Full text of "Birds of eastern Canada"

See other formats

Eipaitice
LETH Lis

Ete acgdark thet f pity
edtA ae daa, bi
if iva? se Taeade
rf ‘J ashi e

Fy 4 isa:
po iteoS gar seezhats 2 Salad eta
Root oh Saleh aB aid aes,
Crea MALO ain,
ey tnnedes

physi
ates met sh
iron x}
fyb tihavet

beech ct ne te

H iss.
Fite taba saad eget Ciera gees) BAe
424 he Tih isiaatne Litet tab ah eared
} nyse Ae ; ; 3 : Danae
J | ‘
Y i f iad tas
ears) tate
tls. idakated
a 249 ONE 2
Ceavete) a resis ISPEN!
pyreiry rere rer are) eh ab bene sed
cee tty prs sarge
! ah gf ancattem cfs
aad etata imetiaree CaM HSER Pete
cea rays lad tiara L ghenty
t ; Cy red ; MePbOr tC:

é :
Pn pSantatasssl

S ¢
Aetubh wag tanins
tye

Fataes
tathe sant
shisitarase

ghee se chee
oe rec

saree
HERE:

Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2008 with funding from
Microsoft Corporation

http:/www.archive.org/details/birdsofeasternca0Otaveuoftt

ae ie

ore re | ;

Re yt

a, a
al CANADA
DEPARTMENT OF MINES

Hon. MARTIN BURRELL, MINISTER; R. G. MCCONNELL, DEPUTY MINISTER.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

WiLiiaM McINNES, DIRECTING GEOLOGIST.

MEMOIR 104

No. 3, BIOLOGICAL SERIES

Birds of Eastern Canada

BY
P. A. Taverner

OTTAWA

J. pp LABROQUERIE TACHE
PRINTER TO THE KING’S MOST EXCELLENT MAJESTY

~ 1919
No. 1563

Tntroduction....

57172—13

CONTENTS.

2G POO WLC Harn CUES Raa RO rte die Rae oie Pian tela eRe av AID Ug erat UM As ae Ge eta ema

Classification...... Se AE erel ROR pe Aa SANs Rati NL eee ogame ape ai par eae PU eae ee Rea RS Im

Berea ee EEL CLISLUTULION: + cfaca frei Serio ae REINS ae eee oT RE ee as

RMR RPI Pe Ba ats pt AU eel NSS A ER oe RT aS oe ee Fa hh

LE RBGIB HOTS cea s CE tee Ret a PRD a ARR oP Ne nag Mee ee Ok es SM LC 3c)

WPPESRTISI OSS EULSAC GATISALDIT Nears sere oo he Paes ae Ee oe Sr aim hes Ede

Pee EEL LCP ACABIA LED CUTS He cher se arene Lae crore eters Nie aha oes eo Re Ae Re te Dn

Pau Ne MIT Sor CAStErM CANA Aer tak i. <i Set ie ceils eee et ae

JO Sp APD UIIG Se CRS eae ae OAS te Raa Wie Sa et ars GaL Ns 9 isbag mg tone iN, Se A

Eee eed co SERRE ROCAES CIE BOC A ae TE RINE AN Rs Say ik ie S02 a Cy SO a

7 LTT SURLE TT Se le ee I A ee Oa ce gy ea ter ee eet ae EE

ee MOREE LIVIN 2 ors AS sao wis 3 Socio eee RO ee ES tate

(NEE oo os decd: SBS DDR eAE ROSITA MNO ROR SAS Pome lies A Deh ee aa iC AL EC DNR teh ON oh
' Illustrations.

Breer ried-billed Grobe...... 2. ol. f.ossel ees oo benbecc scent ee ee

18h. (Chayeritavorri] Davo) pear oon os aan BED EEE MIM Ay eu NGvng Ue ALCATEL

1G “wal. Lele Cart ER SA ae ei Satan Inte pire ee Marine De eee mae eT yD ey

; ESO OIMUPTON YRELDvaperecio says ee Otis eS ES EN Ee ee eo ae

DE ee Aeted-breasted Mercanser: 3. ik. scsi ten oon oth ener ce ee ee he

Jeo. Wien esd 12 Oi (ee Se ec a A a OO lel coe ge AAR Nah Bd Nets

TOV jo dale TELS Reo DAV (6) US aera a ee a ay Re lence she tua Stee Ara an Ce net ye

em WAN DEG Cadena setae s is chat a akht sateen tare mame at ee ey MN cE Ree AN

N/mm Nim VV COU CL DD Une Reet rata aye Yanai eh sais rai evetel sie ane acd Mera ed Me aS eee nie hae

135., (SERIE CG ERC 70'c 7 Mae Be A ad Ue TS AD Op SNe Bee ER Naya Nd

SATO Arr TABLE CHINSEST GLEETI os cea (ch isc iets lctciclote 5 alana SUR SES a A ls a pee oes

135. (Gergeentn LEAs 8 Ey 0) a et ee Ue ate Ne nT aR Ce SNS By ance

AWE. abe, (SUG TeE TRUER Aa Sa ea one gn Fas ae aac UU apo. ee Sic Sa Nae ats

Sapo MII GELC ANEW COU COCKS 8, 6 aza5tist niclsiea sete eae eee etic ake eee tbe eee 8

‘Vii Aly Wilson Sionipe: sc... -206420- a Ea PRA reic rr Saree eS nih ice meee Le A TILE) Ral, RUE

HS SPO LLSCM SATO DINE eye sith As: Seca ee yuu ya pur et Vogue CU ay) Oe nel ia ay fice

EDS dlc LECHILG I vGES ea Aone OR cr el pene 4 ty CD PAN ay See are prs ap Me een kg

TE Bo) oy rie ea ace. ch eee ee an Oe eet Mee RN Elie te iN Seen Cleo

EXO AS DEUCE GTOUSE? ors saeco Svea Sahat Ror sholis ee Ree he Oe SA es

TBAy LEROWERE GG | (Gita s SP ae a enn ae i ay Ua me eae a mL ens ERIC Li oe Ame

al eee Mourain= Dove and Passenger Pigeon... .2...2:5-2052<e0. ses. beL eee

TEL LITERS BIST 7] Fe a io be a ne SR ITC WS Be Ph NLS NN MG ed a

EXCH ape Atom SFL OgE- SI ITTIOCUNED A WW Mesrs 05.805 \c) scale) oi el ule, Seid ati Bice RI a un ea aoa Na yu

13, AMIGRT ERT CyohiLN 2 gant yO ae rane PRR NEEL Soe) Seach WNC RG NEMS beet Sige ik

XIII A PE ertd= bead COMET SU WiLCe starch ies Ne aire eee asco aha ae NE ee Oa Oh ae

gi Red-shouldered EE Se Restate seca aco > aA Seeks ane eR Ieee cP

XIV. Sys FIST Rav ENS3 WW Keero ya as a ore ia a ie aus hase sare hake Lee oe er eal hae hve ity pe

ESDP OFI CAINS DRELO WALL W:Kic., fycrosts. ons’ 'ace 5 shavers vere Re eee we Oe ei

DeNo. this) QTY SEN 7B EDO RG OG Oe PIIERSS Gee PES ORS at Ay on a RN eee LN

PS PESTLE EO) WI eae ares ae nah cee, fee Rh Mee ean nh cere rte leh eae ae bh

DENY abs, ISGERE a2 CMON cet ones ate Ue A RSS RR 01 ae i Nc

HS CECA LBEROTIGG Owls antec) rk aes aeia era aNM ae U TulNeehRSDet

XVII. A. Black-billed Cuckoo; Yellow-billed Cuckoo............ccccceccuccecccccee

13\5 LEAG] hirsya al E<Gritca 6151: es epee ay Ga INN Ian a eT Cnt oo LAL SN OnE ie

EXO ap AE) Way" WOOG DOCK OL siso)sc6.<'co1d:2 6 ve webs SOR wee ees pone eee bee See

"B. Arctic Three-toed Woodpecker...........--0cceceeeeees sf abana ea ech creer

XIX. A. Yellow-bellied Sapsucker.............:.seeeee rere eee e eee n eset rere scesees
B. Pileated Woodpecker.............0-cceccccsereseecn ers cencetcncrereeeeenes
XX. A. Red-headed Woodpecker..........--sseecceteeee reece sees ereeeesereneeeses
BB. Whiekcor.. joe ciccoces os nt sie s ceens vos bls snieine ine’ elaine n ibig a oramuaitiein eo
XI. A. Nighthawk. ........--....000c--ceenoetecsina b= Shslos roieha au ies/cikee - lena
B. Chimney Swift... <....5-0.s0c0.-ss cece eece ces ones sahasinn nena: o> Aree nnmia
XXII. A. Ruby-throated Hummingbird... ce on. sous nal arial sar at. oc dee
B. Kingbitd..........6-020-060 7000 -nree ee oe ne walben@ou/enn eres Mga oni: sae
K RTI, A. Phoebe... occ. cookies pene le See 2.00 sine alpiaieieloiemiin ema ree a
° B.. Horned Lark. ..)......0 2020 cece et eee ese eee cae: shies 9 miei reine Ge cane
KKIV. A. Blue Tay. ....., 0.0.0.0... 6de ence tienda vi sts ssiniinl eet ee
FB. Canada Jay... ci senses ec nn's citer clesin os olsis nis mbibinie sa nin alsin ie ates Danie nee
KXV. A. American Crow:...... 2.06 cceewe ccs tece rans one + chien siete Sia Ep eielenie ie eam
B, Bobolink... . .c.c css oe ocee see nce weusiee «eee din r.pic em nls olen ee en
RXV. A. Cowbird....... 25.) ccee cee vcns ee cen ceases eehs waivinls sem 220i ea ania ae
B. Red-winged Blackbird...............:eeeceecee cess cence ceeesnneceessanes
KXVII. A. Meadowlark.........0..02cc0cbe esas cn ee sceee dese since Scie osetia
B. Baltimore Oriole.......5 56.002. occa mena cen anesiceiec eens sls oe pbs Ome meinem
KXVIII. A. Bronzed Grackle...........2+-seeeseceeceeccersee scenes regen sebaease ceelams
B: Pine Grosbeak. ......:.cscaeeccceeuvehed sweepers ssi stim a6 eh reise etetere sane
KXIX. A. Purple Finch......5..2.0005 ses ce cee eee cane esieiss meirebin ls ele nee eee
B. House Sparrow .....ceescce rennin c och en ne caine es 0g ~ ems shielemiqeiaincgs seni eeeaieas
XXX. A. American Goldfinch. .............-ccseeseee cee cece eters rssssesetesracese
B. Snow Bunting... ....00i oe sec cece enone wam leh alias + ple = =m mir ma min ames
XXKI. A. Vesper Sparrow. ........ 22.22 0c beets ccesve wenn ups sey amie ngs hese ene
__B- White-crowned Sparrow.......----sseeeeeeeecreecreeeccceeeteereressss ces
XXXII. White-throated Sparrow...........2:0:eceec eee e een e cess ee seen ee reeer esas
Y Thee SPAKTOW. «ose = sce ec cee een neice sie nie y= a = 9's 910.8 clei oN el amano eae sine
XXXII. A. Chipping Sparrow. ......-0- 2500-2 teens teste 2 asthenia eee
12 (rc: ee iS RE ec ia ci ay Pek yD Ode Er
XXXIV. A. Song Sparrow........60.--seeecrscceces tens oe cobeaine ehbere ee ee Greets tee eres
B. Rose-breasted Grosbeak..........0.:cceeeececee cece sees eeeeenenenraeceens
KXXV. A. Searlot Tanager........... 00000 2.c5 eee ccce ses ncn pus o00n misiemie esne teenie
B. Purple Martin..........0-026000ccn esse eens te mneinsipaiec wees bevels ee oe senna
XXXVI. A. Barn Swallow. ........0.022000c pene eee cn encn eevee. rie clever eee
B. Tree Swallow... c00c+cc0 cv scceessccccmnn one ssa 1p 0le'='e\e(e)o) stellen sina e i aanae
XXXVI. A. Bank Swallow. ....:5.0.605 0200600 h ons ve oe bee > oininm oreieir 9 rin ane
B. Cedar Waxwing: ........2- 0200s cece ee can cies ainis « aie7)-)= nett ae Sane ree leis
XXXVI. A. Migrant Loggerhead Shrike..........-.---:-seeeeceercteressettetcnerceses
B. Red-eyed Vireo. . «os... 2 255 sions canis tine ologloye,» mato 0l0)ple wm gee Oe
RKXIX. “AL Warbling Vireo. .....5.0 2c hese ns ines siege 2 ole aed sen > mine sensei a
B. Black and White Warbler.......--.--:0seeceeccrc sc este eerste sereeeesces
XT. As Yellow Warbler: ic. 50055 218 te cicse o ote oles levis iioselela ei neyeiayiiiel rere ete) >/ le aaa
B. Black-throated Blue Warbler..........-..0-22-scc eerste ast eter ec ttereeees
XELI. A. Myrtle Warbler. : .. 0352. 005020500 owsjnivies oniee nev wrels i= a> meter niece
B. Magnolia Warbler. ....-. 22.000 sso cea cece ce saelet met nese ee = tan: mena ienes
XLII. A. Blackburnian Warbler............--ccccccceeece rere ress eneccecesrsoseerene

B. Black-throated Green Warbler
KLTIT. (A. Oven-bird in. 2... cece ccis beanies ose e ela nelee eee eleivie om ale heirs): acer neers
B. Northern Yellow-throat............-22sccceeee eee e cece ese eters eeeee iden
XLIV. | A. Redstart: ic .cccc oo 5 5c 0 tis. c oie acele ls rasenayy oto elope lela: #1 elgaalsoleley ors ara
SB Catbird si iis. ce... 0k. oe ee bee hole eit eee mieilin © ale) ates nanis eee
KLV. WA. Brown Thrasher... .<- 2. cdc eeiee ape oo civ leterele ete] nl =\>, oie 0) sfehace naeeae de pene Reet nae
BB, Ouse WEN. vic «csc ccs co wale o dlesere p w:alb cee ete uete e1eby ots evelelinte ave io tele\eieaei> tele ieee teen mica
MLV. As) Brown’ Creeper. ws s..00 62. 5. )ie bec. 05% niclole ere wales etndotbpe)ole oir te ape eke yaaa ete
B. White-breasted Nuthatch.............ccccecc cece c eer ac cerrecscssserecnes

XLVII. A. Chickadee..

oles 66 da ep w 0p 0 00.0.6 ten © 0 0 06 a), 6,0)0]p © 60 ie) 6m /u\e) 6 Mame ei@ eel eee

. Grey-cheeked and Olive-backed Thrushes.....................0. cee ceeeee
TORTIE ET PURE cots He salata 5 5 Sioais cts Paces Me ee ak Se oe es ee ee

B bi > bi > bi > bo

PMA P LES IOI TA5 ROM hc wo sicic cine nick rain nle a ola asters ee OT RRS LEE orrae ae

cl " ry
he Saat grt
m4 U

Neh

Birds of Eastern Canada.

INTRODUCTION.

OBJECT OF THE BOOK.

Of late years there has been a great awakening of interest in the subject
of natural history. More and more people are beginning to realize the
pleasure and profit that can be derived from observation of common natural
objects. In this growing field of nature study, few subjects have attracted
so much popular attention as birds and few forms of life appeal so strongly
to the «esthetic sense. They are beautiful; they arouse curiosity; their
elusiveness piques the imagination; and by presenting constantly new
aspects they never become commonplace.

* The ornithological side is one from which the problems of nature can
be successfully attacked from so many standpoints and in so many ways
that there is interesting and valuable work for all to accomplish according
to individual taste or opportunity. Those who incline towards systematic
work can split their definitions as finely as human powers of observation
permit. The animal psychologist can develop his problems as far as
ingenuity can devise methods for experimentation. The ordinary nature
lover can observe and note as painstakingly as opportunity permits; he
can record information of scientific as well as popular interest, take pleasure
in observing passing beauties, train his powers of observation, and acquire
a knowledge that greatly increases his capacity for appreciation of nature.
Even the unsentimental, practical man, who has little outward sympathy
with abstract beauty, has his attention attracted by the evident economic
value of birds.

The ‘Birds of Eastern Canada” has been written to awaken and,
where it already exists, to stimulate an interest, both esthethic and practical,
in the study of Canadian birds and to suggest the sentimental, scientific,
and economic value, of that study; to assist in the identification of native
species; and to furnish the economist with a ready means of determining
bird friend from bird foe that he may act intelligently towards them and
to the best interest of himself and the country at large; to present in a
readily accessible form reliable data upon which measures of protective
legislation may be based; to point out some of the pitfalls that have
caught the inexperienced in the past; and to suggest methods for their
future avoidance.

SCOPE OF THE BOOK.

This work covers all the birds that the ordinary observer is likely to
meet with between the Atlantic coast and the prairies north of the Inter-
national Boundary. This region forms a natural zoological area (see
Distribution, page 8), including what may be called the eastern woodlands
of Canada, a fairly homogeneous section, physically, geographically, and
zoologically. The prairies are radically different in character and, con-
sequently, exhibit an entirely different aspect of bird life. The birds of

the open are naturally different from those of the woodlands; hence
Manitoba has been taken as the western boundary of the zoological area
dealt with in this book.

Although not a scientifically complete check-list of the birds of Eastern
Canada, this book is nearly so. A few species whose Canadian status is
doubtful, and some of extreme rarity or of accidental occurrence, have
been disregarded. The utmost freedom has been used in this respect and
species have been admitted freely upon the basis of expediency; some as
being of probable occurrence and to be looked for, others as illustrating
some point of general interest more pointedly than regular native species,
and some because in the past they have been confused with commoner
forms.

PLAN OF THE BOOK.

The systematic arrangement (see Classification, page 5, and nomen-
clature, page 7) used are those of the Check-list of the American Orni-
thologists’ Union, third edition, 1910. Though this arrangement is
acknowledged to be somewhat imperfect and its details tentative, it is
that upon which most of the recent American bird literature is founded and
is the one in common use in North America.

In the treatment of subspecies a departure has been made from cur-
rent practice, which the writer believes to represent more accurately the
facts of nature and modern concepts. Species have been treated as
aggregations of subspecies, each of equal rank and importance, and
not, as is customary, as species with subordinate sub-species depen-
dent upon them. The species is first given as a whole, including its
subspecific races, and under a subhead mention is made of the special
subspecies that occur within the geographical scope of the work. This has
caused no confusion or change except in the use of vernacular names in
which the reader will find a few departures from those given and authorized
by the American Ornithologists’ Union. In the scientific nomenclature
the true relative importance of species and subspecies has been expressed ;
but the common names have not heretofore always reflected this conception
of subordination and this fact in many cases has caused the use of definite
subspecific terms when it was by the very nature of the case impossible to
determine their correctness or when it was unadvisable to recognize them.
Thus there has been a tendency to attach unwarranted importance to
these minor distinctions in popular as well as scientific estimation. In the
correction of this condition certain adaptations of common names have
been necessary, but as little change as possible from accepted practice
has been made. Older terms have been revived wherever possible, but as
current names have also been given no confusion should result. It has, in
some cases, been necessary to apply the recognized type subspecific name
to the whole species and adopt a new one for the form so robbed. In doing
this it was advisable that as little change should be made in current usage
as was consistent with the end in view. Therefore, except where good
reasons prevented, the new subspecific name was formed by prefixing
an adjective to the specific term hitherto applied to it. Each departure
from accepted practice has been decided upon its own merits. Though
there can be little doubt as to the advisability of the principle of the reform,
the manner of carrying it out has been the subject of much thought, con-
siderable consultation with others, and some hesitation in individual cases.

The Horned Lark is one example of this problem. The type subspecies
Otocoris alpestris alpestris has generally been known as the Horned Lark
regardless of the fact that any one of the fourteen or more other geogra-
phical races have an equal claim to the name and that it is the only one
for the species as a whole. The obvious course is to call the typical sub-
species, Otocoris alpestris alpestris (only typical in the sense of being des-
cribed first and not on account of any taxonomic superiority to other
forms), Eastern Horned Lark and to apply the name Horned Lark to the
whole collection of co-ordinate subspecies, making it synonymous with the
scientific binomial Otocoris alpestris.

The Migrant Shrike offered other difficulties. The logical proceeding
would be to call the whole species Louisiana Shrike, from its scientific name
ludovicianus. This would, however, introduce an unfamiliar name recog-
nizable by only a few. The species has, therefore, been called here the
Loggerhead Shrike and the form of eastern Canada the Migrant Logger-
head, on the assumption that a geographical term such as southern could
be applied to the type race to which Loggerhead has hitherto been restricted.

It would be too much to expect that the result attained will satisfy
everyone; the writer hopes, however, that it will be accepted until the
American Ornithologists’ Union committee takes the matter up and
makes authoritative decisions.

In the following pages the number and vernacular name, with as
little modification as possible, have been taken from the American Ornith-
ologists’ Union check-list and appear first as a specific heading in heavy
type. Following, in smaller type, are the more common local names by
which the species has been or is known in various localities. The French
equivalent is then given, preceded by the contraction, ‘‘Fr.’”’. These
formal French names have been adapted from “‘Dionne’s Les Oiseaux de
la Province de Quebec” and are followed when possible by vernacular
terms in current use in French-speaking sections. Many of them were
furnished by Dr. C. W. Townsend who has had considerable ornithological
experience in the eastern provinces. Where French terms are missing,
there is as far as the writer is aware no accepted French name:

The Latin specific name follows in italics and is always binomial.

Preceded by the initial ““L”’ the length of the species is next given in
inches and decimals of an inch. The length of a bird is determined by
measuring it, in the flesh, in a straight line from the tip of the bill to the
end of the longest tail feather, the bird being stretched only enough to
straighten the neck curves. The measurements given are those of the
average adult male and indicate the comparative size of the species under
consideration. They are not for specific identification, as in most species
there is more or less individual and sexual variation.

Only an outline description of species is given and where there are
illustrations the description is omitted and the reader is referred to the
illustration instead.

Under “Distinctions,” an attempt is made to bring out the salient
points by which the species, when in hand, may be separated from other
similar forms, and the work of other authorities has been freely drawn upon
to supplement the writer’s observations. Many of the distinctive points
are naturally only superficial, but all are, as far as possible, reliable.

Under the heading “‘Field Marks,” the features by which the species
may be recognized in life are mentioned. In these the writer has been

guided largely by his own experience and has stated the points that seem
most characteristic to him. In species with which he has had little experi-
ence in life he has relied upon others.

Under ‘‘ Discussion,” as many facts of general interest relating to the
species have been included as the space allows or the importance of the
species warrants. Scattered among the various species, where applicable
under this head, numerous matters are discussed and general laws govern-
ing zoological life stated. Many of these apply to a number of species
and some might well be repeated under each specific heading were it not for
the constant repetition that it would necessitate. An attempt has been
made to encourage a wholesome protective attitude from an esthetic
viewpoint.

“Nesting” is merely a brief description of the nest and its situation.
Much of this is drawn from other authors, especially from the invaluable
“Handbook of Birds of Eastern North America.”’

Under “ Economic Status ”’ is given a summary of present knowledge
of the species in their relation to man. Most of this is drawn from the
admirable work done by the United States Biological Survey. Of necessity
only a brief outline of the data upon which conclusions are founded can be
given and the reader is referred to Ornithological Literature on page 13,
for greater details.

Under ‘‘ Distribution ”’, it has been deemed best to give the distri-
butions in such general and well understood terms that all can get at least
a general conception of the ranges of the species. The result may be a
little vague owing to the lack of sharvly defined boundaries of the ranges,
but the centres of distribution are made clear. For definite ranges the
reader is referred to the ‘‘ Catalogue of Canadian Birds” by John and
James M. Macoun, issued by this department in 1909.

Throughout it has been the endeavour to avoid the use of technical
terms, substituting familiar words wherever possible. Some technical
terms, however, have no general vernacular equivalent and a glossary of
yee is given on page 219, for the benefit of those who are unfamiliar with
them.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

The writer wishes to acknowledge valuable assistance received in the
course of his work from the following sources:

Mr. Frank Chapman, whose ‘‘ Handbook ”’ has been invaluable in
filling out gaps in the writer’s personal experience; in suggesting ideas of
construction, and plan and methods of execution.

: pees United States Biological Survey for data on the economic relations
of birds.

Mr. J. H. Fleming, of Toronto, and Mr. W. E. Saunders, of London,
who have been untiring in giving advice and assistance from the time of
the inception of this work until its completion.

Frank Hennessey, of Ottawa, and Claude Johnson, of this depart-
ment, who are responsible for the illustrations; the former for the
coloured pictures and the latter for the line details of the key.

James M. Macoun, of this department, who has been a constant
source of helpful advice, and has assisted in preparing the following pages
for the printer’s hands.

To these, as well as to a multitude of other private and published
sources I wish to express thanks for aid and assistance.

CLASSIFICATION.

The first step in any science is that of classification. The present
system of generic grouping of species was first advanced by Linneus in
his epoch-making ‘“‘ Systema Nature” and has since been followed con-
sistently by zoologists. By this, species are grouped together in genera
according to fundamental structural relationships and not accidental
resemblances. The fact that upon the discovery of the laws of evolution
these relationships were found to agree with lines of descent proved the
logic of the system and gave it an added meaning. Thus the various
specific members of a genus can be conceived as having descended from a
common specific ancestor; the genera of a family from a common generic
one, ete.

Dealing only with existing North American birds, they may be divided
into a number of Orders, which are the largest groups with which the
Canadian ornithologist has direct concern. Orders are divided into
Families, Families into Genera, and Genera into Species. These divisions
may he again subdivided into Suborders, Subfamilies, Subgenera, and
Subspecies whose positions in the scheme are evident from their titles. |

Though the limitations of book construction necessitate the presenta-
tion of the classification scheme as a linear succession of forms following
one another in single file, it should be borne in mind that the system is
not linear in conception. The component species instead of following a
single line of relationship and sequence from the lowest to the highest
present many parallel or divergent lines of equal or subordinate rank.
The class Aves or Birds may be represented by a tree, the height of the
tree representing time in geological ages from the earliest at the bottom
to the present near the top. The trunk should be shown as double at the
base; one stem would be a short dead stump and would represent the
fossil toothed birds which became extinct before present geological time;
the other, large and thrifty, would represent the modern untoothed forms.
This in turn would divide into two main branches a short way from the
base and would represent the two subclasses, the Raft-breasted and the
Keel-breasted birds. The former would be represented by much the
smaller branch, whereas the latter would divide and subdivide into
branches representing first, orders; next, families; then, genera; and
finally species.

The value of these divisions, that is, the amount of differentiation
sufficient to raise a group of genera to a family, or a collection of families
to an order, is a matter for experienced individual decision as there is no
authoritative ruling upon the subject. However, there has gradually
grown up an approximate agreement on this subject, though the constant
tendency among specialists has been to make finer and finer distinctions
and to multiply the number of the various groups.

The smallest division generally accepted is the Species. Though
everyone has a more or less accurate conception as to what a species is,
whether it be called by that name or another, no satisfactory definition
has ever been constructed for it. It is what is commonly known as a

‘‘kind of an animal ’’. Thus the horse is a different ‘“‘ kind ”’ or species
from a donkey, a bluebird from a robin. Theyare sharply marked off from
each other, regularly breeding together within the species only and pro-
ducing like species as offspring. Distinct species do not commonly interbreed,
but, when they do so, they form crosses or hybrids that are usually sterile.
Up to comparatively recent years no smaller division was recognized, but
with intensive study of material it has become evident to advanced students
that within the species there is considerable individual and geographic
variation.

Individual variation is the natural difference that may occur at any
time between members of common parentage such as amongst full brothers
and sisters. Just as like begets like so within certain limits like begets
unlike for no two creatures are ever exact duplicates. This is individual
variation, usually smail and irregular in appearance and direction, but
sometimes persisting progressively generation after generation in one direc-
tion and forming the basis upon which present day evolutionists explain
the origin of new species. Individual variation, however, is disregarded in
classification, unless it has proceeded far enough to produce marked
and constant differentiation over a definable natural group of a species.

Geographical variation can be regarded as the result of a common
tendency of individual variation acting over a whole community of indi-
viduals tending towards a common goal and is held to be induced and
directed by local climatic and other conditions. Thus we often find that
within a widespread species all individuals inhabiting certain iocalities
have characteristics that separate them from those of the surrounding areas.
Individuals in a dry desert country are apt to be smaller and lighter in
coloration, whereas those in a warm, moist country are usually larger and
darker. These differences are sometimes marked and obvious; at other
times they are so slight as to be noticeable only by comparison of large
numbers of specimens and can be detected only by averages. Thus there
is every degree of differentiation, due to geographical habitat, from pro-
nounced departures from type, of almost specific value, te the finest shades
of differentiation that skilled specialists can distinguish and which are
inappreciable to the ordinary eye. The outstanding fact, however, that
prevents the most marked geographical variation from full specific standing
is that these minor forms intergrade and in intermediate localities
every shade of differentiation between the extremes can be found. Between
species this gradual merging of character is not supposed to occur, and
however fine the distinctions may be, the divisions should be sharp and
defined. We, therefore, recognize these intergrading variations due to or
based upon geographical distribution as Geographical Races, Varieties, or
Subspecies, the latter term being now in best current use, and we regard
them as species in the making before the connecting stages binding them
to the original stock have disappeared, owing to the growing sterility
between the extreme variants. Except in such rare cases of physical
isolation, as where an oceanic island habitat precludes continuous distri-
bution, we take, in practice, the existence of intergrades as the evidence
of subspecific status. Besides these divisions of taxonomic value there
are a few other variants that, owing to their erratic occurrence, cannot
be recognized in our classification. These are ‘“Albinos,” ‘‘ Melanos,” and
‘“* Dichromatic Forms.”

Albinism, or unusual whiteness, is the sporadic occurrence of white
individuals, in species that are normally otherwise coloured, and may occur
in almost any species. It may be either perfect or partial and is due to
lack of pigment or colouring matter in the feather or skin substance. It
can be regarded as a manifestation of physical weakness and is said to be
induced, among other things, by close inbreeding. A good test as to
whether a pure white coloration is albinism or is normal is the colour of
the pupils of the eyes. In albinos the pupils are pink in colour, as
the lack of normal colour in the retina allows the blood coloration
to show.

Melanism, or unusual blackness, is due to an excess of pigment. A
good example of melanism is the Black Fox, which is a melanic variant
of the common red species.

Dichromatism is the term applied to occurrence of two different types
of coloration in a single species, irrespective of sex, age, or season. Thus
the Sereech Owl occurs in both red and grey phases (see Plate XVI A).
They breed together indiscriminately and the offspring may be of either
coloration. The Rough-legged Hawk and the Jaegers occur in light and
in almost black phases; the difference between dichromatism, and melanism
in these cases is slight.

Hybrids form another departure from specific type. They are the
offspring of parents of two distinct species. It is only occasionally that
such matings are fruitful, and when they are the offspring is generally
sterile.. Hybrids occur most often among ducks, especially with the
Mallard as one of the parents.

Every North American bird has a common or vernacular name author-
ized by usage and recognized by the leading ornithologists and there is seldom
necessity for using the scientific nomenclature. However, it is well for
all who are interested in birds to familiarize themselves with as many of
the scientific names as possible, as they are not only necessary in more
advanced work, but they are of practical use in grasping the general re-
lationships between various species.

The present Binomial System of nomenclature was introduced by
Linneus, the great Swedish botanist, and embodied in his Systema Nature,
tenth edition, 1758, which is the authority accepted by American ornith-
ologists. In this system each species is given a double name, the first term
being that of the genus to which it belongs, the second that of the species.
Generic names are not duplicated within the sphere of zoology and specific '
names never within the genus. Thus, the American Robin is Planesticus
migratorius; that is, that species of the genus Planesticus which is named
migratorius. Other species of Planesticus have other names than migra-
torius.

The three objects of scientific nomenclature are exactitude, univer-
sality, and permanence. To this end the naming of zoological material
is subject to strict laws whose principles are universally accepted and
applied according to strict codes. Under these laws the scientific name of
a species is not a matter of personal preference, but is fixed, so that few or
none can dispute it, and no changes can be made in scientific nomenclature
except such as are necessary to correct current mistakes in the application
of the laws of the code. With increased knowledge it has become neces-
sary to depart slightly in letter, though not in spirit, from the strict bi-

nomial system of Linnzus, and by adding a third term as name of the
subspecies to make it. a trinomial one. Wherever a three-term name
is used, it is that of a subspecies of the original binomial form. The first
specimen described, or the first specimen to which a name has been at-
tached, is regarded as the so-called “‘ Type”’ form. Therefore, in dividing
a species into subspecies the form which was first named as a_ species
becomes automatically the type race, and its subspecific name is formed
by a repetition of its specific name. Thus the American Robin that was
first described and specifically named by Linnzus in 1766 as migratorius
when mentioned subspecifically in distinction from the Southern Robin or
the western one becomes Planesticus migratorius migratorvus. The Western
Robin first separated from it by Ridgeway in 1877, was named by him as
Planesticus migratorius propinquus, and the Southern Robin by Bachelder
in 1900, is Planesticus migratortus achrusterus. In practice,where the generic
or specific names are evident from the context, it is customary to indicate
them by initial, as P. migratorius, or P. m. migratorius.

Subspecific varieties are divisions of the species and, except in special
lines of work, or where special exactitude is necessary, of minor importance.
As these subspecies are also often based upon points of difference only
perceptible to the most experienced observers, they generally le outside
the sphere of interest of the average amateur observer.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

The broader facts of the geographical distribution of life are patent
to the most casual observer. The primary divisions of distribution, the
Tropics, Temperate, and Arctic zones are obvious, but closer study shows
that within these broad associations minor and less obvious ones can be
detected. In America, north of the gulf of Mexico, there are three life
regions, roughly following the above, called the Tropic, the Austral, and
the Boreal regions. These are subdivided into life zones each characterized
by its own peculiar assemblages of plants and animals.

The Tropic region is sufficiently characterized by name and need be
only mentioned.

The Austral region corresponds roughly to the popular geographical
conception of the Temperate zone. It is divided into three life zones,
the Lower Austral, the Upper Austral, and the Transition zones. The
Lower Austral might be designated as subtropic and extends north includ-
ing the gulf and the south Atlantic states, not occurring in Canada at all.
The Upper Austral is the first that we are directly interested in in eastern
Canada, it merely crosses the border on the lake Erie shore and includes
the famous Niagara fruit belt. The frequent or regular occurrence of
numerous southern species on Pelee point in Essex county, Ontario, marks
the strongest development of this zone in the Dominion. It slightly touches
our southern boundary again in Saskatchewan and perhaps some of the
warmer valleys running into southern British Columbia. The northern-
most Austral or Temperate life zone is the Transition zone which includes
the greater part of the more highly cultivated areas of Canada. It occupies
the shores of the bay of Fundy, the upper St. Lawrence river, southern
Quebec and Ontario, the lower sections of the prairie provinces, and a

strip of sea coast in southern British Columbia and marks the limit of
extensive cultivation.

The Boreal region is divided into the Canadian, Hudsonian, and the
Aretic zones. The Canadian includes the remainder of the forested land
north of the Transition and is mostly coniferous, continuing across the
continent to the northern limit of general cultivation. The Hudsonian
zone is in the more northern country of small shrubs or stunted tree growth
unsuited to agriculture, and the Arctic zone extends across the barren
grounds north to the pole.

These life zones based upon temperature and roughly following the
lines of latitude, are, however, deflected from their natural east and west
sweep by varying local conditions, the vicinity of cold or warm ocean
currents, the presence of large bodies of water, elevation above the sea,
the prevalence of cold or warm winds or mountain barriers to the same,
and other causes. Thus instead of being even belts they are irregular
and only roughly follow parallels of latitude.

Elevation is an important factor in the distribution of life depending
upon temperature. In the tropics in ascending a high mountain, repre-
sentatives of each zone between that of the surrounding lowland and the
Arctic of the snow-covered peak, may be met with and appropriate assem-
blages of species will be found inhabiting each. The juncture of Arctic
and Hudsonian zones at the straits of Belle Isle, in the same latitude as
Lands End in England, illustrates the enormous effect of the cold Arctic
current, coming down from Davis strait, in contrast to the influence of
the warm Gulf stream that dies against the English shores.

We can also observe minor groupings east and west based upon con-
ditions other than temperature, these determining factors being mostly
variations of humidity. Thus the life of the eastern woodlands is plainly
different from that of the more arid plains of the prairie provinces and both
are strikingly different from that of the moist Pacific slope.

Taking the eastern forms as typical in the ordinary acceptance of the
word, comparable birds of the prairie will be found to be slightly smaller
and considerably paler in coloration, whereas on the humid Pacific coast
they will be larger and much darker in colour. Through these influences
we, therefore, find in the west many subspecies of eastern forms. A com-
paratively few species range unmodified across the continent, many are
represented east and west by two or more subspecies showing greater or
less differentiation, and in other cases they are replaced by closely allied
species or not represented at all. ~

In noting these faunal divisions, however, it must be remembered
that as far as birds are concerned, these associations have to be based
entirely upon breeding individuals. Birds travel so widely and along so
many devious routes in their migration, that they may pass through several
faunal areas spring and autumn though breeding in only one. Therefore,
in determining the faunal zone to which any given area should be referred,
such transients must be disregarded.

_ Though the distributions given under the specific headings following
are rather vague and indefinite, many tend to foilow similar general lines.
Thus some are given as ‘‘the lower Great Lakes region’’; these are prob-
ably Upper Austral forms. ‘‘Southern Ontario and Quebec” refers to
Transition species, whereas ‘‘beyond dense settlement or to the limit of
cultivation”? would naturally be species of the Canadian zone.

The following species are given as representative of what birds are to
be expected in each zone:

Upper Austral Canadian Arctic
Cardinal bs Hudsonian Chickadee Ptarmigan
Orchard Oriole Red-breasted Nuthatch Snowy Owl
Carolina Wren Olive-backed Thrush Snow Bunting
Grasshopper Sparrow Three-toed Woodpecker Gyrfalcon
Blue-grey Gnatcatcher Hermit Thrush Longspur
Dickcissel White-throated Sparrow

Canada Jay

Transition: Grey-cheeked Thrush

Bobolink Slate-coloured Junco

Wood Thrush
Yellow-throated Vireo Hudsonian

Baltimore Oriole Rough-legged Hawk
Towhee Fox Sparrow
Cuckoo Northern Shrike
Field Sparrow White-crowned Sparrow
Bluebird Pine Grosbeak
Catbird American Pipit
MIGRATION.

The migration of birds, their periodical and seasonal appearance and
disappearance, is one of the most obvious phenomena of nature. The
fact that many birds disappear in winter is common knowledge and has
attracted attention for ages. ‘Though once regarded as a mystery, and still
far from being throughly understood in many of its details, we are beginning
to wonder less but admire more as accurate knowledge gives place to vague
speculation. To-day, where most of our northern species spend the winter
is known and many of the routes by which they come and go have been
mapped out. We know that on the whole they are governed by ordinary
and well known, though perhaps highly developed, senses and common
every day influences, and not by the mysterious powers and instincts once
ascribed to them.

The fundamental cause of migration is obviously the waxing and the
waning of the food supply. Birds leave the northern land of their birth
because there is no other way by which to avoid starvation. Many species
can withstand extreme cold but none can go long without food and though
some bird food still remains in Canada throughout the winter, its amount
is small and only sufficient for a limited population and even that supply
rapidly decreases, or to the north is buried under deep snow. The cause
of the southward migration in the autumn then is obvious, but why should
a bird leave the soft climate and plentiful food supply in the south to brave
dangerous travel and finally find itself in a land where retiring winter still
lingers and the danger of starvation is imminent. Many ingenious explan-
ations have been advanced to account for this, longing or homesickness
for the land of birth, hereditary memories of an ancient home enduring
through geological ages, the seeking of special food for nestlings, and
insufficiency of nesting sites in the southern areas, have all been given as
possible reasons. However, it is unnecessary to advance a complicated or
far-fetched explanation when a simple and direct one exists. H we
remember that. in the nesting season the bird population is increased many

Most of the species of this zone also occur in the Upper Austral, but reach their northern limit here. The occur-

rence of these with the absence of the species of bordering zones are the most marked charactcristics of the Transition
zone.

fold by the birth of young; that though in winter there may be room for a
considerable number of birds in the southern stations, the natural spring
increase of population outgrows the supporting power of the land; and that
just at this critical time the whole northern temperate region is thrown
open to occupation with an abundance of food, the subject is mysterious
no longer. In fact, it is only by migration that it is possible to use the
supporting power of the temperate regions unless the birds fast or
hibernate through the winters, to neither of which the avian nature takes
kindly.

Though food supply is the fundamental or originating cause of migra-
tion we must look for other and more immediate impulses for an explanation
of its methods to-day. Originally forced to and fro by hunger, the anuual
movements now have become instinctive and take place before the situation
becomes acute, the actual hunger pinch felt, or the physical system
weakened by want.

The extent of the migrations of the different species varies. A very
few species do not, in the true sense of the word, migrate at all. In other
species the more northern individuals only recede from their stations,
the southern remaining practically stationary, though in the majority of
Canadian species the whole body moves south. The bird of greatest
length of migration is doubtless the Arctic Tern, a bird that nests from
the gulf of St. Lawrence to the polar regions and winters as far south as the
Antarctic continent.

The methods of migration are nearly as varied as their extent. Some
species drift along throughout the day from treetop to treetop, from wood
patch to wood patch, gradually working their way in the desired direction.
Others take long flights, some high in the air, others lower. Some travel
altogether by day; others travel at night and we are only aware of their
passage through accidental opportunities, their faint voices coming down
to us from overhead in the darkness, or by their sudden appearance about
usin themorning. They travel in flocks of single or mixed species, scattered
groups, or as individuals.

Many species, if not all, follow more or less definite routes to and
from their breeding grounds and some go and return by altogether different
paths. Comparatively small bodies of water defiect some species from
their course, others unhesitatingly cross vast reaches of sea, indifferent
to nearby and convenient land passages that are made use of by closely
allied species. In some species the older birds precede and in others
the males may precede the females.

How birds find their way is still only vaguely understood, and indi-
viduais far out of their natural range and course show evidence of being
as hopelessly lost as any other animal would be on unfamiliar ground.
Certainly experience has much to do with it and undoubtedly young birds
are largely guided by the movements of their elders which, it can be
assumed, through previous experience, already know and can lead the way.
We can understand how birds can follow great landmarks—large river
systems, mountain ranges, or sea coasts in their journey, but no sense with
which we are familiar explains how some species return unerringly to lonely
oceanic islands over wastes of monotonous sea. It may be that they have
a special sense which aids them in orienting themselves.

57172—2

PROTECTION.

In food habits, birds are eminently adaptable; seeds, plants, fruit,
insects, flesh, or fish are all acceptable to various species and, consequently,
nearly all regions have their quota of appropriate birds. <A bird lives fast,
its heart beats more rapidly than that of other animals, the blood temper-
ature is higher, and it consumes an enormous amount of energy in flight.
This feverish heat and strenuous exertion requires a correspondingly large
amount of food, consequently the bird as an economic factor is one to be
regarded seriously. Though it may be an exaggeration to say, a8 some
writers have inferred, that the whole balance of nature depends upon
birds and that without them the country would be a barren waste peopled
only by insects, yet birds cannot be seriously reduced in number without
the gravest results. The destruction of tons of weed-seeds and millions
of insects must necessarily have a great influence upon human welfare and
neglect of this fact must seriously react upon any community that fails
to give proper protection to its birds.

However, the problem of the status of individual species of birds
is not the simple thing that it superficially appears to be. More than
a cursory examination is necessary and many things must be considered
in order to arrive at the truth. Sometimes birds work in harmony with
human welfare and sometimes against it. They may be directly beneficial
at one season and harmful at another, or their indirect influence may alter
the sum of their direct effects in a most surprising manner.

General impressions then as to whether a bird is beneficial or harmful
require careful checking. Mere casual observation in life is never sufficient
to determine even its food supply. Modern practice bases such conclusions
almost entirely upon the examination of the stomach contents of wild
birds taken throughout the year, which is the only evidence that is not
subject te question. In this work the United States Biological Survey
has examined and passed upon thousands of bird stomachs and the results
of its researches are available to those who care to study and use them.

As one of the factors in the delicate balance of nature birds should
be respected.

There are certain birds which from their size, habits, and general food
value are regarded as legitimate game. The pursuit of these is invigorating |
sport and tends to the healthful welfare of the sportsman, teaching wood-
craft, hardihood, out of door adaptability, and marksmanship. The true
sportsman has a code of ethics of his own founded upon economic as well
as humanitarian principles. He shoots nothing without giving it a fair
chance and little that cannot be used as food. He is also careful not to
deplete the game upon which his future sport depends. Restrictive
measures have invariably followed rather than preceded the results that
have made them necessary, the regulations that are enacted to-day should
have been adopted yesterday and the consequence is that over much of the
country, game is a thing of the past.

MEANS OF ATTRACTING BIRDS.

To anyone interested in birds, the pleasure of having them about
the house and garden where they can be observed at leisure, is a very great
enjoyment. A small garden patch can be made attractive to many species

by proper methods. The effects of strict protection are well illustrated
in some of the larger parks where the shyest waterfowl, finding there is
nothing to fear from man, become almost as confiding as barnyard poultry.
This is the case also with the smaller garden species. Next to freedom
from disturbance by the human inhabitants protection from the domestic
cat is necessary.

The supplying of food in winter is also important. Shrubs carrying
fruit, suet hung in trees, and grain, broken nuts, and small fragments of
dried meat sheltered from the snow, never fail to attract birds in the
winter time.

In summer, when natural supplies are plentiful, food seldom has to be
supplied, though a row of fruiting sunflowers or the seed heads of many
garden flowers well repay the trouble they may cost to provide. A shallow
pool of clean water is a never failing source of pleasure to nearly all the
common garden birds. They both bathe in it and drink it and on a hot
day it is no uncommon sight to see several birds awaiting their turns to
enjoy the grateful coolness. The simplest form of bird bath is a shallow
pan, set well out in the open and away from cover as a protection from
cats. In cities where the trees are well cared for and dead wood
promptly removed, certain species of birds are always hard pressed to find
suitable nesting sites. There are at least half a dozen species naturally
nesting in hollow limbs, that readily come to bird boxes of various kinds
and a number of other birds can be occasionally induced to do so. Suitable
boxes are described in some of the books listed on page 16. In many
schools where manual training is taught the boys are encouraged to build
bird houses. Scope is thus given to their natural inventive genius,
and at the same time they become interested in the birds that occupy
the houses.

ORNITHOLOGICAL LITERATURE.

North American ornithological literature is rich and varied, and per-
haps no natural science can be studied with such efficient written aids
either to beginner or advanced student as that relating to birds. A publi-
cation can be found to suit all stages of knowledge and almost any purse.
The following list of books on the subject is recommended, the first named
being specially suited to the requirements of the beginner.

Birds guides, by Chester K. Reed: Part I, Water and game birds east of the Rockies
(including the hawks and owls); Part 2, Land birds east of the Rockies. Doubleday,
Page and Company, Garden City, N.Y., price each, $1 in cloth, $1.25 in leather.

These are small, almost vest pocket editions in limp bindings, 33 by 53 inches,
very convenient for carrying in the pocket in the field. They contain small, easily
recognized, coloured illustrations of all the birds in both sexes, and brief descriptions.

Colour key and guide to the birds of eastern North America, by Frank M. Chapman and
Chester K. Reed: 8 vo., Doubleday, N .Y., price $2.50.

Similar in plan to above but more detailed and instructive.

A guide to the birds of eastern New York, by Ralph Hoffman: 8 vo., Houghton, Mifflin
& Co., price $1.50.

A most desirable book, though dealing with an extralimited area it includes most
of the birds of eastern Canada. It contains keys for the birds of each season based
upon colour, detailed descriptions, and also many illustrations in black and white
showing specific details and gives much information of various kinds.

57172—22

The birds of Ontario, by Thomas Mcllwraith: 2nd edition, 1894, 8 vo., Wm. Briggs,
Toronto.

j An annotated list of all the birds known to the writer to occur in Ontario at that
date, with descripticns and much information regarding habits, etc. Unfortunately
it is now out of-print and can probably only be obtained through second-hand book
dealers who make a specialty of ornithological literature.

The handbook of the birds of eastern North America, by Frank M. Chapman: 12 mo.,
D. Appleton & Co., price $3.56. ;

This is an almost complete text book on the birds of eastern North America, and
is invaluable for the advanced as well as the begining student. It contains detailed
accurate descriptions of all plumages, measurements and migration dates, and an

immense amount of interesting and valuable detail with a most valuable introduction
on birds and bird study. Assoon as a student is familiar with the rudiments of orni-
thology, he should supply himself with this handbook.

Key to the birds of North America, by Elliot Coues: 5th edition, 1903, vols. 2, large 8 vo.,
Dana Estes & Co., price $12.50. ; :

This is perhaps the most generally accepted authority upon the subject of Amer-
ican birds. It is primarily intended for the advanced student but it contains a mass
of information that can be found nowhere else and is a final court of decision to the
majority of our working ornithologists.

The catalogue of Canadian birds, by John and James M. Macoun: 8 vo., published by
the Department of Mines, Geological Survey Branch, Ottawa, 1909.

