Stefono
Orlandi, eminent decorative painters, were
the scholars of Pompeo Aldrovandini. (Za-
notti, Storia dell' Academia Clementina di
J3oloc/na ; Orlandi, Abccedario Pittorico ; Ilei-
neken, Dictionnaire des Artistes dont nous
avons des Estampcs.) R. N. W.

ALDROVANDINI, GIUSEPPE AN-
TONIO VINCENZO, Maestro di Capella
to the Duke of Mantua, and " Principe di j
Filarmonici," as he styles himself, was born ]
at Bologna, and flourished about the begin-
ning of the eighteenth century. He published
there two sets of motets. He also composed
several operas for the theatres of Bologna

VOL. I.

and Venice. (Walther, Musikalischcs Lexi*
con.) E. T.

ALDROVANDUS, ULYSSES, (Aldro-
vandi,) a great naturalist, was born of a noble
family at Bologna, on the 11th of September,
1522. He lost his father at the age of six
years, and his mother placed him out as page
in the family of a bishop. He occupied this
situation only a short time, and when twelve
years old was placed with a merchant at
Bresse. Here he was distinguished for
his expertness at business and his talent for
arithmetical calculations. He was however
soon tired of a mercantile life ; and having
met with a Sicilian who was making a pil-
grimage to Santiago de Compostella, he de-
termined to accompany him. He travelled
through Galicia with the pilgrim ; and after
several months' absence returned to Bo-
logna, where his mother had long given him
up as dead. After this adventure he com-
menced the study of the law in his native
place, and from thence removed to Padua for
the purpose of there prosecuting his studies.
At this university he attended the courses of
lectures on medicine. He returned to Bo-
logna in 1549. He did not remain long here,
for, being suspected of Lutheranism, he was
arrested, thrown into prison, and carried be-
fore the inquisition at Rome, where he was
eventually acquitted. He again returned to
Bologna, and cultivated botany very zealously
under Luca Ghino, who then filled the cliair
of botany at Bologna. He visited Padua
again, and studied under Fallopius. He
made a botanical excursion to Ancona, and
passing through the Roman states, returned
once more to Bologna, laden with bota-
nical treasures. It is probable that during
this tour he visited Rome, and collected
the materials for a work which was published
by Lucio 3Iauro at ^'enice in 1556, on the
antiquities of Rome, under the title "Le
Antichita de la Citta di Roma," 12mo., in
which the antique statues are described by
Aldi-ovandus. Other editions of this work
appeared at Venice in 1558 and 1562, and a
Latin translation at Rome in 1741. It ap-
pears to have been his earliest published
work. In 1553 he graduated in medicine,
and in 1560 he was appointed lecturer on
natural history in the chair that had been
occupied by Luca Ghino. He is also said to
have occupied the chair of logic. He was
also elected a fellow of the College of ^Nledi-
cine at Bologna. In 1568 he succeeded in
inducing the senate of Bologna to establish
a botanic garden. He was placed at its head
as curator, and connected with this ofiice was
that of the dutj- of inspecting the drugs in
the shops of the apothecaries, a step that had
been rendered necessary by the ignorance
and avarice of these men. This, however,
was an unhappy circumstance for Aldro-
vandus, and involved him in perpetual quar-
rels with the apothecaries. On the occasion
3 F

ALDROVANDUS.

of Ills supplying drugs from the botanic gar-
den to the monks for the purpose of enabling
tliem to prepare the celebrated thcriaca, the
apothecaries became enraged at what they
deemed the invasion of their rights, and
having made friends with the College of
Medicine, they procured his expulsion from
his inspectorship. He applied to the pope,
Gregory XIII., who returned him a letter
bearing date 1576, commending his conduct,
and reinstating him in his office of inspector
of drugs. It was in this capacity that he
wrote the " Antidotarii Bononiensis Epitome,"
8vo., which was published at Bologna in 1574.
This book is interesting as being one of the
earliest models on which the Pharmacopoeias
were subsequently constructed. It consists of
a list of drugs used in medicine, with direc-
tions for preparing the various compounds
into which they enter, with short remarks on
the diseases in which they may be em-
ployed.

Whilst Aldrovandus was thus publicly
engaged, in private he was pursuing natural
history with an ardour that has been seldom
equalled, perhaps never surpassed. The
great object of his life was to obtain a know-
ledge of the external world, and to this
object he devoted his time, his talents, and
his fortune. He travelled much himself in
search of objects of natural history, and em-
ployed others to collect for him. In this way
he formed an extensive museum, which to
this day remains at Bologna, a monument of
his industry and perseverance. His dried
plants alone occupied sixty large volumes.
For thirty years he paid a painter in his
employ two hundred crowns a year. He
spared no expense in obtaining the first
artists of the day ; and Lorenzo Bennino
of Florence and Cornelius Swintus of Frank-
furt were both engaged to assist him. Chris-
topher Coriolanus and his nephew of Niirn-
berg were employed as his engravers.
By these means he was prepared for the
gigantic task of becoming the historian and
illustrator of all external nature. The first
work that he published on natural history
was devoted to birds. The first volume ap-
peared at Bologna in 1599, entitled " Orni-
thologiic, sivede Avibus Historise, Libri XII.,"
folio. Two other volumes appeared in IGOO
and 160.3. Other editions of this work ap-
peared at Frankfurt in 1610 and 16.30, and
atBolognain 1646, 1652, and 1681. His next
work was on insects : " De Animalibus in-
sectis Libri VII., cum singulorum Iconibusad
vivum cxpressis," folio. It was published
first at Bologna in 160.3, afterwards in 1620
and 1683, and at Frankfurt in 1623. A third
work came out in 1606, on the lower animals,
imder the title " De reliquis Animalibus ex-
anguibus, Libri IV., Bononice," folio. Editions
of this work appeared at Bologna in 1637,1642,
and 1654, and at Frankfurt in 1623. This
was the last work that was published during
794

his lifetime. He however left abundance
of materials for further works, and the senate
of Bologna, who had liberally assisted Aldro-
vandus when alive, appointed persons to edit
his works. The subsequent volumes all ap-
pear in his name, with the addition of that of
the editor : the only difference consists in
styling Aldrovandus patrician in the post-
humous volumes, whereas he is called pro-
fessor in those published in his lifetime.

The first work published after his death
was on fishes and whales : " De Piscibus
Libri V., et de Cetis Liber I., a Job. Corn.
Uterverio collecti et editi, opera Hier. Tam-
burini. Bononise, 1613," folio. Subsequent
editions appeared at Bologna in 1638 and 1661,
and at Frankfurt in 1623, 1629, and 1640.

j The next was on the whole-footed quadrupeds,
or the solidungulous order of Mammalia :

I " De Quadrupedis solipedibus Volumen in-
tegrum. Job. Corn. Uterverius collegit et
recensuit, Hier. Tamburinus in lucem edidit.
Bononiae, 1616," folio. Subsequent editions
appeared at Bologna in 1639 and 1648, at
Frankfurt in 1623. Clement also mentions
Venice editions of this and the former work.
The quadrupeds with parted hoofs come next :
" Quadrupedum omnium bisulcorum His-
toria. Job. Corn. Uterverius colligere incepit,
Thom. Dempsterus absolvit, et Marc. Ant.
Bernia et Hier. Tamburinus in lucem edide-
runt. Bononiae, 1613," folio. Other editions
appeared at the same place in 1621, 1642, 1653,
and at Frankfurt in 1 647. The next work, on

j the digitate quadrupeds, had a different
editor : " De Quadrupedis digitatis viviparis
Libri III., et de Quadrupedis digitatis ovi-
paris Libri II. Bartholomtenus Ambrosius col-
legit. Bononiae, 1637;" also 1645 and 1665,
folio. This was followed by the reptiles :
" Serpentum et Draconum Historise Libri II.
Bart. Ambrosinus summo labore opus conci-
cinnavit et edidit. Bononiaj, 1640," folio.
This is the most scarce of the works of Al-
drovandus, as only this edition appears to
have been published. The history of monsters
followed : " INIonstrorum Historia cum Pa-

j ralipomenis Historise omnium Animalium.
Bart. Ambrosinus composuit. Marc. Ant.

j Bernia in lucem edidit. Bononia;, 1642 et
1646." A mineralogical work on metals ap-

I peared next : " Mnsseum Metallicum in

i Libros IV. distributum. B. Ambrosinus com-
posuit. Bononise, 1648," folio. An epitome

I of this volume was published at Leipzig

I by David Kellner in 1701, with the title
" Synopsis Mussei Metallici Viri incompa-
rabilis Ulissis Aldrovandi." 12mo. The
last of this series of books was a history of
trees : " Dendrologise naturalis, scilicet Ar-
borum Historia;, Libri II. Ovid Montalba-
nus collegit. Bononia^, 1648," folio. It
appeared again at Bologna in 1665 and 1668,
and at Frankfurt in 1671. These ponderous

' volumes contain onlj' a part of the labours

' of this extraordinary man. His manuscripts.

ALDROVANDUS.

■which are still preserved with his museum '
at Bologna, Mould occupy as many volumes
if they were published. Fautuzzi, in his
memoirs of Aldrovandus, gives a list of them ;
they amount to between two and three hundred
in number, and are mostly on subjects of
natural history. |

The great merit of the writings of Aldro-
vandus is their completeness ; their great
fault is the credulity of the author. Yet his
credulity cannot be considered as a reproach,
as it is almost a necessary part of the complete-
ness of his woi'ks. If we would know com-
pletely a thing in nature, we must know not
only the relation in which it has stood to
the understanding of man, but also to his
imagination and atiections. Cuvier says the
works of Aldrovandus might be reduced
to one tenth without injury, and Buffon
ridicules his comprehensive mode of treating
his subjects in the following language : ;
— " In writing the history of the cock ;
and the bull," says Butfon, " Aldrovand |
tells you all that has ever been said of
cocks and bulls ; all that the ancients have
thought or imagined with regard to their vir-
tues, character, and courage; all the things
for which they have been employed ; all
the tales that old women tell of them ; all
the miracles that have been wrought upon
or by them in diiferent religions ; all the
superstitions regai'ding them ; all the com-
parisons that poets have made with them;
all the attributes that certain nations have
accorded them ; all the representations that
have been made of them by hieroglyphics or
in heraldry ; in a word, all the histories and
all the fables with which we are acquainted
on the subject of cocks and bulls." This is
hardly an overdrawn picture of the manner
in which Aldrovandus treats each animal,
plant, and mineral in his ponderous volumes.
But these works must not be criticised as if
they were something which they are not.
They are not manuals, outlines, or intro-
ductions to natural history : they profess to
be histories of the subjects on which they
treat, and as such they are the most precious
storehouse of facts, references, and observa-
tions in natural history extant. Nor are
these works mere compilations. They are
illustrated with many hundreds of original
drawings ; I'eferences are made to objects in
the museum of Aldrovandus, and he has
given the result of numerous dissections made
with his own hand. It would be impossible
here to give a particular criticism of such ex-
tensive labours.

Aldrovandus regarded objects in nature
more as individuals than in their relations
to each other, and hence he made no pro-
gress in systematic arrangement ; and in this
respect his works are not superior to those
of Aristotle or Gessner. He has however
supplied facts, and whatever may be the
confusion in which they are arranged, on ac-
795

count of the period at which they are re-
corded, they still claim the attention of every
naturalist.

Aldrovandus died on the 10th of No-
vember, 1607, in his eighty-fifth year.
Nearly all his biographers state that this
event occurred in the hospital at Bologna,
where he was compelled to spend his last
days on account of the great expense he had
been at in collecting his museum and pub-
lishing his works. But this is hardly pro-
bable, and cannot be cited as an instance of
public ingratitude. The secret archives of
the senate of Bologna, as quoted by Fan-
tuzzi, prove that they assisted Aldrovandus
in the most liberal manner. They doubled
his salary soon after his appointment to the
chair of natural history, and when he was no
longer able to lecture, they appointed a suc-
cessor but continued his salary. At various
times they granted him no less than 40,000
crowns to carry on his researches and pub-
lish his works. He was buried with great
pomp, at the public expense, in the church of
St. Stephen in Bologna ; and all the works
that appeared after his death were published
under the dii'ection and at the expense of
the senate. From these circumstances we
are inclined to think that if Aldrovandus did
die in an hospital, it may have arisen from
something peculiar in his case, and not from
any want of public sympathy or gratitude.
He numbered amongst his friends Fallopius,
Luca Ghino, Pinelli, Campeggio, Matthiolus,
and other eminent men ; and amongst his
patrons in his works, Gregory XIII., Sixtus
v.. Cardinal Montalto, and Ferdinand I. A
volume of his correspondence was published
at Venice in 1636.

After his death a medal was struck in
honour of him, having on one side his head,
with the inscription " Ulisses Aldrovandus
Bononiensis Philosophus,"' and on the re-
verse a cock with a ring in its beak and a
branch of laurel in its claw, with the inscrip-
tion " Sensibus hsec imis res est, non parva
reponit." Monti has named a genus of plants
in the natural order Droseracea; after him
Aldruvanda. (Fantuzzi, Memorle dclla Vita
Ulissi Aldrovandi ; Jiicher's Alhjcm. Gclclulen-
Lexicon and Adelung's Supp.; Carrere, Bib-
liolhkjue de la Mcdvcine; Bayle, Historical
Diet. ; Haller, BihJiotheca Bolanica.) E. L.

ALDUIN (Alduinus, Audovinus, Audwin,
Audoin, Autoin), first king of the second
dynasty of the Lombards, and father of Al-
boin I., who established the Lombard power
in Italy. The period of Alduin's sway is
imcertain both in regard to its commence-
ment and termination, some making it begin
about 527, while others do not place it
much earlier than 548 ; some making it
close about 553, while others extend it to
567. The authors of all these conflicting
statements however agree that he reigned
about the middle of the sixth century
3 F 2

ALDUIN.

ALE.

Alduin seized the sovereign power in his
tribe on the death of Walther the last king
of the first dynasty, to the exchision of
Ildigisal, nephew of the deceased prince,
who was obliged to seek safety in flight.
The Emperor Jnstinian formed an alliance
with Alduin, to whom he conceded Pannonia,
in return for which the Lombard prince sent
5000 mercenaries to fight against the Os-
trogoths in Italy, and declaimed war against
the Gepidse, a Gothic clan which had settled
in Lower Pannonia against the emperor's
will. This feud lasted with occasional in-
tervals of peace from 548 till the death of
Alduin, and the hostilities between the two
tribes, by keeping both occupied, probably
served Justinian's purpose better than if his
ally had conquered. At the commencement
of the war a mutual panic seized the armies :
Alduin and Thorisinn (king of the Gepidse)
were deserted by all but their i-espective
body-guards. The Lombard prince sent
messengers to ti-eat for peace with his anta-
gonists, who were astonished to find the leader
of the Gepidse as feebly guarded as their
own. Both parties interpreted this event into
a declaration of the gods against war between
tribes so nearly allied, and a truce was con-
cluded for two years. The intrigues of Jus-
tinian, who sent Amalafried, brother-in-law
of Alduin, with troops to the assistance of the
latter, prevented the truce ripening into a
peace. In a battle which ensued, Alduin's
son Alboin slew the son of Thorisinn, and the
Gepidai fled in confusion. Alduin refused his
son's claim to sit at the royal table on account
of this deed of arms, on the ground that he
was unable to produce the arms of the foe
he had killed. Alboin rode to the court of
Thorisinn, demanded the arms of the Prince
of the Gepidai whom he had slain, and out
of respect to the rights of hospitality received
them, and was allowed to return in safety.
This transaction led to fresh overtures for
peace. Alduin demanded that Ildigisal, who
had taken refuge with the Gepidse, should be
delivered up to him. Thorisinn, who was
also in danger from the claims of a pretender
to the crown of the Gepidre, who had found
protection among the Lombards, demanded
that he should be surrendered to him in re-
turn. The Gepidae and Lombards refused to
sanction such violations of the laws of hos-
pitality, but their kings evaded this opposition
to their wishes by each having the rival of
the other murdered. Alduin at least derived
no benefit from this crime : he died almost
immediately afterwards, leaving by his wife,
a descendant of Theodoric, king of the
Ostrogoths, Alboin I., and another son,
whose name is not mentioned by historians.
(Paulus Diaconus, De Origine et Gestis Re-
gum Longobartloriun, lib. i. c. 13. Parisiis,
1514, fol. ; Procopius, De Bella Gothico, lib.
iii. c. 27. Parisiis, 1661-3.) W.W.

ALDUI'NUS. [Alditin.]
796

ALDUS MANU'TIUS. [Manutius.]

ALE', EGI'DIUS, a painter of Liege who
studied in Rome towards the end of the seven-
teenth century, and distinguished himself for
his purity of style, according to the principles
of the Roman school, both in oil and in fresco.
He was employed, together with Morandi,
Bonatti, and Romanelli, to paint the sacristy
of the church of Santa JNIaria dell' Anima in
Rome, for which he executed an altar-piece
in oil, and painted the ceilings of the chapels
in fresco, illustrating the life of the Virgin.
He died, according to Zani, in 1689. (Titi,
Descrizione delle Pitture, S^c. in JRoma; Lanzi,
Storia Pittorica, Sfc.) R. N. W.

ALE' A, LE'ONARD, a French writer
who contributed to the revival of religious
sentiments among his coimtrymen after the
Revolution. He was born at Paris, of a
family connected with the finances, and died
in the same city, about the year 1812. His
principal work is " L' Antidote de I'Atheisme
on Examen critique du Dictionnaire des
Athees." Paris, 1801, 8vo. This " Anti-
dote to Atheism," published anonymously, was
intended to counteract another anonymous
work entitled the " Dictionary of Atheists,"
published in 1801 by Sylvain Marechal and
De Lalande. Marechal himself acknowledged
the moderation of his antagonist, and the
work was held in the highest esteem by Por-
talis and the Cardinal Gerdil, though we are
told in the "Dictionnaire des Dates" that
the author was himself a deist. A second
edition of the work in two volumes, consider-
ably augmented, appeared in 1802 with the
name of the author, and with the new title
of " La Religion triomphant des Attentats de
I'lmpiete." Alea published another work.
Reflections against Divorce, " Reflexions con-
tre le Divorce," Paris, 1802, 8vo., and is
said to have left behind him several manu-
scripts relating to the French Revolution.
{Biographie Universelle, Ivi. 155. ; Harmon-
viUe, Dictionnaire des Dates, i. 101.) T. W.

ALEA'NDRO, GIRO'LAMO, cardinal,
was born at IMotta, near Friuli, on the thir-
teenth of February, 1480. At the age of
thirteen he applied himself to the study of
belles lettres at Venice under Benedetto
Brugnolo and Petronillo Arimini. On his
return to Motta in 1497 he otfei'cd a public
challenge to Domenieo Plorio, the professor
of the place, in which contest he was vic-
torious, and succeeded to the post of his
adversary. He then studied astronomy, me-
dicine, and the Hebrew language, and in the
year 1500 gave public lectures at Venice on
the Tusculan questions of Cicero with great
success. His reputation gained him the
notice of Aldus Manutius the elder. From
Venice he proceeded to Padua, and while
there received an invitation to Rome from
Pope Alexander VI., who was desirous of
appointing him secretary to his son, CiBsar
Borgia ; but wishing, in the first place, to

ALEANDRO.

put his abilities for public affairs to the
test, directed him to repair to Hungary as
his envoy. Aleandro accordingly set out
upon his journej', but falling sick on the
road was obliged to return to Venice, and
the pope's death, which occurred before his
recovery, put an end at once to his mission
and appointment as secretary. He continued i
his studies at Venice, and no greater proof of \
his extraordinary ability and reputation can ;
be adduced than the fiict that Aldus in 150-4
dedicated to him his Greek edition of Homer,
and the honourable and affectionate mention
made of him in the preface to that work, in
■which Aldus states that he was a perfect
master of the Greek and Hebrew, and well
acquainted with the Chaldee and Arabic lan-
guages, mathematics, and music, and able to
write Latin, in verse and prose, with great
elegance. During his residence at Venice he
formed a great intimacy with Erasmus, whom
he assisted in the preparation of a new edition
of his " Adagia," which was printed at the
Aldine press : the two friends resided at the
house of Andrea Asolano, the father-in-law
of Aldus. In the year 1.508 the professor-
ship of belles lettres and the Greek language
in the university of Paris was offered to
him by Louis XIL, which he accepted, and
ultimately became rector of that university,
in violation of its statutes, he being a
foreigner, but he obtained the privilege of
naturalisation. After a residence at Paris of
several years he quitted it on the appear-
ance of the plague, and gave lectures on the
Greek language in Orleans, Blois, and other
places. In 1513 he became secretary to the
Archbishop of Paris, and in the year fol-
lowing entered into the service of Everard
de la Marck, the bishop of Liege, who made
him his chancellor, a canon of his cathedral,
and provost of S. Pietro. During two years
that he resided in Liege he employed himself
in teaching the Greek language. The bishop,
being desirous of obtaining the dignity of car-
dinal, against which Francis I. of France had
raised many obstacles, sent Aleandro to Rome
for the purpose of urging his pretensions
before the pope, Leo X. : Aleandro suc-
ceeded in his mission, and so well conciliated
the good opinion of the pontiff that he de-
tained him at court. He was first made
secretary to the cardinal Giulio de' Medici
(afterwards Clement VII.), and in 1519 suc-
ceeded Zanobio Acciajuoli as librarian of the
Vatican. The doctrines of Luther at this
time made great progress in Germany, and
Aleandro was sent to that country at the
commencement of the year 1520 for the
purpose of opposing them. On his way to
the diet at "Worms he was subjected to the
greatest mortifications in those places where
the Lutheran tenets had been adopted : neither
members of colleges nor nobles nor priests,
even among those who were supposed to be
favourable to the pope's cause, would venture
797

to recei.ve him ; and the nuncio, when he had
occasion to halt for refreshment, was obliged
to seek shelter in the meanest inns. He re-
paid these afironts with the bitterest enmity
against the reformers. He repeatedly urged
the condemnation of Luther with the utmost
impetuosity, and in one of his speeches to the
diet was so far transported by his zealous
rage as to exclaim, " If ye seek to shake off
your allegiance to Rome, ye Germans, we
will so act, that, the sword of extermination
being drawn against each other, ye may
perish in your own blood." He designated
the Lutherans as " a motley rabble of inso-
lent grammarians, licentious priests, disorderly
monks, ignorant advocates, degraded nobles,
misled and perverted plebeians." He also
drew up the edict, which was finally adopted
by the emperor and the diet, condemning
Luther and his doctrines as heretical, and
ordering his writings to be publicly burnt.
His violent conduct greatly incensed Erasmus,
and completely severed the friendship which
had hitherto existed between them. On the
accession of Adrian VI. to the pontifical
throne in 1521, Aleandro accompanied liim
into Spain, and thence to Italy, and was
made by his successor, Clement VII., in
1523, archbishop of Brindisi and of Oria,
and despatched as nimcio to Francis I. He
was present with the French king at the
battle of Pavia in 1525, and was made prisoner
with him. He obtained his release by the
payment of a considerable sum of money, and
in 1526 returned to Rome, where he nar-
rowly escaped from the Colonna faction, who
sacked and destroyed his palace, and en-
deavoured to seize him as an adhei'ent of the
pope. In consequence of this attack he
retired to his bishopric of Brindisi in 1527,
and remained there xmtil 1531, when the
pope recalled him to Rome, and sent him
again to Germany to the diet of Spires, which
subsequently met at Ratisbon in the spring
of the following year. Here Aleandro's
strenuous exertions to prevent the empei"or
concluding a truce with the Protestant princes
of Germany proved abortive, and he went as
nuncio to Venice, where he remained until
1535, when the then pope, Paul III., desirous
of rewarding his devotion to the church, re-
called him to Rome for the purpose of cre-
ating him cardinal ; but afterwards, fearing
the displeasure of Ferdinand, king of the Ro-
mans, and the other Roman Catholic princes of
Germany, whom Aleandro had irritated by the
asperity with which he had attacked Luther,
and apprehensive that his promotion at that
period might prevent the conclusion of the
desired peace, withheld the dignity until the
year 1538, when it was conferred upon him.
He now resigned the office of librarian of the
Vatican, and was deputed with the cardinals
Campeggio and Simonetta to preside over the
council intended to be held at Mcenza ; but
this design being abandoned, he was -n 1538
I 3 F 3

ALEANDllO.

ALEANDRO.

sent for the third time legate to Germany,
whence he returned to Rome in 1539 without
effecting any object, on the council being
proi'ogued to an indefinite period. While
engaged in the composition of a work en-
titled " De Concilia habendo," he was at-
tacked by a slow fever, and expired on the
thirty-first of January, 1542. He was buried
in the church of S. Grisogono, but his body
was afterwards removed to his native place
and lodged in the cathedral of S. Niccolo.

Aleandro was a man of great ability, which
even his enemies did not deny ; but his fiery
zeal against the Reformed religion often led
him beyond the bounds of prudence, and
injured the cause which he supported. Lu-
ther indulged in the bitterest invectives
against him, asserting that he was a Jew, and
did not believe in the resurrection, and
charging him with covetousness, lust, arro-
gance, pride, and vanity ; and Ulric Hutten
went so far as to threaten that he would kill
him if he ever had a fair opportunity. It is
certain that he was fond of luxury and public
show : his character was impetuous and de-
cided, and he was indefatigable in the accom-
plishment of his objects. His principal works
in print are — ^ 1. " Lexicon Grseco-Latinum,"
Paris, 1512, fol. This work is said to have
been compiled by six of his scholars, and that
he only revised it and added a few notes.
2. " Tabulae sane utiles Graecarum Musarum
Adyta Compendio ingredi volentibus." This
is a compendium of the Greek Grammar of
Chrysoloras published at Paris about 1513 in
fol., and is also comprised in the " Elementale
Introductorium in Nominum Declinationes
Grsecas," published at Strassburg in 1515 in
4to. He edited the Greek Grammar of Chry-
soloras printed at Paris in 1511, and several
works of Greek authors. Lorenzo Crasso
has placed him among the Greek poets
{Istoria de' Poeti Greet, p. 277.) ; his title
to this distinction rests upon four Greek dis-
tichs prefixed to the first edition of the Mo-
ralia of Plutarch, printed at Venice, in folio,
by Aldus, in 1509 ; and the two verses with
which he concluded his own Latin epitaph : —

Kdrdavou ovk a4Kwv, otl vavcro/xat &v iin-

/xdpTvs
noWiiv, wfTTip ISuu &\'yLov fiv Oavaruv,

Some of his poetical pieces existed in manu-
script in the library of Cardinal Sirleto, others
were preserved at Venice with the canons
of S. Giorgio in Alga. His most important
letters relating to his legations against the
heresies of Luther are deposited in the library
of the Vatican : from these Pallavicino de-
rived materials for the early part of his his-
tory of the council of Trent ; and the work
" De Concilio habendo," of which Aleandro
had written four books at the time of his
death, is said to have been of much use in
regulating the proceedings of that council.
He left behind him a diary in manuscript,
798

of which Mazzuchelli availed himself in
drawing up his account of his life. (Mazzu-
chelli, Scrittori d' Italia ; Liruti, Notizie delle
Vite ed Opere Scritte da' Letterati del Friuli,
i. 456 — 506. ; Merle d'Aubigne, Histoire de
la Reformation, ii. 193, 194. 224—228. 239 —
246.; Jortin, Life of Erasmus, i. 244.)

J. W. J.
ALEA'NDRO, GIRO'LAMO, commonly
called the younger, in order to distinguish him
from his grand-uncle the cardinal, was the son
of Scipio Aleandro and Amaltea Amaltei, the
daughter of the celebrated poet Girolamo
Amaltei, and was born at Motta in Friuli, on
the twenty-ninth of July, 1574. Like the
cardinal, he displayed great precocity of in-
tellect, and at the age of sixteen he composed
seven beautiful odes in the form of para-
phrases on the seven penitential psalms,
which were afterwards printed at Rome
under the title of " Le Lagrime di Penitenza:"
he had previously written a paraphrase of
the same psalms in Latin elegiac verse. The
epigram upon the death of Camillo Paleotto,
printed among his Latin poems, is stated to
have been composed in his sleep. Being
designed for the church, he was sent at the
age of twenty to the university of Padua,
where he applied himself with great ardour
to the study of belles lettres, jurisprudence,
philosophy and theology. At the age of
twenty-six he published his Commentary
upon the Institutes of Caius (Gaius), which
was well received, and the public professor-
ship of jurisprudence was offered to him by
several universities. These invitations he de-
clined, and went to Rome on the suggestion
of his uncle, Attilio Amalteo, who speedily
obtained for him the office of preposito of
Saint Philip and Saint James of Brescia.
He joined the Academy degli Umoristi, just
then instituted at Rome, and embracing all
the most learned men in that city, and be-
came one of its most active members ; his
academical name was Aggirato. He had not
long resided at Rome when Cardinal Ottavio
Bandini appointed him his secretary, in which
post he continued twenty years, notwith-
standing the numerous solicitations from other
cai'dinals who were anxious to obtain his
services. During this long period he devoted
all his leisure to the pursuit of literature and
antiquities. In 1624 Pope Urban VIII. suc-
ceeded in drawing him from Cardinal Ban-
dini, and made him his own secretary : he
also acted as secretary for his nephew Car-
dinal Barberini, and accompanied him in
this capacity and as councillor upon his being
sent, in 1625, as legate a latere to France
for the purpose of negotiating a peace be-
tween France, Spain and Genoa. Up to this
; period Aleandro, whose constitution was na-
turally delicate, had accustomed himself to
great regularity and simplicity of life; but in
Fi'ance the necessity to which he was sub-
jected of living more freely, threw him into

ALEANDRO.

ALEAUME,

an ill state of health, which compelled him,
instead of accompanying the cardinal, who
pi'oceeded into Spain, to retnrn to Rome,
where he died on the ninth of March, IG29.
His loss was deeply felt by Cardinal Bar-
berini, who was greatly attached to him, and,
as a mark of respect, ordered him a splendid
funeral. His funeral oration was pronounced
by Gaspar de Simeonibus. Baillet, on ac-
count of his early proofs of genius, has placed
him among his " Enfans cclcbres par leurs
E'tudes." He was one of the most learned
men of his time, and his style is commended
by De Rossi as pure and elegant.

His works are : — 1. " Psalmi poenitentiales
Versibus elegiacis expressi. Tarvisii, 1593,"
4to. 2. " Caji veteris Jnrisconsulti Institu-
tionum Fragmenta cum Commentario. Ve-
netiis, 1600," 4to. 3. " Sopra I'lmpresa degli
AccademiciUmoristi Discorso. Roma, 1611,"
4to. 4. " Antiqua; Tabulre Marmoreal Soils
Effigie Symbolisque exsculpta; Explicatio, &c.
Romae, 1616," 4to. 5. "Effigies Sistri^.gyptii
quod servatur in Muscco Francisci Gualdi,
explicata." 6. " In Nuptiis M. A. Burghesii
Carmen. Roncilioni, 1619," 4to. 7. " Refu-
tatio Conjecturae anonymi Scriptoris [J.
Gothofredi] de suburbicariis Regionibus ac
Dicecesi Episcopi Romani. Parisiis, 1619,"
4to. 8. " In Obitum Catellse Aldinse Lachrymae
poeticffi. Parisiis, 1622," 8vo. 9. " Le Lagrime
di Penitenza ad Imitazione de' sette Salmi
penitenziali. Roma, 1623," 8vo. 10. " De
duplici Statu Ileligionis in Scotia. Roma,
1623," 8vo. 11. " Navis Ecclesiam referentis
Symbolum, in veteri Gemma annular! in-
sculptum, Explicatione illustratum. Romce,
1626," 8vo. 12. "Difesa dell' Adone, Poema
del Cavalier Marini, per Risposta all' Occhiale
del Cavaliere Stigliani. Venetia, 1629-30,"
12mo. 13. " Assertionum Catholicarum Libri
III. Roma?, 1628," fol. 14. " Additiones ad
Ciacconiumde Vitis Pontificum." Ui'ban VIII.
having determined that a new edition of Ciac-
conio's work should be published, deputed
Aleandro and Andrea Vittorelli to the task of
editors : Aleandro died before the completion
of the work, but his additions, comprising
vol. ii. were printed at Rome in 1630. 1.5.
" Additamentum ad Explanationem antiquae
Inscriptionis Scipionis Barbati," published in
torn. iv. p. 597. of the works of J. Sirmond. 1 6.
The greater part of his Latin poems were pub-
lished with those of Girolamo, Giambattista,
and Cornelio Amalteo, his maternal grand-
father and uncles, at Venice, in the year 1627.
He also left in manuscript, " Commentariiis
in Legem de Servitutibus," various treatises
on antiquarian subjects, poems in Latin and
Italian, &c., a particular account of which is
given by Mazzuchelli. (Liruti, Notizie delle
Vite ed Opere scritte da Letterati del Frittli, p.
506 — 536. ; Erythrajus, Pinacotheca Imaginum
illustrium Viroriim, p. 46. ; Mazzuchelli, Scrit-
tori d'ltalia ; Fontanini, Aminta di Tasso
difeso, p. 136. 169. 292.) J. W. J.

799

ALEAS. [Velasco, Diego de.]
ALE'AUME, LOUIS, a French writer of
Latin poetry in the sixteenth century. He
was born of a good family at Verneuil in
1525, and studied the law. " He would have
made a great advocate," saj^s Loisel, in his
dialogue on the advocates of the Parliament
of Paris, " if he had tied himself to the bar,
as he showed in a cause where I " (it is Pas-
([uier, the great lawyer, who is represented
speaking) " was counsel against him ; but he
was a man for books and liberty, contented
Avith what property he had of his own, and
with the place of substitute for the king's
counsel. He was provided too with the post
of lieutenant general of Orleans, which he
filled with much honour and satisfaction,
giving himself up to polite letters, and in par-
ticular to Latin poetry, in which he was an
excellent hand, as is shown by a book that
his son, Gilles Aleaume, has had printed
since his decease, and especially by an enigma
about a candle, which may be compared to
the best Latin poems of this age." Aleaume
died in 1596, at the age of more than seventy,
" but still," says Saint Marthe, " by an nn-
timely death, because it was only a few
months before the peace concluded between
the king and the conspirators." He was mar-
ried to Margaret Brulart, sister of the first
lord of Genlis, by whom he left a son, Gilles,
who inherited his office and preserved his
memory by the publication of his works.
The poems of Aleaume occupy fifty-three
pages in the collection published by Gruter
under the assumed name of Ranutius Gherus,
an anagram of Janus Gruterus. The enigma
on a candle, or rather a lantern, " Obscura
Claritas," is a sufficient proof that Saint
Marthe, to whom some of Aleaume's verses
are addressed, was correct in saj'ing that he
possessed a peculiar faculty of exti'acting
amusement from a barren subject. Some
lines on the death of Philip Picard, a preacher
of Orleans, might also be cited for peculiar
merit, and the verses are in general distin-
guished for spirit and vivacity. (Loisel,
Pasquier oti Dialogue des Advocats, in Camus,
Lettres sur la Profession d'Avocat, edit, of
1818, i. 304.; Sammarthanns, Elogia doctorum
in Gallia Virorum, edit, of Jena, 1696, p. 95,
&c. ; Gherus, Delicia Poctarum Gallurum,
i. 1 — 53. ; Article by Lamoureux in Biographic
Universale, Ivi. 156.) T. W.

ALEFELD, GEORG LUDWIG, was
the son of Johann Ludwig Alefeld, professor
of philosophy in the university of Giessen,
and was born at Giessen in 1732. He studied
there and at Strassburg, and received his
doctor's diploma in 1756. In 1758 he was
appointed extraordinary professor of me-
dicine at Giessen, and soon afterwards ordi-
nary professor of medicine and physics. He
died in 1774, having published the following
dissertations: — 1. " De Acre Sanguine per-
misto," 1756. 2. "De Dissectione Foetus in
3 F 4

ALEFELD.

ALEGAMBE.

Utero," 1757. 3. In Causam cur Fceniim
iiiadidum Ignem concipiat," 1761. 4. " De
Aneurysmate Arterite cruralis in Cartila-
ginem et Os mutato," 1763. 5. " De insigni
Usu Sulphuris aiirati Antimonii," 1765. 6.
" De Sphaeelo a Causa interna oriundo saluti-
fero a!(jiie ac nocivo," 1765. 7. " De Epi-
lepsia Febrium intermittentium," 1765. 8.
"De Fluore albo ex Neglectu Dietse," 1766.
9. " De Sanguinis Missione Infantibus neo-
natis debilibus," 1766. 10. " De Hasmor-
rhagiis," 1767. 11. " De Patbematibus hy-
stericis," 1767. 12. " An Contrafissura in
Cranio Infantis aeque ac Adulti generari
queat," 1769. 13. " De Doloribus in Partu
silentibus," 1770. All of these were pub-
lished in 4to. at Giessen. (Jiicher, Gelehrtcn-
Lexicon, fortsetzung von Adelung ; Commcn-
tarii Zjipsicnses, t. xx.) J. P.

ALEGAMBE, PHILIP, was born at
Brussels in 1592. At an early age be became
secretary to the Duke of Ossuna, with whom
he travelled in Spain and Italy, and he en-
tered the order of the Jesuits at Palermo
in 1613. For some time he taught philosophy
at the coUege of the Jesuits at Griitz in Ger-
many, where tlie prince of Eggemberg, an
Austrian nobleman, appointed him his son's
tutor. He travelled with the young prince
during five years in Germany, France, Italy,
and Spain, and after his return taught again
philosophy at Griitz. Alegambe subsequently
went to Rome, where he died in 1652, as
superior of tlie house of the Jesuits, and
secretary to the general of the order.

He continued and considerably augmented
the " Bibliotheca Scriptorum Societatis Jesu,"
published by Ribadeneira, 1602, in Svo. This
excellent work of Alegambe, the first edition
of which was printed at Antwerp, 1643, in
folio, was again augmented after the death of
the author by Father Nathaniel Southwell,
and published under the title of " Bibliotheca
Scriptorum Societatis Jesu, Opus inchoatum
a R. P. Petro Ribadeneira, continuatum a
R. P. Pliilippo Alegambe usque ad Annum
1642, etc." Rome, 1675, in fol. It is the best
work on the general biography and biblio-
graphy of the earlier Jesuit writers ; but it
would have been more convenient for use if
the author, instead of arranging the articles in
alphabetical order, according to the Christian
names of the writers, had arranged them in
the usual order of theu' family names. The
list of works of the different authors is
not always complete. The Abbe Feller,
in the work cited below, speaks of another
similar work written in the last century
by Father Oudin, a French Jesuit, which
he affirms to be far superior to that of
Alegambe. But it may be doubted whether
the Abbe Feller ever saw this work of Oudin,
which has never been printed: the manuscript
was carried off from Paris during the re-
volution. A learned Jesuit has lately traced
this manuscript into Italy, but he lost all
800

vestiges of it before he reached Rome.
Alegambe is also the author of — 1. " Mortes
illustres et Gesta eorum qui in Odium Fidei
ab Hsereticis vel aliis occisi sunt," Rome,

1657, in folio, which contains the biogra-
phies of the Jesuits who died as martyrs for
the Roman Catholic faith. 2. " Heroes et
Victimse Charitatis Societatis Jesu," Rome,

1658, in 4to., contains the biographies of
those members of the order who sacrificed
themselves by attending the sick during the
plague and similar maladies. It comes down
to the year 1647, and was continued to 1657
by the editor, John Nadasi. Besides these
works, Alegambe wrote several smaller trea-
tises on the vanity of honour and the pleasures
of the world, which contain sound morality
expressed in elegant language. (Alegambe,
Biblioth. Script. Soc. Jesu, Rome, 1676, in
folio, sub voc. " Philippus Alegambe ; " W.
Smets, ^Yus that der Jesuitenorden filr die
Wissenschaft 9 sub voc. " Alegambe ; " Fel-
ler, Dictionnaire Historique, sub voc. " Ale-
gambe ; " Memoircs pour servir a VHistoire
litteraire des Pays-Bus (by Paquot), sub voc.
" Alegambe.") W. P.

ALE'GRE, D', a novelist and dramatist
who lived in the reign of Louis XV. Of
this writer neither the Christian name nor
the time nor place of his birth is known :
it is even disputed whether he was the author
of the works which are ascribed to him.
The only undisputed fact respecting him is,
that he died in Paris in 1736. Tlie comedies
attributed to D'Alegre are " L' Homme a bonnes
Fortunes," and " La Coquette." He was also
the author of two romances, " Gulistan, ou
I'Empire des Roses ; traite des Moeurs des
Rois," and " L'llistoire de Moncado," &c.
(^Bioq, Univ. Suppl.) H. G.

ALE^GRE, ANGELIQUE D', a French
Capuchin in the latter half of the seventeenth
century. He was the author of " Le Chretien
parfait, ou le Portrait des Perfections divines
tiroes en THomme sur son Original," printed
in 4to. at Paris in 1665. (Adelung's Supple-
ment to Jocher's Allgem. Gelehrtcn-Lexicon.)

A. T. P.

ALEGRE DE CASANA'TE, MARC-
ANTO'NIO, a Carmelite and doctor of di-
vinity, born at Tarragona in Catalonia, pre-
ferred the retirement of a cell to succeeding
his uncle in the office of secretary of King
Philip in. He died in 1658, at the age of
sixty-eight. His principal work is called
" Paradisus Carmelitici decoris," Lyon, 1639,
fol. According to Baillet this work is an
account of authors and others among the
Carmelites, which has been deservedly cen-
sured, both for its strong prejudice in fovour
of that order, and for its being swelled by
names of individuals who were not Carmel-
ites. (Baillet, Jugcmens des Savans, tom. ii.
part i. ; Jiicher, Ally em. GeUhrten-Le.ricon ;
Moreri, Dictionnaire Historique, ed. 1759.)

A. T. P.

ALEGRE.

ALEHI.

ALEGRE, YVES,

distiaguished captain

baron d', was a
in the Italian wars of
Charles VIII. and Louis XII. He served
under Charles when he invaded Naples in
l-i'J;5, and under Louis when that prince con-
quered the Milanese, and expelled Ludovico
Sforza from Lombardy in 1499. Louis, prior
to his Italian expedition, had engaged to aid
Cccsar Borgia, son of Pope Alexander VI., in
acquiring an Italian principality ; and as
soon as he had established the French domi-
nion in Milan, the French king, instigated by
his minister the Cardinal of Amboise, who was
in the papal interest, despatched Alegre, with
300 lances and 4000 Swiss, to the assistance
of Borgia, who was then preparing to subdue
the papal feudatories in Romagna. This
timely aid enabled Cicsar to begin his enter-
jirlse with great spirit and success., Alegre
and the auxiliaries took the field in Romagna
with Cffisar in November, 1499, and in a
short space reduced Imola, Forli, and Cesena.
Alegre was about to lay siege to Pesaro
when Trivulcio, whom Louis had left in
command at ^Nlilan, was suddenly attacked
by Sforza at the head of 8000 Swiss ; and he
was compelled to recall Alegre from Ro-
magna. His return to Lombardy suspended
the enterprises of Caesar and the extensive
projects of Pope Alexander VI. Alegre co-
operated with Trivulcio in baffling the at-
tempt of Sforza to recover the Milanese
(1500); and he was instrumental in re-
establishing the French power in the north of
Italy. He commanded a body of reserve at
the battle of Ravenna (1512) under Gaston
de Foix and Bayard ; he contributed to that
decisive victory by directing his youthful
captain in the use of his artillery against the
Spanish horse ; and he was killed at the
head of his body of reserve in the latter part
of the action. He was reputed the best
tactician and disciplinarian at that time in
the French armies. (Guieciardini, Istoria
ir Italia.) H. G.

ALEGRE, YVES, marquis d', of the
same family, was a distinguished captain
in the time of Louis XIV. He was at the
battle of Fleurus, which ISIarshal Luxem-
bourg gained over the Prince of Waldeck
(1690). In the war of the Grand Alliance
he served under Bouflers and Villeroy, and
in 1703 signalised himself by defending Bonn
against the confederate army commanded by
Marlborough. He was unable to save the
town, but obtained favourable terms. In a
subsequent campaign in Flanders he was
taken prisoner by the English. In 1712
Alegre served under Villars at the sieges of
Douay and Bouchain ; and was at the attack
on the German camp at Fribourg in 1713,
immediately before the peace of Rastadt. He
was marshal of France in 1724, and was ap-
pointed military commandant in Brittany.
He died in 1733, aged eighty. (Henault,
Abny. Chron.; Mercure Hist. 1703.) H. G.
801

A'LEIII, (not Ilahy, as Chabert calls him,)
a Turkish writer, who lived in the fifteenth
century, and made himself a name in the
literature of his nation by his mystic poems
and works on morals. He was born in Ana-
tolia, but tlie year of his birth is uncertain.
He entered the religious order of the Naksh-
bendi at Bokhara, where he received the
" mystic ordination," and lived a long time
with the famous sheikh Jami. He died in
A.n. 896 (a.d. 1491), at Yenije Warda, and
his tomb is regarded as a holy place, and
visited by pious pilgrims. His principal works
are, " Sad-ul-mushtakin" ('* Provision for
longing Souls") ; " Nejat-ul-erwah " ("De-
livery of the Soul") ; " Meslik-ul-tulibin wel
wiisiliu " (" The AVay of those who seek and
find.") (Latifi, Biographiaclie Nachriditeu
von Tiirki.se/teni Dielitcrn iibersetzt von Cha-
bert, p. 46.) W. P.

ALEKS^EV (or ALEXEJEV), PHEO-
DOR YAKOVLEVITCH, an artist who
has been called the Russian Canaletto, was
born in 1755. After studying at the Aca-
demy of Fine Arts, St. Petersburg, where
he had greatly distinguished himself, and
obtained several prize medals, he was sent
abroad for further improvement. During
his stay in Italy he fixed himself for the
greater part of the time at Venice, whose
picturesque structures were congenial to
his taste for architectural subjects ; and
while there he made a great many views
of the principal edifices, profiting at the
same time by the works of Canaletto and
the instruction of Morieschi. On his return
to St. Petersburg in 1779 he became scene-
painterTat the Imperial Theatre, where he
continued till 1787, from which period he
devoted himself entirely to architectural sub-
jects in oil on a smaller scale. In 1794 he
was made a member of the Academy of Fine
Arts ; and in 1801 was sent by his patron,
the Emperor Paul, to take views of buildings
at Moscow and in other cities of the empire.
He returned with a large collection of
sketches and finished drawings, from which
he afterwards produced a series of paintings
now deposited in the gallery of the Her-
mitage, and which, independently of their
interest as works of art, possess an additional
one as recording that capital and its chief
buildings before the conflagration in 1812.
In 1803 he was appointed professor of per-
spective at the academy, in the duties of
which ofiice and his labours with his own
pencil he continued fully engaged up to the
time of his death, November }}^, 1821. His
latter works however were not equal to those
which he had produced between the years
1787 and 1810.

In accuracy of perspective and architectu-
ral drawing, in judicious selection of the
point of view for his buildings, in his manage-
ment of light and shade, and in freedom of
handling, Aleksseev displayed gieat ability ;

ALEKSiEEV.

ALEMAN.

but in his figures lie was not always equally
happy, neither was he so in aerial perspec-
tive, more especially in his later works ; yet
some have ascribed to him particular merit
on account of his aerial effects. Among his
numerous pupils, Vorobiev has most dis-
tinguished himself in architectural painting.
(Grigorievitch, in the Entziklop. Leksikon
Severnie Tzvati) W. H. L.

ALEMAGNA, GIUSTO DI, or JUSTUS
DE ALEMANIA, an eminent painter of
the fifteenth century. He painted in the year
1451, in the convent of S. Maria di Castello
at Genoa, a very carefully executed picture
in fresco of the Annunciation ; vipon which
he wrote the following inscription, " Justus
de Alemania piuxit mccccli." This is
the oldest fresco painting in Genoa, and the
colours are still quite fresh and very brilliant.
Justus was evidently a German. (Soprani,
Vite de' Pittori, Scultori, e Architelti Genovesi.)

R. N. W.

ALEMAN, LOUIS, archbishop of Aries,
one of the most distinguished churchmen of
the fifteenth century, was born at Bugey in
1390. He was successively bishop of Mague-
lone, a see afterwards transferred to Mont-
pellier, and archbishop of Aries. In 1426
he was made a cardinal by Pope Martin V.,
who sent him to the council of Siena.
When that pontiff assembled the council of
Basle in 14.31, he appointed Aleman one of
the presidents ; and he acted a memorable
part in that celebrated assembly. Euge-
nius IV., who succeeded Martin in 1431,
bent all his efforts to recover the papal su-
premacy, which had been wrested from Rome
by the act of the council of Constance de-
claring the authority of councils superior ;
and he sought to acquire the command of the
council of Basle by transferring it to Bo-
logna, where his Italian influence was irre-
sistible. The bull which for this purpose
Eugenius issued, produced a rupture between
him and the council, and revived the ques-
tion on the nature and limits of the papal
supremacy. Aleman and Cardinal Julian, the
two presidents, zealously espoused the side of
the council, offering a determined opposition
to the pope ; and the vigorous resolutions
which the French party then passed, seconded
in this instance by the Emperor Sigismund
and the cardinals of the imperial faction,
have ever since formed the grand distinction
between the doctrines of moderate Catholicism
and the ultramontane principles which exalt
the papal authority over all temporal power.
It was at the instance of Aleman tliat the
council threatened Eugenius with suspension
from his spiritual office if he did not recall
the bull, and he was mainly instrumental in
procuring that famous act of the council by
which the pope was declared to have no
power of dissolving, proroguing, or trans-
ferring councils. Eugenius, a man of a lofty
and enterprising character, persisted in his
802

exorbitant pretensions ; and he was encou-
raged in his resolution to maintain them by
the defection of Cardinal Julian, wlio after
supporting Aleman with all his learning and
eloquence, deserted the cause of the council,
and went over to the papal side. The steady
mind of Aleman still pursued its purpose.
He arrayed the temporal princes, especially
the Emperor Sigismund and the Duke of
Milan, against Eugenius ; he rallied the
northern prelates, who were inclined to li-
beral sentiments, round his own partisans of
the French faction, and in favour of their
ecclesiastical liberties ; and he finally suc-
ceeded in obtaining a sentence of deposition
against the pope (1440), and placing the tiara
on the head of Amadeus VIII., duke of Savoy,
who took the name of Felix V. iEneas Syl-
vius, who was secretary to the council, says
that throughout this struggle the prudence
and firmness of Aleman were very remark-
able, as well as his art and address ; that he
was the Hector of the council ; and that
without him neither the temporal power or
the coimcil could have withstood the see of
Rome. Eugenius, who still braved the coun-
cil, issued a bull by which he deprived Ale-
man of all his ecclesiastical dignities. There
were now two pontiffs in the field ; and the
church was again exposed to the scandal and
danger which it had incurred from the former
schism in the papacy and the contest between
Rome and Avignon. Aleman, who had
raised Felix to the tiara, became apprehen-
sive of the consequences of pushing matters
to further extremities ; and he prevailed on
Felix to heal the disorders in the church by
his abdication. Nicholas V., who succeeded
Eugenius in 1447, restored Aleman to all his
dignities, and sent him to Lower Germany as
legate in 1451. He died in 1452. (TEneas
Sylvius, De Cone. Basil; L'Enfant, Histoire
du Concile de Basle.) H. G.

A'LEMAN, MATEO, a Spanish writer of
the reign of Philip II., who acquired a Euro-
pean reputation by the production of a novel,
" Guzman de Alfarache;" for although he
wrote other books, the knowledge of them is
confined to his own country. He was, as we
learn from himself, in the royal exchequer
office, " Contador de resultas de la Conta-
dnria mayor," and had access to the palace,
which gave him opportunities of observing
the manners and profiting by the conver-
sation of those about the coui't. His book,
like " Don Quixote," was published in two
parts, and to the second is prefixed a eulogium
by Lys de Valdes, wherein he observes
" that never soldier had a poorer purse and a
richer intellect, nor a life of greater disquiet
and trouble ; and for this reason alone, that
he accounted it more honourable to be
esteemed a poor philosopher than a rich flat-
terer. It is well known that he left, of his
own accord, the king's palace, where he had
served twenty years, the very flower of his

ALEMAN.

age, in the employment of King Philip, in the '
oflBce of his exchequer, and in many other ^
weighty affairs, besides visitations and sur- j
veys which were intrusted to him ; in all of
which he conducted himself well and gave
great satisfaction, llis integrity was shown
by his poverty ; for ultimately, not being
able by reason of his necessities to continue
his services, he withdrew fi-om ofiice to ob-
scurity." With these brief notices to aid us,
as we read his book, one of the most singular
that Spain has produced, we are enabled to
form an estimate of him, not only as an
observer and a man of genius and judgment,
a graphic describer, and a witty writer who
has a moral object in view, but of his personal
worth and the sterling character of his mind.
Mayans calls him " ingeniosisimo y discre-
tisimo escritor." He seems in his retire-
ment to have recurred to past scenes, and to
have set down the vices, the follies, and the
hypocrisies of the more elevated classes,
which he had witnessed, while at the same
time he details with extraordinary minute-
ness the tricks and adventures of rogues of
inferior degree. Guzman is a worthy fol-
lower of Lazarillo de Tormes, and a pre-
curser of Gil Bias. The hero is of doubtful
descent, with the prajnomen of one of the
proudest families of Spain ; tenderly reared,
he throws himself, a boy, upon the world;
becomes successively stable-boy, beggar, por-
ter, thief, man of fashion, soldier m Italy,
valet to a cardinal, and pander to a French
ambassador ; is subsequently a merchant and
becomes bankrupt, then a student at the uni-
versity of Alcala, marries, is deserted by his
wife, commits a robbery, is sent to the gal-
leys, is liberated, and then writes an account
of his life. The narrative is interwoven with
shrewd maxims and acute observations. The
author is classed by Mayans among the prose
writers best adapted for the formation of a
good Castilian style, and is named by him,
which is no small merit, with Fray Luis de
Leon, Hurtado de Mendoza, Cervantes, Mari-
ana, and Herrera, the great masters of this
rich, harmonious, and noble language. The
book was first printed in 1599, went through
five-and-twenty editions in Spain, and was
translated into all the languages of Europe ;
it appeared in London, in 1623, as from an
anonymous translator, for the Spanish name
affixed, Don Diego Puede-ser (^Maij-be-so)
is evidently assumed ; probably by the in-
defatigable Howell, who was at Madrid im-
mediately prior to the date of its publica-
tion. Aleman wrote also a life of Saint
Anthony of Padua, a treatise on orthography,
and " The Beacon (Atalaya) of Life."

w. c. w.

ALEMAN, RODRI'GO, a sculptor, says
Bermudez, of much celebrity in his time,
about the beginning of the sixteenth century :
he Mas probably a German. Rodrigo exe-
cuted the figures and arabesque ornaments of
803

the stalls of the choir of the cathedral of
Plasencia ; an extraordinary work, rich in
every kind of grotesque device. He exe-
cuted likewise the ornamental work of the
stalls of the church of Ciudad Rodrigo, in
which, however, he introduced serious sub-
jects: he was paid for each stall 10,000 ma-
ravedis, or about 5l. 10s. sterling. (Bermudez,
JJiccionario Historico de los mas ilusircs Pro-
fesores de las Bellas Artes in Espaiia.)

R. N. W.
ALEMAND, LOUIS AUGUSTIN, a
French writer of considerable merit, was
born at Grenoble in 1653, and brought up iu
the Protestant religion, which he abjured in
1676. He became an advocate of the parlia-
ment of Grenoble, and was distinguished for
his talents at the bar, but nevertheless in
1693 he took the degree of doctor of medi-
cine at Aix, in the hope of obtaining an
appointment on board the fleet, in which he
was disappointed. It may be conjectured
from some expressions in his writings that,
in spite of his talents and the zeal he mani-
fested for nis new religion, the proselyte was
not looked upon with favour. For some
time he appears to have lived at Paris ac-
tively engaged in literary pursuits, but being
thwarted in various ways, to have returned
to Grenoble, and follov.ed up his legal career
till his death in 1728. These few facts of
his life are gathered from different sources
and obscure statements, which do not always
agree. The Biographie Universelle mentions
1643 as the date of his birth, and contains
no allusion to his being an advocate.

The works of Alcmand are remarkable for
vivacity, and they are by no means deficient
in judgment or in erudition. The first is a
collection of critical remarks on the history
of individual words, " Nouvelles Obsei-va-
tions ou guerre civile des Fran9ais sur la
Langue." Paris, 1688, 12mo. Goujet speaks
of it in the highest terms, as both useful and
entertaining, and expresses his regret that
the anonymous author, who promised six
more volumes, had not kept his word. He
adds the information that in a copy he had
seen the work was ascribed to Alemand ; on
which Artigny remarks, that Goujet had
probably forgotten that this might be done
on Goujet's own authority, in another work,
his edition of Moreri. Artigny might have
added that in that work it is also stated that
the appearance of the continuation was pre-
vented by the interference of the French
Academy.

The next work by Alemand was an edition
of some unpublished remarks of ^'augelas,
of a similar character to his own, " Nouvelles
Remarques de M. de Vaugelas, sur la Langue
Fran^oise, Ouvrage posthume, avec des Ob-
servations, de M * * * * *, Avocat au Par-
Icment." Paris, 1690, 12mo. This work had
been placed in his hands for publication by
the Abbe de la Chambre, the friend of him-

ALEMAND.

ALEMANIA.

self and of Father Bouhoui'S. Bouhours, in-
censed that another person should have been
chosen for a task he would willingly have
undertaken himself, assailed vVlemand with
equal rudeness and injustice in his next
publication; but the remarks both of Vaugelas
and of his commentator are mentioned with
.•ommendation by the best French critics.
The next work of Alemand appeared with
his name, " Histoire Monastique d'Irlande."
Paris, 1690, 12mo. This work is dedicated
to James II., his wife and son, and was written
to gratify the curiosity the affairs of Ireland
at that time excited. The author protests,
in his introduction, that if the booksellers of
Paris had been as fond of folios as the book-
sellers of London, he might have swelled
his materials to that size, and he calls atten-
tion to a monastic history composed by an
ex-Protestant, as a proof that it is wrong
to regard with indifference " all sorts of
new Catholics." He announces his intention
of publishing an abridgment of Dugdale's
" Monasticon Anglicanum " and " English
Baronage," but the project appeai-s never
to have been carried into effect. This history
of Irish monasteries, thus written to serve a
temporary purpose, is a better book than
might have been expected: it is the basis of
the " Monasticon llibernicum," published at
London in 1722, which the anonymous edi-
tor, known to be Captain Stevens, states in
the preface to be " neither a translation nor
his own compiling," but due to Alemand,
" as having laid the foundation and found
most of the materials." Alemand also at the
suggestion of Pelisson and de la Chambre
undertook a " Journal Ilistorique," or Annual
Register, one volume of which, containing
the year 1694, was published at Paris with
the imprint of Strasburg, and is spoken of
by D'Artigny as a work^of great merit. He
was obliged to drop the continuation, though
he had another volume ready for the press,
by the efforts of the proprietors of other pe-
riodicals, who succeeded in preventing him
from obtaining the necessary privilege. A
French translation of the " Medicina Statica "
of Sanctorius appears to have been the only
other work that Alemand published. (Moreri,
Dictionnairc Historique, edit, of 1759, i. 324.;
Article by Beuchot in Biogmpltie Universelle,
i. 481.; Gou^et, Bil)lio(he(/ue Frangoise, i. 174.;
D'Artigny, Nouveaux Memoires, i. 277, &c. ;
Alemand's Histoire Monastique, &c. ; and
Stevens's Monasticon Hibcrnioim.} T. W,
ALEMA'NIA, JOANNES DE, called also
Giovanni Tedesco, a German painter who
lived at Venice in the earlier half of the fif-
teenth century. His name is inscribed upon
some pictures in Venice and in Padua, in
company with that of Antonio Vivarini of
Murano, with whom he must have worked
in partnership. In the church of San Giorgio
Maggiore is a picture of Saints Stephen and
Sebastian, with the date 1445, and inscribed
804

" Joannes de Alemania et Antonius de Mu-
riano P. ;" and in the church of San Panta-
leone is a picture of the Virgin upon a gold
ground, with the inscription, " Zuane, e An-
tonio da ISIuran pense, 1444;" where Zuane
refers to the same painter according to Lanzi ;
but Ridofi and Zanetti suppose a Giovanni
Vivarini and a brother of Antonio to be
meant. In Padua also there is a picture in-
scribed "Antonio de Muran e Zohan Ala-
manus pinxit." After 1447, says Lanzi, this
painter is not mentioned. (Zanetti, Delia
Pittura Veneziana, ^'c. ; Lanzi, Storia Pit-
torica clella Italia.) R. N.W.

ALEMANNI, ANTONIO, a Florentine
poet, lived at the latter end of the fifteenth
and commencement of the sixteenth centuries.
His verses are cited in the " Vocabolario della
Crusca," on account of the purity of their

language.