This is a complete list of all the species and subspecies of birds known to occur in
Canada, Greenland, and Newfoundland, with their ranges both breeding and migra-
tory as thoroughly stated as the condition of knowledge at the time of publication
permitted. It is based largely upon the explorations and experiences of the authors,
supplemented by knowledge from all available sources and contains considerable
information regarding breeding habits but little else of popular interest. The original
English version is now out of print but the French translation is still available for
distribution and can be obtained from the Department.

The birds of North and middle America, by Robt. Ridgeway: Bulletin No. 50, 8 vo.,
United States National Museum.

This is a monumental work planned in eight volumes but later extended to ten
or more, of which seven are in print, the remainder to follow as rapidly as the work
can be prepared. It is the latest and most detailed and scientific work on the subject
but contains nothing on life histories or allied popular subjects. It is not for general
sale but may be procured from second-hand book dealers or through the Department
of Public Documents at Washington.

Besides these general works, the following, dealing with special divisions of birds, are
recommended: -
The Warblers of North America, by Frank M. Chapman: D. Appleton & Company,
price $3.
The Water-fowl family, by Sanford, Bishop, and Van Dyke: The MecMillian Oo., price, $2.

North American Jand birds by Baird, Brewer, and Ridgeway: Little, Brown & Co., 3 vols.

Reprint of the original. The water-birds of the series was originally published

in Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard College, 1884, but is
now out of print and very difficult to obtain.

For general reading the following can be recommended:

How to study birds, by Herbert K. Job:° Outing Publishing Co., price, $1.50.

The sport of bird study, by Herbert K. Job: Ovting Publishing Co., price, $2.

Wild wings, by Herbert K. Job: Outing Publishing Co., price, $3.

These are all intensely interesting books and contain a wonderful collection of

photographs of birds from life.

Bird craft, by Mable Osgood Wright: MacMillian Co., price, $2.50.

Many full page illustrations.

Rambles of a Canadian naturalist, by S. T. Wood: Illustrated, J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd.,
London and Toronto, 1916, price, $1.50.
This is a series of short sketches and observations on the nature life about Toronto.
ae ae well and sympathetically written—many, though not all of them, refer
to birds.

The bird, its form and function, by C. William Bebee: Henry Holt and Co.

This list could be extended indefinitely but probably sufficient has
been mentioned.

On economic ornithological subjects the reader’s attention is directed
towards the immense amount of valuable literature published by the United
States Biological Survey in their many bulletins, circulars, and reports.
Though these were prepared primarily for use in the United States they
apply to Canadian birds almost equally well. A complete list of them
with prices can be obtained from the Superintendent of Public Documents,
Washington. The prices are merely nominal.

Of Canadian publications of this nature, the following may be men-
tioned:

The birds of Ontario in relation to agriculture, by Chas. W. Nash: Ontario Dept. of :
Agriculture, Bulletin 173.

Of literature of local application in Canada only a few of many can
be mentioned, for their name is legion and they are scattered throughout
many publications, periodicals, proceedings, and reports.

Ontario :
The Le of Ontario, by Thomas Mcllwraith, 2nd edition, 1894, 8 vols., Wm. Briggs,
oronto.
The birds of Toronto, by J. H. Fleming: Auk, vol. XXIII, pp. 437-453; vol. XXIV,

pp. 71-89.
The Lene history of the Toronto region. Birds by J. H. Fleming: Published by

anadian Institute, Toronto, 1913, price, $2 or $2.50.

Quebec :
Les oiseaux de la Province de Quebec, par C. E. Dionne: Dussault & Proulx, 1906.

The birds of Montreal, by E. D. Wintle: Drysdale & Co., Montreal, 1908.

Nova Scotia :
Birds of Nova Scotia, by A. Downs, edited by Harry Piers: Proc. and Trans., Nova

Scotia Inst. Sc., vol. VII, pp. 142-178.

New Brunswick :
A catalogue of the birds of New Brunswick, by M. A. Chamberlain: Bull. Nat. Hist.

Soc., New Brunswick, No. 1, pp. 23-68.

Ornithology, like all other branches of science, has its own periodicals.
The principal one of these in North America is the Auk, a quarterly
magazine, which is the official organ of the American Ornithologists’
Union. In addition to purely scientific papers, it contains hundreds of
articles of interest to Canadians, including local lists copiously annotated
with life history notes from all over the Dominion and descriptions of
habits popularly discussed. Subscription is $3 a year. Editor, beginning
1912, Witmer Stone, Academy of Science, Philadelphia, Pa., Office of
Publication, 30 Boylston street, Cambridge, Mass.

The Wilson Bulletin, a bi-monthly magazine, is the official organ of the
Wilson Ornithological Club and is devoted to the interests of the middle
west. Subscription $1 a year, edited by Lynds Jones, Oberlin, Ohio.
Address, The Treasurer, P. B. Coffin, 3232 Groveland ave., Chicago, Ill.
This is a less pretentious publication than the Auk, but contains much of
interest to the general reader and publishes some of the most popularly,
interesting articles on birds and their habits.

“ Bird lore”’ is an avowedly popular, monthly magazine notable for
its beautiful makeup and illustrations. It is the official organ of the
National Audubon Societies and is devoted to the popular study and
protection of birds. It is now in its eighteenth volume and is edited by

Frank Chapman. Subscription $1 per year. Address, Bird-Lore, Crescent
and Mulberry streets, Harrisburg, Pa.

The Canadian Field Naturalist, the continuation of the Ottawa
Naturalist, is a monthly (nine numbers a year) published by the Ottawa
Field Naturalists Club, Editor, Arthur Gibson, Entomological Branch,
Dept. of Agriculture, Ottawa, Ont. Subscription $1 per year. Address
C. L. Patch, Sec., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ont. This publication
contains a great deal of interesting zoological material and numerous
notes and articles on the birds of Canada.

On the subject of protection and attraction of birds about the home,
among the great mass of literature available, the following can be specially
recommended:

How to attract and protect wild birds, by Martin Hiesmann: Witherby & Co., London,
Is. 6d.

This is an extended account of the methods pursued by Baron Berlepsch in
Germany and gives innumerable methods by which the end can be obtained on both
large and small estates.

Wild bird guests, by Harold Baynes: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1915, $2.

This gives a most interesting and readable account of the method pursued by
the writer and his friends whereby they made Meriden, New Hampshire, a veritable
model bird village, where the birds became as familiar and friendly as household pets,
coming when called and alighting freely upon the person. It is beautifully illustrated
with innumerable photographs showing both methods and results.

The domestic cat, by Edward H. Forbush, State Ornithologist, Mass.: State Board of
Agriculture, Bulletin No. 2, 1916.
This is an exhaustive treatment of the house cat in its relation to wild bird life.
Bird houses and how to build them, by Ned Dearborn: United States Department of
Agriculture, Farmer’s Bulletin No. 609. Address Department of Public Documents,
Washington, D.C. Cost about ten cents.

On the subject of the English Sparrow as a pest the following can be
recommended:

The English Sparrow in North America, by Walter B. Barrows: Bull. No. i, U.S. Dept:
of Agriculture, 1889, pp. 405.

How to destroy the English Sparrow, by Ned Dearborn: Farmer’s Bulletin No. 383,
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1910.

The English Sparrow as a pest, by Ned Dearborn: Farmer’s Bulletin No. 493, U.S. Dept.
of Agriculture, 1912.

These reports give the English Sparrow a fair trial and an honest conviction, and

suggest various means of keeping its number under control.

KEY TO THE BIRDS OF EASTERN CANADA.
Explanation.

In zoological descriptions a “‘ key ”’ is a device through which a speci-
men can be gradually referred from larger to smaller groups by picking
out salient characters and its specific identity thus finally fixed.

The key here published is a modification of one originated by Mr.
Frank Chapman and Ernest Thompson Seton and published in the former’s
‘‘ Handbook to the birds of eastern North America.” It is hoped that
it will be found of great assistance to the beginner. One advantage of
this key is that it is independent of the varying characters of age, sex, or
season, and may be used for juveniles and females as well as adult male
specimens.

The method of its use is as follows: given a bird in the hand of un-
known species to determine its name. It is first compared with the first
heading in small capitals numbered in Roman numerals—1, FEET FULLY
WEBBED. If this description does not fit the bird, the next Roman
numeral heading is referred to—1I, FEET PARTLY WEBBED, Or III, FEHT
WITHOUT PRONOUNCED WEB. Assuming that the latter correctly describes
the bird under discussion, we refer to the headings of next lower rank,
which are numbered alphabetically with capital letters, where we find
the alternatives—F, Legs long, and G, Legs short. Sometimes it may be
difficult to decide whether a leg should be regarded as long or short, and
the various pictured details following may then assist determination. In
this case the legs we decide are not remarkably long, no longer in comparison
to size of the bird than are the legs of a chicken or sparrow; we, therefore,
under G, refer to a number of subordinate alternatives, distinguished by
small initial letters—k, feet chicken-like, strong and compact for scrateh-
ing; 1, feet strongly clawed for holding prey; m, feet small and weak;
n, feet small or medium-sized, solidly made and legs covered with horny
seales or plates. Glances at various feet shown under each heading will
assist in determination. Assuming a decision in favour of the last, we
compare our specimen with the next alternatives, numbered with ordinary
Arabic numerals—19, two toes in front; 20, three toes in front. There
can be little confusion here and we assume that our specimen having three
front toes is one of the great body of perching birds. We, therefore,
compare it with the following line detail drawings to see with which it
agrees most closely. The bill is not wide and flat; it is, therefore, not a
flycatcher; there are no ear-tufts or long hind toe and the nostril is not
covered with feather tufts, therefore it cannot be either a Horned Lark,
a Crow, or a Jay. The next picture, the Bobolink’s bill, catches our eye
and the sparrow bill in the next lot. A glance through the remainder
shows that our bird must be a bobolink or one of the sparrows. The picture
p. 247, and description of the former, is nothing like it; therefore, we turn
to the sparrows, read the general sparrow description, and remarks on p. 161,
and then work through the pictures. After looking at all the illustrations
we find that our specimen agrees with that of the Song Sparrow, and on
reading over the distinctive characters we have our opinion confirmed.
It has the sharply striped breast aggregated in the centre, and is without
either the yellow stripe over the eye of the Savannah Sparrow or the
white outer feathers of the tail, as in the Vesper. We are, therefore,
confident that, starting with no other ornithological knowledge than that
the specimen was an Eastern Canadian bird, we have been able to refer it
to its proper species.

18
Key.

Superciliory Line,

Figure 1.

Plumage areas of a typical bird.
I. Feet Fully Webbed—Two or three complete webs to each‘foot.

A, Toes, four.
a, Tarsus flattened.

Figure 3. Figure 4. Figure 5.

b, Closed wing longer than tail, except in some Jaegers (Figure 3)
and Terns (Figure 5), in which the rule only holds if the greatly
elongated central tail feathers of the former or the outer ones of
the latter are disregarded. Bills as shown

Long-winged Swimmers—Gulls, Tern, Jaegers.................-4- p. 48.

‘ec, Webs between al! toes (3 webs)

Figure 6.

Pull-Webbed Swimmers—Gannets, Cormorants, etc.,.............. p. 59.

Figure 9. Figure 10.

d, Bill toothed or flattened (Duck-like).

Sieve-billed Swimmers—Mergansers, Ducks, Geese, and Swans..... p. 62.

e, Nostrils in tubes on top of bill.

Figure 11.

_ Tube-nosed Swimmers—Petvrels, ete... ......... 0. cc cee eee ees p. 56.

B, Toes three (without hind toe), except Kittiwake
(p. 50).

Aauke \ Magrres, CC. 2s. ce aU Shee Or ok se oe

II. Feet Partly Webbed—Webs reduced to scallops, bordering flaps, or

small webs at base of toes. Toes four, except as otherwise noted.

C, Tarsus much flattened; webs as shown.

Grebes hic on ES a i hs a eee
D, Bill extending on forehead and forming = ee
frontal plate.
Figure it.
CO0b. i A Ns ibs Ao eat oe Oe p. 90

E, Small birds; bill long and slender; toes
three or four. aaa i
f, Bill without hard terminal enlargement;

toes four, except Sanderling (p. 97).

Figure 15.
Shore Birds—Phalaropes, Snipe, Sandpipers, Plover.............. p. 90.
g, Bill with hard terminal enlargement; en
toes three, except Black-bellied = ;
Plover (p. 103). me
Figure 16.

POOR i i ae a) se alae Do bee Re URE ise a ee p. 102.

III. Feet Without Pronounced Web.

F, Legs long, for wading in water or mud;
toes long, slender, and flexible at joints.

h, Bill stout and horny; bare space
about eyes.

1, Middle toe with comb.

Herons

a eema te eee 6) ele) \s) emesis. 16 «a 0s) 66. ie 6) pa ets 0). Sekel.o) ofc a ste eo ole slic che « « =) ane

2, Forehead bare.

Cranes

si 4

i, Bills iong, flex- | /
ible, and even- : 3 <<
ly tapered.

Figures 21 and 22.
3, Bill rather slender,
not markedly deeper
at base than tip. Toes

four, except Sand erling (p. 97).
Phalaropes, Snipe, Sandpipers ,

dy rey [ay (V) To) 6 Moho Ls (ele mie. l/s lel pra alee. el sede e *e: a hl, 6).0

4, Bill rather decidedly heavier at base
than at tip.

Rails (King and Virginia Rails). ............----

j, Bills short.
5, Bill soft at base ending in hard
terminal enlargement. Toes three,
except Black-bellied Plover. (p. 103).

2 PE er AAS A ER ea RT OOO EE UR ON OL AAU eA

6, Bill quite stout.

——

Figure 23.

fae? 3 eae a p. 86.

Rails (Sora and Yellow Rails). oe. ed a a

7, Bill stout with frontal shield extending
on forehead.

CUTTY VTA gees eae gies Ct TO eR AS ep gia ye aM

8, Bill horny to base, wedge-shaped in
profile, and appearing to be slightly
turned up.

AEP IESLOTEE SE Noe hg ids MN GAN A Sai AT Re oe ea

G, Legs short for perching, walking, climbing,
and living in trees or on land.

k, Feet chicken-like, strong and compact;
toes less flexible; claws strong and
blunt for scratching. Tarsus feathered
or bare. With or without comb-like
appendages on toes.

Figure 26.

REGU ogee iN p. 105.

§, Bill rather conical; feathered
to or about nostril.

Grouse and Qual

Stel och a eeieN eek eo) Ch Poe) eemeteol-s swe eel eaiaties «
REM CR SME UT Gated ol (ei .ofei.0'F enero) on et, 6p o-6N ashe CRMC SH ey mela eh See Ce ee eine

10, Bill hooked; neck and head bare.

SP Oa eae ce iriiciga! by eilalonje veo) eee ap i Po. et Saie! (Phe Wien Biss" ej ieienel, @: jes! \enel CP rele se

Vultures,

1, Feet powerful for hold-
ing prey; claws long,
strong, sharp, and
curved. tarsus feather-
ed or bare.

Birds of Prey

11, Naked cere at base of bill.
Tarsus always (except Roughleg
Hawk and Golden Eagle) bare.
Toes -always bare (Figure 31).

Hawks and Eagles

12, Cere hidden in feathers; eye
in centre of more or less circular
feather disks. Tarsus and toes
feathered (Figure 32).

m, Feet small and weak.
13, Nostrils opening in a soft and somewhat
swollen base.

PPUGCOMUS 0 os i Lies See AEM, WELL ea Rages eet eee

14, Two outer toes joined together 2
for half their length. fe

TRAN GRSNEN SD iicc ges: eee eee vce is 6 oa ba elles. WLR Ge

15, Two toes directed forward, two
backward (see also Woodpeckers).

*
Cuckoos

O10: (0: (eo) Ye, ee 0) (ee 10; 0! 0) ie a ee 8 iw 0 20 Ve 18, Je) 0) eh eine) lo elle) lesbo 01,0)! -e)!i0) ecufal “ou elaion im Melts Os none ie

16. Bill very small; mouth enor-
mous, opening to below eyes.

Goatsuckers, Whip-poor-will, Nighthawks .................0+245-

17, Tail feathers ending in sharp
spines.

Me MMNPSU ES oop ws aang te ee eee Boe i ees

18, Bill very slender and awl-shaped.
Exceedingly minute birds.

PPOIMMINGDITA 2. 2. 0 es 2s a ene ee et ae eine

n, Feet, medium-sized or small, but not
noticeably weak, flabby, or loose
jointed. Legs covered with scales
or plates.

19, Two toes in front, either one
or two directed backwards. Bill
chisel-shaped at tip.

eee re a Se a pees Se ees Sa = 054 ages a

20, Three toes in front; hind toe as well
developed and as long as middle toe;
claw on hind toe usually as long as
or longer than that on middle toe.

urate Ce eer ata As My eRe Lo ric 2 Oded cera eae cae

Bill wider than high at base;
tip shghtly hooked.

SRE II es 2... a oe A ee ia tana SEAN

Note ear tufts and long hind
toe nail. Longspur and
Pipit only other species
having latter feature.

a rears Pea SIS or ae es es oe ak ee tes

Bill stout, nostrils covered by bristly tufts.

Crows, Jays, etc

Keel of bill us-
ually extending
more or less up
on forehead.

Cowbirdand
Bobolink (Fig-
ure 46) have
bills resembling
the sparrow,
see species.

Figures 50, 51 and 52.

Bill conical, stout for seed cracking. (Bills
superficially similar, see descriptions.)

SPAT OWS cs 0) PM OIE |G NE kM oe ae 2 pe ae

Slight or marked tooth on cutting side of
upper mandible.

TOMA TERS) VOM NT en i ON ak ed git) ON SE ar p. 180.

aS
Bill very small, wide, and flattened at base. 2
(a) ®
Figure 54.
epg. reece ge ee Mae Get ee St Ee p. 182..
Hy)
Y

Crest and black eye-band most conspicuous. . oe

Figure 55.

(EL OUTS... is a aE ial a gs NM Un red p. 184.

Tooth near tip of upper mandible.

Figure 56.

erm E a ee a eS pp. 188, 186.

Small, brightly coloured birds. Olive-
greens and yellows are perhaps the
commonest colours, but blues, reds,
and other colours are often present.

Figures 57, 58, and 59.
Wood Warblers

Fine sharp bill and long claw on
hind toe.

A aM oan) SE Tye fa, Be mie x0! 0, ce" wife) s hae fe sa, 6) wily Lou op cipal Sooo 20, rerio] Seale titel) er amet cate

57172—3

Figures 61 and 626.

Bills as shown. Thrasher large red-brown and white vird; Catbird even
slate grey.

Small birds coloured in shades of wood-brown.

Deve oie a Ge Miata alah enna 00 2 SS eae an ee

Small birds in wood-brown eolours. Tail
long and stiff, feathers pointed at end.

Waithatehes.ee oo, Ua oes 2 A RE Re erick eee p. 210

Very small birds coloured in greys, white, and black.

Figure 66.
TRU ITUECE So oral Ciitohenn tetas wie tes ohatertnevaie: ore lenetalia ta ate i lahat a eealeltel ls naaha) aaa eee p. 212

Very small birds, olive-coloured. Males with small,
brightly-coloured crown patch.

RR emer S28) rN Orme oN Re OU UNL Menge any

Medium-sized birds, coloured usually,
except Robin and Blue-bird, in soft
browns with more or less spotted
i. 2ast.

Figure 68.

(ET eng reel se RS Sa Seon Ee Re Rn As Pata p. 215.

SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

Titles given in small capitals have special headings devoted to them;
those in italics are mentioned incidentally in the text. Starred species
are illustrated in colours.

Se EPR RE errno 2 2 Shieh acn a Wet Ma ee aoe tae a ee 41
paneaas....- WATIEM, Raft-breasied birds... ...-.. 2. i. cnc Se de cece eee bneen?. 41
Subclass... ... REAP ATs eel UT eISIed WITS s.2 5 sol se Ay Oe ee 41
EL ae PREM POBMG PINES RE. aio 5 5.. 2 Sod aad Nees ea Me Ee 41
Ee 11 fl bak 2 Le ee ENO rs at RS SMD Be UNC Nat. Uno 42
SS aa aay ERDREMB EDAD SGTCUCS i o005 3 ek ee Ae ee eee 42
Western Grebe S3)- ine ee eee ee 42

HOULBOUGS*GREBM sh a ee 42

HORNED (GREBERS ceo ae oe 43

*PIED-BILLEDUGREBE Aa ee 43

UY Se GAVERIAG BOONE ois oct eo alee Ie aE eae 44
~COMMONSEOON Guero oe ie i eee 44

RED-THROATED LOON..-...00......::. 44

TD See ALCIDZ, Auks, Murres, and Puffins.................. 45
PUBEIN Gee se ee ee ek et 45

BLACK GUIPEEMOTS he eno ke aha 46

Atlantic Guillemot............... 46

Mandt’s Guillemot........ 46

COMMON MURRBET7).)80 5 oss os eee 46

Atlantte Murre. 52.3004. 0S 46

THICK-BILLED GUILLEMOT............ 46

Briinnich’s Murre............... 46

RAZOR-BIEGHD! AUK: we) Ss. oss ee cok 47

GREATOAU Ke se Araneae bane Ne SY 47

DOVIERIB cea oo thd ee cies 47

57172—3}%

Onder Ree as tite LONGIPENNES, Long-winged Swimmers. .......6.0 0. cece ees
PROV Lapis ts pote alee oie tara spun STERCORARIIDA, Jaegers and Skuas.......... Naisteenniets
POMARING SANGHR! 2 Soe Ghee paises
PARASITIC -JAHGER.. 2 fs aha wae
LONG-TAILED JAEGER:............-.-
Pamilapeeinncie Manas ieie es LARIDE, Gulls and ‘Terns: iayins cae pce eee
SUlpamnalypssQee en Bais ee Ca hie EA RING Gla io oe ea hack Raut eRe te ne ere
RITTIW ARKH 33 \o is ies ee eee ake ees

GLAUCOUS) GUIs eee ee eee
ICELAND GUE ote eee ee

GREAT BLACK-BACKED GULL..........

*HERRING: GUIs eee RAEN signi se =

RING-BILEED) GULL. 0c. eee

BONAPARTE S GUID. ties eee ee eee

Franklin's Gull. 2 ae eee

Laughing Guu... 25.40: aki eee

SUEY GAMUT sy oa oaths ov niuecwbakeal sre STBRNINAS, LOTS 2) 6.0.o0 dicts 0 dias OR Se ee
CASPIAN) TERNS. = 6.4 oot eee

FORSTER 8S TERN:. oo. cee eee

*COMMON “TERN... <2 5. eee

ARCTIG TORN Oe

BLACK TBRN 2. cok cee ee ee

American Black Tern...........-

Onder encnce sonia TUBINARES, T'ube-nosed Swimmers...........0 cece cece eens
Pra malyin ia ces ao eioreie conien Procellariide, Lesser Tube-nosed Swimmers...........
FULMAR 2 eens Se ee

Atlantic Falmare.c. eee

GENUS Ee eee ee See ROR PUFFINUS, Shearwaters..............-
GREATER SHEARWATER............-.

SOOTY SHEARWATER.............--.<

PRURBLS 2 eh ee ee

LRACH S“PETRED Ach oe ee ee

Stormy. Retrelvcic oh aceon Gene

WILSON’S PETREL

OTE a et rales ta ales STEGANOPODES, Full-webbed Swimmers
QMAL Yi Fomine rei tote etcions suLID&, Gannets or Boobies

b © 0,2{) 07 0} ove) erp, oi4e) ease lem eieivelieniaiits

DOUBLE-CRESTED CORMORANT.........
Eastern Double-crested Cormorant..

Tid AGT OET a a on art ope A a a PELECANIDA, Pelicans) 0... on. 02. see
White'Pelican see eee

IBrOWN PP eliCaMs.c. os eee

Order canes varnne 3 ANSERES, Sieve-billed Swimmers...........00c.2cccnecccvcces
LOTTI RO arn CNtalence 0 cbse, att a ANATIDE, Ducks, Geese, and Swans
SUULAIBUY Acie ieee oe. ei ee le MHRGING, Mergansers 0. 2 n.lu ayo ween ee
AMERICAN MERGANSER..............-

*RED-BREASTED MERGANSER...........

HOODED MERGANSER............----

SS TLOS VEL. Aa Stars wale a lahe rst stere i's ANATINA, River and Pond Ducks................
FMALLARD? his cine od min ee sare Eee

<BACK UDUGK 22... “ste ee

GAD WADTse fon sick skh oe Gee

BALDPATB es eo 3 ein ek

GREEN-WINGED THAL..............-.

*BLUE-WINGED THAD... 020... 00ne 0% oe

Cinnamon Leal so. 2s oo le oe ee

@, 0.0 0) e900 @/\e)\v © (eels) ellulenle

MI MDLAINUY) Seale ver cig ate toe Grete ie FULIGULINE, Bay, Sea, or Diving Ducks..........

RAE ARIE ee ets x ens ate Dee es

FEED A er) ei Vi otholialolit elloWalieiaroie leteinteleltapare

GOUDEN Teh beret oielstiaet «isiia) sll clone lereneheieioiet ets

BURBDE-HWAD so) o050.5 daisies ures ares ho aie 6
OLE AGMA Wisit neni soe any. hss oon eels
HARER QUIN (DUCK: 2 ./).. ost). 20 2 od os
-SOMATERIA and Ee ae Eiders and

Scoters... EUitsser Mage evars Sacopaeeee

AMERICAN (RID so oic <).)sic am es) ie © ora) sa
STAN Gros MEP EYER Seats) aieeh oy eich ol cli detain ail iets) iets

OT a ee nae ANSE RIN AGG GORE Tat cs hss) Sain Stee ag hg cats Mente

TRUMPETER GS WeAIN ss ccpsiertsniearcic: artes ines
- -HERODIONES, Deep Water Waders... ....0.. 200.00 cecvccscccees

Suborder.............. BESERNIES WL OLAS ec Sails unre ea Searles tLe MAE drs ae LM YN

GLOSS Ye PB US ye ot aie val aie intrala salle tate erection or ois

Te a meRonin, Heron-like: Waders: ..\Ax nee s ooh ete aon ie oe

Family

chayaicea mic teee x sass uae AupuIDAN, Herons and Btilerns:,. 2%). 62s hs ioe «ee

MDIEINGD MS: 5S ws BOTAURINGAG DAMCTIE 25 Ma ter oie oe glo ee cecil

LUAST. BEPTURN Sle Gaol. sau aaa's
Cory s Deas Baer 2 oa LN SS ey, 2),

OTe Oa ae ARDEIN®, True Herons and Egrets...........

*GRHAT BUUN HERON) 2.51.0. -2e oe

TITTLE BLUR PMMORON, 6. ae sl oe
LOUURTANGHELET OD ee. Oy RRO

BLACK-CROWNED NIGHT HERON.......
Yellow-crowned Night Heron..........
Bata Ps ede (3% | PAPUBICOEAT MOTs Birdss< on. teas oe eens ce fc ax gle ee ees

USD Gruss Cranes and Courlans: sacs occas coe ane wee

36 Bh COE a eee GRR CO Cem ae oP cA aa a os Seles weed eres

PAGE
SUDOTOET A elses RO RATED SNE MI ATShI Biase ste ae seer e eee 86
BOM ns Sra shale ce era RALTED AGS Hear -leke Divas.) '.8 bei ote ether ae 86
SUD fOnil yee eee a ete UAT UG LT 2LE WECOLULS See ccs tag ect ese noes ee ee 86
KING RATIOS eiey See ease a ieee ae 387
Clap DET Gt ota se ea eee 87
VIRGINEA RATIO aay cama tere ere 87
Black Raw eee. ee ote ee nea 87
F SORIA RUT ey cl sige teen a ast 88
YELLOW-RATMIY eee eee neee 88
SUuvfamlyecemsnee ee oe eee GALLINULIN&E, Gallinules or Mud-hens. .......... 88
PURPLE) GALDLINUEE Se ee ae 89
FLORIDA) GALDINUDE 21 eee 89
SUDLAMAULYe ser Cie sree eine FULICGINAS. CO0ts 55k hk ee ee eee 90
American CO00t sts... eee ee 90
OD ET HO SAC: LIMICOLZ (SROTE BITES 4 o5% sey sie ee oe 90
BONY re repens lan ater PHADAROPODIDA, Phalaropes- i. a04-.. 6 tee ee 91
RED) PHARAROPES .).)..c0 eee eee 91
NORTHERN PHALAROPE............... 91
WILSON Si: PHALAROPE!..\.0510 oles 92
| TOT DAS ee Gren alae eh cee geeteea ck? RECURVIROSTRIDH, Avocets and Stilis................ 92
AMERICAN) AVOCHT) . =)... 25 22 ae 92
IO DD ISG Re NO Siti OES Choe SCOLOPACID™, Snipe-like Birds..... ceo os: 92
*AMERIGAN WOODCOCK...........-.-..- 93
* WILSON S| SNIPE. 30. oo eee ee 93
DOWETCHER: \ J. Ch ee See eee 93
Long-billed Dowitcher.........-... 94
STILT SANDPEPIR. obec eee eee 94
FEN GT 6 5 cevolees De theesl e Eeee 94
PURPLE |SANDPIPER:. ...5> > 22-5 soCnee 94
Eastern Purple Sandpiper........ 95
PECTORAL SANDPIPER........22.54-25 95
WHITE-RUMPED SANDPIPER........... 95
BATRD:S SANDPIPER=.. 22 Gee 95
LEAST (SANDPEPER:..4 5. oe eee 96
DUNDLIN ci deft ea ee ee 96
Red-backed Sandpiper............ 96
CURLEW SANDPIPER.) 3. ¢:5..... 0056: 96 |
SEMIPALMATED SANDPIPER........... 97 |
Western Sand piper.=. 02. 5ose4e5% 97 |
SANDEREIN Gs: ose bse See 97 |
MARBLED (GODWIT) oo. cn eee 97
HUDSONTAN(-GODWIL:....5 eee 98
GREATER YELLOW-LEGS..’.......-2-25:- 98
LESSER) YELLOW, _LEGS'.)..)-.05-12 eee 99
SOLITARY: SANDPIPER. eee 99 ‘
Eastern Solitary Sandpiper....... 99
WILLE Scie. Gidea se ae 99
Bastern Wtlet... oo. eee ee 99
Western Wallet 0.25. 2 Denote 99
UPLAND? PLOVER eek eee 100
BUFF-BREASTED SANDPIPER........... 100
*SPOTTED SANDPIPER...............-. 100
C7 EE Ta a OAR SSPE CPD Aer fie RUBY IS NUMBNIUS, ‘Corlems 50.3.5 no ne ae ee 101
LONG-BILLED .CURLEW:..).. 025-00). ose 101
HUDSONTAN | CURLEW)..-..0 0201) oe ee 102
; ESKIMO (CUBLEMW 35 s..\s 2 sis) nice a 102
TOMY ooh ceils we aia CHARADRIID 2, (Plover she rs oer cp ee 102
BLACK-BELLIED PLOVER.|.....5..05000 103
AMERICAN GOLDEN PLOVER........... 103
Eastern Golden Plover............ 103
*KIDEDEER OPLOVER: 4.) coe 104
SEMIPALMATED PLOVER.............. 104
Buropean Ring Plover. .).00 4-6 cee ee 104
PIPING: PLOVER.) 0.0 See 104

Snowy Plover 0525) ee eee 105

33
TIMMY 2 Aol a is hone ah ASRERSREZUOAG PLS IASEOMLER © op yon) (335s SoS gehcsei Abana eseoels a bi
TURNSTONE. ASO eae tatn ec
Ruddy Turnstone.. eal ae ae
TTT OE TREE COE NE nae RAEN HE MATOPODIDE, Oyster-catchers.................-.-.
AMERICAN OYSTER-CATCHER..........
Order Pee CATLIN IAG OCT OLE SE EL US | enna IN terrae ie hed ate Calor SEN WET
SULIT GG pea a eae PETASTANE Dei CuE OULS ars ee ale elect suche eocuSpscne Slate eet ets
DOE he iS A Dame aa a ODONTOPHORIDH, American Quail...................
SBOB=WHEDE serait eg orthe sry arcs cg ae
Virginia Bob-white..............
LPT GOLD LQ ee Aa HTH A ON ED AS GIOUSE s Jatt ee oh4) 3) caieleteis aves oa) ales Sows
SSPRUCKPPARTRIDGH: opie ce tectel ee

Hudsonian Spruce Partridge......
Canada Spruce Partridge.........

SRUKKED HOROUSER Secs oe iclocnet ae

Canada Ruffed Grouse...........
LaGcopus, Ptarmigan. . Bs Nee eeets
WILLOW GROUSE.
Willow Ptarmigan. . ann re
AUlLeniSiELATMIgan sc ces hie =
ROCK PTARMIGAN (0-06 isis c5¢oe dalle 3
AT CHCTELATINUGGI: tes nov ad ee
Reinhardts Ptarmigan............
Welsh’s Ptarmigan..............

SHARP-TAILED GROUSE...........:..-
Northern Sharp-tail..............
Prairie Sharp-tatle ~ oe e

MEAT N Te Ces nr BR MINE AGRID An Lene ySei cris ee sie Nei oie niece

UTC Sse ee tS COLUMBID2,
*

.......RAPTORES, Birds of Prey.
2 TESTES ce eng iin SARCORHAMPHI, Ame

WELD DURE Ys rare elsyenaleverey siaregal> sie =o.

COUMUMEALS Pigeons (Ud. DOVES a6. oicio's Dike e Ron aie e eezelnne Mee as
True Pigeons and Doves................-

PASSENGER) PIGHON 2 <2). <./a2 62 0 5
MOURNING DOVE.2) 0.20 405.44 sae kee
Carolina Mourning Dove.........

TICON I VALEUTES Do ENA OR ee

DEE oo. se CATHARTIDA, Turkey Vuliures:..:.......2.2+50+.2+

TUR RAG Y) VA TaD URES ore 2 ayele inboietaiieaies-i- a) el

BEACK AV UE Er ORE careiehe ie) ote not yeteteheneh nee t-

Pemanier yor Shek RALCONES | Diurnal BUGS Ofc ELEY cocmatas een eee
RORpRREMER TRC ey OAS Rts to 1 as: BUTEONIAD2, Buzzards and Eagles................4.

AEDT ys Soe bee ae ee ae

ELANOIDES and circus, Kites and Harriers

SWALLOW-TAILED KITE...............

FMARSH HAWK i Short voit eater eae eae

ACCIPITER and ASTUR ia au Short-

winged Hawks. .

*SHARP-SHINNED HAWK.

COOPER BS) PEAWIRGS seh ten ish eye ypsoener ate

7AMERICANTGOSHAWIG) fo nee ee

Easiern Goshawk. .

EGS oS Se a ea i BUTEO and ARCHIBUTEO, True Buzzards.
-RED-TATEED OMAWIKEY, oS) eSicisis os aes

Eastern Red-tail............<..0

*RED-SHOULDERED HAWK.............

Eastern Red-shouldered Hawk.....
SWAINSON S'HAWIK. Sc). cc avec ates aon
BROAD-WINGED HAWK.....<........-.

ROUGH-LEGGED HAWK............:..
American Rough-legged Hawk.... .

GONerG ss Sata Caan ors INMEN DS ret ga be AQUILA and HALIZTUS, Eagles.......
GOLDEN: BAGEB(01/0')/)5.0 15 cues ong oe

BALD | WAGLB seb cincesiol oa on eae ae

Northern Bald Eagle.............

BOM Y oo 6 Soa ese a FALCONIDA, Falcons and Caracaras. .. 535). agen sear
OLA Y Se Gs Slaw ee eye aN FALCONINA, True Falcons Siiis so. is. eas eee
GYRFALCONB £30). wie mares ole eee ens

GYRFADBCONS cise iisicidaeerne ale ee em
GreyiGurfaleonaes Selo eee

Black: Gurfalcons hoe en ee

*BEREGRINE. FALCON:.). 30.)0\000 0 Saleee

Duck Hwak so ae ee eee

PIGHON: HA WE)». sinjh sos. s eae ee ee ae

Eastern Pigeon Hawk............

*aAMERICAN SPARROW HAWK...........

Eastern Sparrow Hawk..........

JOCLTOONO es aoe cin Men eRa Ce ee PANDIONID&, Fish-hawks, Ospreys...........0200.00:
*OSPRIY 0.16 3.) ice sete eee

American: Osprey). iss 6 oe eee

IS UOT ER Ut eiscenisn sere sTrices, Nocturnal Birds of Prey... 020.55 - 2. see
POPES e fas kN Ne RN si ALUCONIDA,. Bari Orlss iin ios. ons Cte ee ee
AMERICAN BARN OWL....22...-:2-0¢:

HEA OOO ae Ge Or ccna stricipa, Horned or Hered Owls:).252.425-e eeee
AMERICAN LONG-EARED OWL.........

AMERICAN SHORT-EARED OWL.........

*BARRED') OWLico.o 2k oe eee

Eastern Barred Owl..............

ARCTIC SAW-WHET OWL..............
Richardson’s Owl...............-

Arctic Horned Owl: 2 nncnes see

Labrador Horned Owl............

SNOWY “OWE: $05 605 2.0 See ee

BAWK OWL. {50 Depa ee eee

American Hawk Ouwl.............

Order........ 5... . -COCCYGES, ‘Cuckeos and Kingjshers:..4.2-0 0). eee eee
PR LEDONEL ONES cars Ae data 8s CUCULE, Cuckoo i6 cee oe ee
LONELY Nene ei oy Siete ce Se ae CUCULIDE, American: Cuckoos. 2.05 4. ee donee
SLU CITY ener ye ee coccyzINm%, American Tree Cuckoos..............
*YELLOW-BILLED CUCKGO.......2.< ss.

*BLACK-BILLED CUCKOO: .-.--02>. 5: oe:

ISEIDOVILER 1 fe 2692 iaie 54 lcs oie ALCYONES yy KUngpshens niin inc eeieie] pe ee nee RA eOr se:
1A Re a re ae ALCEDINID A, Kingjisherse..... 502 sep homes eee
*BELTHD KINGMISHER, J:4/. 0 oo steeie

OEE OS See Pe le PICT, Wo0d Pecker su .-3\..3:. 3s ge ee SA eee ee ee eee
OGTR eT oO stoke ei a eta PICIDA, Woodpeckers! si. tiaias eves oeiecena nee
HAIRY ‘WOODPHCKER ». 6/50.) .)) (geen

Eastern Hairy Woodpecker........

Northern Hairy Woodpecker......

“DOWNY WOODPECKER:..:..ss vse een

Northern Downy Woodpecker......

*ARCTIC THREE-TOED WOODPECKER.....

AMERICAN THREE-TOED WOODPECKER..

Eastern Three-toed Woodpecker... .

*YELLOW-BELLIBD SAPSUCKER.........

————— ea

MITMELUNE ec See ceche cre Patan s Ie picipz.—Continued.
Eastern Sapsucker. .
*PILEATED WOODPECKER.

Northern Pileated Woodpecker... te

*RED-HEADED WOODPECKER..........

RED-BELLIED WOODPECKER..........

af ACG Colt aha Re Ue SE DERE Reig

Northern Elicken: .. . 0 200% ca

Tip ee MACROCHIRES, Goatsuckers, Swifts, and Hummingbirds.......
ISUDOTOLET fd) ois oe aa as. CAPR EMULE AAT GOMESUCIEN Ss cin 2 ic vin'si sig sce ae biaehe dg pes

ne Oe eee ee CAPRIMULGID&, Goatsuckers. .

CHUCK-WILL’S WIDOW..............
WHIP-POOR-WILL.. 0. feiss nese ele nee
Eastern Whip-poor-will.........
NL GUTTEDAWU Rss ssiale ny erste tay a eitela tare loi: sat
Eastern Nighthawk.............
NSUDORUCT ee coe sees CYPSHLIN SIDI ES OMA LILES ee) yr eelenet Is eaters shee ce sce a,
PETIT A seg roi ere ato aso MICHOPODED AD MSIDUIES air coer oie e voc) s egait, oe atoie Glave, acne
REI AUIED acess oo) os 2a ohn? sions CHATURINE, Spine-tailed Swifts.................
A CHIMNEW, SWIRE cele cts sae sheers ale ss
ULDONM EN ao = 05's Sices, 30 TROCHTER ALP UM MING OU AS eer eo sea te aes eee eons aes
OL Bee eae TROCHILIDA, Hummingbirds. .:......-%.-.+ 0842-5:
*RUBY-THROATED HUMMINGBIRD......
MET cis i cieis PASSWRDS SP CnCNING DINOS enna eae cig oe aie ee ona on
ISUUDTEEE hace oe a5 CEAMATORES, SOMQIESS PELCHCNS: 5 <1. seie clone ee ie wen eee
ELUTE ES ee eae ae TYRANNIDE, T'yrant Flycatchers...............+.---
SCISSOR-TAILED FLYCATCHER........
MATING BERD ii yee ae sacwnaMien aa seer rte
GRESTED) FLYCATCHER... =... 442:
BPHOMBE ese nyn oe na eer oe

YELLOW-BELLIED FLYCATCHER........
aa PLY CATCHER: 21580 ies shee state
PRAT: S RLYCATCHBR: 9. suey lke

Alder Flycatcher. .

Western Alder Flycatcher Be anee

LEAST FLYCATCHER.

Eastern Horned Lark...........
PraitesHorned Lares...
Eloytisstd Onned saree ewe eee
WesMM Ge, ee rs i ne tt CORVID Aird CYS TAN CTOWSH Nee eee a ena Sans

BLUM) TAN ep aes Nal oe ee enero
* CANAD AS DANG erties aha ap. )aio se) oc tede Te ashe
Eastern Canada Jay............
DaGTAAOT PAYG a Oe om ss es

mpiintiyee == oe eG, CORVINE, Crows

SPEER ete Sct Sone us Bs aos ICTERIDE, American Starlings

SBOBOLINKE RE tar ee ann ye Saas ee ees
FCOWRIRD ten Mie Po kee ee aie te
YELLOW-HEADED BLACKBIRD.........
*RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD............
Eastern Red-wing..............
Northern Red-wing...........+.

CETTVER YS S24 sical erties eae Beit ICTERIDH®.—Concluded.

Ga COV WOYOK,(A UY Urd GA mCINIe MN GIN BitL eae OM,
ORCHARDS ORIOUE Lee ee ele alert
+R ATTIMORE |ORIOLIG ase Sets ae
RUSTY BLACKBIRD. Sei atin e aioe
CROW: BUACKBIRDE eu ee eee

*Bronzed Grackle......-......000

Purple:Grackle ene) soh eetecls

Randy eran eey acca tena cats FRINGILLID&, Sparrows, Linnets, Finches, or Buntings..

EVENING GROSBEAK...........-.----
Eastern Evening Grosbeak........

* PINE) (GROSBEAK «suc o cinerea cisie ers
Canadian Pine Grosbeck.........
*DURPLE) FINCH? 0. curation eie
Eastern Purple Finch............

* HOUSE SPARROWitesi-lecls (onic eee
CGROSSBIEL Hc) cc oe eee eee
American Crossbill. ....2...5..5:
WHITE-WINGED CROSSBILL...........
EIN UEASa eas Ie Re NathG PsN el eee yf A ACANTHIS, Hed polls N05. )..0siec.ssacioeeete
HORNEMANN’S REDPOLL.............-
Greenland Redpoll............---
Hoary Redpoll: i). oc) aga
REDPOLI: LINNET: }))))..0 16s cee eee
Common Redpoll.............-+:
Holboll’s Redpoll: i...) epee
Greater Red pollen vce seer
*AMERICAN GOLDFINCH.....-...\- 5-2
Eastern Goldfinch..............--

PINE- SISKIN |. 3 s..is,0 ss.oe pee hee
*SNOW, BUNTING.” crisis eiciste nae eee
Common Snow Bunting.........-
LAPLAND: LONGSPUR. -<.)¢ 55 Seldetre ee
Eastern Longspur.....0. 02600056
*VESPER SPARROW: va.- ace cee
Eastern Vesper Sparrow..........
IPSWICH SPARROW, 2.2500) sale enor
SAVANNAH SPARROW...........-.+:-:
Eastern Savannah Sparrow.......
GRASSHOPPER SPARROW............--
Eastern Grasshopper Sparrow... ..
HENSLOW’S SPARROW..........-.++:-
Eastern Henslow’s Sparrow.......
LECONTIN’S SPARROW «...\.c..5.252 eee
NELSON’S SHARP-TAIL..........20.---
Prairie Sharp-taise..ocn eee
Acadian Sharp-tatl...¢ 20h. e es:
LARK SPARROW: ..:2.0)-'sius eee
Eastern Lark Sparrow..........-
HARRIS) SPARROW eee hie ae eel one
*WHITE-CROWNED SPARROW...........
Eastern White-crowned Sparrow...
*WHITE-THROATED SPARROW.........--
+T RET) SPARROW sc see eerie
Eastern Tree Sparrow..........
*CHIPPING) (SPARROW): sence tne ee
Eastern Chipping Sparrow........
CLAY-COLOURED SPARROW............
FIELD, SPARROW?(50. 7555) - eno eer
Eastern Field Sparrow...........
*SLATE-COLOURED JUNCO.............
FSONG“ SPARROW Os 6c) sie site cc eiseeeters
Eastern Song Sparrow...........
LINCOLN 8 (SPARROW, .)5-.-etie eesti
Easiern Lincoln’s Sparrow......

Ge nya e sia siete ees enhanehe ans ACANTHIS—Concluded.

BWAMPVAPARROW 2/0. 2)<< ie « vilcts, aliels s\avae

CARTREN AU iat cave stelenol(sior of alah ots ereltata ueret ane

*ROSE-BREASTED GROSBEAK...........

DICK CISSE Ect eters) teieifc) ahertoilaitel tebe tel eicta) =iher 5) ce

WEBPLIE Tes, ahs! Dosa els ma ait TANGARID AGL QNOGET SERIE alsa islets) une other ala acs eualala ee e

FACARTEMT UTA NAGI to. 4 lack 4k ates
SUMMER TANAGER. 2. soc oes 224 Oa

LI GITCTIIC AS RS MeN ERAS ee HIRUNDINED 3 SWOLLOWS rane Ko oie aiahe Fah lak > eestor ees

HPURBER OMAR TEN 2 arta south moira

astern Marte. 2 oe eens
CLINM SWALLOW sto aoecic ea eee:

Eastern Cliff Swallow............
EB ARNGSWWALLIO Wels cine eatin bas aioe tele
TPRICB I GWiATO Ws kates ualelctaia esos eat
ER AINIK VS WAIL Wil caisiccs eee ote ec caiens

BOHEMIAN WAKWING.-2) 2020 25 ono he.
FELD AR SWAKWING 22 nio honoree

UTERUS as ON ea OmeO Se LANiDm, Shrikes, Butcherbirds...\.j0. 02.0 0.2.0 + sss 6

Migrant Loggerhead.............

NT oh ted oo De VIREONIDZ, Vireos or Greenlets...............2.00000.

FRED-BYVED! VIREOGs Ss cia kee oee
PHILADEDPHTA™ VIREO o)...9: 2 seman ee
TWVARBEINGA VIREO )actia a te ae

Eastern Warbling Vireo..........
YELLOW-THROATED VIREO............

WHITE-EYED VIREO..........0-. 05-5.
Northern White-eyed Vireo........

LO CETTEAATE SS pote he Ee MNOTIETID a,” Wood: Warblers). 2! Se Ne hes

*BLACK AND WHITE WARBLER.........
PROTHONOTARY WARBLER............
ne Te Pee ee a ee eR VERMIVORA, Worm-eating Warblers... .
WORM-EATING WARBLER.............
BLUE-WINGED WARBLER.............

NASHVILLE WARBLER...........-...-
Eastern Nashville Warbler........
ORANGE-CROWNED WARBLER..........
Interior Orange-crown............
TENNESSEE WARBLER.............:..

Northern Black-throated Blue Warbler
7MYRTLE WARBLER. cis ae ee ee

CERULEAN WARBLER................

ea RNR A Ta eae DENDROICA—Concluded.

CHESTNUT-SIDED WARBLER...........
BAY-BREASTED WARBLER.............
BLACK-=POLL WARBLER. =. ..: 5-00 ee
*BLACKBURNIAN WARBLER............
*BLACK-THROATED GREEN WARBLER....
KIRTLAND’S WARBLER..............--
PINE, WARBEUR oS ahrs ee nee
PALM WARBLER oh it wie eee eee

Interior Palm Warbler...........

Yellow Palm Warbler............
PRATRIB WARBLER Es aco cel ae

Gem Us ieee tay ols ate ret eg S etie tora taeions sEIuRUS, Wagtail Warblers...........

*OVENBIRD | ee. Se Oe ee ee
NORTHERN WATER-THRUSH...........
Eastern Water-thrush............
Grinnell’s Water-thrush...........
LOUISIANA WATER-THRUSH...........

COROT ean eigen P AAO Conse be RSE OPORORNIS and GEOTHLYPIS, Ground

Warblers isco i cicroce eee
KENTUCKY WARBLER.........---20:-
CONNECTICUT WARBLER...........2--
MOURNING WARBLER.....:20.-00800%
MARYLAND YELLOW-THROAT........-.

*Northern Yellow-throat...........
YELLOW-BREASTED CHAT.............-

GENUS Seis EG Sc Oe bee ones SIREN WILSONIA, Flycatching Warblers.......