He was a great admirer and also

an imitator of the burlesque style of Burchi-
ello, and several of his pieces were printed
at Florence in 1552, in 8vo., with those of
Burchiello, under the title " Sonetti del
Burchiello e di Antonio Alamanni alia Bur-
chielesca." Many are likewise inserted in
different collections : in the "Scelta diLaudi
spiritual!, " published by the Giunti, there is
one by Alemanni ; in the collection entitled
" Trionfi, Carri e Canti carnacialeschi,"
Florence, 1559, 8vo., there are three canti
by him, and his " Etimologia del Becafico,"
which is a composition consisting of a single
stanza, has been printed in several works,
among others in vol. iii. p. 176. of the
" Opere burlesche del Berni," Florence, 1723,
8vo. One sonnet is inserted in Rubbi's
" Parnaso Italiano," vol. vi. p. 332., and an-
other in Crescimbeni, vol. iii. p. 194. He also
wrote " Comedia composta di nuovo dal ple-
charissimo Antonio di Jacopo Alamanni,
ciptadino Fiorentino, cognominato Lala-
manno, recitata nell' inclita Cipta di Firenze
nella Compagnia di S. Marcho, la quale tratta
della Conversione di Sancta Maria Magdalena.
Firenze," 1521, Svo. (Negri, Istoria degli
Scritlori Fioi-entini ; Ci'escimbeni, Comentarj
intorno alia sua Istoria della volgar Poesia.
xi. 171. edit. 1702. ; Mazzuchelli, Scrittori
d'ltalia.) J. W. J.

ALEMA'NNI, ARAMIN'INO, a cele-
brated jurisconsult of the fourteenth century,
was born at ililan, and in the year 1351 was
chosen, with ten others, to collect and digest
the laws of his country. This work is preserved
in manuscript in the Ambrosian library, un-
der the title " Statuta Patriae correcta, com-
pilata, et in Ordinem digesta." (Argellati,
Bibliotheca Scriptorum Mediolanensium.')

J. W. J.

ALEMANNI, ARCA'NGELA, a Do-
minican nun of the monastery of S. Niccolo
di Pi'ato, was born of a noble family in Flo-
rence, and lived in the latter half of the six-
teenth century. She was the companion of
the celebrated Lorenza Strozzi, after whose

ALEMANNI.

death in 1591 she -n-rote sevei-al letters con-
cerning lier life, which are known nnder the
title " Epistohi; ad Zachariani Montinni de
piis Moribus et felici Morte ejus Materterte
dicta; Sororis Strozia?,et aliic ad alios." (Que-
tif et E'ehard, Sciiptorcs Ordinis Prcvdicato-
ritm, ii. 843.) J. W. J.

ALEMA'NNI, BASI'LIO, a Jesuit, was
born at Milan, towards the middle of the
sixteenth century. He has been called the
Ovid of his age, on account of the excellence
of his Latin verses. He wrote several tra-
gedies and pastorals, which were recited in
the college of Brera ; also many elegies and
epigrams and other pieces, the whole of
which are preserved in manuscript in the
libraries of the Jesuits of Brera and S. Fe-
dele. (Argellati, Bihliothcca Scriptoriim Me-
diolanensium ; Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d'ltalia.)

J. W. J.

ALEMA'NNI, BATTISTA, or GIO-
VANNI BATTISTA, was the son of the
celebrated poet Luigi Alemauni, and was
born at Florence on the 30th of October,
1519. His father having been banished from
the Florentine territory, Battista accom-
panied him into France, where he became
almoner to Queen Catherine de' Medici. He
was afterwards made privy counsellor to the
king, Francis I., Avho in 1545 conferred
upon him the abbey of Belleville. In 1555
he obtained the bishopric of Bazas, which
he resigned in 1558 for that of Mascon. His
death took place on the 13th of August,
1581. His writings consist of three letters
addressed to Benedetto Varchi, and inserted
in the second vol. of the " Prose Florentine ; "
also three sonnets addressed likewise to Var-
chi, and published with those of the latter in
the edition printed at Florence in 1557 in 8vo.
He also edited his father's poem " La Avar-
chide," printed at Florence in 1570. (Negri,
Istoria dcqli Scrittori Fiorentini; Mazzu-
chelli, Scrittori d'ltalia.) J. W. J.

ALEMA'NNI, CO'SIMO, was born at
Milan about the year 1559, and at the age of
sixteen entered the society of the Jesuits, of
which four of his brothers also became mem-
bers, lie taught belles lettres for three years,
philosophy for five, theology for eight, and
during nine years he filled the office of pre-
fect of studies. He made the profession of
the four vows in 1595. His veneration for
saints is said to have been unusually great ;
Saint Luigi Gonzaga, it is said, relieved him,
by the aid of a miracle, from a profound me-
lancholy by which he was oppressed. He
possessed great learning, and in his lessons
of theology and philosophy followed strictly
the doctrines of Thomas Aquinas. His deatla
occurred on the 24th of May, 1634. He wrote
"Summa totius Philosophise e Divi Thoma;
Aquinatis, Doctoris Angelici, Doctrina. 5 tom.
Papia?, 1618-23," 4to. An enlarged edition of
the Moral Philosophy, and the greater part of
the Metaphysics, edited by G. Fronteau, was
805

published at Paris in 1639 and 1640, in fol.
He also left behind him ready for the press
a theological work entitled, " C'orrectiones in
Fonsecam," which is deposited in manuscript
in the library of S. Fedele at Milan. (Argellati,
Bibliutlieca Scriptoriim Mcdiulcuieiiaium ; Ale-
gambe, Bibliotheca Scriptoriim SocietatisJesu;
Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d'ltalia.) J. W. J.

ALEMA'NNI, GIOVANNI GIUSEPPE,
the brother of Cosimo and Basilio, was born
at Milan about the year 1556, and became a
member of the society of Jesus, at the age of
sixteen. His course appears to have been
very similar to that of his brother Cosimo.
He died in 1630. His works are — 1 " Ora-
zione reeitata nella Chiesa cattedrale perl' In-
coronazione del serenissimo David Vacca
Prencipe della R. P. di Genova, li 15 Die.
1587." 2. " Historia miraculosaa Imaginis B.
M. Virginis Montis Regalis vulgo Mondovi."
3. " De Christiana Sapientia ad Principes Gen-
tiles." 4. " Oratio de Inscitia Animas Peste,
ejusque Medicina." 5. " De veris Divitiis Ora-
tio." 6. Tractatus de Elocntione." None o
these appear to have been printed with the
exception of the first, which was published
with another oration by Ampegio Chiavari.
(Argellati, Bibliotheca Scriptoriim Mediola-
nensiian ; Alegambe, Bibliotheca Scriptoriim
Socictatis Jesu.) J. W. J.

ALEMA'NNI LUIGI, born at Florence
in 1495, of a noble family, studied in his
native country, and became a good scholar
and a poet. Having entered into a con-
spiracy against the cardinal Giulio de' Medici,
who governed Florence for Leo X., he was
discovered, and obliged to save his life by
flight. He repaired to Venice, where he was
well received in the house of the senator Cap-
pello ; but when Cardinal de' Medici became
pope, under the name of Clement VII., Ale-
manni, thinking himself no longer safe in
Venice, repaired to Provence, and afterwards to
Genoa, where he became intimate with Andrea
Doria. When the Florentines revolted against
the Medici in 1527, Alemanni, with other
emigrants, returned home, and took part in
the councils of his countrymen. He was now
sobered down by experience ; he thought
that Florence was no longer in a condition
to return to its former tumultuous democracy,
exposed as it was to the attacks of the power-
ful party of the Medici, and he advised his
countrymen to place themselves under the
protection of Charles Y., the most powerful
sovereign of the time, who could protect them
from the Medici, with whom Charles was not
then on good terms. He also suggested that
previous conditions for the security of their
municipal liberties should be made by means
of his friend Andrea Doria, who had great
influence with the emperor. But the hot-
headed republicans rejected his advice, and
even reviled him for servility. Alemanni
thought it better to leave Florence a second
time. The Medici soon made peace with

ALEMANNI.

ALEilANNI.

Charles, and, as Alemanni had anticipated,
they obtained his consent to their project of
reducing Florence by force.

Alemanni, having repaired to France,
found a patron in Francis I., who was fond
of letters, and who employed him in several
missions, and bestowed upon him the order
of St. Michael. In 1.532 Alemanni published
at Lyon an edition of his minor Italian
poems in two volumes, which he dedicated
to King Francis his benefactor, " Opere
Toscane." In the following year, on the
occasion of the marriage of the Dauphin with
Catherine de' Medici, he dedicated to her
his new poem on agriculture, entitled " La
Coltivazione," published at Paris 1546. Ca-
therine gave him the oifice of steward in her
household. In 1537 Alemanni paid a visit
to Italy, but not to Florence ; he resided some
time at Rome and Naples, and in 1540 he
returned to France. He made his adieu to
Italy in a sonnet which has been much ad-
mired, and in which he deplores the condition
of his native country, which debarred him
from residing in it. About 1544 he was sent
by Francis on an embassy to Charles V. Being
introduced to the emperor, he recited, as cus-
tomary', a laudatory address to the emperor,
in which he happened to mention the Aus-
trian eagle. Charles quickly added, " Si,
I'Aquila grifagna che per piii divorar, due
becchi porta," a passage in one of Alemanni's
poems, in which, alluding to the family
escutcheon of Charles, he had spoken of the
double-headed eagle, whose two beaks seemed
to have been given to it in order that it
might devour the more. Alemanni did not
lose his presence of mind, but replied that he
had written that line as a poet, and as a
young party-man, but now he spoke as an
ambassador, and as a man free from passion.
Charles was pleased with the promptitude of
tlie reply, and told Alemanni kindly that he
ought not to complain of his banishment,
since it had procured him such a liberal
patron as Francis I., and that to the upright
man all the world is his country.

After the death of King Francis, his suc-
cessor, Henri II., continued to patronise Ale-
manni, who dedicated to him his new poem
" Girone il Cortese," the subject of which is
taken from the romantic legend of the
Knights of the Round Table. He was em-
ploved by Henri on a mission to Genoa in
155"l.

Alemanni died at Amboise, where the
French court then was, in 1556. His son
became bishop of Mascon. Of all his poems,
the didactic one " La Coltivazione " is con-
sidered the best, and has been compared to
Virgil's Georgics. He also wrote satires
and epigi-ams in Italian, and a tragedy en-
titled " Antigone," which is nearly a transla-
tion of that of Sophocles. (Corniani, Secoli
della Lctteratura Ifaliana ; Tiraboschi, Sforia
della Letteratura ItuUana ; Pignotti, Storia
806

della Toscana ; Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d" Ita-
lia.) A. V.
ALEMANNI, LUIGI or LODOVI'CO,

was the grand nephew of Luigi Alemanni, the
celebrated poet, and was born at Florence in
the year 1558. He studied Greek under Vet-
tori, and was also a good Latin, French, and
Hebrew scholar. He applied himself by turns
and with success,, to theology, philosophy,
mathematics, and astronomy, and his profile
of the Inferno of Dante, presented by him to
the Academy of the Alterati, is adduced as
an evidence of his skill in cosmography. He
died in the year 1603. His works are — 1.
" Delle Lodi di Filippo Sassetti Orazione," in-
serted in part i. of tom. 4. of the " Prose Fio-
rentine." 2. Numerous Latin poems, mostly
eclogues, preserved amongst the Strozzi ma-
nuscripts at Florence, codex 716. Three of
these eclogues were published in the collec-
tion printed at Florence in 1719, under the
thle " Carmina illustriimi Poetarum Italo-
rum." 3. He translated the Pastorals of Lon-
gus, and furnished the manuscript of the
Greek text from which Raffaello Colombasio
edited the first edition, in 4to., Florence, 1598.
4. According to Soldani, he also wrote two very
learned discourses and various minor pieces,
and contemplated publishing an improved edi-
tion of Homer and other works, when death put
an end to these projects. Some of his verses
are inserted in the " Concerto delle muse ordi-
nato da Pier Girolamo Gentile." Venice, 1608,
12mo. (Soldani, Orazione delle Lodi di Luigi
Alemanni, inserted in part i. vol. 4. of " Prose
Florentine," 113 — 126. ; Salvini, Fasti Con-
solari delV Accademia Fiorenti/ia, 325. 361.;
Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d'ltalia.) J. "W. J.

ALE3IANNI or ALAMANNL NIC-
COLO\ an ecclesiastic and librarian of the
^'atican. He is said to have been born on
the 12th of January, 1583, but whether of
Grecian or Italian origin cannot be ascer-
tained with certainty. Mazzuchelli and
others state positively that he was a Greek,
while Siberus suggests that he may have been
a native of Venice or of one of its depen-
dencies, and have acquired the reputation of
being a Greek from the circumstance of
having studied in the Greek college at Rome.
The following, however, appears to be the
best authenticated account : that he was
placed in the Greek college, and having made
sufficient progress in Greek and Latin learn-
ing, embraced the ecclesiastical profession ;
that, intending to return into Greece, he was
desirous of being ordained to a subdeacon-
ship by a Greek bishop, but having subse-
quently determined to remain in Italy, that
he took the remaining degrees there. He
became pi'ofessor of rhetoric and the Greek
language in the Greek college, and had
amongst his pupils Francesco Arcudi and
Scipione CobeUuti, afcei^wai'ds secretary to
Pope Paul V. By the interest of Cobelluti,
Alemanni obtained the post of secretary to

ALEMANNI.

ALEMANS.

Cardinal Seipione Borghese, and on the
death of Baldassare Ansidei, keeper of the
library of the Vatican in 1G14, he vras se-
lected as best fitted to fill that important
situation. His death occurred from a singu-
lar circumstance. It having become neces-
sary to make excavations in the basilica
of St. Peter in order to place a canopy
over tlie great altar upon a bronze column,
Alemanni was charged with the superin-
tendence of the work, for the purpose of
preserving the sacred relics of the dead from
profanation. This duty he discharged with
such unremitting care, and exposed himself
so constantly to the unwholesome exhalations
proceeding from the excavated ground, that
he was seized with a sickness which termi-
nated fatally on the 24th of July, 1626. The
following is a list of his works : — 1. " Pro-
copii Cfcsariensis 'Are'icSoTa, arcana Historia,
qui est Liber ix. Historiarum, ex Bibliotheca
Yaticana N. Alemannus protulit, Latine red-
didit, Notis illustravit. Lugduni, 1 623," folio.
This, which was his most celebrated work,
exposed him to much critical animadversion,
particularly from Trivorius, Rivius, and Ei-
chelius : the last attacked him with pecu-
liar bitterness, and went so far as to charge
him with forging the whole work. 2. " De
Lateranensibus Parietinis ab lUustrissimo
Francisco Cardinal! Barberino restitutis
Dissertatio historica. Roma;, 1625," 4to.
Grajvius considered this dissertation of suffi-
cient importance to be reprinted in his " The-
saurus Antiquitatum Italite," tom.viii. pars 4.
3. " Rogerii Comitis Calabriffi Donatio Ec-
clesiae Militensi, e Grseco Latine reddita a N.
Alemanno ; " inserted by Ughelli in his
" Italia Sacra," 1644,tom. i. p. 1022. 4. "Car-
mina in Columnam Pauli V. e Teniplo Pacis
in Exquilinum translatam." .5. " De Princi-
pis Apostolorum Sepulchro." 6. " Dissertatio
de dextrte Itevreque Manus Prserogativa ex
antiquis Pontificum Nummis Paulum Petro
Apostolo anteponentibus." (Erythrseus, Pina-
cotheca Imac/inum iUiistrium, 125. ; jMoreri,
Le Grand Dictkmnuire historique ; Mazzu-
chelli, Scrittori d' Italia ; Mandosius, Bib-
liutlieca Romana, ii. 185. ; Siberus, De ilhts-
trihus Alemannis, 138.) J. W. J.

ALEMANS, a celebrated miniature painter,
who lived at Brussels in the early part of the
eighteenth century. He first studied oil
painting in Florence *, he afterwards visited
Rome, where he made the acquaintance of a
miniature painter, who induced him to follow
the same line. Alemans painted some time for
the court of the Elector of Bavaria at Brussels,
when that prince held the office of governor
of the Austrian Netherlands, and he executed
many fine portraits. He was however so
slow' in his execution, that his sitters fre-
quently lost their patience, and the portrait
was left unfinished. Upon one occasion he
demanded for a portrait, upon which he had
bestowed the labour of nearly half a year, a
807

hundred doubloons, upwards of three hundred
guineas, and upon the party refusing to pay
more than one tenth part of the demand,
Alemans left Brussels in disgust, and re-
turned to Rome, where he remained until his
death. (Weyerman, De Lcvens-Beschryvimjen
der Nederlandsche Konstschilders, Sfc.)

R. N. W.
ALEMBERT, JEAN LE ROND D'.
The father of D'Alembert was M. Destouches,
to whose name was commonly added Canon
(he was a commissary of artillery), to dis-
tinguish him from P. N. Destouches, the
writer of comedies. His mother was Madame
de Tencin, a lady of a remarkable life, which
will appear in its proper place : here it is
enough to say, that having obtained permission
to leave the convent in which she had taken
the vows, she was leading a life of pleasure
and ambition at Paris, which continued until
she was confined on suspicion of murder, owing
to a suicide which was committed in her
apartments. After her release, she changed
her mode of life, and became the friend
and associate of men of letters, and, strangely
enough for an uncloistered nun, the corre-
spondent of two popes in succession.

The illegitimate son of the couple above
mentioned, the subject of this article, was
exposed by his pai'ents (but with some one,
apparently, to watch what should become of
him) near the church of St. Jean-le-Rond (now
destroyed) at Paris. The exposure took place
November 16. 1717, or the day after, and one
of these is probably the date of the birth. The
apparent weakliness of the child induced the
commissary of police who found him (and
who, perhaps, had his instructions) to place
him with the wife of a glazier, whose name
was probably* Alembert. His parents f, pri-
vately, within a few days of his being found,
settled a yearly allowance of 1200 francs
upon him, which amply sufficed for his early
wants and education. It is said that as soon
as his extraordinary talents became known
his mother sent for him and discovei'cd her-
self; and that his reply was, " Je ne connais
qu'une mere, c'est la vitriere." There is an-
other version of the words used ; we have
taken the one in the account of Madame de
Tencin prefixed to her works.

D'Alembert has left an accoimt of himself,

in the third person, which we shall follow,

adding from Condorcet and others in brackets.

I At four years of age he was placed at school,

j where he remained eight years, during the

last two of which his master professed himself

j unable to teach him further. In 1730 he was

removed to the College Mazarin, then under

\ Jansenist direction. Here he records that he

* It is very odd that there should be no certainty on
this point. .

f Condorcet, in his Eloge, would seem to imply that
the exposure was the act of the mother, and that the
father, as soon as he was informed of it, came forward
in the manner desrril)ed. Certain it is that D'Alem-
bert.'who would not own his mother, was always on
the most friendly terms with his father's family.

ALEMBERT.

■was told that poetry dried up the heart, and
was recommended to read no poem but that
of St. Prosper on Grace. [A commentary on
St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans gave his
instructors such an idea of his talents, that
they advised his application to mathematics,
thinking they might produce another Pascal.]
His taste for mathematics grew while he was
studying, or professing to study, the law,
which he followed to the extent of becoming
an advocate in 1738. He was accustomed to
read rapidly at the public libraries, and to
work out the demonstrations of what he read
by himself. His old masters, the Jansenists,
would have had him not proceed so far in
such studies, and his friends were anxious
that he should take up a more lucrative pur-
suit. To please both, he resolved to study
medicine, and, to remove temptation, sent all
his mathematical books to a friend ; but
almost without his knowing how (he says)
they found their way back again ; and after
trying his new pursuit for a year, he resolved
to follow his own taste. For several years,
accordingly, he attended to nothing but the
exact sciences ; he did not even resume his
literary studies, to which he had formerly
been much attached, until about the time
when he began his labours on the Encyclo-
pedia. [These years were the happiest of his
life, and his description of them to Condorcet
was singular : he woke, he said, with a feel-
ing of satisfaction at what he had to do in the
morning, and in the intervals of his work, he
was gratified by the thought of the pleasure
he should receive at the theatre in the even-
ing ; while between the acts of the play, he
looked forward to the still greater pleasure
which awaited him the next morning. His
foster-mother's remonstrances against his mode
of life were, according to the above descrip-
tion, not a little niLsplaced : — " Vous ne serez
j amais qu'un philosophe, et qu'est-ce qu'un phi-
losophe — c'est un fou qui se tourmente pen-
dant sa vie, pour qu'on parle de lui lorsquil n'y
sera plus." The single drawback on his com-
fort seems to have been the constant finding
in preceding writers of tilings which he had
imagined to be his own discoveries : this per-
suaded him for a long time, as he told Con-
dorcet, that he had no natural genius for the
subject.]

He was elected to the Academy of Sciences
in 1741, before lie was twenty-four years old,
in consequence of some memoirs which he
had presented, particularly on refraction, and
on the integral calculus, [and some corrections
which he made in the "Analyse dcmontree " of
Reynau, then a classical work of instruction
in France.] From this time his public life
begins, and it will be convenient to separate
biographical and literary details.

In 1752 the acquaintance of D'Alembert with

Frederic of Prussia commenced by an attempt

on the part of that king to induce him to settle

at Berlin as successor to Maupertuis. The ofi'crs

808

made were most liberal, and were repeatedly
urged ; a pension of 12,000 francs, apartments
at the court, the patronage of the Berlin
Academy, &c. D'Alembert's refusal was as
positive as it could respectfully be ; and one
of his reasons was, that he found his life so
agreeable that he would not risk the comfort
of it by a change. In 1754 Frederic offered
him an unconditional pension of 1200 francs,
which he accepted, and went to Wesel in
the following year to thank the donor in
person. From this period a constant epis-
tolary correspondence was kept up between
the king and D'Alembert, which terminated
only with the life of the latter, and (from
1760 downwards) is preserved, and forms the
two last volumes of Bastien's edition, presently
mentioned. When, at the peace of 1763, he
went to pass some months with the King of
Prussia, the latter renewed his solicitations ;
and repeated them in 1765, when a pension
from the Academy, which had fallen in, and
which should have been D'Alembert's, was
delayed by the French government, which
was offended by his book on the suppression
of the Jesuits. D'Alembert was inexorable,
but without giving any offence to Frederic,
who continued his constant friend, and when,
at the end of his life, he thought of travelling
in Italy for his health, Frederic furnished him
with ample means, and refused to receive them
again, when the voyage was interrupted.

D'Alembert was elected to the Academy
in 1754, and in 1756 obtained another pen-
sion of 1200 francs from Louis XV. ; besides
which, he was made a supernumerary pen-
sioner of the Academy of Sciences in the same
year ; so that his means were from thence-
forward ample for a person with his views.
Had he loved money, he might easily have
gratified this taste. In 1762 the Empress of
Russia (Catherine II.) offered him the edu-
cation of her son, with a hundred thousand
francs of salary ; and on his refusal pressed
the ofiice upon him by letter, appealing
to his love of humanity not to let an op-
portunity pass of doing so much good, and
offering to receive him with all Ids friends.
Catherine, however, had no better success
than Frederic ; but D'Alembert, though he
did not choose to quit France, and though
perhaps he knew that it is difficult for an in-
dependent man to live on terms of intimacy
with any * king or queen whatsoever, was
sensibly flattered by the compliments thus
paid him by heads with crowns upon them.
The account of them occupies a most undue
proportion of his short autobiography ; and
he adds one instance to the proof of the

* The King of Prussia, in one of his letters to
D'Alembert, says he has been talking to a gentleman
who passed twenty years in Siberia, and hnits that
D'Alembert was wise in not go'iig ni arer to that 7iciiili-
botirho }cl. " I have lived in a country where men who
speak are hanged," said Euler to the Queen Dowager
ol Prussia, when, after hi? leaving St. I'etersburg and
settling at Uerliu, that lady one day asked him why he
was so .'•ilent.

ALEMBERT.

general law, that no intellectual superiority
whatsoever enables men to rate the notice
of exalted rank at what they profess in
theory to call its true value. Perhaps
such a remark would not he altogether ap-
plicable with respect to the more than kingly
eminence both of Catherine and Frederic ;
but personages whose names a biographer of
D'Alembert would hardly trouble himself to
write, are minutely i-ecorded in this self-gratu-
lating list ; while all those celebrated works
on which tlie fame of the author now nuiinly
rests, are disposed of in the following sen-
tence : — " Outre les ouvrages de philosophic
ct de litterature publics par D'Alembert, il a
donnc quinze volumes in 4to. sur les mathema-
tiques." D'Alembert gave six words more to
the announcement of his having been honour-
ably received by a Duke of Brunswick-Wolf-
cnblittel than to all his writings. But it
must be said that this weakness did not go
far ; he received a vast deal more tlattery
than he gave, and, as far as his own country-
men were concerned, he courted no one,
king or minister, and was in frequent dis-
grace with the latter for his freedom of
speech. In 17G0 he addressed a written ac-
count of his own character to a lady, which,
making some allowance, is tolerably accurate,
and very striking : he says it is his maxim
to be very careful what he writes, tolerably
careful what he does, and moderately careful
what he says ; accordingly he avers that he
sajs many stupid things, writes hardly any,
and does none. Had he said that he wrote ]
none, and did very few, he might have come !
nearer the truth, and would have made the
results of his practice agree better with
the theory ; but this account was written
before he could rightly estimate the wisdom of
his proceedings with regard to Mademoiselle
de I'Espinasse. This young lady, who was
also a natural child, became known to ■
D'Alembert and others of the same note, in
the capacity of companion to Madame du
Defant. K we tear off the veil of sentiment
which the French writers have placed upon
her story, it seems to be as follows : — Having
been dismissed by her protectress, who was
jealous of her influence M'ith the distinguished
men who frequented the house (and whom, it
appears, she used to receive in her own
apartment without the knowledge of Madame
du Dcfant), she was, by the influence of per-
sons about the court, provided with a pen-
sion, apartments, and all that was necessary to
set up on her own account as the goddess of
a literary circle. This establishment she
seems to have owed to great talent and power
of conversation, united with knowledge of
men's foibles and power of managing them.
Marmontel says she did what she liked with
Condillac and Turgot, and that as to D'Alem-
bert, he was in her hands a mere child.
When D'Alembert was obliged by a severe ;
illness to quit the house in which he had

VOL. I.

always lived with his foster-mother, and to
seek for purer air, he removed to the Boule-
vard du Temple, and Mademoiselle de I'Es-
pinasse established herself with him as his
nurse. They continued together after his
recovery, not, according to his historians,
otherwise than as brother and sister ; a story
which is not wholly incredible, for two rea-
sons : first, because another connection would
at that time have given so little scandal
as to be hardly worth the denying ; and
secondly, because, according to the accounts,
the young lady was looking out for an ad-
vantageous marriage among the men of rank
or of lettei's with whom she was brought into
contact. Their connection, however, was
marked with strong attachment on the part
of D'Alembert, and with gradually declining
admiration and growing indifference on that
of his partner, who came at last to treat him
with every sign even of contempt ; for in-
stance, among a large quantity of letters
which she one day gave him to burn, he
found every one which he had ever written to
herself. A few hours before her death she
acknowledged her faults towards him and
entreated his forgiveness ; her health was
naturally feeble, and gave way on hearing of
the death of a young Spanish nobleman whom
she had captivated, and whose return to France
was procured by her from his relatives upon
a certificate obtained by herself (through
D'Alembert !) from a physician at Paris, to
the effect that his health required the air of
France. This is an odd story : the young
man had been recalled to Spain by his friends,
when they heard of his devotion to Made-
moiselle de I'Espinasse, and a more suitable
wife had been found for him, to whom he
was to have been married on his recovery
from an illness with which he had been seized
on his arrival : he was allowed to return to
France on this certificate, and died on the
way. Whether this account (which is ex-
tracted from Marmontel's memoirs by the
editor of D'Alembert) be credible or not,
it is asserted that the health and spirits
of D'Alembert never recovered the shock
they received from the death of the mistress
or friend with whom he had lived twelve
years (she died in 1776). At the end of the
same year he lost another friend, Madame
Geoffrin, under cii'cumstanccs which were
little calculated to alleviate depression of
mind : her daughter took upon herself, from
the moment the mother was taken ill, to
exclude all the philosophers, on religious
grounds ; and this, it is asserted, in oppo-
sition to the wishes of the patient herself.
Two years afterwards D'Alembert lost his
friend Voltaire, after an intimate correspond-
ence of more than thirty years. From this
time till his death, which was caused by the
stone, October 29. 1783, there is nothing to
record.

The writings of D'Alembert show some-
3 G

ALEMBERT.

thing of the sort of character which he at-
tributed to himself in tlie autography above
cited, particularly the correspondence. There
is abundance of pleasantry, much satire, and
little or no atfectation. Brought up as he
was in comparative retirement, and not in-
troduced into the gay society of the capital
till his mind and manners were tolerably
well fixed, he did not acquire either the ease
or the levity of the fashionable world. In
this, and in every other point, the only per-
son with whom it is curious to compare
D'Alembert is his colleague and friend Vol-
taire : and the more so, because both go
together in the minds of Englishmen of the
last and present generation in the undiscrimi-
nating abuse which is lavished upon their
common irreligion ; while Diderot, infinitely
below either in mind and attainments, makes
a third. We cannot even allow the circum-
stance just named to be reason enough for
entering upon the character of Diderot in
this place ; but Voltaire and D'Alembert are
inseparable. Tlie latter was thinking while
the former was reading and writing, and con-
sequently was as superior in justness and
clearness as in depth. Even the sentiments
of the two on the subject of Christianity
were as different as could be : D'Alembert
was a serious sceptic, Voltaire a laughing
dogmatist. The satire of both, with two very
different kinds of power, was showered upon
the numerous instances of stupid fanaticism
which came in their way, and their indigna-
tion upon the no less frequent displays of
legal atrocity : but D'Alembert apparently
felt no interest in carrying these arms fur-
ther, while Voltaire found himself as much
impelled to extract ridicule from the first
chapter of Genesis as from the judgment of
a provincial court, or the remonstrance of an
injudicious abbe. If D'Alembert had set
himself to write against revelation, he would
have made most of his converts in England :
Voltaire was the best imaginable apostle for
the Frenchman of the old monarchy. Neither
is, we imagine, ever called learned ; but
D'Alembert was as far from having gone
through the extensive miscellaneous reading
of Voltaire, as from possessing his brilliant
but superficial range of thought. D'Alem-
bert had little or no depth of reading, even
in mathematics : he could do anything, and
had no great need of a guide. He re-
invented Taylor's theorem, but never, as far
as appears, to the day of his death, was
aware that another had been before him.
He did not even take any pains to know the
various new discoveries which were made
around him in the physical sciences. But he
is, beyond all comparison, the most philo-
sophical of the French mathematicians, and
the quantity of thought on the first princi-
ples of the exact sciences which is found in
his writings is very large; insomuch that, in
like manner as when the author of a formula
810

is doubtful, the querist first ascertains whether
or no it is Euler's, so when a good idea
on the foundation of any part of ana-
lysis is to be traced to its source, it will
be a saving of time to settle the claims of
D'Alembert, before inquiring into those of
any one else. As to other points of charac-
ter, his pecuniary liberality, particidarly to
his foster-mother, always cost him a large
part of his income ; and his spirit towards
other men of science was, we believe, in
every instance, good. He and Clairaut were
rivals, and no work of either appeared with-
out finding a severe critic in the other ; but
D'Alembert, the more cautious and pro-
found of the two, was generally on the right
side of the question : we may add that their
disputes never degenerated into squabble.
Lagrange and Laplace both owed their first
advantageous settlements in life to D'Alem-
bert ; the former at the Prussian court, the
latter in a professorship at Paris. We shall
now mention his writings in order.

The first work of any great note is the
" Traite de Dynamique," 1743 (reprinted
1758, 1796). This work contains the cele-
brated principle which will always be known
by D'Alembert's name. To the unmathe-
matical reader it will seem strange that a
maxim so apparently self-evident was not
the foundation of dynamics from the time
when it became a science ; for it amounts but
to this, that every force which is applied to a
system must produce its whole effect some-
where ; if not at its immediate point of ap-
plication, then elsewhere. But it was not
till the time of D'Alembert that the mathe-
matical part of the subject was ready for the
general application of this principle ; and it
is in rendering the principle operative by a
true mathematical statement of it, accom-
panied by exemplification of its use, that the
merit of D'Alembert consists. In 1744 he
showed its application in the " Traite de
I'Equilibre et du Mouvement des Fluides"
(reprinted in 1770). To these must be
added, " Reflexions sur la Cause generale
des Vents," 1747 ; " Recherches sur la Pre-
cession des Equinoxes, &c.," 1749; " Essai
d' une nouvelle Theorie sur la Resistance des
Fluides," 1752; "Recherches sur differents
Points importants du Systeme du Monde,"
3 vols. 1754-56 ; " Opuscules Mathe-
matiques," 8 vols, 1761-80. Of all these
writings, which, with the articles in the
Encyclopaedia, constitute the mathematical
writings of D'Alembert, there is but one
thing to say in a short biography, namely,
that they abound in new uses and extensions
of the great calculus which Newton and
Leibnitz had given half a century before ;
and that, in reference to the theory of gravi-
tation, D'Alembert and Clairaut were the
first who found or made their weapon sharp
enough to attack anything which Newton
had left to be conquered. His explanation

ALEMBERT.

of the nutation was the first addition made
by a Frenchman to the Newtonian theory.
We may here mention the " Eleniens de
Musique siiivant les Principes de M. Ra-
meau," 1752.

The literary and philosophical works have
been collected into eighteen volumes, by J.
B. Bastien, with the title " (Euvres Philo-
sophiques, Historiques, et Literaires, de
D'AIembert." Paris, 1805. It will be con-
venient to notice them in the order in which
they occur, so as to facilitate I'eference to the
volumes in which they are severally con-
tained.

Vol. I. contains all the biographical matter
and eloges, with D'Alembert's reflections on
the loss of Mile, de I'Espinasse ; the " Re-
flexions sur I'Elocution oratoire et sur le Style
en general," the " Discours preliminaire de
I'Encyclopedie," " Explication detaillee du
Systeme des Connaissances humaines" and the
preface to the third volume of the Encyclo-
paedia. This last-mentioned work was begun
in 1750, and D'AIembert for a time was joint
editor with Diderot. He withdrew as soon
as it became a matter of turmoil from the
interference of the government. It will be
remembered that the articles on matters of
religion were written by orthodox pei'sons ;
and D'AIembert, we learn from his corre-
spondence with Voltaire, was disgusted by the
necessity of publishing matter contrary to
his own sentiments : he would have either
let the subject alone, or said what he thought.
The preface to the Encyclopaedia has been
much praised, and the author himself calls it
the fruit of the thought and reading of twenty
years. It does indeed contain much thought,
but no great amount of reading : a smatter-
ing acquaintance with the most noted authors
would be enough for a D'AIembert to write
this preface upon, as far as its erudition is
concerned. The same may be said of all his
writings, particularly of the prefaces to the
mathematical works. It was, however, much
too good for the work it was to precede :
the celebrated Encyclopaedia itself was but
flimsy, and little more can be said of its
better-known successor, the " Encyclopedie
Methodique," in matters of scientific re-
search.

Vol. II. contains the "Elemens de Philo-
sophic," with the supplements which were
written at the instance of Frederic of Prussia.
The parts of this volume which relate to the
sciences are most admirable, and would of
themselves bear out what we have said rela-
tive to D'AIembert as a mathematical meta-
physician.

Vol. III., among miscellaneous matters,
contains the " Essai sur la Societe des Gens de
Lettres et des Grands," and " De la Liberie de
la Musiciue." The first is a cautious remark
upon the consequences of the patronage of
literature by Louis XIV. and his nobility :
Condorcet dates from it a great improvement
811

in the style of French dedications. The
second is on a matter which Mas of hn-
portance, when to be of the Italian party
in music might be a serious injury to a man's
prospects.

Vol. IV. contains the memoirs of Christina
of Sweden, various miscellanies, and the
" Reflexions sur I'lnoculation," an argument
in favour of the introduction of that practice.
It has also the celebrated paper on the theory
of probabilities, which shows that D'AIembert
did not understand the first principles of that
science.

Vol. V. contains the treatise on the sup-
pression of the Jesuits, and the controversy
on the article "Geneva" in the Encyclopsedia.
The former work satisfied neither party : he
tells the Jesuits that he hopes their sup-
pression win be permanent ; and their op-
ponents, that whereas the disciples of Loyola
had the punishment of a turbulent nobility,
theirs would be that of an insurgent mob.
It was decidedly D'Alembert's opinion that
the Jesuits were the strongest suppoi't of the
papal see : and the general of that order is
said (in a letter to the King of Prussia) to
have cited him in a memorial to the pope,
as an unsuspected testimony on that point.
The controversy about the article " Geneva "
arose out of the dislike of the clergj- of that
state to be called Unitarians, though they
were not able to prove themselves orthodox.

Vol. VI. contains the eloges of Lord
Mai'echal, John Bernoulli, Montesquieu, and
others. Vol. VII. those of Massillon, Des-
preaux (Boileau), Bossuet, and others.
Vol. VIII. those of Fenelon, Fontenelle, and
others. Vol. IX. those of many persons of
less note. Vol. X. those of Fleury and others.
Vol. XL those of Flechier, St. Pierre, and
others.

Vols. XII. and XIII. contain the trans-
lations from Tacitus, Cicero, Addison, and
Bacon, which have been favourably spoken
of.

Vol. XIV. contains the prefaces to his
mathematical works, and correspondence with
various friends. Vols. XV. and XVI. contain
the correspondence with Voltaire ; and X^^II.
and XVIII. that with Frederic of Prussia.
The prefaces are, among things of their sort,
worthy of a high place. The correspondence
is very much what the French call piquant,
as might have been expected when a man
highly sensible of the ridiculous, but rather
reserved in his published works, wrote to his
most intimate friends.

D'Alembert's opinion of Christianity has
been the subject of much remark, and, from
those who cannot believe the rejection of it
to be conscientious, of much blame, we should
say of unqualified abuse. But, worse than
this, the political fever which followed the
French Revolution gave rise to positive mis-
i-epresentation of a most remarkable kind.
At that period there was hardly any term
3 G 2

ALEMBERT.

sbort of atheist by which to represent what
is now called a liberal, whether in religion or
politics : the consequences of this spirit upon
the description of the Encyclopaedists may be
easily imagined. "While we were hesitating
whether it would be worth while to correct
the current misrepresentations relative to the
manner in which D'Alembert bore himself
towards those of other opinions, we saw a
repetition of them in a respectable quarterly
journal, which made us decide upon stating
truly the case relative to the subject of this
memoir.

D'Alembert's opinions were sceptical, in
the real meaning of the word. " I knew
enough of him," says Laharpe, " to be able to
say, that he was a sceptic in everything
except mathematics. He would no more
have decided positively that there icas not a
revelation than that there was a God : only
he thought the balance of probabilities in
favour of the latter, and against the former."

His works, as to our present point, must
be divided into those which were written for
publication, and his private letters to his
friends, published after his death. In the
former, he treats religion in general with
respect ; in particular, not at all. Of such
men as Slassillon and Fleury he speaks with
admiration, and (says Laharpe) " almost
with sentiment, a thing very remarkable in
him." ..." I do not think," says the same
writer, " that he ever printed a single sen-
tence which marks either hatred or contempt
for religion." The testimony of Coetlosquet,
bishop of Limoges, is still stronger : " As to
his works, I read them again and again,
and I find nothing there but wit, information,
and good morals."

In his letters to Voltaire, or rather in those
of the latter to him, frequently occurs the
famous phrase " Ecrasez Vlnfame," destroy
the infamous (person or thing, according to
the context). There is hardly an educated
person in England who has not seen some
publication, or heard some statement, to the
effect that Voltaire and D'Alembert spoke of
the person and character of Jesus Christ in
the preceding phrase, which is usually ren-
dered " Crush the wretch." Few of those
who have dwelt with such delight upon the
maniacal absurdity with which they imagined
themselves able to charge the most celebrated
of the Encyclopa?dists have ever examined
the statement for themselves : we hope so, at
least. Before proceeding to quote passages,
with the cojitext, in which this phrase occurs,
we must remind our readers of some of the
disgusting details of the history of the times:
— of the Jesuit Malagrida *, burnt alive at
Lisbon in 17G1, for what amounted at most
to self-delusion, and what his chmxh would
call heresy, the real offence being generally
believed to be political ; — of John Galas,

* Not tliat this c.ise appears to have vexed the En-
cyclopaidists as much as the others.
812

broken on the wheel in 1761 on suspicion of
having murdered his son ; the principal
ground of suspicion being that the son was
found dead, the father was a Protestant, and
the son thought likely to have turned Roman
Catholic; — of John De Barre, beheaded at
the age of nineteen (in 176G, after having
been sentenced to lose his tongue and hand,
and to be then burnt alive ; a sentence, the
mitigation of which ten men were found to
vote against in the parliament of Paris), for
defacing or injuring a public ci'oss. These
things, and many other fruits of the spirit
which they wei'e of, more or less atrocious in
character, were taking place during the
period of Voltaire and D'Alembert's cor-
respondence ; while protestants at Geneva
were, as far as their means extended, doing
their best to rival their Catholic neighbours.
This was the spirit which Voltaire tridy
called I'infuine : and if the passages we cite
do not prove that this was what he meant, it
follows, that any exclamation against murder
and cruelty, if uttered by an avowed infidel,
is to be considered as directed at the founder
of Christianity.

The first time the phrase is used is in
Voltaire to D'Alembert, of June 23. 17G0.
We give the original: — " Je voudrais que
vous ecrasassiez I'infame ; c'est la le grand
point. II faut la reduire a I'etat oil elk est
en Angleterre .... Vous pensez bien que je
ne parle que de la superstition ; car pour
la religion, je I'aime et la respecte comme
vous."

D'Alembert to Voltaire May 4. 1762: —
" Ecrasez Vinfame me repetez-vous sans
cesse : eh, mon Dieu ! laissez Ja se precipiter
e//e-meme ; elJe y court plus vite que vous ne
pensez."

Voltaire to D'Alembert February 13. 1764:
— " lis (les philosophes) ne detruiront cer-
tainement pas la reliyion chi'ctienne, mais le
christianisme ne les detruira pas .... la re-
ligion deviendra moins barbare et la societe
plus douce. lis empecheront les pretres de
corrompre la raison et les moeurs. lis ren-
dront les fanatiques abominables, et les super-

stitieux ridicules travaillez done a la

vigne, ecrasez rhifcime.

The unvarying use of the feminine article
in conjunction with the word iiifame is by
itself alone destructive of the peculiarly of-
fensive meaning with which it has been con-
strued. The first time it occurs, it is with a
desire to reduce the infume to the state in
which she was in England : and, be it ob-
served, the recommendation to crush the in-
famous — (the reader may put his own sub-
stantive), occurs in one place in the same
paragraph with a declaration that the phi-
losophers would certainly not destroy the
Christian religion. What then is this in-
fnme ? The church of France as then consti-
tuted. Those who know the stake and the
wheel only as matters of history, and whose

ALEMBERT.

ALEN.

^vol•st ecclesiastical grievance of the legal
kind is a three-and-sixpenny church rate,
must admit that it was rather singular that
two persons, neither believing Christianity
to be from God, both living among such
atrocities as ^ye have alluded to, and writing
their most private thoughts to each other,
should not lay the blame on the religion
which they disbelieved, in so many words.
That they, thus circumstanced, should draw
the distinction between fduati.sme and Chris-
tidiiisme, is a tribute to the latter which ill-
deserved the interpretation which has called
forth these remarks. (See the first volume
of Bastien's edition, containing the auto-
biography of D'Alembert, the E'loges of Con-
dorcet and Marmoutel, &c. ; also the Bio-
(jraphie Uiiiverselle, with Life by Lacroix.)

A. De M.

ALEN, EDMOND, or ALLEN, a native
of Norfolk, was elected fellow of Corpus
Christi College, Cambridge, in 1536. He
obtained leave from his college to study
abroad for a limited time, and afterwards he
got this leave of absence extended two more
years. He was an exile from England in
the first year of the reign of Queen Mary,
but on Elizabeth's coming to the throne, she
appointed him one of her chaplains, gave
him a commission to act under her as an
ambassador, and nominated him to the vacant
see of Rochester. He never enjoyed his
bishopric, but died bishop elect in 1.559, and
Mas buried in the nave of St. Thomas's
Church, London. His funeral sermon was
preached b^^ Master Huntingdon.

Strype says that he was a proficient in the
Greek and Latin languages, "an eminent pro-
testant divine," and "a learned minister of
the gospel." (^Annals, i. 1.34., and Memorials,
ii. 30.) He wrote — "A Christian Introduc-
tion for Youth, containing the Principles
of our Faith and Religion, One Book." Lon-
don, 1548, 12mo.; 1550, 8vo.; and 1551.
This last edition may be the same with a
work in 12mo., which has the title " A Cate-
chism, that is to say, A Christen Instruc-
cion of the principall Pointes of Christe's
Religion, (necessary as well for youth, as for
other that be desirous to be taught how to
geve a rcckenynge of their faith, to learne.)
gathered by Edmond Alen, and now newly
corrected and augnaented, 1551. London,
Edward Whitchurche, 8th May, 1551." In
this catechism he states that in six articles
is contained whatever any Christian man or
woman ought to believe or to do to the
pleasure of God. These are the ten com-
mandments, the twelve articles of belief, the
Lord's prayer, baptism, the supper of the
Lord, and the ecclesiastical discipline taught
by the Loi'd. Each of these articles is ex-
plained in the questions and answers of a
master and his scholar.

According to Tanner, Alen translated into
English, " Alexander Alesius de auctoritate
813

or bearing the name of

verbi Dei," " Philippus Melancthonus super
utraque sacramenti specie et de auctoritate
episcoporum," and " Cimradus Pelicauus super
Apocalypsin." The Exposition of the Revela-
tions, published in the second edition of
Erasmus's Paraphrase of the New Testament
is a translation by Allen from the German of
Leo Jude. (Tanner, BihUotlieca Dritannico-
Hibcrnica ; Strype, Annals, i. 134.; Memorials,
ii. 30. ; Life of Archbisliop Parker, p. 03. ;
Master's History of Corpus Christi College,
ii. 1.) A. T. P.

ALEN, or OLEN, JAN VAN, a Dutch
painter who lived in Amsterdam in the latter
part of the seventeenth century ; he was born
in 1651, and died in Amsterdam in 1698.
He was remarkable for the facility with Avhich
he could copy the style of any master, which
he did with such skill as to impose upon even
good judges. Finding that the bird pieces
of his contemporary Melchior Hondekoeter
met with a very ready sale, Alen painted a
great many pictures in the style of that master,
and disposed of them as originals ; which, by
adding greatly to the number of Hondekoeter's,
diminished their value in proportion, and in-
jured that painter considerably. It is owing to
this circumstance that we find so many pic
tures attributed to ' '

Hondekoeter.

There were other artists of the name of
Alen, who lived in the seventeenth century ;
a Folpert van Alen, a painter and engraver,
called also, apparently. Van Alten Allen, ac-
cording to a view of the city of Vienna drawn
in 1686, and engraved at Amsterdam on two
large plates, by J. Mulder. There is also a
large view of Prague, dated 1618, with many
figures, marked Van Alen. There are several
prints and etchings of little merit, with the
name of Folpert Van Alen ; an engraver of
this name also lived at Danzig in 1656.
(Houbraken, Schoubui-g der Nederlandsche
AonstscJiilders, Sfc. ; Heineken, Dirtionnaire
dcs Artistes, Sfc; Nagier, JVeucs Alh/emeines
Kiinstler-Lexicon.) R. N. W.

ALEN<^'ON (counts, afterwards dukes
of), a line of French nobles of considerable
importance in the middle ages. The earlier
counts of Alengon were subject to the dukes
of Normandy. The first was Guillaume (or
William) I., on whom the castle of Alen^on
and its dependencies were bestowed by
Richard II., duke of Normandy. He was
previously loi-d of Belleme ; but after this
gift of the duke, he and his successors more
commonly took the title of counts of Alen9on.
The counts of Alen(;on of this race were
Guillaume I., who died 1028 ; Robert I., son
of Guillaume L, killed A. d. 1033 or 1034;
Guillaume II., surnamed Talvatius, (Talvat,
or Talvas) ; another son of Guillaume I., ex-
pelled by his subjects A. D. 1048; Amoul,
son of Guillaume II., murdered 1048 ; Yves,
another son of Guillaume I., died a. r>. 1070 ;
Roger de Montgommeri, son-in-law of Guil-
3 G 3

ALENCON.

laume II., noticed elsewhere [Montgom-
MERi, Roger de], died a. d. 1094 ; Robert
II., commonly known as Robert de Belleme,
noticed elsewhere [Belleme, Robert de],
imprisoned by Henry I., a.d. 1112. During
the captivity of Robert the county of Alen^on
was bestowed by Henry I., king of England
and duke of Normandy, on Thibaut, count of
Blois, and was by hira transferred to his son
Etienne (Stephen, afterwards king of Eng-
land), but was restored, A. D. 1119, to GuU-
laume III, surnamed Talvas, son of Robert
II. Guillaume died a.d. 1171 ; his suc-
cessors were his son Jean I., who died a. d.
1191; Jean II., son of Jean I., died a.d.
1191 ; Robert III., another son of Jean I.,
died A. D. 1217 ; Robert IV., posthumous son
of Robert III., died a.d. 1219. In him the
first race of the counts of Alen^on termi-
nated, and the county was united to the
crown.

In A. D. 1268 or 1269, Louis IX. (St. Louis)
conferred the counties of Alen^on and Perclie
on his fifth son, Pierre, on whose death they
reverted to the crown. In a. d. 1293, Philippe
IV. (le Bel) gave them to his bi'other Charles
de Valois, who died a. d. 1325, and had for
his successors, Charles II., noticed else-
where [ALEN90N, Charles II., count of],
killed A.D. 1346 ; Charles IIL, son of
Charles II., became a Dominican monk A. d.
1361 ; Pierre II., son of Charles II., died
A.D. 1404 ; Jean III., in whose time the
cormty was raised into a duchy, noticed else-
where [ALEN90X, Jean III., count, after-
wards DUKE of], killed a. d. 1415 ; Jean
IV., son of Jean III., noticed elsewhere
[ALEN90N, Jean IV., duke of], died a.d.
1476 ; Reijc, son of Jean IV., noticed else-
where [ALEN50N, Rene, duke of], died
a. d. 1492 ; and Charles IV., noticed else-
where [ALEN90N, Charles IV., duke of],
died A. D. 1525. In him ended the line of
the counts and dukes of Alencon of the house
of Valois.

The duchy of Alen9on and the countj- of
Perche, which had I'everted to the crown,
were bestowed by Chai'les IX. on his mother,
Catherine de Mtdicis. Slie (a. d. 1566) re-
turned them to the king, who, the same year,
bestowed the duchy on his youngest brother,
Francois, noticed elsewhere (Alen(,'ON, Fran-
cois, DUKE of], on whose death it was again
united to the crown. It was included in the
apanage of Gaston of Orleans, brother of
Louis XIII., and transmitted by him to his
second daughter Isabelle, who married Joseph
of Lorraine, duke of Guise, and died a. d.
1696 without issue. It was subsequently
held by different branches of the royal
family, and last of all by Louis XVIII.,
while Monsieur. (L'Art de Verifier les
Dates.') j. C. M.

ALENCON, CHARLES, II., count of,
was the brother of Philip of Valois, king of
France, and son of Charles of Valois, count
814

of Alencon, brother of Philip the Fair. In .
1329, during the minority of Edward III. of
England, and while Guienne was subject to
that prince, his Gascon subjects made an
irruption into Languedoc. Philip of Valois
having commanded his brother Alenfon to
make reprisals, this nobleman attacked the
town of Saintes and overthrew its fortifica-
tions. He commanded under the French
king at the battle of Crecyin 1346, whtre he
fell. He had rushed upon the English lines
with the King of Bohemia and the Duke of
Lorraine ; but not being followed into the
battle by his vassals, he was overpowered and
killed. (Froissart, Chronique.) H. G.

ALEN9ON, CHARLES, IV., duke
of, was the son of Rene, and was born in
1489. At the age of eighteen he fol-
lowed Louis XII. to the Italian wars. He
was at the battle of Ghieradadda, (May,
1509,) where Louis commanded in person, and
gained a victory over the Venetians, which
gave a fatal blow to that republic. He mar-
ried Margaret of Valois, sister of Francis I.,
afterwards queen of Navarre ; and Francis
superseded the Constable Bourbon in order
to confer on him the command of the van of
his armies. He fought with valour at the
battle of Marignan (a. d. 1515), and two years
afterwards received in addition to his domain,
the duchy of Beny. He led the van at the
battle of Pavia (1525), and by his miscon-
duct contributed to the defeat of the French
in that fatal encounter. He fled disgrace-
fully from the field of battle soon afterwards,
and, chagrined by this dishonour, and stung
by the reproaches of Louise, the mother of
Francis I., died of a broken heart. In him
ended the royal ILue of Alenc^on. {Hist de la
Ligue de Cambray ; Guicciardini, Istoria d'
Italia ; Gaillard, Hist. deFrancois I.) H. G.
ALENCON, FRANCOIS, duke of, was
the youngest of the four sons of Henri II. of
France by his wife Catherine de Medicis.
He was born 18th March, 1554, and was at
first called Hercule, a name which was after-
wards, at his confirmation, exchanged for that
of Fran(;ois. He had the small pox in his
childhood, and was much disfigured by it.
He early manifested a strong dislike to his
brother Henri, duke of Anjou, afterwards
Henri III., and retained it through life. Henri
appears to have entertained an equal dislike
to him. however policy may have led, on both
sides, to occasional concealment. There was
little in the character of Francois to attract
either admiration or affection. He was devoid
of address in all bodily exercises, and the
consciousness of his defects made him jealous
of all who were superior to him in these re-
spects. Henri IV., who had seen much of
him in early life, said of him, — "I shall be
deceived if he ever fulfils the expectations
formed of him. He has so little courage, and
such duplicity- and malignity of disposition,
is so awkwardly made, has so little graceful-

ALENCON.

ALEN^ON.

ness in his deportment, and so little skill in
all kinds of exercises, that I cannot persuade
myself that he will ever do anything great."
Sully, who has recorded this character, bears
witness to its accuracy. He was created duke
of Alen9on by his brother Charles IX., a. d.
1566.

While Coligni was at Paris previous to the
massacre of St. Bartholomew (a. d. 1572),
Alen^on showed great regard for him. It is
hard to say whether this resulted from the
respect which the high character of Coligni
inspired, or whether it was the early mani-
festation of that policy which afterwards led
Alenyon to court the Huguenot party, though
he hated them in his heart. It was about this
time that the negotiations commenced for the
marriage of Alen(,'on with Elizabeth, queen of
England. The match was proposed through
the French ambassador in England, La Mothe
Feuelon, by the queen-mother, Catherine de
Medicis, who was influenced by the predic-
tions of astrologers, that all her sons should
be kings; and though Elizabeth raised ob-
jections on the ground of disparity of age (she
being twice as old as her suitor), and also on
account of the difference of religion, she did
not decidedly refuse; and the negotiation was
protracted for many years. The ambition of
Alen(;ou was also flattered by the hope of the
sovei'eignty of the Netherlands, which the
Huguenot party held out to him ; and the
war then carrying on in the Netherlands, as
well as his marriage with Elizabeth, were
subjects of conversation between him and
Coligni.

After the massacre of St.Bartholomew, when
the papers of Coligni were ransacked in the
hope of discovering something which might ex-
tenuate the horror of that transaction, a paper
was found addressed to the king, in which he
warned him not to be too liberal in assigning
an apanage to his brothers, and augmenting
their influence. " This is your dearly beloved
friend," said the queen-mother to Alen^on
sarcastically, as she handed the paper to the
king. " How far he was my friend," replied
the duke, " 1 know not ; but this I know, that
such advice could not be offered except by
one faithful to his king, and most zealous for
his interests." This reply, which De Thou
has recorded, seems to indicate that his regard
for Coligni was sincere: to which we may
add, on the authority of Marguerite de Yalois,
sister of Aleu^on, and wife of Henri, king of
Navarre (afterwards Henri IV. of France),
that the Huguenots induced her brother and
husband to bind themselves by an engage-
ment to avenge Coligni's death. Navarre
and Alen9on were at this time closely allied.
The war of the two parties, Roman Catholic
and Huguenot, was resumed after the mas-
sacre, and Alenyon was engaged (a. d. 157.3) in
the siege of La Rochelle, the stronghold of the
Huguenots, under the command of his brother,
the Duke of Anjou. While thus occupied, he
815

continued his suit to Elizabeth, and addressed
several letters to her. The protracted defence
of the town gave opportunity for the form-
ation of parties in the besiegers' camp, and
Aleu<,-on became the chief of the discontented
party. Various plans were proposed; to seize
Angouleme and St. Jean d'Augely ; or to
desert in a body and to take refuge in La
Rochelle, or on board the fleet which 3Iont-
gommeri had raised for its succour, or in
England ; but the advice of La None, who
was then in the camp, set aside these pur-
poses ; and the conclusion of peace removed
the immediate occasion of them. Alenf;oa
proposed now to visit England, but Elizabeth
warned him that the feelings excited by the
massacre of St. Bartholomew would render
his presence undesirable, until he had given
some proof of his regard for the Huguenots,
which his presence at the siege of La Rochelle
had rendered doubtful. On his return to
Paris he became suspected by the king, and
this led him to strengthen his connection with
the King of Navarre, who was uneasy at his
own position, and apprehensive of the king, the
queen-mother, and the family of the Guises.
Anjou had gone to Poland, where he had
been elected king.

The incapachy of Charles IX., enfeebled
by disease, had thrown the reins of govern-
ment (a. d. 1574) into the hands of the queen-
mother and the Guises ; and those of the
Catholics, who were jealous of their influence,
formed a third party, that of " Les Politiques,"
at the head of which was the Montmorenci
family. This party required the nomination
of Alencon as lieutenant-general of the king-
dom, but Catherine, jealous of her youngest
son, suggested to Charles the nomination in
preference of the Duke of Lorraine, his bro-
ther-in-law. Alen9on then negotiated with the
Huguenots, and formed a plan with Navarre
and the Prince of Conde to withdraw into the
provinces where the Huguenots predominated,
and renew the war. He had previously re-
! newed his proposal to visit England, and
I Queen Elizabeth had consented to his coming
over, but his engagement with the Huguenots
delayed his visit, and subsequents events
i hindered it ; for the execution of his engage-
ments with the Huguenots having been pre-
vented by his own indecision, the whole affair
(which was designated " La prise d'armes du
; Mardi-gras") was discovered; the duke him-
self and Navarre placed under guard ; La
Mole and Coconnas, two of Alenyon's confi-
dants and advisers, put to death ; and the
Marshals Montmorenci and Cosse, who were
the leaders of the Politiques, thrown into
prison. Conde and some others escaped.
Alencon and Navarre were examined ; the
former weakly confessed everything, but the
latter behaved with more dignity. Appre-
hensions were entertained that it was intended
to put them to death, and Marguerite of Valois,
wife of Navarre, undertook to procure the
I 3 G 4

ALE N 9 ON.

ALEN9ON.

escape of one of the two disguised as one of
her retinue ; but the plan failed because they
could not agree which it should be. War
with the Huguenots, of whom Condo now
declared himself the head, recommenced, and
continued until after the death of Charles IX.,
30th of May, 1574.

The crown devolved on Henri HI., lately
duke of Anjou, who was in Poland ; and
until his return, the queen-mother exercised
the functions of regent. She professed to set
Alen^on (who now took the style of " Mon-
sieur ") and Navarre at liberty, but they were
still watched ; nor was the restraint taken off
after Henri's arrival (5th September, 1574),
though he again declared them to be at
liberty. Elizabeth of England had interceded
on their behalf ; and the negotiations for
Alen^on's marriage with her were renewed
by the queen-mother and Henri.

In September, 1575, Alen(;on succeeded in
escaping from court, and proceeded to Dreux,
a town within his own domain; from which
he issued a manifesto, setting forth the mal-
administration of the government by the evil
councillors who surrounded the king ; de-
claring that he had escaped from the court
because he was treated with dishonour and his
safety endangered, and because men of all
classes had their eyes fixed on him and were
imploring his aid ; giving assurance that he
had no views of private vengeance or aggran-
dizement, but only to remedy the evils of the
state by the regular course of a free assembly
of the states-general ; promising to both Ca-
tholics and Protestants his protection, and in-
viting all to join him in execution of his pur-
poses. He was joined by the " Politiques" and
the Huguenots ; but in the mean time he dis-
patched a confidential messenger to the pope,
to assure him that his negotiations with the
heretics were the result of necessity, and were
merely for the purpose of employing their
forces for the pacification of the kingdom, and
not with the view of joining his interest with
theirs. It was in vain that the queen-mother
sought to draw him off from his confederates,
and at his requirement released Montmorenci
and Cosse. He remained firm; and having
assembled a powerful force, and the King of
Navarre having also escaped, the confederacy
against the court was so strong, that peace
was made the 6th May, 1576, at Chiitenoy
near Chateau Landon, on terms highly favour-
able to the confederates, especially to Alen-
^on, from whom the peace was designated
" the Peace of Monsieur." He received, as
an addition to his apanage, the duchies of
Anjou, Touraine, and Berry, with the right
of presentation, previously possessed by the
king, to all ecclesiastical dignities and bene-
fices in those provinces ; all other rights of
royalty, and a pension of 100,000 crowns.
His whole revenue, thus augmented, was esti-
mated at 400,000 crowns. From this time he
was commonly designated, either " Monsieur"
816

or " Duke of Anjou." He retired to Bourges,
one of the cities included in his apanage,
and there formed a small court. He continued
his negotiations in England for his marriage
with Elizabeth ; and sought to obtain the com-
mand of the forces of the insurgents in the
Netherlands, which some parties there had
before contemplated to procure for him. In
fact, the council of state of the Netherlands
invited him in the latter end of the year 1576,
to undertake to assist them at the head of an
army.

Having obtained his own purposes, Alen-
9on began to show his dislike to the Hugue-
not party, and after a short interval, was pre-
vailed upon to return to court, where he was
received by his brother Henri III. with great
apparent cordiality. His I'cpugnance to the
Reformed now became avowed : he declared
that to hate them it was only necessary to
know them, and that there M'as only one man
in the party of any worth, namely, La None,
who was then in Flanders. He even signed
the Catholic League which had been lately
formed ; and of which Henri, jealous of the
Guises, desired to place himself at the head :
but it is probable that Alencon signed rather at
the instigation of the king, than from his own
wish ; and that the king's desire was rather
to control the League, than fully to carry out
its objects. When the violence of the states-
general at Blois had led to a renewal of the
war (a. d. 1577), Alencon commanded the
army sent into Berri and Auvergne against
the Huguenots ; and having taken La Charite
on the Loire in Le Nivernois and Issoire,
near the Allier in Auvergne, burned the latter,
and put the townsmen, with very few excep-
tions, to the sword. The war was however soon
brought to an end by the peace of Bergerac,
to the observance of which Alencon swore,
as well as the king and the queen-mother.

When Alen9on returned to Paris, though
he engaged in the debauchery which dis-
graced the court, he lost no opportunity of
increasing the contempt into which the king
had follen. He continued at the same time his
negotiations and intrigues in the Netherlands,
where the increasing distress of the states
made his assistance more important. Henri
was jealous of his brother's purposes ; and
the quarrels of Bussi d'Amboise, the duke's
" mignon," or favourite, with the " mignons "
of the king, aggravated the mutual hatred of
the brothers ; so that Alencon designed to
quit the court, but was arrested by the king
in person. An apparent reconciliation was
effected by the queen- mother ; but Alencon
being still watched, determined on making
his escape, which he effected, 14th of Feb-
ruary, 1578, by means of his sister Mar-
guerite of Valois, who, with her attendants,
let him down by a rope from lier chamber
window into the ditch of the Louvre. He
immediately fled to Angers. Henri, alarmed,
sent the queen-mother to know what were

ALENCON.

ALEN9ON.

the grievances of which his brother com-
plained, and what were his designs ; to whicli
Alen^on replied, that he intended notliing
hostile to the king or the state, but that
his views were wholly directed to foreign
countries.

In eft'ect he was preparing to march into
the Netherlands ; and for this purpose as-
sembled an army of 8000 infantry and 1();:0
horse, with which he marched to the frontier
of Hainault. He Avas received early in Au-
gust, 1778, into Mons ; and by treaty, signed
at Antwerp, on the 13th August, was declared
protector of the liberty of Belgium. All the
conquests which he should make on the right
bank of the Meuse were to be ceded to him,
and as security, tlie fortresses of Avesnes,
Landrecies, and Le Quesnoy were placed in his
hands. In return, he engaged to maintain an
army of 10,000 infantry and 2000 horse for
three months ; and after that period, if the war
should continue, 3000 infantry and 500 horse
for the service of the states; and to replace
imder their dominion all that he should con-
quer on the left of the Meuse. He was to
liave, when pi'csent with the army, the com-
mand jointly with the chief officer whom the
states should appoint to act for them ; but
was to leave the civil government wholly iu
their hands. They engaged, however, that
in case", of their finally bi'eaking off from
the dominion of their prince (Philip II. of
Spain), they would choose the duke in pre-
ference to all others as their prince.

The duke effected little beyond taking one
or two unimportant fortresses ; and the jea-
lousies of the Catholics and Protestants, and
of the allies of the states, prevented any
important results from the large force which
had been collected. He therefore disbanded
his army and returned to France, from
whence (early in 1.570) he passed over to
England, to concert with Elizabeth the mea-
sures to be pursued in the Netherlands, or to
press the affair of his marriage v.-ith her, for
which negotiations had been renewed. From
England he returned to Paris, where he was
received by his brother with seeming cor-
diality. During his abode at Paris, his
former favourite, Bussi d'Amboise, was killed
by a person whose wife he had debauched ;
and there is reason to believe that the in-
jured husband was instigated by the duke,
who was weary of Bussi's ferocity and pre-
sumption.

He pursued, during the year 1579, his de-
signs both of marrying Elizabeth and of ob-
taining the sovereignty of the Netherlands.
In June, 1580, the states, who had signed
the imion of Utrecht, appointed him com-
mander-in-chief of their forces, and in Au-
gust they offered him the sovereignty over
them. He gladly accepted the offer, and
having prevailed on his brother to make
proposals of peace to the Huguenots, who were
again in arms, went into the south of France to
817

negotiate with them. The negotiations lasted
till nearly the close of the year : but peace
was at last concluded, and many adventurers,
both of the Huguenot and Roman Catholic
armies (among them Maximilian de Bcthune,
afterwards the great Duke of Sully), enlisted
under Alenyon, who in the beginning of Au-
gust, 1581, led his forces, consisting of about
10,000 infantry and 4000 cavalry, to the re-
lief of Cambrai, then besieged and reduced
to extremity by the Spaniards under the
Prince of Parma. His approach caused the
siege to be raised, and he entered the town in
triumph on the 17th of August. The re-
maining operations of the campaign wei'e un-
important, except that the duke treacherously
seized Cambrai, disarming the garrison of
the states' troops, and occupying the place
with his own soldiers. When the governor
exclaimed against the treachery, the only
answer he obtained was an insulting laugh at
his Picard accent. After this Alen9on passed
over into England (Nov. 1581), where the
arrangements for his marriage had been so
far completed by his agent Simier, that
the marriage articles were agreed to. Eliza-
beth received him with every mark of honour
and affection, and went so far as publicly
to present him with a ring : but the oppo-
sition of some of her leading coimcillors
and the repugnance of the people, who ap-
prehended danger to the Protestant religion,
prevented matters from being brought to a
conclusion ; and the duke, after a stay of
three months, returned (Feb. 1582) into the
Netherlands. A\Tiile in England he had sent
an embassy to Liibeck, to induce the Hanse
Towns to make up their existing disputes with
Elizabeth, and to join in alliance with her.

On his landing at Flushing he was honour-
ably received by the Prince of Orange, and
proceeding to Antwerp was installed as Duke
of Brabant with the greatest solemnity (19th
February), the Prince of Orange assisting at
the ceremonial, which De Thou has described
with great minuteness. The duke, however,
shortly became jealous of the influence of
Orange ; so that, on the attempted assassina-
tion of the latter by Jauregui at Antwerp
(13th ^larch), the French were suspected of
having instigated the attempt ; and it was only
by the papers found on the assassin that the
suspicion was removed, and the tumults pre-
vented which it was on the point of occasion-
ing. The wound of the Prince of Orange
delayed for a time the opening of the cam-
paign ; and when it commenced, the opera-
tions of the two armies were unimportant.
Both sides howev^er kept the field until the
winter, when, after suffering severely from
the weather, and from scarcity and disease,
they went into winter quarters. Just about
this time the duke received a considerable
reinforcement from France under the Duke
of Montpensier and Marshal Biron.

He was now induced by the persuasion of

ALENCON.

several of his oiEcers to attempt the seizure
of the towns in which his troojjs were quar-
tered, in the hope of acquiring thereby an
imrestricted sovei'eiguty. Antwerp, the most
important of these tow-ns, he undertook to
seize himself. The attempt was made on the
17th of January, 1583, but was defeated by
the bravery of the citizens, and the pru-
dence and skill of the Prince of Orange : ;
the duke lost 1200 men in the conflict, and
was driven out of the town. The attempts
on Bruges, Alost, Nieuport, and Ostend also
failed ; but Dunkirk, Dixmuiden, Dender-
inonde, Vilvorde, and Berg St. Winox were
seized. The prudence of Orange and the
intervention of the French king prevented
the rupture from proceeding further ; and a
convention was signed for the restoration of
the towns which had been seized and for re-
newing the agreement by which the duke had
been elected duke of Brabant. So great how-
ever was the odium excited by his treachery,
that he deemed it better to withdraw into
France and wait until time should have abated
the feeling against him, and made the people
of the Netherlands again desire his presence.
He left Dunkirk, to which he had retired,
and landed the 28th of June, 1583, at Calais,
from whence he set out for the neighbour-
hood of Cambrai (of wliich he appears to
have I'etained possession), where he began
to collect an army, in hopes of regaining
his power. He sent messengers to the
assembly of the states at Middelburg, suggest-
ing to them that, provided they would
hold out to the French king the hope that
the duchy of Brabant should come to him in
case of the duke's death without issue, he
would be induced openly to declare against
Spain, and so put a speedy end to the war.
But the states were too far alienated to recal
him, and he retained only the title of Duke
of Brabant.

His healtli was now declining, and a visit
which he paid to the court of his brother in
February, 1584, accelerated his decay'. In the
mean time the states, pressed by difficulties,
had come to the intention of recalling him,
and he received their ambassadors at Chateau
Thierri, where, except during his short visit
to court, he had spent the winter. But his
health was now irrecoverably broken ; and
after a lingering illness, he died 10th of June,
1584, aged thirty. Though he acted a con-
spicuous part in the troubled period in which
he lived, he possessed few commendable qua-
lities ; and his last days were embittered by
his own regret at his failures, and by the ge-
neral contempt and hatred into Avhicli he had
fallen. (Simonde de Sismondi, Histoire des
Francois ; Tlmanus (De Thou), Historia sui
Tcinporis ; D'Aubigne, Hisloirc Unicersclle;
La Popeliniere, Histoire de la France ; Mar-
guerite de Valois, Mr moires ; Sully, Memoires;
L'Arl de verifier les Dales; Camden, History
of Queen Elizabeth.) J. C. M.

818

ALENCON, JEAN HL, comit, after-
wards duke of, was born a. d. 1385, be-
came count of Perche before a. d. 1396,
and count of Alen9on on the death of his
father, Pierre II., a. b. 1404. He had
previously married a daughter of Jean de
Montfort, duke of Bretagne. He was one
of the leaders of the Orleans or Armagnac
faction, in their struggles with the Bur-
gundians, and took part both in their warfare
and in their treaty with the King of England,
Henry IV. In a. d. 1412 the strong places
of his county of Alencon were taken by the
royal army (the king being then in the hands
of the Burgundians), but were retaken the
same year by the help of the English
auxiliaries sent by Henry IV. In a. d. 1414
he took part in the siege of Arras, then oc-
cupied by the Duke of Burgundy, who had
been driven from the court ; and in the same
j^ear he was raised to the rank of duke of
Alencon. He was killed (25th of October,
1415) at the great battle of Azincour or
Agincourt, gained by the English under
Henry V. He was one of the commanders
of the main body of the French, and distin-
guished himself gi'eatly by his courage.
" During which battle," says Monstrelet,
" the above-mentioned Duke of Alen9on,
with the aid of his followers, bravely pene-
trated a considerable way into the array of
the aforesaid English, and came pretty near
the King of England, fighting with great
strength, so that he wounded and beat down
the Duke of York ; and then the said king,
seeing this, approached to raise him, and
stooped a little, and then the said Duke of
Alencon struck him witli his battle-axe upon
the helmet, and knocked oif a part of his
crown. While doing this, the king's body-
guard closely surrounded him, and he, per-
ceiving that he could not escape the peril of
death, lifted up his hand and said to the said
king, ' I am the Duke of Alencon, and I
surrender myself to you.' But though he
(the king) wished to admit him to surren-
der, he was immediately killed by the said
guards." (Monstrelet, Chroniques; Juvenal
des Ursins, Histoire de Charles VI. ; Le La-
boureur, Histoire de Charles VI. ; L'Arl de
Verifier les Dates.) J. C. JM.

ALENCON, JEAN, IV., duke of, son of
the Duke of AIen9on, who fell at Agincourt.
He took an active part in the war against the
Duke of Bedford, whom Henry V. had left
regent of France, and being made prisoner
by the English at the battle of Verneuil in
August, 1424, he was confined in the castle
of Crotoy in Picardy for three years, having
refused to acknowledge Henry VI. of England
as king of France. He was obliged to pay
an enormous ransom for his release, and to
raise it was forced to sell part of his domains.
These transactions involved him in a brief
war with the Duke of Bretagne. He was
again engaged in the war with the English,

ALENCON.

in which he distinguished liimself gi'eatly,
and enjoyed great favour -with the king. Sub-
sequently he fell into disgrace, and when after
the expulsion of the English, and the final
establishment of Charles YII. on the throne,
he presented himself at court, he did not
meet with that favour to which, on account
of his services, as well as of his rank as a
prince of the blood, he thought himself en-
titled. Disgusted with this treatment, he
joined tlie party of the dauphin, afterwards
Louis XL, who had formed a confederacy
and was waging war upon his father ; and
being a man of an intriguing and dangerous
character, he entered into all the projects
of the turbulent spirits who surrounded
Louis. He formed the design of recalling
the English who had lately been expelled
from France after so great an expense of
blood and treasure. His plan was to support
the invasion of the English by an insurrec-
tion within the kingdom. Alen^on by his
personal accomplishments had gained the af-
fections of the French nation, and possessed
many adherents among the malecontent
nobles who had survived the war. He had
paved the way for his desperate enterprise
by opening a correspondence with Talbot,
when that general surprised Bordeaux in
1452 ; and having thus established a con-
nection with the English court, he invited
Richard, duke of York, then protector, to
undertake the expedition. He promised him
an easy conquest ; represented that Charles,
being occupied with the intrigues of his fac-
tious son, was in no condition to resist the
restoration of the English dominion in
France ; and he engaged to deliver to the
English some fortresses which he commanded
in Normandy. The Duke of York eagerly
listened to these proposals, which were
carried to London by Huntingdon, an Eng-
lishman, whom Alen9on had found at La
Fleche in Anjou. The English nation had
always regretted the loss of Normandy and
Guienne ; and the protector hoped to
strengthen the house of York, then (145.5)
on the eve of the civil war, by the recovery
of these provinces. Margaret of Anjou, not-
withstanding her connections with the French
king, who favoured the house of Lancaster,
seconded an enterprise which was highly
popular in England. A treaty was quickly
concluded by which, among other articles,
the daughter of the Duke of York was af-
fianced to the son of Alen^on. Though
rumours had been diiFused of this dangerous
conspiracy in the north of France, it had
eluded the vigilance of Charles, at that time
in the Bourbonnois ; and the plot was already
ripe for execution, when it was discovered to
the French king by one of Alen^on's crea-
tures. In addition to Huntingdon, that no-
bleman had employed as the agents of his
correspondence with England two ecclesias-
tics, his confessor, a Jacobin of Argentan, and
819

his almoner, whose name was Gillet. The
latter, from real or feigned apprehension lest
his frequent journies to London should excite
suspicion, persuaded Alen^on to intrust his
next letters to the hands of Peter Fortin, a
lame mendicant. They were inclosed in a
hollow staff. Fortin, instead of proceeding
to England, carried them to the French king,
who was then in the Bourbonnois.

Charles, who had passed his life in civil
war, and had only attained tranquillity in his
declining years, was much moved by this
treachery in a prince of the blood. He im-
mediately commanded Dunois to proceed to
Paris and arrest Alenc^on, who had arrived
there to complete his preparations. Dunois
surrounded his hotel with a formidable force,
(May, 1456,) and after apprehending him,
conducted him first to Melun, and afterwards
to the castle of Chantelle, where he lay for
two years. In 1458 the king put him on
his trial, and for that purpose sunniioned the
parliament to Montargis : but being apprised
that the English fleet was about to put to sea,
he removed the sitting to Yendume. No cri-
minal trial of equal magnitude had occurred
since that of Robert, count of Artois, ia
1331 ; and being contained in the register
of the parliament, it remains a valuable re-
cord of the ancient mode of procedure against
peers of France. Gillet and Fortin both
gave evidence against him ; the projected
invasion and insurrection were proved by his
own letters, and he himself avowed his guilt.
He was condemned to be beheaded, 10th Oct.
1458. Charles remitted the capital penalty,
but kept him in prison during the remainder
of his reign.

Louis XL, when he succeeded his father in
1461, set Alen^on at liberty. This prince,
from the moment of his accession, was beset
by the faction of nobles which he himself
had stirred up against his father. Alenyon,
released from captivitj', could not remain at
rest. After procuring the assassination of the
witnesses who had given evidence against
him, he returned to his former associates,
resumed his schemes of agitation, and was
active in foi"warding that combination of the
French nobles which, imder the name of
" the league for the public good," menaced
Louis during the first part of his reign.
Every rebellion attempted against that able
prince tended to increase his power. Alen-
(;on, finding his hopes from domestic insur-

• rection cut off by the suppression of this
conspiracy, renewed his treasonable corre-
spondence with foreign powers. He entered
into a negotiation with Edward lY. of Eng-
land, the son of his former ally the Duke of
York ; he made a treaty with Charles the

! Bold ; and as these princes were then (1474)

j imiting their arms for the invasion of France,
he, in concert with the Count St Pol, the

I constable, secretly promised them assistance.

j His practices being detected, he was arrested

ALENCON.

ALENI.

by Tristan rilermite. He was a second time
brought to trial before the parliament, and a
second time condemned to death, ISth Juh',
1474. This sentence Avas again commuted
by Louis for imprisonment. Alen9on -was
thrown into the castle of Loches, from
whence he was transferred to the tower of
the Louvre, where he died. He was a man
of i-estless ambition, the indefatigable adver-
sary of two successive kings, Charles VIL
and Louis XL, and one of the last of that
turbulent and barbarous aristocracy which,
after wasting France through all the middle
ages, and exposing their country to the in-
cursions of England, fell under the despotic
power of Louis XL (J. Chartier, Histoire
de Charles VII. ; Anciennes Lois de France,
Isambert, torn ix. ; Daniel, Hist, de France.^

H. G.

ALENCON, RENE', duke of, son of
John, duke of Alenc^on, was one of the
victims of Louis XL Reduced to poverty by
the confiscation of his father's estate, he took
refuge at the court of the Duke of Brittany.
Thither he was pursued by the unrelenting
vengeance of Louis. He was arrested and
imprisoned for some time in an iron cage at
Chinon, and afterwards brought to trial be-
fore the Parliament. For what offence he
was involved in this prosecution, nowhere
distinctly appears. The subjection of the
princes of the blood and the depression of the
aristocracy were the main obj ects of Louis's
policy. The parliament, unwilling to con-
vict Alen^on of treason, but afraid to acquit
him altogether, found him guilty of disobe-
dience. He remained in prison during the
rest of this tyrannical reign, but was released
and restored to his honours by Charles VII I.
He died in 1492. (Biog. Univ.) H. G.

ALENI, GIU'LIO, an Italian Jesuit whose
name is often written Alenio; but as he was
born at Brescia, and is called Aleni by
Mazzuchelli, who was himself a Brescian,
that form is probably correct. He is stated
to have entered the society of Jesuits in 1600,
in the eighteenth year of "his age, from which
it may be inferred that he was born in 1583.
He went to the East before he had attained
priest's orders, impelled by an ardent desire
of commencingmissionai-y labours. He landed
at Macao in 1610, and after a short time he
began to teach mathematics. Obtaining access
by this means into Chinese families, he
soon made proselytes, and he continued his
exertions for thirty-six years with distin-
guished success. He was the first to preach
the Christian religion in the province of
Shan-se : he caused the erection of several
churches in the principal towns of the pro-
vince of Fuh-keen, and he baptized some
thousands of converts. He held the office of
superior in various residences for twenty-
three years, and of the whole vice-province
for seven. He died in China in the month of
August, 1649.
820

The list of his works written in Chinese
and published in China, as given in the
" Biblict'ieca Scriptorum Societatis Jesu," is
extremely curious. It is as follows : — 1. A
Life of Christ, in eight volumes : no doubt in
eight Chinese volumes, or, as they are called,
pun, an expression which might perhaps be
more properly translated " numbers," as four
or five of such pun are required to make
up the thickness of an ordinary European
volume. 2. On the Incarnation of Christ.
3. The Life and Passion of the Lord of
Heaven, expressed by Images (" Teen choo
keang sang chiih seang king keae"). A copy
of this work is in the royal library at Ber-
lin, and a shoit description of it is given by
Klaproth, from which it appears that the
name of the author, Giulio, is represented by

I three Chinese characters, which may be pro-

' nounced E-j iih-leaou, and that the publica-
tion was revised and seen through the press
by Father Emanuel Diaz. The book is an
adaptation from a work by Father Jerome
Natali, " Annotationes in Evangelia," and the
Chinese woodcuts are said by Weiss to be
copied, but he does not state with what suc-
cess, from the copper-plates by Wierx, an
excellent engraver, with which the original is
ornamented. 4. On the Sacrifice of the Mass,
in two volumes. 5. On the Sacrament of
Penance. 6. On the Origin of the World,
proving the Existence of God. 7. Dialogues,
in which the principal errors of the Chinese,
and the doubts they usually propose, are re-
futed. 8. St. Bernard's Dialogue between

, the Body and Soul, translated into Chinese
verse. This must have been a peculiarly

' difficult undertaking. The language of
poetry in China varies considerably from

; that of prose, and abounds with obscure
expressions, which frequently, even at the
present day, baffle the best European
scholars. 9. On European Studies and Sci-
ences. 10. The Theatre of the World, di-
vided into five parts, in which the leading
particulars with regard to Europe and the
other parts of the world are explained. A
copy of this interesting work, in two volumes
folio, was to be found at the Jesuits' library
at Rome in 1675. 11. Geometry explained,
in four books. 12. The Life of Matteo Ricci,
the Jesuit apostle in China. 13. The Life of
Dr. Michael Yang, a Chinese conspicuous
for sanctity. 14. The Life of Shang Michael,
a young Cliinese of distinguished merit from
the province of Fuh-keen. (Ribadeneira, i?/(^-
Uotheca Scriptorum Societatis Jesu, opus recog-
nitum a Sotvello, p. 529, &e. ; Mazzuchelli,
Scrittori d'ltalia, i. 434. ; Article by Weiss
in Biographic Univcrselle, Ivi. (or vol. i. of
Supp.) 157, &c. ; Klaproth, Verzeichniss der
Cliinesischen Biicher der Koniglichen Bibliothek
zu Berlin, p. 183, &c.) T. W.

ALE'NI, TOMMA'SO, an Italian painter,
called il Fadino, bom at Cremona in 1500,
was the scholar of Galcazzo Campi, in whose

ALENI.

ALEOTTI.

manner he painted so exactly that their works
cannot be distinguished. They painted in
the old style of the Quattrocentisti, in a feeble
manner ; they executed some works together
in the church of San Domenico at Cremona.
(Orlandi, Abcccdmio Pittorico ; Zaist, A'otizie
istoriche de' Pittori, cS'C. Crcmone.si.) R. N. W.
ALEOTTI, GIAMBATTIST A, an Italian
engineer and architect, of whose life few
particulars have been recorded, nor had any
one pretended to fix anj- date as the year of
his birth, until Frizzi, the author of the
" Storia di Ferrara," ascertained it to be
1:546, and that he was the son of Vicenzo
Aleotti, " cittadino Ferrarese." He is gene-
rally stated to have been born at Argenta, in
the territory of Ferrara, and to have been in
such very humble circumstances that he
worked at first as a common mason, from
which condition he raised himself chiefly by
his own diligence and his application to the
study of geometry and other branches of
science connected with his future profession.
According to the authority above mentioned
(given in a note in Tiraboschi), Aleotti was
taken into the service of Alfonso II. of
Ferrara, as his engineer, in 1571 ; and after
the death of that prince (1597) still continued
in the employ of the state, and built the
citadel caused to be erected by Pope Clement
"N'lII., who had attached Ferrara to the states
of the church. After this he was employed
by various princes and nobles in that part of
Italy, and among others by Ranuccio I. of
Parma, for whom he erected, in 1618, his
most celebrated architectural work, the great
theatre in that city, which, notwithstanding
its magnitude, he completed within about a
year, it being opened ui 1619. Of this struc-
ture, almost the first of the kind planned
according to the modern system (but which
has since undergone several alterations),
there is a full history and description by
Donati, entitled " Gran Teatro Farnesino di
Parma," 1817. He was also emplojed on
various other buildings, not only at Parma,
but at Mantua Modena, and diiferent places.
He wrote several treatises on subjects of
hydraulic engineering, and translated from
the Greek Heron's treatise on Pneumatics.
He also founded the Academy Degli Intre-
pidi, at Ferrara, in 1600. In most biogra-
phical publications he is said to have died in
1630, but Frizzi fixes the date of his death in
1636, in the seventieth year of his age. (Ti-
raboschi, Storia della Lettcrutura ; Bibliot.

itai.) ^y. H. L.

ALEOTTI, VITTORIA, daughter of
Giambattista Aleotti, an architect of some ce-
lebrity, was born at Argenta about the latter
part of the sixteenth century. Her indications
of musical talent were early and strong, and
she was placed first imder Pasquino, and after-
wards in the convent of St. Yiti at Ferrara,
then famous for its music school, where she
passed the remainder of her life. A set of
821

her madrigals, written to the poetry of Gua-
rini, was published at Venice in 1593, under
the title" (^hirlandade' Madrigali." (Gerber,
Lexicon der Tvnitiinsder.) E. T.

ALEPRANDL [Aliprandi.]
ALER, PAUL, a Jesuit, was born at St.
Vite, in the duchy of Luxemburg, on the
9th of November, 1656. He was educated
at the college of the Three Crowns at Co-
logne, entered the order of Jesuits in 1676,
took the four vows on the 2d of February, 1 69 1,
and spent the remainder of his life in great
repute as a teacher at Cologne, Aix-la-Cha-
pelle, Treves, and Juliers, till his death at
Dueren on the 2d of May 1727. Hartzheim, in
his account of him, speaks vaguely of a legal
contest which he had to sustain with some
envious enemies before the Roman rota, and
the courts of the palatinate, which ended in
the complete triumph of Aler, who remitted
to his adversaries a thousand florins which
they were condemned to pay him.

The works of Aler are mmierous. He
was remarkably fond of theatrical entertain-
ments, and Hartzheim speaks with enthusiasm
of the representations which were given under
his direction by the scholars of the college of
the Three Crowns at Cologne, for the amuse-
ment of electors, cardinals, and magistrates,
in which the scenes were changed in the
twinkling of an eye, and not only individuals
but whole choruses were, by ingenious ma-
chinerj", made to appear in the sky. For
these representations Aler wrote three trage-
dies on the adventures of Joseph, two on
those of Tobias, one entitled " Bertulf and
Ansberta," another " Genevieve," and another
in the German language, all the others being
in Latin, on the subject of the Maccabees.
He was also the author of four musical dra-
mas, in Latin ; the first, " Mary the Queen
of Grace," the second, " Mary the Queen of
Peace," the third, " Julius Maximinus," and
the fourth, " L^rania." All of these were
printed at Cologne between 1696 and 1710.
Hartzheim also enumerates among the works
of Aler the " Gradus ad Parnassum," seventh
edition, with corrections and emendations.
Cologne, 1724, 8vo. From this information,
which does not necessarily imply that Aler
did more than superintend that edition, has
apparently arisen the statement that he was
the original compiler of the Gradus, which
is made in most biographical dictionaries,
and is repeated by Guizot in the Biographie
L^niverselle. But Barbier has shown that
the work now so called originally appeared
anonymously at Paris in 1652, four years
before Aler's birth, under the title of " Epi-
thetorum et Synonymorum Thesaurus," and
is ascribed in a manuscript note of Father
Baize to Father Chatillon, a French Jesuit.
It met with great success, ran through several
editions, and first assumed its present title of
" Gradus ad Parnassum" in 1667. Barbier
remarks that a Latin advertisement which is

ALER.

ALES.

given in Aler's edition is merely a trans-
lation of that in French which appears in
the original, and that Aler gives a " short
appendix of some Latin words which are
■wanting in this book," a convincing proof
that he was not its author. The " Gradus,"
a large collection of epithets and expletives,
intended to facilitate the composition of Latin
verse, has been repeatedly reprinted in our
own and other countries, though the first
effect of the old Gradus, as we are told in the
preface to an improved edition published in
1819, was to " obscure both unity of thought
and clearness of expression," and to present
the learner " with such an assemblage of
diiferent styles and sentiments that his judg-
ment was confused and often impeded." A
minute list of the remainder of Aler's works
is given in Hartzheim, Paquot, and Adelung.
The most important are, " Philosophia Tri-
partita," a treatise on Philosophy in three
parts, the first embracing logic, the second
physics, and the third metaphysics. (Cologne,
1710-1724, 4to.) " Dictionarium Germanico-
Latinum." (Cologne, 1724, 8vo.) " Poesis
varia," a collection of his poems on different
occasions, (Cologne, 1702, 8vo.) and a theo-
logical treatise on human actions : " De Ac-
tibus humanis," the title of which has often
been erroneously given as " De Artibus hu-
manis." (Cologne, 1717, 4to.) (Hartzheim,
Bibliotheca Colonierisis, p. 263 — 265, ; Pa-
quot, Memoires pour servir a VHistoire Litte-
raire des Pays Bus, iii. 132. 140.; Adelung,
Fortsetzung zii Jocher's Gelehrten-Lexico,
i. 550, &c. ; Barbier, Examen Critique des
Dictionnaircs Historiques, i. 25, &c. ; Barbier
Dictionnaire des Ouvrages Anoiii/ines, No.
20,362.) T. W.

ALES, ALEXANDER (or Aless, Alesse,
Alane, Alesius), a divine who ultimately
embraced the Augsburg confession of faith.
He was born at Edinburgh on the 23d of
April, 1500, wai educated at the university
of St. Andrew's, and obtained a canonry
in the collegiate church there. At an early
age he entered into the controversy on the
subject of Luthei". He also took part against
Patrick Hamilton and the principles which
Hamilton had imbibed at Marburg. So con-
vincing, however, seemed the discourses and
firmness of Hamilton, that Ales's endeavours
to bring him back to the Roman Catholic
religion nearly ended in his own conversion.
Ales preached before the synod of St.
Andrew's against the corrupt lives of the
clergy, and in return was accused of heresy.
The chapter being summoned to meet, he
was three times imprisoned, but as often libe-
rated by his brother canons, and the last time
he made his escape to London (1534), and
thence to Germany. Li August, 1535. Me-
lancthon sent, through Ales, to King Henry
VIII. his Commentary on the Epistle to the
Romans, and a like present to Cranmer, to
whom he commended the bearer, with a high
822

character for learning, probity, and diligence.
Cranmer kept Ales with him at Lambeth,
and greatly esteemed him. Cromwell brought
Ales with him into the convocation in the
year 1536 ; and Ales, at his request, dis-
coursed of two sacraments only being admi-
nistered by Christ. It is said that he also
grew into such favour with the king that
Henry used to call Ales " his scholar." After
the fall of Cromwell he again fled into Ger-
many. There is a letter from him in Germany
to Bucer in Cambridge referring to the very
pleasant society he had formerly enjoyed in
King's College, Cambridge (among the MSS.
of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge). The
story of his leaving his country is told in the
beginning of his defence against Cochlaius.
Ales is mentioned, with Bucer, as having a
meeting with Gardiner, bishop of Win-
chester, when Gardiner went to Germany as
King Henry's ambassador : the conversation
related to some common principles whereby
every man might be convinced of the con-
troverted points of religion. In 1540 Ales
was appointed by the Elector of Brandenburg
professor of theology at Frankfort upon the
Oder, and sent with two others to the con-
ference at "Worms. The next year, at Frank-
foi't, he maintained in a public dispute that
the civil magistrate could and ought to punish
fornication, and in this he was supported by
Melancthon, which so incensed the court of
Bi'andenburg that application was made to
the imiversity of Wittenberg to give them a
public reproof. Upon this Ales left Frank-
fort for Leipzig (in 1543). After refusing a
professor's chair which Albert the first duke
of Prussia intended to erect at Konigsberg,
he was chosen professor of divinity at Leip-
zig, and held this place till his death.

Ales was among the theologians sum-
moned to attend the conference at Naumburg
in the month of March, 1554, for consoli-
dating a union between the houses of Saxonj%
Brandenburg, and Hesse. In 1555 he as-
sisted in appeasing the disciples of Osiander
at Niirnberg. On the 29th of November,
1560, he maintained the necessity and merit
of good works in a public disputation held in
the university of Leipzig. While at Leipzig
he translated for Bucer's use the first liturgy
of Edward VI. into Latin, and both trans-
lated and wrote a preface to Bucer's work,
which is among his " Scripta Anglica," Ba-
sil, 1577, fob, and called " Ordinationes An-
glorum Ecclesisc per Bucerum, Lib. I."
Ales died at Leipzig on the 17th of March,
1565.

The following are his commentaries on
the Bible: — 1. "In aliquot Psalmos Liber
I. ; or, Expositio Libri Psalmorum Davidis
juxta Hebra^orum ct D. Hieronjini Supputa-
tiones." Leipzig, 1550, 1596, fol. 2. "DeUtili-
tate Psalmorum Liber I. ; " in the Leipzig
edition of 1542, in 8vo., " De Autore et Usu
Psalmorum." 3. " In Evangelium Joanuis

ALES.

Liber L" Basil, 1553, 8vo. 4. "hi omnes
Epistolas Pauli Libri XIV." 5. " Disputa- ^
tiones iu Pauluui ad Romanes Liber L
I>eipzig, 1553, 8 vo. 6. " Expositio L Epis-
tolaj ad Timotheum et Epistolas ad Tituin."
Leipzig, 1550, Svo. 7. " Posterioris ad Ti-
motheum." Leipzig, 1551, Svo.

The following Morks are in favour of
reading the scriptures in the vernacular
tongue, and against the bishops and others
who opposed it : — 8. " De Scripturis le-
gendis in Lingua materna Liber I." Leipzig,
1533, Svo. 9. " Ad Scotorum Regem contra
Episcopos." Argentoratum (i. e. Strassburg),
1542, 12mo. and Svo. The former work was
answered by CochIa;us, and defended bj
Ales. 10. " Contra Calumnias Cochla;i
Liber L," otherwise entitled " Disputatio
inter Alexandrum Alesium et Joannem
Cochlajum an expedit Laicis legere Novum
Testamentum." Leipzig, 1551, Svo. 11.
" Responsio ad Jacobum V. Regem," 12mo. ;
and Leipzig, 1554, Svo.

Against the Roman Catholics he published
— 12. "Liber de Schismate ; scil purgans
Reformatos ab isto Crimine." For this he
was furnished with both matter and argu-
ment by Melanchthon. (Strype, Memorials of
Cranmcr, p. 403.) 13. " Of the Auctorite
of the Word of God against the Bishop of
London concerning the Number of the Sa-
craments:'' also a Strassburg edition, 1542,
in 12mo. 14. " De Missa et Ccena Domini
liiber L" 15. "Responsio adversus Ricardum
Tapperum de Missa et Coena Domini Liber
L" Leipzig, 1565, Svo. 16. "Contra Lova-
niensium Articulos Liber L," with this title
in the Leipzig edhion in Svo. of 1559, "Re-
sponsio ad XXXIL Lovaniensium Articulos."
17. " Pro Scotorum Concordia Liber L"
The " Cohortatio Alex. Alesii ad Concordiam
Pietatis in Patriam missa" was edited at
Leipzig in 1544, in Svo. IS. " Cohortatio
ad Pietatis Concordiam ineundam," Leipzig,
1559, Svo. He wrote also, 19. " De Justi-
ficatione contra Osiandruni Liber L," called
in the Leipzig edition, Svo. of 1554, " Ti-es
Disputationes de Mediatore et Justificatore
Hominis," and in those of "Wittenberg, 1552,
Svo., and Leipzig, 1553, Svo., " Refutatio
Osiandri de unico Mediatore." 20. " De
utriusque Naturae Officiis in Christo" Liber
L" 21. " De distincta ejus Ilypostasi Liber
I." 22. " Contra Michaelem Servetvmi ejus-
que Blasphemias Disputationes tres Liber
L" Leipzig, 1554, Svo. 23. " Assertio Doc-
trine ( 'atholicrc de Trinitate adversus Va-
lent. Gentilem," Leipzig, 1569, Svo., and
Geneva, 1567, fol. 24. "Disputatio de per-
petuo Consensu Ecclesife." Leipzig, 1553, Svo.
2.5. "Oratio de Gratitudine Liber L" Leipzig,
1541, Svo. 26. "De restituendis Scholis
Liber L" Leipzig, 1541, Svo. 27. " Cate-
chismus Christianus Liber L" 2S. " Prrcfatio
super Obedientiam Gardineri Liber L" 29.
" De Balei Vocatione Liber L" 30. " Epis-
823

tolaj tarn ad me (Baleuni) quam alios Liber
L" And all the disputations he had then
composed were republished together in Svo.
and in 4to. at Leipzig in 1553. (Tanner,
Bihliotheca Britannico-Hibernica ; Mackenzie,
Lives of Scotch Writers, vol. ii. ; J. A. Fa-
bricius, Bib. Lat. Med. et Inf. A^t. ; Strype,
Memorials of Cranmer, p. 402, 403, 404.)

A. T. P.
ALE S, PIERRE ALEXANDRE b',Vi-
conite de Corbet, commonly called the Vi-
comte d'Ales, was of an ancient family of
Touraine, and was born the ISth of April,
1715. The family is said to have been of
Irish extraction. The vicomte's father, called
Pierre d'Ales, Comte de Corbet, carried on a
controversy, about the middle of the last cen-
tury, with d'Hozier the genealogist regard-
ing the account of his family given in that
writer's great work, the " Armorial general
de la France :" he had, after the death of his
wife, taken holy orders, and got himself made
a canon of the cathedral of Blois. A daughter
of the comte's, Genevieve, who afterwards be-
came Madame du Lude, published at Orleans
in 1760 a little work entitled " Abrege de la
Vie de M. Lepelletier, mort a Orleans en
odeur de saintete en 1756." The vicomte
and this daughter were two of only three
children who survived their father out of
a family of eleven. All that is related of the
vicomte's history is, that at eighteen he
entered the army as an officer of musketeers,
and the following year, 1733, was present at
the siege of Kehl, when that town was taken
by the forces of Louis XV. ; that he then
went into a regiment of marines, in W'hich he
served till the state of his health obliged him
to retire in 1741 ; and that, with the excep-
tion of what duties he might have to perform
as their lieutenant, and judge of the point of
honour for the districts of Le Blaisois, La
Sologne, and Le Dunois, to which office he
was elected by the marshals of France, the
rest of his life was spent in literary labours
and the cultivation of his estate, his agricul-
tural tastes being stimulated by a warm ad-
miration of the doctrines of the economistes.
His most important work is a metaphysical
treatise, in 2 vols. 12mo., published at Paris
in 175S, entitled " De I'Origine du Mai, ou
Examcn des principales diHicultes de Bayle
sur cette matiere." This is a defence of the
doctrine of the freedom of the will against
the objections of Bayle ; and, although it is
acbiiitted to be somewhat cloudy in parts, it is
asserted by a friendly critic in the " Bio-
graphic Universelle" to have much merit
both as a piece of reasoning, and as a history
of opinion on the subject it treats of. It ap-
pears to have made some noise when first
published, but is now forgotten. Another
publication of Ales de Corbet's is entitled
" Recherches Historiques sur I'ancienne Gen-
darmerie Fran^aise," 12mo., Avignon, 1759:
it consists of several memoirs read bj- the

ALES.

ALESSANDRI.

author before the Academy of Angers, and is
said to be, although slight, not "without value
as a contribution to the history of the French
army. The following -works are also attri-
buted to the Vicomte d'Ales: — "Dissertation
sur les Antiquitcs d'Irlande," 12mo., 1749,
published under the name of Fitz-patrick ; a
pamphlet on the controversy between the
Chatelet and the Chambre Roy ale, 12mo.,
1753 ; " Nouvelles Observations sur les deux
Systemes de la Noblesse, CommerCj'ante ou
Militaire," 12mo., Amsterdam (but really
printed at Paris), 1758 ; and " Origine de la
Noblesse Fran9aise," 12mo., Paris, 1766. How
long d'Ales lived after this last date is not
known. {Bioc/raphie Univ. Supplem.^

G. L. C.

ALESIO, or ALESSI, MATTEO PE-
REZ DE, the Spanish name of Matteo da
Lecce. [Lecce.] R. N. W.

ALESSANDRI, ALESSANDRO, was
born at Naples about the year 1461. Maz-
zuchelli says his family was noble, but this
appears problematical. Carlo Pinti wrote
some verses to compliment him upon having
the same name as Alexander the Great ; and
Balzac in prose sneered at him as " doubly
Alexander, having Alexander for his name
and Alexander instead of a territorial desig-
nation." The circumstance of Alessandri's
uncle having obtained distinction as a prac-
tising lawyer was probably the occasion of
his being educated for the legal profession.
As preparatory to his professional studies
considerable attention appears to have been
paid to his classical education. At Naples
he is said to have studied under Junianus
Mains, who was however more famous in his
clay as an interpreter of dreams than either as
a teacher or lexicographer, and the pupil
seems to have been not altogether unworthy
of his teacher.

At Rome Alessandri heard Filelfo explain
the Tusculan questions of Cicero, and an
expression he iises in his " Dies Geniales"
would seem to imply that he was a student in
that city when Perotto and Calderino were
pi'ofessors of belles lettres there. Calderino
died in 1477 ; and Filelfo, who was called to
Rome in 1475 by Sixtus IV., died in 1481 ;
we are thus enabled to fix the time of Ales-
sandri's Roman studies as between 1475 and
1481.

Alessandri, after completing his studies,
pi'aetised at the bar both in Naples and Rome.
Panciroli states that he held the office of royal
protonotary at Naples in 1490. He subse-
quently withdrew into private life, disgusted,
if we may believe his own account, with the
iniquity of the bench. The latter years of his
life were spent at Rome, where some sinecure
appointments bestowed upon him by the pope
enabled him to live in a style of economical
gentility. According to an entry in one of
the MSS. of the Vatican library quoted by
Mazzuchelli, Alessandri died at Rome, on the
824

2d of October, 1523, in the sixty-second year

of his age.

He published, in what year is uncertain,
four dissertations on dreams, spectres, &c. in

] which he tells some stories of spectral illu-
sions which he himself had experienced. The
book is a quarto, and has the imjirint Rome,
but neither the year nor the name of the
printer is mentioned. The substance of these
dissertations is embodied in four chapters of
the author's " Dies Geniales." The folio,
which appears to be the first edition of this
work, has on the title-page " Alexandri ab
Alexandro Dies Geniales. Nequis opus ex-
cudat, denuo infra septennium sub diris im-
precationibus, apostolica authoritate, interdic-
tum est :" and at the end of the volume,
" Romae in tcdibus Jacobi Mazochii Ro.
Academise bibliopolse Anno Virginei Partus,
1522 : kalend. Apri. Paul S.D.N, de cujus
nomine pontificali adhuc non constat Anno
primo." Cardinal Adrian of Utrecht, tutor to
Charles V., who had been elected pope in
January, 1522, was still in Spain, and the
pontifical name he had assumed was unknowTi
at Rome in the month of April.

Alessandri's work consists of six books,
and each book of ft-om twenty-six to thirty-
two chapters : but in realitj' each chapter is
a separate essay, totally unconnected with
what goes before or follows it. The name
"genial days" appears to have been sug-
gested by several of the essays having as-
sumed the form of conversations held at
houses of his friends on birthdays and other
festal occasions. The style is easj% the
matter sometimes interesting, occasionally
frivolous. Great part of the book is occu-
pied with desultory discussions on Roman
antiquities ; occasional legal ditficidties are
started, but even in discussing them the
philologist prepondei'ates ; they read like
extracts from the note-book of one who had
opportunities of hearing the conversation of
good scholars.

j Alessandri's stories of prophetic dreams,
terrible spectres, mermaids, &c. would imply
great credulity, were there not good reason
to question his veracity. Andrea Alciati,
writing to a friend about the time Ales-
sandri's book was published, says, " If you
have any acquaintance with him, request
him to lend me the ancient MS. of Alphenus,
and the commentaries on the senatuscon-
sulta, which, he says, he saw and purchased
at Rome ; he mentions them in the fourth
and seventh chapters of his first book ; for I
suspect him of imitating Parrhasius, who,
you know, was w'ont to quote authors he
never saw." The truth is, that the passages
which Alessandri says he saw in " a book of
wonderful antiquity, the letters of which
were almost illegible from age," and in
" some commentaries on the senatuscon-
sulta, which a sailor saved from shipwreck

I and brought to Rome," are both in the

ALESSANDRI.

Pandects of Justinian. Some writers have
expressed uncalled-for astonishmeut that an
author who mentions so manj- of the eminent
scholars of his age should have been noticed
by none of them. A passage in one of
Erasmus's letters explains the reason why :
— " Who may this Alexander ab Alexandre
be ? He knows all the celebrated men of
Italy ; Filelfus, Pomponius Laetus, Her-
molaus, and who not. He is familiarly ac-
quainted with everybody, and yet nobody
knows him." The "Dies Geniales" have
been frequently reprinted : the best edition
is that in octavo, printed at Leyden, in 1673,
with the annotations of Dionj-sius Gothofredus
and others. (Alexandri ab Alexandre, Dies
Geniales. Lugduui Batavorum, 1673 — 8. ;
Mazzuchelli, Scrittori cV Italia ; Bayle's and
Moreri's Dictionaries.) W. W.

ALESSANDRI, FELI'CE, an Italian com-
poser of second-rate talent, who sought and
acquired some reputation in other countries.
He was born at Rome in 1742, and visited
London with his wife, Signora Guadagni, in
1768, where he produced two comic operas.
Here he had to contend with composers of
higher pretensions than his own, and after a
stay of two years he returned to Italy. But,
unable to obtain any permanent appointment
in his own country, he again wandered to a
distance, and resided some time at St. Peters-
burg, occupying himself as a singing master.
In 1789 he went to Berlin, where, by some
lucky chance, he obtained the situation of
second kapellmeister to the king for three
years. In 1790 his opera " II Ritorno
d'Ulysse" was performed there with great
success, and was followed by several other
serious and comic operas. His pretensions
were now scrutinised with unsparing severity
by the Berlin critics, and his popularity
began to decline : the king dismissed him
from his service even before his engagement
had expired, and his public career from that
period terminated. His published operas
amount to nineteen, of which some were
printed in London, others at Padua, Naples,
Leghorn, Palermo, and Berlin. (Gerber,
Lexicon der Tonkiinstler.') E. T.

ALESSANDRL INNOCENTS, a mo-
dern Venetian engi-aver. and the scholar of
the celebrated Bartolozzi. Huber and Rost,
and recently Dr. Nagler, have given 1760 as
the date of his birth ; but as many of his
works were published before 1768, when the
first volume of Ileineken's Dictionary of
Artists appeared, and as some of them are
mentioned by Gandellini, who died in 1769,
and, farther, as he was the scholar of Barto-
lozzi, who left Venice in 1764, it is evident
that he must have been born at least fifteen,
or perhaps twenty years earlier, about 1742.
He opened a print shop in Venice in partner-
ship with Pietro Seataglia, and they engraved
many plates together. The following are Ales-
sandri's principal works: — four folio plates

VOL. I.

after Domenico ;Majotti, of half-length figures
representing the four liberal arts of Astronomy,
Music, Geometry, and Painting ; two Ma-
donnas after paintings by Piazzetta and Sebas-
tian Ricci; an Annunciation and a Flight into
Egypt after Lemoine ; and two landscapes after
Marco Ricci, which he engraved alone. In
company with Seataglia he executed two sets
of twelve landscapes each, after 3Iarco Ricci ;
and two collections of quadrupeds, in two
hundred coloured plates each, with descrip-
tions by Ludovico Leschi. (Huber und Rost,
Handbuch fiir Kunstliebhaber und Sammlcr,
§-c.) R. N. AV,

ALESS ANDRI'NL [ Alexandrini.]
ALESSANDRI'NO. [Magnascc]
ALESSANDRO, abbot of the Benedictine
monastery of S. Salvatore di Tolosa, in the
kingdom of Naples, appears to have lived a
little before the middle of the twelfth cen-
tury. He compiled, in four books, an ac-
count of the actions of Ruggiero, king of
Sicily, M-hich begins with the events of the
year 1127, in which Guglielmo, duke of
Puglia, died, and breaks oft' Avith the events of
the year 1 135, in which Ruggiero invested his
son Anfuso with the principality of Capua.
Alessandro mentions that he composed the
work at the request of the Countess Matilda,
sister of Ruggiero, in the year 1135. The
work is confused and ill arranged, but not
without a certain value as the narrative of a
contemporary. It has been frequently printed.
Zurita published an edition of it in folio at
Saragossa, in 1578 ; it was included in the
third volume of the " Hispania Illustrata,"
published by Scoto at Frankfurt, in 1606;
the Abate Caruso inserted it in the first vo-
lume of his *' Bibliotheca Historica Regni
Sicilife," published at Palermo in 1723 ; it is
contained in the fifth volume of the " Thesau-
rus Antiquitatum Sicilite," published at Ley-
den also in 1723 ; and in the fifth volume of
Muratori's great collection. (Mazzuchelli,
Scrittori d' Italia.} W. W.

ALESSANDRO and JULIO, two Italian
fresco painters of whom little is known, but
they are always spoken of together. They
are said to have been the scholars of Raphael
or of Giovanni da Udine ; and the only ac-
count we have of them is, that they visited
Spain at the invitation of the Emperor Charles
v., and decorated the Alhambra with paint-
ings and arabesques in the style of the Loggie
of Raphael in the "\'atican. They executed
also, according to Pacheco, the paintings in
the house of Cobos, the emperor's secretary,
in the city of L'beda (probably the hospital of
Santiago spoken of by Cumberland), through
which works the taste for grotesque or ara-
besque decorations is said to have been much
spread in Spain. Velasco states that they
executed similar works in the house of the
Duke of Alba at Madrid, and in the palace of
Alba de Tormes, and that they painted also
the aqueducts of ISIerida ; after which they
3 H

ALESSANDRO.

ALESSI.

returned to Italy, where they died about
1530.

Bermudez, however, disputes the ac-
curacy of this account, and says that the
arabesques of the palace of Alba de Tormes
were painted by the brothers Fabriccio Cas-
tello and Nicolas Granelo; which is the case
with other works that have been attributed to
these Italians. (Bermudez, Diccionario His-
torico, Sfc.) R. N. W.

ALESSANDRO, ANDREA DI, a
sculptor of Brescia; he executed the richly
ornamented bronze candelabrum in the
church of Santa Maria della Salute at Venice,
as we learn from the inscription it bears :
this sculptor is otherwise unknown. There is
an engraving of the candelabrum in Cicognara.
(Cicognara, Storia della ScuUura.) R. N. W.

ALESSANDRO DE CARPINE'TO
wrote, during the pontificate of Celestino
III., who was elected pope in 1191 and
died in 1197, a chronicle of the monastery
to which he belonged. It was published
by Ughelli in his " Italia Sacra," and will
be found in vol. vi. col. 1231. of the Roman
edition of that work ; vol. x. leaf 350. of
the Venetian edition. LTghelli found the
chronicle in a parchment MS. belonging to
the Cistercian monastery of Santa Maria di
Casanuova in the Abruzzo, to which the
monastery to which Alessandro had belonged
was united in the time of Pope Alexander W.
lie mentions in the chronicle his name, the fact
of his belonging to the convent, and the period
at which'he wrote. Nothing more is known
concerning him. (Mazzuchelli, Scrittori
d' Italia.) W. W.

ALESSI, GALEAZZO. Although his
fame is as much identified with Genoa as
that of Palladio his contemporary with
Vicenza, this eminent architect was a native
of Perugia, where he was boi'n, in the year
1500, of a respectable family. After having
studied mathematics and architectural draw-
ing under Cesare Caporali, he visited Rome,
and there became not only acquainted with
Michael Angelo, but on terms of intimate
friendship with that great artist. Though
he resided at Rome for several years, he
does not appear to have executed anything
in that city, at least not anything of suffi-
cient importance to be recorded ; but that he
had given evidence of his talent may be pre-
sumed from his being chosen by Cardinal
Parisani to accompany him when he was
sent as legate to Perugia ; and to complete
the works of the citadel which had been
commenced by Sangallo. It was at this
period that Alessi adorned his native city
with many palazzi, either erected or designed
by him ; considerable as it was in itself, the
reputation he thus acquired would have been
comparatively insignificant if it had not led
to an invitation from the republic of Genoa
to improve and embellish their capital ; a
splendid opportunity, in which other able
82G

artists participated with him, but in which
he distinguished himself beyond all his rivals
or associates. The Carignano Church is a
structure that alone would have perpetuated
his fame ; not that it is perfectly unexcep-
tionable in point of taste, for there are many
blemishes in the design, which even the most
indulgent criticism can hardly excuse ; yet,
taken as a whole, it is one of the finest archi-
tectural monuments of its class and period.
The Porta del Molo Vecchio, far more pic-
turesque and full of character than anything
of the same kind designed by Sanmicheli ;
the Public Granaries ; the Loggia de' Ban-
chieri ; and other works, for either public
utility or ornament, were also his designs,
as well as many of the general plans sug-
gested for improving and embellishing diti'er-
ent quarters of the city. The most important
of these was the opening of a new street
which retains the name of Strada Nuova,
and which consists almost entirely of an
assemblage of palaces and stately mansions,
imposing and picturesque, if not always
faultless ; and if not always satisfactory in
their detail, dignified and impressive in
their ensemble. To the palace architec-
ture of Genoa, which has a peculiar charac-
ter, distinct from that of Venice or Flo-
rence or Rome, no individual artist has
contributed more than Alessi. His works of
this class, both in the Strada Nuova and
other parts of the city, would of themselves
furnish an interesting series of studies ; and
among them may be here mentioned the
Palazzi Grimaldi, Carrega, Lercari (one of
his best works), and Cambiano, aU in the
Strada Nuova ; the Palazzo Brignole minore,
in the Strada Nuovissima ; the Palazzo
Giustiniani (one of the most interesting in
Genoa) ; the Palazzo Pallavicini; the Palazzo
Saoli a Porta Romana, another of the same
name at S. Pier d' Arena; the Villa Imperiale
at the same place (a fine fa9ade, in which
richness is happily mingled with simplicity);
the Villa Giustiniani a Albaro (erected
1537) ; and the Villa d' Agnolo ; besides many
others either within the city or situated in
its vicinity. With this mere enumeration of
his principal works at Genoa, we refer to
Gauthier's " Plus beaux Edifices de la Ville
de Genes, et de ses Environs," for further
information relative to the buildings them-
selves, and for very tastefully executed deli-
neations of them, both geometrical and per-
spective.

Although Genoa contains Alessi's prin-
cipal works, and a greater number of build-
ings by him than any other city, it is by no
means the only place where he was employed.
Milan alone possesses several fine pieces of
architecture by him ; and among others, the
splendid, and though somewhat fantastic, yet
eminently picturesque facade (constructed en-
tirely of white marble) of the church of Santa
Maria presso San Celso ; the rich architcc-

ALESSI.

ALESSIO.

tural mass of what was originally a palace
built for Tommaso Marini, duke of Torre
Nuova, but now converted into public offices ;
and the church of St. Victor. Near Perugia,
he built a very extensive and magnificent
palace for the Duke Delia Corgna ; also one
for the cardinal, that nobleman's brother.
So great, indeed, was his reputation, that
applications were made to him for designs,
not only from Naples, Sicily, and other parts
of Italy, but from other countries ; and he
was consulted relative to different projects
for the Escurial in Spain. Though his mind
was still vigorous, the increasing infirmities
of age rendered this sort of general homage
to his talent and deference to his opinion
fatigiiing. He died at Perugia on the last
day of the year 1.572 ; and was honoured by
his fellow-citizens with a splendid funeral in
the church of San Fiorenzo, where he was
buried in the vault of his ancestors. (Milizia,
Vitc ; Quatremere de Quincy, Histoire des
plus Celebres Architectes ; Gauthier, Edifices
de Genes.) W. H. L.

ALE'SSIO PIEMONTE'SE, or Alexis
Pedemontanus. Nothing is known of the
life of this writer except that which he tells
of himself in his preface to a work entitled
" De' Secreti del Reverendo Donno Alessio
Piemontese," which was first published at
Venice in 1555. From this it appears tliat
he was born of noble blood, and that being
possessed of independent property and having
a great love of learning, he travelled for
fifty-seven years through various parts of
Europe and of Asia, that he might see the
learned men of all nations. From them, as
well as from poor women, artisans, and others
of all classes, he collected avast store of recipes
for medicines and other purposes, which he
carefully kept secret, that he might be deemed
the wisest of his day. When be was eighty-
two years old, however, being by accident at
Milan, a surgeon came to beg of him a secret
for a poor man who was suffering dangerously
from the stone. He offered to cure the man,
but refused to give up his secret ; and the
surgeon, fearing that he might lose his credit,
delayed for two days, and the patient died.
Alessio's remorse that the man should have
perished through his ambition to be the sole
possessor of secrets was so great that he re-
tired from the world ; and, with a burdened
conscience, determined to publish all he knew.

The chief interest of Alessio's work is the
evidence which it affords of the labour and
learning which in his time were necessary for
the compilation of an ordinary receipt-book.
He was certainly a man of considerable learn-
ing and research ; yet his knowledge of the
subjects which are treated of in his " Secreti"
is not at all better than that of many old
women in our country villages. His secrets
are of the most various kinds : medicines,
colours, dyes, varnishes, cosmetics, soaps,
perfumes, &c., are all described with the
827

minutest detail, and he declares that he had
published none but those whose admirable
virtues liad been repeatedly tested and proved.
The first among them, however, had it been
so efficacious as he represents, would have
rendered most of them unnecessary ; for it is
a secret " for preserving youthfulness and
keeping back old age, and maintaining the
body as healthy and as vigorous as in the
flower of life ;" and he asserts that it restored
a bald old man of seventy, laden with all
kinds of infirmities, to the strength of six and
thirty. Its chief ingredients are the early
morning dew from rosemary and other herbs,
and a vast number of spices ; materials which
are still regarded as sovereign preservatives
of health in many pai'ts of England.

The value of the book must have been
deemed very great at the time of its publica-
tion, for it was speedily translated into several
languages, passed through numerous editions
in each, and, in an abridged form, was sold
in great numbers at the fairs throughout
Europe. The first English translation is
entitled " The Secretes of Maister Alexis of
Piemount, . . . translated out of Frenche into
English by Wyllyam Warde." London, 1558,
8vo. in black letter.

Some have stated that Alessio was an
assumed name, and that the author of the
" Secreti " was Jeronimo Ruscelli, or Rossello ;
but there is no indication of this in Alessio's
prefoce, and in the " Secreti nuovi," which
Ruscelli himself published at Venice in 1567,
Alessio is mentioned as having, a few years
previously, published a book on the same sub-
ject. (^Bon'mo, Biografia Medica Piemontese.')
For a list of the editions of Alessio's work,
see Atkinson {Medical Biblicxjntplq/), and
Watt {Bibliotheca Britannicu) ; but both are
wrong in assigning 15.30 as the date of an
edition at Basle ; it should be 1563. The
first edition was printed in 1555 at Venice,
and is very rare ; it is in Latin. Alessio in
his second edition, which was printed in
Italian at Venice in 1557, says that it con-
tains nvmierous errors. J. P.

ALE'SSIO, PIERANTO'NIO, an Italian
painter of the sixteenth century, of San ^'ito
in Friuli, contemporary with Pomponio
Amalteo. He is praised by Cesarini and
Altan. There was also a Francesco de Alesiis,
who painted, in 1494, a St. Jerome over the
door of a school of the saint at Udine. (Re-
naldis, Delia Pittura Friulana ; Lanzi, Storia
Pittorica, S^'c.) R. N. W.

ALETHyENUS THEO'PHILUS. [Lv-

SER JoHAN'N.]

A'LEVAS, an ancient Greek statuary of
uncertain period, who is enumerated by Pliny
among those who excelled in making statues
or other representations in bronze of philo-
sophers, (Hist. A^at. xxxiv. 19.) R. N. W.

'ALEWr, ABU' 'ALL BEN ABF KOR-
RAH, an Arabic astronomer of Basrah, who
lived in the ninth century of the Christian
3 H 2

ALEWI.

ALEXANDER.

sera. He wrote a work in explanation of the
eclipses of the siin and moon, and dedicated
it to the Khalif Mowaffik, who reigned from
A.H. 258 to 278 (a.d. 871 to 891). It
may be the same work of which there is a
Latin translation of the twelfth century in
the royal library at Paris (MS. Lat. N 7316),
or the book mentioned by Albertus Magnus
in his " Speculum," ii. 10. (0pp. vol. v.),
under the name of Geber. (Kifti, Tdrikh
Al-hokemu, MS. of Mr. Bland.) A. S.