Family
Wes

Family

0) (0 0.0 0) (0.0) ele, @ 0, 010: e\sm\le).8

HOODED) WARBLER. .¢) cecle see ee e eee
BLACK-CAPPED WARBLER...........--

Wilson’s. Warbler... 05... 2 0s <<.

CANADA“ WARBUER csc anne Chee

*AMERICAN REDSTART.... 200.2. 06 545

MOTACILLIDE, Wagtatls or Piptis............0.00+++-
AMERICAN) PIPES «cos seee ae pee eee

MIMIDz, Mockers and Thrashers..............++++-+-

FCATBIRD feo 5 asian eee cere

CAROLINA (WREN...0. eee eee
Northern Carolina Wren..........

FHOUSE (WREN 2. cn dono. pes Cee See

Eastern House Wren...........--

WINTER |. WREMN of cnc. Ue ee eee

Eastern Winter Wren...........-

SHORT-BILLED MARSH WREN..........

LONG-BILLED MARSH WREN..\........

Eastern Marsh Wren............

CERTHIID Ay; Creepers: sec cere an Oey tant
*BROWN: CREBPERL jones

Eastern Brown Creeper...........

Siri as, Niuthatcnes: > onan eters eee resreieelell pene
+CAHOLINA. NU THATCH. (20. seule nee
White-breasted Nuthatch..........

RED-BREASTED NUTHATCH............

PARID A, Linicess as ee sone eroiieia Se ae
TUFTED TITMOUSE...........-++--00-
*BLACK-CAPPED CHICKADEB...........

Eastern Ghickadee:....<..2 cs s«<%

Carolina Chickadee..............

BROWN-HEADED CHICKADEE..........

Hudsonian Chickadee............

Acadian Chickadee...........05.

—

gem

PAGE
LEC POUT sa, Seren inte Me Rca rea syLvuD&, Old-world Warblers and Kinglets. SA oe 213
SHLD LEE feeat See aE Ee REGULINE, ISG GLOTRN ES obs Ret al ooh aes eee ete Ai 214
*GOLDEN-CROWNED KINGLET............ 214

Eastern Golden-crown............ 214

*RUBY-CROWNED KINGLET............. 214

Eastern Ruby-crown............. 215

ANTAL AT GBR ee Peo Sie POLIOPTILINE, Gnatcatchers: ........0006 052000 eo: 215
BLUE-GREY GNATCATCHER............ 215

Eastern Gnatcatcher.............. 215

es i er ae TURDID AG: 4 NIMSNES ONE: AUTER i). cncoeiccse ims 4 sve es 215
PE MMER eescc) ori w a. cs. «sth TURBEN AG: LPUCHL ATUSNEE o0wa2 he aeie ois data estes 215
SWOODM DEIR US Heit tein ane nos ne eee 216

SWIPSON-SU THRUSH: serine ae cree 216

Ve erap ee nant Wir. Mnbegeate Ni Habla tes 216

Willow DLN OVS OE Ses Cae i Sate fe NE 216

FAD ICH:S) THRUSH GY spe tre-srcnnc ee sere 216

Grey-cheeked Thrush............. 216

Bicknell’s Thrush......... ees ZEEE

*OLIVE-BACKED THRUSH......... seh 217

Swainson’s Thrush... ......-.-2... 21h

*HERMIT THRUSH:.....-.-.2+.+% 217

Eastern Hermit Thrush.....- 217

AMERICAN SROBING Socio eivacies. 217

Eastern Robin............ 218

WHA TRIAR: or. tee Tk fete lero rats 218

Greenland Wheatear............. 218

*BLURBIRD oo ee ae eee 218

DESCRIPTIVE ORNITHOLOGY.

CLASS—AVES, BIRDS.

Birds, as a class, can be divided into toothed and toothless birds,
although the former are now extinct and are known only by their frag-
mentary remains preserved as fossils. All modern birds are toothless.
Some species, as the mergansers, are furnished with serrations in the horny
bill that have a superficial resemblance to teeth (Figure 7, p. 19), but
examination shows that these are not true teeth.

SUBCLASS—CARINATA. KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS.

Present day, toothless birds are divided into two subclasses, the
Ratite or raft-breasted birds and the Carinate or keel-breasted birds. The
Ratite include the Ostriches and Emues which are without a keel to the
breast bone for the attachment of wing muscles and are flightless. There
are none in North America and they are, therefore, not dealt with here.
The term keel-breasted is derived from the high, thin, keel-like projection
from the middle of the breast bone, to which the powerful breast or wing
muscles are attached.

Keel-breasted birds (subclass Carinate) are divided into numerous
orders which are considered in the sequence adopted by the American
Ornithologists’ Union.

Order—Pygopodes. Diving Birds.

General Description. The Divers, as their name implies, are birds fitted for subaquatic
pursuits. The hip joint is set far back on the body and the leg mechanism is better fitted
for swimming than for walking. The tarsus, the visible part of the leg, is much flattened,
(Figure 2, p. 18), and the toes are either partly (Figure 13, p. 20) or completely (Figures 3
and 6, p. 19) webbed. The wings are small in comparison with the size of the body. The
bill is straight and generally tapered, moderately long, but occasionally flattened and
deepened, as in the cases of the Auks and Puffins; in the latter species this specialization
reaches its highest development in the order.

Distinctions. Toes, three or four entirely or partly webbed, tarsus flattened, tail
inconspicuous or small.

Field Marks. Small wings and tail and straight, narrow, unduck-like bills. The
Dee bear a superficial resemblance to ducks but where the ducks would fly the Divers

ve.

Nesting. In the immediate vicinity of water on reedy shores or rocky ledges, or in
crevices and holes in the ground.

In consequence of the peculiar leg construction, an unusually upright
carriage of the body is necessitated when on land, and they walk with
difficulty. Indeed some species are almost helpless on the ground and are
unable to rise into the air except from the water, off steeply rising ground,
or against a strong head wind. They swim and dive with ease and, though
their wings are small in comparison to the size of the body, when once on
the wing they fly with rapid beats, swiftly and strongly, in straight lines
or long curves without evolution or manceuvring.

Economic Status. The Diving Birds feed almost entirely upon aquatic
life usually captured by diving and pursuit under water. Economically,
they are of slight importance. The Canadian representatives of this order
are divided into three families: the Grebes, Colymbide; the Loons, Gaviide;
the Auks, Murres, etc., Alcide.

FAMILY—-COLYMBIDA. GREBES.

General Description. Grebes and Divers with feet lobed and not fully webbed, and
without perceptible tails. Instead of full webs extending from toe to toe, as in most
swimming birds, the digits are provided with a scalloped edging of flat lobe-like flaps or
processes hinged to the toe. These make excellent paddles during the stroke, and folding
away, offer the minimum of resistance to the water on the return. Their wonderful diving
ability has given these birds the common sobriquets of Hell-diver, Water-witch, etc.

Distinctions. Scalloped toe webs (Figure 13, p. . .), short tail, sharp pointed bill, and
the peculiar silvery sheen of the feathers of the underparts.

Field Marks. Pointed bill and inconspicuous tail. Feet carried straight out behind
when flying.

Nesting. In the reeds or rushes bordering sloughs or ponds, on either floating or
stationary vegetable heaps.

Distribution. Grebes are distributed over the whole of Canada, and north well into
the Arctic zone. In the breeding season they are generally more common on fresh than
on salt water. There are three species of this family occurring regularly in eastern Canada;
a fourth species, the Western Grebe, not further mentioned here, has been incorrectly
recorded several times, and only one case of its occurrence can be substantiated.

Grebes are typically inhabitants of fresh ponds and lakes, though at
times they frequent the sea in numbers. The adults are coloured in rather
broad masses; the young show sharp stripes, especially about the head,
indicating that the family has descended from a common striped ancestor.
The grebe breasts, so much used for trimming and millinery purposes, are
procured from birds of this family. The sacrifice of large numbers for this
purpose and the drainage of many of their natural breeding grounds are
continually reducing their numbers.

Economic Status. Feeding almost entirely upon water-inhabiting
creatures they are of little direct economic importance. Considerable
masses of feathers are often found in grebe stomachs, but no satisfactory
explanation of their presence there has been offered. There is no evidence
that they are remains of birds preyed upon.

2. Holbeell’s Grebe. RED-NECKED GREBE. FR.—LE GREBE A COU ROUGE. Colymbus
cent L. 19. This is the largest of our Grebes. Summer adults have a rich chestnut-
red neck.

Distinctions. Size is usually sufficient to distinguish this Grebe. Juvenile birds gener-
ally have only a suggestion of the rufous neck.

Field Marks. Size will also separate it in the field from other Grebes; and the pre-
sence of a white wing patch and an unmottled back, from the Red-throated Loon with which
it might be confused.

Nesting. On floating or stationary vegetable compost or marsby islands near the
shores of freshwater lakes.

Distribution. Across the continent; breeding in the east, north of present settlement.
He the prairie provinces and west it nests southwards to and across the United States

order. :

The bird, except in the west in the breeding season, is more commonly
seen on large bodies of water than small. It is comparatively scarce in
eastern Canada.

3. Horned Grebe. ¥FR.—LE GREBE coRNU. Colymbus auritus. L. 13°50. The
Horned Grebe is about the same size as the Pied-billed Grebe mentioned next, but with a
much sharper and more slender bill. The summer adult has a red neck (much like Holbeell’s),
prominent ochraceous ear tufts, and a full projecting ruff on the cheeks from hindhead to
throat. In the autumn and winter a shining almost black and white head contrasts with
the duller coloration of the Pied-billed Grebe.

Distinctions. The juvenile, a plain, greyish-black and white bird, may be mistaken
for the young Pied-billed Grebe, but can be distinguished by its shiny white forehead and
breast, slender bill, and white wing patch.

Field Marks. Slender, sharp bill, white foreneck and wingpatch.

Nesting. Similar to the preceding.

Distribution. Across the continent, breeding locally within the borders of present
settlement and northward, but more commonly west than east.

The Horned Grebe on migration inhabits the larger bodies of water
and is less commonly seen on the small mud holes where the Pied-bill
often occurs.

6. Pied-bilied Grebe. DAB-CHICK, HELL-DIVER, WATER-WITCH. FR.—LE GREBE A
BEC BIGARRE. Podilymbus podiceps. L, 13°50. Plate IA.

Distinctions. The Pied-bill can be separated from all other Canadian Grebes by its
relatively heavier and stouter bill with its spot and its more strongly arched culmen, and
from the juvenile Horned Grebe in any plumage, by its darker, less shiny foreneck, breast,
and underparts, and the absence of a white wing patch.

Field Marks. Size and shape of bill, spot on bill, lack of white wing patch, and black
throat patch in spring.

Nesting. Along the marshy edges of ponds and lakes on stationary or floating plat-
forms.

_ Distribution. Across the continent, breeding from our southern borders northwards;
probably any grebe found nesting south of a line drawn between Ottawa and Sault Ste.
Marie will be of this species.

This is the common breeding grebe of eastern Canada, where it is
found in the nesting season or during migration on nearly every pond or
slough. It frequents clear, open water less than its relatives. The diving
powers of the grebes are well known, and they are well developed in this
species. Diving at the flash of the gun it is often safe under water by the
time the shot reaches the spot it recently occupied. Even breech-loading
guns are not always quick enough to catch it, though the general use of
smokeless powder has put it at considerable disadvantage. The grebes
have the faculty of swimming either low or high in the water. By pressing
the air from the thick soft plumage and by compressing that in the body
cavities the grebe can increase its specific gravity, and gradually sink into
the water until only the bill is above the surface, in which position it will
hide and, barring accidents, escape the most prying eyes.

Economic Status. We have little accurate information as to the
exact constituents of the food of the grebes. The Pied-bill, however,
probably lives upon small fish and aquatic insects, supplemented more
or less by vegetable matter. The fish, owing to the bird’s habitat, are
mostly mud-frequenting species of little economic importance. The
insect content of its food probably consists largely of predaceous species
like large water beetles that occasionally do some damage to fish fry.
The vegetable matter is unimportant. On the whole, we can regard the
Pied-billed Grebe as absolutely harmless except in the rare cases when it
pays a passing visit to pools or ponds devoted to trout or other valuable
fish culture. .

57172—4

FAMILY—GAVIIDA. LOONS.

General Description. The Loons are large divers with straight, sharply pointed bills
and with the feet fully webbed (Figure 2, p. 18). In the adult state they are coloured
in strikingly contrasting patterns, mostly black and white.

Distinctions. Larger than ducks and have shorter necks than geese. These points
and the sharp pointed bill are diagnostic. Tails more evident than in the Grebes.

i ue Marks. Size, length of neck, and bill. In flight, the feet are trailed behind
the tau.

Nesting. On low shores in the immediate vicinity of water where they can dive
directly into the water from the nest.

The Loons are probably even better divers than the Grebes but they
rise less easily from the water, and unless there is a good breeze that they
oe face, require a long splashing start over the surface before being wing

orne.

Economic Status. Their food is composed almost entirely of fish,
but owing to the small number of loons in any given locality, their direct
economic importance is small.

7. Common Loon. GREAT NORTHERN DIVER. FR.—LE PLONGEON A COLLIER.
HUARD. Gavia immer. L, 32. Plate IB.

Distinctions. The adult Common Loon is easily separated from other loons by its
marked coloration, but juveniles are somewhat more difficult to differentiate. Size and
the lack of spots on the back will separate it from the Red-throated Loon with which it
is most easily confused.

Field Marks. Size and unspotted back of the juveniles as above. Most loons seen
on our inland lakes are of this species.

Nesting. Close to the water on the boggy or rocky shores of inland lakes where
when alarmed the loons can slide directly into the water. The rather bulky nest is built
of decaying vegetable matter.

Distribution. Over the whole of Canada, breeding wherever conditions are suitable
and often remaining in the winter until the last open water is closed by ice.

Most frequenters of our waterways and lakes are familiar with the
long loud laugh of the Loon. The loon has another call beginning low,
rising high, and then dropping suddenly. It is often noisy at night or just
before a storm and birds frequently call to and answer one another across
the water.

Owing to the constant encroachments of settlement, and the consequent
disturbance of its nesting places, the Loon has been growing scarcer of late
years and in many of its old haunts it is seldom seen now except during
migration. However, there are still great numbers of lonely lakes in the
great uninhabited north where they can live and breed undisturbed, and
the immediate loss of this picturesque species need not be anticipated.
Proper local protection, enforced by an awakened public opinion, would
undoubtedly restock our lakes and ponds with summer residents as well
as augment the number that make passing visits.

Economic Status. Although the Loon is a large bird the capacity
of its gullet limits the fish it takes to comparatively small sizes. This
fact, taken in connexion with the small number of birds on the smaller
lakes and the immense numbers of fish in the larger bodies of water, makes
its depredations economically unimportant. The species, therefore, should
not be destroyed.

11. Red-throated Loon. LE PLONGEON A GORGE ROUSSE. Gavia stellata. L, 25.
This is smaller than the Common Loon, and is without its intensely contrasted black and

white back coloration. Its head and neck are grey and summer adults have a dull red
throat patch. iS

Distinctions. _Adults can be distinguished from the Common Loon by size and color-
ation as above. Juveniles can be recognized by their finely spotted backs in distinction
from the slightly grey marginations of the Common Loon.

Field Marks. Size and back coloration.

Nesting. Breeding habits similar to those of the preceding species.

Distribution. Ranges over the whole of Canada, scarce in the interior, more common
on the coasts. Breeds in the east from northern Ontario, central Quebec, and New Bruns-
wick northward. ey ;

Economic Status. Similar to the Common Loon in this respect, but

of less importance on account of its smaller numbers.

FAMILY—ALCID®. AUKS, MURRES, AND PUFFINS.

General Description. This family is composed of strictly maritime species of rare or
only accidental occurrence on fresh water. Though most at home in the water they stand
upright on land and walk about with considerably more ease than either the grebes or
loons. Their bills are subject to a greater degree of variation than the aforementioned
families, ranging from the straight tapering shape of the Murres to the deep compressed
bill of the Puffin.

" Distinctions. The obvious diver-like form combined with webbed feet and no hind
toes (Figure 12, p. 20) is diagnostic.

Field Marks. General resemblance to ducks, but their short necks and pointed and
sometimes deepened and narrowed bill are characteristic.

_ Nesting. Breed in large colonies, often of mixed species, on rocky islets or on inaccess-
ible sea-washed cliffs. Build no nest but lay their eggs directly on the ground. Their
eggs are unusually large for the size of the bird and markedly pyriform, a shape that
causes them to roll in circles rather than in straight lines and lessens the danger of their
falling from the bare, rocky, nesting ledges.

Distribution. Over our sea coast from our southern borders to the Arctic. They are
only casual on fresh water, though one species has indulged in occasional abnormal, erup-
tive migrations to the lower great lakes.

This family frequents the open sea, coming ashore only to breed.
They differ from the other divers in habitually using their wings under
water as in flying. On the Labrador coast their eggs are much used by the
fishermen for food.

Economic Status. Eating nothing but the smaller sizes of fish and
crustaceans taken at sea, where the supplies are more than ample, there is
little harm that these species can do.

13. Puffin. SEA PARROT. PAROQUET. FR.—LE MACAREUX ARCTIQUE. PERROQUET.
Fratercula arctica. L, 13. The Puffin is a grotesque little diver, black above, white
below, and with a grey face. It is notable for its absurdly deepened and flattened bill,
nearly as high as long and highly coloured with reds and yellows.

Distinctions. Bill is always distinctive.

Field Marks. Bill can be recognized in life nearly as far as the bird can be seen.

Nesting. Breed in the crannies and cracks of rocky cliffs or burrow in the soil on
lonely islets. Along the Canadian Labrador coast there are several ‘‘Paroquet” islands
so-called from the great numbers of these birds breeding on them. However, the depreda-
tions of fishermen have sadly reduced their numbers and unless protective steps are taken
they will shortly be exterminated.

Distribution. Puffins are distributed over the sea coast on both sides of the Atlantic
from Canada and England northward far into the Arctic zone.

A sight of this bird is sufficient for recognition of the appropriateness
of the names Parrot or Paroquet. Unlike other divers it stands up on
its toes and is quite agile afoot.

57172—43

27. Black Guillemot. PIGEON. SEA PIGEON. FR.—LE GUILLEMOT NOIR. Cepphus
grylle. L, 13. In summer the Black Guillemot is a small, coal black diver with large
white wing patches and red feet. In winter the underparts are white and the feathers
above are black but broadly tipped with white. The wings remain as in summer.

Distinctions. In summer the species cannot be mistaken for any other. In winter,
the size and wing coloration are almost equally distinctive.

Field Marks. The characters above make easily recognizable field marks.

- Nesting. In cavities in the rocks or in openings in the rough talus at the foot of sea
cliffs.

Distribution. The Atlantic Guillemot is common along our Atlantic coast but is
rarely if ever seen inland.

SUBSPECIES. There are two subspecies of the Black Guillemot in Canada, the
Atlantic Guillemot, the type form, and Mandt’s Guillemot, Cepphus grylle mandti, a
northern race inhabiting Arctic regions and distinguished by having all the wing coverts
white to the base instead of with a concealed dark wing bar. This form is given by
the American Ornithologists Union check-list as a full species, but should probably be
reduced to subspecific status.

The Black Guillemot is one of the commonest inhabitants of our sea
coast and is known to nearly all who visit there. It is less gregarious than
the other members of the family and usually nests alone and not in rookeries,
though sometimes numbers are drawn together in localities by a community
of interest.

30. Common Murre. FR.—MORMETTE. LE GUILLEMOT ORDINAIRE. MARMETTES.
Uria troille. WL, 16. The Murre in summer is white below, with the head and neck dark,
smoky, seal brown. The back and wings are black. In winter the throat is light, veiled
with more or less greyish, and the brown is replaced on the head and neck with black more
or less shaded with grey especially on the throat.

Distinctions. The Common Murre is very much like Briinnich’s Murre and the Razor-
billed Auk. Can be differentiated in summer from the former by the lighter brown colora-
tion of the head and neck and by the fact that the back of the neck is not darker than the
front. At all seasons it has a somewhat shorter and decidedly heavier bill. From the Auk
it can be told by its bill which is not markedly flattened or deepened.

Field Marks. Bill sizes and neck coloration are the only field marks that can be given
to separate the two Murres and in life these can only be seen under the most favourable
circumstances. The birds are said to swim with level instead of up turned tail as does the
Razor-bill. The difference between the latter’s bill and that of the Murre, however, is
quite obvious under ordinary conditions.

Nesting. In large colonies amongst the rocks, making no nest and laying only a single
egg.

Distribution. Abundant along the eastern sea coast, never or rarely ever being found
in the interior on fresh water.

SUBSPECIES. The Common Murre inhabits the northern parts of both Pacific and
Atlantic oceans, being represented by different subspecies in each. The Atlantic Murre
is the type form and is, of course, the one that occurs on our eastern coasts.

The number of Murres that will occupy a nesting ledge is sometimes
remarkable. At the edge of the rocky shelves they gather as close as they
can stand, like files of soldiers, bearing strong resemblance to the lines
of penguins that are familiar to us in pictures.

31. Thick-billed Guillemot. BriiNNICH’S MURRE. FR.—LE GUILLEMOT DE BRUN-
nick. Uria lomvia. L, 16°50. This Murre is almost exactly similar to the preceding
species.

Distinctions. Head and neck are darker and richer brown without the smokiness of
the Common Murre and the neck is somewhat darker behind than in front. Bill is some-
what larger and noticeably heavier.

Field Marks. Longer, heavier bill and coloration of the head and neck will under
exceptional visual conditions separate this bird in life from the Common Murre. - Sharp
and tapering instead of blunt and deep bill, and tail not turned up in swimming, should
serve to distinguish it from the Razor-billed Auk.

Nesting. Similar to the preceding species.
Distribution. Somewhat more northern than that of the Common Murre.

SUBSPECIES. The Thick-billed Guillemot occurs in the northern Pacific and Atlan-
tic oceans but as distinct subspecies. Our eastern form is the type and is known as Briin-
nich’s Murre.

Briinnich’s Murre is the only member of this family that is found on
the Great Lakes. The birds have at times come in hundreds on lakes
Ontario, Erie, and tributary waters in late autumn and early winter,
all in a starving condition, and none seem to survive or return to their
sea homes. These occurrences are as yet inexplicable.

32. Razor-billed Auk. TINKER. FR.—GODD OR GUDD. LE PINGOUIN COMMUN
Alca torda. L, 1650. The Razor-billed Auk is of the same general appearance as the
last two species.

Distinctions. Bill is considerably deepened and flattened (though not nearly as much
so as in the Puffin); it is thus easily distinguished from the Murre especially in summer
when a white line connects the eye and the base of the culmen, and the bill is crossed by
a white band near the tip. Bill of the winter juvenile is less characteristic but may still
be distinguished from that of the Murres.

ae Marks. Deepened bill and, when swimming, cocked-up tail make good field
marks.

Nesting. Similar to that of the two preceding species but rather less gregarious.

Distribution. Frequents our Atlantic coasts north to the Arctic.

33. Great Auk. GARE-FOWL. FR.—LE GRAND PINGOUIN. Plautus impennis. L, 30.
The Great Auk was the largest of the American Divers. Its wings were so reduced in
size that though they made excellent swimming organs they were useless for other purposes
and hence the bird was unable to fly. As the species is now extinct no further description
is necessary.

This bird had become so well adapted to an aquatic life that flying
was no longer necessary and consequently its wings became reduced
to mere swimming flippers like those of the penguins of the Antarctic,
and flight was impossible. Though as well able to live at sea as any fish
or marine animal, land was as necessary to it for reproduction as to any
other bird. Even then, if it had inhabited the very extremes of the Arctic
regions for nesting purposes it would probably have survived; but lonely
outlying rocks and islets about the British isles and, on our side of the
ocean, south to Newfoundland, were its nesting places and immediately
in the course of the fleets of hardy fishermen who early in our history
flocked to our shores. To them, these then countless thousands of large
sea birds inhabiting islets in the immediate vicinity of their fishing grounds,
so helpless on land that they could be killed in unlimited numbers with
sticks and clubs, were irresistible. They took full advantage of their
opportunities and the story passes current that to save labour, gang planks
were placed ashore from the boats and the unresisting birds were driven
aboard in droves to be clubbed to death on deck. Of course no numbers
could long resist such destruction and to-day the Great Auk is only an
interesting memory and is represented by only individual specimens and
fragments in a few favoured museums.

34. Dovekie. ‘SEA DOVE. FR.—LE MERGULE NAIN. Alle alle. L, 8. The Dovekie
is a diminutive Diver, the smallest of its family in eastern Canada. When in our waters
it is generally black above and white on throat, cheek, and below.

Distinctions. Its size is enough to separate it from any other Diver in eastern Canada.

Field Marks. Size and extremely rapid wing beats make the best field marks.

Nesting. On cliff ledges in the far north.

Distribution. In summer in the far north in the eastern Arctic, in winter along the sea
coasts.

On our coastal shores and harbours this little bird should be looked
for only in the winter. It flies with a very rapid wing motion.

Order—Longipennes. The Long-winged Swimmers.

General Description. The Long-winged swimmers are sea birds, with four toes and
two webs, and with the wings longer than the tail if the excessively lengthened middle tail
feather of some Jaegers and the equally elongated outer swallow tails of some Terns are
disregarded.

Distinctions. Can be recognized as an Order by their long wings and bill characters
(Figures 3, 4, 5, p. 18) and are separated from the Tube-nosed Swimmers by the position
of the nostrils which are in the sides of the bill and not in a tube on top (See Figure 11, p.19,
for comparison).

Field Marks. No field marks can be given covering the order except length of wing
and mode of flight.

Nesting. Usually breed on the ground or on cliff ledges, but there is little uniformity
in their nesting habits.

Distribution. Some species are more or less common over all the waterways of Canada.

The long-winged Swimmers are wonderful fiiers, being both tireless
and agile on the wing. In habit they are fishers, scavengers, or pirates.
There are only two families of the order in Canada; the Jaegers and the
Gulls, the latter including the closely allied Terns or ‘‘Sea Swallows”’.

Economic Status. Being sea birds, the damage they do is slight and
some of them are actively beneficial to man.

FAMILY—STERCORARIID#. JAEGERS AND SKUAS.

General Description. The Jaegers are predaceous sea birds. In colour they are dark
brown and white. The family shows a peculiar dichromatism and all Canadian species
occur in two colour phases, an almost evenly dark brown one and a dark or slaty brown
with white or light head, neck, and underparts and an almost black cap.

Distinctions. The bills of the Jaegers (see Figure 3, p. 18) are characteristic,
there being a distinct nail at the tip forming a well-marked hook, plainly separable from
the remaining cere at the base of the bill. This character separates them easily from the
Gulls, whereas the presence of nostrils and two instead of three toe webs (Figure 6, p. 19
for comparison), distinguishes them from the Cormorants which have bills similar in out-
line. The fact that the nostrils are not in tubes (Figure 11, p. 19) differentiates them from
the Petrels which they otherwise resemble.

Field Marks. Jaegers are dark in colour above, have a quite conspicuous light band
across the underside of the wing near the tip, and are hawk-like in flight. Two of the
sae species, in the adult state, show elongated tail feathers that are good recognition
marks.

Nesting. On ground, in grass.

The occurrence of the two colour phases as well as every possible
intermediate plumage, makes the identification of some of the Jaegers a
difficult matter. Jaegers are pirates of the air; they pursue successful
fishing birds and force them to disgorge the fish they have swallowed;
and eggs and young birds in the nest are never safe from them.

Three Jaegars accur in eastern Canada and one Skua—the latter
too rare and accidental, except off the outer Newfoundland coast, for
further mention.

Economic Status. The Jaegers are not very numerous and except in
far away, wild localities where numbers give them local importance, they
are of little economic influence.

36. Pomarine Jaeger. BO’SN. (BOATSWAIN). FR.—LE LABBE POMARIN. Slercorarius
pomarinus. LL, 22. (Tail 9-25, projections of centre feathers beyond outer ones 4-25.)

This is the largest of the Jaegers. It resembles the other two species in coloration so
closely that its separation is difficult except by size and in adult condition. The species
occurs in two colour phases and in all intermediate stages.

Distinctions. Elongated middle tail feathers of adult are wide and twisted at the
tip so as to lie in a vertical instead of a horizontal plane.

Field Marks. The broad, elongated, twisted tail feathers are propably the best
field marks.

Nesting. On ground, in grass.
“Distribution. Breeds on the islands and mainland in the Arctic across the continent.
Occurs on the sea coasts farther south, only as a migrant.

37. Parasitic Jaeger. FR.—LE LABBE PARASITE. Stercorarius parasiticus. L, 17°
(Tail 8-25, projection of middle feathers beyond outer ones 3-25.) This species occurs
in two colour phases, a light, and a dark one. In the dark phase the general colour
is dark brown slightly lighter below and with a black cap. In the light phase the under-
partes breast, neck, and face are white, with black cap. Intermediate stages of coloration
also occur.

Distinctions. The smaller size of this bird should distinguish it from the preceding
in all plumages. In the adult, the middle tail feathers project only 3 inches beyond the
others instead of 7 inches as in the next species and are slender instead of broad and twisted
as in the last species. Immature birds of the Long-tailed species, not having the long
tail feathers, are almost exactly similar to this species, and can best be distinguished by
the colour of the shafts of the primary feathers. In the Parasitic, the shafts of the three
first feathers are white and the remainder are progressively darker as they succeed each
other on the wing. In the Long-tailed, there is an abrupt darkening of colour of the shafts
after the third primary.

Field Marks. Small projection of the middle tail feathers as above and their not
being twisted make a field mark of fair reliability in adult birds.

Nesting. On ground, on the moors and tundras of the north.

Distribution. Breeds in the Arctic across the continent and is much more common
on Peat in migration than inland, where it is a very rare though possibly a regular
straggler.

This is the only Jaeger that is ikely to be met with in the interior on
the Great Lakes. Other species have been recorded, but upon investigation,
except in one instance, they have been found to be young birds incorrectly
identified, usually on the ground of their lack of elongated tail.

38. Long-tailed Jaeger. FR—LE LABBE A LONGUE QUEUE. Sfercorarius longi-
caudus. L, 21. (Tail 13-25, projection of centre feather beyond outer ones 8.) Very
similar in coloration to the preceding, but the long slender middle tail feathers project 7
or 8 inches beyond the others instead of only 3.

Distinctions. The Long-tailed Jaeger although having nearly the measurements
of the Pomarine, owing to the great tail length being included, is a much smaller bird
than either of the other two species. Size should distinguish it. Juveniles are often con-
fused with the Parasitic but the wing characters given under that species are diagnostic.

Field Marks. It is possible to separate only adult Jaegers in life; the long middle
tail feathers being the best guide.

Nesting. Similar to that of the other Jaegers.

Distribution. Breeds in the Arctics of Europe, Asia, and America. Is only of rare
occurrence on east coast.

Though the Long-tailed Jaeger has been recorded on the Great Lakes
most of such occurrences are misidentifications of juveniles of the preceding
species.

FAMILY—LARID®. GULLS AND TERNS.

General Description. The Gulls and Terns are long-winged swimmers, easily separable
from the Jaegers by the shape and construction of the bill which shows a single continuous
surface without distinct parts or joints (Figures 4, 5, p. 18). The colours of the adult
are usually pure white, with white, pearl-grey, or black mantles, often with black wing
tips, hood, cape, or cheek spots.

Distinctions. Bill with continuous surface and sharp projecting angle on lower man-
dible is sufficient to diagnose the family in all plumages. Colours are quite characteristic,
though some species during juvenility are evenly (over all) dark, approaching the dark
phases of the Jaegers.

Field Marks. Coloration and flight characteristics are the best field marks.

Nesting. Gulls generally build on ground, on rocky ledges or flat shores, in either
sandy, grassy, or marshy places; rarely, in trees.

Distributvon. Gulls and Terns are distributed over all the world, usually near large
bodies of water, but sometimes occurring far inland, for instance in our prairie regions.

Subfamily—Larine. Gulls.

General Description. With the family description in mind the Gulls can only be
confused with the Terns, which follow (see p. 54).

Distinctions. Can be distinguished from the Jaegers by the bill and coloration char-
acters. (See family description on previous page); from the Terns, by their more robust
build and mode of flight. Bills especially are heavier and stronger (compare Figures 4
and 5,p.18). As arule, tails are square without evident fork. ‘Though as much masters
of flight as the Tern they have less agility and perform fewer aerial gymnastics. Young
Gulls are often quite brownish and dark in coloration, in marked contrast to the adult.
Young Terns are usually light in coloration.

Field Marks. Large birds of heavier flight than the Terns. Square tails and surface
feeding habits; not diving from the wing and the horizontal carriage of the bill when flying
ce Tern, p. 54) are the best guides by which to separate the Gulls from the closely allied

erns.

Nesting. On rocky shores or cliffs near the water in various localities, depending
upon the species and their distribution.

Distribution. Almost cosmopolitan in range and few countries without representatives
of the subfamily. In Canada about twenty-five species are known to occur, but some are
only casual within the bounds of settled areas and are not discussed here.

Though Gulls are essentially sea birds they are at times found at
considerable distances from large bodies of water and flocks often follow
the prairie ploughman to search for insects in the newly turned furrows.
They feed from the surface of the water, never diving, or glean from the
shores, beaches, or fields.

Economic Status. Gulls eat anything in the way of animal matter,
fish, crustaceans, molluscs, insects, offal, and even when opportunity offers
young birds and mice.

The amount of fish they consume is relatively unimportant, as it is
usually only very abundant small species occurring in great schools that
attract their attention; they are not patient fishers like the Herons. They
search low tidal shores for crabs and shell fish, showing considerable ingen-
uity in breaking the hard shells and extracting the contents. The food
supply from these sources is economically insignificant. The Gulls annually
dispose of vast quantities of garbage and offal thrown into harbours and
waterways; they frequent agricultural land for insect food and some
species have been known to have been instrumental in stopping mouse
and other small mammal plagues. The Gulls must be considered, therefore,
to be beneficial and consequently should be protected, although they do
sometimes destroy eggs and young birds.

40. Kittiwake Tickler. FR.—LA MOUETTE A TROIS pDoraTs. Rissa tridactyla.
L, 16. A small or medium sized Gull of the same general coloration as the Herring
Gull (see p. 52).

Distinctions. Rudimentary condition or almost total absence of a hind toe is always
diagnostic.

Field Marks. Resembles so many other Gulls in general coloration that it can only
be separated in life by close observation of minute characters under favourable conditions.
In size, is smaller than the Herring and Ring-billed Gulls and larger than Bonaparte’s
Gull.

From the Herring and Ring-billed Gulls it differs by having black instead of flesh-
coloured or yellowish legs and in lacking the small terminal white spots on the black primary
tips. The bill is an even yellow in the adult, without the red spot of the Herring Gull
or the black transverse band of the Ring-billed. Juveniles resemble Bonaparte’s Gull
very closely in having a black bill and similar colour pattern, but the forward edge of the
outstretched wing is mostly black instead of conspicuously white. Juvenile Kittiwakes
do not pass through a brown stage, as do the Herring Gulls, but resemble the adult in modi-
fied but similar coloration.

Nesting. Makes a substantial and well built nest of sea-weed on small projections
from the faces of perpendicular cliffs.

Distribution. A marine species, the Atlantic Kittiwake occurs only casually on fresh
water or inland. Inhabits both sides of the Atlantic; breeding, in America, from the gulf
of St. Lawrence north to well into the Arctics. It should be recorded on the Great Lakes
only upon unimpeachable evidence.

SUBSPECIES. The Kittiwake occurs in distinct subspecific form on both the north
Atlantic and north Pacific oceans. Our eastern form, the Atlantic Kittiwake, is the type
and occurs in both Europe and America.

Economic Status. The food of the Kittiwake is probably similar to
that of the other marine Gulls, but its smaller size renders it even less open
to objection than some other members of its family.

42. Glaucous Gull. BURGOMASTER. FR.—LE GOELAND A MANTEAU GLAUQUE.
Larus hyperboreus, L, 28. The Glaucous Gull is one of the largest of the Gulls. In the
adult, the mantle is only slightly tinged with grey; younger specimens are nearly pure
white all over. It is the largest of the white-winged Gulls (those having no kes on the
wing tips). Birds of the year are only slightly barred with ashy or brownish

istinctions. Its nearly white coloration separates it from the Black hacker which
it resembles in point of size.

Field Marks. Size, general white coloration, and lack of black wing tip make the
best recognition marks in life.

Nesting. On ground, in the far north.

Distribution. Breeds along the circumpolar coasts and islands of both hemispheres.
Occurs on our Atlantie coast in autumn and winter when a few individuals wander inland
to lake Ontario and perhaps to lake Erie.

Economic Status. Being only a winter visitor to our coasts and rarely
appearing inland, its economic importance is unappreciable.

43. Iceland Gull. FR.—LE GOELAND A AILES BLANCHES. Larus leucopterus. L, 24.
The Iceland Gull is of about the same size as the Herring Gull, but with very light grey or
white mantle and white wing tips—a smaller edition of the Glaucous.

Distinctions. Size, and white instead of black wing tips.

Field Marks. Size, wing tips, and general whiteness of coloration.

Nesting. On ground.

Distribution. Breeds in the Arctic regions of eastern America and western Europe.
Visits our Atlantic coast in winter only, rarely straggling inland as far as lake Ontario.

Economic Status. As it is only a winter visitor on our sea coasts and
accidental on the Great Lakes, it has little if any economic importance.

47. Great Black-backed Gull. sADDLE-BACK. COFFIN CARRIER. FR.—LE Gof-
LAND A MANTEAU NOIR. LE GROS GOELAND. Larus marinus. L, 29. A very large Guil,
the adult with a distinctive black mantle.

Distinctions. Large size and black back are characteristic of the adult. Juveniles
are brown instead of ashy or white as in the Glaucous Gull, more striped on back and less
evenly coloured than the Herring Gull.

Field Marks. Large size and black back are good field marks for the adult. Size
is the only describable distinction for juveniles in life.

Nesting. On ground, nest of sea weed or vegetable fragments.

Distribution. Breeds on the Atlantic coast from Nova Scotia northward to the high
Arctic. Owing to advancing settlement nesting localities have at present been reduced to
the more isolated situations. Is a more or less regular but rather sparse winter visitor
upon lake Ontario, but rarely wanders farther inland along the Great Lakes.

Economic Status. With similar feeding habits to those of the other
Gulls, the superior size, strength, and numbers of the Black-backed Gull
increase its powers for good or harm. The species is certainly not to be
trusted in the vicinity of unprotected nests of other species, or even young
birds, as both eggs and young are eagerly devoured when opportunity
offers. To offset this, however, the opportunity to become an important
pest is small except in a few localities, as on the Labrador coast where the
Black-back breeds abundantly in close proximity to great numbers of
Eiders and other sea birds. The damage it does on the Labrador coast,
however, is small compared with the more serious and wanton waste of
some of the fishermen.

a 51. Herring Gull. FR.—LE GOBLAND ARGENTE. Larus argentatus. L, 24. Plate
A.

Distinctions. Size and general coloration are generally sufficient to distinguish the
Herring Gull from all other Canadian species, but as size alone is seldom a sufficiently
reliable criterion when the contrasted species are not together for comparison, the following
points will assist in accurate determination.

The juvenile Herring Gull is the darkest of the family, approaching the dark-phased
Jaegers closely in this respect, but the bill shape and gull habits will prevent confusion with
the Jaeger. In the adult, the black wing tips serve to distinguish it from any of the white-
winged Gulls and the small white terminal spots from the Kittiwake. The lack of a dark
transverse bar on the bill distinguishes it from the adult Ring-bill. However, the juvenile
Herring Gull at one stage, as the bill is turning from black to the yellow of maturity, shows
a very similar mark and comparative size is then about the only distinguishing point of
recognition.

Field Marks. Size and the colour marks above given are the best field guides. It is
often very difficult, sometimes impossible, to separate the Herring and the Ring-bill in
life when immature birds of either species are seen separately.

Nesting. On ground, or on rocky ledges or the flat tops of large isolated rocks, in
nests of seaweed or waste vegetable matter.

Distribution. Found practically all over Canada, and common in the immediate
neighbourhood of the larger bodies of water either fresh or salt. Breeds either generally
or locally in all but the more southern sections of Canada.

The Herring Gull is the commonest of our Gulls. It is a wanderer and
often seen on the smallest of our lakes, even at. considerable distance from
its nesting grounds. The Gulls that remain on the lower Great Lakes
through the summer are immatures or non-breeding birds. In winter the
species remains upon the larger waters until they are frozen over and
often throughout the entire season, beating over the open water or
perched on the floating ice. The Gulls haunt harbours for the offal and
congregate in large numbers about sewer outlets. They have also learned
that ships are abundant providers of toothsome scraps. Fishing stations
are great attractions to them and there is almost certain to be a large flock
in attendance about the cleaning tables on the shore. At the seashore,
shell fish and crabs are eagerly sought for at low tide and the Gulls have
learned the trick of carrying their hard shelled prey into the air and dropping
it upon the rocks below, after which they descend and extract the savoury
morsels from the broken case. In rough weather they congregate in numbers
about foamy breakers off stormy points for the food that is brought to the

surface. Occasionally they follow the immense schools of small fish that
periodically visit our shores and take toll of the inexhaustible supply.

Economic Status. It will be seen from the above summary of the
Herring Gulls food habits’ that as scavengers they are important and
should be protected.

54. Ring-billed Gull. FR—LE GOBLAND DE DELAWARE. MAUVE. Larus dela-
warensis. L, 18°50. Like the Herring Gull (see p. 52) but smaller; the adult with the
bill crossed near the tip with a transverse bar or ring.

Distinctions. Except when adult and ring on bill obvious, size is best guide to
separation of this species from the Herring Gull. On the sea coast this species may be
mistaken for the common but smaller Kittiwake. The presence of terminal white spots
on the black wing tips serves to distinguish the Ring-bill. In juvenility, the brown colora-
tion of the Ring-bill is in contrast to the lighter coloration of the young Kittiwake. It
lacks the distinct terminal tail band of those birds and has flesh-coloured instead of black
feet and legs. The absence of the sharp, narrow, black tail band and dark cheek patch,
and great difference in size should be sufficient to differentiate it from Bonaparte’s Gull
in juvenile or winter plumage.

Field Marks. A careful study of the characters above will reveal the only good field
marks known to the author.

Nesting. On ground in nest of grasses or vegetable material.

Distribution. Found over almost the whole of Canada. Breeds locally throughout
its range in Canada except in the most southern parts of the Dominion in the lower Great
Lakes region.

Economic Status. The food habits of the Ring-bill are similar in a
general way to those of the Herring Gull, but the smaller size of the Ring-bill
reduces its influence.

60. Bonaparte’s Gull. FR.—LE GOELAND DE BONAPARTE. Larus philadelphia.
L, 14. Bonaparte’s is our smallest eastern Gull. Its general coloration is similar to that
of the Herring or Ring-bill but the adult has a black hood over the head and neck. Juven-
iles and winter birds are without the hood, but are marked with a veiled or indistinct dark
ear spot.

Distinctions. The black hood serves to distinguish this Gull from all eastern species
when in summer plumage. In western Ontario, Franklin’s Gull may occasionally be seen.
It is a slightly larger bird with a red bill and almost black feet instead of black bill, coral red
feet, and the exposed primary tips are mostly black instead of mostly white with small
black tips. Juveniles may be recognized by their dark ear spot. They are distinguished
from the Kittiwake which they somewhat resemble by the conspicuous amount of white
on the forward edge of the outstretched wing and by the dark terminal tail band. Bona-
parte’s Gull may at times bé confused with the Common Tern or other Terns, but its
heavier build and action, and lack of any suggestion of a forked tail should make differentia-
tion comparatively easy.

e Laughing Gull which occasionally occurs on our southern sea coast looks very
much like this species, but the outer wing feathers are black instead of mostly white and
it is a breeder not a winter migrant. It 1s, however, so rare that its identification should
be accepted with the greatest caution.

Field Marks. Size, black hood in summer adults, white on forward edge of wings, and
the bill and feet colour on other plumages make the most valuable field characters for
recognition in life.

Nesting. On stumps, bushes, or trees, sometimes as high as 20 feet from the ground.

Distribution. Breeds in Alaska and the far northwest, but occurs in winter or migra-
tion practically throughout Canada.

This little Gull is more often seen in passing or visiting flocks than the
other species. It also haunts marshes and flooded lands more than they
do and is rarely noted as a solitary individual. It shows a markedly com-
munistic habit and flocks seem to be held together more by sociability
than by a community of interest, as appears usually to be the case with
other species of Gulls.

Subfamily—Sternine. Terns.

General Description. 'The Terns, or Sea Swallows as they are sometimes called, are
small gulls of a lighter and more graceful build and habit (see bill, Figure 5, p. 18).

Distinctions. The bill, lighter, and more slender than that of the Gulls, and the forked
tail are characteristic of the Terns and will usually separate them without difficulty. All
Canadian species have a more or less forked tail and all but one in summer adult plumage
have a sharply defined black cap. The forking of the tails of young birds, though beginning
to show early in their development, does not reach its maximum until after they leave for
the winter; hence through the summer and autumn many individuals will be seen with
much smaller forks than the measurements indicate.

Field Marks. The greater lightness of action on the wing and constant and rapid
aerial evolution; the fact that Terns constantly dive from the wing, and the habit of
commonly turning the bill straight down towards the water instead of carrying it on a line
with the body are characteristic. The forked tails and black caps are also good recognition
marks for adults.

Nesting. Whereas Gulls seem to prefer rocky shores upon which to breed, the Terns,
except Forster’s and the Black, favour sandy beaches, laying their eggs in a smooth circle
of pebbles without other nest preparation.

Distribution. As a subfamily, Terns are more southerly in distribution than Gulls,
though at least one species, the Arctic Tern, has been found as far north as man has ever
gone. All our species migrate, none remaining in eastern Canada through the winter.

One has only to watch a flock of Terns feeding to recognize the appro-
priateness of the popular term SeaSwallow. Their active grace and dainty,
pearl-like colours are a joy to the nature lover. Terns are on the whole
less marine in their habits than Gulls and are not as often seen far from land.
They haunt harbours, shores, and beaches, and live largely upon small
fish caught near the surface by quick sudden dives from the wing, but
they are not scavengers. In these dives the birds plunge in head first with
a splash of white spray in which for a moment they disappear, but unlike
Gannets and Cormorants they never go far under water.

64. Caspian Tern. FR.—LA STERNE CASPIENNE. LE GRAND ESTERLETTE. Sierna
caspia. LL, 21. (Forking of tail 1-50)! The largest of our Canadian Terns. In colour
very similar to the Common Tern (see p. 55).

Distinctions. Large size of this Tern is characteristic. There are two other equally
large species, but they are too rare to require more than passing mention here. The Cas-
pian Tern is as large as some of the smaller Gulls; but its bill though comparatively
heavy for a Tern is too graceful and tapering to be gull-like.

ne Marks. Characteristic Tern coloration, and habit and size make the best field
marks.

Nesting. On sandy beaches, or rocky or gravelly islands.

Distribution. A nearly cosmopolitan species. Found in the Old as well as the New
World. Occurs rather irregularly all over Canada, but its known nesting stations are
fou and scattered over the continent from lake Huron to Labrador and the gulf of St.

awrence.

The peculiarly disconnected and irregular distribution of this beau-
tiful Tern suggests that it is a gradually disappearing species. This is
greatly to be deplored as it is one of the most beautiful of our sea birds
and it is to be hoped that careful conservation of its few remaining breeding
stations will be inaugurated so that it will continue to adorn our waterways
for generations to come.

Economic Status. Though feeding largely upon fish, the size of its
prey is limited to small fry. The rarity of the species precludes its doing
any appreciable amount of damage.

1This measurement shows the difference in length between the middle and outer tail feathers. A great part o
the total length of these birds is in the greatly elongated outer tail feathers and these do not reach their maxim

um
in juvenile birds. Hence this figure is given to correct the oftentimes greatly misleading nature of the usual length
measurement. i

69. Forster’s Tern. Sterna forsteri. L,15. (Forking of tail 4).! Closely resemb-
ling the Common Tern (see next species) in size and coloration.

Distinctions. Forster’s Tern lacks the delicate grey shading on the flanks and under-
parts characteristic of the Common Tern, and the outer feathers of the tail have the dark
web on the inside instead of the outside of the shaft.

Field Marks. The pure white underparts are the most reliable field guides. The
species is, however, so rare east of lake Huron that its identification in life should be based
only on birds in the hand.

Nesting. On slight elevations in grassy marshes, in nests built of fragments of waste
vegetation.

Distribution. Western or interior bird. At one time it nested on the Detroit river,
but seems to have deserted that station and now as a breeder must be sought for farther west.

These Terns frequent marshes rather than beaches and do not usually
gather in flocks like the Common Tern. They should be looked for as
individuals in flocks of other species.

Economic Status. Though fish eaters, their size and usual habitat
prevent their being harmful.