'ALEWr, 'ALI BEN AL-HASAN (AL-
HOSAiN) ABU'-L-KA'SIM, known under
the name of IBN AL-'ALAM (the son of
the most learned), stood in high honour at
the court of 'Adhed-ad-daulah, who never
neglected to ask his advice in matters of im-
portance. 'Alewi was a good astronomei', and
in many instances he gave weight to his advice
by astrological predictions. 'Alewi fell into
disgrace with Samsam-ad-daulah, the son and
successor of 'Adhed-ad-daulah. In a.h. 374
(a.b. 984), he performed the pilgrimage to
Mecca, and died on his way back at a place
called Al-'osailah. He is the author of as-
tronomical tables, which were valued for their
correctness, and were used up to the seventh
century of the Hijra. (Kiiu,7\irikh Al-Iio/iemd ;
Abil-l-faraj, Historia Dynast, p. 325. ; Casiri,
BihI. Hisp. Arab. i. 412.) A. S.

'ALEWr, AL-KA'SIM BEN MOHAM-
MED BEN HA'SHIM, of Madayin (Ctesi-
phon), published, in A. H. 308 (a.d." 920— 21),
the great astronomical tables entitled " Nazm
Al-'ikd" (the stringing of the necklace), which
had been begun by his mastei', Ibn Ademi,
Mohammed Ben Al-hosain Ben Hamid, who
left them unfinished at his death. This was
considered the most complete and accurate
work on the Slndhind or Siddhanta system of
astronomy. This system was introduced
among the Arabs by an Indian who lived at
the court of Al-mo'tassem, in a. h. 156 (a.d.
772—73.) The Nazm Al-'ikd contains the
general principles of astronomy, as well as the
calculation of the motions of the stars and
the irregularities in their course. " Former
astronomers had contented themselves," says
Kifti, "with calculating the mean motion of
the planets ; in this work the precession and
retardation of the heavenly bodies were ex-
plained and reduced to certain laws." (Kifti,
Tdrikh AJ-hokemd ; Casiri, Bibl. Arab. Hisp.
vol. i. p. 430. ; El-Mas'udi's Historical Eiici/-
chpadia, translated from the Arabic by A.
Sprenger, London, 1841, cap. 7.) A. S.

ALEXA'MENUS (^ hMi,aiJ.^v6s), a native
of Teos, was, according to Aristotle, quoted
by Athena?us, the first Greek who wrote dia-
logues in the Socratic style previous to the
time of Plato. What subjects were discussed
in these dialogues is unknown : not even a
fragment of them is now extant. (Athenagus,
xi. 505. ; Diogenes Laertius, iii. 48.) L. S.

ALEXANDER, a painter of Athens.
AAEEANAP02 A0HNAIO2 ErPA*EN is in-
828

scribed upon one of the four marble tablets
which were found in 1746 at Herculaneum,
and are now in the museum at Naples,
These paintings, which are monochroms in
red and red, though now much defaced,
evince considerable merit in several respects ;
they are probably all by the same painter,
and from their style are apparently of a late
date. There are engravings from them in
the " Antiquities of Herculaneum." (Ze An-
tichita d'Erecolano, i. plates 1 — 4.) R. N. W.

ALEXANDER, a physician, saint, and
martyr, who was a native of Phrygia, and was
put to death during the persecution of the
churches of Lyon and Yienne under the Em-
peror Marcus Aurelius, a. d. 177. He was
condemned, together with another Christian
to be exposed to wild beasts in the amphi-
theatre, and died " neither uttering a groan
nor a syllable, but conversing in his heart
with God." {Epist. Eccles. Luydun. et Jleiin.
in Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. lib. v. cap. 1. p. 163.
ed. Paris, 1 659.) His memory is celebrated
by the Romish church, together with the
other martyrs of Lyon and Vienne, on the
second of June. (Bzovius, Nomenclator
Sanctorum Profcssione Medicorum ; Mar-
tt/rol. Roman, ed Baron. ; Acta Sanctorum,
June 2.) W. A. G.

ALEXANDER of ^G^ ('AAe'larS^oy
AlyaTos), a peripatetic philosopher, and a pre-
ceptor of the Emperor Nero, was born a. d.
37. Suidas reports a saying of Alexander,
that Nero was a mass of clay kneaded in
blood ; but Suetonius attributes this saying
to Theodore of Gadara, and makes the Em-
peror Tiberius the subject of it. If this
Alexander is the author of the commentary
on the four books of the Meteorologica of
Aristotle, he was the pupil of Sosigenes, whose
services the Dictator Cajsar employed in his
reformation of the Roman calendar. The
author of this commentary says that he was a
pupil of Sosigenes, and as this Alexander
was living in the time of Nero, it is possible
that he may be the author of it. [Alexan-
der Aphrodisiensis.] (Suidas, 'AXe^a^Spos
Alyalos ; Suetonius, Tiberius, 57. ; Fabricius,
Biblioth. Gra-c. iii. 460.) G. L.

ALEXANDER ('AAe|aj/5pos), son of Ae-
Ropus of LjTicestis, was a brother of Hera-
menes and Arrhabseus, and had been com-
promised in the murder of Philip of Macedonia.
On that occasion Alexander the Great par-
doned him because he was among the first who
paid homage to him after Philip's death. Sub-
sequently Alexander the Great raised him to
high honours, made him commander of the
troops in Thrace, and afterwards of the Thcs-
salian horse. Notwithstanding these favours
Alexander fonned a plot against the life of
his benefactor while King Alexander was in
Lycia. The Lyncestian probably wished to
set himself on the throne of Macedonia,
which previous to the reign of Amyntas II.
had for some time been in his family.

ALEXANDER.

[Pausanias.] With this view he entered
into a correspondence with Darins, king of
Persia, who promised to secure to him the
kingdom of Macedonia, and also to give him
a thousand talents. The envoy whom Darius
despatched Avith letters to Alexander the
Lyncestian fell into the hands of Parmenio,
and was sent by him to King Alexander.
The Lyncestian was son-in-law to Antipater,
and it was chiefly owing to this circumstance
that Alexander for the present spared his
life, though he was convinced of his criminal
designs. Alexander, however, ordered him
to be secretly arrested and to be kept in cus-
tody, B.C. 334. After he had been impri-
soned above three j-ears, and when Philotas
was sentenced to death for a similar crime,
the Macedonians also demanded the trial of
Alexander the Lyncestian, and as he was
unable to defend himself, he was sentenced
to death and executed in b. c. 330, at
Prophthasia in the conntry of the DrangEC.
(Arrian, Anabasis, i. 25,26. ; Diodorus, xvii.
32. 80. ; Curtius, vii. L viii. 8.) L. S.

ALEXANDER iETO'LUS ('AA€'|a;/5po<r
AiTcoAos), a Greek poet who derived his sur-
name of iEtolus from the circumstance of
being a native of Pleuron in iEtolia. He is
mentioned with Aratus and Antagoras as a
friend of Antigonus Gonatas. He lived at
Alexandria in the reign of Ptolemccus Phila-
delphus, and was reckoned one of the Pleias
of tragic poets. But he appears to have dis-
tinguislaed himself more as an epic and elegiac
poet than as a dramatist. The titles of several
of his poems and some fragments of them are
preserved in Athensus and other writers.
He also wrote epigrams, of which some are
still extant. Osann supposes that he also
wrote comedies; which, however, can scarcely
be proved.

The fragments of Alexander iEtoIus have
been collected by A. Capellmann in a little
work called " Alexandri iEtoli Fragmenta,"
Bonn, 1829, 8vo. (Fabricius, Bibliotli. Grac.
ii. 283. 406. iv. 400. ; Osann, Bchrmje zur
Griech. und HUmisch. Literatur Gcschichtc,
i. 298.; Diintzer, Die Fragmente der cpischen
Poesie der Griechen, ii. 7, &c.) L. S.

ALEXANDER ALENSIS. [Hales,
Alexander.]

ALEXANDER ('AAe'la^/Spoj), patriarch of
Alexandria from a.d. 312 to 325, is cele-
brated in the history of the Christian church
as the person who first began the Arian con-
troversy. [Arius. ] He wrote more than
seventy epistles upon the subjects involved
in that controversy ; but only two of them
are extant, the one preserved by Theodoret
{Hist. Eccles. i. 4.), and the other by Socrates
(Hist. Eccles. i. 6.) (Cave, Hisluria Litte-
raria.') P. S.

ALEXANDER AB ALEXANDRO.
[Alessandki Alessandro.]

ALEXANDER APHRODISIENSIS
('AAe'lai'Spos 'Af/)po5ifTieu'y) was a native of
823

Aphrodisias in Caria. He was a Peripatetic,
and he dedicated his first work, his Treatise
on Fate, to Septimius Severus and his son
Antoninus Caracalla. He addresses them as
Lnperatores, a circumstance which fixes the
date of the dedication between a.d. 199, in
which year Caracalla was associated with his
father in the empire, and a.d. 211, the year
in which Severus died. He states that he
had been appointed by the emperors profes-
sor of the Aristotelian philosoi)hy. It does
not appear where he delivered his lectures.
It is collected from a passage at the begin-
ning of the book on Fate in which he ex-
presses a wish that he could personally thank
his imperial patrons, that he was not settled
at Rome; but the inference is inconclusive,
for we do not know at what time between
a.d. 199 and 211 this treatise was written,
and Severus and his son during their joint
reign were not always at Rome. It seems
however probable from a passage in his Me-
taphysics that he delivered his lectures at
Athens. His own teachers were Herminus
and Aristocles Messenius, also Peripatetics.
Alexander was a volimiinous writer, and he
was considered by those who came after him
as the best expounder of Aristotle. Ac-
cordingly he is often called " the expositor "
(6 e|r)77jTi7s). He Seems to have had a great
reputation also among the Arabians. 3Iany
of his works have been translated into
Arabic. His life, and a list of his works
are given by Casiri, " Bibl. Arabico Hisp.
Escur." vol. i. p. 243, taken from the " Arab.
Philos. Bibl." See also Abulfaraj, "Hist.
Dynast." p. 78. The following is a list of his
works which have been edited in modern
times: — 1. Tlepl ^Ifiapfxiuris Koi tov i(p' rjfui',
" On Fate and what is in our Power," a work
which is directed against the Stoical doctrines
of necessity. A long passage from this work
is cited by Eusebius (^Pro-par. Evangel, vi. 9.),
in which the doctrine of necessity is attacked,
and Eusebius speaks of the author as a dis-
tinguished philosopher. This work was first
edited by V. Trincavelli, with Themistius,
Venice, 1534, 1536, fol. The last edition is
by J.C. Orelli, Ziirich, 1824, 8vo. 2. "A
Commentary ('T7ro/.ti/j7,ua) on the First Book
of the Prior Analytics of Aristotle," which was
first edited by Andreas Asulanus, \'enice,
fol. 1520. 3. " A Commentary on the Eight
Books of the Topics of Aristotle," edited by
Marcus Musurus, Venice, 1513, 1526, fol.
The best complete Latin version is by J. B.
Rasarius, Venice, 1503, 1573, fol. It has
been observed that in this as well as in his
other commentaries, Alexander occasionally
corrects errors of transcription which occur
in the MSS. of Aristotle, and among the
various readings of a passage he determines
which is best. 4. " Notes ('ATroffTj^eiwa-tis) on
the Elenchi Sophistici of Aristotle," edited
by Hercules Gjrlandus, Venice, 1520, fol.
This was also translated into Latin by Ra-
3 H 3

ALEXANDER.

sarius, Venice, 1557, fol. ; and by Gasparclus
Marcellus, Venice, 1546, 1559, fol. 5. "A
Commentary on Twelve Books of the Me-
taphysica of Aristotle." The Greek text was
published by Chr. A. Brandis in his " Scholia
in Aristotelem," Berlin, 1836, vol. i. p. 513. fol.
Bnt Brandis has only printed the first five
books, and he maintains that the rest does not
belong to this Alexander. The Latin version
of the learned Spaniard, J. G. Sepulveda, was
printed at Rome, 1527, fol., and has been fre-
quently reprinted. 6. 'TTrd/xz/rj^ta ejs rh Trept
alaOijaecos Kol aladr\TSiv, " A Commentary on
the work of Aristotle on Sensation and the
Objects of Sensation," whicli was edited by
Franciscus Asulanus, with the Commentary
of Simplicius on the book of Aristotle on the
Soul, Venice, 1527, fol. It was translated
into Latin by Lucillus Philaltheus, together
with the Scholia of Michael Ephesius on the
Parva Naturalia of Aristotle, Venice, 1544,
1549, 1559, and 1573, fol. 7. 'TTrd^cTj^a els
TO. MereajpoAoyiK-a, " A Commentary on the
Four Books of Aristotle on Meteora," which
was edited by F. Asulanus, Venice, 1527, fol.,
together with the Commentary of Philopo-
nus on the work of Aristotle on Generation.
There is a Latin version of it by Alexander
Piccolomini, Venice, 1540, &c. fol., and one
by J. Camotius, Venice, 1556, fol. In a pas-
sage in the commentary on the third book
Alexander speaks of Sosigenes as his master.
If this was the Sosigenes who was contem-
porai-y with Julius Cscsar, it is evident that
this passage at least was not written by Alex-
ander, and the extant conmientary may not
be his. Accordingly we must either assume
the existence of another Sosigenes nearer the
time of this Alexander, or we must assign
the work to another Alexander. [Alexander
of ^GJE.] The mistake in assigning this
work to Alexander of Aphrodisias, if it be a
mistake, is as old as Philoponus, who in a
passage of his commentary on the first book
of the Prior Analytica, speaks of Alexander
the expositor, and quotes hini as saying that
he was the pupil of Sosigenes. 8. nepi
M'lews, " On Mixture," a treatise against the
Stoical doctrine of the penetrability of bodies
and God the soul of the universe. It was
printed with the Commentary on the Me-
teora. There are several Latin versions,
the most recent of which is by J. Schegk,
Tiibingen, 1540, 8vo. 9. Hepi ^vxvs, " On the
Soul," two books, not parts of one treatise,
but two separate works on the same subject.
The second contains also a vai'iety of other
matters, such as discussions on the nature
of the four elements, on seeing, on light, what
it is according to Aristotle that man seeks as
his chief happiness, on the inseparable union
of the virtues, and the like. The two books on
the Soul were printed in Trincavelli's edition
of the treatise on Fate, 1 534. The first book on
the Soul was translated into Latin by Hiero-
nymus Donatus, a patrician of Venice, Venice,
830

1502, &c. fol. Angelus Caninius translated
the second book, which was published with
Donati's version of the first book, and a Latin
version of the Physical Questions, also by
Caninius, Venice, 1555, &c. fol. 10. *u-
ffiKoiv trxoAicof imopiSiv koX Xvffeaiv ^i§\ia S',
" Four books of Physical Questions in the
form of Difficulties and their Solutions." The
Greek text was first edited by V. Trinca-
velli, Venice, 1536, fol., with the book on
Fate. There are several Latin versions :
that by Hieronymus Bagolinus and his son
J. Baptista, Venice, 1541, &c. fol., is the most
useful ; the Greek text is very incorrectly
printed, and the MSS. were collated for the
purpose of the Latin version.

The two medical treatises attributed to
this Alexander are probably not his. [Alex-
ander Trallianus.]

The merits of Alexander as an expositor
of Aristotle cannot be rated high. For the
purpose of understanding the text of Ari-
stotle, his commentaries may be easily dis-
pensed with. It was his object to maintain
the superiority of his sect over all others,
and yet to make the doctrines of his master
harmonise to a certain extent with the more
religious feeling of his own age.

In his work on Fate he opposes the
Stoical doctrines of the power of Fate which
predetermines all things ; but his argument
is mainly founded on the fact that the com-
mon language of mankind assumes a certain
amount of free agency ; and accordingly he
maintains that the common sense of mankind
is not incapable of ascertaining the truth.
He ui'ges against the Stoical doctrine of ne-
cessity, that it renders a particular providence
unnecessary, or rather by implication de-
stroys it, inasmuch as the gods cannot be
considered fit objects of worship, even if it
be admitted that they are the benefactors of
man, for, according to the system of ne-
cessitj% they cannot act otherwise than they
do. Alexander defends the notion of pro-
vidence on which he strongly insists, but his
exposition is connected with the absurd and
unintelligible doctrine of the distinction hv-
tween the world above and the world below
the moon. He further attempts to defend
the philosophy of Aristotle from the charge
that he denied providence to be an essential
attribute of the Deity, and only admitted it
to be an incident. Alexander urges, in de-
fence of Aristotle, that it would be a notion
derogatory from the nature of the Deity to
assume a providence with I'espect to man to
be an essential part of the Deity, for this
would be in effect to make the Deity subor-
dinate to man. Yet Alexander, while he de-
nied that the providence of the gods with
respect to man was the essence of their
activity, could not admit that the providence
of which he maintained the existence was a
mere incident, for this would be to deprive
the gods of consciousness and will with re-

ALEXANDER.

spect to man. Accordingly, he has to seek
a mediiun : he maintains that the gods do
regard man and care for him with full know-
ledge and will ; but that man is not the sole
object or end of the active exertion of their
powers. Considerable confusion from the
use of terms ill defined or ill understood, a
want of accurate perception of the attainable
objects of human knowledge and the limits
beyond which it cannot pass, a desire to
maintain the integrity of ancient philoso-
phical doctrines, and yet to make them har-
monise with popular notions, characterise
this confused essay, which neither for matter,
method, nor perspicuity deserves high com-
mendation.

In his opinions on the Psyche (which is
inadequately expressed by the word Soul),
Alexander professes to follow his master : he
considers the soid (^"xv) inseparable from
the body of which it is the soul ; it is not an
essence (ovaia) of itself; it is a form {eJSos)
of the organic body, a form imprinted on
matter. Its separate existence being thus de-
nied, its immortality as a separate existence
is consistently denied ; but this is all. In his
work on the Soul he says that the IVous (j/oOs)
requires no corporeal organ for the percep-
tion of its objects (vouyuero), but is itself all-
sufficient for the knowledge of them. The
Nous is therefore not, like the soul, a form
imprinted on matter ; and he is not indis-
posed to allow it to be an emanation from the
Deity, and consequently imperishable. It
would perhaps not be difficult to show that
Alexander, in entering on these profound in-
vestigations, for which he had no great ca-
pacity, was not always consistent with himself,
which may be partly attributed to his attempt,
as before stated, to reconcile old philosophy
with then current notions. His works are
instructive as a part of the history of philo-
sophy, and as a sample of fruitless attempts
to solve problems which are above human
capacity. (Fabricius, Bihlioth. GrtEC. v. 650.;
Ritter, Geschichte der Fhilosophie, iv. 24.) G. L.

ALEXANDER, (^ \\ii,av^pos), a son of
AxToxius the triumvir, and of Cleopatra,
queen of Egypt. He was born in the year
B.C. 40, together with a twin-sister of the
name of Cleopatra. In the same way'as
Antonius honoured Queen Cleopatra with
the title of " queen of kings," he called his
son Alexander, Helios (the sun), and his
daughter Cleopatra, Selene (the moon). In
the year n. c. 34, when Antonius presumed
to dispose of the eastern parts of the Roman
empire, he destined Armenia and all the
countries east of the Euphrates that might
still be conquered as an independent king-
dom for his son Alexander. After the
death of Antonius and Cleopatra in b.c. 29,
Alexander and his sister were led to Rome
by Octavianus and adorned his triumph.
Octavia, the wife of Antonius, generously re-
ceived these and other children of her faithless
831

husband into her house and had them edu-
cated as her own children. After this time
we hear no more of them. (Dion Cassius,
xlix. 32. 41. 1. 25. li. 21. ; Plutarch, An-
tonius, 3G. 54. 87.; Livy, Epitome, lib. 1.'51,
132.) L.S.

ALEXANDER ('AAf'^a^Spos), son of
Aristobulcs II., and grandson of Alexander
Jannajus, kings of Judtea, was taken pri-
soner by Pompey the Great, with his father
and his brother Antigonus, after the con-
quest of Judaea (b. c. 63), and destined
with them to be exhibited in that gene-
ral's triumph at Rome. Alexander, however,
escaped ; and reappearing in Judsea in the
year b. c. 57, he soon collected an army of
10,000 foot and 1500 horse, seized on several
strong fortresses, and from them ravaged the
country. Gabinius, the newly appointed pro-
consul of Syria, sent a detachment of troops
into Judaea under Marcus Antonius (after-
wards the triumvir), who defeated Alexander
near Jerusalem, and drove him into the for-
tress of Alexandrium, which was invested by
Gabinius, who had followed Antonius into
Juda;a. In the year b. c. 56, while Gabinius
was absent on an expedition into Egypt,
Alexander again assumed the offensive, and
having collected a large army, became master
of JudcBa, and put to death all the Romans
he met with. But on the return of Gabinius
from Egypt, Alexander, having rejected
terms of peace offered to him by the pro-
consul through Antipater, was completely
defeated near Mount Tabor. In the next
j'ear (b.c. 55) Gabinius was recalled from
the government of Syria, and succeeded by
Crassus, upon whose death (b. c. 53) Alex-
ander began to raise fresh forces ; but the
arrival of Cassius in Juda?a with the remains
of the army of Crassus (b. c. 52) compelled
him to accept terms of peace. When the
civil war between Caesar and Pompey broke
out (b. c. 49), the former set free Aristobulus,
the father of Alexander, and sent him to
Juda;a. He was however poisoned on the
journey by some adherents of Pompey ; and
Alexander, who was engaged in collecting
forces to assist his father upon his arrival in
Judtea, was seized and put to death by Q.
MetelUis Scipio, the son-in-law of Pompey.
(Josephus, Jew. Antiq. xiv. 5 — 7. ; Jewish
War, i. 8, 9. ; Jahn's History of the Hebrew
Commonwealth.) P. S.

ALEXANDER of Ashby, or Essebi-
ENsis. It is uncertain whether he was born
in Somersetshire or Staffordshire. He was
prior of the monastery of Ashby Canons in
Northamptonshire at least as early as the
year 1200. Tanner has given in the " Bib-
iiotheca Britannico-Hibernica " a list of his
writings which remain in MS. The two
principal are — 1. " Historia; Britannia; Epi-
tome," referred to by Twyne {Antiquitatis
Academicc O.roniensis Apologia, p. 212.) ;
and, 2, " De Fastis seu Sacris Diebus," quoted
3 H 4

ALEXANDER.

by Fuller {Church Historij, b. ii. sect. 1.
piirag. 4.), which describes the lives of the
saints and their festivals throughout the year

in Latin elegiac verse.

A. T. P.

ALEXANDER L, BALAS {' hhsi,au^pos
BaAas), reigned over the Greek kingdom
of Syria from b. c. 150 to 146. His im-
mediate predecessor, Demetrius Soter, having
provoked the hatred of his subjects and
of the neighbouring princes, a conspiracy
was formed for the purpose of dethroning
him. Heraclides, who had been the trea-
surer of Antiochus Epiphanes and the go-
vernor of Babylon, but had been banished
by Demetrius to Rhodes, set up Alexander
Ealas, who is said to have been of low bii"th,
as a pretender to the throne, on the ground
that he was the son of Antiochus Epiphanes.
In the summer of the year b. c. 1 53 Hera-
clides went to Rome, taking with him Alex-
ander and his sister Laodice, and con-
trived by some means to create such a
powerful interest in their behalf, that when
the young pretender pleaded his cause before
the senate, and reminded them of the con-
stant friendship which existed between his
father and the republic, though the imposture
was manifest, they passed a decree granting
permission to Alexander and Laodice to
proceed to their hereditary kingdom, and
promising to help them in taking possession
of it. This was in the beginning of 152,
and Alexander at once proceeded to Syria,
and took possession of Ptolema'is (Acre), his
enterprise being favoured by Ptolemy Phi-
lometor, king of Egypt, Attains, king of
Pergamus, and Ariarathes, king of Cappa-
docia. In the first battle which he fought
with Demetrius (b. c. 152) Alexander was
defeated, but in a second battle (in 150) he
was completely victorious, and Demetrius
was killed. Alexander now took possession
of the kingdom, and married Cleopatra, the
daughter of Ptolemy Philometor. No sooner
liad he ascended the throne than he gave
himself up to pleasure, and committed the
government of his kingdom to his minister
Ammonius, who endeavoured to secure his
mastei"'s power by the extirpation of the late
royal family. He put to death Laodice the
wife of Demetrius, his son Antigonus, and
several of his friends ; but two other sons of
the late king were out of his reach, having
been sent by their father to Gnidos in Crete
at the first breaking out of the civil war.
The elder of these, Demetrius, landed in
Cilicia at the head of a snuiU band of
Cretans in 148. His forces rapidly in-
creased, and Apollonius, the governor of
Coele-Syria, revolted from the king. Apol-
lonius was defeated by Jonathan the JNIac-
cabee, who had received great favours from
Alexander, while the king himself marched
into Cilicia against Demetrius, and called to
his assistance his father-in-law, Ptolemy Phi-
lometor. Ptolemy marched into Syria ; and
832

then, accusing Alexander of an intention to
murder him, he deserted his cause and took
Antioch, where he was crowned as king of
Asia and Egypt ; but fearing that the Romans
would not permit this usurpation, he with-
drew his claim to the throne in favour of
Demetrius. Alexander immediately returned
from Cilicia, and met Ptolemy on the banks
of the river CEnoparas. In the battle which
followed Ptolemy was killed, but Alexander
was completely defeated, and fled into Arabia
(b. c. 147), where he was treacherously mur-
dered, at the town of Abas, by Zabel, or
Diodes, the emir with whom he had taken
refuge (b. c. 146). His reign lasted more
than six years and a half, if we reckon it
from his occupation of Ptolema'is in 152 ;
or, calculating from the death of Demetrius
Soter in 150, rather more than four years.
He was succeeded by Demetrius II., sur-
named Nicator (the Victorious), from his, or
rather Ptolemy's, victory over Alexander.
Strabo calls him Balas Alexander (BaAas
'AA6'|ay5pos), where the word " Balas " has
been sometimes thought to signify " king,"
like the word " ballan," which was the Phry-
gian for " king." (Hesj'chius, sub.voc. BaWiiv.)
The word Balas is .the Greek form of the
Aramaean, Ba 'la (i<7yn), "lord;" but it is
doubtful whether it was in this case a title,
according to the above explanation, or whe-
ther it was the adventurer's original name,
according to the authority of Justin.

Several coins of Alexander Balas are
extant, on a few of M'hich he is called by his
father's titles of Epiphanes and Nicephorus ;
on others he has the titles of Euergetes and
Theopator, the last being in allusion to the
assumption by his father of the name Theos
(God). On some of these coins Cleopatra's
head appears with Alexander's, but in the
more important position ; an intimation of
the supremacy of the proud queen over her
effeminate husband. (Eusebius, Chronicon ;
1 Maccah. x. 11. ; Josephus, Jew. Antiq.
xiii. 2. § 4. ; Polybius, xxxiii. 14. 16. ; Livy,
Epit. 1. lii. ; Justin, xxxv. ; Appian, Syriaca,
c. 67. ; Clinton's Fasti Hellen. iii. p. 324. ;
Frohlich, Aiinales Syrice.} P. S.

ALEXANDER BENEDYT STA-
NISLA. [SoBiESKi.]

ALEXANDER of Bernay, a French poet
of the twelfth century, so called from the
village of Bernay in Normandy, where he
was born. Having taken up his residence in
Paris, he is also frequently mentioned as
Alexander of Paris. The exact times of his
birth and death are vmknown, but he lived in
the reigns of Louis VII. and his successor
Philip Augustus. He was one of the authors
of a romantic poem on the exploits of Alex-
ander the Great, which enjoyed so extensive
a popularity that the kind of verse employed
in it has ever since borne the name of Alex-
andrine, either from that of the poet, or more
probably from that of the hero. Of this

ALEXANDER.

verse, however, he was not the inventor, as
was long supposed ; instances of its use have
been discovered of a date as far baclv as the
year 1140. Tlie poem was written in con-
tinuation of one on the same subject by Lam-
bert li Cors (or the Short), according to
Roquefort, who produces a passage from the
worlv itself in pi'oof of the assertion.

" L.a vcritc lie I'histoire si com li Roys la fist,

Un cIlts lie Cliastiauduu, Lambert li cors I'cscrit,
Qui cUi Latin la trait ct en Kuniaut la mist. . .
Alixandrc nous tiist que de Bernay fu nez,
Kt de Paris refu ses sournoms appellez.
Qui ot les siens vers o les Lambert mellez."

" This history so true, of all that did the king,
A clerk of Chateaudun, Short Lambert did it sing.
Who from the Latin took, and in Romance did bring. .
So Alexander saith, he from Bernay who came.
And did in after time from Paris take his name.
And who his verses mixed witli verses of this same."

This passage seems however to imply
that Alexander of Bernay had intermingled
his own composition with that of Lambert,
rather than written a sequel which could be
separated from it; and this is the opinion of
De la Rue, who however remarks that in
this part of ancient French literary history
the confusion is so great tliat he cannot
guarantee the exactness of his observations.
The fullest existing copy of the romance of
Alexander contains 17,9.52 verses, and the
oldest is of the date of 1228. The work has
considerable merit ; the style is lively, the
descriptions animated, and the narrative
natural. Though professedly taken from the
Latin, it is much more probably an original
work, as it abounds in allusions to incidents
in the life of Philip Augustus. Alexander,
for instance, when about to attack King Nicho-
las (who in this poem stands in the place of
Darius), confiscates the goods of all the
usurers in his kingdom, as Philip Augustus
confiscated the property of the Jews for his
war with England. Real history is nowhere
attended to, and towards the end the marvel-
lous becomes all-predominant — excursions
to the bottom of the sea, trees which predict
the future, flying griffins, fountains of youth,
and other extravagauces, which seem to betray
an oriental origin, become the staple of the
story. Such as it is, the work was so popular
as to give rise to a host of imitations and con-
tinuations, all of which are far inferior to
the original. The " Alexandrian cycle," as
it is called, consists altogether of five poems,
the work of nine poets, the most distinguished
of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, among
whom not the least important is a country-
man of our own, Thomas of Kent. Alex-
ander de Bernay is also the author of some
other romantic poems, " Helena, Mother of
St. Martin," " Brison," and " Atys and Pro-
philias." The two former appear to be lost,
the latter is of distinguished merit. A copious
analysis of the " Alexandre " and the " Atys "'
is given in vol. xv. of the " Histoire Litte-
raire de la France ;" the former had also
been analysed by I/Cgrand d'Aussy, but very
incorrectly. {Histoire Litk'raire de la France,
833

XV. p. 119—126. and p. 160 — 193., two dif-
ferent accounts, discrepant in several par-
ticulars, a singular proof of the difficulties
connected with the subject; De la Rue, E.ssais
histuriques sur les Uarilcs, les Joiujleiiis et
les Trouvcres Nurmands et A?t(/lo-JVurmands,
ii. 348 — 3.52. ; Article by Roquefort in the
BiiHjraphie Universelle, i. 534, 535.) T. W.

ALEXANDER of Canterbury, a Bene-
dictine monk of Christ Church, Canterbury.
From his notes of the discourses of Anselm,
archbishop of Canterbury [Anselm], he
composed a book in nineteen chapters, and
dedicated it to the younger Anselm, the arch-
bishop's nephew. His work is entitled " Dicta
Ansehni Archiepiscopi, Lib. L" beginning,
" Compellis me venerabilis Abba." A MS.
work with this title and commencement in
the library of Corpus Christi College, Cam-
bridge, is ascribed by Matthew Parker to
Eadmer. (Tanner, Bib. Brit. Hib.) A. T. P.

ALEXANDER of Canterbury, an En-
glish Benedictine monk, received the bene-
diction as abbot of St. Augustin's, Canter-
bury, at Rome in 1212. King John had sent
Alexander to Rome in the year 1206 for the
purpose of settling his differences with the
pope. In the year 1216 the abbot of St.
Augustin's was • commissioned by the pope to
denounce Prince Lewis as excommunicated
the moment that he set foot in England, which
he did in spite of Lewis's letter to him repre-
senting his claims to the throne of England.
This letter is extant in Thorn's " History of
St. Augustin's Abbey." Alexander's fidelity
to King John greatly incensed his enemies
against him, and after the king's death he
was excommunicated by Pandulphus the
pope's legate, and deprived of all his eccle-
siastical preferment. According to Pits his
writings exhibit "the bitterness of hiswomided
spirit," and he is said to have died in poverty.
The benediction of Hugo HL, his successor,
is dated the year 1220. Alexander wrote —
1. " Victoria a Prothoco, Lib. I." beginning,
" Li Nomine Dei Altissimi qui est trinus." 2.
" Super variis Articulis Fidei Lib. L" 3. " De
EcclesicE Potestate, Lib. I." 4. " De Potestate
vicaria. Lib. I." 5. " De Cessatione Papatus,
Lib. L" (Tanner, Bibliutheca Brit. Hib.;
Pits, De liebus Aiu/licis ; Thoma; Sprotti
Chronica, ^-c, edited by Thomas Hearne,
p. 126.) A. T. P.

ALEXANDER {' Axilavlpos), a bishop of
Cappadocia and afterwards bishop of Jeru-
salem in the earlier part of the third century.
He was famous for his sufferings for the Chris-
tian faith in the persecutions under the Em-
peror Septimius Severus, being in the year 205
"in esteem for the confession of the name of the
Lord," (Eusebius, C/ironicon, p. 172.) and in
the year 211 writing from prison. After these
proofs of his fortitude as bishop of Cappadocia,
he went (a. D. 212) for devotional purposes to
Jerusalem, of which Narcissus, then a very
old man, was bisliop. Upon this occasion it

ALEXANDER.

was revealed both to Narcissus and to many
of his clergy that the next day there should
come into that church a bishop who should
be a supporter of the episcopal chair. Ac-
cordingly, in an assembly of all the bishops
of Palestine, with the consent of Narcissus,
Alexander was translated to the see of Je-
rusalem. Herein two things may be re-
marked as early precedents : the translation
of a bishop to another see, and the making
a coadjutor to a bishop while living. These
are facts shown by what Alexander saj's
in the conclusion of a letter to the people of
Antinopolis in Egypt : — " Narcissus, who
before me filled the episcopal seat of this
place, and now governs it together with me
by his prayers, being a hundred and sixteen
years old." In the Chronicon of Eusebius
Alexander stands as the thirty-fifth bishop
of Jerusalem. That he was superior to his
contemporaries in the mildness of his dis-
position, we have Origen's authoritj- in the
beginning of a homily delivered at Jerusa-
lem. (Origen, In Librum liegtim Homilia L)
Alexander built a library at Jerusalem,
and preserved the letters that had passed
between the learned ecclesiastics of his day,
which furnished Eusebius with materials
for his Ecclesiastical History. Clement of
Alexandria dedicated a book to him respect-
ing the ecclesiastical rule. In the persecu-
tion under the Emperor Decius, Alexan-
der was once more a confessor, being again
brought before the governor's tribunal at
Ctesarea for Christ's sake, and again he was
put into prison, where he died. The year of
his death was probably a. d. 251, and if this
date is true, he had been bishop of Jerusalem
thirty-nine years.

Jerome (Z^e Viris Illustribus, cap. 62.)
gives the conclusion of a letter from Alex-
ander to the people of Antinopolis, which
has been already quoted, and says, " he wrote
another letter to the Antioehians. He wrote
also to Origen and for Origen against Deme-
trius pleading that in respect to the testimony
given him by Demetrius himself he had or-
dained Origen presbyter. There are likewise
extant other letters of his to divers persons."
Parts of the letter to Antioch are preserved by
Eusebius in the eleventh chapter of the sixth
book of his History. It is written from prison :
it congratulates the church of Antioch on the
ordination of Asclepiades, who succeeded Se-
rapion in that see, and it was sent by Clement,
supposed to be Clement of Alexandria. Of
the letter to Origen a fragment is quoted
by Eusebius in the fourteenth chapter of the
sixth book of his History, wherein Alexander
calls Clement of Alexandria and Panta^nus
his " fathers and masters," and says that they
made him acquainted with Origen, whom
he styles his "master and brother." The
letter to Demetrius, bishop of Alexandria, in
favour of Origen, proves by examples that
bishops may invite unordained persons whom
834

he judges competent, to preach in their pre-
sence. It is found in Eusebius (^Historia Ec-
clesiastica, lib. vi. c. 19.). Of the rest of his
letters we haA'e remains. (Dupin, History of
Ecclesiastical Writers, vol. i. ; Lardner, Credi-
bility of the Gospel History, part. ii. chap. 34.
Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica, lib. vi., and
Chronicon, p. 172. ; Hieronymus, De Viris
illustribus. cap. 20. 38, &c.) A. T. P.

ALEXANDER COHEN (-|-i:dd'?X ""I
jriD), a German rabbi, who is also called Rab
Siislin (i^^D^if 2"l)' "^^h'd^ is a surname that
was generally given by the German Jews to
those who were called Joel or Eliezer. He
was a native of Frankfort on the Main, and
lived during the early part of the thirteenth
century. He is the reputed author of the
work called " Agudah " (" The Collection "),
which is a sort of digest of the Talmud, and
gives in a compendious form all the insti-
tutions and ceremonies which are found in
the whole body of the Talmud, with an index
at the end. It was printed at Cracow by
Isaac Ben Aaron Prostitz, the editor being
Joseph ben Mordecai Gerson, A. M. .5331 (a. d.
1571). On the title the author is called "[T "~in,
which, by abbreviation, means Ha Rabbi Siislin
Cohen. David Ganz gives the date at Avhich
this collection was made as A. M. 5089
(a. D. 1329), but, as well as the author of the
Shalshelleth Hakkabbala, says it was written
by the disciples of Rab-Asher, and is a col-
lection of his instructions. Bartolocci says it
is a collection of the writings of Rab-Asher ;
but the Siphte Jeshenim calls the author R.
Alexander Cohen. (Wolfius, Biblioth. Hebr.
i. 185. ii. 1249. iii. 119. 1170.; Bartoloccius,
Biblioth. Mag. Rabb. i. 57.) C. P. H.

ALEXANDER, emperor of Constanti-
nople, was the third son of Basilius the
Macedonian and his second wife Eudocia.
He was born about a. d. 870. His father
conferred upon him the dignity of Imperator,
which, after the death of Basilius, he shared
with his brother Leo the Philosopher. Leo,
a few days before his death, on the 11th
of May, 911, declared Alexander his suc-
cessor. Up to this time Alexander, for fear
of his brother, had lived very quietly, but
now, when all restraints were removed, he
abandoned himself to licentiousness and de-
bauchery, and those who ministered to his
pleasures were raised to the highest honours,
while the worthiest men were deprived of
their posts and treated ignorainiously. Enty-
mius, patriarch of Constantinople, was de-
posed, and Nicolas, who had been deprived
of this dignity in the reign of Leo for opposing
the fourth marriage of this emperor with
Zoe, the mother of Constantinus Porphyro-
genitus, was reinstated. Alexander had been
appointed by his brother Leo guardian of
his son Constantinus Porphyrogenitus, and
in order to secure the throne and to get rid
of all claimants, he exiled Zoe, and formed
the plan of mutilating his young ward in

ALEXANDER.

sucli a manner as to render him unfit to
govern. But his friends persuaded him to
give up this design, hy stating that the young
prince was of such a weakly constitution that
he could not possibly live long, and would
naturally be carried oif before coming to man-
hood. Simeon, king of the Bulgarians, pro-
posed to Alexander to renew the treaties
which had existed between him and Leo.
But Alexander, instead of conciliating this
dangerous neighbour, treated the Bulgarian
ambassadors with contempt. Upon this, Si-
meon assembled his forces to invade the do-
minions of Alexander ; however, before this
invasion took place, Alexander died on the
seventh of June, 912. On that day he had
drunk an immoderate quantity of wine, and
immediately after took violent exercise
on horseback, in consequence of which an
artery burst and caused his death. (The
passages from which the account is drawn are
given by C. du Fresne, Familia Byzantin(r,
p. 140, &c. ; comp. Gibbon, Histoiy of the
Decline and Fall, c. 48.) L. S.

ALEXANDER, CORNELIUS, surnamed
PoLYHiSTOR, was, according to some ac-
counts, a native of Ephesus, and according
to others, of Cotyajum. He was a contem-
porary of Sulla, and a disciple of Crates the
philosopher. The extensive knowledge which
he possessed procured him the surname of
Polyhistor. During the war of Sulla in
Greece he was taken prisoner, and sold as a
slave to Cornelius Lentulus, who entrusted
him with the education of his children.
Afterwards he was manumitted, and obtained
from his patron the Gentile name Cornelius.
During the latter part of his life he seems to
have lived at Laurentum, where he lost his
life in a conflagration of his house. His wife
would not survive him, and hanged herself.

Alexander wrote several works: — L A
great historical work, consisting of forty -two
books, each of which appears to have treated
on the history and geography of a particular
country, whence they are sometimes con-
sidered as so many separate works. The
titles of those which are known to us are
collected in Vossius, " De Historicis Gra;cis."
All of these works appear to have been
distinguished more as being accurate col-
lections of facts than for any critical merit.
Some fragments of this work are still extant
in Syncellus, p. 147. ed. Dindorf ; Eusebius,
(^Pripparat. Evangl. ix. 17.), Stephanus
Byzantinus, and others. 2. A work on the
Phrygian musicians (Plutarch, De Musica,
5.). ' 3. On the history of the Greek philo-
sophers (Diogenes Laertius, 1. 11. IIG, &c.).
4. On the symbols of the Pythagoreans
(Diogenes Laertius, viii. 1. 24. ; Clemens
Alexandrinus, Stromata, i. 131.). Suidas
also mentions a work, in five books, on
Rome ; but probably it formed a part of his
great historical work. (Vossius, De Historicis
Gracis, p. 187. ed. Westermann, where nearly
83.1

all the passages of ancient writers referring
to him are collected.) L., S.

ALEXANDER CRESCENZI ("n^DDPS
''V3''VD''"lp), a converted Jew, a native of
Rome, who lived during the middle of the
seventeenth century, and acquired a reputa-
tion for learning among his contemporaries.
He translated the " Tradado de Chocolate "
(" Treatise on Chocolate ") of Antonio Col-
mener de Ledesma from the Spanish lan-
guage into Italian. It was printed at Rome,
A.D. 1667, in 12mo., with notes by Alexander
Vitrioli. Mandosius, in his Bibliotheca Ro-
mana, cent, vi., p. 65., extols him as a great
mathematician, and says that in the year 1666
he published, in Italian, a Diary of the
eruption of Vesuvius which occurred a. d.
1660, with obsei-vations thereon. (Wolfius,
BibUoth. Hebr. iii. 119, 120.) C. P. H.

ALEXANDER I. ('A\f|ai/5pos), king of
Egypt, was the son of Ptolemy Euergetes II.,
called Physcon, and Cleopatra. Ptolemy
Physcon died in the year n.c. 117, leaving
his kingdom to his wife Cleopatra and which-
ever of his two sons their mother might select
to reign with her. Of these two sons the
elder was Ptolemy Lathyrus, and the younger
Alexander, who is also called Ptolemy Alex-
ander. Alexander was Cleopatra's favourite
son, but she was compelled by the voice of
the people to choose Ptolemy for her col-
league, and he reigned with the title of
Ptolemy Soter XL [Ptolemy Soter II.]
Alexander received ft-om his mother the
kingdom of Cyprus. After Cleopatra and
Lathyrus had reigned together for ten years,
Lathyrus was dethroned by an insurrection
of the people of Alexandria, which Cleopatra
was supposed to have excited, and he was
compelled to retire to Cyprus, over which
island his mother permitted him to reign.
At the same time Alexander was recalled to
Egypt to share the kingdom with Cleopatra
(B.C. 107.) After they had reigned together
eighteen years, Cleopatra was murdered by
Alexander, who wished to reign alone, and
who also dreaded the fierce temper of his
mother ; but his reign, after her death, only
lasted six months, at the end of which time
the people rose up against him, drove him
out of Egypt, and recalled his brother, Pto-
lemy Lathyrus. He retired to Cyprus, and
soon after perished in a sea-fight with Chae-
reas. (Porphyry o/). Euseb. p. 117. ; Justin,
xxxix. 3 — 5. ; Pausanias, i. 9. s. 23. ; Clin-
ton's Fasti Hellen. iii. 390, &c.) P. S.

ALEXANDER IL {'AAe^auSpos), son of
Alexander I., kingof Egypt, and gi-andson of
Ptolemy Physcon. Upon the death of Ptolemy
Lathyrus in B.C. 81, his daughter Cleopatra
or Berenice succeeded to the kingdom. In
the mean time Alexander (the subject of this
article) had been sent from Rome by Sulla, to
take possession of the kingdom of Egypt, and
he arrived there when Cleopatra had reigned
about five ff onths. The claims of the rival

ALEXANDER.

candidates for the throne were compromised
by a marriage betAveen them, after which
liowever they only reigned , nineteen days.
At the end of that time Alexander killed his
wife, and was himself immediately seized by
the people of Alexandria, who took him from
the palace to the gymnasium, and there put
him to death. The whole duration of Cleo-
patra's reign, including the nineteen days
during which Alexander reigned with her,
was six months. (Porphyry ap. Eusebius,
p. 119. ; Clinton's Fasti, iii. 390, &c., where
the reader should notice Mr. Clinton's re-
marks on a third Alexander, who is sup-
posed to have reigned over a part of Egypt
at the beginning of the reign of Ptolemy
Auletes). P. S.

ALEXANDER L, king of Epir0S, the
son of Neoptolemus. On the death of Arym-
bas he succeeded to the throne at the age
of twenty, setting aside j^Sacides, the rightful
heir, by the assistance of Philip II., king
of Macedon, who had married his sister
Olympias, and who bestowed upon him the
hand of his daughter Cleopatra. This second
alliance took place b. c. 336, and on the
occasion of the nuptials the assassination
of Philip took place. In 332 n. c. Alex-
ander crossed over into Italy at the request
of the Tarentines, to aid them in their wars
against the Lucanians and Bruttii. After
defeating the combined Samnite and Lucanian
forces near Psestum, he made a treaty with
the Romans, whose allies the Samnites then
were. He continued to wage war success-
fully against the Lucanians, and took from
them Heraclea and Consentia, and Terina and
Sipontum from the Bruttii, and three hun-
dred of their families were sent as hostages
to Epirus. We learn from Strabo that he
wished to transfer the panegyris or com-
mon meeting of the Greek states of that part
of Italy from Heraclea to Thurium in Luca-
nia. The opposition of the Tai'entines to his
plans led to his overthrow (b. c. 331). He
took up a position on three mounds near
Pandosia, on the confines of the Bruttii and
Lucanians, and in this situation he was be-
trayed by two hundred Lucanian exiles whom
he had with him, who gave private intelli-
gence to their countrymen of a favourable
moment for attack when his forces were
separated by an inundation. Two divisions
of his anny were cut off by the Lucanians ;
he attempted to force his way through them
with the third, but in crossing the river
Acheros he was killed by a dart from the
hand of a Lucanian exile ; thus fulfilling the
prediction of the oracle of Dodona, which bid
him beware of Pandosia and the Acheron,
and which he had falsely interpreted as
referring to two places of that name in
Epirus. He left a son, Neoptolemus, and
a daughter, Cadmea. Coins of this prince
are extant in gold and silver. (Livy,
viii. 3. 17. 24.; Justin, viii. C. 5. ix. 6. 1.
836

xii. 2. xvii. 3. 14. ; Mionnet, Medailles An-
tiques.) C. N.
ALEXANDER IL, king of Epirus, the
son of Pyrrhus and Lanassa, succeeded his
father (B.C. 272), and, to avenge his death,
ravaged Macedon, and dispossessed Antigo-
nus of that kingdom. He was in turn de-
prived of both Macedon and Epirus by De-
metrius, son of Antigonus, and tied to Acar-
nania, a portion of which he had gained in
war. With the assistance of his own subjects
and the Acarnanians he regained his king-
dom. He married his sister Olympias, and
left two sons, Ptolemy and Pyrrhus, and a
daughter Pthia. From two passages in
Polybius, he appears to have been in alliance
with the iEtolians. His coins in silver and
copper are extant. On the silver coins is a
youthful head covered with the skin of an
elephant's head, said to be his portrait.
(Polybius, ii. 45. ix. 34. ; Justin, xvii. 1.
xxvi. 2. xxviii. 1.) C. N.
ALEXANDER FARNE'SE. [Farnese.]
ALEXANDER the Franciscan, (de
Franciscis), a converted rabbi, whose Jewish
name was. Rabbi Elisha the Roman (^3"l
••DnO yL^"'PX). He was a native of Rome,
and celebrated among his Jewish countrymen
for his great learning. He was however
early in life converted to the Catholic faith ;
and being desirous of devoting himself en-
tirely to the duties of his new calling, he
entered the order of the Preaching Friars of
St. Francis, and gave himself up to the
scholastic divinity of the period, in which he
made as great progress as he had already
made in rabbinical learning, and speedily be-
came celebrated as the most eloquent preacher
of his day. At that time the populace of Rome
was delighted with the eloquence of three
celebrated preachers, namely, "the Jew,"
for so Father Alexander the Franciscan was
generally called by the people ; Father Lupus
the Capuchin ; and Father Panigarola, of the
order of the Minorites ; whose peculiar powers
are thus characteristically recorded in a say-
ing which was popular in Rome, even in
Bartolocci's time : " Hebrajus docet. Lupus
monet, Panicarola delectat ;" " The Jew
teaches, I^upus admonishes, Panicarola de-
lights." The fame acquired by Alexander
as a preacher, added to his great talent for
business and his blameless life, procured him
the favour of the court of Rome, and he was
elevated to the rank of procurator-general at
the court of Rome, and vicar-general of his
order. Such was the zeal and success with
which he performed his duties, that Pope
Clement VIII. selected him as his chaplain
and counsellor, and placed such reliance on
his learning and prudence, that no important
business was transacted without his advice and
concurrence. His hands being thus strength-
ened by the papal authority, he introduced
many reforms among the regular clergy, so
much to the satisfaction of the pope that he

ALEXANDER.

ALEXANDER,

raised him to the episcopal dignity by con-
ferriug on him the l)ishopric of Forli on the
4th of May, 1594. This dignity however he
only retained three years, when he resigned
it of his own free will into the hands of the
same pontiff from whom he had received it,
and retired to his convent in Rome, where he
devoted the few remaining years of his life
to his favourite studies, and to preaching the
gospel to his brethren the Jews. He wrote,
in the Hebrew language, " Haggaoth al Se-
pher Bereshith Veeleh Shemoth " (" Anno-
tations on the Books of Genesis and Exodus ").
In this work he reconciles with the Hebrew
original some passages of the Vulgate trans-
lation which appear to deviate from it.
" This is a useful and commendable labour,"
says Father Bartolocci, " and it is much to
be lamented that it does not extend beyond
the twentieth chapter of Exodus." The ma-
nuscript of this work is in the Vatican library,
on paper, supposed, says Bai'tolocci, to be
written by the authors own hand ; but here
the good father is at variance with himself,
as in the short notice of this author which
he has given in the Rabbinical Hebrew at the
head of his memoir he makes the date of his
MS. to be V^"L*"n, which is a.m. 5396 (a.d.
1636), to which he immediately adds that the
author died in the very beginning of the
"present" (the seventeenth) century, which
accords with the account of the time of his
death as given by other authorities, all of
which agree that he died about the year 1 600.
(Bartoloccius, Biblioth. Mag. Rabb. i. 218,
219.; Wolfius, Biblioth. Hebr. i. 184. iii. 118.;
Ughellus, Italia Sacra, ii. 629.; Quetif et
Echard, Biblioth. Scriptor. Orel. Prcedicator.
ii. 326.) C. P. H.

ALEXANDER, FRANCISCUS, Fran-
ciscus ab Alexandro, or Francesco degli
Alessandri, was born at Vercelli in 1529,
studied medicine at Pavia, and was physician
to Emanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy. He
died at Vercelli in 1587, having published
two small Latin poems, and two works on
medicine. The titles of the former are,
" Bivium," or " Virtutis Bivium," Pavia,
1551 ; and " Ad Margaritam Valesiam ....
Epithalamimn." The medical works were
" De Peste, seu Pestis et Pestilentium Febrium
Tractatus," Venice, 1565 ; and "Apollo, om-
nium compositorum et simplicium Normam
suo Fulgore ita irradians, ut ejus meridiana
Luce content! Medici et Pharmacopolas, omni
Librorum Copia neglecta, omni denique Er-
roris Nebula fugata, ad quaevis Opera facillime
se accingere valeant." Venice, 1 565, folio. The
former, which was several times published,
and which the author himself translated into
Italian, relates chiefly to the epidemics which
prevailed in Piedmont and Lombardy in the
first half of the sixteenth century. The
latter, which was also several times reprinted,
is remarkable only for the vanity of its title,
in which, in addition to the sentence just
837

quoted, the author promises expressly to cor-
rect the " almost infinite errors " of all pre-
ceding writers on the materia medica. The
presumptuous style in which they are writ-
ten, however, is the only character in which
the contents answer to the title-page ; not
one of the twelve " rays of Apollo" (as
the author calls the chapters into which the
book is divided) seems to have thrown any
effectual light upon the matters treated of.

A younger brother of Franciscus Alex-
ander, who was called Alexander ab Alex-
andro, was also a physician and a poet. He
died of the plague in 1570, having written
" Primitiffi ad Franciscum Fratrem, ad ejus
Opus cujus Titulus, Apollo," Venice, 1565.
(Bonino, Biograjia Medica Piemo7itese, i.
261.) J. P.

ALEXANDER, king of Georgia in the
early part of the fifteenth century. He suc-
ceeded, while yet a minor, his cousin Con-
stantine, who fell in battle against the Syrians
in the year 1414 according to Klaproth, or
1413 according to Brosset. Georgia was at
that time reduced to a state approaching to
desolation by the repeated invasions of Ti-
mur or Tamerlane, and other foreign enemies.
During the regency of Alexander's mother,
and his own reign after he had attained his
majority, the tide of success was turned ; the
whole of Georgia was reunited under his
government, and he was enabled to repair
much of the destruction that Timur had
caused ; in particular, to rebuild the church
of Mtzkhaytha, the place of coronation and
burial for the Georgian kings. This course
of prosperity was brought to a sudden end,
when after a few years' reign Alexander
resigned his crown, entered a monastery
under the name of Athanasius, and divided
his dominions among his three sons, Vakh-
tang, Demetrius, and George. This event,
according to Klaproth, took place in 1 424 ;
but as Alexander, if a minor in 1414, could
not possibly have sons of an age to govern
only ten years afterwards, it is probable
that Brosset is correct when he asserts that
Alexander was still reigning in 1431. The
effect of this division of Georgia was to pave
an easy way for its conquest by the Turks.
(Julius von Klaproth, 7?eise in dem Kaukasus
und nach Georgien, ii. 193, &c. ; Chronique
Georqienne traduite par M. Brosset jeune,
p. 2. "102.) T. W.

ALEXANDER DE HALES. [Hales,
Alexander.]

ALEXANDER, sox of Herod. [Herod.]

ALEXANDER of I'MOLA. [Tar-

T.\GXI.]

ALEXANDER JAGELLON, grand
duke of Lithuania and aftei-wards king of
Poland, was the grandson of the Jagellon
who first united those two countries, and the
fourth son of Casimir IV., king of Poland, and
Elizabeth, daughter of Albert II., emperor of
Germany. He was bom on the 5th of Oc-

ALEXANDER.

tober, 1461. His education was superintended
by Dlugosz, the father of Polish history, and
the Italian, Philip Buonaccorsi, who had
taken refuge in Poland from the persecutions
to which his sceptical opinions subjected him
in Italy. On the death of Casimir (June 5.
1492), the Lithuanian nobles, eager to escape
from what they considered the thraldom of
Polish predominance, broke through the
treaties which united them to the sister
countrj% and chose Alexander for great
duke of Lithuania, at the same time that his
elder brother John Albert was elected king
of Poland. The division of the countries
gave an easy opportunity to Ivan Vasil'-
evich III., then the great duke of Russia,
to crush the Lithuanians, and in a war which
broke out he wi'ested from them more than
seventy towns and villages, which they were
obliged to cede to him by a treaty of peace
concluded at Moscow on February 5. 1494.
The treaty was sealed by the marriage of
Alexander with Helena, the daughter of the
Russian prince ; but this did not prevent the
speedy outbreak of fresh hostilities on various
grounds, and among others, of the Lithu-
anians calling the Russian " the great duke "
only, and evading the title of " lord of all
the Russias." The Lithuanians were wise
enough under these circumstances to renew
on the 25th of July, 1499, the act of union
with Poland, on the condition that neither
country should henceforth choose a sovereign
without the previous knowledge and consent
of the other. Relying on the support of Po-
land, Alexander then sent a strong army
against the Russians, which however sus-
tained a total defeat on the banks of the
Vedrosha on the 14th of July, 1500. The
death of John Albert soon after without
issue occasioned Alexander to appear as a
candidate for the vacant throne of Poland,
and the influence of the circumstances and of
his brother Frederick, cardinal-archbishop of
Gnesen, procured his election. The Lithu-
anian nobles, formerly so refractory, were
eager in promoting it, and spoke with warmth
of the necessity of a future cordial union be-
tween the nations. Alexander was elected on
October 4. 1501, and his coronation took
place on the 12th of December, when he was
anointed by his brother the cardinal ; but his
wife Helena was excluded from participation
in the ceremony on the ground of her not be-
longing to the Catholic church. His reign was
one of dishonour and humiliation to Poland.
Achmet or Ahmed the khan of the Tartai's
beyond the Volga, who offered his assistance
to the Poles against the Tartars of the Crimea,
was soon after defeated by the Khan of the
Crimea, and on flying for refuge to his ally,
Alexander, was ungratefully seized by his
orders, and afterwards, on attempting to es-
cape, was condemned by the states of Lithu-
ania to perpetual imprisonment in Kowno.
This act of treachery, which was perpetrated
838

to conciliate the Khan of the Crimea, did not
prevent him from still carrying fire and
sword into Podolia. Alexander was also
obliged to conclude an armistice for six years
with his father-in-law, the Great Duke of
Russia, and give up in return for it five of
the towns the Russians had conquered. The
great master of the Teutonic knights refused
to take the oath of vassalage to Poland in
the year 1504. The beginning of 1505 was
clouded over by the dissensions which broke
out among the principal Lithuanian families,
stimulated by the intrigues of the king's
haughty favourite Glinsky. [Glinsky.] In
the same year the Tartars renewed their in-
roads in Lithuania. The king, struck with
paralysis, resigned the command of the army
to Glinsky, who succeeded in gilding the
close of Alexander's reign by a decisive vic-
tory over the enemy. The intelligence of
this event reached the king on his death-bed
when he was already speechless, but still able
by signs to express the pleasure the news
afforded him. He died on the 9th of August,
1506, in the forty-fifth year of his age.

The chief glory of Alexander's reign was
the reduction of the laws of Poland to a code
by the chancellor John Laski, under the
royal sanction. The collection comprises the
resolutions of the different diets, from 1347
to 1505, as well as a summary of different
bodies of foreign law deemed necessary to
complete the Polish code. This is almost
the only event in Alexander's career on
which the historian can dwell with satis-
faction. (Bandtkie, Dzieje Narodu PoJskiego,
ii. 81, &c. ; Russian Entsiklopedechesky Le.ri-
kon, i. 483, &c.) T. W.

ALEXANDER JANNiEUS, {'AX^^au-
Spos 'lavyaios) the third son of John Ilyr-
canus, succeeded his brother Aristobulus as
king of the Jews in the year b. c. 105.
Like his predecessors, he took advantage
of the troubles of the Greek kingdom of
Syria to extend his power ; and in pursu-
ance of that policy he attacked the town
of Ptolemai's (Acre), and sent detachments
of his army against Dora and Gaza, towns
on the coast of Palestine, which, like Pto-
lemai's and some others, had made them-
selves independent (B.C. 104). These towns
applied for aid to Ptolemy Lathyrus, who
then reigned in Cyprus, having been ex-
pelled from Egypt by his mother Cleopatra
three years before. Lathyrus landed in
Palestine with an array of 30,000 men, and
defeated Jannreus on the banks of the Jordan,
and then overran the country, and seemed
likely to conquer it, when Cleopatra sent an
army to Alexander's assistance, by the help
of which Lathyrus was driven back to Cj'-
prus (B.C. 101). Soon after this Alexander
Jannffius paid a visit to Cleopatra, who is
said to have entertained the idea of murder-
ing him and seizing upon Juda;a ; but, by
the advice of Ananias, a Jew who com-

ALEXANDER.

manded her forces, she gave up the treacher-
ous design, and made an alliance with
Jannrcus at Bethshan (Scythopolis.)

Alexander now renewed his attacks upon
the independent cities ; and iu a war which
was attended by an immense loss of life, and
in which he met with some considerable
reverses, he at length succeeded in reducing
Gaza, Gadara, and other important places.
In revenge for the part which Gaza had
taken in the invasion of Lathyrus, he burned
the town and massacred the inhabitants.

He now returned to Jerusalem, where he
was detested by the Pharisees, and by the
people, most of whom were the followers of
the Pharisees, on account of his having
joined the party of the Sadducees. The
hatred of the people broke out into an open
rebellion in the year b.c. 95, when, as he
was officiating as high priest at the Feast of
Tabernacles, the multitude pelted him with
the citrons which they carried in their hands,
and assailed him at the same time with the
bitterest reproaches. Alexander let loose
the soldiers of his guard upon the people,
6000 of whom were cut down, and after
this he never appeared in public without
a strong body-guard of Libyans and Pi-
sidians.