70. Common Tern. WILSON’S TERN. FR.—LA STERNE COMMUNE. Sterna hirundo.
L, 15. (Forking of tail, 3-0 ).1 Plate II B.

Distinctions. The dark, outer, instead of inner, webs on the outer, long tail feathers
and delicate greyish,, instead of pure white, breast and underparts distinguish the com-
mon from Forster’s Tern. The grey of breast and underparts is rather less pronounced
than in the Arctic Tern and the legs and feet are decidedly larger and heavier. The bill is
usually dark in colour towards the tip, whereas that of the Arcticis evenly red. Juveniles
are more or less washed with brownish above and have blackish bills. With adults in winter,
the black cap is replaced by a more or less broken dark cape over hind head and upper
hind neck. In this plumage Forster’s Tern has a broad black streak across the eye.

Field Marks. Except in the few localities where other Terns are known to occur
commonly it is always safe to conclude that this is the species seen. The pearly-grey
underparts will usually, distinguish it from Forster’s Tern, but it is difficult to separate it
from the Arctic Tern which, however, is only to be expected on our extreme eastern sea
coast.

Nesting. Depression in sand on beach.

Distribution. A circumpolar species migrating to South America and Africa. More
or less common all over Canada and breeding in favourable localities throughout its Cana-
dian range.

-This is the most abundant Tern of eastern Canada. Common about
sandy shores, scarcer on rocky shores, it may be seen on any of our larger
bodies of water, salt or fresh, throughout the summer. Its wonderful
lightness of wing, graceful circlings, one instant hovering on rapidly beating
wings stationary in the air as it regards some coveted prey below and
the next dropping like a plummet with a sparkling splash, are constant
delights to a seeker of the beautiful. Its shrill cry, harsh if taken by itself,
blends harmoniously into the soft surge of the surf and remains in keeping
with marine surroundings.

Economic Status. Though fairly numerous in suitable localities this
species is too small to be seriously destructive.

71. Arctic Tern. FR—LA STERNE ARCTIQUE. Sterna paradisea. L, 15-50.
(Forking of tail 4-50}! Closely resembling the Common Tern (see above) in size and colour.

Distinctions. The Arctic Tern has a little stronger greyish suffusion over breast and
underparts than the Common Tern. Bill is red to tip and feet and legs are very small and
weak. Its range separates it from Forster’s Tern and there is only the Common and the
ee si which it can be confused, but the latter is too rare in Canadian waters to be
considered.

1See footnote, p. 54.

Field Marks. Except the even red coloration of the bill, which is not an absolutely
reliable guide, there is no field mark that can be described by which this species can be
recognized with certainty. As in eastern Canada it is a sea coast species, it should be
recorded on eyesight evidence only where it is known to occur commonly.

Nesting. Depression in sandy beaches.

Distribution. Nearly cosmopolitan, but of eastern and Arctic distribution in Canada
and rarely if ever seen in the Great Lakes region. It is notable from having perhaps the
greatest migration range of any species of bird. Though found in summer north close to
the pole, it winters as far south as the Antarctic continent.

The remarks made under the heading of the Common Tern will very
well apply here, bearing in mind that this species is regularly only of extreme
eastern and Arctic distribution.

Economic Status. The small size of the fry it takes and the known
abundance of such fish in the sea, renders this species as harmless as any
of the other Terns.

77. Black Tern. FR.—LA STERNE NOIRE. AHydrocheledon nigra. L, 10. (Forking
of tail, 0-8)! The smallest of our Common Terns, dark slate-grey deepening to dull black
on head, neck, and underparts.

Distinctions. The above diagnosis is sufficient to separate summer adults. Winter
and immature birds have a dirty white face, throat, neck ring, and underparts and the
grey above is suffused with more or less brownish. It is, however, always considerably
darker than corresponding plumages of other species. This fact and its small size should
be sufficient to differentiate it at all times.

Field Marks. Size and coloration make this species easy to recognize in life.

Nesting. On slight elevations such as old muskrat houses or floating debris in wet
marshes, nest of vegetable matter.

Distribution. The American Black Tern is a bird of the interior, breeding from the
Great Lakes region westward.

SUBSPECIES. The Black Tern occurs in both Europe and America in allied sub-
specific forms of which the European is the type. The American Black Tern H.n. sur-
inamensis is the only subspecies with which we are concerned.

This is a bird of the inland marshes. It is rarely seen on the larger
bodies of water, but within its regular range no extensive expanse of
watery marsh is without it. Its general habits are much like those of the
other Terns.

Economic Status. The insect content of this bird’s food is probably
larger than that of the other Terns. In the south it is known to consume
the larve of the cotton-boll weevil and probably retains some insectivorous
habits with us. Therefore, we can venture to state that it is probably
actively beneficial. At any rate the fish it takes, if any, are pe
forms of small economic importance.

Order—Tubinares. Tube-nosed Swimmers.

General Description. ‘Tireless fliers of the deep sea, of various sizes from the large

Albatross to the small Petrel. Usually dull and evenly coloured birds.
tanta Nostrils are encased in tubes laid on top of the bill proper (Figure 10,

p. 19).

Field Marks. General flight habits and coloration. Familiarity with the various
species is necessary to recognize members of the order.

Nesting. On ground or in burrows in out-of-the-way localities, often on rocky islets
far out at sea to which they find their way in some mysterious manner that we cannot as
yet explain

1See footnote, p. 54.

Distribution. As a family, they are birds of the southern hemisphere, for it is there
that they reach their fullest develop aent in numbers of individuals and species. How-
ever, some inhabit the north far into the Arctics.

The Tube-nosed Swimmers are essentially marine, using the land
only for breeding purposes. The whole ocean is their home and its lonely
waste is sufficient for all their needs except that of rearing their young.
They, therefore, as a class, rarely come into shallow water and are most
commonly seen by the deep water sailor, the offshore fisherman, or the
ocean voyageur. There are two families of the order: the Albatrosses,
Diomedeide; and the Fulmars, Shearwaters, and Petrels, Procellariidae;
that are here called for convenience the Lesser Tube-nosed Swimmers
owing to their inferior size. As there are no Albatrosses on our east coast
we are concerned only with the Procellariide.

Economic Status. Owing to their pelagic habitat they are of little if
any known economic interest.

FAMILY—PROCELLARIIDZ. LESSER TUBE-NOSED SWIMMERS. FULMARS,
SHEARWATERS, AND PETRELS.

General Description. See previous description.

Distinctions. Lesser Tube-nosed Swimmers are smaller than the Albatrosses and
are the only members of the order found on our eastern coast.

- Field Marks. General coloration and flight habits. Wings stiffly held straight out
from the body and long steady glides on motionless wings (Fulmars and Shearwaters),
or gently flitting close to the surface up one side of a wave and down the other with feet
occasionally paddling along as if running on the surface (Petrels).

Distribution. The family is distributed over the oceans of the world from pole to pole.
Though many species are regularly confined to the southern hemisphere they are great
wanderers and the list of stragglers on our northern coasts is comparatively large. Of
many species very little is known and our knowledge of several of them is confined to
single or a few individual specimens that have found their way into collector’s hands.
Other species than those here listed may be found on our coasts or even occasionally on
the Great Lakes in the interior, but their identification should be made with the greatest
caution.

Economic Status. Though feeding almost entirely on fish and offal,
their deep sea habitat renders them of little economic importance.

86. Fulmar. Fr.—Le ruLmar. fFulmarus glacialis. L, 19. A large bird of
gull-like coloration (light phase), or evenly dark, slaty grey (dark phase), and tube en-
eased nostrils.

Distinctions. One of the larger of the Lesser Tube-noses, even grey or white and grey
gull-like coloration.

Field Marks. Flight habits, stiffly-held outstretched wings, and long glides, together
with light or grey coloration instead of dark brown as in the Shearwaters which approach
the Fulmars in size, should usually render this species recognizable in life.

The Fulmar occurs in allied subspecific form on both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
The Atlantic Fulmar is the type form.

Nesting. In large communities on ledges of rocky cliffs.

Distribution. The Fulmar is a bird of the north Atlantic, breeding in high latitudes
and migrating to our southern coasts.

More often seen by sealers and whalers, the offal of whose trade attracts
numbers of Fulmars. They are often seen by transatlantic travellers in
mid-ocean or near the shores.

Economic Status. Of no economic importance.

GENUS—PUFFINUS. SHEARWATERS.

General Description. 'Tube-nosed Swimmers from 17 to 20 inches long. The nasal
tubes are apparent but much less pronounced than in either the Fulmar or the Petrel.

Distinctions. The only two east Canadian species that the ordinary observer is likely
to meet are either very dark or seem almost crow black from a distance.

Field Marks. The long narrow wings held stiffly at right angles to the body and the
long glides of half a mile or more on fixed wings are distinctive. Their colour in browns
should separate them from the Fulmar which is grey but has much the same flight habits.

Nesting. Very little is known of the nesting habits of the Shearwaters. Many of
them nest in the southern hemisphere, migrating north in the summer.

Shearwaters are wonderful fliers, breasting the storms and gales with
the ease and grace of swallows. They are rarely seen by the casual observer
except from the decks of transatlantic steamers.

Economic Status. Gleaning from the surface of the high seas, taking
small fish or such offal as is thrown from deep sea fishing or whaling boats,
their economic influence is too small to be appreciable.

89. Greater Shearwater. FR.—LE GRAND PUFFIN. Puffinus gravis. L, 20. The
larger of our two commoner Shearwaters, lighter below with under tail coverts ashy grey.

Distinctions. Its light colour below should separate this from the Sooty Shearwater;
and its general brownness of back instead of greyness and its variegated colour differenti-
ate it from the Fulmar

Field Marks. Flight habits as described previously, together with brown coloration
and white underparts should separate this in life from either the Fulmar or the next species.

Nesting. There is little if anything known of the nesting habits of this species. Pro-
bably breeds in the southern hemisphere on lonely islets that have not been ornithologically
investigated.

Distribution. Ranges over the whole Atlantic ocean from the Arctic to Cape Horn.
Visits Canada irregularly in summer.

Economic Status. Of no economic importance.

95. Sooty Shearwater. Puffinus griseus. L, 17. The smaller of our two more
common Shearwaters. Very dark brown, almost black, and but little lighter below.

Distinctions. Size, when possible to estimate or measure, and general dark coloration.

Field Marks. Flight habits as described under Shearwater and very dark, almost
crow black, appearance in life are probably the best field distinctions.

Nesting. In burrows in the ground.

Distribution. The oceans of the southern hemisphere, migrating up our coasts in
summer rather rarely.

The two Shearwaters and Wilson’s Petrel are the only species of
Canadian birds that are known to nest at the southern extremity of their
migratory range instead of at the northern. Specimens seen here in the
summer are migrants, not nesting birds.

Economic Status. Of no economic importance.

GENERA—OCEANODROMA, OCEANITES. PETRELS.

General Description. The Canadian species of Petrel are small birds, scarcely as large
as robins and of even dark brown coloration.

Distinctions. Small size, general sooty-brown coloration, and white rump.

Field Marks. Size, colour as above, and the habit of pattering up and down the waves
as if walking on the water are diagnostic of the Petrels.

The origin of the name Petrel is after Peter who walked the sea of
Galilee. The birds are also well known to sailors and voyageurs under

the name of ‘‘ Mother Carey’s Chickens” and their appearance is said to
presage a storm. In spite of their diminutive size they are met with far
out at sea and are seldom seen by the longshoreman except in the vicinity
of their breeding grounds.

Economic Status. The Petrels though feeding on fish are too small
and their regular habitat is too far removed from man’s usual activities
to be of measurable economic importance.

106. Leach’s Petrel. FrR.—LE PETREL DE LEACH. Oceanodroma leucorhoa. L, 8.
A small, sooty-brown bird, very slightly lighter below, with a white rump. Tail forked
about one-half an inch deep.

Distinctions. Forking of the tail, slightly lighter general coloration, and all black
feet will separate this from Wilson’s Petrel, the only one likely to be confused with it.

Field Marks. The slight forking of the tail is perhaps the surest specific guide in life.

Nesting. In burrows in the ground or under rocks.

Distribution. Inhabits both the north Pacific and north Atlantic oceans, breeding
on the eastern side of the continent, from Greenland to Maine.

This is the only Petrel breeding on our coasts. It may be locally very
abundant in the nesting season and its burrows may riddle the ground
without the observer having a suspicion of its presence. It remains in its
burrow through the day, but at night comes out in great numbers, wheeling
about the deserted neighbourhood, uttering a low, wierd oft repeated little
song with most eerie effect.

Economic Status. Of no economic importance.

109. Wilson’s Petrel. MOTHER CAREY’S CHICKEN. FR.—LE PETREL DE WILSON.
Oceanites oceanicus. L, 7. A slightly smaller bird than Leach’s Petrel, of same general
colour but averaging slightly darker, less forked tail, and with toe webs mostly yellow
instead of all black.

Distinctions. Smaller size, slightly darker coloration, square instead of forked tail,
and the yellow foot webs will separate this Petrel from Leach’s. The Stormy Petrel also
is said to occur off the Atlantic coast, but is too rare to be considered here. Unimpeachable
evidence of its occurrence is desirable. It is recognizable by having the white rump feathers
tipped with black.

Field Marks. Square instead of slightly forked tail is probably the most reliable
guide to the specific identity of this Petrel in life, but accurate observation is necessary
to make the distinction.

Nesting. In ground burrows or rock crevices.
ae Distribution. From the Antarctic to Labrador and to the British Isles across the

tlantic.

Wilson’s Petrel is notable as being one of the very few North American
species that nest at the southern end of their migratory range. Hence
individuals seen here in the summer time are migrants and do not breed.

Order—Steganopodes.
Totipalmate Swimmers. Full-webbed Swimmers.

General Description. Birds with webs between all four toes, making three webs in-
stead of the usual two as in other orders (Figure 6, p. 19).
Distinctions. The feet characters are always distinctive.

Canadian Totipalmates are divided into three families: Sulidew, the
Gannets; Phalacrocoracide, the Cormorants; and Pelecanide, the Pelicans.
There are other families that have occurred or may occur accidentally
in Canada but are too rare to be included here.

57172—5

Economic Status. This order, being composed of large birds, all fish-
eaters, and many of them frequenting inshore or inland waters in consider-
able numbers, is open to a certain amount of suspicion as to its economic
effect. However, no step should be taken against any species until careful
investigation has proved its necessity.

FAMILY—SULID&. GANNETS OR BOOBIES.

General Description. Large birds, mostly white when adult, bill sharp and straight
without hook or pronounced throat or gular pouch.

Distinctions. The bill characters of this family serve to distinguish it from all except-
ing Tropic Birds, one species of which has been taken off Newfoundland. As the Tropic
Birds, however, have enormously elongated middle tail feathers there is little chance of
confusion, even if they were not too rare in our waters to merit detailed consideration here.

The Gannets are strictly marine birds never seen away from the sea
except as stragglers. The family on the whole is tropical and enly one
species occurs in Canada. :

117. Gannet. SOLAN GOOSE. FR.—LE FOU DE BASSAN. (OLD FRENCH—J. CARTIER—
MORGAUD) MARGOT. Sula bassana. L, 35. A completely-webbed swimmer with straight
bill without pronounced hook or conspicuous throat or gular pouch.

Distinctions. The bill characters are distinctive. The adult is pure white except for
the black primaries and a rich creamy suffusion over the crown and hindneck. The young
bird of the year is greyish-brown, lighter below, and each feather has a small white V at
the tip that gives an even mottling over all. Several intermediate spotted stages occur
between these plumages.

Field Marks. Dazzling white body and black wing tips of the adult are distinctive.
The habit of diving from the wing, entering the water head first like an arrow, and remain-
ing under an appreciable length of time is also characteristic. Terns dive from the wing
but they rise again almost immediately and seldom completely disappear from sight like
the Gannet. Even were it otherwise the great difference in size would be diagnostic.

aaa esting. In large communities on the rocky shelves of sea clifis; nests made of sea-
weed.

Distribution. Both sides of the north Atlantic, breeding in Canada only on Bird Rock
off the Magdalen islands, and on Bonaventure island, Gaspe county, Quebec, both stations
being in the gulf of St. Lawrence.

The Gannet had at one time a much wider and commoner distribution
than now, nesting as it did on many of the rocky islets on both sides of the
north Atlantic. Of very slight value either for food or other uses, except
in the most primitive communities, it has been driven from one breeding
station after another until in the New World only two remain and, unless
prompt measures are taken, these will likely go the way of the others.

Economic Status. Though the Gannets have been accused of doing
considerable damage to fishing interests their harmful effects have been
much overestimated. The greater part of the life of the Gannets is spent
on or near the deep sea. When they come inshore for breeding purposes

they can make very little impression on the mighty shoals of herring and
other fish they pursue.

FAMILY—-PHALACROCORACID. CORMORANTS.
General Description. Large birds of black or very dark coloration, with bills ending

in a decided hook and with a small throat or gular pouch.
Distinctions. Bill and small gular pouch are diagnostic.

Field Marks. In life the Cormorants look somewhat similar to Loons, but have a
distinctive wing action more easily recognized than described. In flight the Cormorant
carries its neck outstretched and its feet hidden under the long tail, instead of trailing them
behind like the Loon. On the water, it is easily recognized by its plainly visible tail, and
even dark coloration.

A cosmopolitan family, only two species of which are found in eastern
Canada.

119. Gommon Cormorant. FR.—LE CORMORAN ORDINAIRE. Phalacrocorax carbo.
L, 36. See family description previously given.

Distinctions. With the family description in mind, this species can easily be distin-
guished from all but the one following. The adult of this species has a flash of white at the
base of the gular pouch and another on the flank. In other plumages, its superior size
and fourteen instead of twelve tail feathers are diagnostic. The absence of crest even
when adult is not a reliable guide for the determination of the species (see next species).

Field Marks. Unless size or the white marks are obvious it is rarely possible to separate
‘Ae two Cormorants in life.

Nesting. Similar to that of the next species.

Distribution. The northern hemisphere of all three continents, In Canada, it is
closely confined to the eastern coast and is rarely seen inland.

Though called ‘‘Common”’ Cormorant this is the rarest of our eastern
Canadian Cormorants. The species occurs on the European coast and was
given the name ‘“‘Common”’ because of its abundance about the British
Isles.

Economic Status. Owing to its rarity it is of little economic import-
ance in Canada.

120. Double-crested Cormorant. FR.—LE CORMORAN A AIGRETTES. Phalacro-
corax auritus. L, 30. See family description on previous page.

Distinctions. This species is likely to be confused with the preceding one only. In
adult plumage the absence of any white at the base of the gular sac and on the flanks is
diagnostic. In other plumages, size and the presence of twelve instead of fourteen feathers
in the tail must berelied upon. Early in the spring the filamentous crests on the sides of the
head instead of a ragged ruff as in the previous species are characteristic; but these features
are lost early in the season, before nesting begins, and hence are usually of little help in
determination.

Field Marks. Though Cormorants can be easily recognized by the characters given
under the family heading, size and the presence or absence of the white spots are about the
only features that serve to separate the two species in life.

Nesting. On the ground amongst rocks, or on cliff ledges, occasionally in bushes or
low trees, in rather bulky structures of sticks or weeds.

Distribution. The Double-crested Cormorant breeds on the gulf of St. Lawrence and
on lakes in the prairie provinces. It is a rather uncommon though perhaps regular migrant
on the Great Lakes.

SUBSPECIES. The Double-crested Cormorant occurs in both the New and Old
Worlds. Those of North America are divided into four subspecies, of which within the
range of this book there is only one, the Eastern Double-crested Cormorant, the type
race.

This is the most common Cormorant of eastern Canada. Unlike the
previous species it is not strictly maritime and is found on fresh as well
as salt water. It captures its prey by diving and pursuit under water.
Unlike the Gannet it never dives from the wing but first alights on the
surface and then goes under with a serpentine, gliding movement like a
loon. It remains under water not longer than forty seconds as a rule.

Economic Status. The danger of jumping at conclusions based upon
superficial observation or common report was well illustrated by the out-
57172—5}

come of a study of the food of these birds in the neighbourhood of the
Gaspe salmon rivers.!. Though commonly accused of damaging the salmon
fisheries by devouring the small fish and fry, careful examination of about
thirty specimens showed that the hundreds of birds present were eating
fish of no economic value and no salmonoid remains were found in them.
Probably the eels, sculpins, and other fish taken by the Cormorant make
the species beneficial rather than harmful to the salmon, and probably
more than compensate for the few valuable fish that it occasionally takes.
This is a good example of the caution that is necessary before condemning
any species of birds.

FAMILY—PELECANIDA. PELICANS.

General Description. Large bird with a very long, flattened bill and enormous throat
or gular pouch.

Distinctions. The enormous throat pouch, holding a gallon or more, and the long
flattened bill are always diagnostic.

These extraordinary birds are of too rare occurrence in eastern Canada
to be specifically dealt with here. There are two species that have been
occasionally taken, the White Pelican, Pelecanus erythrorhynchos a western
form, that may be looked for towards the Manitoba boundary and westward,
but in the east only as stragglers; the Brown Pelican, Pelecanus occidentalis,
a southern bird of only accidental occurrence in Canada. The descriptive
names are sufficiently explanatory to differentiate them. The White
Pelican is practically pure white with black wing tip in all plumages; any
other pronounced colours are indications of other species.

Order—Anseres. Sieve-billed Swimmers. Lamellirostral Swimmers.

General Description. Swimming birds with four toes and two webs, having bills with
a hooked or flat nail at the tip and furnished with tooth-like projections or thin laminz
on ne sides (Figures 7, 8, 9, 10, p. 19) through which they strain the water from their
food.

Distinctions. As above.

Field Marks. The outstreched neck, obvious tail, and rapid wing beats of the ducks
and geese are familar to most of us. In the water some species bear superficial resemblance
to the divers, but the straight, narrow, unduck-like bills of the latter, the obvious tails of
the ducks and their general readiness to fly instead of diving when disturbed should make
differentiation easy.

Nesting. Usually on ground, sometimes in hollow trees, and rarely in deserted crow’s
and other large nests, but seldom far from water. The young are able to run about and
take to water as soon as hatched, but how they are brought to the ground from a tree
nest some 20 or 30 feet in the air is a subject upon which a considerable difference of opinion
exists.

Distribution. The Anseres are of world-wide distribution. In America the great
majority of the species breed north of the International Boundary. They can, therefore,
be regarded as birds of northern distribution. In winter some few remain in Canada as
long as there is open water and others journey south, even to the warm waters of the Caro-
linas, the gulf of Mexico or beyond.

The order Anseres contains but one family—Anatide composed of the
Mergansers, Ducks, Geese, and Swans, and comprises, therefore, the great
bulk of the larger wild fowl pursued by sportsmen. One of the greatest
sources of confusion in distinguishing the various species is the occurrence

1“The Double-crested Cormorant, Phalacrocorax auritus, and its relation to salmon industries on the gulf of
St. Lawrence’, Dept. of Mines, Geol. Surv., Can., Mus. Bull. No. 13, Biological Series No. 5, 1915.

of what is called the eclipse plumage. Contrary to the rule that generally
governs plumage changes, many of these species moult all their wing quills
at once and are, therefore, flightless until refledged. During this period of
eomparative helplessness many males assume a peculiar plumage of less
conspicuous character than that normally worn, usually approcahing that
oi the female. During this time the birds withdraw to the innermost
recesses of their habitats and hide so closely as to be seldom seen by the
easual observer. By the time the shooting season opens most have come
out of the eclipse, but the few that still retain traces of it are sufficiently
numerous to increase the number of plumages to be recognized and to
complicate their differentiation.

Economic Status. Anseres is, economically, one of the most important
orders of birds; not, as in the case of other birds, so much on account of
their food habits, for these are largely of negative influence in human
affairs, as in other ways. In the early days of settlement of the country
they furnished a most important food supply to the struggling inhabitants
and even now the total annual number killed by sportsmen is an imposing
addition to our food resources.

FAMILY—ANATIDA. DUCKS, GEESE, AND SWANS.

General Description. As this is the only family included under the order Anseres the
descriptive matter under the previous heading applies here and need not be repeated.

The family is divided into five subfamilies: the Mergine or Mergansers;
Anatide or River Ducks; Fuliguline or Sea Ducks; Anserine or Geese;
and the Cygnine or Swans. For the characters of these see under proper
headings following.

Subfamily—Mergine. Mergansers. Fishing Ducks. Saw-bills.

General Description. Fish-eating ducks with a more cylindrical, tapering, and less
spatulate or flattened bill, than the other ducks (Figure 7, p. 19). The cutting edges of
the mandibles have a series of serrations giving foundation for the popular name “Saw-
bill’. The nail on the tip of the bill forms a small but evident hook. The hind toe is
developed into a flat paddle or fin-shaped lobe similar to that of the Sea Ducks but quite
different from the hind toe of the River Ducks which follow. The males are brightly and
strikingly coloured, mostly in black and white. The females are dull coloured with reddish
beads and necks. Most plumages have crests. In the females and young birds the crests
are ragged and without well-defined shape.

Distinctions. The bill is always diagnostic and easily distinguishes the Mergansers
from the Sea Ducks which resemble them in the character of the hind toe.

Field Marks. Evident duck-like form combined with the long, slender, cylindrical,
and slightly hooked bill.

Nesting. Mergansers are mostly river haunters in the breeding seasons, nesting either
on ground or in hollow trees.

Distribution. A small family, most of its species inhabit the northern hemisphere.

Mergansers feed upon fish and shell-fish eaptured under water by
diving; for this method of feeding their hooked and serrated bills are admir-
ably adapted. They are, during the breeding season, mostly freshwater
frequenters though they visit the sea sometimes in large numbers. They

1Another common source of confusion is the prevalence of a red rust coloration that often occurs on various parts
of the head or body and is common to many species of Anseres. It is due to an iron deposit from the water the birds
nhabit, and should not be regarded as normal plumage coloration.

are not very desirable table birds, though some young autumn birds,
properly cooked, are not to be altogether despised.

Economic Status. Mergansers eat fish and, in certain waters, such as
at the heads of salmon streams, they may do appreciable harm. Ordinary
trout streams are too small for these species, and as no careful examination
of stomach contents has been made they should not be condemned without
more exact knowledge.

129. American Merganser. SAW-BILL. GOOSANDER. SHELLDRAKE, SHELLDUCK.
FR.—LE HARLE D’AMERIQUE. Mergusamericanus. L,25. Of the same general appearance
as the next species (Plate III A), but the males without crest or reddish breastband.

Distinctions. See next species.

Field Marks. General coloration and the lack of crest or breast-band in the male are
distinctive. When flying, the long, outstretched head and neck and generally grey-
coloured back will separate the females of these two Mergansers from other Ducks having
white wing patches.

Nesting. In hollow trees or rock cavities near water; nest of grasses, ete.

Distribution. Common across the whole continent, nesting throughout eastern
Canada except in the most southern parts.

The American Merganser is a bird of small rather than large waters
and hence is less common on the larger lakes or the sea than the Red-
breasted. Otherwise remarks under that species will apply to the American
Merganser as their habits are similar.

Economic Status. See under subfamily heading.

130. Red-breasted Merganser. SAW-BILL. FISHDUCK. SHELLDUCK. SHELL-
PEALE: FR.—LE HARLE A POITRINE ROUSSE BEC SCIE. Mergus serrator. L,22. Plate
III A.

Distinctions. The ragged crest, and reddish breast-band separated from the head by
a conspicuous white collar, are sufficient to diagnose the male of this species. The female
and the juveniles of this and the last species are much alike. The bill is, however, consider-
ably lighter in build and the nostrils are slightly nearer the base than in the American
Merganser. The head is not as rich a brown and the upper throat only a lighter shade
of the same colour and not white as in that species.

Field Marks. The crest and breast-band of the adult male and the lack of the white
upperthroat in the females and young birds will separate the Red-breasted from the Ameri-
can Merganser. The grey appearance of the back and the length of the outstretched
head and neck will diagnose the species as a Merganser against other Ducks having white
wing patches.

Nesting. On ground near water, sometimes in trees.

Distribution. Occurs more or less commonly over the whole of Canada, nesting where-
ever found except in the more southern parts.

A bird of the open waters, hence more often seen on the open lakes and
the sea than the preceding species.

Economic Status. See subfamily heading.

131. Hooded Merganser, FR.—LE PETITHARLE. Lophodytes cucullatus. L, 17-50.
The smallest of our Mergansers. The male is a most striking black and white bird with
rich chestnut flanks. Its distinctive ornament, the hood, is a flat disk-like crest spring-
ing from the base of the bill, arching over the crown, meeting the neck at the base of the
head, and coloured mostly pure white with a narrow black edge. The female is a much
duller coloured bird with brownish-fuscous body, lighter below, and with a ragged, slightly
reddish crest, in shape similar to that pictured in Plate III A.

Distinctions. ‘The hood of the male is unlike anything else worn by American birds.
The female can always be distinguished from other Mergansers by its small size.

Field Marks. Hood of the male and reddish crest and size of the female.

Nesting. In hollow trees.

Distribution. Across the continent but scarcer in the east than in the interior. Breeds
locally wherever found in Canada.

The Hooded Merganser is a bird of the interior, of quiet ponds and
woodland streams. It is the most edible of the Mergansers; this fact,
combined with the clearing of the forests and too little restriction on
shooting, is probably the cause of its growing scarcity to-day.

Economic Status. It is doubtful if any serious charge can be substan-
tiated against the Hooded Merganser.

Subfamily—A natine. River and Pond Ducks.

General Description. Typical ducks with flattened spatulate bill furnished with
flat nail tip and straining laminz or plates along the inner margins (Figure 8, p. 19) in-
stead of tooth-like projections (Figure 7, p.19). Feet with a small though well formed hind
toe, not modified into a flat lobe or fin-like appendage.

Distinctions. Bill will separate the River Ducks from the Mergansers and the hind
toe as above from the Sea Ducks.

Field Marks. Under the most favourable conditions of view the bill will separate
the Anatine from the Mergansers. The greater length of neck and more slender bodies are
slight and rather uncertain guides to separate them from the Sea or Bay Ducks. The
members of the subfamily are more easily recognized in life by species than as a class.

Nesting. On ground with the exception of the Wood Duck.

Distribution. As a class the Pond and River Ducks are more abundant in the interior
than on either coast.

As their name implies, the River and Pond Ducks frequent our smaller
inland waters more than they do the larger ones. They feed from the
surface by “‘tipping’’ and reaching under the water. The food is gathered
in the bill and the water squeezed out, the laminz of the bills retaining the
solid portions.

Economic Status. They are strictly water birds and vegetable and
insect feeders, consequently their food habits are not a menace. It has
lately been shown that Ducks feed largely upon mosquito larve and that
the good they may do in this direction is of surprising magnitude. By
actual experiment a pair of ducks in a small pond did more to reduce these
pests in it than a considerable school of goldfish. As game, they are o
great importance, see p. 12.

132. Mallard. GREEN-HEAD. GREY DUCK. FR.—LE CANARD ORDINAIRE. Anas
platyrhynchos. 1,23. Plate III B.

Distinctions. The male cannot be mistaken for any other wild duck though many
domestic strains approach it closely. The female is often regarded as belonging to another
species and is sometimes called Grey Duck. There are several other ducks approaching
her in coloration but the purple speculum with the white bar both before and behind the
speculum will always distinguish her.

Field Marks. Green head and white neck ring are conspicuous recognition marks for
the male. The speculum with its white bars will identify the female in life. Her tail has
also a general whiteness in flight that is quite characteristic.

Nesting. On ground usually, in high grass or reeds not far from water, though occasion-
ally at considerable. distance inland.

Distribution. Distributed over practically the whole of Canada but less common in
the extreme east. Breeds throughout Canada except where disturbed by settlement.

This is the ‘‘ Wild Duck”’ par excellence, and is known_as such to the
sportsman of the Old World as well as the New. It is the original stock

from which our domestic varieties sprang and nearly any mixed flock will
show the green-black heads, white collar, or recurved upper tail coverts
denoting reversion to the original form. As well as being one of the best
table birds it is one of the wildest of ducks, which latter accounts for the
fact that it still breeds in limited numbers on the edges of civilization.

133. Black Duck. pUsSKY DUCK. BLACK MALLARD. FR.—LE CANARD NOIR. Anas
rubripes. L, 22. Plate IV A.

Distinctions. The general dark coloration combined with size renders this species un-
mistakable among River Ducks.

Field Marks. Size, dark coloration, and a silvery sheen to the lining of the underwings
that shows in flight. ‘The absence of the white bar bounding the speculum behind will
separate it from the Mallard.

Nesting. On ground, in grass near water.

Distribution. The Black Duck is a more eastern species than the Mallard and is not
commonly found west of the Great Lakes. It breeds in eastern Canada wherever found.

Now that the Wood Duck is growing scarce the Black Duck is the
commonest nesting Duck in the southern parts of Canada and the only
one that can now be called a common breeder near the lower Great Lakes.
Originally almost every little lake and pond raised its brood of Black Duck,
but, owing to the drainage of the marshes and human interference with
nesting, it is now practically restricted to the larger marshes or more
inaccessible situations.

It is still in dispute whether or not there are two forms of the Black
Duck. Late in the autumn a number of very large birds with red legs
are taken. Whether these are subspecifically distinct has not been con-
clusively determined.

Economic Status. Though the Black Duck often, especially in the
breeding season, haunts the edges of cultivated fields where it gleans what
food it can find, it does little or no harm. There is little crop to damage
at that season and, as at other times it confines its attention to aquatic
life, there is no harm that can be charged against the species.

135. Gadwall. GREY DUCK. SPECKLE-BELLY. FR.—LE CANARD CHIPEAU. Chaule-
lasmus streperus. L,19-50. A finely speckled or vermiculated grey duck, of same general
tone as the female Mallard, but with chestnut-red shoulders and a white speculum.

Distinctions. White speculum is always diagnostic. Females are otherwise likely
to be mistaken for small female Mallards or Baldpates.

Field Marks. White speculum and general greyish appearance.

Nesting. On ground, in grass or under bushes.

Distribution. Nearly cosmopolitan. One of the rarest Ducks on the lower Great
Lakes, nearly absent from the east coast, commoner to the west where it breeds.

137. Baldpate. AMERICAN WIDGEON. FR.—LE CANARD D’AMERIQUE. Mareca
americana, L, 19. A medium-sized, greyish Duck, The male has white shoulders and
cap, and a broad green stripe through the eye, a black speculum with green reflections,
and a soft wash of pink over breast and back.

Distinctions. ‘The male is distinctive, the female might easily be mistaken for a female
Mallard or Gadwall but for its black speculum and pure white underparts. ;

Field Marks. The white crown and green eye-bar are characteristic of the male;
the white underparts and the abrupt ending of the brown breast against the underparts
distinguish the female in life.

Nesting. On ground, in grass or under bushes.

Distribution. Ranges over nearly all of Canada; rare on the Atlantic coast, more
common to the west.

Closely related to the Widgeon of Europe, which has occasionally
been taken on our coasts and which it closely resembles.

139. Green-winged Teal. FR.—LA SARCELLE A AILES VERTES. WNeition carolinense.
L, 14-50. The smallest of our Ducks. The male has a chestnut-coloured head, bar
back from eye and speculum, iridescent green; finely vermiculated back, and spotted
breast; nearly white below. The female is a dull-brownish bird considerably lighter below
and has the characteristic green speculum of the species.

Distinctions. Size will always separate this little Duck from all others except the
next species and the Bufflehead, but the presence of the brilliant green speculum will separ-
ate it from the latter and the entire absence of chalky blue on the shoulders from the
ormer.

Field Marks. Small size together with green speculum and lack of chalky blue on
shoulders are recognition marks for any plumage.

Nesting. On ground, near water.

Distribution. - Distributed across the continent but scarce in extreme east. Breeds in
eastern Canada occasionally and probably originally nested commonly in the lower Great
Lakes region.

This is one of the daintiest of the Ducks. Its habit of flying in large
flocks at great speed makes it well known to sportsmen. The European
Teal also occasionally straggles to Canada but is very rare.

140. Blue-winged Teal. FR.—LA SARCELLE A AILES BLEUES. Querquedula discors.
L, 16. Plate IV B.

Distinctions. Size will separate the Blue-winged Teal from any other Duck except
the Green-winged and the Bufflehead and the light blue on the wings will do so in these
cases. The Shoveller also has a similar blue on the wing, but the small size of the Blue-
winged and the lack of the broad shovel bill distinguish these two species. -

Field Marks. Small size, together with white face mark, dark underparts, and chalky
blue on wings.

Nesting. On ground, amidst grass.

Distribution. Across the continent; now rather rare in the extreme east. It is one
of the few species that still breed regularly though sparsely in the lower Great Lakes
region.

A western Teal, the Cinnamon Teal, is occasionally reported from
eastern Canada, but most of such records are based upon the Blue-winged
heavily stained below with iron! from the water.

142. Shoveller. sPooONBILL. FR.—LE CANARD soUCHET. Spatula clypeata. L,
20. The male is strikingly marked, with a green-black head, white breast and line over
wings, underparts rich chestnut, cutting in a sharp line against the breast. The shoulders
are chalky blue and the speculum green. The bill widens out at tip to a broad shovel or
spoon shape. The female is much like the female Mallard though distinctly smaller.

Distinctions. Shovel bill separates this species from all others in any plumage.

Field Marks. White breast, rich chestnut belly, blue on the wings, and size dis-
tinguish the male. The bill will distinguish any plumage and when it can be seen is perhaps
the best means of separating the female from the larger female Mallard which it
resembles.

Nesting. On ground in grass, not always in the immediate vicinity of water.

Distribution. This is a bird of the west. It occurs sparingly on the lower Great Lakes
and only occurs farther east as a straggler.

143. Pintail. sPRINGTAIL. FR—LE CANARD PILET. Dafila acuta. L, 28. A very
long and slenderly shaped Duck. Head seal brown, foreneck and underparts white, back
finely vermiculated in greys, speculum bronze-green bounded by a light chestnut line before
and a white one behind. The tail is graduated with two greatly elongated middle
feathers. Female is much like the female Mallard.

Distinctions. 'The long tail is diagnostic of the male, the Old-Squaw being the only
other American Duck with anything like this feature, but otherwise the Old-Squaw is
entirely different and is a Sea not a River Duck. The bronze-green speculum and its
bounding lines of rufous and white are characteristic of any plumage. Young Green-
Pagel Teal show almost the same speculum features but the difference in size will obviate
confusion.

1See footnote, page 63.

Field Marks. Long slender head and neck and long-pointed tail make good field
cara The dark head and white foreneck and underparts are recognition marks for the
male.

Nesting. On ground, sometimes at considerable distance from water.

Distribution. Rare on the Atlantic coast, becoming commoner towards the west.
Breeds from the prairie provinces north to the Arctic and formerly east to lake Erie. _

144. Wood Duck. SUMMER DUCK. THE BRIDE. FR.—LE CANARD HUPPE. Aix
sponsa. L, 18°50. Plate V A.

Distinctions. With the illustrations as a guide there should be no difficulty in
recognizing this species. The male even in eclipse plumage always retains a suggestion of
the cheek markings.

Field Marks. ‘This is the only common summer Duck in our southern sections having
a pure white underbody. The white eye-ring of the female is quite conspicuous.

Nesting. In hollow trees or stumps in the vicinity of quiet water.

Distribution. Temperate North America as far north as southern Canada and across
the continent; more common in the lower Great Lakes region than on either of our coasts
or in the prairie provinces.

This is the brightest coloured and most beautiful Duck in America
and perhaps in the world. The only species that can approach it is the
Mandarin Duck of China which is often seen in confinement with it. The
Wood Duck was originally the ‘‘Summer Duck”’ of our southern borders
and almost every woodland stream and back-water pond had at least
one pair; but, since the clearing of the land, the farmer’s-boy-shot-gun
combination has been too much for it. Its bright colours, the relative
conspicuousness of its nesting places, and the ease with which it can be
stalked or ‘‘jumped”’ in its more or less wooded haunts have made it an
easy prey for even the inexperienced shooter’and it is in great danger of
being exterminated. A duck that alights in trees is more or less paradoxical
to most European sportsmen, but this species does so commonly. It
builds its nest in a hollow tree some distance from the ground, usually
overlooking quiet oxbow pond or other dead water. How the young are
brought to the ground is not authoritatively settled yet, and many con-
flicting reports are circulated regarding it; such as the old birds carrying
their young in their bills or on their backs, or shoving them out to take
chances with their little unfledged wings in fluttering to the ground. In
some way they reach the ground at an early age and follow the mother
about the reaches of the streams or other quiet waters, the male keeping
nearby to give his family the benefit of his (moral) support in times of
danger. Later they seek the marshes, which they inhabit through the
autumn, leaving for the south before the first frost has chilled the waters.

As the Wood Duck takes readily to nesting boxes prepared for the
putDone it would seem probable that its numbers could be increased in
this way.

Subfamily—Fuliguiine. Bay, Sea, or Diving Ducks.

General Description. Heavily or compactly built Ducks with typically flattened or
spatulate duck-like bill sometimes swollen or high at base (Figure 9, p. 19), but always
with flattened nail at tip (Figures 8 and 9, p. 19). Hind toe modified into a flat,
paddle, or fin-shaped lobe.

Distinctions. Bill will separate the Sea Ducks from Mergansers and hind toe from
River and Pond Ducks.

Field Marks. Bill, when observed, will separate these from Mergansers though they
are more easily recognized in life as species than as a subfamily.

Nesting. Usually on ground, though sometimes in trees.

Distribution. Although some representatives of this subfamily are found commonly
on every water-way in Canada both species and individuals are more numerous on the
coast than in the interior.

The Bay and Sea Ducks, though more at home in large open waters,
often frequent the marshes and shallower waters for feeding. They are
good divers, sometimes descending to astonishing depths for shell-fish
or vegetable matter. They include some of the finest table species.

Economic Status. The direct economic importance of their food
habits is even less than that of the other Ducks.

146. Redhead. FR.—LE MILOUIN A ThTE ROUSSE. Marila Americana. L, 19. A
rather large Duck with an even coloured, brick-red head and upperneck; black breast;
grey back finely vermiculated with black; white below. Head of female duller in colour,
even to dull grey-brown, and canvas-coloured back replaced by an even wash of brown
sometimes without hint of fine vermiculation.

Distinctions. Male resembles the Canvas-back but back considerably darker and
red of head does not come to shoulders as in that species. Females of these two species are
even more alike, but shape of the bill is always diagnostic (See Canvas-back). Female
also somewhat like those of Scaup and Golden-eye but distinguished by grey instead of white
speculum or wing patch and absence of any white face mark. Ring-necked Duck has a
similar speculum but is a much smaller bird and has the white face mark.

Field Marks. Colour of head and outline of head and bill.

4 Nesting. Usually on land or elevated over water, nest of reeds with more or less
own.
_. Distribution. Usually only a migrant east of the prairie provinces, though at one time
a few bred locally in Great Lakes region; rare on east coast.

One of our finest Ducks and when fed on wild celery its flesh has as
fine a flavour as that of the Canvas-back. It is rather less of an open
water bird than many of the Sea Ducks and is often found on marshes
and ponds.

147. Canvas-back. ¥FR.—MILOUIN AUX YEUX ROUGES. Marila valisineria. L. 21
A large Duck; male with dull brick-red head and neck; black breast; white below; back
white with very fine dark vermiculations bearing a close resemblance to canvas and to
which the species owes its name. In female the redness of head and neck is reduced to
brownish-grey and the back is brownish.

Distinctions. Colours very close to those of comparable Redhead plumages; dis-
tinguished from Redhead by shape of bill which in Canvas-back is longer and heavier,
springing from well up on forehead and giving an almost straight culmen line rather than a
concave one as in Redhead. Male much whiter on back and the red comes down to the
shoulders instead of stopping halfway down the neck. Young and females may possibly
be confused with the Scaups, Ring-bill, or Golden-eye, but may be separated by superior
size or the lack of white or grey on the wing or of white on the face.

Field Marks. Red or reddish, or reddish-grey head, lack of white on face or wing,
and shape and outline of head and bill.

Nesting. Built over water, in nest of reeds lined with down.

Distribution. Of regular though not very common occurrence on lower Great Lakes
ot - lake Erie; rare on Atlantic coast but more common in western Canada where it

reeds.

One of the best known and most highly esteemed of the Ducks. The
Canvas-back is associated in the popular mind with terrapin and _ high-
living. This gastronomic fame is largely due to the wild celery, Vallisneria
spiralis, upon which it frequently feeds and from which its specific name
is derived. However, many other Ducks feeding upon the same plant
become equally palatable. On the Great Lakes the introduction of the
German Carp has proved very destructive to the once extensive beds of
wild celery and wild rice both of which plants are extremely attractive to

all kinds of Ducks. One of the first steps to attract Ducks to reservations
and private waters should be the clearing out of carp and the planting of
wild celery and wild rice Zizania aquatica.

148. Greater Scaup Duck. AMERICAN SCAUP. BROAD-BILL. GREATER OR LAKE
BLUEBILL. FR.—MORILLON A THTE NOIRE. Marila marila. L, 18-50. A medium-sized
Duck—male, white below; head, neck, and upper breast black; and a black and white
vermiculated canvas-like back. Females without canvas-back; blacks reduced to reddish
browns of various shades; white face mark at base of bill.

Distinctions. Greater and Lesser Scaups are of almost exactly similar coloration
but can usually be distinguished by size, or by shape and size of terminal nail on bill. Nail
proportionately wider and more nearly circular in the Greater. Head of adult Greater
Scaup has greenish gloss instead of changing to slightly purple on crown. Reddish
shade on heads of young and females sometimes quite noticeable, and they may be mis-
taken for the Canvas-back, Redhead, or sometimes the Golden-eye, but white spot at
base of bill and across forehead, or white wing patch are always distinctive of the Scaups.
Ring-necked Duck, which also resembles them, has grey speculum instead of white.

Field Marks. Almost impossible to distinguish the two Scaups in life. Males of both
species in flight appear black on front third of body and on the remainder except tail,
but including secondary wing quills, white. White face mark at base of bill, as above,
is best field mark for female.

Nesting. On ground, in grass near grassy ponds.

Distribution. - <ncommon migrant and rare breeder on Atlantic coast; common
on Great Lakes; nesis in numbers in northwest.

The Gre% » Scaup is more of an open water bird than the Lesser as
is indicated by Jue of its common names, but it often comes with other
species into the marshes for wild celery and rice.

149. Lesser Scaup Duck. RIVER BROAD-BILL. LITTLE OR MARSH BLUEBILL.
FR.—LE PETIT MORILLON. Marila affinis. L, 16-50. Almost exactly similar to the last
but a little smaller. Crown of adult male has a purplish instead of greenish gloss as on
other parts of head.

Distinctions. See previous species.

Field Marks. See previous species. Scaups in life distinguished from each other
only by size.

Nesting. On ground, near grassy ponds.

Distribution. Slightly less common in eastern Canada than the preceding. Breeds
in western Canada and occasionally farther east to Great Lakes.

This is one of the commonest ducks away from the seacoast and
more of a marsh and small-water bird than the preceding.

150. Ring-necked Duck. RING-BILLED DUCK. FR.—MORILLON ACOLLIER. Marila
collaris. LL, 16-50. Very close in coloration to preceding two species, but without the
canvas-coloured back; with a light ring about bill near end, and faint brown or copper-
coloured ring about neck.

Distinctions. Young Ring-necks and females may be mistaken for either the Scaups,
Golden-eye, Redhead, or Canvas-back!, but may be distinguished from the Scaups by
the grey instead of white speculum, the female by fine white eye ring, and from any of
the other ducks by white face marks usually connected across chin.

Field Marks. Male can be told from the Scaups by its black back, and female by
ve white chin and fine light eye ring; and either, in adult plumage, by light ring on the

Nesting. On ground, near grassy ponds.

Distribution. Scarce migrant in the east where it once nested occasionally; scarce
on Great Lakes; breeds regularly in the west.

151. Golden-eye. WHISTLE-WING. WHISTLER. GREAT HEAD. FR.—LA BUOCH-
PHALE D’AMERIQUE. PLONGEUR. Clangula Clangula. L, 20. A rather large, heavily
built duck, strikingly coloured in black and white. The back and head are black; the
remainder of the plumage, including a very conspicuous circular spot between the eye

1See footnote, p. 63.

and the bill, and the wing patch are white. The female and young male are marked with
light greys and blacks on the back, large white wing patches, and a seal brown head;
the upperneck usually strongly contrasted with white or grey neck and breast.

Distinctions. In young and female plumages it may sometimes be confused with
the Redhead, Canvas-back!, or the Scaups. In such plumages the lack of white face

mark or its restriction to the sides of the face will distinguish it from the Scaups; the
white wing patches from the Redhead and Canvas-back.

Field Marks. The striking black and white coloration of the male and the brown
head and lack of face markings of most juveniles and the females. The large head, short
neck, and loud whistling of the wings in flight are characteristic.

Nesting. In stumps or hollow trees.

Distribution. Golden-eyes inhabit most of the northern parts of the northern hemi-
wohere. The American Golden-eye, the only New World representative of the species, is

ynerally distributed over most of Canada. A common migrant and locally a winter
»sident in eastern Canada, breeding sparingly in the eastern provinces but more com-
sonly in the northwest.

SUBSPECIES. The Golden-eye is divided into two subspecific races: an Old
‘World and a New World form—the latter the American Golden-eye. c. Americana
ieing the only one that occurs in America.

One of the best known of the larger ducks. A very hardy — ‘d remain-
ing on our waters in winter until they close with ice.

152. Barrow’s Golden-eye. FR—LE BUCKPHALE D’ISLANDE. (> “la islandica
L, 20. Like the American Golden-eye, but the male has a crescent-shxpez instead of a
eircular face spot. The head glossed with purple instead of green and the bill relatively
higher at the base.

Distinctions. Males easily separated from the Golden-eye as above, but young birds
and females of the two species more difficult to distinguish and shape of bill perhaps only
reliable guide. Young males can be recognized by a slight lump in the forehead just at
Hoes of bill, which though not visible through the plumage can be plainly felt with the

ger.

Field Marks. Exceptional circumstances may allow some of the above points to
be recognized in life.

Nesting. In stumps or hollow trees when possible, otherwise probably in rock cavities
or on ground.

Distribution. A bird of very unusual distribution; common near the eastern and
western coasts but absent from most of the great interior; eastern birds probably breed
in northern Ungava.

This is a more northern species than the former which it closely
resembles in habits as well as appearance.

153. Buffle-head. spiRIT DUCK. BUTTERBALL. FR—LE PETIT BUCEPHALE. Char-
itonetta albeola. L, 14-75. A very small duck, almost as diminutive as the Teal, but
coloured in striking contrasts of black and white. Male: white below and around base
of neck, black above with an iridescent black head broken by a large white triangular
patch with apex below the eye meeting its fellow along the nape. The feathers of the
cheeks lengthened, making puffs on the sides of the face, hence its name. Female : white
below and dull brownish-grey elsewhere except for a vague white spot on each cheek.

Distinctions. Male cannot be mistaken for anything else; female rather like the
Seaup but can be distinguished by small size and dash of light extending from behind
eye towards back of crown instead of a white patch at base of bill. One facial spot instead
of two and the evenly light underparts will separate it from the female Harlequin which
it also resembles.

Field Marks. Small size and white head spot for the male, and size, cheek spot,
and white wing patch for the female.

Nesting. In a stump or hollow tree.

Distribution. A common migrant from the Atlantic coast westwards; breeds in
the west and northwest.

The name Spirit Duck refers to its diving powers and the remarkable
ease with which it disappears when wounded.

1See footnote, p. 63.

154. Old-Squaw. SOUTH-SOUTHERLY. COWEEN. LONG-TAILED DUCK. OLD-WIFE.
COCKAWEE. FR.—Le CANARD A LONGUE QUEUE. Harelda hyemalis. L, 21. (Projection
of middle tail feather beyond others, 4-50—5.) A medium-sized duck showing remarkable
seasonal change of plumage. Male in spring has a seal-brown breast, neck, head, and
back; an almost white facial mask; and ochraceous striping over wings and at base of
hindneck. Winter plumage white, with black or dark brown breast, back, and line across
shoulders; a spot of same colour over the hindcheeks and upperneck; white stripes over
wings. In both seasons male has two greatly elongated middle tail feathers about 8
inches from base to tip and projecting 4 or 5 inches beyond other tail feathers. Plumage
of female is intermediate between the above two plumages, showing mostly white without
any sharp line between the dark of the breast and the white underparts as in males.

Distinctions. Males are characteristic; females may be confused only with those of
next species, but are much lighter underneath and head is mostly white instead of mostly
dark.

Field Marks. Long tail of the male, and head mostly white with dark cheek mark in
juvenile and female plumages.

Nesting. On ground, near water hidden under bushes or grass.

Distribution. Breeds across the continent in the far north. More common on the
coast or Great Lakes than on smaller bodies of water.

This is, with us, essentially a winter duck. . It haunts our harbours
and often congregates about the mouths of sewers remaining as long as
open water prevails, even throughout winter. It is a great diver and a
fish-eater, but is nearly worthless asa table bird. It descends to great
depths after food and is sometimes taken in the fishermen’s nets far from
land and at surprising depths—in one known case 90 feet.

155. Harlequin Duck. ROCK DUCK. LORD AND LADY. FR.—LE CANARD His-
TRION. AHistrionicus histrionicus. L, 17. A small duck appropriately named after
particoloured Harlequin. Male’s general coloration is from dull slate-blue to blue-black,
but on this ground is arranged a striking series of crescents, stripes, circular spots, triangles,
and a collar of pure white, each narrowly bordered with black that makes it stand out in
striking contrast; a brilliant splash of rich chestnut adorns the flanks and borders the sides
of the crown. Female very dull and subdued, all brownish with white spotting on abdomen
aggregated into a not quite continuous and even middle area. An obscure white blotch
in front of and below eye and another more sharply defined one over ear.

Distinctions. Male cannot be confused with that of any other species. Female
resembles female Buffle-head in size and colouring, but has a more or less speckled belly
instead of an evenly light one, two facial spots instead of one, and no wing patch.

Field Marks. Male is unmistakable. Female may be recognized by size and general
darks of coloration, scarcely lighter below; absence cof a wing patch; and two light face
patches.

Nesting. On ground, under rocks or driftwood or in hollow stumps.

Distribution. Only a migrant in the east, very rare in the interior though common
in the mountains of the west where it breeds.

This is one of the prettiest of our ducks, coming next to the Wood
Duck in point of beauty. Its proper home is in the brawling streams of
the west and northwest where it is well known to the prospector and miner.
In eastern Canada it haunts rocky bays and shores where it feeds largely
on the sea fleas and small shrimps that throng the inshore salt waters.

GENERA—SOMATERIA AND OIDEMIA. EIDERS AND SCOTERS.

Though not forming a recognized systematic division of ducks these
two genera are peculiar and show enough common characters to receive
special mention here.

General Description. Large sturdily built birds, the largest of our ducks. Male
Hiders have broad masses of sharply contrasting colours and delicate tints; Scoters nearly
all black, some with small accents of pure white. Both genera have swollen bills with
strange excrescences and brilliant colorations (Figure 9, p. 19).

Distinctions. General dark colorations unrelieved by much pattern of the Scoters;
the bright coleration in broad masses of male Eiders; and finely and evenly barred tones of
browns of females; size, build, swellings, and protuberances of bills of both sexes of most
species are the most obvious characteristics.

Field Marks. General coloration and bills.

Nesting. On ground near water, sometimes under shelter of overhanging rocks or
bushes; nest lined with down from the parent’s body. The eiderdown of commerce is
obtained from the nests of the Eiders.

Distribution. Distributed over the whole of Canada, nesting in the north; most
common on the coasts and the large bodies of water during migration.

These are ‘‘Sea Ducks” in the strict sense of the term, built for buffet-
ing heavy weather and rarely coming in to the shallow pools or marshes.
They feed on shell fish and marine life obtained by diving.

Economic Status. Their food habits have little economic interest
to man, but in certain localities, as in Labrador, they furnish in themselves
and their eggs, the bulk of the fresh animal food available. As the down is
a valuable object of commerce the Eiders are of distinct and easily recog-
nized value. They are being rapidly reduced in numbers (see discussion
of American Eider) and drastic steps should be taken for their conserva-
tion.

160. Eider Duck. FR.—1’EIDER DU NORD. Somateria mollissima. L, 23. Maile:
black below, cutting sharply against the white breast which is delicately suffused with
vinaceous pink; white above; head white with nile-green suffusion from cheeks to nape;
broad black bar through eye to hind head. Female: evenly coloured in a fine pattern of
various browns, blacks, and light ochres arranged in broken bars around the body. Bill
processes extending up either side of forehead in long fleshy tongues.

Distinctions. Male unmistakable; female may be separated from that of King Eider
by feathering of crown not extending as far forward as rear end of the nostril. This species
is much like the American Eider from which it can only be separated by size and shape of
the bill processes on the forehead—in the Eider Duck they terminate acutely and are not
rounded at the tips—and distance from point of feathering on side of bill to tip of process
is less than in the American Hider.

Field Marks. Size and general coloration.

Nesting. On ground, nest built entirely of down.

Distribution. Eider Duck inhabits northern parts of Europe and eastern America.
The Northern Eider is the more northern of our two similar Eiders (see next species). A
strictly Atlantic bird breeding in the eastern Canadian Arctic and in Greenland.

SUBSPECIES. The Eider Duck is represented in America by a subspecies, the
Shug Eider S. m. borealis. The European Eider, the type race, has never been recorded
in erica.

161. American Eider. FR.—L’EIDER D’AMERIQUE. MOYAK. Somateria dressert.
L, 23. Almost exactly similar to the preceding species. ,

Distinctions. Female may be mistaken for that of King Eider, but can be separated
from it by the feathering of crown not extending as far forward as rear of nostril. It may
not be specifically distinct from preceding species and either sex can only be separated
from it by rounded ends of bill process on forehead and the fact that the distance from
point of feathering on side of bill to tip of processes is greater.

Field Marks. Size and general coloration; cannot be distinguished from Northern
Eider in life.

Nesting. On ground, sometimes under overhanging rocks or bushes, nest built of down
plucked from the parent’s breast.

Distribution. A bird of our eastern coasts, nesting on the north shore of the gulf of
St. Lawrence.

In Scandinavia and Iceland the Eiders are semi-domesticated and the
down derived from their nests is an important source of revenue. Though
on the Labrador and gulf of St. Lawrence coasts there are immense flocks
of these birds no attempt has been made to turn them to account except

as food; but the numbers have been so rapidly reduced by reckless killing
that only a small fraction of the original number remains. On these bleak
and desolate coasts where fresh meat is scarce the Eiders should be con-
served for food if for nothing else. An intelligent and far-seeing policy
would conserve the Eiders for all time to come, supply a liberal amount of
flesh food and eggs, and at the same time produce a crop of down worth in
the markets far more than the carcasses of the dead birds.

So closely is this species related to the last that it would not be surpris-
ing were it eventually included together with the Northern Eider as a
subspecies.

162. King Eider. KING DUCK. FR.—L’EIDER REMARQUABLE. Somateria spec-
tabilis. LL, 23. Male much like the preceding, but the back mostly black, cheeks nile-
green, top of head and hindneck light bluish-grey, and a black V on the throat; bill is
distinctive, the bright yellow fleshy forehead processes almost meet on the forehead where
they widen out to nearly an inch across, forming a comparatively mountainous hump on
the forehead. Female is without the great bill process and is coloured in the same browns
and blacks in fine-barred pattern as are the other Eiders.

Distinctions. Male with its bili processes cannot be mistaken for any other species.
Females resemble those of other Hiders but can be separated from two preceding species
by feathering of crown extending as far forward as rear of nostrils.

Field Marks. Less amount of white on the back and bill processes of the male.
Females cannot with certainty be distinguished from the other Eiders in life.

Nesting. On ground, nest lined with down.

Distribution. The most northern of our Eiders. Nesting across the continent along
the coast and islands of the Arctic. Wintering along the gulf of St. Lawrence and New
England shores. It is the only Eider that straggles in to the lower Great Lakes with any
regularity.

163. American Scoter. BLACK SEA COOT. FR.—LA MACREUSE D’AMERIQUE.
Oidemia americana. L, 19. Male all black; base of bill much swollen near forehead and
bright yellow. Female without swollen bill; dusky all over, lighter below and with evident
d arker cap contrasting in a sharp line against lighter cheeks.

Distinctions. Male is the only Canadian all black Duck unrelieved by any spot of
colour. Dark cap of female is distinctive against other comparable species.

Field Marks. Evident blackness and yellow bill of male, and the lack of white spots
or facial marks and the dark cap on the female.

Nesting. On ground, near water.

Distribution. Breeds in the far north across the continent; common in winter on our
eastern coasts and not unusual on lower Great Lakes.

165. White-winged Scoter. WHITE-WINGED COOT. ¥FR.—LA MACREUSE VELOUTEE.
Oidemia deglandi. L, 22. Dark brown, almost black, with white wing patches and a
small white crescent under the eye; bill is swollen at the base rising more abruptly forward
than shown in Figure 9, p. 19, and the upper mandible is coloured with bright red and
white. Female even dull brown.

Distinctions. White wing patch is distinctive of any plumage of this species.

Field Marks. Large size, general and even darkness, and white wing patches.

Nesting. On ground, under or among bushes.

Distribution. Breeds in the higher latitudes across the continent; abundant on the
coast in migration and is the commonest Scoter on the Great Lakes and in the interior.

166. Surf Scoter. BUTTER-BILL COOT. BOTTLE-NOSED DIVER. FR.—LA MA™
CREUSE A LARGE BEC. Oidemia perspicillata. L, 20. Male all black with white patch
across forehead and a triangle of same colour at base of head; bill greatly swollen (Figure
9, p. 19) and coloured most strikingly with reds, yellow, and black. Female dull brown,
lighter below and much like that of American Scoter.

Distinctions. White patches of the head are distinctive of male. Female can be told
from that of the White-winged by lack of wing patches; and from the American by absence
of cap and presence of two vague light spots on side of the face, one at base of bill and
other over ear.

Fieid Marks. White on head of male and the two vague spots on face of female.

Nesting. In grass near water.

Distribution. Of about the same distribution as last species, but perhaps more
common on the coast and less so on the Great Lakes.

167. Ruddy Duck. FR.—LE CANARD ROUX. Erismatura jamaicensis. L, 15.
A small duck. Male strikingly coloured, rich rufous-chestnut on neck, shoulders, back,
and flanks; crown and back of head almost black, and cheeks and lower face white. Female
small, dull greyish-brown, lighter on underparts and cheeks, and with a dark cap.

Distinction. Male is the only Duck that is largely red. Female can be told by the
rae grebe-like sheen of the underparts, and, in any plumage, by the stiff pointed tail

eathers.

Field Marks. Size, short squatty shape, and thick neck. Its habit of occasionally
carrying its tail erect and spread out fan wise is also a good guide, though some Scoters
also are said to do this at times.

Nesting. In reeds over water.

Distribution. Nests in the prairie provinces northward; more common in migrations
on the Great Lakes than on the coast.

Sub-family—A nserine. Geese.

General Description. Geese resemble ducks, but are larger with a less flattened body
and comparatively longer legs; bill (Figure 10, p. 19) is higher and somewhat more com-
pressed at base, stouter and less flattened at tip, hardly to be termed spatulate but with
the broad nail at tip characteristic of the order.

Field Marks. The strong flight of the geese is familiar to most. Size, coloration,
and flight habits are the best field guides. Their hoarse honking voices so often heard
during migration are also characteristic.

Nesting. On ground.

- Distribution. Geese are of world wide distribution. The American species all breed
well to the north, migrating through the interior as well as along the coasts.

The geese are more terrestrial and herbivorous than the ducks but
they are equally at home on the water. They do not normally dive, but
secure food from the bottom by tipping and reaching by means of their long -
neck. The sexes are alike and there is little seasonal change of plumage. The
goose is an excellent table bird and for this reason and on account of its
superior size it is much sought after by sportsmen. Geese are exceedingly
wary and, though greatly reduced in number, have been able to take better
care of themselves than many other large game birds.

Economic Status. Feeding largely upon grasses and frequenting
cultivated areas in migration more than other members of their order they
may do more harm than the ducks, but this has never been seriously held
against them. Their value in other directions is so obvious that less
complaint has been made against geese than against other species equally
worthy of protection but whose usefulness though real is less obvious.

169. Snow Goose. LAUGHING GOOSE. WAVEY. FR.—L’OIE BLANCHE. Chen hyper-
boreus. L, 23. A rather small goose, pure white with black primaries. Juveniles with
more or less grey or greyish-brown washing locally or over all.

Distinctions. Cutting edges of mandibles are more or less bowed away from each
other, exposing tooth-like serrations and giving the face that appearance from which the
name, laughing, is derived.

Field Marks. Colour and evident goose-like flight and outline.

Nesting. On ground.

Distribution. The Lesser Snow Goose breeds on the Arctic coast and islands from
Coronation gulf westward. It migrates down the interior of the continent, the Greater
along the Atlantic coast.

SUBSPECIES. There are two subspecies of Snow Goose in Canada, the Lesser
and the Greater, differing only in size; but as the two intergrade this is not an entirely
reliable distinction. There is a difference based upon the comparative shapes and sizes of

57172—6

the bills, but it requires specimens for comparison for its appreciation. Though often
incorrectly recorded the Greater Snow goose is a very scarce bird. It is the extreme eastern
form of the species and can only be expected along the Atlantic coast.

The name ‘ Wavey” is a corruption of the Indian word ‘ Wa-wa,”
meaning Wild Goose. :

169.1. Blue Goose. ¥FR.—L’0IE BLEUE. Chen carulescens. L, 26. Slaty-grey
body, wave-marked with lighter feather edges on back and more or less so below; slate
colour strongest on wings and rump; head white. Juvenile similar but head and neck
ae Ser aa The bill shows in slightly reduced degree the teeth serrations of the Snow

oose.

Distinctions. The combination of white head contrasted with blue-grey wings does
not occur in any other eastern American Goose.

Field Marks. White head and darker body probably best field marks.

Nesting. On ground.

Distribution. Seems to be confined in breeding season to the east of Hudson bay; a.
rare migrant on the Great Lakes on its way to or from the Mississippi valley.

For a long time the Blue Goose was thought to be only a juvenile
plumage of the Snow Goose, but is now recognized as a separate species.

17la. White-fronted Goose. FR.—w’OIE A FRONT BLANC. Anser albifrons. L, 27.
Greyish-brown, darker on head and neck, lighter below, white patch about base of bill;
light colour of underparts irregularly blotched with black aggregating in maturity into
indefinite bands giving an immature effeet to even adult birds.

Distinctions. Brown head and white face.

Field Marks. General brownness and white face mark.

Nesting. On ground.

Distribution. The White-fronted Goose is a nearly circumpolar species. The Ameri-
can subspecies breeds on the western Arctic mainland and islands. Migrates through the
interior of the continent and is found rarely as far east as the Great Lakes.

SUBSPECIES. Our representative, the American White-fronted Goose A. a. gambeli,
is a subspecies of the European White-fronted Goose from which it is said to be distinguished
by its slightly larger size.

172. Canada Goose. WILD GOOSE. GREY GOOSE. FR.—LA BERNACHE DU CANADA,
OUTARDE. Branta canadensis. L, 35. Plate V B.

Distinctions. Large size, black head and neck, white throat and cheek patch.

Field Marks. Black head and neck and white throat patch. A white V over the tail,
displayed when flying, will separate the members of this genus from any of the larger ducks.

Nesting. On ground, occasionally in large deserted nests in trees. :

Distribution. Breeds across the continent from the northern tree limit to the borders
of settlement.

SUBSPECIES. The Canada Goose is divided into several geographical races:
In the west, there is a small subspecies called Hutchins’s Goose B. c. hutchinsi. It is said
to have a different note and to be quite recognizable in life by experienced hunters. Its
smaller size is an uncertain criterion but is the only distinction that can be given here.
Its length averages under 25 inches. It is to be expected only as far east as Manitoba
and its identification elsewhere should be made with great caution.

The goose is a wary and watchful bird, usually spending the day well
out in the open water, coming in to the marshes and cultivated fields to
feed at night or in the evening and unless disturbed remaining until well
into the next day. While so engaged there is always at least one with
long neck upstretched surveying the surrounding country for danger and
an unobserved approach by even the most experienced stalker is next to
impossible. On this account the Canada Goose has perhaps suffered less
from hunters than other members of its order and until its remaining
breeding grounds are invaded there is little danger of its being exterminated.

It originally bred within the borders of our present inhabited areas but
settlement has driven it from its more southerly breeding range. How-
ever, it still occupies large areas throughout northern Canada as far as
the northern tree limits and as much of this territory will remain unsettled
for many years the goose is assured of safe breeding grounds and is in no
immediate danger of extermination. However, unless intelligent conserva-
tion principles are adopted in the future the Canada Goose will probably
decrease as its breeding grounds are opened up.

173a. Brant. FR.—LA BERNACHE COMMUNE. Branta bernicla. L,26. Much like
the Canada Goose but smaller; head, neck, and upper breast black; a narrow broken
collar of white on neck.

Distinctions. A small dark Canada Goose without face mark.

Field Marks. Small size, dark breast, and lack of face mark. The white V over tail,
displayed when flying low, will also distinguish the Brant from any of the larger, black
ducks but not from the Canada Goose.

Nesting. On ground, nest of grasses lined with down.

Distribution. As a species, circumpolar. The American Brant breeds in the eastern
Arctic region, migrating down the Atlantic coasts, rarely in the interior.

SUBSPECIES. The Brant is a circumpolar species. The New World form, the
American Brant B. b. glaucogastra, is subspecifically distinct from the Old World bird
which has never been recorded in America. The Black Bzant B. nigricans of the west is
characterized by having the black of the breast suffused over the underparts; but it occurs
in eastern Canada only as an accidental straggler.

~The Brant is a small goose. It occurs on the lower St. Lawrence and
the seacoast in flocks of hundreds but is scarce or only a straggler in the
interior on the Great Lakes.

Subfamily—Cygnine. Swans.

General Description. Very large white Anatide; excepting perhaps the Whooping
Crane or the Wild Turkey, the largest of American birds.

Distinctions. Size combined with colour is sufficient to diagnose the two Swans.
Lores (space between eye and bill) unfeathered. Bill begins high on the forehead, at base
is almost rectangular in cross-section and tip is provided with a flat nail.

Field Marks. Size and colour: they are our only large, all white, birds.

Nesting. On ground, nest of grasses lined with down plucked from parent bird.

Distribution. Most of the Swans are found in the northern hemisphere but are not
entirely confined to it. In America, they now nest in the far north; though originally
the Trumpeter, now verging on extinction, bred as far south as some of the northern
United States.

From time immemorial Swans have figured largely in Old World
folk-lore and the fairy tales of childhood are filled with references to them,
but it comes with a little shock of surprise to many people to learn that
even to-day wild Swans are actually common in Canada. Geese are wild
and wary, but the Swan is even wilder and more wary. Its long neck
allows it to feed in deeper water than other non-diving species and it keeps
well out in deep water through the day, where unobserved approach is
impossible. It rarely comes into the shallow marshes that may hide the
huntsman and, therefore, it is rarely taken.

The common names of the Swans of the northern hemisphere are indi-
ceative of extraordinary vocal powers; thus in America we have the Whistler
and the Trumpeter, and in Europe the Whooper and the Mute Swans.
Peculiar and complicated modifications of the windpipe, in the form of

1Other large white birds occurring in Canada all have more or less blaek on flight feathers.
57172—64

various convolutions in special bony recesses of the breast bone or sternum,
are, evidently, directly connected with the voice and their complexity
increases directly with the quality of the voice as indicated by the above
descriptive names; thus the Mute Swan is without any tracheal convolu-
tion and the highest complexity is reached in the Trumpeter and Whooper.

180. Whistling Swan. FR.—LE CYGNE D’AMEARIQUE. Olor columbianus. L, 55.
A very large, all white, bird.

Distinctions. The Whistler can only be mistaken for the Trumpeter Swan. Super-
ficially it can be easily separated only by its inferior size. As Swans do not obtain their
full development for a number of years, size may not always be an accurate test. There
is a difference in the shape of the bill, but it is too difficult of characterization to be clearly
described here. The convolutions of the windpipe in the breast bone makes the most
satisfactory differentiation. In the Whistler the windpipe makes one horizontal loop
over the floor of the sternum, whereas that of the Trumpeter has a perpendicular loop
as well. The absence of a yellow spot on the lores of the Trumpeter has been given as
diagnostic, but this is so often absent from even adult Whistlers as to be of no use for
this purpose.

Field Marks. Size and complete whiteness. The two species cannot be readily
distinguished in life except by those familiar with the voices of each.

Nesting. On ground, in nest of grasses, moss, etc., lined with down.

Distribution. Breeds in the far north across the continent west of Hudson bay;
migrates through the interior; rare or absent on the Canadian Atlantic coast, but locally
ommon on the large waterways of the Great Lakes regi on.

Owing to its extreme wariness and its breeding far in the north the
Whistling Swan has not been seriously reduced in numbers during the
past generation. Its larger relatives, the Trumpeters, whose breeding
grounds well within the borders of settlement were early disturbed, is
now on the verge of extinction.

The Swans rarely come into shallow marshes where cover may hide
the huntsman. They are exceedingly wary and are rarely seen except in
dense white flocks like ice floes far out in the open water or in flocks flying
high overhead and beyond the reach of guns. Their regular migration is
usually by night and usually silent, though sometimes extremely noisy.
To such habits as these is probably due the fact that few even of our most
experienced huntsmen know the Swan in life and fewer still can boast of
having taken it. Though flocks of hundreds appear annually on lake St.
Clair not more than two or three individuals are taken there each year.

The species also occurs in large numbers on Niagara river where on
misty or foggy nights in the spring, they often drift down with the current
into the swift rough waters of the rapids and are carried helplessly over
the falls. This catastrophe has occurred several times within the last
decade and hundreds of Swans have lost their lives in this manner, some
have every bone in the body broken whereas others are only slightly hurt.
The dead that are not drawn under the ice and carried off by the current
are picked up, the dying clubbed, and those whose injuries are only slight
are shot. As the birds do not seem able in the close quarters to rise above
the sides of the gorge and show marked reluctance to pass beneath the
bridges that span the lower pass, all are confined in the narrow waters
below the falls where there is no escape. The flesh of the Swan is not
very suitable for eating and the birds are of little value to those who take
them except as curiosities.

181. Trumpeter Swan. Olor buccinator. L, 65. Very large, all white, bird.

Distinctions. Only to be mistaken for the previous, which see.

Field Marks. Size and complete whiteness; the two Swans cannot be separated
with certainty in life.

Nesting. On ground, in nest of grasses and down.

Distribution. A bird of the interior, breeding from the central of the northern tier
of states northward.

Any Swan over 56 inches in length or over 20 pounds in weight is
probably of this species. It was at one time a fairly common bird on the
Great Lakes, but now is so rare as to be regarded as nearly or quite extinct
there. Its breeding range, being considerably south of that of the Whistling
Swan and well into what is now fully occupied farming territory, is prob-
ably the cause of its rapid extermination.

Order—Herodiones. Deep, Water Waders.

General Description. Usually large birds with long legs, neck, and bill, fitted for
wading and obtaining food below the surface in rather deeper water than the majority of
waders. Bills may be either straight and sharp (Figure 18, p. 21) or gently curved
and blunt as in the Ibises. Legs are bare for a considerable distance above the heel joint
and all four toes are perfect, well-shaped, and adapted for perching as well as walking
on soft ground and with only small rudimentary webs or none (Figure Zi yoyaeall))e

Distinctions. Birds of this order may be mistaken for either Cranes or one of the
Shore-birds (Curlews). From the Cranes they can be distinguished by their feathered
forehead. The Wood Ibis combines bare forehead and curved bill, but is of only possible
occurrence in Canada. From any shore birds they can be distinguished by the bare
space between the eye and the base of the bill.

The Canadian forms of the order are divided into two suborders:
Tbides including Spoonbills and Ibises; and Herodii including Herons,
Egrets, and Bitterns.

SUBORDER—IBIDES. IBISES.

This suborder includes two families: Spoonbills which do not occur
in Canada, and Ibidide, only one of which occurs in the Dominion and that
rarely.

FAMILY—IBIDIDE. IBISES.

General Description. Birds with long, decurved bill quite blunt at the point and
the upper mandible grooved throughout its length.

Distinctions. Curved, blunt, and deeply grooved bill is characteristic. Claw of the
middle toe may be broadened and roughened at the edge, but is not perfectly pectinate
or furnished with well-formed comb-like teeth as in the heron-like Waders of the suborder
Herodii (Compare with Figure 19, p. 21).

There is only one of these birds, the Glossy Ibis, that may be found
in Canada and that only as a casual straggler.

186. Glossy Ibis. BLACK cURLEW. Plegadis autumnalis. L, 24. Practically an all
black bird with chestnut, green, and purple reflections. Juvenile is brown with head
feathers slightly margined with light and with greenish reflections elsewhere.

Distinctions. The Glossy Ibis looks much like a large Curlew, but its almost black
or very dark coloration will distinguish it from the Curlew with ease. Its grooved bill
(see previous family description) otherwise differentiates it.

Nesting. In reedy swamps or low bushes.

Distribution. Tropical and subtropical regions.

The Ibis is well known by name as one of the sacred birds of ancient
Egypt, and as such is familiar to every general reader. The Glossy Ibis

is allied to the Sacred Ibis of the Nile and shows some of its general char-
acters. It appears only occasionally in Canada, along the southern border.

Economic Status. Of too rare occurrence in Canda to be of economic

influence.
SUBORDER—HERODII. HERON-LIKE WADERS.

As this suborder is represented in Canada by only one family, Ardeide,
the description under thatv heading is sufficient.

FAMILY—ARDEID@®. HERONS AND BITTERNS.

General Description. WHeron-like birds with straight and very sharply pointed bills.
Space in front of eyes bare. A peculiar feature with this suborder is the occurrence of
‘‘Powder-down tracts’—aggregations of peculiarly modified feathers giving off a
powder of unknown use. These feathers are found on various parts of body hidden under
the visible plumage. Claw of the middle toe is pectinate, that is, furnished with a series
of well-defined comb-like teeth (Figure 19, p. 21), not merely roughnesses as in the Ibises.

Distinctions. This suborder might be mistaken for Cranes, but the feathered fore-
head is distinctive. Back of neck bare, the feathers of sides reaching around behind and
hiding the bareness from casual observation. Hind toe very long and set level with the
other toes and not slightly raised as in other waders.

Field Marks. Obvious heron-like outline, with long graceful neck, long sharp bill
(Figure 18, p. 21), and lengthened legs (Figure 17, p. 21). Neck folded in flight, bringing
head close to shoulders, the legs trailing behind. The Cranes with which they may be
confused in life carry their necks outstretched.

Perhaps no birds are so well known to the general public by common
repute and observation as these, yet we seldom hear them correctly named.
The terms Herons Storks, and Cranes, are applied and misapplied indis-
criminately. There are no Storks in Canada. The Cranes are of western
distribution and are rarely seen in eastern Canada. The birds we generally
hear called by the latter name are true Herons. The family is divided
into two subfamilies: Botaurine, the Bitterns; and Ardeine, the true
Herons and Egrets.

Subfamily—Botaurine. Bitterns.

General Description. Marsh inhabiting, heron-like birds of heavier and less gracefu
build and habit than the true Herons.

Distinctions. ‘Though forming a well-defined subfamily they are difficult to define
in a short non-technical diagnosis. In Canadian species, colour is the best and most easily
recognized guide. Excluding Cory’s Bittern, which is very rare (see under Least Bittern,
p. 81), the Canadian species have large amounts of ochraceous yellow on them, a colour
that is, in any extensive mass, absent from all our true Herons. ;

Bitterns are bog and marsh haunters. They do not frequent wide open
reaches of water, but drop down in the middle or on the edges of grass-
or reed-grown marshes, stalking their prey by silent approach through
the close cover.

190. American Bittern. MARSH HEN. THUNDER-PUMP. STAKE-DRIVER. FR.—LE
BUTOR D’AMERIQUE. Botaurus lentiginosus. L, 28. Plate VIA.

Distinctions. With its general yellow coloration, alike in both sexes and all ages, the
Bittern can be mistaken for no other Canadian species. The Least Bittern is the only
other bird of like build showing mostly yellow, but its size is so small that there is no
chance of confusion. Black line from sides of face may be present or absent regardless
of sex, age, or season.

Field Marks. As the bird rises from the reeds or grass its long neck, dangling legs,
and general yellowish coloration are easily recognized. Ata distance, in flight, its outime,

head drawn in to the body and legs reaching out behind, is so similar to that of the Herons
that unless the light so falls as te show the colour, apparent size only differentiates them.

Nesting. On ground, in grass, hayfields, or reed-grown marshes, nest of grass or
reeds.
; 2 epee Common throughout the settled portions of Canada, breeding wherever
ound.

References to the lonely booming of the Bittern are frequently seen
in English literature. We can hardly say that our American Bittern
“booms,” but its note is most peculiar and is unique amongst American
bird notes: The common names, ‘‘Thunder-pump” and ‘‘Stake-driver,”’
are applied in reference to the strange noises it makes. Near a marsh one
may hear a sound as of some one driving a stake with a wooden maul into
soft mud. There is the dull thud of the blow with a sucking liquid echo
followed closely by a squdgy drive. At other times sounds are heard like
some one frantically working a dry sucking pump that draws the water
part way and refuses to lift it farther. These are variants of the Bittern’s
love song and contain no recognizable vocal qualities.

Economic Status. The Bittern is a bog haunter and eats frogs, craw-
fish, snakes, small fish, crustaceans, insects, and probably even young
birds and mice. It eats little or no vegetable matter. Bitterns are
quite harmless as a class and may be useful.

191. Least Bittern. FR—LE PETIT BUTOR. Jzobrychus exilis. L. 13. Smallest
heron-like wader found in Canada. Coloured in broad masses of creams, ochres, and
Indian reds, with black or brown back and cap, depending on sex.

Distinctions. Owing to its small size and striking coloration, can be mistaken for
nothing else in Canada except perhaps its very close and rare relative, Cory’s Least Bittern
I. neorena. This latter bird has the creams and ochres replaced by seal or reddish brown
and it is stil. undecided whether or not it is only a colour phase of the common form.

Field Marks. Small size and striking colours make the species unmistakable. Seldom
seen except at close range when colour and size are evident.

Nesting. Generally over water, in nest on platform of dead rushes in a marsh or
reed-patch. ;

Distribution. A common but rather local bird in the more southern parts of Ontario
and Quebec. Breeds wherever found in Canada.

The Least Bittern frequents wet, cat-tail marshes, usually of rather
extensive area, and is rarely observed except by those who invade its
quiet precincts. The American Bittern is often seen winging its way from
marsh to marsh, but the Least Bittern remains within its home swamp and
rarely ventures beyond it. It is a silent bird and has little or no vocal
attainments.

Sub-family—Ardeine. True Herons and EKgrets.

General Description. More slender and graceful birds than the Bitterns and, on an
average, of larger size. Smallest are very little smaller than the American Bittern and none
are as small as the Least Bittern. Colour makes the easiest differentiation.

Distinctions. Herons are usually coloured slate-blue or dull greens, but are sometimes
white. Bitterns on the other hand have a pronounced yellow colour. Many Herons have
long fine plumes on the crown, lower throat, or back, and all Canadian species when in full
breeding plumages show the plumes to greater or less extent at one or more of these points;
but they are usually absent in the autumn.

Field Marks. The characteristic outline in flight, with sharp pointed biil, head drawn
in to the shoulders, and legs trailing behind, is common to both the Bitterns and Herons

which are better recognized by species than as a subfamily. However, any such bird that
is obviously not a Bittern is probably a Heron.

Nesting. Herons commonly build their nests in communities, usually in tree tops
in wet forests, but sometimes in bushes or on ground.

The Herons are fishers of open shallows, haunting grassy bogs less
than the Bittern. Instead of stalking their prey they remain motioniess
until it comes within reach.

194. Great Blue Heron. BLUE CRANE. BLUE HERON. FR.—LE GRAND HERON
BLEUE. Ardea herodias. L, 42. Plate VI B.

Distinctions. The largest Heron found in Canada; the Sandhill Crane of the west
is the only bird for which it may be mistaken. The fully feathered forehead is diagnostic.
Compare Figures 18 and 20, p. 21.

Field Marks. WHeron-like outline, size, and general coloration make the best field
marks. Unlike the Crane that flies with neck outstretched the Great Blue Heron, like
other Herons, travels with neck folded and head drawn into shoulders.

Nesting. Usually in large communities in wet woods, such as tamarack, ash, or elm
swamps, in nest of large bulky structure of sticks in tree tops.

Distribution. Over nearly the whole of Canada, breeding wherever found.

SUBSPECIES. The Great Blue Heron is divided into several subspecies, of which
the typical form, Eastern Great Blue Heron Ardea herodias herodias is the only one that
occurs in eastern Canada.

The Great Blue Heron is a haunter of open, shallow water. It rarely
frequents dense reed beds, though it is often found on their outskirts or
on the edges of pools within them. It prefers wide shallow reaches of
rivers, or open flats of marsh or tidal shores. It is a still-hunter, cautiously
wading with almost imperceptible movements, or standing statuesquely
regarding the water until its prey comes within reach when, with a lightning
stroke of the sharp bill, the prey is secured. Herons, nesting in large
rookeries in wet woods, have been peculiarly open to the senseless per-
secution that seems to follow all our larger birds. Wary and suspicious
ordinarily, in the vicinity of their nests they lose much of their usual
caution and, in the rookeries, the birds can be shot in numbers. Heronries
are usually known to all the surrounding country and are in the breeding
season often visited by the rural sportsman who kills the parent birds and
leaves the young to die of hunger, although a landowner has occasionally
sufficient public spirit to protect heronries on his property. The result
is that this picturesque bird is becoming scarce. Heronries once destroyed
in this manner are seldom if ever repopulated and new ones are rarely
established. Birds breeding in communities are seldom driven away to
new locations. They remain until the individuals composing them are
exterminated. The Blue Heron is a harmless bird and should receive
every protection possible.

Economic Status. The food of the Great Blue Heron is almost entirely
animal in its nature consisting mainly of frogs, snakes, and small fish
usually of no economic importance. Cranes frequent the fields for food
but the Herons never do so. Occasionally Herons may visit trout streams
where they meander through open meadows, but such cases are rare and
insufficient for the condemnation of the species. Herons often frequent
the pound nets of the fishermen, but the limited size of their gullets pre-
cludes their taking anything of economic importance and the suspicion
of the net owners against them is unfounded.

WuitEe HERONS.

Though not forming a recognized systematic division of the Herons
there are several species showing pure white plumages, that are distinct
enough to warrant discussion.

In some of these species, the Egrets, white is the adult plumage, in
others it is a dichromatic form; that is the species occurs in two colour
phases, either of which is normal, and cannot be referred to either albinism
or melanism or to sex, age, or season. In still other species the white is
a plumage of juvenility or old age and is regularly assumed at the proper
time. These white plumages were a source of considerable confusion in
identifying species until they were fully worked out. All of the White
Herons are of southern distribution and are rare in Canada.

196. American Egret. FR.—L’EGRETTE BLANCHE D’AMERIQUE. Herodias egretta.
L, 41. Almost as large as the Great Blue Heron, but always pure white. In breeding
season cascade of some fifty fine straight plumes originates in middle back region and
festoons over lower back and tail.

Distinctions. Size, colour, and obviously heron-like outline.

Field Marks. As above.

Nesting. In communities, in nests of sticks in trees or bushes over water.

oe The southern and Gulf states, appearing in Canada only as an a¢cidental
straggier.

The American Egret, with the Snowy Heron and some other species of
like character, constitute the source of the well known “aigrette”’ or
“osprey ’’plumes of the millinery trade. As these plumes are grown only in
the breeding season and as the immediate neighbourhood of the breeding
rookeries is the only place where these wary birds can be easily approached
it is evident that the harvesting of the beautiful crop is accompanied by
great cruelty. The defence is often made that the plumes are picked up
after being shed by the parent bird. This is a doubtful plea, for if any one
will search domestic poultry yards for good shed feathers he will quickly
realize that recovered ‘‘aigrette’’ plumes will probably be few in number
and of poor quality. The plea is more doubtful as the rookeries are situated
in dense subtropical swamps where all below is mud and water and the
undergrowth prevents close, systematic search. The plume hunter usually
hides in the rookery and with a small calibre rifle shoots the birds one by one
until the flock is exterminated. The plumes are torn from the bodies
which are left to rot on the ground. The remaining young starve in the
nests above. Local laws have been passed against killing the birds but
without avail. A few years ago the waters of Florida and the Gulf states
were made beautiful with the forms of these immaculate birds; to-day
they have almost lost one of their greatest attractions as the birds are
approaching extinction. As a last resort, a federal law has been passed in
the United States prohibiting the importation of feathers for millinery
purposes. A similar law has been passed in Great Britain and the colonies.
Egrets are not the only species that have seriously suffered: tern and other
sea birds, Birds of Paradise, and many insectivorous forms have been
victims.

200. Little Biue Heron. FR.—LE PETIT HERON BLEU. Florida cerulea. L, 22.
A beautiful and gracefully built small Heron. Adult has head and neck maroon-chestnut,
remainder of body dark bluish-slate colour. Fine-pointed plumes over shoulders and on
front of lower neck. Juvenile is almost pure white more or less washed with slate colour.

Distinctions. Adult is distinguished by colour as described above. The white, young
bird closely resembles the juvenile Louisiana Heron but can be differentiated by its greenish
yellow legs and blue-slaty tips to the primaries.

Nesting. In communities, in nests of sticks in bushes or trees over water.

Distribution. Tropical America. Breeds in the southern and Gulf states. Of only
accidental occurrence in Canada.

Birds of adult plumage seldom occur in Canada. The juveniles are the
only ones that are to be expected to wander into our confines.

Economic Status. Too rare in Canada to have any economic import-
ance.

201. Green Heron. FLY-UP-THE-CREEK. FR.—LE H®RON VERT. Butorides vires-
cens. L, 17. Smallest of the common Herons. Back lustrous grey-green with short
plume-like feathers draping over the wings. Face, sides of neck, and throat, as well as
the underparts, rich chestnut. Head has a black cap lengthened into a small crest.

Distinctions. The above description may seem to resemble the last species, but the
evident green sheen of back, absence of neck plumes, smaller size, and heavier build,
prevent serious confusion. This is, moreover, a common species within its range and the
one most likely to be met with in the Great Lakes region. Any comparable species is very
rare.

Field Marks. Size and general coloration.

Nesting. Solitary and not in communities, in flimsy and open nest of sticks in bushes
or trees usually over water.

Distribution. Moderately common in southern Ontario, but rare eastward. Breeds
wherever found in Canada.

SUBSPECIES. The Green Heron is subspecifically divided, but the type form,
Northern Green Heron, is the only species that occurs in Canada.

The Green Heron is not as prone to frequent open water as is the Great
Blue Heron, nor grassy marshes like the Bittern. Alder thickets in drowned
land, the bushy edges of quiet bayous, back waters of slack streams, and
beaver meadows are their preferred habitat. They are more solitary than
the other Herons at nesting time and though several pairs may occupy
a peculiarly favoured locality it is community of interest that draws them
together and not sociability.

Economic Status. The food of the Green Heron consists of crawfish,
insects, frogs, and small fish. An accusation has been brought against
it that it is harmful to certain fish, but as the bird is small and compara-
tively scarce and as its usual still water habitat does not bring it in contact
with many valuable species, it cannot be regarded as a serious menace.

202. Black-crowned Night Heron. QUA-BIRD. SQUAWK. FR.—LE HERON DE
Nuit. Nycticorax nycticoraz. lL, 24. Smaller than Great Blue and larger than Green
Herons, more like Bittern in size. Adult plumage is recognizable at a glance. Body is
white, softly shaded with tints of light grey. Back and crown black, one or two long,
fine pencil-shaped plumes falling from the latter. Juvenile is an altogether different look-
ing bird, greyish-brown stripes against whitish ground.

Distinctions. Adult is distinctive. Juvenile may, at a hasty glance, resemble the
Bittern, but lacks any decided yellow tinge, and the plain simple colour-pattern is very
different from the highly involved and finely vermiculated colour scheme of that bird.

Field Marks. Size, general coloration lacking strong yellow of the Bittern; often
alights in trees, the Bittern never does so.

Nesting. Often in communities with Great Blue Heron, nest usually of sticks in trees,
sometimes on ground.

Distribution. The Black-crowned Night Heron is a bird of irregular and local distri-
bution. It is found in eastern Ontario, western Quebec, and Manitoba, in occasional
colonies. In Ontario, from Kingston west, it is exceedingly rare. Even in the western
peninsula of Ontario it is scarce.

SUBSPECIES. The Black-crowned Night Heron occurs in both eastern and western
hemispheres. The New World bird under the name of American Black-crowned Night
Heron N. n. nevius is subspecifically distinct from that of the Old World.

This is a rather heavily built Heron which though not without some
beauty and grace lacks the fine, slender lines of most of the Herons and
resembles the Bitterns in build. Its habits are a composite of those of the
Great Blue and the Green Heron.

The Yellow-crowned Night Heron Nyctanassa violacea, also, occasion-
ally occurs in Canada, but is too rare to require more than passing mention.
The adult is generally a slate-grey bird, sharply streaked on the back with
black and has a conspicuously black and white head. The juvenile is so
similar to the Black-crowned that it is distinguished with difficulty, but
its head is darker than the back and there is no trace of rufous on the
primaries, which close inspection reveals on the young Black-crown.
Juvenile Yellow-crowns should only be recorded in Canada with caution.

Economic Status. Its food is similar to that of the Green Heron and
its status is much the same.

Order—Paludicole. Marsh Birds.

General Description. This is a poorly defined order, including a number of families
of waders that can be referred to neither the Herons nor the Shore Birds, but superficially
resemble both. They are birds having four long, well-developed toes, without webs, and
legs adapted tor wading. They are best defined by subfamily description. The Canadian
species are divided into two sub-orders: Grues, including Cranes, Courlans, etc.; and
Ralli, including Rails, Gallinules, and Coots. Of the Grues only the family, Gruide,
Cranes, is represented in Canada.

SUBORDER—GRUES. CRANES AND COURLANS.

As the Courlan; family Aramide@, does not occur in Canada, we are
interested only in the one family, Gruide Cranes. As far as Canada is
concerned, this suborder may be called the ‘‘Large Marsh Birds,” a term,
however, which has no other warrant than that of convenience.

FAMILY—GRUIDH. CRANES.

General Description. Large heron-like birds; dull, slaty-blue with rusty overwash;
or pure white, with black primaries. All colours are in even, over-all, tints and the birds
have no plumes nor crests.

Distinctions. Distinguished from the Herons by having the forehead and the space
about the eye bare, or with a sparse sprinkling of peculiarly modified hair-like feathers
and by the lack of pectinations on middle claw (see Figure 19, p. 21); billis smaller pro-
portionally than that of Heron but more heavily built, in both material and shape
(compare Figures 18 and 20, p. 21).

Field Marks. Cranes fly with outstretched neck instead of with head drawn into
the shoulders as do. the Herons, and contrary to the habits of Herons they commonly
feed in flocks on upland fields.

206. Sandhill Crane. Grus mexicana. L, 40. Very similar to the Great Blue
Heron, but without plumes at any season. An even blue-grey colour all over witha
washing of rusty red or brown, strongest in the juvenile stages.

Distinctions. Distinguished from the Great Blue Heron by its bare forehead, etc.,
as described under preceding heading (compare Figures 18 and 20, p. 21). Otherwise it
ean only be confused with the Little Brown Crane Grus canadensis, from which it can be
distinguished only by size—the length of the latter species being about 36 inches and the

ength of the Sandhill 40 inches. As specimens intermediate in size are not uncommon,
differentiation of the species is not always easy; and both forms may occur in eastern
Canada. Another Crane, the Whooping Crane Grus americana, found in the west, has
occasionally occurred in eastern Canada, but its pure white colour, or white washed with
rust colour, black primaries, and extremely large size—50 inches—make it easy of recogni-
tion.

Field Marks. Bare forehead coloured dull reddish, flight with neck outstretched in-
stead of folded, and more upland habits.

Nesting. In wet marshy places, nest of waste vegetable matter.

Distribution. Western Canada, breeding within the bounds of cultivation and north-
ward.

The Sandhill Crane appears to have been a more common visitor v
eastern Canada, the Great Lakes region at any rate, in the early days than
at present. It is now only a rare straggler east of the prairie proviner
though a few individuals still nest in southern Michigan and it is not im}
sible that a few may still be found occasionally in adjoining parts of Ontaic .

Economic Status. 'Too rare in eastern Canada to have any economic
importance. Though a more graminivorous feeder than the Herons and
occasionally visiting cultivated ground in numbers in the migration season,
it does little damage; for in the spring it comes early and in autumn it
takes only waste grain. The insect part of its food is large.

SUBORDER—RALLI. SMALLER MARSH BIRDS.

As regards Canada, this suborder, comprising the Rails, Gallinules,
and Coots, may be called Smaller Marsh Birds, as compared with the
larger Grues. They are not heron-like in form and cannot possibly be con-
fused with the Cranes either in shape, habit, or size. Of this suborder
only one family Rallide occurs in eastern Canada.

FAMILY—-RALLIDA. RAIL-LIKE BIRDS.

General Description. Toes long and slender for the purpose of covering a large area of
soft uncertain footing. The pedal characters are somewhat like those of the shore Birds
but the hind toe is as long and well developed as the others and inserted on a level with
them instead of being slightly elevated. In this respect they resemble the Herons, but can
be distinguished from them by their unheron-like build and their feathered lores.

They are typical marsh birds, skulking in the long grass and reeds,
running swiftly over yielding masses. of half-floating vegetation, and
preferring to hide rather than fly on the approach of danger. They all
swim, some habitually and others on occasion. The family is divided
into three subfamilies: Rallus, the true Rails; Gallinuline, Gallinules or
Mud Hens; and Fulicine, Coots.

Subfamily—Rallus. True Rails.

General Description. Very flat-bodied birds, compressed laterally, adapted for slipping
between close growing reeds and grasses; wings small, rounded, and comparatively weak;
the whole structure of the bird is loose, giving the flexibility needed by habit and habitat,
but not adapted for prolonged or strenuous effort.

Distinctions. Most easily recognized by negative characteristics: rail-like birds as
described above that are neither Gallinules nor Coots; without the frontal shield on fore-
head of those birds (Figures 25 and 26, p. 22).