He now turned his arms against the
countries east of the Jordan, and reduced the
Arabs of Gilead and the people of Moab,
in B.C. 94. In the following year he took
the fortress of Amathus, in a previous at-
tempt on which he had suffered a severe
defeat. But in the next year, in a campaign
against Obodas, the emir of the Arabs of
Gaulonitis, he fell into an ambush in the
mountains near Gadara ; his army was cut to
pieces, and he himself escaped with difficulty.
This reverse was the signal for a new re-
bellion on the part of the Pharisees ; and a
frightful civil war ensued, in which 50,000
men are said to have perished on the side of
the insurgents alone. The hatred of the
people to Alexander is strongly displayed by
a circumstance recorded by Josephus, that
when he sent some of his friends to ask what
he could do to satisfy them, their only answer
was, " Die ! " The rebels, who were assisted
by the Arabs and Moabites, and by Deme-
trius Eucaerus, king of Damascus, had the
advantage at first, and compelled the king to
fly into the mountains, after they had cut off
his army of Greek mercenaries to a man
(B.C. 89) ; but a party of 6000 Jews having
deserted from the insurgents, Jannrcus with
their assistance gained a victory (b.c. 87),
after which he soon suppressed the insur-
rection (B.C. 86). Alexander gratified his
revenge by an act of atrocity which obtained
for hiin the title of the "the Thracian :" he
crucified eight hundred of the principal men
among the insurgents ; who, as they hung
upon the cross, beheld their wives and chil-
dren massacred at their feet, and the king
839

dining with his wives before their eyes. The
example had however its effect, and Alexander
was troubled with no more insurrections.

After a successful war of three years, in
which he recovered the fortresses he had lost,
and extended the boundaries of his kingdom,
Alexander Janna>us returned to Jerusalem
(B.C. 82), and gave himself up to a life of
luxury, which brought on a ipiartan ague,
under which he languished three years,
and then died, after a reign of twenty-seven
years, in the year b.c 78. His kingdom,
which he had considerably enlarged, he left
to his wife Alexandra, advising her to court
the favour of the Pharisees.

There are several coins of Jannaus which
have on the one side, in Greek, " King Alex •
ander" {'A\f^dvSpov ^aaiAews), and on the
other side, in Hebrew, "Jonathan" (jniliT'))
or "King Jonathan" ( "l^JD JJlJin'')' from
which we infer that his true Hebrew name
was Jonathan, and that Alexander was a
name assumed by him, according to a custom
then very prevalent among the Jews, who
affected Greek usages in names as in many
other points. (Josephus, Jew. Antiq. xiii.
c. 12 — 15. ; Jahn's History of the Hebrew
Commomceahh ; Gesenius in Ersch und Gru-
ber's Kncyklopudie.') P. S.

ALEXANDER, JOHN, of Berne, is only
known by a posthumous work, " Synopsis
Algebraica," which appeared in 1693 at
London. It was translated by Samuel Cobb
in 1709, and republished for the use of the
school at Christ's Hospital, with additions by
Humphrey Ditton. Perhaps it is the last
book in which quadratic equations are de-
monstrated no otherwise than geometrically.

A. De M.

ALEXANDER, JOHN, a Scotch painter
and etcher of the eighteenth century, was the
son of a clergj'man, and, says "NValpole, was
descended from the boasted Jamisone. In the
early part of the eighteenth century he visited
Rome, about 1717, but was not established
there, as Heineken says, and etched some
plates after Raphael's frescoes in the Loggie
of the Vatican. He dedicated a set of six,
dated 1717 and 1718, to Cosmo III., grand
duke of Tuscany ; Strutt says that they do
Alexander no kind of credit, and terms them
slight, loose, and incorrect etchings. In 1721
a letter to a friend was printed at Edinburgh
describing a staircase painted at Castle Gor-
don, with the Rape of Proserpine, by Alex-
ander. (Walpole, Anecdotes of Painting in
Enqland, ^c; Heineken, Dictionnaire des
Artistes, Sfe.') R. N. W.

ALEXANDER, JOHN, bishop of Dun-
keld, was born, it is thought, about the year
1703. He was placed at first at Alloa in
chai'ge of a small congregation of the adhe-
rents of the episcopal church which had been
established before the Revolution of 1688,
where he served till the year 1743, when the
episcopal clergy of the diocese of Dunkeld

ALEXANDER.

elected him to succeed the late primate, Dr.
Rattray, bishop of that see. Before the Revo-
lution the Scottish bishops were elected by
conge d'eslire, as in England ; but since that
time the clergy of each diocese elect their own
bishop on a mandate from the primate.
Alexander was consecrated in Edinburgh on
the 9th of August, 1743, by Bishops Keith,
White, Falconar, and Rait. On account of
the depressed state of that church and the
poverty of the bishops, which wei'e great
impediments to their frequently holding
synodical meetings, these five prelates took
advantage of their meeting for the purpose of
Bishop Alexander's consecration, to constitute
themselves a regular synod of the church.
Their first act was to elect Robei't Keith,
bishop of Fife, to be their primate, or, as that
dignitary is now styled, " Primus Seotise
Episcopus ; " and Alexander was elected clerk
of the synod. The late primate had left a
rough draught of some canons which he
intended to submit to the approbation of a
general synod, and which the present meet-
ing took under their consideration ; and as
they were well adapted to the exigencies of
the church in her then peculiar position, they
ratified them by a synodical sanction. To
these they added six other canons, which have
been the standing regulations of the episco-
pal church in Scotland since that time. On
their promulgation the clergy dutifully ac-
quiesced, and looked forward with satisfac-
tion to tranquillity ; yet their happy prospects
were suddenly obscured by the events that
followed the expedition of Charles Edward
in 1745. Although the Episcopalians were
not more engaged in that enterprise than
the Presbyterians were, yet the whole ven-
geance of the government fell upon them.
Previous to the year 174G that church was
comparatively in a prosperous state ; her
clergy were numerous and respected, and
their chapels were well frequented by all
ranks. But after the defeat of Prince Charles
at Culloden, the chapels were shut up
in the towns, and burnt down to the ground
in the country, by parties of military de-
tached for that purpose. As Bishop Alex-
ander's chapel was situated in the beautiful
and thriving town of Alloa in Clackmannan-
shire, it was pulled down, as burning would
have endangered the houses of the inhabitants.
With all the other clergy, he was obliged to
leave his house, which was plundered, and
skulk amongst his friends ; and their "hearers
stood aghast between pity for their minis-
ters and fear for themselves, being under the
same suspicions, and equally uncertain what
might be the issue."

When the first violence of the persecution
had in some degree abated, Bishop Alexander
returned to Alloa, and contrived to rebuild his
chapel, which had been destroyed, although
not without many impediments having been
thrown in his way. SmoUet, who was himself
840

a Presbyterian, represents them as " proceed-
ing with ungovernable violence to persecute
the episcopal party, exercising the very same
tyranny against which they had themselves
so loudly exclaimed." Ever since the Revo-
lution, the Scottish bishops have been pastors
of particular congregations, as well as ge-
nerally of their dioceses, and in this capacity
Bishop Alexander was most diligent and
laborious in his pastoral duties. He taught
his flock chiefly by a most efficient system of
catechetical instruction. After a well-spent
life. Bishop Alexander died about the age of
seventy-three. His " reputation still lives in
the church, and he continues to be spoken
of by those who knew him as a person of
apostolical simplicity, piety, and benevolence.
The small chapel, which is yet to be seen at
Alloa, was bequeathed by him to his suc-
cessors in that town, as a proof at once of
his frugality and of his good wishes. He
was twenty-three years bishop of Dunkeld ;
and at length in the year 1776 he died, as
he had lived, in the faith and fear of God,
and in peace with all mankind." (Keith's
Catalogue, App. ; Skinner's Ecclesiastical
History; Bishop Walker's Charge, 1833.)

T. S.

ALEXANDER, bishop of Lincoln in the
reigns of Henry L and Stephen. He was
born at Blois in France, and was brought up
under the care of his uncle Roger, bishop of
Salisbury. His uncle made him archdeacon of
Salisbury, and as he had great influence over
King Henry I., he got him made chief justice
of England, and obtained for him the see of
Lincoln. Alexander was consecrated by the
archbishop at Canterbury on the twenty-
second of July, 1123.

In 1139, some say 1138, upon a weak pi'e-
tence, Stephen seized both the Bishop of
Lincoln and his uncle in order to compel
them by menaces to surrender the castles
which they had erected. The quarrel was
taken up by the king's brother, the Bishop
of Winchester, then legate, and a summons
was sent to the king to appear before the
synod assembled on this occasion at West-
minster. The king, to justify his violence,
accused the two prelates of treason and se-
dition ; but the synod would not entertain
the charge until the castles were restored to
them.

In the year 1142, Alexander visited Rome
and returned in the capacity of legate from
the pope with power to call a synod for re-
gulating the affairs of the English church.
This synod published several wholesome and
necessary canons. Alexander made another
visit to Rome in 1144, and such was the
splendour of the style in which he lived on
these occasions, that he was called in the
court of Rome, Alexander the Magnificent.
In 1147 he went to France to meet Pope
Eugenius III., where through the excessive
heat of the Aveather he fell sick, and with

ALEXANDER.

great difficulty returning home, died soon
after, on Ash Wednesday of the same year,
and was buried in his own cathedral of Lin-
coln.

This bishop's panegyric is contained in
Henry of Huntingdon's dedication and verses
prefixed to his Historj' ; but the character
given by the same historian after the bishop's
death charges him with an expenditure for
which his tenants suffered. His splendour
was also reproved by St. Bernard in a letter
(Epistle 64.) sent to the bishop the year
before his death.

In 1124 Lincoln Cathedral was greatly
injured bj' an accidental fire. Alexander re-
paired it in 1145, vaulted it with stone, and
improved it in many other respects, so that it
became equal, if not superior, to any church
at that time in England. He also increased
the number of prebends in his church and
augmented its revenues with several manors
and estates. He built three castles, one at
Banbury, another at Sleaford, and a third at
Newark. He founded monasteries at Ha-
verholm for regular canons and nuns to-
gether ; at Thame, for White Friars ; and at
Dorchester, for Black Canons. {Biographia
Britannica ; Henry of Huntingdon, Historia
apiul Scriptores post Bedam, lib. 7. and 8. ;
Godwin, De Prasultbus Anglia ; Archccologia,
v. 316,317.; Leland.) A. T. P.

ALEXANDER ('AA^?aj/5por), of Ephesus,
surnamed Lychkus (Avx^os), a Greek rhe-
torican and poet, appears to have lived shortly
before or about the time of Cicero, who calls
him an ignorant and bad, but yet a useful
poet. Strabo, who says that he took an active
part in political affairs, ascribes to him a his-
tory, and several didactic poems in hexameters,
in which he described the heavens, and the
three great divisions of the world. Each of
them was described in a separate poem, which
accordingly are referred to by the names
" Asia," " Europe," &c. (Some fragments of
these poems are preserved in Stephanus of
Byzantium (s. v. Awf)os, Avppdxiov, 'EpKvvtov,
and elsewhere); compare Cicero, Ad Attic um,
ii. 20. 22. ; Strabo, vi. p. 642. ; Scholiast and
Eustathius, Ad Dionys. Perieget. 607. ; Naske,
SchedcE Critica; Halle, 1812, p. 7.) L. S.

ALEXANDER ('AAelarSpos)- of Lycopo-
Lis in Upper Egypt, lived probably about the
middle of the fourth centm-y, a.d. Accord-
ing to some accounts he was a bishop of Cy-
ropolis. He wrote a work, which is still
extant, against the doctrines of the !Mani-
chaeans {Jlphs ras Mavixot-i'-cv 3o|as). From this
woi'k it is clear that he was w ell acquainted
with the Christian religion, and entertained a
high opinion both of its founder and of its
doctrines. He praises the Christian doctrines
especially for their simplicity and clearness,
which render them intelligible to all man-
kind, and are thus well calculated to promote
virtue. (Cave, De Scriptoribus ecclesia iii-
certce yEtatis, p. 2. ; Lardner's Works, iii. 384.

VOL. I.

viii. 349, &c. ; Fabricius, Biblioth. Grac.
iii. 56.) L. S.

ALEXANDER (' A\4^avSpos), the son of
Lysimachus, king of Thrace, by Necris, an
Odrysian woman. When Agathocles, his
brother, was put to death by his father
Lysimachus, his widow Lysandra fled with
Alexander to Seleucus, king of Babylon.
At the instigation of the two fugitives Seleu-
cus made war upon Lysimachus, who was
defeated by him and killed, b. c. 281. It is
recorded of Alexander that he begged the
body of his father from the conqueror and
buried it. (Pausanias, i. 10. ; Droysen, Ge-
schichfe der Nac/ifo/ger Alexanders.) C. N.

ALEXANDER I. ('AKd^avSpos), king of
Macedonia, was the son of Amyntas I., and
the tenth king of Macedonia. When Mega-
bazus called upon Macedonia to submit to
Darius the son of Hystaspes, Amyntas I.,
who was still reigning, gave earth and
water as the symbols of his submission.
Amyntas entertained the seven Persian am-
bassadors at a banquet, and at their re-
quest he made no scruple about surrender-
ing the ladies of his court to the lust of
the barbarians. But his son Alexander, in-
dignant at the conduct of the Persians, bade
his father leave the hall, and after sending the
women from the room to dress in a more
fascinating manner, as he pretended, he
dressed a number of young Macedonians in
women's attire, and introduced them into the
room, provided with arms. As soon as the
Persians attempted to take liberties with them,
the)' were all massacred by the Macedonians.
As none of the Persian envoys returned,
Megabazus sent Bubares with a small force to
Macedonia ; but Alexander contrived to avert
the danger which threatened his country by
giving rich presents and the hand of his
sister Gygaea to the Persian general. These
events happened about the year b. c. 507.
Amyntas died soon after, probably in B.C.
506, and Alexander succeeded him. Owing to
the family connection through the marriage
of Gygaea with Bubares, Macedonia appears at
the time to have been left to itself; but in B.C.
492 it was reduced to complete submission by
Mardonius. (Herodot. vi. 44.) During the
second invasion of the Persians, in B.C. 480,
Alexanderwas obliged tojoin the Persian army
under Mardonius with his forces. The Per-
sian general however honoured him with his
confidence ; and after the battle of Salamis
(b. c. 480), when he was staying in Thessaly, he
sent Alexander as his ambassador to Athens
with a view of drawing her into an alliance
with Persia. Alexander himself, although
attached to the cause of Greece, thought such
a step on the part of Athens the only means
of saving herself from utter ruin, and he ac-
cordinglj- advised the Athenians to accept
the proposal of the Persians. But the Athe-
nians were determined to resist to the last,
and Alexander returned to Mardonius, who,
3 I

ALEXANDER.

on hearing the answer, immediately set out
against Athens. Alexander however con-
tinued to assist the Greeks in secret. The
night hefore the battle of Platsese he pre-
sented himself at the outposts of the Greek
camp and requested to speak to the Greek
generals. He informed them that IMardonius
intended to give battle the next day, and he
advised them not to move from their position
even if the battle should not take place, since
the provisions of the Persians would be ex-
hausted in a few days. After this friendly
advice Alexander rode away.

Thus far Alexander was connected with
the affairs of Greece during her contest with
Persia. He was the first member of the royal
house of Macedonia who presented himself
at the celebration of the Olympic games, and
made out his claim to participate in them by
proving his Greek descent. Of his adminis-
tration of his own kingdom we know very
little ; but it appears that he made a wise use
of the circumstances in which he was placed,
and he extended his dominions no less through
the liberality of the Persians than by his own
wise conduct. He was called the rich king,
and distinguished himself both by his love of
splendour and by his liberality. The duration
of his reign is not quite certain ; we only
know from Plutarch {Cimon, 14.) that he was
alive in b. c. 463, but he died soon after. He
left behind him three sons, Perdiccas, Alcetas,
and Philip; the first of whom became his
successor as Perdiccas \l. (Herodotus, viii.
139.; V. 17—22.; viii. 136. 140—143.; ix.
44, 45. ; Justin, vii. 2, 3, 4. ; Thucydides, i.
137. ii. 99.; compare Clinton, Fasti Hel-
lenicl, i. 221, &c.) L. S.

ALEXANDER II. (' AAe^avSpos), was the
sixteenth king of Macedonia, and a son of
Amyntas II., whom he succeeded about the
year B.C. 369. He reigned one year and per-
haps some months longer. Soon after his ac-
cession he was invited by the Aleuadse of
Thessaly to assist them against the tyrant
Alexander of PheriB. He accordingly
marched with an armed force into Thessaly,
took possession of the town of Larissa, and
laid siege to the citadel. He also placed
garrisons in several other Thessalian towns,
promising to restore them to freedom; but
his object was to establish himself firmly in
Thessaly. and for this reason he kept pos-
session of the town while the tyrant with-
drew to Pherse. [Alexander of PnERiE.]
While he was thus successfully engaged in
Thessaly, Ptolemy of Alorus, whom he had
appointed governor of Macedonia during his
absence, rebelled. A war broke out between
him and the king, and the Thebans were called
upon to mediate. Pelopidas was sent from
Thebes to restore peace, and he appears to
have left Alexander in the possession of his
kingdom ; but to secure peace in Macedonia
he took a number of hostages to Thebes, one
of whom, according to some accounts, was
842

Philip, the father of Alexander the Great.
[Ptolemy Alorites ; Philip of Mace-
donia.] Soon after this peace Alexander II.
was assassinated at a banquet, according to
some statements by Ptolemy of Alorus or his
emissaries; according to others he fell u
victim to the intrigues of his mother Eurydice.
Demosthenes {JJe falsa Legatione, p. 402.)
mentions Appollophanes as one of the mur-
derers of Alexander. This occurred in the
year b.c. 367. (Diodorus, xv. 60, 61. 71. 77.;
iEschines, De falsa Legatione, p. 32. ; Justin,
vii. 5. ; Plutarch, Pelopid. 26,27. ; Athena;us,
xiv. p. 629. ; Diodonis, xvi. 2. ; compare Clin-
ton, Fasti Hellenic i, i. p. 225, &c. ; Thiiiwall,
History of Greece, iv. p. 162, &c.) L. S.

ALEXANDER III., surnamed the Great,
king of Macedonia, was the son of Philip
and Olympias, and born at Pella in the
autumn of the year b. c. 356. On his father's
side he was descended from Caranus the
Heraclid, who was the first king of Mace-
donia ; his mother belonged to the royal
house of Epii'us, which traced its pedigree
up to Achilles, the most celebrated hero of
the Ti'ojan war. She was the daughter
of Neoptolemus, prince of the Molossians,
and the sister of Alexander of Epirus, who
lost his life in' Italy. The historians of
Alexander regarded it as a significant coin-
cidence that Philip on the same day received
the intelligence of the birth of his son, of the
victory of his general Parmeuio over the
Illyrians, and of his own victory at the
Olympic games ; on the same day also the
magnificent temple of Diana at Ephesus was
burnt down. Occm'rences like these were
afterwards thought to be indications of the
future greatness of Alexander, and various
marvellous stories were fabricated, which
were believed and eagerly spread by the
flattery or the superstition of the Greeks,
and readily listened to by Alexander himself
in the midst of his wonderful career of
conquest. Many persons were engaged in
the early education of Alexander, but the
general conduct of it was intrusted to Leo-
nidas, a relation of Olympias, and a man of
austere character. Lysimachus, an Acar-
nanian, appears to have insinuated himself
into the favour of the royal family of Ma-
cedonia and of his pupil by vulgar flattery :
he is reported to have called Alexander
always by the name of Achilles, and Philip
by that of Peleus. About the time when
Alexander had reached his thirteenth year,
Philip thought it advisable to procure for his
son the best instructor of the age, and his
choice fell upon Ai-istotle. A letter which
Philip is said to have written to this phi-
losopher on the occasion is preserved in
Gellius. Under the instiniction of such a
master the powerful mind of Alexander was
rapidly developed and enriched with stores
of practical and useful knowledge. With the
view of preparing his pupil for his high

ALEXANDER.

station, Aristotle -wrote a -work on the art
of government, which is no longer extant.
No royal pupil ever had the advantage of
such a master. His short life was spent in
gigantic undertakings and in the midst of
war ; but the results of Aristotle's teaching
are apparent in all Alexander's plans for con-
solidating his empire : his love of know-
ledge manifested itself to the last months of
his life and in the midst of all his labours.
His physical education also was not neglected.
In horsemanship he is said to have excelled
all his contemporaries ; and it is a well-known
story, that when the celebrated horse Buce-
phalus was brought to the Macedonian ca-
pital, no one but young Alexander was able

to manage him.

His alleged descent from

Achilles, and the flattery of those by whom
he was surrounded, made however a deep
and lasting impression upon his youthfiil
mind ; the Iliad became his favourite book,
and its hero, Achilles, his great model. Am-
bition was his ruling passion : everything
which appeared to limit the sphere within
which he hoped to gain distinction seemed
to him an encroachment upon his own rights.
When intelligence was brought of his father's
victories, he would lament that nothing would
be left for him to do : he refused to contend
for the prize at the Olympic games because
he could not have kings for his competitors.
In the same spirit he regretted that Aristotle
published one of his profound works, be-
cause the wisdom which he wished to possess
alone was thus communicated to many. He
would always pardon and honour an enemy
whose resistance had added to his own glory,
but a cowardly opponent was the object of his
contempt.

When Alexander had reached his six-
teenth year, Philip was obliged to leave his
kingdom to carry on a campaign against
Byzantium ; and as his son had already shown
extraordinary judgment in public aifairs,
Philip intrusted him with the administration
of Macedonia. During the absence of his
father, he is said to have led an army against
some revolted tribe, and to have made him-
self master of their town. The first occasion
on which he specially signalised himself was
two years later, in the battle of Cha;ronea (n.c.
338), and the victory on that day is mainly
ascribed to his courage ; he broke the lines of
the enemy, and crushed the sacred band of
the Thebans. Philip was proud of such a
son, and was even pleased to hear the ]Mace-
donians call him their king, while they called
Philip their general But the good imder-
standing between him and his father was
disturbed during the last years of Philip's
life, owing to his father repudiating Olympias
and giving his hand to Cleopatra, the niece
of Attains. A reconciliation took place, but
on the very day that it was to be sealed by
the marriage of Philip's daughter with a
brother of Olympias, Philip was assassinated
843

(n. c. 336), and it was even reported that
Alexander was compromised in the con-
spirac}'. There is, however, no evidence to
prove the truth of this report, though it is
possible that Alexander at least knew of the
plot, notwithstanding the severe punishment
Avhich he inflicted on most of the guilty per-
sons.

At the age of twenty Alexander was thus
suddenly called to the throne of Macedonia.
But while the attachment of the people of
Macedonia, who had always been accus-
tomed to look up to him with admiration,
was secured by a reduction of taxes and other
politic measures, dangers were threatening
on all sides, and he had to secure by wars
the throne which was his lawful inheritance.
His father had during the last years of his
life made extensive preparations for invading
Persia, and Attalus and Parmenio had al-
ready been sent into Asia with a force. The
realisation of these plans, in the midst of
which Alexander had grown up to manhood,
and in which he had taken a most lively
interest, now devolved upon him ; but before
he could carry them into eff'ect, it was ne-
cessary to secure his own dominions. At-
talus, the uncle of Cleopatra, aimed at
usurping the crown of Macedonia, under the
pretext of securing it to Philip's son by
Cleopatra ; Greece was stirred up by Demo-
sthenes against Macedonia, and the barba-
rians in the north and west were ready to
take up arms for their independence. Every-
thing depended upon quick and decisive ac-
tion. Alexander was well aware of this, and at
the same time he was determined not to sur-
render any part of his dominions, as some of
his timid or cautious friends advised him.
His first measure was to send his general,
HecatJEus, with a force to Asia, with instruc-
tions to bring Attalus back to Macedonia
either dead or alive. All the professions of
attachment and fidelity that Attalus made
were of no avail : he was put to death, and
his army joined that of Parmenio, who had
remained faithful. While this took place in
Asia, Alexander marched with an army into
Greece. Thessaly submitted without resist-
ance, and transferred to him the supreme
command in the projected expedition against
Persia. After having marched through the
pass of Thermopylfc, he assembled the Del-
phic Amphictyons, and was received a mem-
ber of their confederacy, and the decree of
the Thessalians was confirmed by a similar
one of the Amphictyons. Advancing into
Bceotia, he pitched his camp in the neigh-
bourhood of the Cadmea, the citadel of
Thebes. His sudden appearance struck ter-
ror into the Thebans, who had been indulg-
ing in dreams of recovering their liberty.
The Athenians also, who, pretending to de-
spise young Alexander, had talked much
about war, but as usual had made no prepara-
tions for it, were greatly alarmed when they
3 I 2

ALEXANDER,

ALEXANDER.

heard of his sudden arrival before the gates
of Thebes. They immediately despatched
an embassy to beg his pardon for not having
sent ambassadors to the assembly of the
Delphic Amphictyons, and for not having
conferred upon him the supreme command
against Persia in their name also. Alex-
ander received their ambassadors kindly, and
only required the Athenians to send deputies
to a general council of the Greeks which
■was to be held at Corinth. At this meeting
all the states of Greece, with the exception of
Sparta, transferred to the Macedonian king
the command of all their forces against Per-
sia, an office which they had before con-
ferred upon his father. The Greeks over-
whelmed the young king with assurances of
attachment, marks of honour, and the meanest
flattery. The refusal of the Spartans to
join the other Greeks did not make Alex-
ander in the least tmeasy ; he knew that he
had nothing to fear from them, and that
they were without the power to give effect to
their wishes.

After having thus settled the affairs of
Greece, he returned in the spring of B.C. 335
to Macedonia to put down an insurrection of
the northern barbarians. He marched from
Amphipolis towards Mount Hsemus (Bal-
kan), which he reached in ten days. He
forced his way across the mountains, pene-
trated into the country of the Triballians,
and pursued their king Syrmus as far as the
Danube, where the barbarians took refuge in
a strongly fortified island in the river. Be-
fore Alexander attacked them there, he
wished to subdue the Getse who occupied the
north bank of the river. A fleet which had
been sent up the Danube from Byzantium
enabled him to cross the river. The Getce,
terrified at seeing the enemy thus unex-
pectedly invading their territory, left their
homes and fled north wai-d. Laden with booty, ;
Alexander and his army returned to the
south bank of the Danube, where he received
embassies from the tribes which inhabited
the plains of the Danube, and from King
Syrmus, suing for peace and alliance. After j
having secured this frontier of his kingdom,
he hastened against Clitus and Glaucias, the
chiefs of the Illyrians and Taulantians, who i
were threatening an attack upon Macedonia,
while another tribe was to engage the army
of Alexander on his return from the north.
This plan however was thwarted, and Alex- I
ander compelled the barbarians to recognise :
the Macedonian supremacy. |

While he was thus successfully engaged i
with the barbarians to the north and west of
Macedonia, new dangers threatened in the
south. The spirit of insurrection stiiTed up
by Demosthenes and other friends of the
independence of Greece had revived, espe-
cially at Thebes, which pei'haps suffered
more than any other Greek city from its Ma-
cedonian garrison; and on the arrival of a
844

report that Alexander had lost his life in his
lUyrian campaign, some of the Greek states
resorted to hostile measures. The Thebans
expelled their Macedonian garrison and sent
envoys to other Greek states to invite them to
aid in recovering their independence. Their
summons was favourably received by most
of the Greeks, but they were slow in carrying
their resolutions into effect ; and before a force
was assembled, and even before the intelli-
gence of Alexander being still alive reached
Thebes, he was with his army at Onchestus in
Boeotia. He immediately marched against
Thebes, and attempted a peaceful reconcilia-
tion ; but the Thebans answered him with in-
sult. Perdiccas, one of Alexander's genei'als,
availed himself, without his master's com-
mand, of a favourable opportunity for an
attack with his own detachment, out of
which a general engagement arose. Not-
withstanding the brave resistance of the
Thebans the city was taken, and this event
was followed by one of the most bloody
massacres in ancient history. The city, with
the exception of the citadel, the temples, and
the seven ancient gates, was rased to the
ground ; six thousand Thebans, men, women,
and children, were put to the sword ; and
thirty thousand others were sold as slaves.
The priests, the friends of the Macedonians,
and the descendants of Pindar alone retained
their liberty. Of the private dwellings none
was spared except the house of Pindar.

The other Greek states which had been
willing to join Thebes, and more especially
Athens, sought and obtained pardon from
the conqueror, who afterwards showed on
several occasions in his behaviour towards
some of the surviving Thebans that he had
not destroyed their city out of wanton
cruelty. Convinced that the fearful fate of
Thebes was a sufficient warning to the rest
of Greece, Alexander returned to Macedonia
to devote all his energy to preparations for
the war against Persia. His friends advised
him, before setting out for Asia, to marry,
and give an heir to the throne of Macedonia ;
but he had already been too long prevented
from carrying his Asiatic expedition into
effect, and he thirsted for the possession of
Asia. Before setting out he lavished nearly all
his private possessions among his friends ; and
when Perdiccas asked him what he meant to
retain for himself, he answered, " Hopes."
Antipater was appointed regent of Mace-
donia during his absence, with a force of
12,000 foot and 1500 horse. Alexander set
out for Asia in the beginning of the spring
B. c. 334, with an army of about 30,000 foot
and 5000 horse, which mainly consisted of Ma-
cedonians and Thessalians, while the infantry
consisted of 7000 allied Greeks, Thracians,
Agrianians, and a number of mercenaries.
His financial means were very small. The
army advanced along the coast of Thrace,
and after a march of twenty days reached

ALEXANDER.

Sestos on the Hellespont, where the Mace-
donian fleet lay at anchor ready to convey
the army to the coast of Asia. This fleet
consisted of 160, or according to others,
of 180 triremes, and a number of trans-
ports. While the greater part of the army
landed at Abydos and encamped near
Arisbe, Alexander, accompanied by his friend
Hephicstion, paid a visit to the mound which
was believed to contain the renuiius of
Achilles, whose successor it was his ambition
to be considered by his soldiers. As soon
as he had joined his army again he began
his march against the Persians, who, although
they had long been acquainted with the plans
of the Macedonians, were not fully prepared,
and had a force of about 20,000 horse and as
many Greek mercenaries stationed near
Zeleia. There was in the Persian army a
Rhodian Greek, of the name of Memnon,
whose military talent might have made him
a formidable opponent to Alexander ; but
his advice to retreat before the Macedonians,
who were scantily supplied with provisions,
and to lay waste the country, was rejected
by the Persians, and they advanced as far
as the river Granicus, in order to check
the progress of the invader. Alexander
found the Persians drawn up in order of
battle on the east bank of the river, and with-
out listening to the advice of his cautious
friend Parmenio, he boldly forced a passage
in the face of the enemy with his cavalry,
which kept the enemy engaged until the
infantry came up. The discipline of the
Macedonians and the impetuosity of their
attack broke the line of the Persians, who
were completely beaten, although the num-
ber of their dead was not very great : they
are said to have lost about 1000 horse-
men. But the mercenaries, who as long
as the Persians were engaged had by the
command of the Persians been obliged to
remain inactive, were for the [most part cut
down, and 2000 of them were made pri-
soners and sent to Macedonia to be em-
ployed as public slaves for having engaged
in the service of the Persians against their
own countrymen. Alexander had himself
been active in the contest, and killed two
Persians of the highest rank : after the vic-
tory he visited his soldiers who had been
wounded. The parents and children of
those who had fallen in the battle were
honoured with privileges and immunities.
In the first assault twenty of the king's
horse-guard (tTai/joi) had fallen, and he
honoured their valour by ordering Lysippus
to execute their figures in bronze, which
were erected in the Macedonian town of
Dium, whence they were afterwards carried
to Rome.

Before advancing into the interior of Asia

Minor, Alexander wished to make himself

master of the westei-n and southern coasts of

the Peninsula. As he proceeded southward

845

nearly all the towns on the coast opened
their gates to him ; and to show that he had
really come as their liberator, he established
in all the cities a democratical form of
government. Miletus was taken by storm.
In the mean time, a Persian fleet consisting
principally of Phoenician ships lay off Mycale.
The king, contrary to the advice of his
generals, would not engage in a sea-fight,
but kept his fleet quiet near the coast of
Miletus ; he thus prevented the Persians
from landing and taking in water and pro-
visions, the want of which compeUed them
to i-etreat to Samos. It was now late in the
autumn of the year B.C. 334, and Alexander
wanted to take possession of Caria and the
capital Halicarnassus. The occupation of the
country was easy enough : a princess of the
name of Ada surrendered it to him without
resistance, for which she was rewarded with
the title of queen of Caria. But Halicar-
nassus, the siege of which is the most me-
morable event of this campaign, held out to
the last under the command of Memnon,
but was taken. As the winter was approach-
ing, and Alexander had no apprehension
of having to encounter another Persian
army during this season, he allowed his
Macedonians who wished it to spend the
winter with their families in Macedonia, on
condition of their returning at the beginning
of spring with the reinforcements which were
to be levied in Macedonia. A small detach-
ment of the remainder of the army, which
had been greatly increased by the Asiatic
Greeks, was allowed under Parmenio to take
up their winter quarters in the plains of Lydia.
Alexander himself marched along the coast
of Lycia. From Phaselis he chose the road
along this dangerous coast to Pamphylia,
took the towns of Perga, Side, and Aspendus,
and forcing his way through the mountains
of Pisidia, which were inhabited by bar-
barous tribes, into Phrygia, he pitched his
camp near Gordium on the river Sangarius.
Here he dexterously availed himself of a
prophecy which in the eyes of the credulous
made him appear as the man called by the
Deity to rule over Asia. The acropolis of
Gordiiun contained the Gordian knot by
which the yoke and collars of the horses
were fastened to the pole of a chariot. The
sovereignty of Asia was promised to him
who should be able to untie this complicated
knot. After vainly attempting to untie the
knot, Alexander relieved himself from his
diSiculty by cutting it, according to one ac-
count ; but the particulars of the story vary.
It was considered, however, that he had ful-
filled the oracle, and the general opinion was
confirmed by a storm of thunder and light-
ning.

In the spring of the year b. c. 333 the

various detachments assembled at Gordium.

Together with those who returned from their

visit to their homes there came from Mace-

3 I 3

ALEXANDER.

donia and Greece 3000 foot, 300 horse, and
200 Thessalians, and 150 allies from Elis.
Alexander led his army along the southern
foot of the Paphlagonian mountains to Au-
cyra, received the assm-ance of the submission
of the Paphlagonians, and crossing the river
Halys entered Cappadocia. Satisfied with
making himself master of the south-western
part of this province, he directed his march
southward to the Cilician gates, or one of the
mountain passes which lead over Taurus
from Cappadocia into Cilicia, and proceeded
as far as Tarsus on the Cydnus. Here his
life was endangered by a fever which at-
tacked him either in consequence of his great
exertions, or, according to other accounts, in
consequence of having bathed in the cold
water of the river Cydnus. But the skill of
his physician Philip, an Acarnanian, soon
restored him to health. The possession of
Cilicia was of the greatest importance to him
on account of the communication with Asia
Minor. Wliile, therefore, Panuenio occupied
the Syrian gates or pass in the south-eastern
corner of Cilicia, Alexander compelled the
western parts of the country to submission.
About the time that his conqviests in this
part were completed, he received intelligence
of King Darius having assembled an im-
mense force near the Syrian town of Sochi.
The Persian king had now lost the ablest
man in his service. Memnon, who after the
taking of Halicarnassus had fled to Cos, and
with his powerful fleet had gained possession
of nearly the whole of the yEgean, died at the
moment when he was on the point of sailing
to Euboea ; a movement by which Alexander
would perhaps have been compelled to give
up for the present all thoughts of Eastern
conquests. Darius had levied all the forces
that his extensive empire could furnish,
hoping to crush the invaders by his nume-
rical superiority. Though he possessed no
military talent, he commanded his own army,
which is said to have consisted of 500,000 or
600,000 men, among whom there were
about 30,000 Greek mercenaries. Alex-
ander marched from Tarsus along the bay
of Issus to the town of oNIyriandrus in Syria.
Darius left his favourable position in the
wide plain of Sochi, contrary to the advice
of Amyntas, a Greek deserter, and entered
the narrow plain of Issus, east of the little
river Pinarus. By this movement he was in
the rear of Alexander's army, who had left
behind him at Issus those who were unfit for
further service. Darius had probably been led
to this vmfortunate step by the belief that the
long stay of Alexander in Cilicia was the result
of fear. The Macedonians at Issus fell into
the hands of the Persians, and were treated
cruelly. Darius now hastened to attack
Alexander, apprehending that he might
make his escape. But Alexander, without
waiting for the approach of Darius, returned
by the same road by which he had come.
846

The armies met in the narrow and uneven
plain of the river Pinarus ; a position most
unfavourable to the unwieldy masses of the
Persians. The contest began at daybreak,
in the autumn of the year b. c. 333. Not-
withstanding the great resistance of the
enemy, especially of the 30,000 Greek mer-
cenaries, Alexander towards the end of the
day gained a complete victory. The number
of the slain on the part of the Persians was
prodigious : the loss of the Macedonians is
stated to have been very small. As soon as
Darius saw his left wing routed he took to
flight, and was followed by the whole army.
The Persian king escaped across the Eu-
phrates by the ford at Thapsacus. His cha-
riot, cloak, shield, and bow were aftei^vards
found in a narrow defile through which he
had fled : his mother, Sisygambis, his wife,
Statira, and her children, fell into the hands
of Alexander, who treated them with the
utmost respect and delicacy. The booty
which Alexander made after this victory
was very great, but yet was insignificant
compared with the treasures which Parmenio
found at Damascus, whither they had been
carried by the Persians before they left the
plain of Sochi.

The Persian army was now dispersed, the
Greek mei'cenaries had fled, and Asia was
thrown open to the invader. For the present
Alexander did not think it necessary to
penetrate into the interior : he wished first to
make himself complete master of the coasts
of the Mediterranean. He therefore ad-
vanced into Phoenicia, where all the towns
opened their gates. Tyre alone, which was
situated ©a an island about half a mile from
the main land, and was strongly fortified by
lofty walls, for some time checked his pro-
gress, and it was not till after the lapse of
seven months (about August of the year b. c.
332) that he succeeded in taking the city by
constructing a causeway to connect the island
with the continent, and by the use of a fleet
which had been furnished him by other Phoe-
nician towns and by Cyprus. The causeway
of Alexander still remains, and Tyre is now
part of the main land. The obstinacy of the
Tyrians, the immense exertion and expense
which their resistance rendered necessary,
and the cruelty with which they had treated
the Macedonians who fell into their hands,
were followed by the most fearful revenge :
eight thousand Tj'rians were put to death, and
all the rest of the population sold into slavery ;
the highest magistrates alone and some Car-
thaginian ambassadors were spared, who had
taken refuge in the temple of Hercules. The
city itself was not destroyed, but received a
new population consisting of Phoenicians and
Cyprians ; and Alexander, who knew the im-
portance of the place, encouraged the revival
of its commerce and prosperity.

During the siege of Tyre, Darius had sent to
Alexander with proposals of peace, but thehu-

ALEXANDER.

miliution of the Persian king only convinced
Alexander of his weakness. All the pro-
posals of Darius were rejected with the de-
claration that the Persian king must petition
and appear in person if he wished to ask for
favour. During the siege of Tyre Alex-
ander had also made excursions with sepa-
rate detachments of his army against other
towns of Syria and some Arab tribes about
the southern foot of Lebanon. In the autumn
he proceeded with his army southward along
the coast of Palestine, and, according to
Josephus, he paid a visit to Jerusalem, where
he worshipped and sacrificed in the Temple,
and was made acquainted with an ancient
prophecy, that a king of Greece should con-
quer the king of Persia. But this long
episode in Josephus is not supported by any
other testimony. In the same autumn Alex-
ander besieged the strong town of Gaza, near
the southern frontier of Syria. It was vigor-
ously defended for two months by the Persian
commander Batis, and did not surrender
until nearly all the garrison had fallen.
Alexander, who had himself been severely
wounded during the siege, sold the inhabit-
ants of Gaza as slaves, and repeopled the
town with Syrians from the neighbouring
country.

The last province of Persia on the coasts
of the Mediterranean that now remained was
Egypt. In seven days Alexander marched
with his army from Gaza through the desert
to the gates of Pelusium, on the north-eastern
frontier of Egypt, where he found the fleet
at anchor, with which Phognicia and Cyprus
had supplied him. The Persian satrap of Egypt,
having no means of defence, surrendered
to Alexander without striking a blow. The
Egyptians themselves, who had always hated
the oppressive rule of the intolerant Persians,
were little inclined to take up arms, and
gladly surrendered to the invader, who jus-
tified their confidence in him by the restora-
tion of several of their civil and religious
institutions which the Persians had suppressed.
The Greeks, of whom great numbers resided
in Egypt, may also have helped the matter.
After having paid visits to Heliopolis and
Memphis, he sailed down the Canopic or most
western branch of the Nile to the lake of
Marea, and here he founded, on a strip of
barren land, the city of Alexandria, which still
exists as a flourishing place of trade. The
place was judiciously selected for the purpose
of the Mediterranean trade on the one side,
and the communication with the Red Sea
through the Nile on the other. After
the foundations of the new city were laid,
Alexander marched along the coast to Para;-
toniuni, and thence in a southern direction,
and through the desert to the renowned
oracle of Jupiter Aramon in the Oasis now
called Siwah. What may have induced him
to visit this sacred island of the desert is only
matter of conjecture ; but it is not improbable
847

that it was the desire to see his wishes re-
specting the sovereignty of the world sanc-
tioned by the oracle of Jupiter Amnion, and
thus to inspire his soldiers with confidence ; or
it maybe that the visit was connected w ith the
foundation of Alexandria, and had a conmier-
cial object, as Anmionium was the centre of
a considerable inland trade. Whatever his
wishes may have been, Alexander was per-
fectly satisfied with the results of his visit :
there was a report that the oracle had declared
him the son of Jupiter Anmion, and promised
him the sovereignty of the world ; a report
which must have been of incalculable advan-
tage to Alexander with his soldiers and the
inhabitants of Asia. After having richly
rewarded the temple and its priests, he re-
turned to Memphis, according to Aristobu-
lus, by the same road by which he had gone ;
but according to Ptolemy, he took the
shortest way across the desert.

In the spring of the year B.C. 331, after
having received fresh reinforcements from
Macedonia and Greece, Alexander set out
on his march towards the interior of Asia.
He visited Tyre, from whence he marched
to the Euphrates, which he crossed at the
ford of Thapsacus. From Thapsacus his
march was in an eastern direction, across the
plain of Mesopotamia towards the river Ti-
gris, in the direction of Gaugamcla, a dis-
tance of no less than eight hundred miles
from Memphis. Darius had again assem-
bled an immense army, the amount of which
is stated at 1,000,000 infantry, 40,000 horse,
200 chariots with scythes, and about fifteen
elephants. He had chosen a favourable
position in the plains of Gaugamela, east
of the Tigris, on the banks of the small river
Bumadus. After having allowed his soldiers
four days' rest, Alexander moved in the
night against the enemy, whom he found
drawn up in battle array. On a morning of
the month of October, in the year is. c. 331,
the battle which put an end to the Persian
monarchy began. Some parts of the Persian
army fought courageously, and the Macedo-
nians sustained some loss ; but when Alex-
ander by an impetuous attack succeeded in
breaking the centre of the Persian armj-,
which was commanded by Darius himself,
the king took to flight, and was followed by
his army in utter confusion. Alexander
pursued the fugitives as far as Arbela (Erbil),
about fifty miles east of Gaugamela, where
he found the treasures of the king, and got
an immense booty. Darius fled through the
mountainous country to Ecbatana (Hamadan).
The loss of the Persians on this day is said
to have been enormous : that of the Ma-
cedonians is stated to have been very incon-
siderable. It now only remained for Alex-
ander to subdue the Persian satraps whose
provinces had not yet been conquered, and
who continued faithful to their king. In
accomplishing this he was greatly assisted
3 1 4

ALEXANDER.

by the policy that he adopted : he promised
to leave the satraps who would submit in
possession of their former power, with the
exception of the military command, which
was given to Macedonians. The attachment
of the people was gained in another way.
Alexander, elated by his success, began to
surround himself with all the pomp and
splendour of an eastern king ; he respected
the religion and customs of his new subjects,
and protected them from the oppression to
which they had long been subjected. Fi-om
this time a great change is manifest in the
character and conduct of Alexander. He
exercised no control over his passions ; he
committed acts of cruelty and excess such as
are common with eastern despots. But he
did not sink into indolence : active occupa-
tion, both mental and physical, remained
now as before the only element in which he
could exist.

From Arbela, Alexander marched south-
ward to the ancient city of Babylon, which
opened its gates without i-esistance ; and he
gained the good-will of the people by ordering
the temple of Belus, which had been damaged
by the Persians, to be restored, and by sacri-
ficing to the god according to the rites of the
Chaldseans. After a short stay there, he set
out for Susa (Sus) on the Choaspes (Kerah, or
more properly, Kerkhah), which he reached
after a march of twenty days, and where he
found immense ti'easures, which had been ac-
cumulated in this ancient capital. The Ma-
cedonians, following the example of their
master, plunged into the enjoyment of the
pleasures of this wealthy city ; and the more
readily, as they had hitherto been exposed to
all kinds of hardship, with scarcely any in-
terval of repose. Towards the end of the
year Alexander left Susa for Persepolis, the
original seat of the Persian kings, and where
many of them were buried. The road which
he took is described thus : He first marched
towards the river Pasitigris (Karoon), and
thence along the valley of Ram-Hormuz, to
the mountain pass now called Kala-i-Sifid,
which forms the entrance into Persia Proper.
After having met with some resistance at
this spot, he took Persepolis by surprise, so
that none of the treasures were carried away
before his arrival. To avenge the destruc-
tion of the Greek temples by the Persians,
Alexander, contrary to the advice of his
friend Parmenio, set fire to the palace of
Persepolis, and part of it was burnt down.
According to another account he was in-
stigated to this act of madness by Thais, an
Athenian courtezan, during the revelry of a
banquet. Immense ruins (Tchil-Minar) still
point out the site of this ancient city ; but its
complete destruction, which is usuallj' ascribed
to Alexander, belongs most probably to a
much later period. After a stay of four
months, during which he subdued Persis and
several of the neighbouring mountain tribes,
848

he left, as he had done at Babylon and Susa,
the country under the administration of a
Persian satrap. Early in the year b. c. 330,
he began his march on Ecbatana, where
Darius, on seeing that Alexander after the
battle of Gaugamela turned to the south, had
collected a new force with which he hoped
to maintain himself in Media. But while he
was expecting reinforcements from the Scy-
thians and Cadusians, he was surprised by
the tidings of Alexander's arrival on the
frontiers of Media. Unable to maintain his
ground, Darius fled through Rhagai (Rey,
near Tehran), and the mountain pass, called
the Caspian gates (the Elburz mountains), to
his Bactrian provinces. After a short stay
at Ecbatana, where he dismissed his Thes-
salian horse and other allies who had served
their time, with rich presents, Alexander
hastened after the fugitive king ; but on
reaching the Caspian gates he was informed
that Darius had been made a prisoner by his
own satrap, Bessns. The Macedonians con-
tinued their pursuit with great rapidity
through the arid deserts of Parthia, and
when they were near upon Bessus and his
associates, who were unable both to make
a stand against Alexander and to carry their
victim any further, the traitors wounded the
king mortally, left him near a place called
Hecatompylos, and dispersed in various di-
rections. Darius died before Alexander came
up to the spot : moved by the misfortunes of
the Persian king, Alexander covered the
body with his own cloak, and sent it to
Persepolis to be buried in the tomb of his
ancestors.

From this moment Alexander was in the
undisputed possession of the Persian empire :
all the satraps who had hitherto been faith-
ful to their king, now seeing that resistance
had become hopeless, submitted to Alex-
ander, who knew how to value their fidelity,
and he rewarded them for it. Bessus, who
had escaped to Bactria, assumed under the
name of Artaxei'xes the title of king, and
endeavoured to get together an army. Alex-
ander marched into Hyrcania, where the
Greeks who had served in the army of
Darius were assembled. After some ne-
gotiation Alexander induced them to sur-
render : he pardoned them for what was
past, and engaged a great nmnber of them
in his service. But some Lacedaemonians
who had been sent as ambassadors to Darius
by their government were put into chains.
At Zadracarta, the capital of the Parthians,
the site of which is imknown, Alexander
spent fifteen days, after which he proceeded
along the northern extremity of the great
salt desert towards the frontier of Aria which
submitted to him. He left this province in
the hands of its former satrap, Satibarzanes,
and marched further east towards Bactria.
But he was soon called back by the news
that Satibarzanes had revolted, had formed

ALEXANDER.

an alliance with Bcssus, and had destroj'cd
the Macedonians who had been left in his
province. In order to secure his rear, Alex-
ander hastened back with almost incredible
speed, and in two days surprised the faith-
less rebel in his capital of Artacoana. The
satrap took to flight, and Alexander, after
having appointed a new governor, instead of
returning on his former road to Bactria,
thought it more expedient to secure the
south-eastern part of Aria. After a march
through an almost impassable country — to
ascertain the precise road is impossible — he
took possession of the countries of the
Zarangtc, Dranga;, Dragoga;, and other
tribes on the banks of the river Etymandrus
(Helmund), which flows into the lake of
Aria (Zerrah). During his stay at Pro-
phthasia, the capital of the Drangae, things
occurred which showed the altered character
of Alexander in the light in which we are
only accustomed to see an oriental despot.
Philotas, the son of Alexander's friend Par-
menio, was charged with having formed a
conspiracy against the life of the king. He
was accused by Alexander before a court of
Macedonians : distinct proof was not pro-
duced, though circumstantial evidence seemed
to warrant the truth of the charge. Philotas
was tortured, confessed the crime, and was
put to death. So far all might be just ; but
Parmenio, who was then with a part of the
army at Ecbatana to guard the treasures con-
veyed thither from Persis, was likewise put
to death by the command of Alexander, ap-
parently only because Alexander feared lest
the father might avenge the death of his son.
Some other Macedonians charged with
having taken part in the conspiracy of
Philotas, and Alexander son of Aeropus were
also put to death. These occurrences also
show the state of feeling that began to spread
among the Macedonians in the army. They
must have felt grieved at their king aban-
doning the customs of their native land, and
their grief was increased by en\y and jea-
lousy as they saw the Persians of rank
placed by Alexander on the same footing
Avith themselves.

From Prophthasia the army advanced pro-
bably up the river Etymandrus through the
country of the Ariaspians into that of the
Arachoti, whose conquest completed that of
Aria. The detail of this campaign is un-
known, but it is evident that Alexander must
have had to contend with extraordinary dif-
ficulties. On his march towards the moun-
tains in the north he founded a town, Alex-
andria, which is supposed to be the modern
Candahar. He was now separated from
Bactria by the immense moimtains of the
Paropamisus, the western ranges of the Hin-
doo Coosh. Alexander crossed these lofty
mountains, which were covered with deep
snow, and did not even supply his army with
fire-wood. After fourteen days of great ex-
849

ertions and sufferings the army reached
Drapsaca, or Adrapsa, the first Bactrian town
on the northern side of the Paropamisus.
Bactria submitted to the conqueror without
resistance, for as soon as Bessus had heard
of the approach of Alexander, he had fled
across the Oxus to Nautaca in Sogdiana.
Here he was overtaken and made prisoner by
Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, and was brought
by Alexander before a Persian court, which
condemned him to death as a regicide.

In the month of ilay or June, B.C. 329,
Alexander vrith his whole army crossed the
river Oxus, which seems to have been swelled
by the melted snow of the mountains, as
Arrian states that its breadth was about six
stadia. Boats or rafts could not be constructed
for want of materials, and the passage was
effected in the space of five days by means of
floats made of the tent-skins of the soldiers,
filled with light materials. Previous to cross-
ing this river, Alexander sent home those
Macedonians and Thessalian horsemen who
were no longer fit for service. When he
reached the northern bank of the Oxus, he
directed his course to 3Iaracanda, the modern
Samarcand, then the capital of Sogdiana.
After several engagements with the warlike
inhabitants of that province, he advanced as
far as the river Jaxartes (Sir), which he meant
to make the frontier of his empire against
the Scythians. Cyropolis on the Jaxartes
was taken by storm ; and, to strike terror into
the Scythians he crossed the river, defeated
the Scythian cavalry, and pursued the enemy
until his own army became exhausted in those
dry steppes, and began to suffer from thirst
and the unwholesome water of the country.
After founding a town, Alexandria on the
Jaxartes, which Avas to be a frontier fortress
against Scythia, he returned to Zariaspa,
where he spent the winter of 329 and 328.
During the winter months he received va-
rious embassies from distant tribes, and re-
inforcements for his army, which had been
somewhat diminished by the garrisons Avhich
he had been obliged to leave in several places.
During this same winter Alexander gave an-
other proof of his ungovernable passion, by
the murder of Clitus. [Clitus.]

In the spring of b. c. 328 Alexander again
marched into Sogdiana across the river Oxus,
near a spot which was marked by a fountain
of water and a fountain of oil. Sogdiana
abounded in mountain fortresses, and Alex-
ander had to take them before he could be
said to have possession of the country. As
the winter in those regions is too cold for
military operations,' he took up his winter-
quarters at Navitaca. In the following spring
he renewed his attacks upon the moimtain
fortresses, and in one of them, which was
situated upon a steep and almost inaccessible
rock, and was compelled or rather frightened
into a surrender, Alexander made Oxyartes,
a Bactrian prince, and his beautiful daughter

ALEXANDER.

Roxana, his prisoners. Alexander -was cap-
tivated by the beauty of Roxana, and made
her his wife, to the great delight of his eastern
subjects. After having reduced all the strong-
holds in Sogdiana, he returned through Bac-
tria and across the Hindoo Coosh to Alexan-
dria in Aria, which he reached after a march,
it is said, of ten days. During the ensuing
winter new symptoms of the dissatisfaction
of the Macedonians with their king showed
themselves. While he was making prepa-
rations for an expedition to India, the plan of
which he had been maturing for the last two
years, a conspiracy was formed against him,
in which even those individuals took part who
had before been his most contemptible flat-
terers, as Callisthenes of Olynthus. Hermo-
laus was at the head of it, and in conj unction
with a number of the royal pages a plan was
fonned for murdering the king. But the
conspiracy was discovered, and Callisthenes
and Hermolaus with his young associates
were put to death. [Callisthenes, Hek-

MOLAUS.]

The time for his Indian expedition had now
come, as all the conquered countries continued
obedient to their new master. Late in the
spring of B.C. 327, he set out from Alexan-
dria in Aria with an army of about 120,000
men, of whom about 40,000 Macedonians
formed the nucleus. Ptolemy and Hephaestion
were sent a-liead with a strong detachment to
make a bridge of boats across the river Indus.
Alexander and his army marched to a place
called Cabura, v.hich was henceforth called
Nicaja, crossed the rivers Choaspes and
GyroEus, and on his road took Aornos, another
mountain fortress, notwithstanding the obsti-
nate resistance of the besieged. He then
crossed the Indus, probably a little north of the
modern place called Attock, where the river
is very deep, and about a thousand feet wide.
It must have been early in the year 326 when
Alexander entered India, or rather that part
of it which is now called the Penj- Ab, that is,
the Five Rivers.

His march towards the Indus had not
been accomplished without various struggles
with the mountain tribes ; while on the other
hand several Indian chiefs, such as Taxiles
of Taxila, welcomed him with rich presents
and surrendered their cities. In this manner
Alexander got possession of Taxila, the
largest place between the Indus and the Hy-
daspes. Alexander proceeded from Taxila
to the river Hydaspes (new Behut or Be-
dusta), whither the boats which had been
used on the Indus had been conveyed by
taking them in pieces. On the Hydaspes he
met a most resolute enemy in the Indian
king Porus, who possessed the whole country
between the Hydaspes and Acesines, and was
hostile to Taxiles, which circumstance seems
to have induced Taxiles to surrender to
Alexander and make him his friend. On
reaching the Hydaspes, Alexander perceived
850

the immense army of Porus drawn up in
battle array on the opposite bank. The river
was much swollen, and there seemed to be
no possibility of crossing it. But Alexander
contrived to cross it unobserved with a de-
tachment of his troops and with his invin-
cible cavalry in a place somewhat above
the part where Porus was posted. Porus
began the attack with his best troops, 200
elephants and 300 war chariots. But Alex-
ander, who was superior in cavalry, drove
back upon their infantry the Indian cavalry,
which, as well as the elephants, had been
placed in front of their lines ; and these were
thrown into utter confusion. After a hard
struggle Alexander gained a complete vic-
tory, in which the Indians are said to have
lost 23,000 men, and among them their best
generals and two sons of Porus. The war
chariots were destroyed, and the elephants
partly killed and partly taken. The loss of
the Macedonians is estimated by Arrian so
low that it is scarcely credible, and we are
probably justified in preferring the statement
of Diodorus, according to whom the Mace-
donians lost upwards of 1200 foot and 300
horsemen. Porus was among the last who
fled from the field : he was taken by the sol-
diers of Alexander, who, full of admiration
at his courage, not only restored to him his
kingdom, but increased it considerably after-
wards, in order to make him a faithful
vassal. But by this means he excited a
jealousy between Taxiles and Porus.

After this victory Alexander stayed thirty
days on the Hydaspes, where he celebrated
sacrifices and games, and founded two towns,
one on each bank of the Hydaspes : that on
the western bank was called Bucephala, in
honour of his famous war-horse, and the
other Nicaia, to commemorate the victory
over Porus. Hereupon the army advanced
towards the tliird river of the Penj-Ab, the
Acesines (Chin-ab), which was crossed in
boats and on skins. Alexander then tra-
versed the barren plain between the Ace-
sines and Hydraotes (Ravee), the latter of
Avhich rivers he likewise crossed to attack a
new enemy. But the second Porus, who
ruled over the countrj' between these two
rivers, had fled across the Hydraotes on the
approach of Alexander, and his dominions
were given to the first Porus. Alexander
thus met with no obstacle until he reached
the eastern bank of the Hydraotes. Here
the Cathfci, the most warlike of the Indian
tribes, made a most resolute resistance. Their
army was stationed on an eminence in their
capital Sangala, which was surrounded by
walls and a triple line of waggons ; but this
fortress was taken, and the power of this
brave tribe, whose descendants some modern
travellers have supposed that they have dis-
covered in the modern Kattia, was broken,
and their territory was divided among those
Indian tribes which had submitted without

ALEXANDER.

resistance. Alexander had now pi'essed for-
ward as far as the river Hyphasis (Garra),
and the reports of a rich country beyond it
offered a temptation to cross this river also.
But his exhausted army did not feel the
strength of the temptation. The troops had
suffered so much from the incessant toil and
marches through barren and hostile coun-
tries, and their hopes and expectations had
so frequently been disappointed, that they
were determined to proceed no further, and
neither persuasion nor threats could induce
them to move. Alexander at last, advised,
as he said, by the signs of the sacrifices, de-
termined not to lead his army further.
Twelve gigantic towers were erected on the
banks of the Hyphasis to mark the limits of
his adventures. He returned across the
rivers which he had passed before in a west-
ern direction as far as the Hydaspes, and
the whole coimtry between this river and the
Hyphasis was given to the brave Poms, who
thus became the most powerful prince of
India.

On reaching the Hydaspes, the army did
not march further west, as Alexander wished
to conquer the country around the Indus and
to explore the course of the river down to
its mouth. This had been his plan when he
crossed the Hydaspes for the first time, and
he had accordingly given orders to build a
fleet on the Hydaspes, for which there were
then, as there are now, abundant materials.
On his arrival a great number of ships were
ready for sailing, and after a short time their
number was increased to eighteen hundred,
or, according to others, to two thousand. In
the beginning of November, b. c. 326, the
army began to move. Alexander himself
embarked in the fleet with about 8000 men,
under the admiral Nearchus, who com-
manded the ship in which the king sailed.
The remainder of the army was divided be-
tween Craterus and Hephtestion, the former
of whom led his forces along the right, and
the latter on the left bank of the river.
The tribes through whose territory the army
passed submitted without resistance, except
the Malli, whom Alexander hastened to at-
tack before they were fully prepared. Their
greatest and best fortified place — perhaps
the modem Multan or ilalli-than — was
taken by an assault in which Alexander him-
self was severely wounded. This accident
threw the army into the greatest conster-
nation ; but he was soon restored, and the
rest of the Malli sent envoys with offers to
recognise his sovereignty. The submission
of the Indian tribes south of the ^lalli toolc
place without any difficulty. \Mien the army
reached the point where the four vmited
rivers join the Indus, he ordered a town,
Alexandria, and dockyards to be built,
which were garrisoned by some Thracians
under the satrap Philip, to keep the country
in subjection. After having reinforced his
851

fleet, he sailed down the Indus and visited
Sogdi, where he likewise ordered dockyards
to be built. All the Indian chiefs on both
sides of the river submitted. Musicanus, one
of them, was seduced by the brahmins to re-
volt, but he was taken and put to death. All
the important towns that fell into the con-
queror's hands received garrisons.