Field Marks. Rails rise from the grass at one’s feet with a loose, feeble flight, legs
dangling and neck outstretched. They rise with evident and hurried difficulty, fly weakly
a short way over the marsh, and then suddenly collapse into it again.

The Rails are skulkers and expert hiders in the grass. They thread
the narrow runways between the clumps with mouse-like dexterity and
speed. They rely on this ability to hide more than on flight to escape
danger and will often allow themselves to be caught in the hand rather
than take wing. A Rail will flush once in a seeming panic, but safely down
again it can rarely be forced to wing a second time and in a small isolated
clump of cover will seldom be detected except by a dog’s keen nose. Rails
can and do swim, but only occasionally and only for a short distance, as
when passing from one grass clump to another they find the water too deep
for wading.

Rails are very noisy, especially at night. Even in the day-time a

ydden and unexpected noise will bring forth a chorus of their loud harsh
cracklings from the marsh, though not a bird may be seen.

Our Canadian Rails can be divided into two divisions, a long-billed
fype and a short-billed type (Figures 23 and 25, p.22). The first includes
the King and Virginia, the two species having a similar coloration; the
second includes the Sora and the Yellow Rails,having only a general resem-
blanee in colour but similar stubby bills.

208. King Rail. fRallus elegans. L, 15. Long-billed; cheeks, neck, and breast cinna-
mon-rufous; back brownish-black, each feather broadly margined with an ochraceous
shade of the breast colour, flanks barred with black and white. Juvenile similar, but colours
veiled with black.

- Distinctions. In Canada car only be mistaken for the similarly coloured Virginia
Rail, but King Rail is much larger.

Field Marks. Loose rail-like flight as it gets up from the grass, size, general coloration,
and long red-brown bill.

Nesting. In wet marshes, in nest of grass, etc.

Distribution. Rather southern distribution; comes regularly within our borders
along the lower Great Lakes; breeds wherever found in Canada.

The King Rail can be taken as the type of the Long-billed Rails
(Figure 23, p. 22). This type has a longer neck and a more graceful habit
and build than the Short-billed type. This series is one of several among
American birds where distinct species differ from each other in little else
than size. Included with our King and Virginia Rails in this series is the
extralimital Clapper Rail of the more southern sea-board salt marshes,
never occurring in Canada.

212. Virginia Rail. FR.—LE RALE DE VIRGINIE. Rallus virginianus. L, 9-50.
Smaller than the King Rail but otherwise similar to it.

Distinctions. Easily distinguished from the King Rail by its smaller size and from
the Sora by its long reddish bill and general coloration. Young birds are overwashed
with a considerable amount of black and have often been misidentified as Black Rails.
The Black Rail is even smaller than the Yellow Rail (5-0) and has a short bill; no Canadian
record of the Black Rail rests upon perfectly satisfactory evidence. It may, however,
be looked for in the Great Lake region, especially in the neighbourhood of the St. Clair
flats, piere there is strong evidence of its occurrence, though a specimen has not yet been
secured.

Field Marks. Size, coloration, long, reddish bill (Figure 23, p. 22), and typical loose
rail flight as it rises from the marsh.

Nesting. In wet marsh, in nest of grass.

Distribution. Southern Canada across the continent and north to the present limits
of cultivation. Breeds wherever found in Canada.

This is a far more common Rail than the King and to be expected in
almost any marsh or very wet meadow within its range. Its habits do not
differ essentially from those of the other Rails.

Economie Status. Its waste land habitat precludes its taking anything
of economic importanee. Its food consists largely of insect life, marsh
seeds, and vegetable matter.

214. Sora Rail. soRA, RAILBIRD, CAROLINA RAIL. FR.—LH RALE DE LA CAROLINE.
Porzana carolina. L, 8-50. Plate VII A.

Distinctions. Distinguished from the Virginia Rail by its short conical bill (Figure 25
p. 22) and general coloration; and from the Yellow Rail by larger size and coloration.

Field Marks. Loose, dangling flight, as it rises from the grass, proclaims it a rail;
short bill, general coloration, and lack of white on wings are characteristic of the species.

Nesting. On ground in wet marshes in nest of grass, etc.

Distribution. Of considerably more northern distribution than the Virginia Rail,
but also ranging across the continent; breeding wherever found in Canada.

In the early days of settlement the Sora Rail was a common game
bird; but the draining of the swamps and the ease with which large bags
could at times be made by hunters, have greatly reduced its numbers.
On the tidal marshes of some of the Atlantic states it is still regularly
hunted in late autumn. This is, therefore, the best known of our rails and,
though its numbers are greatly diminished from those given in old travellers
accounts, it is still a moderately common bird. It does not need grounds
quite as extensive for its habitat as the King or the Virginia Rails and at
times the merest little slough will suffice a pair and their young for the
season.

Economic Status. Not notably different from that of the Virginia
Rail.

215. Yellow Rail. FR—LE RALE JAUNE. Coturnicops noveboracensis. L, 7. A
smaller, short-billed rail, somewhat like the Sora. The coloration is also similar in effect,
but the underparts are overwashed with ochraceous and the back feathers are transversed
with a few fine white lines instead of being margined by them. It, also, has prominent
white wing-patches that are characteristic of the species.

Distinctions. Distinguished from the Sora Rail by size and coloration.

Field Marks. Size and white wing-patches.

Nesting. On ground in damp edges of marshes, in nest of grass.

Distribution. More northern than the other rails, extending considerably beyond the
limits of present cultivation; breeding wherever found.

This is the most expert of the Rails in skulking and hiding. As it is
almost impossible to flush it, it may be far more common than we have
reason to otherwise suspect. According to actua: records, it is one of the
rarest birds in Canada. Its habits do not seem to differ much from those
of the other rails, except that it does not require as much water in its habitat
and is more often found on the shoreward, grassy sides of the marsh rather
than in the wet reedy locations.

Subfamily—Gallinuline. Gallinules or Mud-hens.

General Description. Rather large duck-like birds, but with long toes without webs
either partial or entire; conical bill extended on the forehead in a plate or frontal shield
(Figure 26, p. 22).

Distinctions. Distinguished from the ducks by lack of webs, and by shape of bill;
and from the Coot by absence of toe lobes; otherwise quite closely resembles these.

Field Marks. Kound, duck-like shape of body; habit when swimming; general blue
or blue-grey coloration; red bill, and frontal shield; and long legs and toes of yellow or
green.

Quietly watching the open leads through the marsh, one sometimes
sees a swimming bird of duck-like outline sitting high in the water with
upturned tail and progressing with a series of graceful backward and for-
ward jerkings of the head. This alone is nearly enough for recognition
of the Gallinules; but the brilliantly-coloured bill and frontal plate, visible
at considerable distances in the bright sunshine, will make recognition
certain. Sometimes individuals are jumped by the observer, quietly poling
along a narrow winding channel, when off they go spattering along the
surface and making a great amount of disturbance until wing borne. The
Gallinules swim habitually and with ease, but rarely venture out in open
water like the Coots, confining themselves to the small pools in the marsh
orto the clear leads or passages that thread them.

218. Purple Gallinule. Jonornis martinicus. L, 13. Resembles the Florida
Galiinule, but neck and underparts iridescent with pronounced purplish-blue; frontal
plate (Figure 26, p. 22) plumbous blue instead of red; and legs yellow instead of green.
Juveniles are similar but reduced in tones and with only traces of iridescence.

Distinctions. Can only be mistaken for the Florida Gallinule, but above characters
and absence of conspicuous white streaks on flanks are differences.

Field Marks. Gallinule or Mud-hen-like outline, decided blue iridescence, yellow
legs, and all white under tail coverts.

Distribution. Tropical and subtropical America regularly north to the Carolinas.

Of only accidental occurrence in Canada. To be looked for only in
the most southern sections.

219. Flerida Gallinule. Rick-BIRD. MUD-HEN. RED-BILLED MUD-HEN. FR.—
GALLINULE DE LA FLORIDE. Gallinula galeata. L, 13-50. An almost evenly coloured,
slate-blue bird; darker on head and a little lighter below, tinged with slightly iridescent
reddish-brown; conspicuous white flank streaks and a small edging of same under tail; bill
and frontal plate (Figure 26, p. 22) bright red; legs green with red garters just below the
feathering.

Distinctions. Distinguished from Purple Gallinule by the characters mentioned above;
from the Coot, which it closely resembles, by red instead of white bill and frontal plate,
white flank lines, brownish back, and clean unwebbed toes.

Field Marks. Red bill and frontal plate, white flank streaks, brownish back, and all
dark secondary tips when flying.

Nesting. Usually on aslight eminence such as an old muskrat house in watery marshes,
in nest of waste vegetable fragments.

Distribution. More northern than the Purple Gallinule, and regularly common in
Canada only along the lower Great Lakes.

This is the best known Mud-hen of southern Canada. Its fairly large
size and palatable flesh, due to its fondness for wild rice and other marsh
seeds, renders it an object of pursuit by the sportsman. It requires more
open water than the Rails, but in general resembles them in habits. It
is a rather noisy bird, especially at night; and during the day joins the
Rails in their chorus of surprise at unusual and unexpected disturbances.
At times one bird will suddenly utter a volley of cackles, answered immed-
iately by another, and another, and for a few moments the apparently
deserted marsh is a small pandemonium of unexpected bird sounds.

Economic Status. Except as a game bird the Gallinule is of little
account economically.

Subfamily—Fulicine. Coots.

General Description. Rather large, duck-like birds, but with long toes furnished with
membranous lobes; bill extends up on forehead in a white frontal plate or shield (Figure
14, p. 20).

Distinctions. Much like the Gallinules; distinctions given under description of species
in following section.

221. American Coot. WHITE-BILLED MUD-HEN. FR.—LA FOULQUE D’AMERIQUE’
Fulica americana. LL, 15. An evenly coloured, slate-grey bird, darker on head, lighter
below; bill and frontal plate (Figure 14, p. 20) white with solitary reddish-brown. spots at
top of plate and on tips of mandibles. Legs dull green and toes with bordering scallop of
web-flaps (one to three lobes on each toe)

Distinctions. Distinguished from ie Gallinule by white bill and the toe-webs.

Field Marks. Size, slate-grey coloration, white bill, and frontal shield and when
flying the border of white secondary tips on the wings.

Nesting. Nest very similar to that of the Florida Gallinule.

Distribution. More northern than the Gallinules; found throughout Canada well
into the cultivated area; breeds wherever found in Canada.

Unlike the Gallinules, which quietly leave our marshes in early autumn,
the Coots remain until late in the season and, their numbers augmented
by migrants from the north, gather in large flocks insmall lakes and ponds
where they are sometimes shot by the hunter who later finds them indiff-
erent eating.

Economic Status. The Coot is more of a vegetable feeder than even
the Gallinule, but, owing to its habitat, cannot be of economic importance
except as a second-rate object of sport.

Order—Limicolz. Shore Birds, Snipes, Sandpipers, Plover, etc.

General Description. Shore Birds constitute an order comparatively easy to recog-
nize but difficult to briefly describe. All snipe or plover-like birds are included in this order.
They have moderately to extremely long, delicately-formed legs for wading in shallow water
and pond edges and neck and bill (Figures 15,21, 22,23, pp. 20-22) to correspond. The toes
may be either three or four in number, and are poorly adapted for perching. They may be
without webs entirely, or with partial webs situated either at the bases of the toes, or
forming scalloped or entire edgings to them (see Phalaropes). The hind toe when present
is small, weak, and slightly elevated above the rest. The wings are long and pointed and
the secondaries next to the body are lengthened.

Distinctions. Some Shore birds show superficial resemblance to the Rails, whereas
others in certain characteristics (Curlews) may be mistaken for either Ibises or Herons,
but can be distinguished from them by the small and elevated, or absent hind toe and the
lack of bare skin between eye and bill.

Field Marks. General outline, habit, habitat, and flight, characteristics which are quite
recognizable.

Nesting. On ground, except one species.

Distribution. The order, Shore Birds, is cosmopolitan and there are few areas in the
world that some of its members do not occupy. The Old and New World forms of the
northern hemisphere are closely related: some are identical, many are subspecifically
related, and a few, such as the Turnstone, are found all over the world. Most of our
northern species breed in the far north, some of them as far as exploration has gone, though
a few nest on, and across, our southern borders.

The Shore Birds, in the days of their original abundance, were favour-
ite game birds; now since their numbers have been so greatly reduced they
are seldom systematically hunted, and only shot incidentally. Of the
Shore Birds of eastern Canada, Woodcock and Wilson’s Snipe are of the
most interest as game. The representatives of the order found in eastern
Canada are divided into six families: Phalaropodide, Phalaropes; Recur-

vtrotride, Stilts and Avocets, of only casual occurrence in eastern Canada;
Scolopacide, Snipes and Sandpipers, constituting the bulk of our species;
Charadride, Plover; Aphrizide, Turnstones; and Haematopodide, Oyster-
catchers, once casual now probably extinct within our eastern borders.

Economic Status. Most of the order inhabit waste land and are of
little economic influence; others, frequenting cultivated fields, are of
greater importance and will be discussed under their specific headings. On
the whole, however, the order is either harmless or actively helpful to man.

FAMILY—-PHALAROPODIDH. PHALAROPES. SEA SNIPES.

Generai Description. Small birds between 7-75 and 8-75 inches long, wader-like in
form but with plumage dense and duck-like. This, combined with their toes bordered with
web-lobes or edgings and flattened tarsi, makes them comparatively easy to recognize.

Distinctions. Small waders characterized as above. Cannot be mistaken for any-
thing else.

Field Marks. Size, bill characteristics, and the habit of swimming and feeding in deep
water. ‘These are the only Shore Birds that habitually swim.

Nesting. On ground, nest lined with a few mosses or grasses.

Distribution. Northern and western. One species breeds in the lower prairie provinces,
the other two along the Arctic coasts and adjoining islands. Regular migrants along the
Atlantic coast of eastern Canada and down the Mississippi valley, but merely stragglers in
the Great Lakes region.

The Phalaropes constitute a small anomalous family of Shore Birds
whose true affinities are hardly well understood or settled. They swim
with ease and are often found in the open water, even out at sea, where
they are as much at home as any pelagic species.

Anomalous in structure and systematic relationships, they are equally
so in habits. The female instead of the male is the bright-coloured repre-
sentative of the family circle and she takes the initative in courting rites;
makes the first advance towards her shy and modestly-coloured prospective
mate and upon fulfilling her duties of egg deposition leaves the further cares
of incubation and family raising to him.

Economic Status. Inhabit water or waste shores and are of little or no
economic importance.

222. Red Phalarope. GERY PHALAROPE, WHALE BIRD. FR.—LE PHALAROPE ROUX.
Phalaropus fulicarius. L, 8-12. Adult female is easily recognized by the even, dull reddish
brown of the foreneck and underparts. The back is light ochre and black in stripes. The
male is similar, but the colours veiled, broken, and less distinct. In winter this species is
slate-grey above and white below.

Distinctions. "The Red Phalarope can be easily distinguished from either of the other
two members of the family by its bill and feet, the former comparatively broad and flat.
Toes webbed at base and with projecting scalloped lobes on either side. See following
species.

: Field Marks. General habits and habitat. In breeding season colour is best mark
of recognition. At sea this species is said to show more black on top of head and in wings
than the other phalaropes. In other than full plumage the comparatively short and
flattened bill is perhaps the best point for identification.

Distribution. Breeds along the whole Arctic coast of America, migrating down the sea
coasts on either side; rare inland in Great Lakes region.

223. Northern Phalarope. RED-NECKED PHALAROPE. FR.—LE PHALAROPE HYPER-
BOREEN. Lobipes lobatus. L, 7-75. Adult female: upperparts, back of neck, and head
dark slaty; throat and below, white; sides of neck meeting on front of lower neck, rich
rufous, with lines of same along back over closed wing. Male similar but veiled and re-

57172—7

duced in colour. Winter birds light grey above, white below, with only faint suggestions
of above coloration.

Distinctions. Bull very slender and awl-shaped, rather like Wilson’s Phalarope but
shorter; feet have small webs and scalloped flaps, like Red Phalarope.

Field Marks. General colour and fine needle-like bill. Smallest of the Phalaropes
of eastern Canada.

Distribution. Similar to the preceding.

224. Wilson’s Phalarope. FR.—LE PHALAROPE DE WILSON. Stleganopus tricolor.
L, 8-75. Beautifully coloured bird. Adult female has stripes of sharply contrasting colour
arranged on head and neck. Crown of pearl-grey shading to white on hind neck and to
grey again on shoulders. Black line through eye and down side of neck, changing to rich,
chestnut-red which continues along side of back. Throat, white blending into delicate
vinaceous on neck and breast to te again on lower parts. Male greyish-brown above
and white below, with suggestion of the females’ brighter coloration.

Distinetions. Bill very long, 1-25 inches, slender and needle-like, an exaggeration of
the last species. Toes not webbed but furnished with narrow, even edges of membrane.

Field Marks. Colour, size, and extremely long and slender bill.

Distribution. A mid-western and more southern species than the preceding, breeding
in the prairie provinces and only of casual occurrence east on lower Great Lakes.

FAMILY—RECURVIROSTRIDH. AVOCETS AND STILTS.

General Description. Among the largest of the Shore Birds and recognizable by their
strikingly contrasted colours and great length of legs and bill. This is carried to an extreme
in the Stilts which, however, are entirely extralimital. The Avocet has occurred accidenta-
ally within our borders east of the prairies.

225. American Avocet. FR.—L’AVOCETTE D’AMERIQUE. Recurvirostra americana.
L, 16-50. Large and most striking Shore Bird, with warm vinaceous head and neck
blending into white underparts; and fuscous and white in sharply contrasting masses on
the back.

Distinctions. Very long, slender, tapering bill with decided upward curve in its outer
haif. This is always distinctive.

Nesting. A slight depression in the ground near water.

Distribution. A mid-western bird of the interior, breeding in the prairie provinces
and only of accidental occurrence east of Manitoba.

This species is included only because of the occurrence of a few in-
dividual specimens east of the prairie provinces.

FAMILY—SCOLOPACIDA. SNIPE-LIKE BIRDS. TIP—UPS, SANDPIPERS, ETC.

General Description. Small to medium Shore Birds, the Curlew being the largest
species. Feet never entirely webbed nor toes furnished with web-flaps or web-margins.
Some species have small webs between the base of the toes, giving rise to the term “‘semi-
palmated”’ or half-webbed. All but one species, the Sanderling, page 97, have four toes.
The bills are long, slender, and tapering; usually straight (Figures 21, 22, p. 21); but
sometimes down-curved; occasionally, as in the Godwits, page 98, very slightly up-
curved; rather flexible and usually slightly enlarged and sensitive at the tip.

Distinctions. Obvious Shore Birds, usually recognized by the above popular names.
Bill does not taper to fine sharp point, like that of the previous families, and has not the
soft base and horny tip of the Plover, but is soft and rather flexible throughout its length in
contrast to the horny bills of the Turnstones and the Oyster-catchers.

Nesting. All except one species, the Solitary Sandpiper, page 99, nest on the ground,
in slight hollows lined sparsely with the waste vegetable matter adjoining.

Distribution. Greater number nest in the far north, though a few species are found
south of the United States border. They migrate down our coasts or through the interior
according to species and distribution. Some of them have most interesting migration
routes.

Among these birds are the Woodcock and Snipes of the wet woods and
marshes; the Tip-ups, Teeters, and Sandpipers we see along the shores and
streams, and the Curlews of the uplands. These species formed the great

Le CC

PP DOO Ge EOD FAP I at ae

Soest tS dhe

bulk of the wonderful flocks of Shore Birds that once thronged our shores.
Breeding mostly far beyond the confines of cultivation the occupation of
their nesting grounds by settlers has had only the slighest influence upon
their numbers. The great reduction must be blamed upon indiscriminate
shooting. As they fly in dense flocks they offer an easy target and eighty
or more have been known to fall at one discharge of the gun, so that there is
little wonder that they are now comparatively scarce.

Economic Status. Either perfectly harmless or actively useful accord-
ing to habitat.

228. American Woodcock. FR.—LA BECASSE D’AMERIQUE. BECASSINE. Philo-
hela minor. LL, 11. Plate VII B.

Distinctions. Long bill (Figure 21, p. 21) and eyes situated high in the head, dead-
leaf colours of underparts, and rich browns of back are distinctive.

Field Marks. ‘The bird’s habitat, combined with long bill, size, and coloration in
rich brown and dead-leaf tints render it easily recognizable in life.

ea On ground amidst last year’s dead leaves, with which its plumage harmoni-
zes so well.

Distribution. Regularly in southern Ontario in the lower Great Lakes region, though
occasional individuals straggle over a much wider range.

Woodcocks haunt moist or wet shrubbery, alder or hazel thickets, or
the tangled edges of damp woods. They spring suddenly from the ground
on being disturbed, rise erratically on peculiarly whistling wings, and
passing just over the tops of the underbrush drop suddenly into concealment
again a few rods beyond. It is well within the memory of the present
generation that the thickets of southern Ontario swarmed with Woodcock;
but now, owing to unrestrained shooting, the drainage and clearing of
waste lands, and perhaps the depredations of the domestic cat, the
Woodcock is a scarce, almost a rare bird. Unlike the Ruffed Grouse or
Partridge, which requires considerable and virgin ranges, there is no
fundamental reason why the Woodcock should not remain plentiful
and give abundance of sport for years to come. Almost any small
retired covert of damp shrubbery will suffice for its needs. The
Woodcock leaves for the south very shortly after the open season begins
and is not long subject to legitimate shooting. Next to man the cat
seems to be its principal enemy and as the Woodcock lives and nests on the
ground trusting to protective coloration and hiding to avoid danger, it is
peculiarly open to feline attack.

230. Wilson’s Snipe. JACK SNIPE. SNIPE. FR.—LA BECASSINE DE WILSON. Gallin-
ago delicata. L, 11-25. Plate VIII A.

Distinctions. Unlikely to be mistaken for any other species in Canada, but the reddish-
brown tail, whitening on the outer feathers, and barred with black, will distinguish it if
necessary.

Field Marks. Habitat (open grassy meadows), long bill, peculiar cork-screw flight
as it rises, combined with size, general coloration, and reddish-brown and whitish tail.
The Woodcock and the Dowitcher, are the only other similar birds.

Distribution. Breeds across the continent, coming just within the bounds of culti-
vation and irregularly to our southern borders. Common throughout the Dominion.

231. Dowitcher. RED-BREASTED SNIPE, ROBIN SNIPE. FR.—LA BECASSINE ROUSSE.
Macrorhamphus griseus. 1,10-50. Spring adult—throat, foreneck, breast, and all under-
parts strongly reddish. Back and upperparts variegated with shades of same and dark
brown. Autumn plumage dull greyish-brown on head, neck, upper breast, flanks, and back,
variegated with browner on the latter; white below. Lower back always white. Interme-
diates of all above plumages occur.

57172—7}

Distinctions. Same general appearance as Wilson’s Snipe, but with red front and
underparts in spring, and without the rich browns of that species in autumn. Bill is longer
in comparison with size than any other bird except Wilson’s Snipe. A very similar red
breast occurs in the Knot, but the longer bill of the Dowitcher (L, 2-10-2-50 against
L, 1-30) is conclusive identification.

Field Marks. About the size and general outline of Wilson’s Snipe, but with conspicu-
ous white on lower back and more white on tail. Habitat also different.

Distribution. Breeds in the far north, west and probably east of Hudson bay. Scarce
on Great Lakes, more common on coast. Our eastern migrants are supposedly Ungava
breeders, but accurate data on this point are lacking.

SUBSPECIES. A slightly differentiated subspecies, the Long-billed Dowitcher
M. gq. scolopaceous occurs in the west. It is distinguished by its slightly larger size, longer
bill, heavier spotting of breast, and more extensive red below. It is difficult to differentiate
bright plumages, and birds and juveniles can rarely be told apart. The Long-billed Do-
witcher is to be expected in eastern Canada only in the Great Lakes region and its occurrence
should not be recorded unless the specimen has been well compared with authentic material.

A bird frequenting mud flats rather than grassy meadows.

233. Stilt Sandpiper. FR.— LA MAUBECHE A LONGS PIEDS. Micropalama himan-
topus. L, 8-25. Brown markings on ground of dull white; underparts lighter and the
dark arranged in uniform bars changing to obscure striping on the foreneck and to fine
spotting on the throat. Autumn plumage shows no sign of this characteristic barring;
back with various shades of brown in strong pattern, underparts nearly pure white, slightly
ve wie ochraceous on breast and foreneck where it is faintly and obscurely spotted
with dark.

Distinctions. The evenly barred underparts of the spring plumage are unmistakable.
The autumn bird resembles several species. The length of the bill, 1-80, and of the tarsus,
1-60, are greater than those of any other Shore Bird of otherwise equal size. The Red-
backed Sandpiper has a bill of almost equal length, but it is heavier and has less of an
abrupt spatulate enlargement at the extreme tip.

Field Marks. Contrast of its small size and great length of bill. Upper tail coverts,
instead of lower back as in the Dowitcher, are light in spring and white in autumn.

Distribution. Breeds on Arctic coast northwest of Hudson bay. In migration, pro-
bably more common in the interior than on the coast. Regular but rare in autumn on
lake Ontario.

One of the rarest of eastern Shore Birds, sometimes associated with the
Dowitcher and Yellow-legs on mud flats.

234. Knot. RED-BREASTED PLOVER. ROBIN SNIPE. FR.—LA MAUBECHE A POITRINE
RoussE. Tinga canutus. L, 10-50. In spring—upper parts mottled with various shades
of brown and ochre, throat, foreneck, and below strong dull rufous, lighter towards the
tail. In autumn—light smoky grey, pure white below, breast and foreneck slightly darker
with fine, obscured spotting.

Distinctions. Spring birds as regards size may be confused only with Dowitcher.
The short bill, L, 1-30, as against L, 2-10—-2-50 of the Dowitcher, is conclusive differentia-
tion. Autumn birds very similar to several species of like coloration.’ Even light grey
coloration of back quite similar to that of the autumn Red-back, but in the Knot each feather
is margined with faint line of lighter colour giving effect of a succession of semicircles, present
in no other Shore Bird.

_ Field Marks. In spring—hill, shorter than that of the Dowitcher which it otherwise
resembles, and greyish but not conspicuous white over tail. In autumn—light grey back,
lighter towards tail, is best recognition mark.

Distribution. A circumpolar species of extraordinary migration range. Breeding
on the Arctic circumpolar islands and ranging in winter to South Africa, Patagonia, and
New Zealand, etc. Apparently less common in the Great Lakes region than on the Atlantic
coast.

A bird to be found on sandy beaches as well as on mud flats. It is
steadily decreasing in numbers like so many of its allies.

235. Purple Sandpiper. WINTER SNIPE, ROCK SNIPE. FR.—LA MAUBECHE POUR-
PREE. Arquatella maritima. L, 9. Greyish-black on back, including head and extending

LLL LLL LLL LLL LLL ILE LLL

gE Ds cee ie Mame ne eee NET ES

across front of neck and throat, and along flanks. Lighter on throat and darkest on back,
white below. Over darker parts a faint suffusion of slightly iridescent purple more or less
mottled with lighter feather edgings. Autumn plumage similar, but light feather margins
more extensive. Legs and feet orange in spring.

Distinctions. The only Shore Bird with back so uniformly black.

Field Marks. In spring, general dark colour and short orange legs. In autumn,
season of appearance is almost diagnostic as it comes very late, well into the winter, when
other Shore Birds have left.

Distribution. The Eastern Purple Sandpiper probably breeds on the islands of the
Arctic. In migration, more common on the sea coast than on the Great Lakes where it is
very rare.

SUBSPECIES. The Purple Sandpiper occurs in both the New and the Old Worlds.
The subspecies occurring on the eastern coast of Canada is the Eastern Purple Sandpiper,
the type race.

A very late autumn migrant coming long after all other Shore Birds
have deserted us. November and December are the months of its appear-
ance. Its apparent rarity may be largely due to its coming after the shores
are deserted by the gunner. It prefers rocky shores to either sand or
mud.

239. Pectoral Sandpiper. GRASS SNIPE. FR.—LA MAUBECHE A POITRINE CENDREE.
Pisobia maculata. L, 9. Upper parts dark brown, each feather edged with shade of
light ochre; underparts and throat white; lower neck and breast suffused with light
brownish buff and closely streaked with dark brown.

Distinctions. Size and rather sharply streaked brownish buff front are distinctive.
The White-rumped Sandpiper and Baird’s Sandpiper may be somewhat similar in this
respect, but rump of the former, and smaller size of both are evident.

Field Marks. Its usual grassy marsh habitat makes Wilson’s Snipe the bird most
likely to be confused with it, but the shortness of bill of the Pectoral Sandpiper is obvious.
It appears as an even brown bird without light on rump or elsewhere above, much like a
large Least Sandpiper.

Distribution. Breeds on the Arctic coast northwest of Hudson bay. Common
migrant throughout eastern Canada.

The Pectoral Sandpiper, like Wilson’s Snipe, is to be found in wet
grassy meadows, or on mud flats, rarely if ever on sandy beaches. In the
grass it lies well to a dog and sometimes furnishes good sport. On the
breeding grounds it develops a neck-sac that can be blown up to an extra-
ordinary extent and indulges in a flight-song that is unusual among the
generally songless Shore Birds.

240. White-rumped Sandpiper. BONAPARTE’S SANDPIPER. FR.—LA MAUBECHE A
CRUPION BLANC. Pisobia fuscicollis. L, 7-50. Back and upperparts dark brown broadly
margined with greyish and ochraceous-brown, the former predominating. Rump ard all
lower parts white, foreneck and upper breast sharply and finely striped with dark brown.
In autumn, similar, but more ruddy-ochraceous on back, and front stripings more blended.

Distinctions. Size and white rump distinguish it from comparable species. The
Hudsonian Godwit and Stilt Sandpiper have white upper tail coverts, but the former is
much too large a bird to be a source of error and the latter’s longer slender bill or
barred breast are distinctive.

Field Marks. General size and colour, and conspicuous large white rump.

Distribution. Breeds on Arctic coast west to near Alaskan border. In migration
eommon on Atlantic coast, rather scarce in Great Lakes region.

This species frequents mud flats and rocky shores rather than sandy
beaches. It often accompanies the flocks of Least and Semipalmated
Sandpipers.

241. Baird’s Sandpiper. FR.—LA MAUBECHE DE BAIRD. Pisobia bairdi. L, 7-40.

Back to top of head dark brown edged with light ochraceous; below and throat, white;
band of light buff across chest; lower foreneck dimly striped with fine brown lines.

Distinctions. Resembles White-rump, but with rump dark and a more buffy suffusion
across front. Also considerably like Least Sandpiper, but larger.

Field Marks. Resembles large Least Sandpiper, with buffy breast suffusion.

Distribution. Breeds on Arctic coast across the continent. More common in migra-
tions in the prairie provinces than on the coasts. Not uncommon in the Great Lakes region,
scarcer farther east.

Sandy margins and mud flats seem equally attractive to this species.
It is often found in company with Least and Semipalmated Sandpipers,
though more independent of water than many of its family.

242. Least Sandpiper. MUD PEEP. GREEN-LEGGED PEEP. FR.—LA MAUBECHE DE
wiLson. Pisobia minutilla. L, 6. Upperparts and crown, dark brown edged more or less
broadly with various shades of ochraceous-buff and ruddy tints; white below. _ Across
breast and foreneck a dark suffusion sometimes tinged with buff with more or less pro-
nounced dark striping and spotting.

Distinctions. Distinguished by its extremely small size from ali other species except
the Semipalmated Sandpiper, and from that by the absence of webs between the toes.

Field Marks. Differentiated from the Semipalmated Sandpiper by the dark greenish
instead of black colour of the legs.

Distribution. Breeds in high latitudes across the continent as far south, in the east,
as the Magdalen islands in the gulf of St. Lawrence. Common throughout eastern Canada
in migration.

One of the most numerous of Shore Birds. Probably its diminutive
size has protected it from the sportsman, though from its dense flocks
numbers can be obtained at a single shot. It frequents sandy beaches and
open mud flats and is a tame and confiding bird. It associates largely with
flocks of other species, though when disturbed separates from them to
rejoin the company later. It arrives and leaves earlier in the autumn than
the Semipalmated.

243. Dunlin. RED-BACKED SANDPIPER. BLACK-HEART PLOVER. RED-BACK. AMERI-
CAN DUNLIN. FR.—LA MAUBECHE A Dos ROUX. Pelidna alpina. L, 8. Spring bird is
too strongly marked to be mistaken for anything else. Back is dark brown so broadly
edged with red-ochre as to be mostly red. A large more or less diffused, almost black
spot occupies the abdominal surface. Bill slightly decurved (Figure 22, p.21). Autumn
bird is without these striking characteristics. Upper surface is almost uniform, light
brownish-grey suffusing across breast and lower neck. Below, and throat, white.

Distinctions. Colour in autumn similar to Autumn Knot, but smaller size and lack of
light semicircles of feather edges will always differentiate it even if occasional traces of
spring plumage are not present. It may also suggest the Curlew Sandpiper, but the
upper tail coverts are dark instead of greyish.

Field Marks. In spring—red back, and black spot below are evident. In autumn—
even grey back and, when flying, a line of white on the wing. Slight but distinct down-
ward bend of bill also helps identification.

Distribution. Including the European form, the species is cireumpolar. The American
Dunlin, the Red-backed Sandpiper, nests on the Arctic coast locally across the continent.
It is a common migrant throughout eastern Canada.

SUBSPECIES. The New World representative of the Dunlin is a subspecific race,
the Red-backed Sandpiper or American Dunlin P. a. sakhalina, which is distinguished from
the Old World form only by its slightly larger size.

This bird frequents sand-bars, mud flats, or salt meadows. It is
among the latest of the Shore Birds to arrive both spring and autumn.

244. Curlew Sandpiper. Folia ferruginea. 1, 8. Small red-breasted Sandpiper.
Autumn birds greyish-brown above and white below.

Distinctions. Resembles the Knot or Dowitcher in having red breast, but much
smaller and of more slender build.

ee es a a er aes

me eee Ee. ee eer eee

Distribution. Breeds in Arctic Siberia. Of only casual occurrence in eastern Canada.
More records from the Atlantic coast than inland, though there is one from lake Ontario.

An Old World form occasionally seen in the New World. Said to
resemble the Red-back in habit, but too scarce in eastern Canada to be
looked for asa regular visitor. Any record of this species should be founded
on definite specimens and subjected to a rigid scrutiny.

246. Semipalmated Sandpiper. BLACK-LEGGED PEEP. FR.—LA MAUBECHE SEMI-
PALMEE. Freunetes pusillus. L, 6-30. Upper parts, including crown, dark brown
edged with light ochraceous or buffy; all white below, with vague band of slightly darker
across the chest with obscure streakings and spots.

Distinctions. Very similar in size and coloration to the Least Sandpiper, from which
it cannot always be distinguished except by close examination. The toes, however, have
small webs between their bases, giving the bird the name Semipalmated.

Field Marks. Differentiated from the Least Sandpiper by its slightly larger size,
purer grey back, and whiter, more clearly lined breast. Legs and feet are black instead
of dark olive green.

Distribution. Breeds along the eastern Arctic coast south to southern Labrador.
Common in migration throughout eastern Canada.

Very similar in habit as well as appearance to the Least Sandpiper,
page 96. The Western Sandpiper Hreunetes maurz is a closely allied form
that may be only a subspecies of the Semipalmated Sandpiper. It is
distinguished by a slightly longer bill and a larger amount of red on the
back, especially on the hindhead. Its occurrence in the Great Lakes region
is very doubtful. ~

248. Sanderling. FR—LA SANDERLING. Calidris leucophea. L, 8. In spring—
upperparts, including crown, dark brown variegated with much light rusty ochre or white,
or both. Below, white. Throat, neck, and upper breast overwashed with more or Jess
reddish-ochre and spotted with brown. The details of these colourings are exceedingly
variable. The back may show enough of the various colours to make it either generally
greyish, ochraceous, or rusty, and the coloured and spotted throat may be nearly immacu-
lately white. The autumn bird is similar without much buffy or any reddish or ochra-
ceous tint, it is pure white below and in front, and often predominantly grey to light
ashy above.

Distinctions. From traces to strong washes of rusty on neck and around head in the
spring and the general whiteness in autumn. The Sanderling can be told from all other
Sandpipers by having three toes instead of four. :

Field Marks. Rufous suffusion about the head in some spring birds, general con-
trasting black and white appearance on the wing, and line of white along the bases of
flight feathers in all plumages. The pure white breast in autumn is also characteristic.

Distribution. Breeds on the islands of the Arctic west to Alaska. A common migrant
on sandy shores throughout eastern Canada.

A bird of sandy shores, seldom frequenting mud flats. One of the most
beautiful and interesting of the small Shore Birds. It haunts the edge of
the water, following each retreating wave, and rapidly running back again
before the wave’s return, threatened every moment to be engulfed in the
surf but always just escaping. As the birds fly out over the blue water, the
sun shining on their glistening plumage, they are a beautiful sight; at one
moment turning their daintily coloured black and white backs and the next,
as though moved by a single impulse, banking on a wide wheel and showing
the pure glistening white of their underparts.

249. Marbled Godwit. FR.—LA BARGE MARBREE. Limosa fedoa. 1,18. <A very
large Shore Bird; a general light buff, faintly pinkish shade all over, except throat which
may be white. Back, hind-neck to crown, variegated with dark brown and light tints and
the breast and flanks more or less barred with fine lines of the same dark colour.

Distinctions. Similar to the Curlews in general appearance but bill slightly turned
up instead of decisively turned down. Distinguished from the Hudsonian Godwit by fine,
dark marbling on the pinkish buff of the primaries.

Field Marks. The Godwits are among the largest of our Shore Birds, practically
pally to the Curlews in size. The bill not turned down will distinguish them from the

urlews.

Distribution. Breeds in the prairie provinces including some cultivated regions,
neates to both oceans, occurring casually in the eastern parts of the Maritime

rovinces.

Never abundant in eastern Canada, this species is being sadly reduced
in numbers like other large birds. Doubtless its habit of nesting within
cultivated areas has had considerable to do with its disappearance.

251. Hudsonian Godwit. FR.—LA BARGE DE LA BAIE D’HUDSON. Limosa hemas-
tica. L, 15. In spring—upperparts, dark-brown to crown, marked with more or less
greyish or buffy and touches of rusty; underparts, reddish-brown, more or less barred
with dark and suffusing up foreneck. Autumn—upperparts unmarked brownish-grey;
underparts, buffy-white or dingy white, breast greyer.

Distinctions. Distinguished from the Curlews by the slightly turned up instead of
distinctly turned down bill; from the Marbled Godwit by the red underparts in spring,
and at all seasons by the all dark, white shafted primaries without marbling. This species
shows almost endless variations between the above plumages, but suggestions of the spring
coloration are usually recognizable in all except young birds.

Field Marks. Large size, straight or slightly turned up bill, and white rump at base
of black tail, will separate this from either the Curlews or the Marbled Godwit which are
the only species that are likely to be confused with it.

Distribution. Breeds in the northwest beyond civilization. Most common eastward
from the prairies to the Maritime Provinces in autumn, and in the interior in spring.

The Hudsonian Godwit is a fine bird on the verge of extinction.
As frequently happens, it seemed to disappear suddenly and before its
growing scarcity was realized. It is doubtful whether shooting is altogether
responsible for this condition. When aspeciesis greatly reduced in numbers
by any cause, an otherwise comparatively unimportant adverse influence
may suffice to snuff it out unexpectedly. Protection is ineffective when
delayed so long that the breeding stock is too greatly reduced for recovery.

254. Greater Yellow-legs. GREATER TELL-TALE. FR.—LA GRAND CHEVALIER A
PIEDS JAUNES. CHEVALIER OU PATTES JAUNES. Totanus melanoleucus. L, 14. A
rather large Shore Bird. Upperparts to crown dark brown to black with small white or
grey markings and intrusive greyish feathers, giving a grey effect; without trace of buff
or rufous. Underparts white, streaked on foreneck, breast, and flanks with distinct
streaks or bars of the same dark colour as on the back; legs very long and yellow.

Distinctions. Size, yellow legs, and lack of any indication of buffy or rusty anywhere
are marks of the two Yellow-legs. In young autumn birds the breast and neck marks
may be veiled and indistinct. This and the next species distinguished only by size.

Field Marks. Long, slender yellow legs, entire lack of ochraceous colour, size, and
the large amount of white or whitish on tail and rump. When once acquainted with it,
its flight is quite recognizable.

Distribution. Breeds in high latitudes across the continent. In the east, south
to Anticosti island and the north shore of the gulf of St. Lawrence; common in migrations
throughout eastern Canada.

The Greater Yellow-legs is one of the best known Shore Birds. Owing
to its size and comparative numbers it is much sought after by sportsmen
and it seems to have withstood their attacks better than many other
apparently equally well-adapted species. It prefers marshy shores and
mud to open sand and may be seen far out on the flats wading about,
thigh deep, in water too deep for smaller waders. Its clear flute-like
tremolo whistle in a descending scale is a sound to accelerate the pulse

of any true sportsman or bird student. This species does not seem as
numerous and is certainly more wary than the Lesser Yellow-legs; other-
wise this description will do for both.

255. Lesser Yellow-legs. LITTLE TELL-TALE. FR.—LE PETIT CHEVALIER A PIEDS
JAUNES. Totanus flavipes. L, 10-75. Smaller edition of the last species.

Distribution. Breeds across the continent, in high latitudes. A common migrant
throughout eastern Canada but not breeding there within cultivated areas.

256. Solitary Sandpiper. FR.—LE CHEVALIER SOLITAIRE. Helodromas solitarius.
L, 8-40. Upperparts dark, almost black, with a slight greenish lustre accented by com-
paratively few small white spots; underparts and throat, white; lower neck, breast-band,
and sides of flanks barred and striped with lighter shades of back colour; no tinge of
buff or other shades.

; Distinctions. Size and general coloration; the white, dark-barred, axillars are con-
clusive.

Field Marks. Resembles both the Spotted Sandpiper and the Lesser Yellow-legs.
Distinguished from the former by the lack of a white line on the spread wing and the
conspicuously white barring on the tail; and from the latter by size, and black instead
of white rump.

Nesting. For a long time the breeding habits of this species were unknown and the
problem of its nesting was not solved until it was discovered that it used the deserted
nests of perching birds in trees and bushes. The closely allied Green Sandpiper of Europe
has the same habit.

Distribution. Breeds northward from well within the limits of cultivation; fairly
common throughout eastern Canada as migrant or breeder.

~ SUBSPECIES. The Solitary Sandpiper is represented by two subspecies in Canada,
enly one of which, the Eastern Solitary, the type form, occurs in the east.

As implied by the name, this species is a rather solitary bird, being
found as single individuals and pairs rather than in flocks even in migration
time. It is a mud haunter and with the Spotted Sandpiper is the only
wader that is commonly seen about such small waters as drainage ditches
or along the edges of flooded woods.

258. Willet. Catoptrophorus semipalmatus. L, 15. A large Shore Bird; upperparts
buffy-grey marked with darker; underparts, white suffused with light greyish buff;
barred and striped with darker on flanks, breast, and foreneck; rump white.

Distinctions. Size, general lightness and greyness of coloration, conspicuous white
wing-spot on primaries, white rump, and black axillars. The characteristic Sandpiper
bill will distinguish the Willet from the Black-billed Plover which has also these rump
and axillar details.

Field Marks. In size it resembles the Godwits more than anything else, but ashy
greyness and the conspicuous white wing-spots are distinctive.

Distribution. Breeds to the south of us, originally from Virginia to Nova Scotia
in the east, and locally westward to the central parts of the prairieprovinces. Nowvery ©
rare on the coast, irregular but slightly more common in the Great Lakes region, and
fairly common to the west in parts of the prairie provinces.

SUBSPECIES. The species is divided into an eastern and a western subspecies,
the latter based upon slightly larger size and greyer colour. The exact subspecific status
of the Great Lakes bird is not quite satisfactorily established. In all probability the
few that remain in the Maritime Provinces are Eastern Willets, whereas those of the
Great Lakes may be the Western Willet, C. s. inornatus, or intermediates. Material
on hand is too scanty to make definite pronouncements and unless the species recovers
at least some of its.original numbers we may never be abie to satisfactorily locate the
range boundaries of the two forms.

_ The Willet is another large and important species rapidly diminishing
in numbers, a reduction due perhaps largely to its southern breeding range
and inadequate protection.

100

261. Upland Plover. BARTRAMIAN SANDPIPER, BARTRAM’S PLOVER. FIELD PLOVER.
FR.—LA MAUBECHE A LONGUE QUEUE. SBartramia longicauda. LL, 11-50. Upperparts,
dark; feathers deeply edged with buff which colour suffuses rather strongly over head,
breast, and neck. Dark V-shaped markings on breast turning to bars on flanks and
stripes on neck; underparts, dull, creamy-white.

Distinctions. Bearing in mind that this species is a Sandpiper and not a real Plover,
the size and general suffusion of buff is characteristic. The inner web of the first primary,
sharply marked with acute, dark, saw-teeth against a white ground for most of its length,
is a character that occurs in no other comparable Canadian Shore Bird. The Hudsonian
Curlew has a similar design but on a buff ground.

Field Marks. The Upland Plover on the ground is scarcely recognizable as a wader
by those unfamiliar with it, resembling a long-legged grouse chick rather than a
Sandpiper. In flight, however, it exhibits its true relationship. Size, general buffiness,
and upland habitat are distinctions. Its beautiful long drawn whistle once heard can
never be mistaken.

Distribution. Properly a bird of the prairie regions but probably spreading to the
east when the forests were cleared away. It breeds in the more southern parts of eastern
Canada and in the prairie provinces, appearing occasionally on the Atlantic coast as a
migrant.

Though called a Plover in its accepted name, this species is a true
Sandpiper. The term Bartramian Sandpiper is a more satisfactory name
and the one that should be in general use instead of Upland Plover. Once
considerably more common that at present in the Great Lakes region, itis
now scarce or rare. The species nested in the cultivated sections and was
exposed to the accompanying dangers of such localities: agricultural dis-
turbances to nesting, the ever present small boy with his cheap shot gun,
the pot-hunter, and the sportsman. Size and ease of approach have
evidently been the cause of its disappearance, where the smaller and warier
Killdeer has been able to survive under the same conditions. As indicated
by its name this species has deserted the ancestral wet habitat of its family
and taken to upland meadows and dry pastures. It is, however, rarely
found at any great distance from some small body of water. It alights
readily on fences, fence-posts, buildings, or trees on occasion.

Economic Status. Frequenting cultivated land, this species feeds
largely on insects, grasshoppers, cut-worms, and other enemies to grass
crops. It has been known to be of marked importance in reducing locust
plagues, hence it must be classed among our most beneficial species and its
presence should be encouraged.

262. Buff-breasted Sandpiper. rrR.—LA MAUBECHE A POITRINE JAUNATRE. Tryn-
gites subruficollis. L, 8-50. Back and crown dark, feathers of lower back finely edged
with cream; underparts white; throat, neck, breast, and flanks strongly suffused with
buff, which colour tinges much of the upperparts.

Distinctions. Small size, and general buffy colour, underside of the inner webs
of the primaries finely speckled with dark on white. The under-wing surface is beau-
tifully marbled in a manner that is assumed by no other eastern species.

Field Marks. Small size and general buffy colour. It may appear on uplands like
the Upland Plover, but the latter is much larger.

Distribution. Breeds on the Arctic shores of the extreme northwest, migrating
down the Mississippi valley; hence it is very rare in the Maritime Provinces, scarce in
the Great Lakes region, and more common westward. .

Economic Status. What has been said of the Upland Plover is probably
true of this species.

263. Spotted Sandpiper. PEWIT. TEETER. TIP-UP. FR.—LA MAUBECHE TACHE-

TEE. L’ALOUETTE A BRAULE QUEUE. Actitis macularia. L,7-50. Plate VIIIB.

101

Distinctions. Adults have decidedly round breast spots and a slight greenish lustre
on the back. Young autumn birds resemble the Solitary but are distinguished by white
instead of barred axillars.

Field Marks. Size and distinct round spots on breast. When flying it may be
distinguished from the Solitary Sandpiper, which it most resembles, by the white line
along the edges of the secondaries and the much smaller amount of black and white
barring on the tail. The flight, when the observer becomes familiar with it, is also quite
characteristic.

Nesting. Slight hollow in ground at no great distance from water, in the shelter
of a bit of shrub or grass.

Distribution. Breeds over the whole of eastern Canada to the northernmost parts
of Ungava. Common throughout its range.

This is the commonest summer Sandpiper in Canada; occasional pairs
are to be found along the smallest streams. It frequents all kinds of ground;
sandy beaches, gravelly reaches, mud flats, or rocky shores. Almost any
Sandpiper seen in summer near our waters may be put down as this species
unless there are good grounds for other identification. Its habit of bobbing
its body up and down occasionally, even when apparently at rest, or more
rapidly when excited, has given it the common name ‘‘Tip-up’’. Its
white-barred wings, peculiar flight, with a few quick beats followed by a
short sail on decurved wings, and its loud triumphant “‘ pewit-pewit-pewit”’
as it alights on the stream margin well ahead of the intruder are familiar
to all observers. One can chase it from point to point for some distance
from its home ground, when, joined by its mate, it will circle well around
the disturber and return again to the place from which it started.