Before Alexander reached the territory of
the Prince of Pattala, who submitted without
a blow, about the third part of the army was
sent, under the command of Craterus, west-
ward through the country of the Arrachoti
and Dranga; into Carmania. At Pattala, the
apex of the Indian delta, Alexander built a
naval station, and then sailed down the west-
ern branch of the river into the Indian Ocean,
a voyage which was not without danger on
account of the rapid changes of the tides.
He then also explored the eastern branch of
the river as well as the delta inclosed by the
two arms. The end he had in view was the
establishment of a commercial communica-
tion by sea between India and the Persian
Gulf. For this purpose he ordered dock-
yards to be built, wells to be dug, and the
land round Pattala to be cultivated. Pattala
itself was garrisoned. Nearchus now re-
ceived orders to sail with the fleet from the
mouth of the Indus through the vmknown
ocean to the Persian Gulf [Nearchus], while
Alexander moved from Pattala, in the au-
tumn of .325, and took the nearest road to
Persia through the country of the Arabita;
and Orita?, whose principal town, Rambacia,
he extended and fortified. After having ap-
pointed a governor he proceeded towards Ge-
drosia (Mekran). As the army advanced,
the country became more barren and desolate,
and the roads were almost impassable. The
march through the arid and sandy desert of
Gedrosia in the burning heat of the sun,
while water and provisions were wanting,
surpassed all the difficulties and suff'erings
which the anuy had hitherto experienced.
Alexander did everything in his power to
alleviate the suff'erings of his men, but during
sixty days of exhaustion and disease a con-
siderable part of the army perished. After
unspeakable sufferings they at last reached
Pura. Here the soldiers were allowed a short
rest, and then proceeded without any diffi-
culty to Carmana (Kiraian),the capital of Car-
mania, where Alexander was joined by Cra-
terus with his detachment and the elephants.
Soon after Nearchus also landed on the
coast of Carmania near Harmozia (Ormuz)
The king, delighted with the success of his
bold enterprises, ofi'ered thanks and sacri-
fices to the gods, and rewarded his men by
festivities and amusements.

After a short stay Nearchus continued his
voyage along the coast to the mouth of the
Tigris and Euphrates ; Hephaestion led the
greater part of the army, the beasts of bur-
den, and the elephants along the sea-coast to

ALEXANDER.

Pcrsis ; and Alexander, -with his light infantry
and his horseguards, took the nearest road
across the mountains to Pasargadse, the bu-
rial-place of the great Cyrus. His tomb had
been plundered by robbers, and the body
thrown out of the golden coffin. Alexander
ordered the body to be restored to its place
of rest, and the damage of the tomb to be
repaired by skilfid artists. After having
paid this honour to the dead, he went to Per-
sepolis, where he is said to have felt bitter
remorse at seeing the destruction which he
had caused. As few had expected that Alex-
ander would return from his Indian expedi-
tion, some of the Persian satraps had during
his absence oppressed their provinces. The
Persian governor at Persepolis was put to
death, and the Macedonian, Peucestas, was
appointed in his stead, who, by adopting the
manners of the Persians, gave great satisfac-
tion to the people. From Persepolis Alexander
marched to Susa on the Choaspes, in b. c. 324.
Here the army was at length allowed to rest
and recover from their fatigues, which the
king made them forget by brilliant festivities.
All the governors who had misconducted'them-
selves during his absence were severely pu-
nished, and after this was over, he began the
great work of consolidating the union be-
tween the Western and Eastern world by inter-
marriages. The king himself set the ex-
ample, and took a second wife, Barsine, the
eldest daughter of Darius, and according to
some authorities, a third, Parysatis, the daugh-
ter of Ochus. About eighty of his generals
also received each an Asiatic wife, who was
assigned by the king, and Hephajstion, the
dearest friend of Alexander, received an-
other daughter of Darius, that their chil-
dren might be of the same blood. About
10,000 other Macedonians chose Persian
women for their wives, with whom they re-
ceived rich dowries from the king. These
marriages were celebrated with the most
brilliant festivities and amusements that
Greek taste and ingenuity could devise.
Another step was also taken towards esta-
blishing a union between Europeans and
Asiatics. The Asiatics, who had hitherto been
regarded as an inferior race, and only served
as auxiliary troops in the army of Alexander,
were now trained and armed in the European
fashion : they were organised in separate re-
giments, and partly incorporated with those
of the Macedonians, and placed on an equality
with them. This policy was wise and neces-
sary ; for, not to mention more obvious rea-
sons, Macedonia must at that time have been
nearly exhausted by the frequent reinforce-
ments sent into Asia. While he was thus
engaged in Persia, Alexander did not neglect
his plans for the extension of commerce : he
mide the rivers Eulasus and Tigris more
suitable for navigation by removing the
bunds, or masses of masonry, by which the
current of the water was impeded, for the
852

purpose of irrigation. To carry his plans
into effect, and to gain a clear view of the
matter himself, he sailed down the Eulteus
and returned up the Tigris as far as Opis.

The Macedonions were dissatisfied with
the new arrangements which Alexander had
made in the army, and also with his conduct :
he seemed to despise the customs of his fore-
fathers. They only waited for an opportu-
nity to break out in open rebellion. This
oppportunity was oflFered in 324, during a re-
view of the troops at Opis, when Alexander
expressed his intention to dismiss the Mace-
donians who had become vmfit for further
service, which they took as an insult. He
succeeded however in quelling the mutiny,
partly by severity and partly by prudence,
and at last a solemn reconciliation took place,
and 10,000 Macedonian veterans were ho-
nourably sent home under the command of
Craterus, who at the same time was to take
the place of Antipater as governor of Mace-
donia, while Antipater was to come to Asia
with fresh reinforcements. Soon after the
departure of these veterans Alexander paid a
visit to Ecbatana, and while in the autumn
the festival of Dionysus (Bacchus) was cele-
brated there, his friend Hephsestion died : an
event which caused Alexander the deepest
grief, and is said to have thrown him into a
state of melancholy from which he never
recovered. Hephsestion's body was conveyed
to Babylon and buried there in a manner
worthy of the friend of Alexander. Soon
after the king with his army likewise marched
to Babylon, and on his way thither he endea-
voured to dissipate his grief by warring with
the Cossaii, a race of mountaineers whom he
nearly extirpated. Before he reached Ba-
bylon, there appeared before him ambas-
sadors from the remotest parts of the world
to do homage to the conqueror of Asia.
Among other nations of Western Europe the
Romans also are said to have honoured him
with an embassy : and there is indeed nothing
surprising in this, for at that time the name
of Alexander must have been familiar to all
nations from the shores of the Atlantic to
the borders of China.

On the arrival of Alexander at Babylon
vast plans of conquest, and the establishment
of useful institutions in his new dominions,
occupied him, and he seems now more than
ever to have required active occupation.
His next object was the conquest of Arabia ;
and to open the navigation from the Persian
gulf round the peninsula of Arabia into the
Red Sea. This conquest, according to some
accoimts, was to be followed by expeditions
against Africa, Sicily, Italy, and Iberia.
Babylon, as the centre between the Western
and Eastern world, was chosen for the capital
of this gigantic empire, and preparations
were made to restore the ancient splendour
of the city. But Alexander's body sank
under the exertions which were required for

ALEXANDER.

the superintendence of his great preparations,
combined with excesses in which lie is said
to have endeavoured to forget his grief. At
the end of May b. c. 323, he was attacked by
a fever which terminated his life in the
course of eleven days. Alexander died at
the early age of thirty-two years, after a
reign of twelve years and eight months,
during which he had extended his empire
from the coasts of the Mediterranean to the
eastern tributaries of the Indus. He died
without having declared his successor, which
was probably owing to his having lost the
power of speech during the last days of his
illness. He gave his seal-ring to Pcrdiccas;
but this may have meant no more than that
Perdiccas should be regent during the mi-
nority of the lawful heir : Roxana was preg-
nant at the time of Alexander's death. His
body was embalmed, and in B.C. 321 it was
conveyed to Memphis, and thence to Alex-
andria. A sarcophagus now in the British
Museum, which was brought over from
Alexandria, has been called the sarcophagus
of Alexander, but without sufficient evidence.
Respecting the divisions and disturbances
arising out of the want of a will of Alex-
ander, as well as respecting various events in
his life which have been purposely omitted
in this sketch, the reader is referred to the
articles Alexander .S^gus, Antigonus,
Antipater, Aristotle, Cassander, De-
metrius, EuMEXES, Laojiedon, Leonnatus,

I>YSIMACHUS, MeNANDER, NeARCHUS, Ne-
OPTOLEMUS, PaRMENIO, PeRDICCAS, PhI-

lotas. Python, Polysperchon, Ptolemy,
Seleucus, and many others.

Alexander belongs not to the history of
Macedonia only ; from the borders of China
to the British islands in the West his name
appears in the history or the early poetry of
every country. In Asia he is still the hero
of ancient times ; and the tales of the great
exploits of Iskander are even now listened
to with delight by the people of Asia. As
a military commander he had great merit.
His movements were rapid and well directed.
He knew what might be neglected, and
what must be accomplished, before he
could safely advance. When the unwieldy
masses of the army of Darius were once
broken, confusion must follow ; and ac-
cordingly in his campaigns he made great
use of his irresistible cavalry, that arm to
which he mainly owed all his victories. He
could adapt himself to all circumstances : he
was never deficient in resources, and always
ready to avail himself of every opportunity.
His conquests made a lasting impression
upon Asia and Africa ; and although his
empire was dismembered after his death, the
Greek colonies he had founded long survived
him. From the ruins of his empire Greek
kingdoms were formed as far as India, and
maintained themselves for centuries. New
fields were opened to science and discovery;
853

and to him it is due that Eastern Asia became
accessible to European enterprise.

There is scarcely an ancient writer after
the time of Alexander from whom some
information respecting him may not be col-
lected. Many of his contemporaries and
companions wrote of his life and exploits,
but all these original works are lost. The
biographies of Alexander, as that by Plu-
tarch, Arrian, Curtius, and what is told of
him in Diodorus and Justin, are compilations
derived from earlier sources. The most im-
portant and most trustworthy work for the life
of Alexander is the Expedition of Alexander,
by Arrian, who professes to follow the ac-
counts of Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, and of
Aristobulus of Cassandria, and who is himself
a careful and judicious writer. (Among the
numerous modern works on the history of
Alexander, we refer the readers to St.
Croix, Exai7ien critique des anciens Historiens
cV Alexandre le Grand, Paris, 1804 ; Flathe,
Geschichte Macedoniens, vol. i. Leipzig, 1832;
Drojsen, Geschichte Alexanders des Grossen,
Berlin, 1833 ; Williams, The Life and Ac-
tions of Alexander the Great, London, 1829 ;
Thirlwall, History of Greece, vols. vi. and vii.,
and an excellent sketch of the life of Alex-
ander in the Penny Cyclopadia, vol. i. Some
passages in the eastern campaign of Alex-
ander are discussed in Wilson's Ariana An-
tiqua, London, 1841. We possess several
coins of Alexander the Great, respecting
which see Eckhel, Doctrina Nummorum, ii.
96. fol.) L. S.

ALEXANDER IV. {'kX^lavZpos Aiyos),
surnamed jEgus, king of Macedonia, was
a son of Alexander the Great and Roxana.
He was born after his father's death in
B. c. 323, and saluted as king by the Mace-
donian army in Babylon. Perdiccas was in-
trusted with the regency in the name of Philip
Arrliidseus, a son of Philip, and the infant
Alexander. Perdiccas was murdered in B.C.
321. and the regency, through the influence
of Ptolemy, was given to Python and to one
Arrhida^us who had conveyed the body of
Alexander the Great to Egypt. The two
regents, with the young kings and Roxana,
and Eurydice the wife of Philip Arrhidseus,
now began their journey from Egypt to Eu-
rope. The intrigues and ambition of Eurydice
induced the regents to resign their office be-
fore they reached Europe. Antipater, who
was elected by the 3Iacedonians in their
place, compelled Eurydice to keep quiet, and
after having made a new distribution of the
provinces of the Macedonian empire, he con-
ducted the members of the royal family to
Macedonia, b. c. 320. Antipater died in b. c.
319, and was succeeded by Polysperchon.
Eurydice now began again to place herself
at the head of aifairs, and she compelled
Roxana with her child to seek refuge in
Epirus, where Olyrapias the mother of Alex-
ander the Great had already been staying for

ALEXANDER.

some time. Polysperchon, in conjunction with
iEacides of Epirus, brought back Oljnipias
and Roxana with Alexander to Macedonia ;
and Eurydice and her husband PhiUp Arrhi-
dffius were put to death, B.C. 317. Olym-
pias and Polysperchon now undertook the
administration in the name of Alexander.
But in the year following, Olympias, Roxana,
and Alexander fell into the hands of Cas-
sander, who had been a faithful ally of
Eurydice. Olympias was put to death, and
Roxana with her child was imprisoned in the
citadel of Amphipolis. In B.C. 315 Antigonus
made war upon Cassander, on the pretext
among others of liberating the young prince.
But this appearance of goodwill produced no
results, and although in the peace of d. c. 311
it was stipulated that Alexander should be
set free, and his paternal kingdom should be
given to him as soon as he was of age, Cas-
sander still kept the mother and child con-
fined without any remonstrances being made
by Antigonus. When at last the Macedonians
began to murmur and to express their dis-
satisfaction at his conduct towards Roxana
and her son, Cassander ordered Glaucias the
gaoler to poison them, to conceal their bodies,
and keep the matter secret. This took place
in B.C. 310, when the young king had just
completed his thirteenth year. (Diodorus,
xviii. 36. 39. xix. 11. 51, 52. 61. 105. ; Justin,
xiv. 6. XV. 2. ; Pausanias, ix. 7. 2. ; Plutarch,
Pi/ri-hus, 3. ; compare Droysen, Gcschichte der
Nachfolger Alexanders.') L. S.

ALEXANDER ('AAelai/Spos), son of Cas-
sander, and, as king of ]\L\cedonia, Alex-
ander V. After the death of his eldest
brother, Philip IV., in B.C. 296, who had
succeeded his father Cassander, but only
reigned a short time, his second brother,
Antipater, succeeded to the throne of Mace-
donia. Antipater, perceiving that Alexander
was more favoured by his mother Thessalo-
nice than himself, and fearing that she might
form some plot against him, put her to
death, and Alexander, who dreaded the same
fate, fled to Greece to implore the pro-
tection of Demetrius Poliorcetes. Finding
Demetrius engaged in a struggle against
some revolted towns, he went to Epirus,
where he met with a ready supporter in
King Pyrrhus, who undertook to place him
on the throne of Macedonia, on condition
that Alexander gave up to him certain parts
of the kingdom of Macedonia, and also
Acarnania, Amphilochia, and Ambracia, to-
gether with Tympha-a and Paraua^a. After
Antipater had in vain endeavoured to get
assistance from Lysimachus in Thrace, who
Avas his father-iu-law, a reconciliation was
brought about between the two brothers, by
which the kingdom seems to have been di-
vided between them. Although Alexander's
danger was thus removed, Demetrius now
approached with his army, and Alexander,
who had just reasons for fearing such an
854

ally, went to Dium on the Thermaic gulf, to
meet him and thank him for the readiness
with which he had come to support him.
Though the two princes assumed the appear-
ance of friendship, they were bent on de-
stroying each other. Alexander intended to
execute his design at a banquet, but Deme-
trius, who had received intelligence of his
treachery, came with such a strong guard
that Alexander could not venture on the at-
tempt. Demetrius now determined upon the
destruction of his enemy, and gained his
object by a stratagem. He pretended to re-
turn to Greece, and lulled Alexander into
security by his apparent friendliness. Alex-
ander, on the other hand, delighted to get rid
of him, accompanied him with a small force
as far as Larissa in Thessaly, when he was
invited by Demetrius to a parting banquet
and murdered in B.C. 294. (Plutarch, Pyr-
rhus, 6, 7., Demetrius, 36. ; Justin, xvi. 1. ;
Diodorus, Eclog. vii. 490. ; Pausanias, ix.
7. 3. ; Droysen, Geschichte der Nachfolger
Alexanders, p. 577, &c.) L. S.

ALEXANDER DE MEDICL [Medici.]
ALEXANDER BEN MOSES ETHU-

SAN (jnniDy ^:^•D j3 -in^Ds^x "i), a

German rabbi, a native of Fulda, who was
living in the beginning of the eighteenth
century. He wrote a work in the German-
Hebrew called " Beth Israel" (" The House
of Israel "), which is a compendium of Jewish
history in two parts : the first part is chiefly
taken from the Old Testament, and is di-
vided into ten sections, thus: — Sect. I. Of
Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. II. Of the so-
journ of the children of Israel in Egypt.
III. Of their jonrneyings in the desert and
occupation of the Holy Land, IV. Of the
times and acts of the Judges to the time of
their first king, Saul. V. Of the kings of
Judah and Israel. VI. Of the Babylonish
captivity. VII. Of the Worthies of the
Great Synagogue. VIII. Of the Asmonsean
race. IX. Of their government. X. Of the
kings of the family of Herod. The second
part, which is called " Beth Habbechirah"
(" The Chosen House"), treats, in fourteen
chapters or sections, of the city and temple
of Jerusalem, and the various vicissitudes
which they suffered until their final devasta-
tion. The author in his preface boasts that
no work of the kind had hitherto appeared in
the vernacular tongue. It was printed at
Offenbach by Seligman Reis, a.m. 5479 (a.d.
1719) 4to. (Wolfius, Biblioth. Hebr. iii.
118. iv. 785.) C. P. H.

ALEXANDER MY'NDIUS, a Greek
writer on natural history whom Athena?us
and other ancient authors frequently refer to
as their authority. The works of Alexander
Myndius are — 1. " Krr)vwv laTopia, or, History
of Animals," of which Athena?us quotes the
second book, and which is perhaps the same
work as that which is in other passages called
" Hepl ^u>up." 2. " riepi t?}s tuv ttti^vcoi' Icrro-

ALEXANDER.

pi'ay, or, Oa the History of Birds," of -whicli '
likewise a second book is mentioned. (Plu-
tarch, Marius, 17. The uunierous passages
of Athenicus and other writers who mention
Alexander Myndius are given by Schweig- •
hffiuser in the Index Auctoriim to Athe- |
najus, and by Westermann in note 29. of his
edition of Vossius, De Hlsturkis Gracis,
p. 382.)

There is a Greek writer of the name of
Alexon Myndius, who, according to Diogenes
Laertius (i. 29.), wrote a work on mythology
(ixvOiKci), of which the ninth book is quoted.
Some writers, such as Menage, have ima-
gined that he was the same as the natural his-
torian, Alexander Myndius, and have there-
fore proposed to change Alexon, the common
reading in Diogenes Laertius, into Alex-
andros. But as we know nothing about the
life and the time of the natural historian, the
question cannot be decided. L. S.

ALEXANDER, NOEL. [Noel, Alex- |

ANDER. I

ALEXANDER NEVSKY, or "of the

Neva," a Russian prince, saint, and hei'o, of
the earlier half of the thirteenth century, the
period of the conquest of Russia by the
Mongol Tartars. He was born at Vladimir
in 1219, and was the second son of Yaroslav
Vsevolodovich, who was then prince of Nov-
gorod, at that time a city of flourishing
trade and a free constitution. Yaroslav
in 1238 succeeded to the grand dukedom of
Vladimir, a dignity which conferred a sort
of feudal superiority over the other princes.
Alexander Avas then appointed prince of
Novgorod in his room, and displayed distin-
guished bravery in combating the Swedes
and the order of Livonian knights, called
" the Brothers of the Sword," who took ad-
vantage of the miseries into which Russia
was plunged by the conquests of the Tartars
to extend their own dominions. Pope Gre-
gorj' IX. had proclaimed a crusade against
the heathen Finns, but the views of the
Swedes who undertook the expedition ex-
tended to taking possession of Novgorod,
and they defied Alexander to battle. Alex-
ander met the invading ai'my on the loth of
July, 1240, at the spot where the river Izhora
enters the Neva, near the site of the present
St. Petersburg, and the result was the com-
plete defeat of the enemy, who were driven
to their ships, with the loss of only twenty
men on the side of the Novgorodians. An
account of this battle, professing to be written
by an eye-witness, but in a style of narrative
much more resembling the poetical than the
historical, is inserted in several of the an-
cient Russian chronicles, and has been the
foundation of much national tradition on
the subject. Karamzin has given the inci-
dents thus recorded a place in his history,
for which he is severely censured by Polevoy,
who stigmatises them as evidently fictitious,
and considers the conflict, which is not men-
855

tioned in the Swedish annals, as one of small
importance, which, like the skirmish at Ron-
cesvalles, has become accidentally immor-
talised bj' being made the subject of national
exaggeration. It was from this battle that
Alexander received the name of Nevsky.
Two years afterwards he drove the Livonian
knights from Pskov, or Pleskov, of which
they had taken possession, and totally de-
feated them in a battle which was fought
on the lake Peypus on the ice, in the month
of April. These victories were however of
small use to the nation while all Russia ex-
cept Novgorod was subjected to the gall-
ing yoke of the Tartars, who had poured
through it like a " river of fire." The
Tartar commander Batu Khan [Batu], after
ravaging Poland, Hungary, Croatia, Servia,
Bulgaria, Moldavia, and Wallachia, had re-
tired to the banks of the Volga, where at the
head of the " golden horde," he received in
his camp the Russian princes, and confirmed
or deposed them at his pleasure. Fortunately
for Novgorod, the Tartars had in their first
incursion in 1223 stopped short of that city,
and turned back at the very moment when the
inhabitants were expecting destruction. It
thus escaped for many years the payment of
tribute ; but in 1248 Batu sent Alexander a
message : — " Prince of Novgorod, is it not
known to thee that God has subjected to me
a multitude of nations ? Shalt thou alone be
independent ? If thou wishest to reign in
peace, repair instantly to my tent, and there
thou shalt see the power and glory of the
Mongols." It might have been expected
that, under such circumstances, a prince of
the tried bravery of Alexander would have
emulated the resolution of Pelayo in Spain ;
but the result of his deliberations was to adopt
the policy of submission. He journeyed
with his brother Andrew, first to the camp
of Batu at the mouth of the Volga, then
to the camp of the Great Khan of the
Mongols in the steppes of Tartary, and
by his humility so ingratiated himself with
the conquerors that he was not only con-
firmed in his dominions of Novgorod, but
appointed at the same time to the prince-
dom of Kiev, which implied the government
of Southern Russia. His younger brother
Andrew was made prince of Vladimir, which
was probably considered inferior in dignity
to the other two united. The victories of
Alexander had made his name known be-
yond the boundaries of Russia, and about
this time the pope wrote him a letter to point
out the advantages he would gain by joining
his arms with those of the Catholics, whom
he had hitherto opposed, and turning them
against the Tartars. The refusal of Alex-
ander appears to have given much satisfaction
to the Russian chroniclers, and probably
went a great way towards procuring his sub-
sequent canonisation by the Greek church.
He had soon other opportunities of showing

ALEXANDER.

his adherence to the plan of unlimited sub-
mission. In 1250 the indignation of Andrew
at the tyranny of the Tartars broke forth
into open revolt, and he was compelled, after
losing a sanguinary battle, to take refuge in
Sweden, his prudent brother refusing him an
asylum in Novgorod. The Tartars in re-
ward for Alexander's fidelity conferred on
hun the princedom which Andrew had for-
feited, and he made a triumphal entry into
Vladimir on the occasion. In 1256 Batu Khan
died, and was succeeded by his brother
Burga, the first of the Tartars who embraced
Mohammedanism, and who, more avaricious
than his predecessor, sent a baskak or col-
lector to each principality throughout Russia
to estimate the population and assess the tri-
bute accordingly. It is a singular circum-
stance in the history of the Tartar power
that they at the same time adopted the same
measure in their other conquest of China.
The Novgorodians, exasperated bj- this new
oppression, showed a determination to resist
the entry of the baskak, and were supported
by Vasily, Alexander's own son, whom he
had appointed governor. The indignant
prince came in person to enforce their sub-
mission ; Vasily fled before him, and the
principal citizens who had proposed resist-
ance were punished by having their eyes put
out or their noses cut off. This was not the
first occasion on which Alexander had quar-
relled with the Novgorodians, with whom he
seems to have been as arbitrary as he was
submissive to the Tartars. The disturbances
caused by the baskaks were not yet appeased.
In 1260 a simultaneous rising of the people
against the hated tribute took place in several
towns, and the baskaks, among whom were
some Russian renegades, were mercilessly
slaughtered. Alexander paid a last visit to
the " golden horde " to appease the anger of
Burga Khan, and died on his way home,
overcome with anxiety and fatigue, on the
14th of November, 1263, in the forty-fourth
year of his age. His remains were interred
in the monaster}' of the Nativity of the Virgin,
at Vladimir, where they continued till the
eighteenth century. His memory was then
revived by the foundation of St. Petersburg
near the spot rendered illustrious by his ex-
ploits, and by the circimistance that the
greatest victory of Peter the Great was
gained over Alexander's ancient opponents
the Swedes. In 1724 his remains were
transferred to a splendid monastery which
bears his name in the city of St. Petersburg,
where they now repose in a silver coffin, and
a military order of knighthood was instituted
in his honour. (Article by LTstrialov in En-
tslklopedechesky Lexicon, i. 465., and by Bulile
ia Ersch and Gruber, AUgemeine Eiicyclo-
pddie, iii. 42, &c. ; Karamzin, Istorii/a Go-
sndarstva Rossiyskago, iv. 22, &c. ; Polevoy,
Istorii/a Russkago Naroda, iv. 12.3, &c. ;
Levesque, Histuire de Biissie, ii. 97 — 134. ;
856

Leclere, Histoire de la Russie, ii. 113 — 120. ;
Hammer-Purgstall, Geschichte der Goldenen
Horde in Kiptschak, p. 138. 152, &c.) T. W.

ALEXANDER NUME'NIUS, a Greek
rhetorician who lived in the reign of the
Emperor Hadrian and of the Antonines. We
still possess by him a work entitled " Tlepi
tSii> TTJs Siavoias (r%7j;uaTa)i' Kal nepl rSiv T^y
Ae'^eoiy trxni^o-T'^v.'" Abridgments of this work
were made by two Latin rhetoricians, Aquila
Romanus and Rufinianus, under the title " De
Figuris Sententiarumet Elocutionis." Another
work called " Tl^pX iviSiiKTiKWf" that is, on
Show-Speeches, which is likewise attributed
by some writers to Alexander Numenius, un-
questionably belongs to a later rhetorician
of the same name. The former of these
works was edited separately by L. Normann,
Upsal, 1690, 8vo. Both are printed in the
" Rhetores Grseci " of Aldus Manutius, p. 574,
&c., and in Walz's " Rhetores Grseci," vol.
viii. (Ruhnken, Ad Aquila m Romanum, p. 1 40. ;
Julius Rufinianus, p. 195. ed. Ruhnken ;
Westermann, Geschichte der Griechischcn
Beredtsamkeit, $ 95. n. 13., and ^ 104. n. 7.)

L.S.

ALEXANDER QXXi^av^os) of Abono-
teichos, a town in Paphlagonia, whence he is
sometimes called the Paphlagonian. He
lived in the reign of the Antonines, about
the middle of the second century of our
aera, and is one of the most remarkable
impostors on record. Lucian, who had seen
the man, describes his figure as tall and ma-
jestic ; his ej^es were very animated, and his
voice sweet and pleasing ; with these external
recommendations he also possessed most ex-
traordinary mental powers : his judgment
and acuteness as well as his memory were
unequalled. But of these powers he made
the worst possible use. He was a master of
the art of deception : every one who saw
him or spoke with him thought he was a
good and simple-hearted man. He was the
son of poor parents, but as he was a boy of
great beauty, he attracted the attention of
several rich men. One of these men was
a physician, who occupied himself with all
kinds of magic and sorcery, and, perceiving
the talent of Alexander, initiated him in
his secrets and made him his assistant. After
the death of his master, all whose secrets he
inherited, he began to practise his arts in
conjunction with a Bjzantian of the name
of Cocconas, with whom he travelled about
cheating the credulous, especially women, and
getting much money from them. To attain
their objects more speedily, they resolved on
setting up an oracle ; but before the plan was
executed, Cocconas died. Alexander, how-
ever, forged certain oracles which declared
him to be a descendant of the demigod Per-
seus and a great prophet. Finding that his
claims gained credit, he returned to his native
town, where he often pretended to be seized
with a prophetic frenzy, during which his

ALEXANDER.

mouth was covered with foam, which he pro-
duced by chewing a peculiar kind of herb. But
the great farce by which he proved his super-
natural powers was this. A temple of iEscu-
lapius had been commenced. Alexander put
a small snake in a goose-egg, and deposited
it in the ground on the spot where the temple
was to be built, and then announced to his
countrymen that iEsculapius would be born
in their town. Accompanied by a numerous
multitude he went to the spot, took up the
egg, opened it and showed the infant god to
the amazed people. The report of this won-
derful event spread all over Asia Minor, and
numbers of people flocked to Abonoteichos
from all the neighbouring countries. In a
place scantily lighted he exhibited himself
and the god, who in a few days had grown
into a huge snake, which was called Glycon,
and declared to be a descendant of Jove.
The head of this snake was an artificial one
which Alexander had constructed with great
skill. Numerous oracles were now given by
him, and thousands of people came to consult
the god, especially in cases of illness. His
answers were often in the form of salutary
advice in regard to diet and the like. He
thus accumulated immense wealth, and his
success emboldened him to carry on his pro-
ceedings on a larger scale. He kept a great
number of well-paid assistants, who spread
his fame far and wide, and who not unfre-
quently refuted the attacks of sensible men
upon his impositions by stoning them or by
other acts of violence. Even Romans of high
rank, such as Rutilianus, came from Italy to
consult the impostor and his oracle. Ruti-
lianus was even duped into marrying (about
A. D. 170) a daughter of Alexander, whom
he pretended to have begotten upon Luna
(the moon). During the pestilence which
raged in the year A. d. 166, Alexander sent
his emissaries all over the Roman empire
to proclaim an oracle which was to avert
the calamity, and this oracle was at the time
written upon the gates of almost every town.
Never perhaps has an impostor had such
success, and he contrived to maintain his
credit nowithstanding the frequent attacks of
men who saw through his deceptions, and not-
withstanding the gross failure of many of his
predictions. Men were happy if Alexander
would only look at their wives, and when-
ever he condescended to give them a kiss it
was thought to be a signal blessing to the
family. Many women declared that they
had children by him, and their husbands bore
witness to the truth. Respecting himself
Alexander prophesied that he would live to
the age of one hundred and fifty, but he died
of a disgusting disease before he had reached
his seventieth year. There are still extant
some coins which bear on one side the name
of the god Glycon, which were struck about
that time in Asia Minor. See the commen-
tators on Lucian's " Alexander," e. 58.

VOL. I.

The above account is taken from Lucian's
" Alexander," where some pleasant anecdotes
are related of an interview which Lucian had
with the impostor. L. S.

ALEXANDER PAVLOVICH, emperor
of Russia during the first quarter of the
nineteenth century, was, with one exception,
the most conspicuous prince of that very re-
markable period.

Alexander was born at St. Petersburg on
the 23d of December, 1777 (by the Russian
or old style the 12th of December). His
parents were Paul Petrovich, afterwards em-
peror of Russia [Paul], and Maria Theo-
dorovna his wife, daughter of Prince Eugene
of Wirtemberg. His education was taken
entirely out of the hands of his father by his
grandmother Catherine II., the reigning em-
press, who herself wrote tales for his amuse-
ment when a child. His governor was Count
Nicholas Saltuikov, who received particular
oi-ders from Catherine that the young prince
should not be taught either poetry or music,
on account of the loss of time caused by those
studies. Professor Kraft instructed him in
natural philosophy, Pallas for a short time in
botany, and Colonel Masson in mathematics;
but his chief preceptor was Laharpe [La-
harpe], a Genevese of republican prin-
ciples, which he succeeded in instilling in
some degree into the mind of his imperial
pupil. Masson, who sketched the character
of Alexander at this early epoch, pointed
out some features which were recognised as
belonging to it in maturer life. " He derives
from Catherine," he remarked, " an unalter-
able equanimity, a correct and penetrating
judgment, and a rare discretion, and in ad-
dition to these, a spirit of circumspection
which does not belong to his age, and which
might be called dissimulation were it not
ratiier to be ascribed to the influence of the
embarrassing position in which he finds him-
self placed between his father and his grand-
mother, than to the promptings of his heart,
which is naturally open and ingenuous. He
is of a pi-aiseworthy but passive charac-
ter. He might be reproached with the same
faults that Fenelon attributes to his pupil,
but which, after all, are not so much faults
as the absence of some qualities not yet de-
veloped, or kept back in his heart by the
despicable nature of the circle that surrounds
him. Giving too much way to impulses from
without, he never abandons himself suffi-
ciently to those of his own reason and his own
heart."

Alexander was married on the 9th of Oc-
tober, 1793, to the princess Louisa 3Iaria
Augusta of Baden, who, on the occasion of
her reception into the Greek Church, i-eceived
the name of Elizabeth Alexaevna. He was
then in the sixteenth year of his age, and his
early marriage is attributed to the anxiety of
his grandmother for the preservation of his
morals in a court which her owji example
3 K

ALEXANDER.

had brought to the last degree of corruption.
By this marriage he had two daughters, one
born in the year 1799 and the other in 1806,
both of -whom died under two years of age.
In after life he was long estranged from the
empress, and engaged in more than one affair
of gallantry. He had by Madam Naruishkin
a daughter, to whom he was much attached,
and whose death not long before his own
saddened the close of life.

It is stated by an English authority (Sir
John Carr) that the Empress Catherine, whose
death took place on the 17th of November,
1796, left in the possession of her last fa-
vourite, Plato Zubov, a will addressed to the
senate, by which, passing over her hated off-
spring, Paul, she named Alexander her suc-
cessor, and that Zubov placed the document
in the hands of Paul, who destroj-ed it. From
the whole conduct of Catherine this statement
is extremely probable, and it renders it less
surprising that during the reign of Paul he
was thought to regard Alexander with an
vmfavourable eye. Alexander, however, en-
joyed some public honours; he was a member
of the council and of the senate, and held for
some time the appointment of military go-
vernor of St. Petersburg, a post of import-
ance. All eyes were turned on him, as the
absurdity of his father's conduct went on in-
creasing till it amounted almost to insanity,
and at last, on the night of the 23d of March,
1801, his reign was brought to a violent ter-
mination.

The precise circumstances of Paul's assas-
sination are involved in doubt, and Alex-
ander's share in the conspiracy that led to it
is the obscui'est portion of the affair. In the
account of these occurrences given by Sir
John Carr it is asserted that " the august
family of Paul were wholly unacquainted with
the meditated blow ;" but in the narrative of
M.Biguon it is affirmed, with more probability,
that Alexander had given his assent to the
project of enforcing the abdication of his
father, a measure which might almost be
deemed of absolute necessity, while in the
inexperience of youth he was far from ima-
gining that deposition would be accompanied
by death. In fact, in the historj' of his
grandfather, Peter III., he had an example
of the removal of a Russian prince by
violence from the throne without at the
moment any other injury to his person than
the loss of liberty. When Pahlen, then
governor of St. Petersburg, and one of the
confidants and assassins of Paul, entered
Alexander's apartment after the murder, the
first words of Alexander, according to Big-
non, were to ask after his father, and on
Pahlen's preserving silence the young prince
broke forth into passionate reproaches against
the false friends who had so cruelly deceived
him, and against himself for not having fore-
seen the possibility of a crime, the shame of
which would tarnish all his after life. " His
858

grief," says Bignon, " was deep and sincere.
Pahlen appeared to share it, and afterwards
seizing the appropriate moment to remind the
young prince that under such circumstances
tears were not all that the weal of the state
demanded, he decorated him with the insignia
of his various orders of knighthood, with the
exception of that of Malta." It is said that
the empress, his mother, on learning the
assassination of her husband, showed her
eagerness to seize the supreme power, and
that it required the strongest representations
to prevent her from making the attempt.
Whatever took place in the interior of the
palace, it is certain that on the parade in the
morning Alexander presented himself to the
troops on horseback, and was hailed by them
emperor of all the Russias. It is also cer-
tain that none of the conspirators was ever
brought to punishment, that some were stiU
retained in favour, and that the heaviest
mark of displeasure shown to any was to
Pahlen, who was ordered to retire to his
government of Livonia, and who thought it
expedient to resign all his employments.
This misplaced lenity is the chief argument
of those who, with Napoleon, attribute to
Alexander the deliberate purpose of parri-
cide; but his subsequent actions and his
general character appear to render it pro-
bable that the narrative of Bignon is sub-
stantially correct.

Alexander announced his intention from
the first of following as far as possible the
administration of Catherine. On his ac-
cession he was at war with England. Paul
had in the preceding year, by the convention
of St. Petersburg of the IBtli of December,
1800, joined the coalition of the northern
powers against England, which led to the
expedition to the Baltic in which the En-
glish fleet, nominally under the command of
Parker, but really obeying the impulse of
Nelson, had on the 2d of April attacked
Copenhagen, and compelled Denmark to de-
tach itself provisionally from the alliance.
Alexander, immediately on his accession,
wrote a pacific letter to George III., and
soon after gave orders to release the captains
and crews of English ships whom Paul had
seized. On the 17th of June a maritime
convention was signed between the two
countries, in which Russia abandoned the
most material points in dispute, by admitting
that the flag did not cover the merchandise,
and that ships of war had the right to search
neutral vessels even when sailing under con-
voy. Sweden and Denmark, the allies of
Russia on this occasion, were loud in their
outcries against this convention, by which
their sacrifices and exertions were rendered
useless ; but as secondary powers they had no
other choice than to submit. At the same time
that Alexander thus courted the friendship
of England, he did not neglect that of France ;
he despatched a friendly letter to Bonaparte,

ALEXANDER.

and on the 8th of October a treaty was
signed between France and Russia.

A period of tranciuillity succeeded, during
"which Alexander was occupied with internal
improvements, and in uniting to the Russian
empire the kingdom of Georgia, the heir of
which, David, son of George XI., [Gicorge]
was persuaded to yield the inheritance of
his fathers to Alexander, and accept the post
of lieutenant-general in his armies. During
peace, however, the preparations for war
■were not neglected. A new system of re-
cruiting was adopted, and a ukase issued in
1803 summoned to the military service one
man out of every two hundred and fifty, and
thus raised the strength of the Russian army
to 500,000 men. Some causes of discontent
had arisen between France and Russia before
the abduction and execution of the Duke
d'Enghien, but it was that event (in March,
1804) which brought affairs to a crisis. The
indignation of Alexander on this occasion was
expressed without reserve. His envoy at
Paris delivered a note to the effect that the
emperor, " as a mediator and guarantee of
the peace of the continent, had notified to the
states of the Germanic empire that he con-
sidered this event as putting in danger their
security and independence, and that he had
no daubt the first consul would take prompt
measures to reassure all governments by
giving satisfactory explanations." Bona-
parte replied, by inquiring in the Moniteur,
" What would Alexander have said if the
first consul had imperiously demanded ex-
planations of the murder of Paul? " To add
to causes of quarrel already numerous. Na-
poleon required from the pope the surrender
of a certain Count Vernegues, a Frenchman
by birth, but naturalised in Russia, who was
accused of intrigues against the first consul
at Rome. In spite of the exertions of Alex-
ander's ambassador, Vernegues was given
up, on which the ambassador was recalled,
and at the same time a papal nuncio and
apostolic auditor resident at St. Petersburg
were ordered to quit Russia, where, after
this period, all the affairs of the Roman
Catholics were regulated by a metropolitan
of their own religion, without any appeal to
the papal court. When the first consul be-
came emperor of the French, Alexander
declined to recognise his title ; and soon
after, in an ultimatum, demanded the eva-
cuation of Naples and the North of Germany
by the French troops, which was refused.
Austria interposed its mediation, and on
meeting with ill success, coalesced with
Russia and England. Sweden entered with
cordiality into the same alliance, and the
Porte was not disinclined to acquiesce in an
offensive and defensive league proposed by
Russia ; but some pretensions to the recog-
nised protectorship of the Greek subjects of
Turkey inserted by Alexander in the treaty
caused the rejection of the whole, and the
859

negotiations terminated in merely the re-
newal for eight years of a truce concluded
with Paul in 1798.

The war commenced with the march of
Napoleon from Boulogne, where he had col-
lected his army for the threatened invasion
of England, to the heart of Germany, where
the cowardice of ]Mack surrenderud the for-
tress of ITlm on the same day that Nelson
annihilated the fleets of France and Spain
at Trafalgar, the 21st of October, 1805.
Alexander at the outset of the campaign
visited the King of Prussia, Frederick Wil-
liam, at Berlin, and it is said that the two
princes on that occasion exchanged a ro-
mantic oath of friendship over the tomb of
Frederick the Great. Alexander afterwards
joined Francis, the emperor of Germany, at
Olmiitz, where the two divisions of the Rus-
sian army, one under Kutuzov and the other
under Buxhovden, formed a junction, and
united with the Austrians under the Arch-
duke Charles, Kutuzov assuming the com-
mand in chief. The Russians are said to
have amounted in number to 70,000, and the
Austrians to 30,000 ; and the prevailing tone
on the part of the Russians was, according
to Bourrienne, one of unbounded confidence.
The young emperor and those around him
were by no means free from this overweening
estimate of their own power. In the battle
of Austerlitz which followed (4th Decem-
ber, 1805), the allies lost 26,000 men and 50
cannon. Alexander was allowed by the
armistice of the day after the battle to retreat
homewards with his army ; it is doubtful
whether, from his having, by a false move-
ment of the French, been placed in a posi-
tion too dangerous to attack, or from a wish
to conciliate him on the part of Napoleon.
If the latter, it failed, for when the peace of
Presburg was concluded, on the 26th of De-
cember, between France and Austria, Alex-
ander perseveringly refused to accede to it,
considering the terms as too humiliating for
his ally. A treaty was signed in the follow-
ing July by his own agent, Ubril, at Paris,
in which the integrity of the dominions of
the Porte was guaranteed, the evacuation of
Germany by the French troops was promised,
and Russia engaged to exert its influence to
bring about a peace between France and
England. This treaty Alexander refused to
ratify on the ground that Ubril had exceeded
his instructions, and the unlucky negotiator was
on that account banished to his estates ; but
it was generally believed that he had followed
his instructions carefully, and that the object
had been to gain time. The King of Prussia,
alarmed at the arbitrary acts and imperious
tone of Napoleon, and especially at the idea
of the Rhenish confederation, by which
many German armies were placed at the
disposal of France, had now detei'niined to
abandon the neutral policy hitherto adopted,
and he fonued an intimate alliance with Russia
3 K 2

ALEXANDER.

and Sweden to counterbalance the confede-
ration of the Rhine. Napoleon demanded
the dissolution of the new league, and it
was soon evident that the question was to
be decided by arms. The fatal day of Jena
and Auerstadt, on the Cth of October, 1806,
crushed at one blow the fortvmes of Prussia.
Alexandei-, on receiving the news, issued a
proclamation to the effect that the fall of
Prussia, by compromising the safety of his
own dominions, engaged him anew in a dii'ect
struggle with France, and ordered an imme-
diate levy of 400,000 men. The remainder
of the year was occupied with a dreary cam-
paign of the French and Russians on the
frozen plains of Poland, in which the soldiers
of Napoleon obtained no decisive success.
The 7th and 8th of February, 1807, were
signalised by the battle of Eylau, in which
the Russian commander, Bennigsen, who had
been one of the most active agents in the
assassination of Paul, played a drawn game
with Napoleon. The battle of Friedland on
the 24th of June was less favourable to the
Russian arms, and a proposal for an armistice
on the part of Alexander led to conferences
on the subject of peace at Tilsit.

The meeting of the emperors of France
and Russia at Tilsit is an important event
not only in the life of Alexander, but in the
history of Europe. It produced a total change
in the policy of Russia, as well as in the per-
sonal sentiments of the two emperors, who,
from deadly enemies, became, to all appear-
ance, cordial friends. At their first inter-
view, on the 25th of June, 1807, each left
the banks of the Niemen in a boat, attended
by his suite. The boat of Napoleon cleared
the distance first ; and Napoleon, stepping on
the raft appointed for the conference, passed
over, and receiving Alexander on the oppo-
site side, embraced him in the sight of both
armies. The first words of Alexander wei-e
directed to flatter the ruling passion of Na-
poleon. " I hate the English," he exclaimed,
"as much as you do: whatever you take
in hand against them, I will be your
second." " In that case," replied Napoleon,
" everything can be easily settled, and peace
is already made." In the first conference
they remained together two hours ; the next
day they met agam, and Alexander presented
to Napoleon the King of Prussia, who was
soon after joined by his queen. During the
remainder of the conferences, which lasted
twenty days, the two emperors were daily
in the habit of meeting and conversing
on terms of intimacy, while the King of
Prussia was treated by Napoleon with haugh-
tiness, and the queen with rudeness, and
Alexander appeared almost ashamed to
make any exertion in their favour witli his
new friend. He even concluded a separate
treaty with Napoleon to the bitter mor-
tification of Frederick William, the treaty
made with whom soon after was of a very
860

different character from that between the
two emperors. Among other humiliations,
Prussia was stripped of its ill-gained Polish
provinces, and one of them, Bialystock, was,
to the astonishment of all the world, given
to the Emperor of Russia. This was the
more surprising, as in November, 1806, Alex-
ander had written to the king in so many
words, " I will do my utmost to prevent the
Prussian dominions from losing even a vil-
lage." The principal articles of the treaty
between Alexander and Napoleon, signed on
the 7th of June, 1807, were — that Alexander
recognised Napoleon's three brothers, Joseph,
Louis, and Jerome, as kings of Naples, Hol-
land, and Westphalia ; that he also recognised
the confederation of the Rhine, and all the
arrangements connected with it ; that both
guaranteed the integrity of each other's do-
minions, and mutually restored all prisoners ;
and that Russia undertook to mediate with
England for a peace with France, and France
with Turkey for a peace with Russia, each
power, in case its mediation was refused, to
make common cause with the other. A
secret treaty was concluded at the same time
of still more importance ; but the articles of
which, though strongly conjectured from
various subsequent events, and even partially
disclosed, were never fully known, till pub-
lished in 18.34, in the "Biographic Univer-
selle," the high character of which guarantees
the authenticity of the information. These
articles were as follows: — 1. Russia was to
take possession of Eui'opean Turkey and ex-
tend its conquests in Asia to what extent it
thought proper. 2. The house of Bourbon in
Spain and the house of Braganza in Portugal
were to cease to reign, and a prince of the
house of Bonaparte was to succeed to each.
3. The temporal authority of the pope was
to cease, and Rome and its dependencies to
be united to the kingdom of Italy. 4, Russia
was to assist France with her navj' for the
conquest of Gibraltar. 5. The French were
to take possession of Algiers, Tunis, and
other towns in Africa, and at a general peace
these conquests wei'e to be given as an in-
demnity to the kings of Sicily and Sardinia.
6. Malta was to belong to the French, and no
peace to be made with England before its
cession. 7. The French were to occupy
Egypt. 8. The navigation of the Mediter-
ranean was to be permitted to French, Rus-
sian, Italian, and Spanish vessels only : all
other nations were to be rigidly excluded.
9. Denmark was to be indemnified in the
north of Germany with the Hanseatic towns,
but only on condition of placing its navy in
the hands of France. 10. Their majesties,
the emperors of Russia and of the French
were to settle an agreement by which no
power should be allowed to send merchant
ships to sea unless it possessed a certain
number of vessels of war.

For the first few months after the treatj- of

ALEXANDER.

ALEXANDER,

Tilsit, Alexander continued to profess the
same unbounded admiration and friendship
for Napoleon that he had shown at their
interviews. When, in consequence of the
ninth article of the secret treaty, which had
become known to the English government,
the English expedition was sent to Copen-
hagen to demand the surrender of the Danish
fleet till the conclusion of the war, and on the
refusal of the Danes the bombardment of
Copenhagen followed, Alexander expressed
in public the strongest abhorrence of the
measure, which he characterised as "apiratical
expedition." We learn, however, from Walter
Scott, who, during the composition of his
Life of Napoleon, had access to important docu-
ments in the Foreign Office, that at this very
time " an English officer of literary celebrity "
(probably Sir Robert Ker Porter) " was em-
ployed by Alexander, or those who were sup-
posed to share his most secret councils, to
convey to the British ministry the emperor's
expressions of secret satisfaction at the skill
and dexterity which Britain had displayed in
anticipating and preventing the purposes of
France by her attack upon Copenhagen.
Her ministers were invited to communicate
freely with the Czar as with a prince who,
though obliged to give way to circumstances,
was nevertheless as much attached as ever to
the cause of European independence." The
first communications the British ministers
made, however, were received with such cold-
ness as to show that either the agent had over-
stepped his instructions, or the emperor had
changed his mind ; and for some time after
Alexander appeared a cordial supporter of
the policy of Napoleon and the " continental
system."

One of the methods by which he manifested
this support tended also in the most direct
manner to the gratification of Russian am-
bition. Gustavus IV. of Sweden was sum-
moned after the settlement of Tilsit to accede
to the continental system of excluding En-
glish commerce and manufactures, which he
had previously I'esisted in common with
Alexander, who was his brother-in-law. He
resolutely declined compliance, and war was
thereupon declared against him by Russia.
Count Buxhijvden, the Russian general, who
entered Finland at the head of a strong force,
issued proclamations exhorting the Swedish
anny not to shed its lilood in an unjust cause,
and the inhabitants to submit to the mild
sceptre of Alexander. The King of Sweden,
incensed at a war being commenced by an
invitation to his subjects to break their al-
legiance, issued a declaration in which he
personally reproached the Russian emperor
with perfidy and meanness. The charge was
not the more likely to be forgiven that it was
well-founded. Finland, partly by bribery,
and partly by the bravery of the Russian
troops, was annexed to Alexander's empire ;
in the following year Gustavus was de-
SCl

throned by his own subjects ; and at the sub-
sequent general restoration of deposed kings,
he was the only one left uncompensated and
uncared for.

The termination of the war in Finland
enabled the Russians to act more effectually
in another quarter. The Turks had, on the
.30th of December, 1806, declared war against
Russia, actuated partly by the influence of
France, partly by resentment at the occupation
of Moldavia and Wallachia by Russian armies
under pretext of enforcing the conditions of
the treaties of Kainardji and Jassj'. On the
30th of June, 1807, Count Gudovich gained
a victory over the Turks by land, and on the
following day Admiral Senyavin a more
important one by sea near Lemnos. At the
conference of Tilsit, Napoleon, out of humour
at receiving the news of the dethronement of
his ally the Sultan Selim, thoughtlessly aban-
doned the Turkish empire, which he was
equally pledged and interested to support, to
the mercy of the Russian autocrat. The war
was carried on with more various success
than might have been anticipated, but the
advantage was in general on the side of Alex-
ander. The only serious check that Russia
sustained about this time was the capture by
the English often vessels of war sent to Por-
tugal under the command of Admiral Sen-
yavin to induce the Portuguese to adopt the
continental system. As the Russians sur-
rendei'ed without firing a shot, on the con-
dition that the vessels should be restored when
peace was concluded, it has been conjectured
by French writers that the capture had been
previously' arranged between the two powers,
and thus furnished another instance of the
dissatisfaction of Alexander at the conditions
he had entered into at Tilsit, and his readi-
ness to employ duplicity to evade them.

However strong this dissatisfaction might
be, Alexander did not neglect to attend the
conference at Erfurt, in September, 1808, the
last and most signal display of Napoleon's
power, when he hardly exaggerated in telling
Talma the actor that he should play " before
a pit of kings." It was on the occasion of one
of the performances by the French company
at Erfurt that Alexander paid a remarkable
public compliment to Napoleon. When, in
the tragedy of ffidipus by Voltaire, the well-
known line was uttered by the representative
of Phlloctetes, —

" L'amitiu d'un grand lioinme est un bicnfait dps
dieux ; "

" The friendship of a great man is a benefaction of Iho

gods," —

Alexander rose and embraced Napoleon, who
was seated by his side, while the pit burst
forth into tumults of api)lause. It is said,
nevertheless, that signs of a coming rupture
were apparent even at this amicable meeting.
Some of these were personal. Alexander,
himself of lofty stature, could not always re-
press a certain contempt of the small propor-

3 K u

ALEXANDER.

tions of Napoleon ; and Napoleon, perceiving
this feeling, gave way to some satirical sallies
on the self-complacency of Alexander. But
there veere more serious sources of dissatis-
faction. Napoleon complained of the con-
quest of Finland, which had not been agreed
to at Tilsit, and required, it is said, on that
account, the cancelling of the secret article
with regard to the conquest of Turkey ; a
demand to which the Emperor of Russia
reluctantly acceded. Napoleon, already re-
solved on divorcing Josephine, was anxious
to obtain the hand of a sister of Alexander as
a pledge of the constancy of his ally ; but
obstacles were raised on the ground of pre-
engaged affections and difference of religion.
The most important compact entered into was
that of Alexander to support Napoleon in the
war which was foreseen to be approaching
with Austria, and his sanction of Napoleon's
unparalleled measures with regard to Spain and
Portugal, where matters had already begun to
assume an aspect which rendered Napoleon
uneasy. In return for these concessions,
some modification of the harshness of French
supremacy was obtained for Prussia. These
arrangements were not reduced to formal
treaties, but settled between the emperors by
frequent personal interviews, and left on the
faith of their mutual promises. After a con-
ference of seventeen days, varied, among other
amusements, by a visit to the field of Jena, in
which Napoleon pointed out to the Emperor
of Russia the manner in which he had there
defeated the Prussian army, the party broke
up, and the emperors departed, after writing
a joint letter to the King of England, in
which they invited him to conclude a peace,
on the basis of sacrificing his Spanish allies.
A few months after, on the 10th of March,
1809, Alexander opened in person a Finnish
diet in the town of Umea.

The rupture between Finance and Austria
followed, provoked by Austria, who flattered
herself with the hope of gaining advantages
over Napoleon while he was engaged in the
contest in Spain. The half-success of Aus-
tria at Aspei'n only paved the way to her
total defeat at Wagram. Buturlin, the aide-
de-camp to Alexander, shows in his History
that it was impossible for his master to avoid
co-operating with Napoleon on this occasion,
Avithout altogether breaking his recent en-
gagements. AU the assistance, however, that
he lent, was to send a Russian army of from
thirty to forty thousand men into Galicia to
assist the Poles in conquering the province.
Alexander received in return a considerable
portion of the spoil of Austria at the treaty of
SchiJnbrunn, — the district of Tarnopol, with
a population of four hundred thousand.

Alexander, knowing a quarrel with Napo-
leon was inevitable, availed himself of the
advantages of his friendship while it lasted,
to crush the power of Turkey. On the ter-
mination of the war in Finland, the autocrat
862

had, as already stated, resumed the war with
Tui'key, which had been cai'ried on with
varying success. On the 21st of January,
1810, he issued an imperial ukase, formally
announcing that Moldavia and Wallachia,
which for three yeai's had been occupied by
his troops, were annexed to the Russian
empire, and that the southern boundary of
that empire was now the course of the
Danube from the frontiers of Austria to the
Black Sea. The campaigns which followed
were signalised by the capture of Rudschuk
and the victory of Battin in 1810, the drawn
battle of Rudschuk and the evacuation of
that town by the Russians in 1811, and the
suiTender of the Turkish army to Kutuzov
at Giurgevo on October 28th in the same
year. The negotiations which succeeded
were pressed with energy by the Russians,
to whom peace with Turkey was at that
moment essential, as war with France was on
the point of breaking out. The influence of
England was thrown into the scale in Russia's
favour ; but the sultan was only finally in-
duced to consent by his indignation at Napo-
leon, on being informed both by Russia and
England that he had agreed to a partition of
the dominions of Turkey at the conferences
of Tilsit. A treaty was signed at Bucharest,
on May 28th, 1812, by which the river Pruth
was agreed on as the boundary ; and such
favourable terms were granted in general to
Russia, that a few months later, when the
sultan became aware of the danger with which
Russia was threatened and the advantages he
had held in his hands, he ordered Morouzil,
a Greek who had taken a leading part in the
negotiations, to be put to death.

The dispute between Alexander and Napo-
leon turned on the continental system, or sys-
tem of excluding English manufactures and
commerce from the Continent, which Napo-
leon was as pertinacious to enforce as Alexan-
der was anxious to evade. The ruinous con-
sequences of its adoption to Russian pros-
perity, which had been nourished by the closest
connection with England as a customer for
the principal products of the country, had
made themselves unequivocally felt innnedi-
ately after the conference of Tilsit, and caused
general dissatisfaction in Russia, There had
therefore been always in operation a system
of connivance to evade the prohibition, which
Napoleon did not view with the less dis-
pleasure that he also had been obliged by the
necessity of the case to admit of something
similar in his own dominions. In course of
time Alexander had recourse to still bolder
measures. On the 3 1 st of December, 1810,
he ventured to issue a decree by Avhich he
prohibited the importation of various articles
of French manufacture, and allowed that of
colonial produce. In addition to this great
cause of dispute, there were several minor
ones, arising out of the overbearing conduct
of Napoleon, in particular that of his annex-

ALEXANDER.

ing to his already overgrown empire the
domiiiious of the Duke of Oldenburg, Alex-
ander's brother-in-law, and of extending the
bounds of the grand duchy of Warsaw, a state
which had been created from the conquest of
Prussia, and was always looked upon by Rus-
sia with a jealous eye, as likely to foster the
nationality of the Poles. Alexander required
a definite pledge that the kingdom of Poland
should not be re-established, and that his
brother-in-law should be indemnified by a
territory on the frontiers of the duchy of
Warsaw. Napoleon was indignant at the
tone of Alexander ; the negotiations were soon
broken oft", and both parties prepared for war.
It is from this time that the character of
Alexander, hitherto equivocal, now purified
by danger and calamity, shines out with un-
expected lustre. On the 21st of April, 1812,
he left St. Petersburg, and joined the army
then assembled along his western frontier. It
consisted of two himdred and sixty thousand
men, in two divisions, one under the com-
mand of Barclay de Tolly, the other of Prince
Bagration. Napoleon advanced against Rus-
sia at the head of five hvmdred and eighty-
seven thousand men, of whom seventy-three
thousand were cavalry, the most formidable
host that history records. This army was
composed of the flower of many nations, and
a large portion consisted of the contingents
of Prussia and Austria. Prussia had secretly
oftered to Alexander to espouse his cause,
but had been refused simply out of regard to
her own safety. The invaders entered the
Russian territory without opposition, on the
25th of June. On receiving the intelligence,
Alexander declared that he would not lay
down his arms while a single hostile sol-
dier remained in his dominions. The Rus-
sians began to retreat, and continued to do
so, till both divisions joined at Smolensk,
when the emperor, who had hitherto accom-
panied the first division, left the army, and
repaired to Moscow. He was received by
all classes with a frenzy of enthusiasm ;
and in an assembly of the nobles and mer-
chants sumnaoned by the governor. Count
Rostopchin, at the Kremlin, he promised to
have recourse to the extremest measures ra-
ther than lay down his arms, as at Tilsit,
and added the remarkable words, " The dis-
asters with which you are threatened shoidd
be regarded only as the necessary means to
consummate the ruin of the enemy." From
Moscow , Alexander repaired to St. Peters-
burg, and thence to Orebro in Sweden,
where he concluded a treaty of alliance with
the English, by which the Russian squadron
captured in the Tagus, in 1808, was restored,
and large subsidies were granted by England
for the prosecution of the war. On the 20th
of July he also contracted an offensive and
defensive alliance with the supreme junta of
Spain. On the 21st of August he met at
Abo the Crown Prince of Sweden, Bernadotte,
863

whom Napoleon by a series of insults at this
critical time threw into the arais of Russia.
By an alliance concluded with him, a portion
of the Russian army, which had necessarily
been kept on the frontiers of Finland, to guard
against an outbreak from the Swedes, was set
at liberty to be used against the French ; and
the price of this advantage was, in the eyes
of a politician, almost nothing, for it was
merely the stipulation to join Sweden in
wresting Norway from Denmark, and adding
it to S.weden, as a compensation for the loss
of Finland. During Alexander's interview
with Bernadotte the news arrived of Napo-
leon's entry into Smolensk, which had now
been abandoned by the Russians. " Should
St. Petersburg itself be taken," exclaimed the
emperor, " I will retire into Siberia ; I will
resume our ancient customs, and, like our
long-bearded ancestors, we will reconquer the
empire." " That determination," replied Ber-
nadotte, "will save Europe."

The evacuation of Smolensk was hov,--
ever looked upon by the nation less as an act
of prudence than of pusillanimity ; and Alex-
ander was compelled by public opinion to allow
Kutuzov to take the command, and fight on
the 7 th of September the sanguinary battle of
Borodino ; immediately after which Kutuzov
recommenced his retreat, and allowed the
French to prosecute their march. Soon after
Alexander published a noble proclamation.
" On the 15th of September the enemy en-
teix'd Moscow. Let not the great Russian
nation be dismayed at this. No ; rather let
every one burn with a fresh spirit of courage,
of firmness, and of undoubting hope that
every evil inflicted on us by the enemy will
fall in the end on their own heads. In the
present wretched condition of mankind, how
glorious will be that nation which, bearing
undaunted all the evils of war, shall at length,
by its patience and courage, achieve a per-
petual and inviolate tranquillity, not only
for itself, but for other nations, and even for
those who, against their will, make war upon
it."

The burning of Moscow followed. It must
however be owned, that high as the feelings
of the Russian nation were at this period, the
destruction of the capital cannot be regarded
as its own act. The conflagration was pub-
licly attributed by the Russian authorities
to the French, and used as a fresh means
of exciting hatred against them. After re-
maining some days amidst the ruins of
Moscow in the expectation of receiving over-
tures for peace, Napoleon sent his aide-de-
camp, Lauriston, to Alexander. Kutuzov
informed the messenger that he could not be
allowed access to the emperor, but might
transmit the letter with which he had been
intrusted. The only answer received after
a delay of some weeks was a reproof to the
Russian generals for having transgressed
their duty by entering into any intercourse
3 K 4

ALEXANDER.

ALEXANDER,

with the inyaders, coupled with the expres-
sion of a desire that they would be more ob-
servant of their orders in future. The
retreat of the French from Moscow was then
commenced, which the loss of time thus
occasioned contributed to swell to that mass
of misery which the annals of the world can-
not parallel. Alexander joined the army at
Wilna on the 22d of December, and sig-
nalised his arrival by a general amnesty to
all the inhabitants of the Polish provinces
who had lent assistance to the French.

Russia was now entirely safe ; but the
views of Alexander, in the proclamation on
Napoleon's entrance to Moscow, extended to
the whole of Europe. In a very remarkable
proclamation, dated at Warsaw on the 22d
of February, 1813, he developed them at
length. " We take advantage of our victo-
ries," he there declared, " to extend the
hand of succour to the oppressed nations.
The moment is come — never was a more
glorious opportunity presented to unfortimate
Germany — the enemy flies, without courage
and without hope. He astonishes by his
terror the nations that were wont to be
astonished by his pride and his barbarity.
We speak with the frankness that is suitable
to strength. Russia, and England her in-
trepid ally, who for twenty years has con-
tinued shaking that colossus of crime v^hich
threatens the universe, have no thought of
their own aggrandizement. It is our benefits,
and not the limits of our empire, that we
wish to extend to the remotest nations. The
destinies of Vesuvius and of the Guadiana
have been determined on the banks of the
Borysthenes ; it is thence that Spain will
recover the liberty that she has defended with
heroism and energy in an age of feebleness
and baseness." After an animated appeal to
the Austrians and Prussians, the proclama-
tion goes on : — " Saxons, Hollanders, Bel-
gians, Bavarians ! we address the same words
to you. Think — and soon your phalanxes
will be swelled by all, who in the midst of the
corruption which degrades jou, have pre-
served some tincture of honour and virtue.
Fear may still restrain your sovereigns, but
let not a fatal obedience check you : they, as
wretched as yourselves, detest the power
which they dread, and will applaud your
generous efforts when crowned with your
happiness and their freedom. Our victorious
troops are now about to pursue their march
to the frontiers of the enemj\ There, if you
show j'ourselves worthy to march by the
side of the heroes of Russia, if the misfor-
tunes of your country touch you, if the
North imitates the example that the proud
Castilians set, the period of mourning is i
ended for the world, our generous battalions
will enter together that empire whose power
and whose pride a single victory has crushed.
K even that degenerate nation, excited to
some noble sentiments by events so extra-
804

ordinary, should turn its tearful eyes on the
happiness it once enjoyed under its kings,
we would extend to it the hand of succour ;
and Europe, lately on the point of becoming
a monster's prey, would recover at once its
independence and its tranquillity ; while of
that sanguinary colossus which threatened
the Continent with an eternity of crime, no-
thing would remain but an eternal remem-
brance of pity and horror. We address to
the people by this manifesto what we have
charged our envoys to convey to kings ; and
if they, from the remains of pusillanimity,
persist in their fatal system of submission,
the voice of their subjects must make itself
heard, and the princes who would plunge
their people in degradation and misfortune
must be dragged by them to vengeance and
to glory. Let Germany call to mind its ancient
courage, and its tyrant exists no longer!"

Before this proclamation had been issued,
the Prussian troops under the command of
General York had already entered into a sepa-
rate armistice with the Russians, and they
now joined them. The King of Prussia
affected to blame the conduct of his general ;
but he was no sooner free from the imme-
diate control of the French, than he issued
a proclamation in which he declared that, in
accordance with the universal wish of his
nation, he would make common cause against
Napoleon. Alexander and Frederick Wil-
liam met again after a long separation on the
loth of May, 1813, at Breslau. It is said
that when they embraced, the King of Prussia
burst into tears, on which Alexander ex-
claimed, " Courage, my brother : these are the
last tears that Napoleon shall make you shed."
Amidst the preparations for the campaign,
Kutuzov, the Russian field -marshal, had ex-
pired (on the 16th of April), and Alexander
assumed in person the command in chief of
his army. The campaign commenced un-
fortunately, and in the battles of Liitzen and
Bautzen, the personal dangers to which
Alexander exposed himself did not prevent
Napoleon from gaining the victory. An
armistice which was made, it is said, at
Alexander's request, was more advantageous
to him than battles. Austria, provoked
by the imdiminished obstinacy and haughti-
ness of Napoleon, who believed that no-
thing could detach his father-in-law from
his alliance, at length was prevailed on to
join the coalition ; Bavaria and Wirtemberg
followed ; and when the armistice expii-ed on
the 17th of August, the forces of the allies
amounted to more than half a million of men.
Of this enormous host Alexander was am-
bitious to be the commander in chief ; but
finding that Austria was unwilling to consent,
from distrust of his military talents, he
gracefully relinquished his claims in favour
of the Austrian Prince Schwarzenberg.
Although not nominally at the head of the
army, his influence was great, and it is to

ALEXANDER.

him that the finnness and vigour manifested
in the subsequent movements of the allies
must be attributed. Alexander had counted
on assistance from General Moreau, the old
rival of Napoleon, -whom he summoned
from xVmerica to take part against France
in the general warfare of Europe. Moreau
had arrived on the eve of the expiration of
the armistice. On the 27th of August, on
the second of three days in which the French
and the allies were engaged in a desperate
struggle for the city of Dresden, he had just
draM-n up his horse while riding along a
narrow path to allow Alexander to pass him,
when a ball from a cross battery shattered
both his legs, and he fell mortally wounded
by the side of the emperor. The battle of
Dresden terminated to the disadvantage of
the allies ; but Napoleon was soon compelled
from reverses in other quarters to retreat
on Leipzig, where the battle of the four
days, from the 16th to the 19th of October,
decided the liberation of Genuany. The
King of Saxony, Napoleon's most constant
ally, sent an ofiicer to Alexander as the
battle drew near a close, with proposals to
allow the French four hours to leave the
city. Alexander, who received the messenger
on horseback with the King of Prussia, at
about five hundred paces from Leipzig, re-
plied that he would not grant them a minute,
and ordered an immediate attack, the con-
sequences of which were fearful to the
French. After this signal victory the ad-
vance of the allies was unchecked. Ger-
many was freed, and Holland was evacuated
by the French, at the same time that Soult,
abandoning Spain, was pursued into France
by ^^'ellington.

These advantages would not have been
turned to the best account but for the con-
tinued firmness of Alexander. He had begun
the campaign of 1 8 1 3 single-handed in the east
of Europe, and he concluded it at the head
of the most formidable allied army that ever
existed. But the coimsels of allies ai-e pro-
verbially timid and wavering ; most of his
associates were disposed to rest satisfied with
their success, and contended that the object
of the alliance was gained now that Napoleon
was driven across the Rhine. '" In rejecting
peace," says his aide-de-camp !Mikhailovsky
Danilevsky, " Alexander stood alone in the
camp of the allies, as Napoleon did in
France." It was however by the support
of England, as represented by Lord Castle-
reagh, that he succeeded in carrying his
point in favour of invasion. On the 31st
of December, 1813, the united Russian,
Austrian, and Prussian army crossed the
Rhine. The battle of Brienne, which Alex-
ander and Frederick William witnessed from
the neighbouring heights, was the first en-
counter on the soil of France ; and, des-
perately as Napoleon fought on the ground
which had witnessed his first honours as a
805

boy at school, it terminated in favour of the
allies, and it was followed by other successes
at Craon, at Laon, and at Soissons. The
victories of Napoleon at Montmirail and
Champaubert were perhaps still more un-
fortunate for him in the end than these de-
feats were ; they led him to reject the favour-
able terms which the allies ofi'ered him in
the conferences of Chatillon. In conse-
quence of this rejection, a treaty was signed
at Chaumont on the 1st of March, between
the four allied powers, Russia, Austria,
Prussia, and England, by Avhich it was
agreed that each should keep an anny of a
hundred and fifty thousand men in the field,
and England, in addition to maintaining her
own contingent, should pay the other powers
an annual subsidy of five millions sterling.
The war was resumed. Napoleon, who had
often committed military faults with impimitj%
from the habit his opponents had contracted
of standing on the defensive, marched to-
Avards the Rhine with the purpose of draw-
ing the allies from Paris ; but the Russian
general, Yolkonsky, pointed out to Alex-
ander, in a council of war, that he had now
the opportunity of taking Paris. The em-
peror eagerly seized the suggestion, and on
the 24th of March met the King of Prussia
and Schwarzenberg on the road near Vitry,
and laying before them the plan of opera-
tions, proposed the decisive measure. It
was adopted ; Napoleon was left to waste
his strength where his presence was not
required, while the allies, pressing onward,
after a battle gained at La Fere Champe-
noise, and another under the walls of Paris,
saw the capital at their mercy. The allies
entered Paris on the 31st of INIarch, 1814.
It was the proudest day in Alexander's life.
He was welcomed by the inhabitants of
Paris as a deliverer. " We have been long
expecting you," cried one of the crowd,
not very sensible to national honour, that
thronged the Boulevards. " We should have
been here sooner," replied the emperor,
" but for the bravery of jour troops." " I do
not come as your enemy," he frequently
repeated, " regard me as your friend." He
was indeed their deliverer from the vengeance
of his own army. The Russian soldiers, who
believed that Napoleon had set fire to their
capital, " Mother Moscow," as they term it,
said to one another on the morning of their
entry, " Father Paris must pay for Mother
IMoscow." A word from Alexander would
have sealed the destruction of Paris ; but all
his efforts were directed to preserve it.
After seeing fifty thousand of the allied
troops defile before him in the Place Louis
Quinze, he alighted at the house of Talley-
rand, where the allied princes and ministers
with some of the leading men of Paris were
assembled to receive him. A conference
took place on the course to be adopted in the
present state of affairs. Alexander requested

ALEXANDER.

tlie opinion of the French part of the com-
pany, with the declaration that the wish of
the allied powers was to consult the wishes
of Fi-ance and secure the peace of the world.
The meeting closed with an expressed reso-
lution on the part of Alexander to treat no
longer with the Emperor Napoleon, or with
any of his family. The effect of this deter-
mination, made public immediately after,
was decisive. On the next day, the 1st of
April, the senate met and nominated a pro-
visional government, still, however, without
saying a word of the restoration of the
Bourbons, the measure to which the de-
claration of Alexander evidently pointed.
On the day after, by a solemn decree, the
senate dethroned the Emperor Napoleon, and
absolved the army and the people from
their oaths of allegiance. After passing this
decree the senate waited in a body on Alex-
ander, who received them in the most gra-
cious manner, protested that he made war
against Napoleon only, and added, " The
provisional government has asked me for the
liberation of the French prisoners of war
confined in Russia : I give it to the senate
in return for the resolutions it has this day
passed." By this act one hundred and fifty
thousand men recovered their liberty.

The moderation exhibited by Alexander
in the hour of triumph was indeed carried to
almost a culpable excess. On the arrival, a
few days after, of envoys from Napoleon to
plead the cause, not indeed of their fallen
master, but of his son and the army, he called
a council to deliberate on the expediency of
considering their proposals, although the
measures already taken had clearly pledged
the allied kings to the cause of the Bour-
bons, and to recede would have been to
sacrifice to the vengeance of the Bonapartists
all who had avowed the Bourbon party on the
faith of those pledges. The council decided
against any change of measures; but it was
owing to the influence of Alexander that such
favourable terms were granted to Napoleon :
the possession of an independent sovereignty
in Elba, and the command of a portion of his
former guai'd. Alexander staid for some
time at Paris, examining the public establish-
ments, and conducting himself more as a
foreign prince on a visit of curiosity to that
capital than a conqueror who had entered it
by force after a war in which the dearest
interests of mankind had been at stake. He
paid frequent visits to Josephine, the divorced
wife of Napoleon, whose influence was ex-
erted with him on behalf of her former hus-
band; and on her death, soon after, he was
present at her funeral. On the 3d of May,
the day of the entry of Louis XVIII. to his
restored capital, he witnessed the procession
from a window, but declined taking any part
in it, from a feeling of delicacy both to the
king and his people. The proclamation
addressed to the French nation by Louis,
8GG

dated from St. Ouen on the preceding day,
in which he promised a constitution to his
subjects, was drawn up under the imme-
diate influence of Alexander. On the 1st of
June he left Paris for London, and remained
in England till the 2Sth — a memorable period
of national rejoicing, unequalled in the im-
portance of its causes or the depth of its
fervour. A grand banquet was given at^the
Guildhall to the Emperor of Russia, the King
of Prussia, and the Prince Regent of Eng-
land, on the ISth of June, the exact date on
which, a year afterwards, the battle of Wa-
terloo was won. The allied princes paid
a visit to Oxfoi'd, where they were honoured
with the degi'ee of doctors of civil law, — a
circumstance which has more excited the
surprise than the admiration of foreign his-
torians. Alexander was also admitted to the
order of the Garter : but the honour which
really seemed to afford him most gratifica-
tion was that of a medal from the Humane
Society in reward for his personal exertions
some tune before in saving the life of a man
who had been apparently drowned. He was
present at some military reviews in Hyde
Park, and at the less frequent spectacle of
a grand naval review at Portsmouth. On
leaving England he went to Holland, where
his most memorable day was spent in a visit
to the cottage which Peter the Great had
occupied when a ship's carpenter at Saardam.
His return to his own dominions was wel-
comed with boundless enthusiasm ; but he
declined the title of " Blagoslovennuiy," or
" Blessed," which the synod and the senate
had decreed him, and avoided the ceremony
of a public entry into St. Petersburg. To
a proposal for erecting a monument to com-
memorate his exploits, he replied, " I beg the
public bodies of the empire to abandon all
such designs. May a monument be erected
to me in your hearts, as it is to you in mine.
May my people bless me in their hearts, as in
mine I bless them. May Russia be happy,
and may the Divine blessing watch over her
and over me." He granted an absolute par-
don to all of his subjects who had taken part
against him in the late war ; and, in the go-
vei'nments which had suffered most from the
invasion, he dispensed with levying the per-
sonal tax from the peasants.

After concluding a peace with Persia,
which had rashly ventured on a war by
which it now lost several important districts,
he repaired to the congress of Vienna, where
the moderation which he had so signally
displayed with regard to the French appears
to have been replaced by a different spirit,
which gave uneasiness to his allies. He
wished to punish the King of Saxony by the
cession of his entire dominions to Prussia,
but was persuaded to be satisfied with the
surrender of a large portion. For himself
he demanded the grand duchy of Warsaw,
and with such fixedness of purpose that it was

ALEXANDER.

generally understood he would support his
claims, if necessary, by an appeal to arms.
The allies yielded to his wishes. The ^rand
duchy and the other portions of Poland
ah'eady in Alexander's power were erected
into a separate kingdom, of which, in January,
1815, he was recognized king, and to which
he soon after granted a constitution as to a
state distinct from Russia. When the news
of Bonaparte's return from Elba reached
the Congress, then just on the point of break-
ing up, Alexander signed without hesitation
the declaration of the allies (dated the 13th
of March), that " Napoleon Bonaparte had
placed himself out of the pale of civil and
social relations." He received at Heidelberg,
on his onward march with his army, the in-
formation of the battle of Waterloo, and on
the 11th of July arrived at Paris, where he
found himself no longer so popular, and
showed himself no longer so placable, as in
the preceding year, the conduct of the French
and their emperor having taught him that
moderation does not always conciliate. It is
said, however, that he opposed himself to a
project then on foot for dismembering France,
in accordance with an opinion he had ex-
pressed in the preceding year, that " for the
happiness of Europe it was necessary that
France should be great and powerful." It
may be more than doubted whether any such
project was ever entertained.

On the 20th of September, before leaving
Paris, Alexander signed, in conjunction with
the sovereigns of Austria and Prussia, a
treaty of the most singular nature. In the
first of the three articles of which it consists
it declares that "conformably to the prin-
ciples of the Holy Scriptures, which command
all men to look upon one another as brothers,
the three contracting monarchs will remain
united by the bonds of a true and indisso-
luble brotherhood ; that, mutually considering
themselves as fellow-countrymen, they will
lend each other, on all occasions and in all
places, assistance, aid, and succour ; and that,
considering themselves in the light of fathers
of a family towards their subjects and armies,
they will direct them in the same spirit of
brotherhood with which they are animated
to protect religion, peace, and justice." In
the second article the same sentiments are
repeated, but with a more direct and con-
tinued allusion to their foundation in Chris-
tianity ; and in the third the contracting
parties invite all powers who will avow the
same sacred doctrines to be received into this
" Holy Alliance." Alexander was the chief
promoter of this new and singular league, to
which he was supposed to have been insti-
gated by the exhortations of Madame Krii-
dener [KrOdener], a i-eligious enthusiast
of the period. For the rest of his life the
maintenance of this alliance, which was soon
acceded to by all the principal powers of
Europe with the exception of England, was
867

the main object of his eiforts, and one to
which he made more than one sacrifice of
advantages that might have been attained by
following a more selfish policy. The ob-
jections to the Holy Alliance were obvious :
it tended to prevent the advance of liberty
or political improvement in any single ccmn-
try, without the simultaneous consent of all
or the majority of the princes of Europe.
But the advantages of the system have not
been so fidly recognised, though it is no
doubt to the Holy Alliance and to its legiti-
mate successor, the conferences of the five
great powers, that the long-continued peace
since the battle of Waterloo must be ascribed.
By establishing a sort of general council in
the affairs of Europe, it made an advance
towards a system of deciding the most mo-
mentous affairs of nations without an appeal
to arms ; a benefit of such extent that it may
compensate for many disadvantages. Three
meetings of the Holy Alliance were held
during Alexander's lifetime ; that of Aix-la-
Chapelle in October and November, 1818;
that of Troppau, from October to December,
1820, afterwards transferred to Laybach; and
that of Verona, from October to December,
1822. At Aix-la-Chapelle, Alexander took
a leading part in procuring the reduction of
the sums agreed to be paid by France in
indemnification of the requisitions, contri-
butions, and plunderings exacted and exer-
cised by the French armies abroad during
the war, and which it was now alleged that
France could not possibly pay without abso-
lute ruin. The sum to be liquidated was
reduced, by his mediation, from 700,000,000
to 320,.300,000 francs. At the congress of
Troppau, the injurious principle of the Holy
Alliance began to be developed by the order
that was issued by its members for the sup-
pression of the revolutions of Piedmont and
Naples by the use of military power foreign
to those states. \Miile Alexander was still
at Laybach, the news arrived of the first out-
break of an insurrection in Greece, the same
which was finally destined, after so many re-
verses, to prove successful. It was accom-
panied by a letter from Ypsilanti [Ypsllanti],
who headed the revolt, and who had been an
officer in the Russian service, soliciting the
aid of Russia. Alexander replied by a pe-
remptory refusal and a sharp reproof, and
preserved the same line of conduct during
the remainder of his reign, in spite of the in-
credidity and the insults of Turkey, which
almost openly accused him of hypocrisy, and
of the surprise and even indignation of his
subjects, who believed that the vengeance of
Heaven would faU upon them for not assisting
the Christians against the Infidels. At this
period the Count Capodistrias [Capodis-
TRiAs], the Russian secretary of state for
foreign affairs, withdrew from office and ob-
tained permission to travel. It is said that he
and the other secretary, Nesseh-ode, had long

ALEXANDER,

ALEXANDER.

supported opposite opinions in the Russian
cabinet ; that Capodistrias had advocated the
cause of liberal opinions in general, and that,
being himself a Greek, he had encouraged
Ypsilanti to commence his enterprise, in the
hopes of persuading Alexander to give as-
sistance to the independence of Greece. The
discovery of this circumstance stripped Capo-
distrias of his influence, and his consequent
retirement from the cabinet was considered a
triumph of anti-liberal principles, Avhich from
that period obtained a decided ascendancy
in the councils of Russia. At the congress of
Verona, Alexander took occasion to state his
views on the subject of the Greek insur-
rection. " There is nothing," he said to
Chateaubriand, the French plenipotentiary at
that congress, " that could appear more con-
formable to my interests or to those of my
country, or to the opinions of my nation, than
a religious war against the Turks ; but I
thought I perceived in the troubles of the
Peloponnesus a taint of revolution, and from
that moment I held aloof" " What need
have I," he continued, " of increasing my
empire ? Providence has not placed under
my orders eight hundred thousand soldiers
that I might gratify ambition, but that I
might protect religion, morals, and justice,
and enforce those principles of order on which
human society reposes." Alexander, there-
fore, came to no rupture with Turkey, though
his ambassador had been forced to leave
Constantinople ; and in pursuance of the
same princij^les he took part with the con-
gress of Verona in directing the Duke of
Angouleme's invasion of Spain.

The same gradual progress to less liberal
principles is discernible in Alexander's con-
duct with regard to Poland. After leaving
Paris in 1815, he repaired to Warsaw, where
he established a constitution for that country,
and placed at its head the general Zaiaczek
with the title of viceroy. By this consti-
tution a much greater degi-ee of freedom was
granted to the Poles than the Russians them-
selves enjoyed. The Roman Catholic form
of faith was recognised as the religion of the
state, but all dissidents were placed on a perfect
equality with the Roman Catholics as to civil
rights ; the liberty of the press was permitted
to its fullest extent ; the legislative authority
was vested in the king and two chambers,
and judges were to be elected partly by the
king and partly by the palatinates. In 1818,
in his speech on opening the chambers,
Alexander made use of these remarkable
words : — " Prove to your contemporaries
that liberal institutions, the principles of which
are confounded by some w ith those disastrous
doctrines which in our days have threatened
the social system with a frightful catastrophe,
— prove that they are not dangerous delusions ;
but that, put in practice with good faith, and
directed by pure intentions towards a useful
and conservative object, they are perfectly in
SG8

accordance with order, and insure the pros-
perity of nations." He declared that he was
only waiting to try the eifect of the good in-
stitutions he had given Poland, to extend
them to all the regions which Providence had
placed imder his care. In 1819, dissensions
had begun to arise, and by an ordinance of
July 31st in that year the censorship was
established. It is singular that Alexander
had abolished the censorship in Russia on his
accession, and that there also he had resumed
it, and after a very short interval. In his
speech on opening the chambers in 1820, he
spoke with bitterness of the revolutionary
doctrines which were then agitating Europe,
and declared that he would never palter with
the principles which he had laid down for his
guidance. The session was very stormy, and
a measure proposed by government (the only
way in which a measure could be brought
forward) was rejected by 120 votes to 3.
Alexander abruptly closed the session, and
no new diet was summoned till 1825. Some
students of the university of Wilna were
thrown into prison immediately after the
dissolution, on suspicion of being concerned
in a meditated revolt ; and it seems to be an
admitted fact that these suspicions were by no
means inifounded. The Poles, therefore,
appear to have left their ruler little choice
but that of governing despotically or not go-
verning at all.

These are the principal political events in
the reign of Alexander after the close of
the great drama in 1815. In 1825, on the
13th of September, he left St. Petersburg
on an excursion to the south of Russia,
ostensibly to visit the empress, who was then
residing at Taganrog for the benefit of the
air, being afflicted with a disease of the
heart. He was observed to look frequently
back at the capital with a melancholy air,
and to seem altogether out of spirits. He
had, in fact, received information of an ex-
tensive conspiracy, the object of which was
to effect a thorough change in the govern-
ment, and the means, to put the imperial
family to death. [Ruilayev.] Soon after
he arrived at Taganrog, he took an excur-
sion in the Crimea, in the course of which
he paused at a picturesque spot, and re-
marked, that if he retired from the cares
of government, it was there he would wish
to live, seeming to take pleasure in the
thought of abdication. On liis return to
Taganrog, he was found to have caught a
slight cold, which was soon succeeded by an
intermittent fever. He was obstinate in re-
fusing to take all kinds of medicine, and in
disregarding the advice of his medical at-
tendants ; perhaps in the state of melancholy
to which the news of the conspiracy" had
reduced him, he was indifferent to life.
At one period of his disease he exclaimed,
" Emperors suifer more than other men ; my
nervous system is shaken." Then stopping

ALEXANDER.

short, he threw himself back on his pillow,
and murmured, " It was a detestable action
which they comuiitted ; " alluding, perhaps,
to the assassination of Paul, to which, in all
probability, his thoughts now often reverted.
He died on the .'51st of November, 1825.
His brother Nicolas succeeded him, to the
exclusion of his nearer brother, Constantine,
who was the next in the order of succession,
but whom Alexander had persuaded to re-
limiuish his claims on account of his admitted
incapacity to govern.

Alexander was of a tall stature and stately
presence, and always looked younger than
he was ; advantages to which he is said to
have been by no means insensible. He was
short-sighted, and early afflicted with hard-
ness of hearing, caused by standing too near
a strong discharge of artillery ; and this last
infirmity, which increased much with age,
contributed to throw a shade of melancholy
over the latter years of his life. He was
well acquainted with English, and a perfect
master of the French language, to the litera-
ture of which he showed a preference over
that of other nations, which appears singular
when it is considered that the age of Napo-
leon is one of the barrenest in its records,
while at the same period both England and
Germany gave birth to some of the noblest
productions of their genius. His manners
were fascinating to the last degree, and the
tones of his voice had something peculiarly
pleasing.

The reign of Alexander is the most splen-
did in Russian history, and, after that of
Peter the Great, the most beneficial. One
proof of its success may be found in the
extent of the territorial acquisitions that dis-
tinguish it. The Russian empire comprised
at Alexander's accession 5,591,552 geogra-
phical square miles. The acquisition of Fin-
land, the Aland Isles, and part of Lapland
added 79,632 square miles ; that of Bessarabia
and part of Moldavia, 18,064 ; the kingdom of
Poland, .36,672 ; the countries ceded by Persia
38,696; and Circassia, 24,848: so that the em-
pire at his death comprised 5,789,464 geo-
graphical square miles ; which gives an in-
crease of 197,912 square miles.

The extension of his territory was how-
ever by no means the main object of Alex-
ander's care. Not a single branch of the
internal administration was left by him as he
found it ; what he did not improve he created.
The army was reformed almost throughout,
the artillery and engineering departments in
particular ; but the most important reform
was in the character and habits of the Rus-
sian soldier, whose ancient barbarism was
subjected to the restraints not only of disci-
pline but of humanity. In the history of
Alexander's wai's we find none of the savage
massacres which disgrace the military annals
of his predecessors. The board of the ways
of communication, for the improvement of
869

roads and canals, was established by Alex-
ander, who also provided for their safety by
the introduction of a new system of internal
police, under the direction of another especial
board. The finances of the empire, in spite
of the long and expensive wars in which he
engaged, and in spite of the enormous losses
which had ])een sustained by the obstruction
of English commerce subse(iuent to the treaty
of Tilsit, he left in a flourishing condition.
Alexander established the ministry of public
instruction, founded three universities, those
of St. Petersburg, I'Cazan, and Kharkov, di-
vided all Russia into educational districts,
and planted in each district gymnasia, or high
schools, depai'tmental and provincial schools.
During his reign also were established the
I>yceum of Tzarskoselo, the institute of the
board of ways of communication, the colleges
of engineering, artillery, and ship-building,
the military colleges of Tula and Tambov,
and that for the cadets of the guards, and
the professional chairs for the Oriental
languages. Institutions for the instruction of
the female sex were taken under the protec-
tion of the empress-mother and the empress.
Alexander was liberal in the encouragement
of expeditions for the extension of know-
ledge. The first Russian voyage round the
world was performed in 1803-6, by Kru-
senstern and Lisiansky, and followed up by
those of Golovnin, Bellingshausen, Vasilyev,
and Kotzebue ; the last of which, however,
was supported by the private munificence of
the chancellor, Rumiantzov. The literature
of Russia developed a new energy during
Alexander's reign in the hands of Karamzin,
Zhukovsky, Pushkin, Dmitriev, Kruilov,
and Batyushkov. Its most eminent produc-
tion is Karamzin's " History of Russia," the
solid value of which formed so striking a
contrast to the general insignificance of con-
temporaneous productions in prose, that a
native critic compared it to a pyramid stand-
ing alone in a desert of sand. This work has
a remarkable dedication to Alexander. " In
the year 1811," says the author, "in the
happiest minutes of my life, — minutes never
to be forgotten, — I read over to you, Sire,
some chapters of this history, of the horrors
of the invasion of Batu Khan, and the exploits
of the hero Demetrius Donskoy — at that
period when a heavy cloud of misery hung
over Eui'ope, and threatened even our beloved
country. You listened with an attention
that enraptured me ; you compared the long
past with the present, and you did not envy
the glorious dangers of Demetrius, because
you foresaw others still more glorious for
yourself. The magnanimous presentiment
has been fulfilled. The cloud burst over
Russia ; but we are safe, we are glorious :
the enemy is destroyed, Europe is free, and
the head of Alexander shines with the re-
splendent crown of immortality. Sire, if the
happiness of your virtuous heart is equal to

ALEXANDER.

your glory, you are the happiest of the sons
of earth."

In the improvement of the political liberty
of Russia Alexander took no decisive steps.
At his accession he abolished, indeed, the
" Secret Tribunal," before which political
offenders were tried, and forced to confession
by the pangs of hunger and thirst ; and he
also abolished at the same time the censor-
ship of the press, but this he soon resumed.
In the latter years of his life, alarmed at the
revolutions which burst out in 1S20, and
which he had probably imagined the di"ead-
ful experience of the French revolution
would have prevented coming to maturity,
he seems to have conceived an unconquerable
aversion for political change. His earlier
sentiments were more generous in this re-
spect ; and with regard to personal slavery
his sentiments were always generous. " The
system of bondage in this country," he wrote
to Madame de Stael, " will wound your eye.
It is not my fault. I have set an example,
but I caunot use force. I must respect the
rights of others, as if there were a constitu-
tion here, which unhappily there is not." It
was to this expression that Madame de Stael
made the celebrated reply, " Sire, your
character is a constitution." In 1819 he re-
tui'ned his thanks to the Livonian nobility,
who requested his confirmation of a new
system of rural management by which serfage
was abolished, and remarked, " You have
acted in the spirit of our age, in which liberal
institutions only can secure the happiness of
nations." To oppose serfage is in an emperor
of Russia a noble because a hazardous virtue.

In the discharge of the duties which in his
own opinion belonged to him, Alexander was
constantly and untiringly active. His visits
to the different portions of his empire were
so frequent, and necessarily occasioned him
to take such long journeys, that he is sup-
posed to have travelled more than any other
man of his time. Even in the latter years
of his life, when his popularity had decreased,
prejudice could not refuse him a burst of
praise for his personal exertions at the great
inundations of St. Petersburg in 1824.

In the general estimate of his character,
not only as a monarch but a man, very op-
posite opinions have been, and probably will
be, entertained. His actions at different
periods of his life were indeed so contrary to
each other, that at a first glance it might be
thought that the Alexander before and the
Alexander after 1812 were two different
persons. On the one hand we see the asso-
ciate in the dethronement of his father ; the
false ally, who, while making common cause
with Napoleon before the world, corresponds
in secret with his bitterest enemies ; the relent-
less oppressor, who allows no opportunity to
escape him of crushing unhappy Poland ;
the faithless friend, who deserts the King of
Prussia in his extremity to join with the
870

spoiler and receive from him a share in the
prey ; the unprincipled renegade, who tears
with the most shameless effrontery whole
provinces from the King of Sweden as a
punishment for the very line of conduct
which his own encouragement and example
had originally countenanced him in adopt-
ing. On the other hand, we see in his
reign, commencing from 1812, three years
of vmexampled and dazzling glory ; first,
as a monarch, repelling with unshaken firm-
ness from his dominions a storm of in-
vasion which might have made the bravest
falter; next, as a generous ally, arousing with
spirit-stirring eloquence the very nations
which had been led to the field against him
to achieve their own independence, and
proffering his aid ; last, as a conqueror, only
censurable, if at all, for an absolute excess of
moderation and magnanimity. The qualities
he displays are so varied, the events that call
them forth so striking, that the whole train
of incidents seems rather the ingenious fiction
of a poet, who has contrived his narrative to
exalt the virtues of a favourite hero than the
authentic histoiy of real acts and persons.
These contradictions in Alexander's course
of action may pei'haps be explained by keep-
ing an eye on the character drawn of him by
his early preceptor Masson, who painted hun
as amiable in himself, but too much disposed
to act by the advice of those who surrounded
him. It is far from uncommon, in ordinary
life, to find persons who are led to adopt a
harsher and more selfish line of conduct than
their own feelings would prompt them to,
from the apprehension of being stigmatised
for weakness, of the " world's dread laugh,"
which is directed against no one oftener
than the dupe. At his accession to the throne
Alexander was but twenty-three years of
age ; at his interviews with Napoleon at Tilsit
he was still under thirty. It is during or
shortly after this interval, when his character
was in all probability not fully formed, when
perhaps he felt too little confidence in himself
or his own views to disregard the suggestions
of profligate statesmen who had grown grey
in intrigue, that all those acts of his reign
were performed which bear on them a tinge
of dishonour, and lead to a suspicion of the
firmness of his principles. ^Vliatever charges
may be brought against him in later life, —
of harshness, for instance, towards the Poles ;
of want of sympathy for the Greeks ; of
general antagonism to liberal doctrines, — ■
they are all of a kind not incompatible with
a high estimate of his character ; and, indeed,
seem to take their origin in a view of his
duty, which even those may respect as
sincere who deem it mistaken. Adversity
seems to have exalted and ennobled him ;
the tragic struggle in which he was engaged
had the effect which Aristotle ascribes to
dramatic tragedy, of " purifying the passions."
For subtle and apprehensive intellect, for im-

ALEXANDER.

■wearied and appropriate activity, for zealous
benevolence and lofty maj;;naniniity, the world
has probably never seen a greater ruler, with
the exception of AUred, thanAlexander Pav-
lovich. (II. Fi. Lloyd, Alexander I.; article
by ^lichaud jeune, in liiuyrtiphie Univcrselle,
Ivi. 160 — 192. ; by Grech, in Russian Entsi-
hlopedecheski/ Lexiimn, i. 4G9 — tSO.; anony-
mous in Conversations- Lcxihon of Erockhaus,
8th edition, i. 171 — 178. ; in that of Reichen-
bach, i. 245 — 250. ; Esneaux and Chennechot,
Histoire Pluloxophique de liitssie, v. 287 — 503. ;
Glinka, Istoriya liitskaya, xi. 140, &c. &c. ;
Bignon, Histoire de France depuis le 18 Bru-
niatre, i. 4.30, &c. &c. ; Walter Scott, Life of
Napoleon Buonaparte, vi. 23, &c. &c. ; Alison,
Historii of Europe from the French Revolution ;
Mikhailovsky Danilevsky, History of the Cam-
paign in France in 1814, translated from the
Russian ; SirJ. Carr, A Northern Summer (for
an account of the death of Paul), p. 302 —
320.; Webster, Travels throuyh the Crimea,
S^'c. (for an account of Alexander's death), ii.
333—358.) , T. W.

ALEXANDER, surnamed Peloplaton
('AAe'|ai'5poy UrjXoTrxdTwu), was a son of Alex-
ander of Seleucia in Cilicia, and distinguished
like his father as a rhetorician. He was a
man of extraordinary beauty, and inherited
from his father a considerable fortune, which
he is said to have spent in the enjoyment of
pleasure, without, however, becoming a licen-
tious man. When he had attained the age of
manhood, the city of Seleucia on one occasion
sent hun as ambassador to the Emperor An-
toninus Pius, who is said to have upbraided
him for his care about his personal appearance.
The remainder of his life he spent in travel-
ling ; he visited Antioch, Rome, Tarsus,
Egypt, and even iEthiopia. He also visited
Athens, where he had a rhetorical contest
with Herodes Atticus, and gained the highest
admiration, not only of his audience but also
of his competitor, who, on parting, honoured
him with the most munificent presents. Only
one Corinthian, of the name of Sceptes, ex-
pressed his diappointment by saying that he
had found " the clay" (tttjA^s) but no Plato ;
from which saying Alexander received the
nickname of Peloplaton. For some time he
was Greek secretary to the emperor M. An-
toninus, and according to some accounts he
died while he was still holding this office,
but according to others after he had resigned
it, at the age of sixty, or sixty-eight.

Alexander Peloplaton was one of the most
distinguished rhetoricians of his age, and his
orations are praised for their sublimity and
animation, but his style was concise and
abrupt. Several of the arguments of his
speeches, together with some of his best say-
ings, are preserved in Philostratus, who has
given an account of him in his " Vitse So-
pbistarum," ii. 5. See also Suidas, s. v. 'AA.e'|-
ai/opos Alya7os; Eudocia, p. 52, &.C. L. S.

ALEXANDER ('AAe'lai/Spos), a natural
871

son of PER.SEUS,the last king of Macedonia.
When Macedonia was conquered by the Ro-
manins, u. c. 108, Alexander with his father
and his brother Philip, were led to Rome in
triumph by ^-Emilius Paulus in b. c. 167, and
after the triumph was over he was sent with
his father to Alba to be kept in custody there.
What became of him afterwards is unknown,
but it seems that he was soon after liberated,
for Plutarch says that he learned the Roman
language, and subsequently acted as a scribe
to the Roman magistrates. (Livy, xlii. 52.
xlv. 42. ; Justin, xxxiii. 2. ; Plutarch, JEniil.
Paul 37.) L. S.

ALEXANDER ('A\e^audpos), tyrant of
Pherje in Thessaly, obtained the sovereignty
of that countiy b. c. 369, by the assassination
of his kinsman Polyphron, who had succeeded
his two brothers Jason and Polydorus as
Tagus. He oppressed his Thessalian subjects
to such a degree that the Aleuadae, a noble
family of Larissa, conspired against him, and
called in to their assistance Alexander II.,
king of Macedon, who took Larissa and Cran-
non, and forced Alexander to retire to Pherae.
Macedonian garrisons were placed in these
towns against the will of the Thessalians,
who, in the dread, not less probably of their
new ally than of their domestic enemy,
invited the Thebans under Pelopidas into
their country. This general took Larissa,
expelling thence the Macedonians, and at-
tempted unsuccessfully to negotiate between
the tyrant of Pherse and the Thessalians.
Shortly afterwards (b. c. 367) Pelopidas
made a second expedition into Thessaly, and
having been induced to trust himself in the
hands of Alexander, was treacherously taken
prisoner. In the attempt to rescue their
countrymen the Theban forces were nearly
cut off by an ambuscade ; but they were
rescued by the presence of mind of Epami-
nondas, and Alexander was compelled to give
up his captive, though supported by the power
of the Athenians, who on this occasion sent
him thirty ships and a thousand men under
the command of Autocles. He continued to
oppress the Thessalians, and seems to have
been a formidable enemy to the Thebans, till,
having been defeated by them in the expe-
dition which terminated in the death of Pelo-
pidas, B. c. 364, he became their ally, and con-
cluded a treaty in which he restored to his
Thessalian countrj-men the towns which he
had taken from them. In B. c. 362 he seized
the island of Tenus and enslaved the inha-
bitants ; and in the following year he made
piratical expeditions against the Cyclades,
besieged Peparethus, and defeated the Athe-
nians under Leosthenes at Panormus near Su-
nium. His wife Thebe, whom he had always
treated with the utmost suspicion, conspired
with her brothers Lycophron, Tisiphonus,
and Pytholaus, and assassinated him in the
close of the year b. c. 359. All ancient authors
ascribe to Alexander a most cruel and per-

ALEXANDER.

fidious character. He took Scotussa in Thes-
saly under circumstances of singular treach-
ery. Anecdotes of his domestic behaviour
are told by Cicero {De Officlis, ii. 7.).
(Xenophon, HeUenica, vi. 4.; Diodorus, xv.
61. 07. 75. 80. ; Polybius, viii. 1. ; Plutarch,
Pelopidas ; Demosthenes, Against Polycl. p.
1207. ed. Reiske ; Pausanias, vi. 5.) 0. N.

ALEXANDER PHILALE'THES, or (as
his surname is translated by Octavius Hora-
tianus, Rer. Medic, lib. iv. p. 102. D. ed. Ar-
gent. 1532,) " Amator Veri," an ancient Greek
physician, mentioned by Strabo (Geograph.
lib. xii. p. 580. edit. Casaub.) as having suc-
ceeded Zeuxis as head of a celebi-ated medical
school in Phrygia. It consisted of the fol-
lowers of Herophilus, and was established
between Carura and Laodicea, at the village
of Men Carus, where there were numerous
warm springs, and a temple which was an
object of great veneration among the sur-
rounding people. (Cramer's ^«/ff Minor, vol.
ii. p. 43.) We know nothing of his history,
except that (according to Octavius Hora-
tianus, loco cit.) he was a pupil of Ascle-
piades ; that he is mentioned by Strabo as
a contemporary, and therefore must pro-
bably have been living at the close of the
first century before Christ ; and that he was
tutor to Aristoxenus and Demosthenes. (Gal.
De Differ. Puis. lib. iv. cap. 4. tom. viii. p. 746.
ed. KLihn.) He wrote some medical works,
none of which are now extant: he is several
times mentioned by Galen, who has given
his definition of the pulse; and by Soranus
(De Arte Obstetr. cap. 92. p. 210. ed. Dietz.)
he is enumerated among those physicians
who considered that there was nothing pecu-
liar in the character of the diseases of women
requiring any peculiar treatment. He is very
probably the same person as the physician
quoted by Cselius Aurelianus (Morb. Acut.
lib. ii. cap. 1. p. 74. ed. Amman.) under the
name " Alexander Laodicensis." W. A. G.

ALEXANDER POLYHISTOR. [Alex-
ander Cornelius.]

ALEXANDER ('AAe'|av5pos), the son of
PoLYSPERCHON, is first mentioned in Greek
history on his appointment to be one of the
body-guard of Philip Arrhideus, the brother
of Alexander the Great, and his nominal suc-
cessor on the throne of Macedon. This
honour was conferred on him by Antipater
on occasion of the partition of the empire of
Alexander the Great among his generals,
which took place at Triparadisus in Syria,
B.C. 321. Antipater on his deathbed (b.c. 319)
bequeathed the Macedonian regency to his
friend Polysperchon, one of the oldest generals
of Alexander : Cassander, the son of Antipater,
enraged at being passed over on this occasion,
commenced hostilities against the new regent
by sending his adherent Nicanor to Athens,
who took possession first of Munychia, and
afterwards of Pirnsus. Alexander was in
consequence sent by his father into Attica
872

with a body of troops to dislodge Nicanor and
to restore the ascendancy of the democratical
party at Athens, in pursuance of Poly-
sperchon's plan of detaching the Greek cities
from Cassander by a general and entire alter-
ation of their constitutions. He came to
Athens accompanied by many Athenian
exiles, and remained there occupied in ne-
gotiations with Nicanor till the arrival of
Cassander at Athens, who took possession of
Pira;us. The position of Cassander was too
strong for A lexander to attack ; he seems to
have contented himself with watching his
movements and following him the next year
(B.C. 317) into Peloponnesus. Here he re-
mained when Cassander quitted it (b.c. 316)
on his expedition into Macedonia, and gained
several strong positions during his absence.
On his return Alexander opposed him at the
Isthmus of Corinth, but was unable to pre-
vent his passage over to Epidaurus and the
consequent loss of Argos and Hermione to
Polysperchon. In the mean time, Antigonus,
having commenced war with his old allies,
Ptolemy king of Egypt, Lysimachus, and
Cassander, sought an alliance with Poly-
sperchon, and sent Aristodemus to Pelopon-
nesus to treat with him and his son. Alex-
ander in consequence went to Phoenicia, and
there concluded a treaty with Antigonus
(b.c. 315), which promised freedom to the
Greek states, declai-ed Antigonus regent of
the empire, and assigned to Polysperchon the
inferior title of general of Peloponnesus,
which his many late reverses led him to
accept. On his return to Greece the same
year, Alexander, with the assistance of Ari-
stodemus, brought over nearly the whole of
Peloponnesus to the cause of Antigonus. At
this juncture Cassander, becoming alarmed
at the powerful league formed against him,
offered Alexander the command of Pelopon-
nesus if he would desert his new ally. This
proposal was accepted by Alexander, as it
afforded scope for his ambition, then circum-
scribed by the greater power of his father
and of Aristodemus. He immediately com-
menced war against Antigonus in the north
of Peloponnesus, made an alliance with the
Elei, besieged Cyllene with their assistance,
and took Dyme. As he was setting out
from Sicyon on a further expedition, he was
treacherously murdered by some of its in-
habitants (i$. c. 314). His wife, Cratesipolis,
took the command of his troops, who were
much attached to her, and avenged his death
by taking Sicyon. (Arrian, Photii Biblio-
tlteca, p. 72. a. 16., ed. Bekker ; Diodorus,
xviii. cap. 65. to xix. cap. 67. ; Thirlwall's
History of Greece, vol. vii. ; Droysen, Ge-
schichte der NachfoJger Alexanders, p. 154,
&c.) C. N.

ALEXANDER L (Pope), a native of
Rome, succeeded Euaristus as bishop of the
Christian congregation at Rome, a. d. 108,
in the reign of the Emperor Trajan. We have

ALEXANDER.

hardly any authentic particulars concerning
him, except that he filled his office till the
year 1 1 7, the year of Trajan's death, Avheu,
according to some authorities, he suffered
martyrdom, but this is doubted by others. He
was succeeded by Sixtus L He is said to have
introduced several new forms into the liturgy,
such as the use of holy water, and that of the
unleavened bread in the sacrament. (Platiua
e Panvinio, Vite dei Pontejwi ; Walch, Htstori/
of the Popes.) A. V.

ALEXANDER IL (Pope), Anselmo Bada-
gio or da Baggio, born of a noble family at
Milan, in the early part of the eleventh century,
entered the church and obtained a high repu-
tation for learning and moral conduct. It ap-
pears that he studied for a time in the convent
of Bee in Normandy under the celebrated
Lanfranc. Returning to Italy, Anselmo took
an active and early part in the controversy
about the married priests of the church of Mi-
lan, censuring the practice as illegal, and he
was supported by several priests and deacons
who aspired to a greater purity of life than
the rest, and by the lower orders of the people,
whilst the nobles took the part of the maiTied
clergy. The city being distracted by these
factions, Wido, archbishop of Milan, thinking
it prudent to remove from the scene of strife
such a person as Anselmo, prevailed upon
the Emperor Henry III. to make him bishop
of Lucca with the sanction of Pope Stephen X.
Anselmo was intimate with the monk Hilde-
brand, afterwards Gregory VII., who, being
appointed by the pope legate to Milan for the
purpose of settling the renewed controversy
about the married priests, took Anselmo with
him, A.D. 1058. Hildebrand and Anselmo,
instead of settling the matters in dispute,
added fuel to the flame, by condemning the
Archbishop Wido as guilty of simony, after
which they left Milan. The city remained a
prey to anarchy ; but in the year 1059, the
pope, at the suggestion of Hildebrand, ap-
pointed two legates, Anselmo and Peter
Damianus, bishop of Ostia. This time the
two legates applied themselves mainly to
investigate the subject of simony, letting
alone that of the married priests for the pre-
sent. It appears that an abuse had been in-
troduced of old into the province of ^Milan,
that every subdeacon, deacon, and presbyter
ordained should pay a fixed fee to the bishop
who ordained him. The legates solemnly
condemned the practice and obliged the arch-
bishop and his suffragans to sign a censure of
it. They also imposed severe penances on
those who had concurred in the abuse, and
even those who, following an old custom, did
not know that they were doing wrong, were
sentenced to fast on bread and water for two
days in each week for five years. But another
object of the legates was to subject the see of
Milan to that of Rome in matters of jurisdic-
tion, to establish the ride that the archbishops
of -M ilan should receive the investiture with the

VOL. I.

ring from tlie pope and not from the emperor,
and should promiseobediencetothe pope. The
legate Peter Damianus also claimed precedence
of the archbishop in solemn church festivals.
Soon after the mission of the legates. Pope
Nicholas II. summoned the archbishop of
Milan to Rome to attend a council, and
this Avas looked upon as another infraction of
the rights of the see of Milan, at which the
contemporary chronicler Arnulphus expresses
great indignation.

In 1061, Pope Nicholas II. having died, a
serious misunderstanding broke out at Rome
about the election of his successor. One
party, consisting of most of the cardinals,
with Hildebrand at their head, proposed that
they should proceed to the election without
waiting for the imperial sanction ; the other,
at the head of which was the Count of
Tusculum, maintained the rights of the Em-
peror Henry IV., then a minor under the
guardianship of his mother, the Empress
Agnes. It appears, however, that both par-
ties sent envoys to the imperial court, but
that the envoy of the cardinals, having been
kept seven dajs without being able to obtain
an audience, returned to Rome. The vacancy
had now lasted three months, and the car-
dinals at length elected and consecrated An-
selmo, bishop of Lucca, who assumed the
name of Alexander II. From that time the
imperial sanction was no longer considered
necessary for the consecration of a pope.
The Empress Agnes and her ministers would
not recognise Alexander II., and the bishops
of Lombardy, who disliked the new pope,
being supported by Cardinal Hugo, sent de-
puties to Germany proposing the nomination
of Cadalous, bishop of Parma, a man very
wealthy but of loose morals, who was accord-
ingly elected by the name of Honorius II.
Benzo, bishop of Alba and Piedmont, a man
of some learning, was a strong supporter of
the antipope. Cadalous, having collected
troops in Lombardy, marched to Rome, where
he had many partisans, among others a very
rich man named Pierleone. But Godfrey,
duke of Tuscany, came to the assistance of
Alexander II., and after some fighting, Ca-
dalous was obliged to retire. In the mean
time Anno, archbishop of Cologne, joined by
other electors, carried off young Henry from
his mother Agnes, declared himself his tutor,
and assumed the government of the empire.
He afterwards came to Italy to put an end to
the schism, when a council being assembled
at Mantua, Cadalous was condemned as schis-
matic. Alexander II., being now universally
acknowledged as legitimate pope, visited
Lucca and other towns of Italy, endeavouring
to effect reforms in the discipline of the
clergy, and especially to prevent the practice of
simony. He also sent a bull to ^lilan forbid-
ding any one to hear mass by a married
priest. This I'evived the old controversy,
and was the cause of much tumult and even
3 L

ALEXANDER.

bloodshed in that city. Alexander had also
disputes -n-ith Richard the Norman, count of
Aversa, about the possession of Capua, -which
the pope claimed as a fief of the Roman se^.
Alexander IL died at Rome in April, 1073,
and was buried in the basilica of the Lateran.
lie was a man of irreproachable morals, and
had a sincere zeal for enforcing morality
among the clergy; but in his public life he
■was mainly guided by the advice of Cardinal
Hildebrand, who succeeded him by the name
of Gregory VIL Several letters and bulls of
Pope Alexander IL are found in the Collec-
tions of Councils and Decretals. (Platina e
Panvinio, Vite dei Ponteftci; Verri, Storia di
Milano ; Bossi, Storia d' Italia.) A. V.

ALEXANDER IIL (Pope), cardinal Ro-
lando di Ranuccio Bandinelli, born about
the beginning of the twelfth century, of
a noble family of Sienna, acquired the re-
putation of a man of learning long before
his exaltation to the papal chair. He had
been professor of theology in the university
of Bologna, and was made a cardinal by Eu-
genius IIL, and chancellor of the Roman
see by Adrian IV. After the death of Adrian
in 1159, the cardinals, with the exception of
three, voted for the election of Rolando for
his successor. This was a period of misun-
derstanding between the Emperor Frederic I.
and the see of Rome. The three dissident
cardinals elected Octavian, cardinal of St. Cle-
ment, who assumed the name of Victor IV.
Victor afterwards gained over to his side two
more cardinals and several bishops, among
others the Bishop of Tusculum, who con-
secrated him in the monastery of Farfa,
in the Sabinum. Frederic, being appealed
to, ordered a council to assemble at Pavia,
before which Alexander refused to ap-
pear, and the council decided in favour of
Victor. Alexander was acknowledged by
Sicily, France, and England, and Victor by
Germany and Lombardy. Victor asserted
that he had been elected by the clergy, the
senate, and the barons of Rome, where he
had a considerable party. Each of the two
resorted to excommunication against his an-
tagonist and his supporters. In 1161, Alex-
der, who had been staying at Anagni in con-
tinual alarm at the power of Frederic,
embarked at Terracina for Genoa, where he
was well received by the people. He after-
wards repaired to France, and he assembled
a council at Tours, in which all ordinations
made by the antipope were declared sacri-
legious. The Cathari, or Albigenses, who
had begun to show themselves in the south of
France, were condemned as heretics in this
council. The pope afterwards went to Sens,
where he saw Thomas a Becket, archbishop of
Canterbury, who had been obliged to fly from
England in consequence of his disputes with
King Henry II. The pope commended his firm-
ness in supporting the privileges of the church.
In A. u. 11G4, Victor having died in Italv, the
874

Emperor Frederic caused a new pope to be
elected. Cardinal Guidoof Crema, who took the
name of Paschal IIL, and fixed his residence
at ^'iterbo. In 1 165 the alFairs of Italy began
to look brighter for Pope Alexander. Frede-
ric, after having destroyed Milan, had his
hands fully occupied by a new insurrection
of the Lombard cities. Cardinal Giovanni,
who acted as papal vicar at Rome, prevailed
upon the senate and the people to swear
fidelity to Pope Alexander, and he took pos-
session of the Vatican. He also brought the
Sabinum to a like allegiance. Alexander now
embarked at Narbonne for Messina, where he
was well received by the ofiicers of William I.,
king of Sicily. From Messina he repaired
to Salerno, and lastly landed at Ostia. His
entrance into Rome by the gate of the Late-
ran was triumphal : he was attended by the
senators, the clergy, and many citizens with
olive branches in their hands, and by the
militia of the regions with their colours.
Soon after Christian, archbishop of Mainz,
with some imperial troops, in-\'aded the Cam-
pagna of Rome, and obliged several towns
to swear allegiance to the antipope Paschal,
who was at Viterbo. But the troops of the
King of Sicily, coming to the assistance of the
pope, retook the greater part of the Cam-
pagna. In the year 1166 Manuel Comnenus,
emperor of Constantinople, sent an ambassa-
dor to Rome with rich presents for Pope
Alexander, and with proposals for efiecting
a union between the Eastern and Western
churches, and also for restoring the croAvn of
Italy to the Byzantine emperors, and abolish-
ing the V/estern Empire, promising that if
the pope would give him the countenance of
his authority, he (the emperor) would send
troops and money to conquer Italy. The
pope, acting with circumspection, sent two
legates to Constantinople to examine on the
spot the disposition and the resources of the
Byzantine court. The negotiations led to
no result of any consequence, as the Italians
were generally averse to the rule of the
Byzantines. In 1167 an imprudent incursion
made by the people of Rome upon the terri-
tory of their neighbours of Tusculum, con-
trary to the advice and exhortations of the
Pope, again brought the troops of Frederic
into the Campagna, the Count of Tusculum
having applied to the emperor for assistance.
A battle was fought, in which the Roman
militia, being engaged with the imperial troops
in front, and at the same time assailed by those
of Tusculum in the rear, were routed with the
loss of several thousand men, a loss which
the contemporary chroniclers magnified into
a second defeat of Cannae. The pope having
applied to the King of Sicily for succour,
troops came from the Neapolitan territories.
Upon this Frederic himself, who was in North
Italy, came down with a large force, and
encamped near the Vatican with the anti-
pope. Paschal, in July, 1167. After some

ALEXANDER.

fighting he took possession of St. Peter's
church, where Paschal performed high mass,
and crowned the emperor and his wife Bea-
trix. Frederic then endeavoured to intrigue
with the holding men in Rome, offering to
give up all his prisoners without ransom.
Pope Alexander, seeing disaffection within
the city, and thinking it prudent to escape,
went to Gaeta, and from thence to Benevento.
The Pisan galleys, as auxiliary to the em-
peror, ascended the Tiber, and then the
Romans came to terms. They promised
allegiance to the emperor and to respect his
" justitias," or political and fiscal rights,
" within the city and outside of the city."
Frederic on his part confirmed the authority
of the Roman senate, and the other muni-
cipal authorities of Rome. It is doubtful
whether anything was stipulated concerning
Alexander or Paschal, the treaty appearing
to have been of a political nature, and the
Romans in general having long acknowledged
the spiritual authority of Pope Alexander.
Frederic appointed commissioners to receive
the oath of allegiance of the Romans. Acerbo
Morena, the chronicler of Lodi, who enjoyed
the favour of Frederic, was one of the impe-
rial commissioners. But the atmosphere of
the Campagna, or perhaps some epidemic,
began to work death in the camp of Frederic.
His soldiers died by hundreds daily, after an
illness which is said to have lasted only a few
hours. The Archbishop of Cologne, the
Bishops of Liege, Speyer, Ratisbon, Verden,
and others, the Duke of Suabia (cousin of the
emperor), a Duke Guelph, and many others
of the chief men in Frederic's army, were
among the dead. The people of Italy attri-
buted this havoc to God's wrath against the
persecutors of the true pontiff, and the cruel-
ties committed by Frederic in Lombary. The
chronicler Morena caught the fever and died
at Siena on his return home. At last Frede-
ric broke up his camp, and returned to the
north, fighting his way across the Ligurian
Apennines, in which he lost most of his
camp equipage. He arrived at Pavia about
the middle of September, with his army
greatly reduced in numbers. The deaths of
the nobles alone amounted to above two
thousand. The Lombard cities were in open
insurrection against him, and in the following
March Frederic left Italy almost alone and
in disguise. Pope Alexander gave his full
countenance to the Lombard league, in grati-
tude for which the Lombard cities having
resolved to build a new town on the borders
of the territory of Pavia towards Monferrato,
called it Alessandria, which name it has re-
tained to the present day.

Pope Alexander was still remaining at Be-
nevento, when in the year 1168 the antipope
Paschal died. The partisans of the late anti-
pope elected John, abbot of Struma, who
assumed the name of Calixtus III., and thus
the schism was continued. In 1170 Frederic

sent from Germanj^ the Bishop of Bamberg
to propose some arrangement with Alex-
ander. The pope went to meet him at Ve-
roli, but the interview produced no result, as
the bishop had no authority from the emperor
to acknowledge Alexander as the true pope.
The deputies of the Lombard league were in
the papal retinue, and Alexander acted in
concert with them. At the beginning of 1171
the pope received the news of the murder
of Thomas a Becket, archbishop of Canterbury,
which had occurred in the previous Decem-
ber, and in March of that year envoys came
from Henry II. of England to exculpate
him from any participation in that crime.
The pope sent two cardinals to investigate
the matter, which terminated in the following
year by Henry being absolved by the papal
legates, whilst the pope canonized Thomas
a Becket as a saint and a martyr. In 1172,
Alexander, who had been residing some time
at Tusculum, which town he had undertaken
to protect against the repeated attacks of the
people of Rome, entered into a negotiation
with the leading men at Rome, by which the
pope was to reside again in that city, but the
senate refused to allow him the exercise of
any temporal power. A new attack was
made by the Romans upon Tusculum, the
walls of which were pulled down by the
Romans, and the pope withdrew to Anagni
in disgust. From thence he sent, in 1173,
two cardinals to assist at the parliament or
great council of the Lombard league, which
was held at Modena in October of that year,
and in which it was agreed not to make
peace with Frederic except by the common
consent of all the members of the league.
In the auttmm of 1174 Frederic entered
Italy with a large army, took Turin, Susa,
Asti, and laid siege to Alessandria. He also
sent the Archbishop of Mainz to besiege
Ancona, which town was a free community
under the protection of the Eastern emperor,
who kept a legate there. The Venetians,
who were then at war with the Byzantine
court, sent a fleet of forty galleys to assist in
the reduction of the place. The siege lasted
more than seven months ; the defence was
most gallant, in spite of famine ; and in the
end a storm drove away the ^'enetians ; and
the militia of Ferrara and other towns having
marched to the relief of Ancona, the arch-
bishop of Mainz raised the siege. In 1175
Frederic himself was obliged to raise the
siege of Alessandria, and he concluded a truce
with the Lombard cities. He entered also into
negotiations with the pope, but the pretensions
of Frederic showed that he merely aimed at
gaining time : a fresh army came from Ger-
many in the following year, 1176, and the truce
with the Lombards was broken. At the end
of May of that year the battle of Legnano
was fought, in which the emperor was com-
pletely defeated bj- the I^om bards, and escaped
to Pavia with great diflicnlty. He then sent
3 L 2

ALEXANDER.

several bishops to Pope Alexander, who was
at Anagui, to treat seriously of peace, agree-
ing to acknowledge him as sole legitimate
pontiff. After long negotiations, the pope
determined to proceed to North Italy, to
settle the affairs of the Lombard league.
Having exacted a safe conduct upon oath ,
from the emperor, he embarked on the coast
of Apulia in March, 1177, and landed at
Venice, where he was received with great
honours: from Venice he repaired to Ferrara.
Difficulties arose about the place for as-
sembling the congress to treat of the general
peace ; but at last Venice was fixed upon,
and the pope returned thither with the de-
puties of the league and the envoys of the
emperor and of the King of Sicily. After
long discussion, a truce was agreed upon for
six years between the emperor and the Lom-
bard cities ; and for fifteen years between the
emperor and King William IL of Sicily. In
July, 1177, the emperor himself repaired to
Venice, and found the pope in his pontifical
robes, attended by his cardinals and many
bishops, waiting for him before the church of
St. Mark. Frederic knelt down and kissed
his feet. The pope with tears of joy lifted
him up, gave him the kiss of peace, and they
walked hand in hand into the church, when
Frederic received the solemn benediction of
the pope, and then withdrew to his apart-
ments in the palace of the Doge. The story
of the pope having put his foot upon the
emperor's neck, repeating the words " Super
aspidem et basiliscum ambulabis," is a fable
invented a century or two after, and long
since universally rejected. Several amicable
interviews took place afterwards between the
pope and Frederic ; and on the 1st of August
the peace with the pope, and the truce with
the league and William of Sicily, were so-
lemnly ratified ; after which the pope held
a council in St. Mark, in which he excom-
municated any one who should break the
treaties. Thus ended the war and the schism
which had lasted eighteen years. The truce
with the Lombard league led to the definitive
peace of Constance in 1183.