Economic Status. Though normally frequenting water edges it is often
seen in the adjacent fields, running between the furrows of newly turned
earth or rows of growing plants. Its food is mainly, if not entirely, insec-
tivorous, hence it is beneficial to the farmer. The species has not suffered
severely from shooting and seems to hold its own in the most cultivated
sections.

GENUsS—NvuMENIUs. CuRLEWsS. FR.—LE Couruis, LE CoRBIGEAU.

General Description. Large Shore Birds between 13-50 and 24 inches long. Coloured
in various shades from cream to weak brown, mottled above, lighter and clear below, neck
and breast finely striped and with more or less suffusion or suggestion of buff over all.
The bills are long and curved decidedly downward.

Distinctions. Large size, decurved bill, and general buffy colour. Distinguished
from the Godwits by down-curved instead of slightly up-turned bill.

Field Marks. Large size, and decurved bill, general buff colour.

Large size among birds is a distinct menace to their existence. The
Curlews are a good example of this and unless intelligent measures to pro-
tect them are taken in the near future there will soon be none left. In the
east the Curlews have almost disappeared, but in the west there is still
a fair number left. The vegetable part of their food is largely wild fruit and
in the Maritime Provinces they frequent barrens and upland bogs for
bake-apple berries and cranberries. In cultivated fields, insects are their
chief food and as many noxious species, including grasshoppers, are con-
sumed their presence is decidedly beneficial to the farmer.

264. Long-billed Curlew. sIcKLE-BILL CURLEW. FR.—LE COURLIS A LONG BEC.
Numenius americanus. L, 24. The largest of the genus. The coloration of all the
Curlews is quite similar, but the Long-bill is distinctly buff below instead of creamy-
white (see previous heading).

102

Distinctions. In well grown specimens the extreme length of bill (6 inches) of this
species is diagnostic, but, as in numerous other species showing great specialization or
size, growth continues for some time after apparent maturity and this feature is unreliable
as sole guide. The crown, axillars, and primary characters, however, make good criteria
for the Curlews. In this species the crown is dark, evenly spotted with light without
aggregation into a median line, and the inner vanes of the primaries are marked with
. saw-tooth figures of dark on a light buff ground. The axillars are solidly coloured without

ars.

Field Marks. For recognition as a Curlew see previous page- The Curlews cannot
be separated in life with absolute certainty.

Distribution. Breeds in the prairie provinces and well to the south. It is recorded
originally as a more or less common migrant on the Atlantic coast north to the Maritime
Provinces, but does not occur there now; also recorded from the Great Lakes region
but without supporting evidence. The general confusion of this with the Hudsonian
Curlew is responsible for many known misidentifications and the species should in future
only be recorded in eastern Canada upon the conclusive evidence of specimens.

265. Hudsonian Curlew. FR.—LE COURLIS DE LA BAIE D’HUDSON. Nuwmenius hud-
sonicus. L, 17. A smaller Curlew than the last, but larger than the next. Of same
general coloration, but the Hudsonian less buffy than the Long-billed, the underparts
being dull creamy; see Curlew heading, previous page.

Distinctions. Often diagnosed as the Long-billed, but can be easily distinguished
from the other Curlews by the pronounced median stripe on the crown, instead of uni-
formly distributed spots, combined with the saw-tooth marks on the inner webs of the
primaries, and the barred axillars.

Field Marks. For recognition as Curlews see Curlew, previous page. Curlews
cannot be easily separated in life with certainty, but size and length of bill may help.
This is the only species likely to be met with in eastern Canada.

Distribution. Breeds in the northwestern Arctic. Migrates down the Pacific coast,
and across the continent to the Atlantic where it is more common than in the interior.
A regular though not abundant migrant in the Great Lakes region.

This is the only Curlew of which we have any satisfactory evidence on
the lower Great Lakes. It has learned from experience to be a wild and
wary bird, and as it now occurs in numbers only in the extreme east not
very many are taken.

266. Eskimo Curlew. FR.—LE COURLIS DU NORD. CORBIGEAU DES ESQUIMAUX.
Numenius borealis. LL, 13-50. The smallest of the Curlews. Of same general coloration
as the Hudsonian.

Distinctions. Easily separated from either of the other Curlews by its smaller size
and plain unmarked primaries, though the axillars are barred as in the Hudsonian, and
the crown evenly spotted, without median stripe, as in t he Long-billed.

Field Marks. See preceding species. This bird is, however, too rare nowadays for
eyesight record.

Distribution. Breeds on the barren grounds of the Mackenzie district. Migrates in
aul across to Labrador and then down the coast. In spring it ascends the Mississippi
valley.

Very close to extinction. Whether or not ill-regulated shooting was
the chief cause of its great reduction in numbers, for old accounts speak of
immense flocks, it was certainly contributory. This is another case of
disappearance coming before realization of the necessity of protection and
the apparent or threatened loss of a species that can never be repla« °d.

FAMILY-——CHARADRIIDH. PLOVER.

General Description. Plover are rather more stoutly and compactly built than the
Snipe-like birds. Their bills are shorter, soft at the base, but ending in a hard, horny tip,
(Figure 24, p. 22). Hind toe lacking in all species except Black-bellied (p. 103) in which it
is very small and almost rudimentary.

103

Distinctions. With the above description the Plover are not likely to be confused
with anything else.
Nesting. On ground in a slight depression usually lined with scanty grass, moss,
other waste vegetation, or pebbles.
istribution. In closely related or nearly identical forms the family is circumpolar
in distribution, breeding mostly north of present settlement.

The Plover are well known to the sportsman. They average larger
in size than the Snipes and some of them which feed in upland fields offer
considerable sport.

Economic Status. As a family they frequent cultivated land more than
other Shore Birds and hence are of somewhat greater economic interest.
They are actively helpful to man.

270. Black-bellied Plover. BULL-HEAD. FR.—LE PLUVIER A VENTRE NOIR, VAN-
NEAU GRIS. Squatarola squatarola. L, 11. Spring plumage—back, almost black with
many broad white feather-tips aggregated on wings; crown and hindneck, almost white;
cheeks, throat, foreparts and breast to abdomen, pure black, often showing white feathers
remaining from immaturity. Autumn plumage—back, weak brown with cream or yellow-
ish feather ends to top of head; throat, foreneck, and underparts dull whitish with indis-
tinct breast-band of veiled stripes. All intermediate plumages are taken within our bound-
aries.

Distinctions. Plover-like characters; will be mistaken only for the Golden Plover
which it closely resembles. The presence of a small though well-formed hind toe is peculiar
to this bird as it is our only Plover with a fourth toe.

_ Field Marks. Requiring separation only from the Golden Plover. Rather incon-
spicuous white band on the spread wing, axillars black, in strong contrast to background
of underwing surface when flying, and white rump to be seen under favourable conditions.

Distribution. A circumpolar species breeding in America along the Arctic coast
northwest of Hudson bay. More or less common in migration in suitable habitats through-
out eastern Canada.

272. American Golden Plover. FR—PLUVIER DORE D’AMERIQUE. Charadrius
dominicus. L, 10-50. Spring plumage—back almost black to top of head, with numerous
yellow feather-tips, more scanty on crown; forehead and line over eye, descending to
sides of breast, white; throat, foreneck, and ‘all underparts solid black. Autumn plumage
—above, dull ‘brown with many cream to yellow feather-edge spots, aggregating on
rump and crown; throat and face, white or whitish slightly spotted; breast and all below,
faintly barred with dull white and light tints of the brown of the back. All intermediate
plumages may be seen.

Distinctions. A slightly smaller bird than the foregoing but easily confused with it.
The large amount of yellow on the back of spring plumage and the faint barrings of the
breast and underparts in the autumn are characteristic. The absence of any trace of
hind toe is diagnostic in any plumage.

Field Marks. Only needing separation from the previous species. Extended wing
without any indication of white band; axillars smoke-grey instead of conspicuous black;
rump not white.

Distribution. Breeds in the barren grounds from Hudson bay westward. It is said
to have extraordinary migration routes. In the autumn it moves eastward to Labrador,
then southward across the gulf of St. Lawrence to Nova Scotia, where it takes an over-sea
route to Brazil without touching intermediate land unless storm-driven. From thence
it works down to the Argentine pampas. In the spring it strikes western South America
about Equador, crosses the isthmus of Panama and the gulf of Mexico, and follows up the
Mississippi valley to its breeding grounds. That it takes this immense flight over the
broad Atlantic without resting seems too remarkable to be true, but as it is not a pro-
ficient swimmer able-to rest on the water at will, the evidence points towards this conclu-
sion.

SUBSPECIES. The American Golden Plover is divided into two subspecies; only
the Easterr Golden Plover, the type form, occurs in eastern Canada.

Once far more common than now. Within the memory of living
sportsmen large flocks were regularly seen; now only occasional birds are
met with. It is very closely related to the Golden Plover of Europe.

104

273. Killdeer Plover. FR—LE PLUVIER KILDIR. Ozxyechus vociferus. lL, 10-50.
Plate IX A

Distinctions. As the Killdeer is the largest of the Ringnecked Plovers it can hardly
be confused with its smaller relatives. The double instead of single breast band also dis-
tinguishes it from them.

Field Marks. Size, two breast bands instead of one, striking ochraceous tail and
rump, and distinctive call of ‘‘killdee-killdee-killdee.”’

Nesting. A mere hollow in the ground scantily lined with vegetable fragments.

Distribution. A species of remarkably wide range, breeding from the northern limits
of cultivation in Canada to the gulf of Mexico. Rare or absent from vicinity of either
coast.

A common summer bird over all Canada except in the sea coast districts.
Its loud voice is familiar to all country residents and visitors. <A true Shore
Bird, it frequents the high dry uplands and cultivated fields, often nesting
in the ploughed furrows amidst the crops. When its young are hatched,
however, it usually leads them to water, some quiet nearby pool as
a rule, and as soon as they are able to take care of themselves they unite in
small seattered flocks. That this species has been able to survive and
thrive in the midst of cultivation and civilization while other species
apparently as well able to take care of themselves have succumbed, is
probably due to its comparatively solitary habits and to its not general’p
gathering in dense flocks, the pursuit of which is profitable.

Economic Status. Its food is largely insectivorous and through spring
and early summer it frequents ground where it can do much good.

274. Semipalmated Plover. RING-NECK PLOVER. FR.—LE PLUVIER SEMIPALME:
igialitis semipalmata. L, 6-75. A small Plover of general resemblance to the Killdeer,
but with one instead of two dark breast-bands and without the ochraceous rump
and tail of that species. Autumn birds are similar, but the colours are washed out and
with no clear black anywhere.

Distinctions. With size and the above description, can be mistaken only for the
Piping Plover, but the back coloration is decidedly brownish in all plumages instead of
smoke-grey or dry sand colour, the breast band is always broad, continuous, and well-
marked even in autumn, and the ear coverts behind and below the eye are always decidedly
dark instead of pure white. Feet with small webs explain the accepted common name;
the only Plover in Canada which is so provided.

Field Marks. Size and a single instead of double breast-band distinguish this from
the Killdeer Plover, and the back, dark-coloured like wet sand, from the Piping Plover
which is lighter and grey like dry sand.

Nesting. Slight hollow in the ground or shore refuse.

Distribution. Breeds in the high north across the continent; south, in the east, to
the gulf of St. Lawrence. Common in migration in suitable localities in eastern Canada.

A pretty little Plover frequenting mud flatsor sandy beaches indiffer-
ently. Closely related to the European Ring Plover and _ distinguished
only by slightly smaller size and a few minor details.

277. Piping Plover. RING-NECK. FR.—LE PLUVIER CRIARD. Aigialitis meloda. L,
7-10. Spring plumage—same markings as the Semipalmated previously described, but
back in lighter colours. Back and crown light smoke-grey, a black bar across fore-crown,
remainder, collar around neck, and forehead white; a black ring about neck, just below
the white one, sometimes broken on the breast. Autumn birds—similar but without black
neck ring and generally weaker in coloration.

Distinctions. Can be mistaken only for the Semipalmated but easily distinguished.
by the characters given under that heading.

Field Marks. Distinguished from the Semipalmated Plover by its lighter coloration,
like dry instead of wet sand. Its melodious whistle is easily remembered when once heard.

Nesting. Depression in the sand made by the bird and containing only a few small
pebbles, coarse grains of sand, or fragments of shell upon which the eggs rest. —

Distribution. Breeds on “sandy shores locally from the prairie provinces to the gulf
of St. Lawrence and Sable island.

OI ey a Ne

105

A small Plover well called meloda. It is asand-beach bird and never
seen in grassy or marshy stituations. Some individuals have broken and
others complete black breast-bands. The latter were for some time re-
garded as a subspecies but now all are included under the one form. The
Snowy Plover, Hgialitis nivosa, has been taken on lake Ontario, but is probably
not to be expected again. It is slightly smaller than the Piping, of same
general coloration but with a dark aural or cheek patch, and only a spot
of dark at the sides of the breast instead of a complete bar across it. A more
southern and western bird and can only occur as a straggler.

FAMILY—APHRIZIDH. TURNSTONES.

General Descripijon. Medium-sized Shore Birds with bill (Figure 27, p. 22) moder-
ately short, horny for the terminal half, tip slightly flattened (in a horizontal plane) but
not distinctly enlarged as in the Piover.

A small family of world-wide distribution. Only one species of this
family in eastern Canada.

283a. Turnstone. RUDDY TURNSTONE. AMERICAN TURNSTONE. CARRIQUET PLOKWER
CALICO PLOVER. FR.—LA TOURNE-PIERRE A POITRINE NOIRE. TOURNE PIERRE. Aren-
aria interpres. L, 9-50.

Distinctions. A strikingly coloured bird. Back in rather broad masses of dull red,
black, and white more or less intermixed. Rump and head white, the crown striped with
brown or black. Underparts pure white, with black breast-band, extending up side of neck
to face where it makes a circle through the eye and around a white loral spot. Autumn
birds have the colours subdued and the back coloration lost or only faintly represented,
but enough of the face and breast markings always remain to suggest the above diagnosis.

Field Marks. The peculiar pied coloration in red, black, and white of the spring
plumage. In the autumn the white lower back and upper tail coverts separated by a dark
bar.

Nesting. Depression in the ground lined with a few dead leaves or vegetable fibres.

Distribution. The Turnstone as a species has one of the widest distributions of any
bird, there being few countries where it has not occurred. The American subspecies
representative of the species, the Ruddy Turnstone, breeds from the Arctic coast west of
Hudson Bay northward, and is more common on the Atlantic than the Pacific coast;
locally common, in migration, in the Great Lakes region.

SUBSPECIES. The Turnstone is represented in America by a subspecies, the
Ruddy Turnstone A. i. morinella, though the typical form is said to occur in western
Alaska.

A bird of sandy, muddy, or rocky shores, but preferring the first.
It is named from its habit of turning over small stones and pebbles on the
beach searching for food beneath them, and it is astonishing what com-
paratively large stones it can move. It inserts its bill under the edge,
gives a little fillip, and away goes the stone rolling or skidding over the
beach to a considerable distance. It is a comparatively good swimmer.
It differs from the Old World Turnstone only in slightly smaller size, less
black on the upperparts, and the stronger coloration of the legs.

FAMILY—HAMATOPODIDAH. OYSTER CATCHERS.

General Description. Large Shore Bird more heavily built than is usual in the order;
bill stout and horny, flattened laterally (sideways) at tip. There is only one species that
may perhaps occur in eastern Canada.

286. American Oyster-catcher. H#MATOPUS PALLIATUS. L, 19. Head, neck,
and upper breast, black; back, olive-brown with contrasting white wing-patch and rump.
All underparts, pure white; bill, large, bright red.

Distribution. Atlantic coast north to Virginia. Formerly to New Jersey and acci-
dental to New Brunswick. Probably bred throughout its range.

106

The northern range of this striking bird was once on our southern
sea coasts. It haslong been exterminated (?) in Canada and there is little
chance of its occurring again.

Order—Gallinz. Scratching Birds.

As the name implies, these birds are adapted for securing their food
by scratching in the ground. The best popular representatives are the
common barnyard poultry, but the order glides almost imperceptibly
into the Pigeons on one hand and the Shore Birds on the other. They are
well distributed over the world, being found in almost every country on
the globe. In Canada we have only one suborder of the group, Phasiani,
the true fowis.

SUBORDER—PHASIANI. TRUE FOWLS. GROUSE, QUAIL, AND PTARMIGAN.

General Description. ‘This suborder is composed of birds with strong, compact feet,
four toes, and blunt claws adapted for scratching in the ground (Figure 28, p. 22). Though
best adapted for terrestrial life they perch readily in trees and often feed and roost there.
Bills short, horny, and with strongly arched culmen (Figure 29, p. 23); nostrils set in a
soft intrusion into the base of the bill; wings short and round. These birds rarely take
wing except for short flights or to avoid immediate danger.

Nesting. On ground, eggs laid on the dead grass or leaves with little or no preparation.

Distribution. Species of this suborder are found in all parts of Canada. The Ruffed
and Spruce Grouse and the Turkey are birds of the woodlands; the Bob-white, Prairie
Chicken, and Sharp-tail inhabit open or prairie country; and the Ptarmigan, the barren
lands of the extreme north.

Three families of this order are represented in Canada. Odontopho-
ride the American Quail, Tetraonide the Grouse, and Meleagride the Turkeys.

Economic Status. Their food is both insectivorous and vegetable—
grains, buds, leaves, fruit, and insects being equally acceptable to them.
As several species frequent cultivated fields their economic status is of
interest to the husbandman and has been the subject of considerable in-
vestigation, the results of which show that some of them are among the
most useful birds on the farm. The insect portion of the food of some
species is decidedly important and very little complaint can be made
against the other items as they are mostly waste or wild material of little
or no consequence to the agriculturist.

Like most of our larger birds they have been greatly reduced in number,
and should be strictly protected and their killing limited to the natural
annual surplus, leaving an ample permanent breeding stock untouched.
The Canadian representatives of this suborder are divided into three
families: Odontophoride, the American Quails; Tetraonide, the Grouse;
and Meleagride, the Turkeys.

FAMILY—ODONTOPHORIDA. AMERICAN QUAILS.

General Description. The smallest representatives of the suborder in Canada. The
nostril is partly covered with a fleshy scale and not as well hidden in the feathering as it is
in the feathering of the Grouse. There is only one species of the family in eastern Canada.

The term ‘Quail’ for our American birds is a misnomer. They are
not Quails in the European sense but true Partridges. In their turn our
‘‘Partridges’”’ are Grouse. These are examples of a common misapplication

+ =.

107

of Old World names to New World forms. There are many such cases,
confusing to the beginner but too well established in vernacular usage to
be corrected at this late date.

This family is of rather southern distribution reaching its maximum
in number of both species and individuals in the southwestern states
and Mexico.

289. Bob-white. AMERICAN Qual. Colinus virginianus. L, 10. Plate IX B.

Distinctions. Can be mistaken for no other bird in Canada. Size and coloration
combined with evident fowl-like character are distinctive.

Field Marks. Small, partridge-like bird which rises suddenly from the ground and
flies with rapid beats and loud reverberating wing-strokes.

Distribution. The Bob-white and its allied subspecies are distributed over eastern
North America, north to and including southern Ontario.

SUBSPECIES. The subspecies of Bob-white native to eastern Canada is the type
form—the Virginia Bob-white.

The Bob-white occurs in Canada only in southern Ontario where
it is known to every country dweller. In the autumn the sportsman hunts
it with dogs, in spring the ploughman and small boy find its nest in the
course of their farm work, and all are familiar with its clear whistle-like
eall of “Bob-white,” or as otherwise interpreted ‘‘More-wet.” It is not
a retiring species which withdraws into the deepest woodland recesses on
the advent of cultivation; but it keeps to the clearings, hanging about
woodland edges, shrubby fence-lines, or overgrown wastes in close prox-
imity to the fields. When food is scarce it will often come into the barn-
yard and feed with the poultry. Open land is its feeding ground, the brush
its refuge from danger. Before the country was cleared, the Bob-white
was probably rare in Canada, but advancing settlement opened up new
ground for the species. Even in the most southern parts of the country
to-day the Bob-white remains precariously, fluctuating greatly in numbers,
and it is evidently hardly suited for this northern limit of its range. It is
prolific, however, and favourable winters and a few years of abstention
from shooting increase its numbers many times; but coverts are almost
invariably overshot and hard winters periodically reduce its numbers.
The hardest natural conditions it has to combat are deep snow covering
the food supply, and wet sleety weather which not only chills it but seals
it under an icy crust when it seeks refuge in the snow at night. The Ring-
necked Pheasant, rather extensively introduced as a sporting bird, is said
with some supporting evidence to be inimical to it. In addition to the
sporting value of the species it is deserving of every encouragement by
agriculturists from a purely economic standpoint and for this reason
might perhaps with advantage be withdrawn from our list of game birds.

It has been a common practice to repopulate depleted covers with
birds imported from the southern states. Whether this introduction of
stock, unacclimatized to northern conditions, has weakened the constitu-
tion of native birds is still undetermined. Several subspecies of the Bob-

_ white occur in the south and importation has left doubtful the real char-

acters of our own original form, which to-day can only be judged from
specimens antedating such introductions.

Economic Status. The bulk of the Bob-white’s food is weed seed.
The grain it eats is waste, gleaned from the ground. The insect content,
57172—8

108

though not especially large, includes some species not ordinarily eaten
by other birds and for that reason is specially important. It is one of the
few birds that will eat the potato beetle.

FAMILY—TETRAONIDA. GROUSE.

The Grouse have their nostrils hidden in feathers that occupy an
ntrusive space in the base of the bill at the sides (Figure 29, p. 23). The
tarsus is either completely or partly feathered, in the Ptarmigan the
feathering includes the toes. The toes when unfeathered, are bordered
on each side by a small fringe composed of individual horny scales or
pectinations (Figure 28, p. 22), which are shed in midsummer. ‘The
Grouse comprise the bulk of our upland game birds and are great
favourites of sportsmen. The sexes are alike or nearly so, and except m
the Ptarmigans show slight seasonal variation in plumage and do not
usually migrate. The Ptarmigan,which directly reverse each of these
statements, are so well characterized otherwise that no confusion is prob-
able. All species nest on the ground, making little preparation for the
eggs. They lay unusually large sets of eggs, six to eighteen, and the
young, chicken-like, follow the parent as soon as out of the shell.

298. Spruce Grouse. CANADA GROUSE, SPRUCE PARTRIDGE, FOOL HEN. FR.—LE TETRAS
DU CANADA. Canachites canadensis. L,15. Plate X A.

Distinctions. Easily distinguished by colour, ete., from the Ruffed Grouse which
is about the only species in eastern Canada that can possibly be mistaken for it. In the
extreme west there are forms that closely resemble it.

Field Marks. General bluish colour of the male. Absence of ruff or specialized neck
feathers and the presence of the striking red comb over the eye, present in both sexes but
more conspicuous in the male.

Distribution. Through the northern coniferous wooded regions of Canada, resident
wherever found.

SUBSPECIES. The Spruce Partridge is divided into several geographical races, two
of which, the Hudsonian Spruce Partridge Canachites canadensis canadensis, the type form,
and the Canada Spruce Grouse C.. c. canace, occur in eastern Canada. The former occupies
the Labrador peninsula and the more northern ranges and the latter New Brunswick,
eOuEEe Ontario, etc. They are too similar, however, to be differentiated in a popular
work.

A northern bird of the spruce woods. Its super-confiding nature has
given it the popular name of ‘‘Fool-hen”’ as, where not much disturbed,
it can often be killed with a stick or with stones. Owing to its feeding
largely upon spruce or evergreen buds its flesh is too strong for the ordinary
civilized palate.

Economic Status. Being of northern distribution and living in the
evergreen forests, it has no economic influence.

300. Ruffed Grouse. PARTRIDGE. BIRCH PARTRIDGE. FR.—LA GELINOTTE A FRAISE.
Bonasa umbellus. L,17. Plate X B (Feet and bill, Figures 27, 28, p. 22). cr

Distinctions. The Ruffed Grouse, with its prominent soft, black ruff at the sides of
the neck, large fan-shaped tail, and eye-like spots on the rump and lower back cannot
well be mistaken for any other species.

Field Marks. Large size and fan-shaped tail.

Distribution. The Ruffed Grouse is distributed throughout the wooded areas of Canada
north to the tree limits.

SUBSPECIES. Several geographic races of the Ruffed Grouse are recognized.
The type form is of southern distribution and is replaced in eastern Canada by the Canada
Ruffed Grouse Bonasa umbellus togata, characterized by a greyer or less red coloration.

109

This is the “Partridge” of most Canadian sportsmen Dwelling in
the deep woods amidst the underbrush, lying close, rising at the feet like
a miniature explosion, and flying with great speed through the dim forest

_ it tests the alertness and marksmanship of any sportsman. The Ruffed

Grouse to-day is found only in the forest patches where cover and a con-
siderable area give it protection and along the fringes of settlement where
it still exists precariously.

Sudden weather changes are a serious menace to the Ruffed Grouse.
Wet, cold springs are deadly to the young and sleet destroys much potential
breeding stock in winter. In severe weather the Ruffed Grouse seeks
shelter beneath the snow or allows the latter to drift over it. Should soft
weather come followed by cold, as often happens, it is frozen under a crust
which it cannot break and so succumbs.

The drumming of the Partridge is a familiar sound to all frequenters
of the woods. It is a series of dull reverberating throbs made by the rapidly
beating wings and has a peculiar all-pervading intensity which makes the
direction of its origin difficult of location. The beats begin slowly, gradu-
ally increasing in speed until at the end of perhaps five seconds they run
into each other and die away in a confused whir. The bird is usually
strutting along a prostrate log when he pauses to drum. During the drum-
ming the bird displays all its ornaments—tail, crest, and ruffs—and though
standing upright and still, the wings are lost in a haze of speed. Two

_ sources for this drumming noise are suggested, one that the wings are

struck together over the back and the other that they are brought against
the sides to produce the beat. Either or neither may contribute to the
effect. The sound from the wings beating on the air as the bird rises to
wing is quite similar in quality if not in intensity or meter, and the mere
beating of the air seems sufficient to produce the effect. The action, of
course, is the call of the male to the female, as is the display of the Peacock
or the Turkey Gobler. Spring is the proper season for drumming, but it
is indulged in more or less throughout the summer and with increased
frequency again in the autumn. In the Canada Ruffed Grouse Bonasa
umbellus togata, two well-defined colour phases appear which are not
governed by sex, season, or locality. In one form there is considerable
red; in an extreme example the ruffs are copper-coloured rather than black,

_ the tail is strikingly red, and there is more or less of the same colour else.
_where. In the grey form, which is perhaps the most typical, the tail is

na et

decidedly grey, there is less red elsewhere, and the ruffs are black with a
shght greenish sheen. All intermediate forms are met with.

Economic Status. As the species lives in woods nothing can be said
against it even if, apart from its sentimental and sporting importance,
little economic value can be claimed for it.

GENUS—LaGopus. PTARMIGAN.

General Description. The Ptarmigan are more northern Grouse, and notable for their
remarkable seasonal change in plumage. In winter, they are pure white; in summer, barred

_ with various shades of red, brown, and ochre, with the reddish usually prevailing. Their feet

are feathered to the ends of the toes and they perform definite and long migrations, walking

_ most of the way but occasionally taking flights from point to point or across such wide

waters as Hudson strait. As, even in midsummer, irregular patches of white remain in
their plumage, and, as their feet are always feathered to the toes, there is no chance of
57172—8}

110

mistaking them. They are circumpolar in distribution and are found in both the Old
and New Worlds. Like many other Arctic forms they extend well southward along mount-
ain ranges where elevation carries northern conditions to lower latitudes. The Red Grouse
of Scotland is an interesting Ptarmigan that has lost its ability to change to white in winter
and retains its summer coloration throughout the year. There are two species in eastern
Canada. Owing to the remarkable variability of the species, American Ptarmigan have
been split up into a great number of subspecies only to be distinguished by a specialist
with abundant material for comparison. Economically the Ptarmigan are of little import-
ance eae as a source of food supply to trappers, hunters, and prospectors in the far
north.

301. Willow Grouse. WILLOW PTARMIGAN. FR.—LAGOPEDE DES SAULES. Lagopus
lagopus. L, 15. In winter, all white except the tail which is pure black. In summer,
nearly evenly barred all over in black and various shades of brown, ochre, and rusty. Hither
rust or ochre may predominate.

Distinctions. In winter the all white head and absence of black line through eye
distinguishes this from the Rock Ptarmigan. In summer, its superior size, especially well
shown by a comparison of the bills, is the most easily recognized point of identification.

Distribution. The Arctic, across the continent, migrates south in winter to the frontier
of civilization.

SUBSPECIES. The subspecies occurring over most of Canada is the type form,
the Willow Ptarmigan. Another, Allen’s Ptarmigan L. 7. alleni, occurs in Newfoundland.

302. Rock Ptarmigan. FR—LA LAGOPEDE DES ROCHERS. Lagopus rupestris.
L, 13. In winter, all white except a black tail and line through eye to base of bill. In
summer, very similar to preceding species.

Distinctions. In winter, black eye line. In summer, size, especially of bill, when
compared with Willow Grouse is diagnostic.

Distribution. The Arctic, across the continent, in winter slightly more northern than
the previous species.

SUBSPECIES. Three subspecies of Rock Ptarmigan are recognized in eastern
Canada: Reinhardts Ptarmigan L. r. reinhardti in the northern extremity of Ungava,
Welsh’s Ptarmigan L. r. welchi in Newfoundland, and the type form, the Arctic Ptarmigan,
in the remaining areas.

305. Prairie Chicken. PRAIRIE HEN. PINNATED GROUSE. T'ympanuchus ameri-
canus. L, 18. A Grouse of the same size as the Ruffed, coloured in shades of
brown, light ochre, and white, but without the long fan-shaped tail and with
the soft ruff replaced by a few long, straight, stiff feathers pointed downward over the
shoulders. The barring on the underparts and breast is clear and sharp and is continued
across the back and upper parts as well as below.

Distinctions. The above points easily distinguish this species from the Ruffed
Grouse. From the next species, the Sharp-tailed Grouse, it can be as certainly distin-
guished by its breast barred instead of covered with V-shaped markings. Other distinc-
tions are the presence of long stiff feathers on the sides of the neck and the stiff tail not
ending in a point when closed.

SUBSPECIES. Two subspecies of Prairie Chicken are recognized. The form
which occurs in Canada is the type race, the Northern Prairie Chicken.

This is the true Prairie Chicken of the western prairies, though in
western Canada the name is popularly and incorrectly given to the next
species described. It is included here only because an occasronal bird
has been taken in the southern parts of Ontario, to which it seems to have
spread from the Michigan side of Detroit river where, once common, .
it is now rare and restricted to a few localities. Within the memory of the
present generation in parts of the west it has gradually encroached upon
and displaced the next species.

Economic Status. Too rare in eastern Canada to require much dis-
cussion here. In the west where it occurs in numbers it is of considerable
economic importance, but no damage can be charged against it.

111

308. Sharp-tailed Grouse. PIN-TAILED GROUSE. FR.—LA GELINOTTE A QUEUE
AIGUE. Pedic«cetes phasianellus. L, 17-50. Coloured in fine indefinite patterns
of browns and white, or cream, on the upper parts, tending towards bars only across the
shoulders; underparts pure white. Across breast each feather is bordered with a dark
V-shaped figure which changes to a short bar as it ascends the neck and to fine spots on
the creamy throat.

Distinctions. "The V marks of the breast and the soft, sharp point of the closed tail
are conclusive and easily recognized identification marks.

Distribution. A more northern species and less distinctly an open prairie form than
the Prairie Chicken. Distributed across the continent north of present cultivated areas
in the east, but is very local as there are large stretches of country where it is absent or
rare. It comes south irregularly in autumn to the edges of settlement. In the prairie
provinces it extends south to and across the United States border.

SUBSPECIES. The species is divided into several geographic races. Along the
Manitoba boundary the Prairie Sharp-tail Pediecetes phasianellus campestris is likely
to be found; elsewhere in eastern Canada the typical or Northern Sharp-tail.

In the west this is a prairie bird but it is locally being replaced by the
previous species.
FAMILY—-MELEAGRIDH. TURKEYS.

The largest of our scratching birds and so familiar from its domesti-
cated form that it requires no detailed description. We have had only one
species in Canada.

310. Wild Turkey. Meleagris gallopavo. L, 48-50. So nearly like our domestic
Bronze Turkey as to require no special description.

Distinctions. The only bird from which it is necessary to separate the Wild Turkey
is the tame or domestic variety. The latter originated from Mexican stock and in con-
sequence always shows a little white on the end of the tail. The tail of the Wild Turkey
ends in wood-brown.

Distribution. Originally distributed over the whole of eastern North America to
Maine and southern Ontario.

SUBSPECIES. Several subspecies of Wild Turkey are recognized. The type
form is found in Mexico. The Canadian bird is the Northern Wild Turkey Meleagris
gallopavo silvestris.

The Turkey as a wild form occurred in Canada only in southern Ontario
and has been extinct for a number of years. At present the Wild Turkey
remains only in the most out-of-the-way wooded localities of the wilder
southern states and even there it promises to vanish soon. There is
probably considerable native wild blood in the domesticated turkey flocks
along lake Erie and a number of specimens of so-called Wild Turkeys are
obviously at least half-bred with domestic blood.

Order—Columbz. Pigeons and Doves.

This order, of world-wide distribution, is variously divided by different
authors. According to the system of classification of the American Or-
nithologists’ Union all our American species are included in the one family,
Columbide. _They are the most typically pigeon-like in form and, therefore,
may be called the True Pigeons.

FAMILY—COLUMBIDH. TRUE PIGEONS AND DOVES.

Pigeons and Doves can in a general way be said to resemble the outline
and actions of our familiar domestic stock. Characters more easily
recognized than described. Systematically they can be recognized by their
bills. These are hard and horny at the tip, which is very slightly enlarged

112

and with the basal half furnished with a soft, slightly swollen membrane in
which nostrils open (Figure 35, p. 24). The legs and feet are weak, fitted
only for walking on small level areas or for simple perching. Our common
domestic Pigeons, descended from the Rock Dove of Europe, show all the
most distinctive characters of the family. There are no recognizable or
taxonomic differences between the so-called Pigeons and Doves.

315. Passenger Pigeon. WILD PIGEON. FR.—LE PIGEON VOYAGEUR. Hctopistes mi-
gratorius. L, 16-29. Plate XIA.

Distinctions. The Mourning Dove is so often taken for this species that the two
should be diagnosed with care. The Pigeon is a considerably larger bird; the breast is
distinctly ruddy and the head and upper parts are slate-blue in the male. The female
is without the strong blue on the back, but the head retains a bluish shade that is never
present in the Mourning Dove, which is more evenly fawn coloured and has a small black
spot on the side of the neck just below the ear.

Field Marks. As this species is now extinct, field marks are unnecessary.

Nesting. The Passenger Pigeon built a rough nest of sticks in trees, in large com-
munities.

Distribution. Bred in the wooded sections of most of Canada east of the mountains
and south to the middle states, wintered in the southern states and beyond.

The immense flocks of Passenger Pigeons that once darkened the air
were one of the wonders of America. The descriptions of their number, if
they were not circumstantial and well vouched for by men of undoubted
veracity, would sound like wild stretches of the imagination: flocks, so
dense that haphazard shots into them would bring down numbers, travelled
rapidly with a front miles in width and so long that it took hours to pass a
given point. Audubon estimates one such flock as containing over a
billion birds, basing his figures upon the density and area of the congre-
gation and not by mere guess. They bred in dense rookeries where their
weight often broke the branches from forest trees. Trees containing
their nests were cut down and though each nest contained only one squab
there were so many that the pigs were turned in to feed upon them. Later,
the netting of pigeons was the occupation of professional fowlers who
shipped their proceeds by the car load to the centres of population. Of
course, not even the immense numbers of the Passenger Pigeons could
stand such attacks without diminution and gradually they decreased. To
suggest a halt in the proceedings at that time, however, aroused nothing
but amusement. Their numbers were held to be inexhaustible, but to-day
the species is extinct and the last one, a captive bird, died in Cincinnati a
short time ago. The last great rookery was near Petoskey, Mich. In the
autumn of 1878 the birds left, but failed to return in any commercial
number the following spring. For a few years afterwards occasional small
flocks were seen and isolated rookeries were reported, but as the fowiers
investigated each case it became apparent that the netting of pigeons as an
occupation was a thing of the past. Thereafter, the birds became fewer
and fewer each year until records of them disappeared altogether. There
are occasional rumors even yet of flocks occurring in out of the way
places, in the western mountains in Mexico or South America and else-
where, but in each case, investigation has proved that the reports are based
on other species or on misinformation. For several years a large reward
was offered for news of a single nesting pair. Of course, the person who
offered the reward was flooded with reports but not a single case stood
examination, the reward was never earned, and was finally withdrawn. In
the east, the Mourning Dove was the usual basis of report, in the west the

113

Band-tailed Pigeon. Even yet circumstantial accounts appear from time
to time, vouched for by those who remember the bird in their childhood,
but there is little doubt that the species is extinct.

316. Mourning Dove. CAROLINA DOVE. FR.—LA TOURTERELLE DE LA CAROLINE.
Zenaidura macroura. L, 11-85. Plate XI A.

Distinctions. Smaller size and of a browner fawn colour than the Passenger Pigeon,
without marked red on breast or blue on back and with small black spot on side of neck
below ear. Can only be mistaken for the previous species.

Nesting. The Mourning Dove builds a loose open platform of sticks in the lower
branches of trees or the upper parts of bushes. Nests alone and not in communities.

Distribution. Breeds along our southern borders in eastern Canada, wintering
locally in the most southerly parts and in the states just south of us to the tropics.

SUBSPECIES. The Mourning Dove inhabiting the most of North America is
the Carolina Mourning Dove Z. m. carolinensis, which is the only subspecies generally
recognized as occurring in Canada. The type form is entirely extralimital.

Though the Passenger Pigeon has disappeared entirely, the smaller
Mourning Dove still exists and probably has greatly increased with the
clearing of the country. The general food habits of the two birds were
much alike except in the proportion of the various food elements. The
Mourning Dove eats mast readily, but it formed the principal food of the
Pigeon which was, therefore, more of a woodland bird. The Mourning
Dove is of more solitary habits and rarely goes in flocks of any size. It
nests entirely alone. This may be a large factor in its continued existence
where its larger and originally more numerous relative has failed. Disease
could not spread through the ranks as thoroughly and any other calamity
that might affect individuals or small bodies, would not involve the species
asawhole. In many sections the Dove is regarded as a game bird, but such
status is not usually recognized by law. Great numbers are killed, however,
incidental to other sport, in spite of legal protection, and the life of the
species is not an undisturbed one. It, is, however, a strong and thriving
race and is in little immediate danger.

Its long mournful note of ‘‘Oh-woe-woe-woe”’ is well known and has
given the name to the species. It has a peculiar quality like that produced
by blowing softly into the neck of an empty bottle.

Economic Status. Though feeding largely upon mast (acorns, beech-
nuts, and such soft-shelled tree-fruit) it eats grain readily and a con-
siderable amount of insect food. Most of the grain it takes is waste, and
seed properly planted and covered is absolutely safe from it for it never
scratches. No serious unpreventable harm can be substantiated against

it and the good it does is positive.

Order—Raptores. Birds of Prey.

General Description. Flesh-eating birds with four well-developed toes (Figures 31
and 32, p. 23), each armed with strong sharp claws or talons for seizing and holding prey.
Bill is hooked (Figures 30, 33 a and b, and 34, pp. 23 and 24), and the base covered with
a soft skin or cere in which the nostrils are situated. The Birds of Prey differ from the
generality of birds-in that the females are considerably larger than the males. This is
probably due to the greater strain placed upon the female in feeding her young, which,
demanding strength, weight, and endurance rather than fineness and technic, necessitates
a greater degree of these qualities in the female than in the male who, while he may assist
his mate, has not the final responsibility for the growing family.

Distribution. Raptorial birds are distributed over all the world except the Antarctic
continent, where their place is taken by Skua, Gulls, and other rapacious sea-birds.

114

Though the classification of this order is far from satisfactory and
probably will eventually have to be revised, American practice divides our
species into three suborders: Sarcorhamphi, the American Vultures, distinct
from those of the Old World; Falcones, the Diurnal Birds of Prey; and
Striges, the Nocturnal Birds of Prey or Owls.

Economic Status. Perhaps no birds are better known and at the same
time so generally misunderstood in their economic relations as these.
All know of the Hawks, Owls, and Eagles and their flesh-eating propensities,
but few realize that amongst them are some of man’s best friends and that
the popular policy of killing them on sight is a mistaken one. Some do
considerable damage, but to include all in the condemnation merited by
the few is a grave economic error. The first family, the Vultures, are
repulsive birds, but as scavengers entirely useful, and no valid complaint
can be lodged against them. Of the other two divisions, the diurnal and
nocturnal rapaces, their varying status is the cause of much misconception.
Fortunately in regard to these birds we can speak with authority based
upon actual data and not mere speculation. The United States Biological
Survey made a thorough study of the food habits of American Hawks and
Owls, basing its conclusions upon the examination of some 2,700 stomachs
taken in all seasons of the year in various parts of the United States and
Canada. The whole is embodied, with the data for its substantiation,
in a report, ‘“‘The Hawks and Owls of the United States” by Dr. A. K.
Fisher,! though compiled in and for an adjoining country all Canadian
species are treated and the results are as applicable to Canada as to the
United States. As some of the less harmful species do not occur in Canada
the percentages below will have to be slightly corrected for our use, but not
seriously enough to perceptibly modify the general conclusions. Only
six of the seventy-three species studied are injurious. Of these, three are
extremely rare in Canada and one is altogether a fish-eater. Of the re-
mainder, 56 per cent of the stomachs examined contained mice and other
small mammals, 27 per cent insects, and only 33 per cent poultry or game
birds. Dividing the raptorial birds of eastern Canada into groups ac-
cording to their economic status we find that three species are wholly
beneficial and absolutely harmless; sixteen are mainly beneficial, doing
decidedly more good than harm; four are about balanced in their effect;
and six are positively harmful. Only three of these latter are common
enough to warrant consideration and only two, the Sharp-shinned and
Cooper’s Hawks, numerous enough in the thickly settled communities to
be noticed. The Goshawk is a more northern species whose distribution
overlaps the edges of settlement on the north. What can be regarded
as a just balance between good and evil is difficult to decide; the loss
of a chicken is definite, easily estimated in value; the absence of the
mice and insects taken by a predaceous bird is a vague benefit that is
difficult of realization or appreciation.

SUBORDER—SARCORHAMPHI. AMERICAN VULTURES.

This suborder is composed of the American Vultures which are sys-
tematically quite distinct from those of the Old World. One family only
is represented in Canada, Cathartide the Turkey Vultures. Vultures

1See also ‘‘ The Hawks of the Canadian prairie provinces in their relation to agriculture,’’
Geol. Surv., Can., Mus. Bull. 28, 1918.

OO ns

115

are carrion feeders, relying upon dead meat and not capturing living prey.
unless it is in the last stages of exhaustion. Ordinarily, they touch nothing
but decaying flesh. This is usually regarded as a matter of choice, but
may be a necessity, as their feet are not formed for grasping and the bill
is comparatively weak. They may, therefore, be unable to break into
large sound carcasses and are forced to await the decay which renders
the subject less refractory.

FAMILY—CATHARTIDEH. TURKEY VULTURES.

General Description. Large birds, uniformly nearly black in coloration. Bill is
comparatively long and less strongly hooked than in remainder of the Raptores (Figure
30, p. 23). Head and upper neck are bare of feathers and have a superficial general
resemblance to those of the turkey, but are without wattles or warty excrescences. Feet
resemble those of a chicken rather than a hawk. Claws are blunt and the whole foot is
poorly adapted for seizing or holding prey.

Distribution. Vultures are essentially birds of the warmer regions. They enter
eastern Canada only along the most southern boundaries.

Vultures cannot be observed to advantage in Canada. In the southern
states they are more common and can be seen every hour of the day floating
on motionless wings high in the air, searching the country below with
telescopic eye for carrion. When an animal dies (or even before) it is
sighted and a black form drops from the sky beside it; shortly it is joined
by another, and another, and soon where not a bird was previously to
be seen many are struggling about the unclean feast. Though dissection
shows very highly developed nostrils, scent does not seem to guide them
to any appreciable extent. Experiment indicates that the eyesight alone
is relied upon for locating food. The flight of the Vultures is one of the
wonders of the physicist. The Vultures hang suspended in the air or
even rise until beyond the bounds of human vision, without visible effort.
On motionless outspread pinions they glide in great ascending spirals,
mounting higher and higher, and then, always circling, maintain their
positions for hours at a time, apparently without a single wing stroke.
Many explanations of the phenomenon have been offered but all so far
advanced fall just short of conviction. In Canada we have only one
species of regular though limited distribution. Another is of casual
occurrence only.

Economic Status. The Vultures are not birds of prey in the usual
acceptation of the term, for they do not kill what they eat but feed entirely
on carrion. They have been accused, and perhaps justly, of accelerating
death at times, but they never attack an animal that is not in the last
stages of dissolution. In Canada the species is of little economic im-
portance, but in the south their Scavenging is an important safeguard
to the health of the more careless communities and in many typical places
they are rigorously protected by law for sanitary reasons.

_ _825. Turkey Vulture. Turkey Buzzarp. Cathartes aura. L, 30. An all dark
bird, nearly black, with head and neck naked or in juveniles covered with greyish brown,
fur-like down.

Distinctions. This species can only be confused with the next, but as the ranges
of the two in Canada do not overlap there is little likelihood of misidentification. The
base of the bill is bright red in the adult and the head and neck dull red. The under surface
of the wings is without silvery sheen.

116

Field Marks. The naked head and neck make the best field mark of the Vultures.
The red colour of these parts identifies this species.

Nesting. On ground, usually in a hollow log.

Distribution. Over most of North America north to the Canadian line which, in the
east, it only crosses in southern Ontario. A few may come in from Manitoba more or
less regularly.

SUBSPECIES. The species occupying most of North and South America is sub-
specifically divided. The form occurring north of Mexico is the Northern Turkey Vulture
Cathartes aura septentrionalis.

Economic Status. Being a carrion feeder no harm can be charged
against the species.

396. Black Vulture. rr.—Le vauTouR Nor. Catharista urubu. L, 24. Very

like the Turkey Vulture, but slightly smaller.
Distinctions. Distinguished from the preceding by the neck, head, and base of the

bill being black instead of red or pink.
Field Marks. The general blackness of the bare head parts and a silvery sheen to
the under-wing surface are diagnostic in life. The tail is shorter and the bird locks blacker

than in the Turkey Buzzard.
Distribution. A bird of more eastern distribution than the Turkey Vulture. Regular

from Virginia south, straggling across our borders occasionally in the Maritime Provinces.

Of too infrequent occurrence in Canada for more than passing men-
tion. It is to be expected occasionally only in the Maritime Provinces.

SUBORDER—FALCONES. DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY.

General Description. Bill strongly hooked from the base (Figure 33, p. 23), where
it is eovered with a swollen cere or mass of yellow waxy-looking tissue in which the nostrils
appear. This tissue is distinctly softer than the bill proper and usually yellow in colour.
The feet are powerful and furnished with strong claws or talons for capturing and holding

living prey (Figure 31, p. 23).

Distinctions. ‘The members of this suborder differ from the Vultures in having the
bill shorter and more strongly hooked and the head feathered instead of bare (compare
Figures 30, 33, p. 23); and from the next suborder, the Owls, in lacking distinct facial
disks (Figure 34, p. 24) about the eyes which are so set in the Owls as to look directly
forwards instead of from the sides of the head as in most birds.

These are the birds generally recognized as the Hawks and the Eagles.
They are represented in Canada by three families: Buteonide, the common
Buzzard Hawks and the Eagles; Falconide, the true Faleons and Cara-
earas; and Pandionide, the Ospreys or Fish Hawks.

FAMILY—BUTEONIDA. BUZZARD HAWKS, KITES, HARRIERS, BUZZARDS,
AND EAGLES.

General Description. Hawks of various sizes, most easily described as being neither

Falcons nor Ospreys.
Distinctions. "Wings are short, round, and concave except in the Kites and Harriers,

and their flight is comparatively heavy. Bill (Figure 33b, p. 23) is without notches which ~
make, as in the Falcons, distinct tooth-like (Figure 33a, p. 23) projections to the cutting |

edge. The feet (especially under-surface) have no distinct, sharp, hard corrugations for
holding slippery prey, as in the Ospreys or Fish Hawks.

This family is composed of a number of well-marked genera, each
comparatively easy of recognition. These comprise the bulk of our
common birds of prey. Though truly raptorial in character they have
not the bold spirit, the address in attack, or the iron endurance of the
true Falcons and hence were called ‘‘Ignoble Hawks” by the old falconers.

117
GENERA—ELANOIDES AND Circus. KITES AND HARRIERS.

The Kites are birds of southern distribution and only one species
has ever been taken in Canada.