This happy termination of the war was in
great measure due to the wisdom and mo-
deration of Pope Alexander ; and also to the
earnest exertions of the Doge Ziani and the
senators of Venice, who acted as mediators
between the two parties. Frederic soon after
left Venice for Ravenna, and the pope re-
turned to Sipontum, on the Apulian coast,
from whence he arrived at Anagni in De-
cember. The people of Rome sent him an
embassy of seven nobles to invite him to
return to their city. After many debates, it
was agreed in the following year, 1178, that
the senate should continue in its functions,
but should swear fidelity and do homage to
the pope, and give up to him the Vatican
basilica, and the regalia which they had
sequestrated. In March the pope entered
876 I

Rome, after an absence of many years, and
went to reside in the Lateran palace. In
August of the same year the antipope
Oalixtus, forsaken by the emperor and all
his partisans, came to make his submission
to Alexander, who received him with great
kindness, kept him for some time as his
guest, and at last sent him as rector or
governor to Benevento. A puppet was set
up by the remnants of the antipapal faction
in the person of a certain Lando, who assumed
the name of Innocent III. ; but he was soon
after seized and banished to La Cava. In
the year 1179 Pope Alexander assembled a
general council in the Lateran, which was
attended by more than three hundred arch-
bishops or bishops. The affairs of the church
in general, and of many sees in particular,
which had been thrown into confusion during
the long schism, were regulated, several
canons were made concerning discipline and
against simony, and the Albigenses were ex-
communicated. It was also decreed that in
every cathedral at least there should be a
master for teaching gratuitously poor pupils,
the master to be rewarded by means of some
benefice ; that the bishop and chapter were
to appoint the master for teaching grammar,
and that in metropolitan churches there
should be also a professor of divinity to in-
struct the clergy in the study of the scriptures,
&c. Burgondio, a jurist of Pisa, and a dis-
tinguished Greek and Latin scholar, attended
the council. In 1 180 Pope Alexander wrote
letters to the Kings of France and England,
and other Christian princes, exhorting them
to send assistance to the kingdom of Jeru-
salem against Saladin. He addressed also a
kind of catechism, entitled " Instructio Fidei,"
to the Turkish sultan of Iconium, in Asia
Minor, with the hope, probably, of converting
him. In the following year, 1181, Pope Alex-
ander died at Civita Castellana, in the month
of August. He was succeeded by Lucius III.

Alexander III. ranks among the most dis-
tinguished pontiffs, and his long pontificate
forms an important period in the history of
the church and of Europe. Slany of his
epistles are inserted in Labbe's " Concilia,"
and other collections. One of his letters,
addressed by him after his election to the
iiniversity of Bologna, has been published
by G. Rossi in his " History of Ravenna."
His bulls are found in Cherubini's " BuUa-
rium," and in the " Italia Sacra" of Ughelli.
The cardinal of Aragon wrote, in Latin, the
Life of Alexander III. (Muratori, Annali
d' Italia; Sigonius, De Regno Italia; Tira-
boschi, Storia della Letteratura Italiana ; Bar-
toli. Vita di Federico Barbarossa ; Mazzii-
chelli, Scrittori d'ltalia.) A. V.

ALEXANDER IV. (Pope), Rinaldo of
Anagni, Count of Signia, cardinal-bishop of
Ostia, was elected pope at Naples after the
death of Innocent IV., in that city, in the year
1254. At that time the popes claimed, and en-

ALEXANDER.

forced as far as they could, a sovereign autlio-
rity over the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, on
the ground that the emperor and King Frederic
II. having died under excommunication, his
dominions of Sicily and Apulia had reverted
to the Roman see as papal fiefs. Conrad,
son of Frederic, who had by force asserted
his hereditary rights over great part of the
kingdom, died suddenly in Apulia, and his
son Conradin, an infant, was with his mother
in Germany. Manfred, prince of Taranto,
an illegitimate son of Frederic and a young
man of great promise, was induced by the
earnest request of many of the barons to as-
sume the regency in the name of young Con-
radin. Pope Innocent, who had an army in
Campania, and whose claims were acknow-
ledged by Naples and other towns, first
negotiated with Manfred, with a view to
make him acknowledge the papal see as
sovereign of the kingdom ; but he afterwards
came to an open rupture with him, and the
troops of Manfred defeated those of the pope
on the borders of Apulia. Soon after, Inno-
cent died at Naples, and his successor Alex-
ander, following his policy, sent a legate to
invade Apulia, which had declared itself for
Manfred. Manfred defeated the legate and
besieged him within the town of Foggia.
The legate then proposed peace on the con-
dition that Manfred should remain regent of
the kingdom in the name of his nephew
Conradin, with the exception of the province
of Campania, which should remain in pos-
session of the see of Rome. The legate and
his soldiers were then allowed to leave Fog-
gia and return to Naples. Pope Alexander
refused to ratify this advantageous treaty, and
Manfred, after having assembled a parliament
of the kingdom at Barletta, in which he was
confirmed as regent, marched into Campania,

» which he soon reduced to obedience, a. d.
1257. The pope had gone to Rome with his
court. In the following year, 1258, a report
was spread in Italy that young Conradin had
died in Germany, upon which the prelates
and barons of Sicily and Apulia offered the
crown to Manfred, who was crowned in the
cathedral of Palermo by three archbishops in
the mouth of August. Messengers however
arrived soon after from Germany stating that
Conradin was alive ; upon which Manfred
declared that having saved the kingdom from
the attacks of the popes, the implacable ene-
mies of the house of Suabia, and having been
solemnly crowned with the consent of the
states, he should now retain the crown during

khis lifetime, after which it should revert to
Conradin or his heirs. In the mean time
Pope Alexander had been obliged to leave
Rome in consequence of one of those fre-
quent insurrections to which the Roman
k people were prone, and retired to Viterbo,
from whence he issued a bull of excommuni-
cation against Manfred as a rebel, an enemy
of the Roman church, and a sacrilegious
877

usurper of its rights and jurisdiction. He also
laid under an interdict all the towns, castles,
and other places, as well as those archbishops
and bishops, and all other persons in office,
who acknowledged Manfred for their king.
This bull however produced no effect against
Manfred, who remained in peaceful possession
of the kingdom during the rest of Alex-
ander's life. He even sent a body of cavalry
to Tuscany in aid of the Guibelines, which
contributed to the decisive victory which the
latter gained at Monteaperto over the Floren-
tine Guelphs, who were the hereditary allies
of the papal see. Meantime the pope was
exerting himself in putting an end to the
war between the Venetians and the Genoese,
who were fighting desperately for their re-
spective factories on the coast of Syria ; and
he succeeded in inducing the two republics
to make a truce. About this time a new
sect appeared in the Romagna, who were
called the Flagellants. They used to as-
semble by thousands of men and women to-
gether, and march about in procession from
town to town scourging themselves unto
blood in expiation of their sins. Old en-
mities were forgotten ; men and women of
loose life became penitent ; and some good,
and also some evil, resulted from this out-
break of pious enthusiasm, which, however,
was not countenanced by the pope. Alex-
ander took an active part in the disputes
between the university of Paris and the Do-
minican order. The university wished to
confine the Dominicans to the possession of
one of its theological classes, whilst they
claimed the possession of two. Alexander
enjoined the imiversity to throw open to ihe
Dominicans not two classes only, but as
many chairs as they might wish to occupy.
The university resisted, and a warm con-
troversy took place, in which Guillaume de
St. Amour, a doctor of the Sorbonne, wrote a
treatise " On the Perils of the Latter Times,"
in which he assailed the Mendicant orders,
reckoning them among the perils to which
St. Paul alludes. Even the authority of the
pope was disputed. At last the university
was obliged to submit.

In May, 1261, Pope Alexander died at
Viterbo, and was succeeded by Urban IV.
Many of Alexander's letters and decretals
are inserted in Labbe's " Concilia," Ughelli's
" Italia Sacra," Achery's " Spicilegium," and
other compilations. ( ^luratori, ^nwa// d Italia ;
Giannone, Storia civile del Regno di Napoli ;
Panvinio, Vite dei Pontcjici ; Waddington,
History of the Church.') A. V.

ALEXANDER V. (Pope), Cardinal
Peter Filargo, said to have been a native
of the island of Candia and archbishop of
Milan, was elected in June, 1409, by the
cardinals assembled in the council of Pisa,
after the deposition by that council of the
two rival popes or antipopes, Gregory
XII. and Benedict XII., during the great
.3 L 3

ALEXANDER.

schism of the church. Filargo had entered
in his youth, and in his native country, the
Franciscan order, and was sent by his supe-
riors to study at the university of Padua,
about 1357. From Padua he went to Paris,
where he toolc his degrees. He there wrote
a comment on the Book of the Sentences
of Pietro Lombardo, a work in great esteem
in the schools of that age. Filargo was
very learned in scholastic divinity and in the
Greek language. He appears to have been
also at Oxford for some time. Having re-
turned to Italy, he enjoyed the favour of
Gian' Galeazzo Visconti, lord of Milan, was
made bishop of Piacenza, was transferred to
Vicenza, and afterwards to Novara in 1388,
and lastly he was made archbishop of Milan
in 1402. He was at the same time employed
by Gian' Galeazzo in state affairs and diplo-
matic missions ; among others he was sent
to the Emperor Wenceslas, to obtain for
Visconti the title of duke. Gian' Galeazzo
at his death, in 1402, appointed him tutor to
his two sons. In 1404 Innocent VII. made
him a cardinal. He is mentioned in several
chronicles as one of the first divines of his
age, a subtle logician, and an eloquent orator.
He is also said to have translated several
Greek works into Latin, but his translations
have not come down to us.

As soon as Alexander was nominated, he
took his seat as president of the council of Pisa,
whose decrees he confirmed in his quality of
pope. Soon after Louis II., duke of Anjou,
who styled himself king of Sicily, came from
Provence to Pisa to obtain the countenance
of the new pope for his intended invasion of
that kingdom against King Ladislaus, who
was the supporter of Gregory XII., who had
taken refuge in his dominions. Ladislaus
had taken military possession of Rome and its
territory. Pope Alexander, after despatching
several monitory briefs to Ladislaus enjoin-
ing him to restore the territories of the
church, sent against him his legate. Cardinal
Cossa, with troops, which acted in concert
with those of Louis of Anjou, and in the
month of December the papal troops took
possession of Rome, and Pope Alexander
was there proclaimed. The council being
dissolved, and the plague having broken out
at Pisa, Alexander V. withdrew to Pistoja,
and thence, at the suggestion of Cardinal
Cossa, he repaired to Bologna, from whence
he published a bull against the two pre-
tenders to the papal see, Gregory and
Benedict, who refused to submit to the sen-
tence of the council. In April, 1410, Pope
Alexander fell ill, and he died on the 3d of
May. Suspicions of poison rested upon
Cardinal Cossa, who succeeded him as
John XXIII. During liis short pontificate
Alexander used to say that he had been a
rich bishop, a poor cardinal, and a mendicant
pope. MazzuchcUi has given a list of his
works, few of which have been printed,
878

except his pontifical letters and bulls, and an
ascetic treatise on the conception of the Vir-
gin Mary. (JTiraboschi,StoriadellaLetter(i-
tiira Italiana, vol. vi. b. 2. c. 1. ; Muratori,
Annuli d" Ikdia.) A. V.

ALEXANDER VL (Pope), Cardinal Rod-
rigo Leuzoli Borgia, was elected after the death
of Innocent VIII. in 1492. He was born
about 1430, at Valencia in Spain, and was son
of Godfrey Lenzoli, a man of wealth and of
noble birth, and of Isabella Borja or Borgia,
sister of Pope Calixtus III. Young Rodrigo
took clerical orders at an early age, and was
made a cardinal in 1456, by his uncle Pope
Calixtus, who adopted him and gave him his
own family name and the Borgia coat of arms.
He was soon after made vice-chancellor of the
church. Pope Sixtus IV., whose election had
been strongly promoted by Cardinal Borgia,
made him bishop of Porto, bestowed upon him
some rich benefices, and employed him as
legate in several missions, particularly in an
important mission to Spain for the purpose,
of mediating between Alfonso V., king of
Portugal, and Ferdinand the Catholic, king
of Aragon and Castile, who were then at war.
Cardinal Borgia displayed considerable diplo-
matic ability on this occasion. On his return
to Italy on board a Venetian ship, he narrowly
escaped being shipwrecked near the coast of
Pisa ; another vessel, in which were several
persons of his retinue, together with his bag-
gage, was lost. At Rome, Cardinal Borgia was
enabled to live in princely style by means of
his rich church endowments, but his personal
conduct was loose and unclerical. He had
four children by a woman of the name of
Vannozia, with whom he cohabited. His
election to the papal chair after the death of
Innocent VIII. is said to have been brought
about in great measure through bribery.
Some cardinals who had strongly opposed it,
among others. Cardinal Julian della Rovere,
afterwards Julius II., left Rome after the
election, and did not return till after the death
of Pope Alexander VI.

Soon after the election of the new pope
began the intrigues of Ludovico Sforza,who,
having usurped the duchy of Milan, which
belonged to his nephew, in order to maintain
himself in it against the power of Ferdinand,
king of Naples, whose daughter had married
the young duke, resorted to the dangerous
expedient of calling the French into Italy.
By sowing suspicion and dissension between
Pope Alexander and King Ferdinand, he in-
duced the pope to join him in inviting King
Charles VIII. of France to the conquest of
Naples, upon M'hich kingdom Charles thought
that he had claims as a descendant of the
Anjous. Rome became the centre of nego-
tiations in that nefarious business, which was
the origin of all the wars and calamities
which afliicted Italy for half a century. Fer-
dinand of Naples having died in 1494, his
son Alfonso II. endeavoured to conciliate the

ALEXANDER.

Pope, for which purpose he gave his daugliter
in marriage to Giotfredo, the youngest of Pope
Alexander's sons, with a rich dowry. The
nuptials were celebrated at Rome with great
pomp, accompanied with licentious scenes.
Pope Alexander now endeavoured to dissuade
Charles ^'III. from coming to Italy, but the
French King had gone too far in his pre-
parations to recede, and Cardinal della Ro-
vere, who was in France, encouraged him in
his determination. Charles crossed the Alps
in the autumn of 1494, and reached Rome
in December. The pope, who had discoun-
tenanced his advance, shut himself up in the
Castle St. Angelo, from whence he negoti-
ated with the king, who, appearing satisfied
with the pope's assurances of neutrality, set
off for Naples at the begining of 1495. The
French occupied Naples and part of the
kingdom without much opposition. Alfonso
abdicated the crown in favour of his son
Ferdinand, and withdrew to Sicily, and Fer-
dinand took refuge in the island of Ischia.
Pope Alexander, feeling alarmed at the pro-
gress of the French, began to negotiate
secretly with Ferdinand of Spain, with the
Emperor Maximilian, the Venetians, and
with Ludovico Sforza himself, to form a
league in North Italy for the purpose of de-
stroying the French army which had advanced
to the farther end of the Peninsula, — those
French whom he and Sforza had been the
first to call into Italy. King Charles, having
received information of this league, felt very
uneasy at Naples, where his soldiers made
themselves disliked, and he wished himself safe
back in his French kingdom. Leaving part
of his troops at Naples, he hurried away
towards the north. Arriving at Rome, he
found that the pope had left it and retired to
Perugia. The French treated the papal state
as enemies, and plundered several places,
among others the town of Toscanella, where
thev killed most of the inhabitants. Charles
macle his waj- back to France, after repulsing
the Italian allied forces, commanded by the
Duke of Mantua, at the passage of the river
Taro. Soon after Gonzalo of Cordova, the
great Spanish general, in the service of Fer-
dinand the Catholic, landed in Calabria from
Sicily, recovered the kingdom of Naples, and
reinstated King Ferdinand II. The pope on
his side invaded the domains of the powerful
barons Virginio and Paolo Orsini, who had
taken the part of the French, but his troops
were defeated by the vassals and adherents
of the Orsini, near Bracciano. He then sent
his son. Cardinal Cesare, to crown Ferdinand
as kingof Naples. Another son, Giovanni, duke
of Gandia, a dissolute youth, was found one
morning dead in the Tiber, his body being
covered with wounds. His brother Cesare
was suspected of the murder, but there is no
evidence of the charge. Lucrezia Borgia,
daughter of Alexander, was first married to
Giovanni Sforza, lord of Pesaro, from whom
879

she wa.'s, for reasons unknown, divorced by
the authority of the pope, in 1497. In the fol-
lowing year she married Alfonso of Aragon,
duke of Bisceglia, a natural son of King
Alfonso II. of Naples. On this occasion the
pope gave to his daughter the duchy of Spo-
ieto for her life. Before this he had created
his son Giovanni duke of Benevento, and
count of Terracina and Pontecorvo, on which
occasion Cardinal Piccolomini in full con-
sistory remonstrated with honest frankness
against this misappropriation of the states
of the church ; but he was not supported by
any other cardinal.

In 1498, Charles "NTH. king of France
died, and his cousin and successor Louis XII.
assumed at his coronation the additional titles
of duke of Milan and king of the Two Si-
cilies, thereby making known his pretensions
to Italy. Louis, however, wished to be di-
vorced from his wife, Jeanne, daughter of
Louis XL, and to marrj' Anne of Bretagne,
widow of Charles VIII. He therefore
courted the friendship of the pope, who could
release him from his first marriage. Alex-
ander sent to France his son Cesare with the
bull of divorce, and King Louis in return
made Cesare duke of Valence in Dauphiny
with a pension of 20,000 French livi-es. Ce-
sare Borgia is often mentioned by the Italian
historians as Duke Valentino. Cesare had
before this given up his cardinal's hat and
his deacon's orders, by a dispensation from
his father the pope, as he had no taste for a
clerical life. In this same year, 1498, the
pope excommimicated Father Savonarola, a
Dominican friar of Florence, who preached
openlj' the necessity of a reform in the
chm'ch. Savonarola was soon after executed
by sentence of the magistrate of Florence
and of the papal commissary.

In 1499, Cesare Borgia, through the good
offices of Louis XII., married the daughter of
Jean d'Albret, king of Navarre, to the gi-eat
satisfaction of the pope, who became now
wholly devoted to the French interest, and a
league was entered into between King Louis,
the pope, and the Venetians, against Ludovico
Sforza, the king engaging to assist Cesare
Borgia to con(iuer the duchy of Romagna
for himself. That country was divided
among numerous feudatories of the Roman
see, who held their fiefs in virtue of grants
by bulls of former popes. The Sforza ruled
at Pesaro, the Malatesta at Rimini. Man-
fredi at Faenza, Varano at Camerino, Riario
at Imola and Forii, the Montefeltro at L'r-
bino, &c. Some of these petty princes acted
as tyrants ; but there were others who go-
verned their people with mildness and were
beloved by them. The pope, however, was
bent on destroying them all, and forming the
whole of Romagna into a great duchy for his
son Cesare.

Louis XII. conquered the duchy of Milan
with little or no resistance, and Cesare Bor-
3 L 4

ALEXANDER.

gia accompanied him in this expedition, aftei*
which the king gave him a body of French
troops, under D'Alegre, to act in concert
witli those of the pope for the conquest of
Romagna. Borgia took Imola, Cesena, and
Forli, and then went to Rome in triumph, in
February, 1500, to attend the jubilee pro- !
claimed by the pope. Being created gonfa-
loniere of the church by his father, he soon
after returned to Romagna, took Rimini and
Pesaro, and laid siege to Faenza, the young
lord of which, Astorre Manfredi, being be-
loved by the people, was enabled to hold out
till the following year, when he was obliged
to capitulate, and was treated in a most in- i
famous manner by Borgia, and then put to
death. Meantime Alfonso of Aragon, who
had married Lucrezia Borgia, was assassi-
nated at Rome. The pope had now sworn
the ruin of the Aragonese dynasty at Naples,
to make room for Louis XIL of France. The
French army, commanded by the Duke of
Nemours and by D'Aubigny, marched from
North Italy to the conquest of Naples in
15U1, and Cesare Borgia accompanied it with
a body of his troops. Capua made some re-
sistance, but in July the French stormed the !
town, which was given up to plunder and
every other attendant atrocity. A number
of women were taken to Rome and sold
there. Cesare Borgia is said to have kept
forty of them for himself. Naples surren-
dered, and King Frederic, seeing himself be-
traj'ed by Gonsalvo the general of Ferdinand
of Spain, who was acting in concert with
Louis XIL for the purpose of dividing the
kingdom between them, was obliged to sur-
render to the French, and was sent to France
with his children. Meantime Pope Alex-
ander was taking advantage of the favour of
the French king to pursue his plan of aggran-
dizing his own family at the expense of the
Roman barons. He seized upon the estates
of the Colonna, Savelli, and others, and he
repaired in person to the siege of Sermoneta,
a town belonging to the feudal house of Gae-
tani, and it was on this occasion that he is
said by Burchard, in his " Diary," to have
left his daughter Lucrezia in his pontifical
apartments in the Vatican, with directions to
open all letters and despatches, and to consult
thereupon with the council of cardinals ; a
thing unprecedented in papal history. Ce-
sare Boi'gia in the mean time seized upon
Piombino, the lord of which, Jacopo d'Appi-
ano, retired to France. Cesare then moved
towards Urbino, whose duke, Guidobaldo,
had always been a liege feudatory of the pope,
and partly by force and partly by treachery
he seized the whole duchy ; the duke
escaped in disguise to Mantua. He then en-
tered Camerino by a stratagem and strangled
its lord, Giulio da Varano, with his two sons.
He next favoured the revolt of Arezzo, Cor-
tona, and other places against Floi-ence ; but
the Florentines having complained to King
S80

Louis XII. of the ambition of Pope Alex-
ander and his son, the king interfered, and
showed his displeasure against Cesare Bor-
gia, who thought it prudent to repair to Mi-
lan to exculpate himself with Louis. By his
smooth tongue and plausible address he reco-
vered the favour of the French king. His
enemies, among whom were the Orsini,
Baglione of Perugia, Vitellozzo, Vitelli, Oli-
verotto of Fermo, and others, being reduced
to despair, conspired against him ; but Bor-
gia contrived to get them together within
the town of Sinigaglia, seized and strangled
several of them, and the town was plundered,
A general proscription of the Orsini and
their partisans took place, and Pope Alex-
ander seized the Cardinal Orsini at Rome
with several others of the family, who soon
died in prison, and their property was confis-
cated. Soon after, Pope Alexander fell ill
and died in August, 1503, after a pontificate
of little more than eleven years, but ever
memorable in the history of Italy for its
guilty deeds and calamitous events. The
story of his death being caused by poison is
not authenticated ; but it is said that he was
; present at a supper with his son Cesare and
the Cardinal Adrian da Castello, in which
poisoned wine intended for the cardinal was
drank by mistake by Cesare also, and that
both Cesare and the cardinal were danger-
ously ill in consequence. Whether the story
[ be true or not, Cesare Borgia was certainly
I very ill at the time of his father's death ; but
I it appears that the pope had caught the ma-
I laria fever prevalent in that season, and that

he died of it.
I The internal administration of AlexanderVI.
was marked by an arbitrary severity, M'hieli
had the effect of restraining all expression
of discontent. According to Panvinio, the
people of Rome never enjoyed less liberty,
and yet they never indulged in so much
t licentiousness as under his pontificate. The
city was full of informers and armed men,
and any expression of dissatisfaction was
punished by death. In other respects Pope
Alexander had considerable abilities, great
presence of mind, facility of speaking, and
great powers of persuasion, and he was a master
of the art of dissimulation. He encouraged
learning, and particularly the study of the
law. He was fond of pleasure, but very mo-
derate at table, slept little, and was attentive
to business. But his ambition, inhumanity,
covetousness, and want of principle marred
his good qualities, and his name is remem-
bered with sorrow and shame even now at
Rome. (Panvinio, Vite dei Pontejici ; Mura-
tori, Atinali (T Italia ; Tomasi, Vita di Cesare
Borgia.) A. V.

ALEXANDER VIL (Pope), Cardinal
Fabio Chigi, succeeded Innocent X. in 1655.
He was born at Siena about the year 1598, of
a noble family, which has produced several
distinguished men. Fabio Chigi, after going

ALEXANDER.

through his studies in his native country
with great distinction, entered the church
and repaired to Rome, where he became
known to Pope Urban VIll., who appointed
him vice-legate to Ferrara. lie was after-
wards sent to Malta as inijuisitor, from
thence as nuncio to Cologne, and afterwards
to Miinster, where the congress was then
sitting, to establish the peace of Europe. He
there opposed the concessions proposed to be
made to the Protestants of Germany. Re-
turning to Rome, he was made a cardinal
by Innocent X. in 1652, and secretary of
state. After Innocent's death, he was elected
pope by a very large majority of votes, al-
though he repeatedly declared to the cardi-
nals his unwillingness to undertake an office
of such heavy responsibility. He began his
pontificate by reforming several abuses which
had been introduced into the administration
during the latter part of the reign of Inno-
cent X. He received with great magnificence
Queen Christina of Sweden, who, having ab-
jured the Lutheran communion and made
profession of Catholicism, fixed her residence
at Rome. In 1656 Pope Alexander con- j
firmed by a bull the former condemnation
by his predecessor Innocent X. of the book ;
of Jansenius. In the same year the plague, '
being brought from Sardinia to Naples, spread
also to Rome, when 22,000 persons died of
it, and about 160,000 in the whole papal
state. The pope exerted himself sti-enu-
ously in arresting the progress of the con-
tagion, and in distributing assistance to many
families which had become destitute in con-
sequence of it. In the following year the
plague was extirpated from the city of Rome.
In 1658 Agostino Chigi, the pope's nephew,
was made prince of Farnese, and married the
Princess Borghese. Flavio Chigi, another
of the pope's nephews, was made a cardinal.
In the year 1660 a serious distui-bance took
place at Rome, owing to the immunities
which were claimed by the foreign ministers
whose palaces and their immediate neighbour-
hood were considered as so many asylums
into which the Roman police officers were
not allowed to enter for the purpose of serving
warrants or arresting culprits. This abuse,
which many popes had attempted to abolish
or restrain, has continued till our own times.
On the occasion referred to, the police having
proceeded to seize a debtor in the neighbour-
hood of the Cardinal d'Este, who acted as
representative of the French king, the nu-
merous servants of the cardinal opposed the
police by force of arms, illtreated the officers,
and drove them away. The other ministers
having taken the cardinal's part, the court of
Rome was obliged to compromise the affair.
In 1662 another and a more serious affray
took place. The Duke of Crequi being sent
to Rome by Louis XIV. as ambassador ex-
traordinary, came with a numerous retinue,
among whom were sevei'al reduced officers and
881

other military men. The duke was haughty
and hasty, and his master Louis at that time
was not on very good terms with the poj)e.
Disputes took place between the Frenchmen
and the Corsican guards in the papal service,
in which several persons were killed on
both sides. The Duke of Crequi left Rome
for Tuscany, and Louis ordered the papal
nuncio out of his kingdom, and took pos-
session of Avignon and its territory, which
belonged to the pope. The college of the
Sorbonne at Paris took the part of the king
by publishing certain theses in which it im-
pugned the infallibility of the pope even in
matters of doctrine, and still more in the
temporal affairs of other countries. Pope
Alexander was at last obliged to conciliate
the French king, and after two years of nego-
tiations and of threats on the part of Louis,
the pope in 1664 sent his nephew Cardinal
Chigi and Cardinal Imperiali the governor of
Rome to make an apology for the insult
offered to the Duke of Crequi ; the pope
also promised to send away from Rome his
own brother, Don Mario Chigi, to disband
the Corsican guards in his service, and never
to enlist any more soldiers from Corsica, and
further to raise a pyramid at Rome with an
inscription recording this resolution against
the Corsicans.

Alexander VII. is one of the popes who
have contributed most to the embellishment of
Rome. He completed the building of the
university called La Sapienza, he enlarged the
papal palace on the Quirinal, and built the
fine palace Chigi on the square of the Anto-
nine column. He cleared the street of the
Corso of several obstructions, and raised pave-
ments for the convenience of pedestrians ; he
restored the city walls and the pyramid of
C. Cestius ; he cleared a space round the
Pantheon so as to afford a good view of that
structure ; he employed Bernini to decorate
the gate del Popolo and the neighbouring
church; he drained the unwholesome marsh
called the lake of Baccano by opening a canal
which carried its waters into the Tiber ; he
built an arsenal at Civita Vecchia, and began
the handsome colonnade before St. Peter's
Church. All these, and other works of the
same kind, were undertaken by him during a
pontificate of twelve years.

The pope assisted the emperor and the
Venetians in their wars against the Turks,
by sending several galleys to act with the
Venetian fleet in the Levant, and by levying
a tax upon church property in Italy to defray
the expenses of the war.

At the end of 1666 Alexander VIL fell
dangerously ill, and after struggling for se-
veral months against the disease, and rallying
several times, he made a last effort to give,
on Easter Sundaj', 1667, his solemn blessing
from the balcony of St. Peter's to the people
of Rome, after which he grew worse, and
died on the 2 2d of May, having before his

ALEXANDER.

death delivered a lecture to the assembled
cardinals upon the vanity of all worldly
honours, and expressing his regret that he
had not done all the good he might have
done in the course of his pontificate.

Alexander VIL was learned and a patron
of learning. A collection of his juvenile
poems in Latin were published at Paris in
1656. His bulls are inserted in Cherubini's
" Bullarium." He was succeeded by Clement
IX. (Bagatta, Vita di Alessandro VII. in
continuation of Panvinio's Lives of the Popes;
Botta, Sloria d' Italia; Muratori, Annali
d' Italia.) A. V.

ALEXANDER VIIL (Pope), Cardinal
Pietro Ottoboni, succeeded Innocent XI. in
1689. He was born at Venice in 1610 of a
patrician family, and had been long known
as one of the most distinguished members of
the college of cardinals for his abilities and
knowledge of the world. He had been made
a cardinal by Innocent X. in 1652. After his
elevation to the pontificate he endeavoured to
restore the amicable relations with the court
of France which had been again interrupted
under his predecessor on account of the im-
munities claimed by the French resident at
Rome. In this he partly succeeded, and the
French king restored Avignon ; but as the
pope insisted upon the French bishops re-
tracting the four propositions sanctioned by
the Galilean church in 1G82, which he con-
sidered as derogatory from the papal authority,
the negotiations lingered without any defini-
tive result. The pope took great interest in
the success of his countrymen the Venetians
against the Turks, and he sent a messenger
to Venice to carry a military hat and sword
with the papal benediction to Morosini, the
conqueror of the Morea, who received it with
great solemnity in the church of St. Mark.
In February, 1691, Pope Alexander died, and
was succeeded by Innocent XII. The only
charge brought against the memory of Alex-
ander VI II. is that of nepotism. He added
to the Vatican library the rich collection of
MSS. of Queen Christina of Sweden, who
died at Rome just before his exaltation to the
papal chair. (Muratori, Annali d' Italia;
Tiraboschi, Storia delta letteratura Italiana;
Botta, Storia d" Italia.) A. V.

ALEXANDER SAULL [Sauli.]
ALEXANDER L, king of Scotland, was
the fourth of the five sons of King Malcolm
Canmore and his wife Margaret, daughter of
Edward the Outlaw, in virtue of which ma-
ternal descent Alexander was considered to
inherit the rights of the old Saxon kings of
England. The date of his birth has not been
recorded ; but he was evidently in the vi-
gour of manhood when he succeeded to the
Scottish throne, on the death of his elder bro-
ther Edgar without issue, on the 8th of Janu-
ary, 1107. It appears from an allusion in
Ailred's tract on the war of the Standard
that Edgar at his death had bequeathed a
882

part of his kingdom to his youngest brother
David; and that Alexander, although he at
first disputed the validity of the donation,
ultimately acquiesced in it on finding that
David's claim was supported by the Norman
barons of the north of England. Lord Hailes
conceives that the territory thus sepai'ated
from the crown during Alexander's reign
" could be nothing else but the part of Cum-
bei'land possessed by the Scottish kings."
Cumberland, originally a Celtic kingdom,
had been bestowed on the Scottish king
Malcolm I. by Edmund T. of England in 946;
and, although seized by William the Con-
queror in 1072 on 3Ialcohn Canmore's re-
fusal to do him homage for it, or, in other
words, to acknowledge him as king of Eng-
land, it was restored to Malcolm on his sub-
mission the same year ; from which date it
may be regarded as an English earldom, and
subject to the ordinary incidents of a fief.
Without entering upon the dispute as to the
nature of the homage anciently performed by
the Scottish to the English kings, it may be
mentioned as a remarkable fact, that no such
homage was ever performed by Alexander I.,
nor, as far as appears, demanded or expected
from him ; so that his reign affords at the
least no evidence in favour of the supposition
that the homage was for the Scottish crown.
Thus, in the summary of early Scottish his-
tory given by Sir Francis Palgrave in his
work on " The Rise and Progress of the
English Commonwealth" (vol ii. pp. cccxxx.
— cccxl.), which is drawn up with the view
of proving the homage to have been per-
formed for the crown by an uninterrupted
series of instances, the reign of Alexander is
passed over altogether ; there is no intimation
that any king reigned in Scotland between
his predecessor Edgar and his successor Da-
vid I., both of whom indeed acknowledged
themselves to be liegemen of the English
king, but both of whom held the English
earldom of Cumberland, which Alexander
never possessed, as well as wore the Scottish
crown. Alexander lived during his whole
reign in peace and friendship with the
English king, Henry I., one of whose natural
daughters, Sibilla, or, as other authorities
call her, Elizabeth, he married immediately
after he came to the throne. Her mother was
Elizabeth, sister of the Earls of Meulant and
Leicester, and wife of Gilbert de Clare, earl
of Pembroke, by whom she was mother of
the famous Richard de Clare, surnamed
Strongbow, the conqueror of Ireland. The
Scottish queen is reckoned by the English
genealogists the fourteenth and youngest of
Henry's illegitimate children. " Such an
alliance," Lord Hailes remarks, " was not
held dishonourable in those days." Sibilla
died on the 12th of June, 1 122, without having
had any issue by her husband, who, says
William of Malmsbury, did not greatly
lament the loss of her, adding, as the rea-

ALEXANDER.

son, that she was said to have had little to
recommend her either in modesty of carriage
or elegance of person.

Almost the entire history of the reign of
Alexander that lias come down to us consists
of the proceedings relating to the filling np
of two successive vacancies in the primatial
see of St. Andrew's. Alexander's conduct in
this matter, however, with regard to which
we have very full and authentic details, is
highly characteristic. The bishopric appears
either to have been vacant at his accession,
or to have become so immediately after.
With the approbation, as it is stated, of the
clergy and people, he nominated Turgot, a
monk of Durham, the same who is generally
held to be the author of the Life of his
mother. Queen Margaret, and who in that
case had already resided for some j-ears in
Scotland before her death in 1093. But a
controversy Avhich arose about the right to
consecrate the new bishop, on the one hand
between the archbishops of York and Canter-
bury, on the other between both these foreign
prelates and the body of the Scottish clergy,
who denied the claims of either, prevented
Turgot receiving consecration till the 30th
of July, 1109, when the ceremony was per-
formed in conformity with an agreement
between the two kings, that Henry should
enjoin the Archbishop of York to consecrate
Turgot, saving the authority of either church.
Turgot, who seems not to have been able to
bring Alexander, although a steady friend
of the church, to acquiesce in all his eccle-
siastical pretensions, at last, in 1115, asked
leave to revisit his old cell at Durham, and
died there on the 31st of Avigust in that
year. Alexander, though he took some steps,
did not actually nominate a new bishop till
1120, when, with the design, probably, of
resisting the pretensions of the see of York,
which were considered the most formidable,
he fixed upon Eadmer, a monk of the pro-
vince of Canterbury, from whose relation,
and from that of another contemporary
writer, Simeon of Durham, our information
as to these transactions is principally derived.
The consent both of Ralph archbishop of
Canterbury and of King Henry having been
obtained, Eadmer came to Scotland, and was
on the 29th of June fonnally elected to the
bishopric by the clergy and people, with the
permission of the king ; but the next day,
when Eadmer at a private conference pro-
posed that he should be consecrated by the
Archbishop of Canterbury, Alexander, with
great emotion, started from his seat and
left the apartment. He immediately com-
manded that the person who had admi-
nistered the affairs of the bishopric since the
decease of Turgot, William, a monk of St.
Edniundsburj', should resume his functions ;
but about a month after he was prevailed
upon, at the request of the nobility, to agree
that Eadmer should be admitted by talving
883

the pastoral staff off the altar, " as if re-
ceiving it from the Lord," while he received
the ring from Alexander himself. Eadmer
complains that the king soon began to en-
croach upon his privileges ; in consequence
of wliich, he says, he resolved to repair to
Canterbury for advice. But upon his asking
permission to depart, Alexander told him
that the church of Scotland owed no sub-
jection to Canterbury; and in fact he was
not allowed to go till he consented to re-
sign the bishopric, and promised not to
reclaim it so long as Alexander should be
king. After he had been for some time in
England, however, he wrote to Alexander,
expressing, in substance, his willingness to
submit to the king's wishes. " Should you
continue in your former sentiments," he said
(to quote the translation given by Lord
Hailes), " I will desist from my opposition ;
for, with respect to the King of England,
the Archbishop of Canterbury, and the sacer-
dotal benediction, I had notions which, as
I have since learned, were erroneous. They
will not separate me from the service of God
and your favour. In those things I will act
according to your inclinations, if you only
permit me to enjoy the other rights belong-
ing to the see of St. Andrew's." But Alex-
ander would not yield ; Eadmer never was
suffered to return to the country ; and the
bishopric remained vacant till January, 1124,
when Alexander succeeded in procuring the
election of Robert, prior of Scone, another
English monk. The long story which we
have thus abridged sufficiently paints the
character of this remarkable king. One of
his prelates, John, bishop of Glasgow, in a
letter to Eadmer, which the latter has pre-
served in his History, no doubt speaks the
truth when he says of him, " It is his will to
be everything himself in his own kingdom."
But he has been described more fully, and also
more fairly, by the English historian Ailred,
who, in his treatise on the Genealogy of the
English Kings, observes that " he was humble
and courteous to the clergy, but to the rest
of his subjects terrible beyond measure ; high
spirited ; always endeavouring to compass
things beyond his power ; not ignorant
of letters (literatus); zealous in establishing
churches, collecting relics, and providing
vestments and books for the clergy ; liberal
even to profusion, and taking delight in the
offices of charity to the poor." In the chro-
nicles and traditions of his own country he is
distinguished by the epithet of " the Fierce;"
and several stories are related of his great
personal strength and daring valour. It is
said that sometime during his reign the
Celtic tribes of the district of Moray (the
country of jMacbeth) rose under his uncle
Donald Bane in support of the ancient mode
of succession, called the system of tanistry,
according to which the throne, when it be-
came vacant, was filled not by the son but

ALEXANDER.

by the brother of the deceased king ; and it
appears from Eadmer that in the autumn of
1120 Alexander did levy an army, which he
led against some enemy, no doubt within the
kingdom. The account of the later Scottish
chroniclers is, that the contest speedily ter-
minated in the suppression of the insurrec-
tion and the destruction of its leader. Alex-
ander himself died on the 27 th of April,
1124; and, leaving no issue, was succeeded
by his brother David. He built the monas-
tery of St. Colm, or St. Columba, on the
island called Inch Colm, in the Frith of
Forth, upon which he was entertained for
three days by a hermit during a tempest in
which he had nearly perished at sea ; and he
was also liberal in his donations to several
of the ancient ecclesiastical establishments.
The earliest Scottish coins now extant are
of the reign of Alexander L (Eadmerus,
Historia Nuvorum, cum notis Jo. Seldeai, fol.
Lond. 1623, pp. 17. 98. 130, &c. ; Simeon
Dunelmensis, inter Historia Anglic. Scriptores
Decern, pp. 207, &c. ; Ailredus, Descriptio
Belli Standardii, Ibid. 344. ; Ailredus, Ge-
nealog. Reg. Anglor., Ibid. p. 368. ; Hailes,
Annals of Scotland, 3 vols. Svo. 1819, i. 53 —
74.) G. L. C.

ALEXANDER IL, king of Scotland,
the son of William the Lion and his wife
Ermengarde, was born a. d. 1198, and suc-
ceeded his father, 4th December, 1214.
He was crowned at Scone on the 10th.
Young as he was, he lost no time in as-
suming the active part to which he was
called by his high station. Within a few
months after his accession he put himself at
the head of an armed force, and marched
into England to co-operate with the barons
who were in revolt against King John. He
had bargained to be rewarded with the coun-
ties of Northumberland, Cumberland, and
Westmorland, to which, or at least to part of
which, he advanced some hereditary claim ;
and in the course of the military operations
that followed, although he was unsuccessful
in his attempts upon the castles of Norham
and Carlisle, he actually received at Felton
(on the 18th of October, 1215) the homage
and fealty of the inhabitants of Northumber-
land, and at Melrose (on the 2d of January,
1216) the homage of the general body of the
insurgent English barons of the northern
counties who had fled before the advance of
John. The English king, however, con-
tinued his avenging march along the eastern
coast, carrying fire and sword from the Tyne
to the Forth, and reducing the country to
a desert, so that he was obliged at last to
return to the south for want of subsistence.
John declared, we are told by Matthew
Paris, that he would smoke the little red fox
(rubeam vulpeculam) out of his covert, be-
cause, says the historian, Alexander was
rufus, which ought to mean that he was
red-haired, but probably means that he was
884

of a ruddy complexion, in conformity with
the signification in which the same epithet is
applied by the old monkish chroniclers to
William II. of England. When he had thus
got rid of John, Alexander retaliated by •
making his way again into England over
the western marches, and laying waste Cum-
berland ; and in a subsequent incursion he
made himself master of the town of . Carlisle
(8th August, 1216). After this it is said that
he did homage, no doubt in his quality
of an English baron, to Louis of France,
whom the insurgents had called over to their
assistance, and to whom they and their ad-
herents all swore fealty. The death of John
however, on the 17th of October in this year,
and the defeat of Louis at Lincoln by the
Earl of Pembroke on the 20th of May, 1217,
changed the position of affairs ; and Alex-
ander, excommunicated by the pope's legate,
and left alone by the destruction or submission
of his French and English confederates, was
glad to make peace with the victorious party
by the surrender of Carlisle, and by consent-
ing to do homage to Henry III. for the earl-
dom of Huntingdon and for whatever other
possessions he held or claimed in England.

This reconciliation was cemented a few
years after by the marriage of the King of
Scots, on the 25th of June, 1221, to Henry's
eldest sister, Joan ; a fortunate alliance, which
helped along with other favourable circum-
stances to preserve peace between the two
kingdoms during the remainder of Alex-
ander's reign. While Queen Joan lived,
Alexander and she repeatedly visited En-
gland, and the general intercourse of the two
countries was probably much greater than
it had ever previously been. In 1237 Alex-
ander's claims to the inheritance of the north-
ern counties and some other claims were
arranged by the settlement on him of lands
in Northumberland and Cumberland, to the
value of two hundred pounds per annum, for
which he did homage to Henry. Soon after
this the Queen of Scots, having come to Eng-
land in the hope of obtaining relief at the
shrine of St. Thomas a Becket from a painful
disease under which she had been long suf-
fering, expired at London, on the 4th of
March, 1238. She left no issue, and the
following year, on the 15th of May, Alex-
ander married at Roxburgh, Mary, daughter
of IngelraTU or Engueraud de Couci, sur-
named le Grand, the head of a family in
Picardy distinguished by its royal alliances,
and accustomed to hold itself as rather of
princely than of noble rank. This mar-
riage, which was followed in course of time
by the birth of a son, afterwards Alex-
ander III., at first so little aifected the good
understanding between the two kings, that
in 1242, when Henry was about to go to the
Continent, he confided to Alexander the care
of the northern borders ; but after some time
jealousies began to arise, which are imputed

ALEXANDER.

by the chroniclers partly to the growing in-
fluence of the new Queen of Scots with her
husband, partly to another cause. In 1242,
Walter Eisset, a member of a powerful Scot-
tish family, had been worsted at a tournament
near Haddington by the Earl of Athole ;
Athole was soon after murdered ; the popular
suspicion attributed the deed to IJisset or his
kinsmen ; both Alexander and his (jueen
appear to have done everything in their
power to protect the accused, or at least to
secure him a fair trial ; but the general feel-
ing against him was too strong to be resisted ;
he and all his relations were stripped of
their possessions and banished from Scotland ;
upon which Bisset proceeded to the English
court, and there set himself to engage King
Ileniy in his quarrel by representing that
Alexander was in truth Henry's vassal, and
had no right to inflict such punishments
on his nobles without the permission of his
liege lord. ."N.'oved, whether wholly by
Bisset's instigations and intrigues, or in part
also by other incitements, Henry in 1244 as-
sembled a great army at Newcastle with the
avowed design of invading Scotland ; and
Alexander on his side took the field at the
head of a force which Matthew Paris says
amounted to nearly 100,000 men ; but by the
mediation of the English nobility, by whom
and by all the English nation, the historian
tells us, Alexander was justly as much beloved
as by his own subjects, a peace was brought
about without a resort to the sword.

From the commencement of his reign,
although he had enjoyed peace with England,
Alexander had repeatedly to defend himsel
against the Celtic adherents of the ancient
principle of succession to the throne. In
1215, an invasion of the district of Moray, ap-
parently by the partisans of the other branch
of the royal house, who are said to have been
assisted by the son of an Irish prince, was met
and repelled by a local chief who is sup-
posed to have been the head of the clan Ross.
In 1222 Alexander led an army in person
against an insurrection in Argyleshire, which
he speedily suppressed. He did not meet
with the same success when he went to
the north in 1228 to encounter the forces of
Gilliescop Mac Scolane, who appears to have
been the then representative of the Celtic
line ; but that pretender and both his sons
were fallen upon and slain the following year
by the Earl of Buchan, justiciary of the king-
dom. After this we hear of no more attempts
to dispute the possession of the throne ; but
the Celtic population still evidently continued
in an excitable state in various parts of the
kingdom. In 1233 the people of Galloway,
who were of that race, on the death of their
lord Alan, who was constable of the king-
dom, rose under the conduct of his illegiti-
mate son and an Irish chief called Gildrodh,
or Gildei-oy, against the transference of his
estates to his three daughters and their hus-
885

bands ; and Alexander had to arm to piit
down the insurrection, which he did not do
without difiiculty. Another more i)artial re-
volt took place in the same quarter in 1247.
Two years after this Alexander set out on
an expedition to the Western Highlands, with
the object of enforcing the complete sub-
jection of Angus of Argyle and other chiefs
of those parts, who had hitherto divided their
allegiance between Scotland and Norway,
generally under the pretence of holding lands
in the Western Islands, of which the Norwe-
gian king claimed the sovereignty : but he
was seized with fever while at sea, and having
landed on the small island of Kerera, in the
sound of Mar, he died there on the 8th of
July, 1249. The name of Dalree, that is, the
king's place, is supposed still to point out the
spot on the shore where his tent was erected.
He was buried in the abbey of Melrose.

Alexander II. was a warm friend to the
clergy and to the monastic orders, more espe-
cially to the Dominicans or Black Friars,
for whom he appears to have founded no
fewer than eight monasteries. He also stood
up on all occasions with great steadiness for
the independence of the national church; and
his reign is memorable for a bull granted by
Pope Honorius IV. in 1225, by which the
Scottish clergy, on account of their distance
from the apostolic seat, were authorised to
hold provincial councils at their own discre-
tion, or under the sanction of which at least
they repeatedly exercised that right, although
probably all the privilege that the bull was
intended to convey was that of holding one
such council. See Lord Hailes's " Historical
Memorials concerning the Provincial Coun-
cils of the Scottish Clergy," 4to. Edinburgh,
1769.

Alexander II. was succeeded by his son
Alexander III. (Chronicon de Muilros, in
Fell, Jieritm AnyJicarum Scriptures Veteres,
fol. Oxon. 1684;' Matt. Paris, Historia Major ;
Fordun. Scotichronicon ; Hec. Boethius, Sco-
torum Histories ; Rymer, Fccdera ; Hailes's
Annals of Scotland.) G. L. C.

ALEXANDER III., king of Scotland,
son of Alexander II. and his second wife
Mary de Couci, was born at Roxburgh, 4th
December, 1241, and succeeded his father,
8th July, 1249. He was crowned at Scone on
the 13th ; the ceremony apparently having
been hastened from an apprehension that
the King of England, Henry HI., might seek
to interfere in his pretended character of
liege lord. It appears in fact that Henry did
apply to the pope. Innocent IV., for a mandate
to prohibit the King of Scotland from being
crowned without his permission : the answer
of Innocent, dated at Lyon, the 8th of the
ides of April, 1251, in which he rejects the
request, is printed by Rymer {Fadera, i. 463.).
Henry, however, abstained from any open
expression of resentment : on the contrary,
he fulfilled an arrangement which had been

ALEXANDER.

made in 1242, by giving his eldest daughter
Margaret in marriage to Alexander : the
nuptials were celebrated at York with great
pomp, in Henry's presence, on the 26 th of
December, 1251, the bride being then in
her twelfth as the bridegroom was in his
eleventh year. When Alexander upon this
occasion did homage to Henry for his English
possessions, Henry demanded homage also
for the kingdom of Scotland, according, as
he was pleased to say, to what evidently ap-
peared to have byen the usage from many
passages in the Chi-onicles. The boy, who
had probably received instructions how to
act, replied, " That he had been invited to
York to marry the Princess of England, not
to treat of affairs of state ; and that he could
not take a step so important without the
knowledge and approbation of his nobility
(primates)."

The history of the earlier part of Alex-
ander's reign, so far as it has come down to
US, consists almost exclusively of the con-
tentions and intrigues of various factions to
obtain the ascendancy in the government.
At his accession, the chief authority was in
the hands of the Comyns, a family so power-
ful that there were then, Fordun tells us, no
fewer than thirty-two knights of the name
in Scotland ; their head was William Comyn,
earl of Menteith ; and they were popularly
accounted the patriotic party, as being the
keenest or the loudest opponents of the pre-
tensions of the English king. In 125.5
Henry managed to effect what may be called
a ministerial revolution, by means of Richard
de Clare, earl of Gloucester, and other emis-
saries, at whose instigation it probably was
that the young queen complained of many
grievances : — that she was confined to the
castle of Edinburgh, and not permitted to
make excursions through the kingdom ; that
she had not the choice of her female attend-
ants ; and, above all, that, although her hus-
band had now completed his fourteenth year,
they were still kept separate. Taking ad-
vantage of the odium excited against the
Comyns by these charges, the Earl of Marcli
and other leaders of the opposite party sur-
prised the castle of Edinburgh and took
possession of the persons of the king and
queen, while Henry advanced with an army
to the border ; and the result was that the
Comyns and their allies the Baliols were re-
moved from the government, and that, by an
arrangement made at Roxburgh on the 28th
of September, a regency was appointed to last
till Alexander should attain the age of twenty-
one, the members of which were the earls
of March, Strathearn, and Carrick, Alexander
the Stewart of Scotland, and Robert de Bruce,
with other heads of the English faction. But
the Comyns now obtained the assistance both
of the pope, Alexander IV., and of the queen
dowager, Mary de Couci, who, after having
married a second husband, John de Brienne,
886

son of the titular king of Jerusalem, had
lately returned with him to Scotland ; and in
1257 they seized Alexander and bis queen
at Kinross, and kept them in their hands till
a negotiation took place the following j-ear,
by which a new regency was established
consisting of six members of the Comyn
partj' and four of their opponents. This
compromise appears to have subsisted till
Alexander attained his majority and took
the government into his own hands, although
the influence of the Comyns had probably
been deprived of its preponderating character
by the death of their leader the Earl of
Menteith, which took place suddenly in the
same year in which the new regency was
formed, not without suspicion that he had
been made away with by unfair means. The
mixed regency seems to have been still in
power when Queen Margaret was brought to
bed of her first child, a daughter, which was
named Margaret, while she and her husband
were on a visit at London, sometime be-
tween the middle of November, 1260, and
the beginning of the following February.

The commencement of the second part of
Alexander's reign, or that in which he
governed by himself, is memorable for the
invasion of Scotland by Haco, king of Nor-
way, in the summer and autumn of 1263.
The expedition, according to the Norse ac-
count, was provoked by an attack which the
Earl of Ross and other northern chiefs had
made upon the Western Islands, and wliich had
been conducted with extraordinary ferocity
even for those times. " They burned villages
and churches," says the Norwegian annalist
of Haco's expedition, " and they killed great
numbers both of men and women ; " and he
adds that the kings or chiefs of the Hebrides
in their letters to Haco affirmed "that the
Scotch had even taken the small children,
and, raising them on the points of their spears,
shook them till they fell down to their hands,
when they threw tliem away lifeless on the
ground." Haco, having collected a fleet
which is represented as the greatest that had
ever left the north, set sail from Herlover in
the beginning of July. Having remained
nearly a fortnight at what is called Bre-
deyiar Sound in Shetland, and afterwards
for some time at Ellidarvic, near Kirkwall,
it was the beginning of August when they
reached Ronaklsvo, or Ronaldsay, the south-
ernmost island of the Orkney group. " While
King Haco lay in Ronaldsvo," says the an-
nalist, " a great darkness drew over the sun,
so that only a little ring was bright round
the sun, and it continued so for some hours."
It is found that an annular eclipse of the sun
was in fact visible at Ronaldsay on the 5th
of August in this year. Haco, having sailed
down the west coast of Scotland, afterwards
divided his force ; and, while one squadron
pillaged the Mull of Cantyre, another made
a descent upon the Isle of Bute, and com-

ALEXANDER.

polled the castle of Ilothsay to surrender.
After this Haco made overtures for an ac-
conunodation, whieli seemed at first to be
listened to by Alexander, who named as the
only islands that he would on no account
relinquish, those of Bute, Arran, and the two
islets on the coast of Ayrshire called the
Cumbras. " As to other matters," continues
the account, " there was very little dispute
between the sovereigns ; but, however, no
agreement took place. The Scotch pur-
posely declined any accommodation, because
summer was drawing to a period and the
weather was becoming bad. Finding this,
Haco sailed in with all his forces past the
Cumbras." Having dragged their boats over
the intervening land, a party of the Nor-
wegians made their appearance in Loch
Lomond. " In the lake," says the annalist,
" there were a great many islands well in-
habited : these islands the Norwegians wasted
with fire ; they also burned all the buildings
about the lake, and made great devastation."
But on the Monday after Michaelmas, which
fell on a Saturday, so tremendous a tempest
of wind, rain, and hail arose, " that people
said it was raised by the power of magic."
Some of the Norwegian ships ran aground
near Largs, on which their crews were at-
tacked by the Scotch, who were however
driven off ; but on the following morning
(Tuesday, the 2d of October), the landing of
the greater part of the Norwegians and the
coming up of the entire Scottish armj' pro-
duced a general engagement. In the Scottish
army there were conjectured to be near fifteen
hundred cavalry (ridai-ar). " All their horses,"
says the Norwegian account, " had bi'east-
plates, and there were many Spanish steeds
in complete armour. The Scottish king had
besides a numerous army of foot soldiers,
well accoutred : they generally had bows
and speai's." One Scottish knight is after-
wards particularised, who " wore a helmet
plated with gold and set with precious stones,"
with other armour of corresponding splen-
dour. During the battle the storm, which
had somewhat abated in the night, arose
again and raged with great fury. The end
was, according to the Norwegian annalist,
that the Scotch were put to flight ; but in
the Scottish chronicles and traditions the
battle of Largs has always been represented
as a great national victory ; and it is certain
that Haco, with the remains of his shattered
armament, immediately left the coast and
proceeded homewards without any further
attempt to accomplish the object of his ex-
pedition. He reached the nearest port in
the Orkneys, " a certain sound to the north
of Asmundsvo," on the evening of Monday,
the 29th of October ; thence he immediately
sailed for Ronaldsay, and from that the next
day for Medalland (probably a harbour in
the island called Mainland), where he was
taken ill on the Saturday before Martinmas,
887

and he died at Kirkwall on Saturday, the
15th of December. Three years after, in
12()G, a treaty of jjcace was concluded with
his son and successor King Magnus, by
■which the dominion of the Hebrides, of the
Isle of Man, and generally of all the islands
in the Scottish seas, with the exception of
those of Orkney and Shetland, was ceded to
Alexander for four thousand marks sterling,
and an annual quit-rent of one hundred
marks.

After this, in 1267, a dispute broke out
between Alexander and his clergy, but it
did not last long ; and after it M-as composed,
Alexander, with much firmness and policy,
stood by the national church in maintaining
its rights against both the pope and the
English king. Henry HL died in 1272, and
Alexander was present with his queen and
manj' of his nobility at Westminster at the
coronation of Edward L in August, 1274, on
which occasion, and also again in 1278, he
did homage to the King of England in the
usual general terms, which Edward, as the
recoi'd states, received, saving his right and
claim to homage for the kingdom of Scotland,
when it should please him or his heirs to
demand it.

Queen Margaret died on the 2Gth of Feb-
ruary, 1275. In 1281 Alexander's daughter
Margaret, now in her twenty-first year, was
married to Eric, king of Norway, who was
only fourteen ; but she died in 1283, leaving
only an infant daughter, a third Margaret,
commonly styled by the old Scottish his-
torians the Blaiden of Norway. Queen Mar-
garet had also borne Alexander two sons,
Alexander, prince of Scotland, at Jedburgh,
on the 21st of January, 12C4, and David, in
1270, who died in infancy or boyhood. In
1282 the Prince of Scotland, now eighteen,
married Margaret, daughter of Guy, earl of
Flanders ; but he had always been sickly,
and he died, without issue, on the 28th of Ja-
nuary, 1284. On the 15th of April, 1285, Alex-
ander married at Jedburgh Joleta, daughter
of the Count de Dreux ; but on the night of
the 16th of March in the following year,
while riding along the northern shore of the
Frith of Forth, between Kinghorn and Burn-
tisland, his horse fell with him over a pre-
cipice, at a place still called King's Wood End,
and he was killed on the spot. Thus within
three years the king, his son, and his daughter
were all cut off, each after having been mar-
ried little more than a year, leaving the
infant Princess of Norway the only relic of
the royal house. Margaret was immediately
acknowledged as Queen of Scotland.

Alexander III. was long remembered in
Scotland both for the peace and prosperity
which the country enjoyed for the greater
part of his reign, forming so remarkable a
contrast with the distractions and calamities
of the immediately succeeding period, and for
his personal qualities and conduct. He is

ALEXANDER.

especially celebrated by the old writers for
his love of justice and his exertions to main-
tain a regular administration of the law, for
which purpose, it is stated, he was M'ont to
make an annual progress through his king-
dom, and to hold a court in person for the
trial of offences in all the principal towns.
Some popular verses of the time recorded
by Wyntown (supposed to be the oldest spe-
cimen extant of the Scottish dialect), strongly
express the alFectionate regard in which his
memory was held, and also the happy effects
of his government. Indeed the nearly com-
plete blank that the history of Scotland pre-
sents for above twenty years after the battle
of Largs is the best proof of the tranquillity

which the country enjojed. (Chron. de Mail-
ros, in Fell, lier. Anglic. Scriptur. Veteres, fol.
Oxon. 1684 ; M. Paris; Fordun ; Wyntown's
Cronykil of Scotland, by David M'Pherson,
2 vols. 8vo. Lon. 1795 ; Rymer's Fcedera ;
Norwegian Account ofHaco's Expedition, from
the Flateyan and Frisian MSS., by the Rev.
James Johnstone, 12mo. 1782; Observations
on the Norivegian Expedition, by John Dillon,
Esq., in Transactions of the Societj/ of Aiiti-
quaries of Scotland, vol. ii. 4to. Edinb. 1823,
pp.350 — 407.; Hailes's^wwa/s; Tytler's^w-
tory of Scotland, vol. i. ; Lingard's History of
Etigland, vol. iii.; Allen's Vindication of the
ancient Independence of Scotland, 8vo. Lon.
1833.) G. L. C.

EN1> or THE FIRST VOLUME.

London :

Printed by A. Spottiswcjode,

New- St reet- Sq uai c.

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES

0315022579

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