327. Swallow-tailed Kite. FR.—LE MILAN A QUEUE D’ARONDE. Elanoides for-
ficatus. L, 24. (Projection of outer tail feathers beyond middle ones 8 inches). A rather
small Hawk which measures large because of the great elongation of its outer tail feathers
which extend 8 inches beyond the middle ones. Wings and tail pure black; all remainder,
including head, shoulders, and upper back, white. A bird strikingly coloured in mtense
black and white, with the deeply forked tail and long pointed wings of a Barn Swallow.
It is hardly possible to mistake this for any other species.

Distribution. Tropical and semitropical America, appearing very rarely along our
southern border.

A most beautiful species, but too rare in Canada to receive more
than passing reference here.

Economic Status. Its principal food is insects, snails, and reptiles;
it never touches mammals or birds.

331. Marsh Hawk. MARSH HARRIER. FR.—LE BUSARD DES MARAIS. Circus hud-
sonius. L, 19. Plate XI B.

Distinctions. A partial and incompletely feathered eye-ring merely suggestive of
those of the Owls, is distinctive of the species. The general gull-like colours of the adult
male and the warm reds of the juveniles are characteristic.

Field Marks. General coloration and the white rump which shows conspicuously
in flight are the best field marks. Its long pointed wings and long narrow tail give it a
falcon-like outline in flight, but its action is entirely different.

Nesting. On ground in a dry spot of the marshes, or in a hay field.

Distribution. The whole of the United States and Canada north to near the Arctics.
Breeds throughout Canada.

One of our commonest Hawks, found almost anywhere in eastern
Canada. It haunts the open marshes, meadows, and fields and is to be
seen beating up and down, quartering and covering the ground like a
well-trained bird-dog. For an instant it hovers over its intended prey and
then drops upon it, rising a moment later to alight on a fence-post or
other similar slight elevation to devour its captive. The young birds are
unsuspicious, but the blue adults are amongst the wariest of birds and
fall to the gun comparatively seldom.

Ler A

Economic Status. Of 116 stomachs examined, 7 contained poultry
or game birds, 34, other birds; 57, mice; 22, other mammals; 7, rentiles;
2, frogs; 14, insects; and 1, indeterminate matter. Thus of 144 food
contents 41 were harmful, 93 useful, and 10 neutral. Of the 41 harmful
items, only 3 were domestic fow! and the remainder wild stock, consisting
of 46 individuals of considerably less value than the domestic varieties.
The 99 mice and other mammals included about 117 individuals. The
insects were mostly locusts, grasshoppers, and beetles. The balance is
evidently in favour of this species which is incapable of taking any fowl
but smail ones-and then only when they wander away into its habitat.
Keeping spring chickens close about the premises is an almost perfect
protection against this bird. Haunting marshes, grassy meadows, and
tangled fence-rows as it does it is the nautral enemy of field mice and
probably does more to keep their numbers within bounds than any other
single natural influence.

118

GENERA—ACCIPITER AND AstuR. ACCIPITERS. SHORT-WINGED HAWKS.

General Description. Hawks with short rounded wings and long tail.

The Accipitrine Hawks are woodland birds which beat about the tree
tops or along the edges of the woods; they do not habitually soar high in the
open. They take their prey by surprise and quick attack rather than by
open pursuit. Their short wings and long tail, giving rapid bursts of speed
and quite flexible evolution, are well adapted for such manceuvres but not
suited to sustained effort.

Economic Status. 'These are the only common species of Canadian
Hawks for which little good can be claimed. They are active and spirited
and though without the great strength and endurance of the true Falcons
do far more real damage than their larger and heavier relatives. The
term ‘‘Chicken Hawk” popularly applied to any small Hawk receives its
meaning from these birds. They never eat carrion but always make fresh
kills, rarely if ever returning to partly devoured prey. Fortunately the
two commonest species are the smaller and their capacity iv: damage is
reduced in consequence. The one large and powerful member of the group,
the Goshawk, is of more limited distribution and except,in occasional
winters is rarely seen in the more settled parts of southern Cumada.

332. Sharp-shinned Hawk. CHICKEN HAWK. FR.—L’EPERVIER BRUN. Accipiter
velox. L,11-25. Plate XII A.

Distribution. As a rule, size will distinguish the Sharp-shinned Hawk from all except
the Sparrow Hawk, but its evident non-falcon characters will prevent confusion. A large
female will measure closely to a small male Cooper’s Hawk of which it is a perfect minia-
ture in coloration. It differs from that species in having a square instead of a rounded
tail, when closed the outer feathers being quite as long as the inner ones instead of obviously
shorter. The tarsus is also comparatively thinner and more slender, a difference that is
quite perceptible on comparison of specimens.

Field Marks. ‘The short, round wings, long tail, and flight by a series of alternating
quick even strokes and short sails will mark this species as an Accipiter. Its tail being
square instead of round is a guide to identification from the Cooper’s Hawk, but size is
the most reliable difference.

Nesting. In trees, usually conifers from 10 to 40 feet up.

Distribution. Over nearly the whole of North America, north, probably, to the tree

imits. It breeds in eastern Canada everywhere except in the most southern parts of the
lower Great Lakes region.

This is the second smallest Hawk we have. It has not the sustained
strength or persistency of the ‘‘ Noble Falcons’’, but it is active and agile.
It makes bold dashes at its prey, but on missing the stroke seldom follows it
up by pursuit and almost never strikes on the wing, as the ‘“‘ Noble Falcons’’
do.

Economic Status. This is the species that should have been called
‘‘American Sparrow Hawk” instead of the little Faleon which has been
so-named. It is a close relative, and the American representative of the
European Sparrow Hawk which is also an Accipiter. The name would
suit this bird excellently as the smaller sparrows and other birds are its
favourite food.

Of 107 stomachs examined, 6 contained poultry or game birds; 99,
other birds; 6, mice; and 5, insects. This gives 105 harmful food contents
against 11 good ones. The mice consisted of no more than 9 individuals,
but the small birds numbered 115, from Kinglets to a Mourning Dove in
size. This makes a strong case against this otherwise rather interesting

119

species. One good word can be said for this little hawk, it is fond of the
English Sparrows and takes toll of their flocks about the smaller towns and
cities. Pelee point on lake Erie is a famous Sharp-shinned resort in the
autumn, and great numbers of Thrushes, Vireos, Sparrows, and other
small birds annually fall victims to these active little freebooters.

333. Cooper’s Hawk. CHICKEN HAWK. FR.—L’EPERVIER DE COOPER. Accipiter
cooperit. L,15-50. Similar to the Sharp-shinned Hawk, but larger.

Distinctions. A small, male Cooper’s Hawk may come very close in measurement to
a large female Sharp-shinned, and a large female to a small male Goshawk. Cooper’s
Hawk can be distinguished from the sharp-shinned by its rounded instead of square tail and
its comparatively shorter and heavier tarsus. At no age is it like the adult Goshawk in
coloration, but juvenile plumages are very similar. The best guide to separation other than
size is the feathering of the tarsus; about one-third is covered in Cooper’s Hawk and about
one-half in the Goshawk. It may also resemble young plumages of the Red-shouldered
Hawk, which see. It may also be easily confused with the juvenile Broad-winged Hawk,
but has the first four instead of the three outer primaries abruptly narrowed or emarginated.

Field Marks. Accipiter outline and size are the best field guides. The round instead
of square tail will «tp distinguish this from the Sharp-shinned. Coloration of the adults
is the only field mark besides size to differentiate from the Goshawk.

Nesting. In trees, much like the Sharp-shinned Hawk, but seldom in conifers.
Distribution. From the northern borders of settlement south throughout the United

tates.

An even worse species than the Sharp-shinned as its larger size gives
it greater power and capacity for damage. Showing an almost equal spirit
it seeks larger prey and even a fairly well-grown chicken is not safe from it.
Adult fowls are rarely attacked unless feeble.

Economic Status. Of 94 stomachs examined, 34 contained poultry or
game birds; 52, other birds; 11, mammals; 1 frog; 3, lizards; and 2,
insects. The mammals consisted of rodents, mostly harmful, but one a
Grey Squirrel; making a total of 87 food contents against the species, 12
in its favour, and 4 neutral. As it is a comparatively common Hawk
throughout much of the settled parts of the country it is certainly a menace
and is responsible for much of the popular ill-repute of the order as a whole.

334. American Goshawk. BLUE PARTRIDGE HAWK. HEN HAWK. FR.—L’AUTOUR
A TETE NOIRE. Astur atricapillus. L, 22. Plate XII B.

Distinctions. Adults, with their characteristic slate-blue coloration and fine vermi-
culation, are not to be mistaken for any other American bird. The juveniles, however,
are very similar to other young Accipiters and a small male will sometimes approach in
size to a large female Cooper’s Hawk. In such case, the tarsus feathered for one-half in-
stead of one-third its length and the slight tinge of buff to the white of the underparts of
this species will distinguish the forms.

Field Marks. Adults are distinguishable by coloration. Juveniles can be recognized
by their size and Accipiter outline of long tail and short, round wings.

Nesting. In trees.

_ Distribution. Breeds across the continent within the borders of settlement. Its
winter migratory movements are usually of small extent, though it occasionally visits our
southern borders in considerable numbers. Paralleling the case of the Snowy Owl such
flights are likely to contain mostly adults, though, normally, juveniles are much the com-
moner south of the breeding distribution. It is probable that these occasional flights are
caused by the periodic failure of rabbit food in their usual habitats.

SUBSPECIES: The American Goshawk is divided into two subspecies, but only
the typical form, the Eastern Goshawk, occurs in eastern Canada.

The American representative of the Old World Goshawk or ‘‘Goose
Hawk”, which seems to be the original name. It was the only short-
winged Hawk regularly used in ancient faleonry. It was flown at hares,

120

partridges, and such ground game, which its long tail and short wings
allowed it to follow through rapid turnings and twistings, whereas its size
allowed it to kill quite large game. It was not, however, regarded as a
thoroughly sportmanlike bird as it lacked the spirit and energy of the long-
winged Falcons and its use lacked the excitement and interest of the ‘‘ Noble
Hawks’’.

Economic Status. Fortunately this bird is only an irregular winter
visitor into our least settled sections. Otherwise it would be a serious
menace to the poultryman. Of 20 stomachs examined, 9 contained poultry
or game; 2, other birds; 10, mammals; 3, insects; and 1, a centipede. Of
the 10 mammals, 3 were rabbits and 1 a grey squirrel, both of which can be
regarded as useful. This gives a total of 15 harmful food items against 9
useful and 1 neutral. There can be no question as to the harmful status of
this species. Its size gives it ample power to take pullets and even well-
grown hens, and such large game as Ruffed Grouse is its favourite food.
Though the real home of the Goshawks is in the more northern forests along
the edge of the cultivated sections, when they once establish themselves
near a farmyard they are likely to visit it daily. They dash suddenly over
or around a building into the middle of the poultry flock, seize their victim,
and are off with it before the owner can protect his property.

GENERA—BUTEO AND ARCHIBUTEO. TRUE BUZZARDS.

General Description. Heavily built Hawks of medium or large size, the bill without
notches or teeth (Figure 33 b, p. 23). The wings are rather short and round and the tail
long and ample, spreading out in a broad semicircle. Genus Buteo has clean tarsi, but
those of Archibuteo are feathered to the base of the toes.

. ety Marks. Round wings, and broad, ample tail make the best field marks of the
uzzards.

These are the true Buzzards. The Turkey Vulture is called Buzzard
in the south, but incorrectly so. The Buzzards lack the dash, speed, and
spirit of either the Falcons or the Accipiters and confine themselves to
humbler game and slower, heavier methods of hunting. They are the
common high-flying Hawks of summer, can be seen circling for hours high
in the air, and are little given to dashing about the thickets like the agile
Accipiters. With the exception of the Broad-winged, their characteristic
habitat is the wide open, though they usually nest in the forest.

Economic Status. On the whole their mousing and insectivorous
habits more than compensate for some undeniable damage done by indi-
viduals of a few species. Though the Buzzards include some of our largest
Hawks, the harm they do does not begin to compare with that done by the
smaller Accipiters. Indeed the very largest species of the group, the
Rough-legs, are the most harmless. Their principal food is mice, other
small mammals, reptiles, and insects and the size of many of these guarantee |
that the good they do is on a large and important scale.

337. Red-tailed Hawk. HEN HAWK. FR.—LA BUSE A QUEUE ROUSSE. Butee
borealis. L, 20. Plate XIII A.

Distinctions. Our largest common Hawk; usually to be distinguished from all others
by size. The Rough-legged, which is its equal or superior in this respect, can be easily
distinguished by its feathered tarsus. Broad red tail is distinctive of the adult. Juveniles
vary only slightly from the Red-shouldered Hawk of equal age but are larger. Except for

121

this the best distinction between them is the lack of any indication in this species of reddish
on the shoulders or upper wing coverts and the presence of a roughly circular, unspotted,
area on the breast.

Field Marks. Adults can be recognized specifically in life by the red tail, and all
ages generically by their characteristic Buzzard outline of short wings and broad, ample,
round tail. Juveniles are only likely to be mistaken for the Red-shouldered; from these
the white breast and the voice are probably the most reliable guides. The call of the
Red-shouldered is identical with some of the Blue Jay calls. The notes of the Red-
tailed are similar, but different enough in quality and execution to be recognizable after
having once been heard.

Distribution. Eastern North America north to near the tree limit. Breeds in Canada
wherever found.

SUBSPECIES. The Red-tailed Hawk is represented in Canada by several subspecies,
but only the typical form, the Eastern Red-tail, is to be looked for in the east.

Nesting. High up in trees in the larger woodland patches.

The Red-tailed is a shy and a cautious Hawk. It is more often seen
sailing in great circles high overhead than close by. It requires larger and
wilder woodland patches than the Red-shouldered for its headquarters in
summer, though like that species it hunts in the surrounding open.

Economic Status. This large, fine bird occupies a debatable position of
usefulness and so much depends upon local conditions and the personal
characteristics of individuals that no hard and fast conclusion respecting
it can be laid down. Of 473 stomach examinations, 54 contained poultry
or. game birds; 51, other birds; 278, mice; 131, other mammals; 37,
batrachians or reptiles; 47, insects; 8, crayfish; 1, centipede: and 13 offal.
Of the ‘“‘other mammals” 16 were rabbits or grey squirrels. This gives us
about 121 food items against and 464 for the species, and there are 48 that
can be regarded as neutral besides the 13 of offal that can only be listed
as favourable. It should also be borne in mind in studying these food
contents that those birds coming closest to the farmyard are the most likely
to be shot and have their stomachs examined. Hence there is a certain
amount of unfavourable selection against the species as a whole in the
choice of evidence, that should be allowed for.

The species is, on the whole, exceedingly useful and does considerably
more good than harm. Individuals, however, frequently get into the habit
of regularly visiting the poultry yard. These are nearly always young
birds of the year in search of easy prey. The old birds are usually too
cautious for this. There can be no question that such individuals should be
eliminated as quickly as possible, but it certainly cannot be maintained that
a generally useful species should be systematically persecuted for the bad
habits of a few. In economic ornithology it is a good rule, when the
evidence is delicately balanced, to give the bird the benefit of the doubt.

339. Red-shouidered Hawk. cHICKEN HAWK. FR.—LA BUSE A MANTEAU ROUX.
Buteo lineatus. 1, 18-30. Plate XIII B.

_ _Distinctions. The reddish underparts of the adults. Juvenile plumage may be
similar to the young Red-tailed, but its inferior size and the presence of at least an indica-
tion of rufous on the shoulders or wing-coverts and the spotting of centre of breast will
distinguish it.

Field Marks. With its characteristic Buteo outline and habits it is not likely to be
confused with any other species than the Red-tailed. The lack of red tail and the ruddy
underparts will distinguish adults. For juveniles the voice and size are probably the most
reliable guides. The notes of this species are so like certain calls of the Blue Jay that they
can be differentiated with difficulty. The Red-tail’s screams are of similar nature, but quite
distinguishable.

122

Nesting. In trees, 35 to 75 feet from the ground.

Distribution. Over eastern North America north to the limits of settlement. Breeds
in Canada wherever found.

SUBSPECIES. Several subspecies of the Red-shouldered Hawk are recognized,
but only one, the Eastern Red-shouldered, the typical form, occurs in eastern Canada.

This is probably the most common Hawk in eastern Canada. It is
similar in habit to the Red-tailed except that it does not insist upon deep
woods for its nesting habitat but will build in almost any little patch of
woodland, sometimes in surprising proximity to settlement.

Economic Status. This species is, fundamentally, very similar in
its food habits to the Red-tailed, but being a much smaller and lighter
bird the damage it can do is proportionately less, whereas its good offices
are scarcely if at all impaired. Of 206 stomachs examined, 3 contained
poultry; 12 other birds; 102, mice; 40, other mammals; 20, reptiles; 30,
batrachians (frogs, etc.); 92, insects; 16, spiders; 7, crawfish; 1, earth-
worm; 2, offal; and 3, fish. It will thus be seen that its diet is varied.
Whether the shrews, frogs, reptiles, and spiders are to be counted for or
against the species is open to some doubt, but the large number of mice
and insects against 3 of poultry and 12 birds obviously acquits the species
of the charge of doing much damage.

342. Swainson’s Hawk. FR.—LA BUSE DE SWAINSON. Buteo swainsoni. lL, 20.
Of about the same size as the Red-shouldered. It may occur either in a nearly black
phase, a light one, or any intermediate stage between. The characteristic light plumage
shows an evenly brown back, head, and upperparts, white underparts with a band of
vinaceous across the chest, and slight indications of bars of same colour on flanks.

Distinctions. Many birds have the ends of their primaries suddenly reduced in width
as if a shaving had been taken from the edge with a pocket-knife. In this species the three
outer primaries are thus attenuated or emarginated.- In the Red-shouldered Hawk, for
which certain plumages might be mistaken, four of the primaries are emarginated.

Distribution. The prairie provinces and westward. North to the Arctics, wandering
casually to the lower Great Lakes.

This species occurs in eastern Canada only as a rare straggler from
the west and should be identified with the greatest care. Though a
prairie bird, its habits are too similar to the last species and it is too rare
to require detailed mention.

343. Broad-winged Hawk. FR.—LA BUSE DE PENSYLVANIE. Buteo platypierus.
L, 15-89. The smallest of our Buteos. Adult—brown above, underparts all barred with
reddish brown and white in rather coarse pattern. Juveniles—brown above with more
or less white irregularly scattered through; below, white with brown stripes on breast
to throat and bars on flanks and legs.

Distinctions. Size will distinguish this species from the young Red-shouldered Hawk
which juveniles may resemble. Three attenuated or emarginated primaries instead of
four will differentiate it from both that species and the Cooper’s Hawk with which it also
might be confused.

Field Marks. Size, general coloration of adults, and its long, fine, sharp call like the
drawn-out squeak of a rusty barn-door hinge are good field characters.

Nesting. In trees 25 to 70 feet from ground.

Distribution. Eastern North America northward to the bounds of settlement. Breeds
locally in eastern Canada in all except the most southern parts of Ontario and far south
in the Mississippi valley.

Local in distribution and prefers the wilder sections.
Economic Status. Of 57 stomachs examined, 2 contained small birds;
15, mice; 13, other mammals; 11, reptiles; 18, batrachians (frogs, ete.);

123

30, insects; 2, earthworms; 4, crawfish. Without further analysis this
evidence is sufficient to free this species from any stigma of being harmful.

347a. Rough-legged Hawk. ¥FR.—LA BUSE PATTUE D’AMERIQUE. Archibuteo lago-
pus sancti-johannis. L, 22. The largest of our true Hawks. It occurs in two phases:
one all dark, almost black; and the other light, of almost infinite variety of colour tone
and pattern. All mtermediate stages occur. The most common form is brown above
more or less mixed with ochre, especially about head, and ochre below with dark abdominal
band and stripes on breast and throat. The tarsus, being feathered to the toes, is the
basis of the common name and is characteristic of the genus.

Distinctions. Large size and the feathering of the tarsus to the base of the toes is

diagnostic.
Field Marks. Large size, broad masses of black below, tail white at base (not a white
rump), and prominent black wrist marks on the under surface of the wing are all good

field marks.

Nesting. In the far north on ground, on rocky ledges, or in trees.

Distribution. As a species, inhabiting the northern portions of the northern hemi-
sphere. The American form is found from Mexico to the Arctic. Breeds on or near the
barren grounds.

SUBSPECIES. The Rough-legged Hawk is represented in the New and Old Worlds
by two subspecies. The one peculiar to America is the American Rough-legged A. I.
sancti-johannis, and is only distinguished from the European and Asiatic bird by its
slightly lighter colour and the greater rarity of the black phase.

This large Hawk is only a migrant in settled Canada to or from the
barren grounds of the north. It is a bird of large marsh expanses and can
be seen beating over the grass until late in the evening something after the
style of the Marsh Hawk. Usually, however, it is observed high in the
air working its way gradually, with many pauses and circlings, to or from
its breeding grounds. Owing to the dichromatism of the species an almost
infinite variety of plumages may be found.

Economic Status. Though our largest Hawk, it is the least harmful
one. Of 45 stomachs examined, 40 contained mice; 5, other mammals;
1, lizard; 1, empty. A record like this is enough to condemn the indis-
eriminate killing of Hawks. The feet of the Rough-leg are weak and
incapable of holding large prey; it is, therefore, a mouse-hawk par ezcel-
lence. It also feeds on grasshoppers and has been known at times to do
most excellent work controlling plagues of these destructive insects.

GENERA—AQUILA AND HALI4ZETUS. EAGLES.

The Eagles are our largest Birds of Prey. Size alone will differentiate
them from the Hawks. Any Bird of Prey over 30 inches long or 6 feet in
extent is an Eagle. Contrary to usual conception, the Eagle is not the
noble bird of prey usually pictured. It is typically an overgrown Buzzard.
Much of its quarry is of large size, but it is rarely dangerous to human
interests. In some sections young lambs are occasionally threatened,
but in eastern Canada Eagles can be looked upon more as scavengers
than anything else, taking little of economic value and subsisting mostly
on offal.

349. Golden Eagle. FR.—L’AIGLE DORE. Aquila chrysaetos. L, 30. A large, dark-
brown Eagle, the head suffused with faint ochraceous suggesting the name golden and the
pel half of tail with broken greyish bars against dull white. Tarsus feathered to the
oes.

57172—9

124

Distinctions. The Golden Eagle is altogether different from the adult Bald Eagle,
but very similar to the juvenile. It can, however, in all plumages be identified by its
feathered tarsus, the latter species having at all times bare, bright yellow legs.

Nesting. On clifis, rock ledges, or in trees.

Distribution. Over the temperate region of both hemispheres. In America, it ranges
over all the north country excepting the northern extreme, extending south into Mexico
in the western plains and mountains and down along the high lands of the east. Practically
only a straggler in the Great Lakes region.

The Golden Eagle is too rare in eastern Canada to receive more than
passing mention here. It is a magnificent bird and having less of the
scavenger and robber in its nature it fits the popular conception of the
king of birds better than does its close relative the Bald Eagle.

Economic Status. The economic view of this bird must be largely
affected by local conditions. It feeds principally on mammals and its
large size allows it to take those of considerable weight. Most of its food
is naturally wild stock—ground-hogs, rabbits, and rodent pests—but
newly-born animals are taken on opportunity. In the western sheep
country the depredations of numbers of Golden Eagles may be serious,
but are never so in the east. Fortunately the species is too rare in eastern
Canada to cause strong objection to it; in fact to see an average of a single
bird a year would be rather remarkable. Therefore, the occasional presence
of one of these magnificent birds in the east can be looked for with pleasure
rather than alarm. On occasion the species devours carrion, but does not
seem to depend upon it as its relative the next species does.

352. Bald Eagle. AMERICAN EAGLE. WHITE-HEADED EAGLE. FR.—L’AIGLE A TETE
BLANCHE. Haliwetus leucocephalus. L, 32-85. The adult is dark brown with white head,
neck, and tail. The juvenile is all brown with more or less suggestion of the coming white,
depending upon age. <

Distinctions. Though very similar in juvenile plumage to the Golden Eagle, the
unfeathered yellow legs will always identify it.

Field Marks. The Eagle outline and great size are quite characteristic when one is
familiar with them. The great hooked bill, the culmen which projects in a straight line
with the crown and fills the whole of the forehead are plainly visible and quite recogniz-
able. The white of the head and tail are unmistakable recognition marks for the adult
and on account of the large scale of the details the juvenile can be told from the Golden
with greater ease than would naturally be expected. The golden-tawny of the upper neck
of the Golden is often quite conspicuous though absent on the Bald. The somewhat
whitish or mottled tail of the Golden shows from below a dark terminal tip, in perceptible
contrast with the base, from 2 to 4 inches deep depending on age; whereas the tail of the
juvenile Bald is all dirty white with little or no distinct terminal band but presenting an
aspect of even mottling at all stages. Any Eagle observed in eastern Canada should be
tentatively identified as of this species unless there are definite and positive reasons for
declaring it as Golden.

Distribution. Over the whole of the United States and Canada except the extreme
Arctic coasts.

SUBSPECIES. The Bald Eagle is divided into two subspecies, only one of which,
the Northern Bald Eagle H. 1. alascanus, is known to occur in Canada. The typical race
is of more southern distribution.

Though the Golden Eagle is typically an inhabitant of the mountains
and high lands, the Bald Eagle is a bird of the water side and is seldom
found far from that element. Though once a typical species of the eastern
landscape it is yearly growing rarer, until now in most localities the sight
of one is an event of some importance. The Bald Eagle is a harmless
species. The damage it does is very small and as a characteristic wild
feature of our lake landscape this picturesque bird should be preserved.

125

Economic Status. Of 15 stomachs examined, 1 contained game; 5,
mammals; 9, fish; and 2, carrion. In examining these data it is observ-
able that the 6 stomachs containing mammals and game are winter
specimens and, except one, were taken at a distance from water. Had the
natural breeding and summer grounds of the Bald Kagle been the source
of the specimens here studied, the mammals and game would probably
have been replaced by fish, for this forms the great bulk of its food. The
food is taken in various ways. The bird dives for fish in true Osprey
manner when necessary, but it usually picks them up dead from the shore
or, where Ospreys are common, takes the fish from them by force. To do
this it pursues and badgers the successful fisher until the prize is dropped,
which by a lightning-like swoop is caught in the air and carried away in
triumph. It is, as a rule, hardly equal to the capture of the quicker birds,
but wounded or hurt ducks or game are eagerly picked up from the marshes.
When opportunity offers the Bald Eagle eats offal without compunction.

It will be seen that Bald Eagles in reasonable numbers cannot be any
great menace to mankind. Poultry is rarely touched. The fish they take
is only a bagatelle, being mostly waste or surplus from a great abundance.
Their scavenging is actively beneficial and they should be encouraged rather
than repressed.

FAMILY—FALCONIDA. FALCONS AND CARACARAS.

The Family Falconide consists of two subfamilies, the True Falcons
Falconine and the Caracaras Polyborine. The last named subfamily is
of southern distribution and only one Caracara has been taken in Canada.

Subfamily—Falconine. True Falcons.

The Falcons were known to the old falconers as the Noble or Long-
winged Birds of Prey and, on account of their great spirit, strength, and
address, were the chosen birds for use in hunting. Their long wings give
them great speed and their endurance permits them to maintain it. They
are bold and strong and capture their prey by sudden swoops when possible,
but unlike the Accipiters are not discouraged when their stroke misses.
Their first object is to rise above the prey, which they do by means of a
long spiral climb. Once above their prey they drop like a bullet upon it
striking with their powerful talons as they do so.

The flight of the Falcons is quite recognizable, quick strokes with
pointed wings and with very little sailing. Seen in the hand, the upper
mandible furnished with a tooth (F igure 33a, p. 23) will always separate
the Falcons from other Hawks. Fortunately, none but the smallest and
most harmless of the subfamily is common within cultivated areas and
those that size makes important are either very rare or are confined to the
far north where their depredations can do the husbandman no harm.
Even those that do occur occasionally about cultivation are generally wild
and wary enough to keep away from the immediate vicinity of habitation.

GYRFALCONS.

General Description. Large falcons 20 to 22 inches in length, usually of very white
eoloration. Their large size distinguishes these birds from all others of the subfamily.

57172—93

126

The Gyrfalcons were most highly regarded for hunting by the falconers
of old and by the exacting laws of the times their use was restricted to
persons of the highest rank. They combine all the spirit and hardihood

of the smaller species with greater size and strength and hence were
adapted for the largest game to be taken with birds. The Gyrfalcons are
of far northern distribution in Canada and are very rare within the limits
of settlement, rarely troubling poultry yards or game coverts; otherwise
a war of extermination would probably have to be waged against them as
they are undoubtedly very destructive.

In Canada there are two species. They are circumpolar in distribu-
tion, occurring in the northern parts of both the Old and New Worlds.

353. White Gyrfalcon. FR.—LE FAUCON BLANC. Falco islandus. L, 22), Ay very
large falcon, mostly pure white with small but sharp markings of light brown.

Distinctions. The general whiteness and the lack of markings on the under tail
coverts will differentiate this from the next species. Its large size and obviously falcon-like
characters will identify it as a Gyrfalcon.

Nesting. On rocky cliffs.

Distribution. The Arctic regions. Breeds in Greenland and the adjacent parts of
America. Only a casual visitor in the settled parts of Canada.

None of the Gyrfalcons are common in the settled parts of Canada
and, therefore, will not be discussed in detail.

354a. Gyrfalcon. FR.—(in part) LE FAUCON NOIR. Falco rusticolus. L, 20. Similar
in size to the White Gyrfalcon and of much darker coloration. Slaty-brown above, more
or less margined or barred with cream or white. Head and underparts white or creamy-
white, striped with colour of back.

Distinctions. In the White Gyrfalcon white greatly predominates, whereas in the
lightest of this species white and slaty-brown are about equal in mass and in the darkest the
brown greatly preponderates. The under tail coverts are always somewhat streaked.

Nesting. On cliffs or in trees.

Distribution. The Arctic regions of the northern hemisphere; only -an accidental
straggler within settled districts.

SUBSPECIES. The American representative of this species has been divided into
three subspecies or geographical races, based upon the degree of dark coloration; the
Grey Gyrfalcon F. r.rusticolus, the type form, the Gyrfalcon F. r. gyrfalco, and the Black
Gyrfalcon F.7. obsoletus. Some of these subdivisions are perhaps based upon age plumages
or individual variation and may be found to be unnecessary. The names suggest the
difference in colour of the forms. The first has the head broadly streaked with dark
against an almost white ground, the second has an almost solidly dark head and the dark
of the back heavily margined with lighter, and the third has an almost black back and the
underparts so heavily streaked as to be almost black.

356. Peregrine Falcon. DUCK HAWK. BULLET HAWK. FR.—LE FAUCON PERLERIN.
Falco peregrinus. L, 16-50. Plate XIV A.

Distinctions. The colouring shown in Plate XIV A, the comparative size, and the
true falcon-like character of the bill and wing should serve for the recognition of this bird.

Field Marks. The long, sharp falcon wings, coloration, and size are distinctive.
The flight also is easily recognized—a quick flapping of the wings with little sailing.

Nesting. Usually on the ledges of rocky cliffs, occasionally in hollow branches of
tall trees.

Distribution. It ranges over most of the Arctic, temperate, and subtemperate regions -
of the northern hemisphere, nowhere common but living in scattered pairs and returning
to the same locality year after year.

SUBSPECIES. The New World form under the name of Duck Hawk F.p. anatum,

is the only representative of the species occurring 1n America.

The American representative of this species is a subspecies of the
famous Peregrine Falcon of the Old World, which next to the Gyrfalcon
was the most desirable hunting hawk of the falconers, and eur Duck

127

Hawk is almost if not quire indistinguishable from the European bird.
Although distributed over most of the northern hemisphere it is every-
where a rare and more or less casual visitor or breeder.

Economic Status. The size of the prey which this bird can take is
remarkable. Even the Mallard Duck, weighing perhaps three times as
much as the falcon, is often struck down. Around a nest found by the
writer in the Muskoka district, were the remains of several full grown
Ruffed Grouse that must have been carried bodily to it. An examination
of the stomach contents of 16 specimens, gave the following result: 7,
contained poultry or game birds; 9, other birds; 1, mice; and 2, insects.
Fortunately it is as wary as it is spirited. Adults usually confine them-
selves to the fields and marshes where they can do little direct damage.

357. Pigeon Hawk. FR.—LA FAUCON DES PIGEONS. Falco columbarius. LL, 10.
A small falcon. Adult male: dark slate-blue above, bluest on lower back and rump.
Below, streaked with brown on an ochraceous ground, the stripes aggregating slightly
on lower breast. Juveniles: similar but back brown instead of slate. Adult females:
intermediate.

Distinctions. True falcon characters; the generally dark coloration and the small
size of this hawk are characteristic.

Field Marks. The falcon flight and outline, in conjunction with small size and dark
coloration, are distinctive.

Nesting. In hollow limbs of trees or on cliff ledges.

Distribution. All of North America and to northern South America. Breeds south-
ward to the borders of cultivated land in eastern Canada.

SUBSPECIES. There are several subspecies of the Pigeon Hawk in Canada, but
in the east there is only the type form, the Eastern Pigeon Hawk.

In spirit and action this is a miniature of the Duck Hawk, but is a far
commoner bird than nay of the Falcons previously mentioned. This
species also was used in court falconry.

Economic Status. As indicated by its name the Pigeon Hawk pro
bably preyed largely upon Wild Pigeons. Nowadays, however, it follows
smaller game as a rule. Of 51 stomachs examined, 2 contained young
chickens; 41, small birds; 2, mice; and 16, insects. It will be seen from
this record that the Pigeon Hawk is destructive to small wild bird life
but is not large enough to seriously affect the poultryman. It often
follows Shore Birds and seems particularly fond of the Black-bellied
Plover. Though more numerous than the Duck Hawk it is still nowhere
a common bird.

360. American Sparrow Hawk. FR.—LE FAUCON EPERVIER. Falco sparverius.
L, 10. Plate XIV B.

Distinctions. The coloration of this bird renders it unmistakable for any other species.

Field Marks. With its falcon-like outline and small size it can not be mistaken for
any bird except perhaps the Pigeon Hawk. Its more slender shape and longer tail will
separate it readily when the striking colours are not distinguishable.

Nesting. In deserted Woodpecker’s holes or natural cavities in dead stub.

Distribution. Most of North America, from beyond the settled areas to the gulf of
Mexico. Breeds wherever found in Canada.

SUBSPECIES. Two subspecies of the American Sparrow Hawk are recognized in
Canada, but only the type form, the Eastern Sparrow Hawk, occurs in the east.

This is the only falcon that is common in Canada. It is a beautiful
bird—the brightest coloured of any of our Birds of Prey. The open
fields are its hunting ground and the topmost dead branches of solitary

128

trees in fields or along fence rows are its chosen observation points. It
beats about over the meadows and on sighting its prey hovers for a moment
on quickly beating wings, like a Kingfisher, and then drops upon its quarry.

The name Sparrow Hawk should properly belong to the Sharp-
shinned ; this is recognized in the Old World where the name Sparrow
Hawk is applied to a small Accipiter closely resembling that species. Grass-
hopper Hawk would be a far better descriptive name for this little
falcon as grasshoppers form a large part of its food. When taken young
from the nest this little falcon is easily tamed.

Economic Status. Although a hawk, this bird is one of the most
efficient and valuable protectors of the farm. Of 291 stomachs examined,
1 contained a game bird (Quail); 53, other birds; 89, mice; 13, other
mammals; 12, reptiles or batrachians (frogs, etc); 215, insects; and
29, spiders. Of the birds examined, 43 were taken in the winter months,
from December to April. Of specimens taken in seasons when insects
are available only 10 stomachs contained birds. This record shows that
birds are killed by the falcon from necessity rather than choice. The
“other mammals” are mostly harmful rodents, with a very few shrews.
The insects are usually grasshoppers which do great damage and are
difficult to control. From the above evidence it is obvious that the
Sparrow Hawk is beneficial and should be protected.

FAMILY—-PANDIONID®. FISH-HAWKS. OSPREYS.

The Fish-hawks or Ospreys are a family of raptorial birds subsisting
entirely upon fish, which they capture in shallow water by diving. Other
members of the order eat fish, but usually only as scavengers or by stealing
from fish-catching birds. As there is only one species of Fish-hawk in
America, no general discussion of the family is necessary here.

364. Osprey. AMERICAN OSPREY. FISH-HAWK. FR.—LE BALBUSARD D’AMHRIQUE.
Pandion halictus carolinensis. L, 23-10. Plate XV A.

Distinctions. The coloration of the Osprey is quite distinctive. Its pale biue legs,
and feet much roughened with sharp horny processes, especially on the soles and grasping
surfaces, are decidedly characteristic.

Field Marks. The large wing cxpanse of this bird is responsible for the common
mistake of calling it an eagle. It is, however, much smaller than either of the eagles and
its white underparts will distinguish it from them.

Nesting. A great mass of sticks in trees or on the ground, which, as it is added to year
after year, finally becomes almost as large as a small haycock.

Distribution. 'The Osprey occurs in most of Europe, Asia, Africa, and in America south
to northern South America. The American Osprey breeds in Canada locally in all except
the southern sections.

SUBSPECIES. 'The Osprey, inhabiting both the New and Old Worlds, is divided
into subspecific races, of which the American Osprey P. h. carolinensis is the American
representative. Its separation from the European form is based upon characters too
slight for discussion here.

The Osprey is a most picturesque bird. Sailing at a height over the
water it pauses a moment and then drops suddenly, not straight down
like a plummet, as the Gannet does, but in a long spiral, striking the
water feet first with wings raised high over its back. There is a splash
of white spray and it rises in the air, a fish clasped in its rough talons,
and is away to its aerie. The Ospreys frequent broad shallows, tidal
flats, and shallow bays where water is not too deep for shallow diving,

Ne Sree

129

rather than deeper water where they would have to depend upon chance
surface-frequenting fish. In the Great Lakes region the species is growing
rarer. Its great bulky nest is added to year after year until it assumes
such proportions that it becomes a landmark for the country around and
invites constant attack from human nest-robbers, so that it is now only
in the more retired localities that it can breed undisturbed. It is still
numerous along the Atlantic coast and gulf of St. Lawrence, but inland
it is rare. —

Economic Status. Though the food of the Osprey is entirely fish
the antipathy that fishermen have for it is rather exaggerated. Feeding
as it does in shallow waters it takes few fish of economic importance.
On the coast, flounders, tom cod, and other small species form the bulk
of its food. On the freshwater lakes, sun-fish, perch, and suckers seem
to be its staples. The number of game or marketable fish it catches is
undoubtedly small. In eleven stomach examinations there were none.
Trout streams are not attractive to the species and most of the valuable
fish like bass and pickerel usually lie too deep for it to catch.

SUBORDER—STRIGES. NOCTURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. OWLS.

The Owls are easily recognized. The cere hidden in the feathers of
the face, and the striking facial disks or feather rings about the eyes (Figure
34, p. 24) are distinctive to the most casual observer. They are mostly
nocturnal, the Hawk Owl and the Snowy Owl being the only eastern
Canadian species that habitually hunt in daytime. Even the nocturnal
owls, however, see quite well by day. They may be momentarily dazed
when brought suddenly from dark to bright light and some species repose
such confidence in immobility to escape detection as to allow themselves
almost to be caught in the hand. The feathers are a most interesting
character in owls. They are peculiarly soft and cling together in a way
that keeps the air from passing through the small interstices and ensures
the silent flight characteristic of the suborder. An Owl can pass so closely
as to fan the face with its wing and yet be inaudible.

Two families are represented in Canada: Aluconide the Barn Owls,
represented by one species which is an accidental visitor from the south;
and Strigide known as the Eared or Horned Owls, though many of them
are without these ornaments, including all the other Canadian species.

FAMILY—ALUCONIDH. BARN OWLS.

The Barn Owls, sometimes called the Monkey-faced Owls from the
heart-shaped character of the united facial disks, are represented in Canada
by only one species and that species israre. The middle claw is pectinated,
having comb-like teeth on its inner edge like the Herons (Figure 19, p. 21)
and the inner toe is as long as the middle instead of being slightly shorter
as in the Horned Owls.

365. American Barn Owl. MONKEY-FACED owL. Aluco pratincola. L, 18.
General ground colour a reddish ochre, lighter below, facial disk dull white with an
outer edging of darker ochre to brown. Back to top of head frosted over with ash-grey
with numerous small eye spots outlined in black. Underparts, throat, and around face
sprinkled with scattered round dark spots.

130

Distinctions. The strongly and well outlined heart-shaped facial disk, soft yellow
coloration with a suggestion of pink, and the tarsi almost bare of feathers are distinctive.

Nesting. In towers, steeples, or holes in barns, banks, or trees.

Distribution. From the gulf of Mexico to the middle Atlantic states across the con-
tinent. It occurs in Canada only as a straggler along the southern border.

This is the American representative of the ruin-haunting European
owl so familiar in song and story. It is a wonderfully efficient mouser
and a most valuable bird, but is rare in Canada.

FAMILY—STRIGID#. HORNED OR EARED OWLS.

The family is known as ‘‘Horned”’ from the tufts of feathers pro-
jecting from the forehead in some of the species, though not in all. The
feet are feathered to the ends of the toes (Figure 32, p. 23). The family
includes all the Canadian owls except the Barn Owl previously described.

366. American Long-eared Owl. FR.—LE HIBOU A OREILLES LONGUES. Asio
wilsonianus. lL, 14-80. A medium sized owl rather similar in coloration to the Great
Horned Owl (p. 133), but much smaller and of more slender build.

Distinctions. Although the colouring is suggestive of the Great Horned Owl, the differ-
ence in size serves to distinguish the two. From the Short-eared Owl, which is of abont
equal size, it may be distinguished by the prominent horns or ear tufts which spring close
together from the forehead, by the general lack of stripes in its coloration, and by the
conspicuous amount of black and white suffused over the body colour.

Field Marks. The prominent horns standing nearly straight up fromm the middle of the
forehead and the rusty brown facial disk differentiate this species from the next, the only
species for which it might be mistaken.

Nesting. In trees, usually in deserted crows’ nests or hawks’ nests 20 to 40 feet from
the ground.

Distribution. Throughout temperate North America, north to about the limit of

cultivation.

Evergreen or alder thickets on the edges of marshes or ash swamps are
the preferred habitat of the species. During migration it is sometimes
found in companies, resting by day in the dark recesses of wet woods.

Economic Status. Of 92 stomachs examined, 1 contained a game
bird (Quail); 15, other birds; 84, mice; 5, other mammals; and 1, insects.
From this record it is evident that the species is not seriously destructive.
Its mousing proclivities are sufficient to give it a claim to protection and
its small size and nocturnal habits prevent its interference with young
poultry.

367. American Short-eared Owl. MARSH OWL. FR.—LE HIBOU A OREILLES
couRTES. Asio flammeus. L, 15-50. A medium sized owl with short, hardly visible ear-
tufts. General colour ochraceous with considerable white lining on face, with sharply
defined stripes of brown over all, narrower below and broader and more diffused above.

Distinctions. The general light buff colour and the stripes of this bird are distinctive.
The horns may be inconspicucus; when visible they rise, as do those of the last species,
from between the eyes and stand upright. The lack of any black and white pattern in
the coloration serves to distinguish this species from the Long-eared.

Field Marks. The buff colour is the best field mark.

Distribution. Nearly cosmopolitan. Occurs everywhere in Canada, breeding locally
wherever found.

This bird is a true marsh owl and is slightly more diurnal in its habits
than many of its relatives. It is often seen in the dusk of the evening
beating over the marshes in strong and hawk-like flight. As it lives in the

131

marshes or along their brushy edges, a great number annually fall under
the guns of sportsmen.

Economic Status. Of 97 stomachs examined, 11 contained small
birds; 77, mice; 7, other mammals; and 7, insects. From this record
and from the fact that the marsh edges, waste patches, and fence rows
which this species haunts, are the reservoirs from which small rodent pests
spread over cleanly cultivated land, it is evident that this is a most
useful species and that killing it is reducing one of the most efficient checks
upon innumerable pests.

368. Barred Owl. FR.—LA CHOUETTE DU CANADA. Striz varia. L, 20. Plate

Distinctions. It is almost impossible to mistake this owl. The only other hornless
owl at all resembling it is the Great Grey Owl. The Barred Owl can be differentiated by
its smaller size, black instead of yellow eyes, and by the well-defined striping and barring
below. This and the Barn Owl are the only owls with black eyes.

Field Marks. Size, absence of ear tufts, and general grey-brown colour with bars
on the breast.

Nesting. In hollow trees or in deserted crows’ nests or hawks’ nests.

Distribution. Eastern North America from the edge of settlement south to Kansas
and Georgia.

SUBSPECIES. There are several subspecies of the Barred Owl, two of which occur
a pepe. The form found throughout eastern Canada is the type, the Eastern Barred

wl.

Though apparently a fairly large bird the Barred Owl when stripped of
its feathers is comparatively small. Added to this it is a bird of gentle
nature and lacks the keen aggressiveness of some of its relatives. Its notes
are loud, the wierd hooting carrying far in the still night air.

Economic Status. Though fowls have been known to roost repeatedly
without harm in trees from which Barred Owls hooted every night, it is
usually regarded as an enemy and killed indiscriminately. Of 189 sto-
machs examined, 5 contained poultry or game; 13, other birds; 46, mice;
18, other mammals; 4, frogs; 1, a lizard; 2, fish; 14, insects; 2, spiders;
and 9, crawfish. The fowls, only two cases, can be regarded as accidental
as they were both taken in January, when they would ordinarily be full
grown and beyond the powers of this weak ow] to kill. The status of this
bird is most satisfactory.

370. Cinereous Owl. GREAT GREY OWL. FR.—LA CHOUETTE CENDREE. Scotiapiex
nebulosa. 1,27. Of much the same general grey tone as the Barred Owl, but considerably
larger than that bird.

Distinctions. By measurement and in appearance the largest of our owls, but when
stripped of its great abundance of soft feathers a surprisingly small bird. Like the Barred
Owl in general coloration and lack of horns; but with yellow instead of black eyes and
having the coloration of the breast and underparts diffused and without a defined pattern
of stripes and bars.

Field Marks. Size, grey coloration, and lack of breast bars.

Nesting. In trees.

Distribution. The forest of the north across the continent; an occasional winter
migrant within the bounds of cultivation.

SUBSPECIES. The Cinereous Owl occurs in the northern parts of both the New
and Old Worlds, but is répresented in each by distinct subspecies. The European form is
the Lapp Owl S. n. lapponica, and the American is the Great Grey Owl, the type race,

This ow! is only an occasional visitor in the settled parts of Canada.

132

Eeonomic Status. The economic effect of this bird as far as it goes is a
beneficial one. Data on its foods are rather scanty. Of 9 stomachs
examined, 1 contained a small bird; 7, mice; and 4, other mammals. It is
evidently an efficient mouser.

371. Arctic Saw-whet Owl. RICHARDSON’S OWL. FR.—LA NYCTALE DE RICHARD-
son. Cryptoglaux funerea. L, 10. A small, hornless, grey owl. Ashy-brown above with
round white spots, whitish below vaguely striped. The colour pattern is soft and the
design vague and diffused.

Distinctions. This species resembles the Screech Owl in size and general grey colour-
ing, but in nothing else; it has not the horns of that species and the colour pattern shows
no sharpness anywhere. The colour scheme shows too little distinction from that of the
Saw-whet to be clearly differentiated here. Its decidedly larger size, however, will char-
acterize it.

Field Marks. It is too rare to identify by such slight field marks as could be suggested.

Nesting. Usually in holes in trees.

Distribution. The northern woods to the limit of trees from the Mackenzie River
valley eastwards.

SUBSPECIES. This is a European as well as an American species, but the form

inhabiting the New World is subspecifically separated from that of the Old World under
the name of Richardson’s Owl C. f. richardsoni.

This species is perhaps the rarest of the Canadian Owls, and within the
boundaries covered by this work is only an occasional and irregular winter
visitor.

Economic Status. Though too rare to have any noticeable economic
influence it must be regarded as a beneficial species. Of 9 stomachs
examined, 1 contained a small bird; 7, mice; and 4, other mammals.

372. Saw-whet Owl. ACADIAN OWL. FR.—LA NYCTALE D’acapDIn. Cryptoglaua
acadic. L,8. A very small owl. Above, colour is warm ashy-brown vaguely marked with
inconspicuous white spots especially about the back of the neck, changing on the head to
fine sharp stripes which join in a line over the facial disk. Below, white, with light brown
streaks and a vague tendency to form a solid breast-bar. A rare plumage of this owl was
long thought to indicate a distinct species which was given the name Kirtland’s Owl,
It is now, however, understood to be but an evanescent juvenile plumage of the above. ©
though the cause of its rarity is not known. Above, it is solid brown, rather redder than
the adult, and extending across breast in a rufescent band; below, even ochre. The
facial disk on outside of the eyes is almost black, in striking contrast to the white over
and between eyes.

Distinctions. In ordinary plumage so nearly like Richardson’s Owl in colour as to be
separated from it only by size. Being without horns or any sharply marked colour pattern
it can be easily distinguished from the Screech Owl.

Field Marks. Very small size and lack of horns are the best field marks.

Nesting. In holes in trees, sometimes natural, at other times those made by wood-
peckers or squirrels.

Distribution. Most of temperate North America. Its breeding is irregular and
usually in the northern parts of its range or at high elevations farther south.

SUBSPECIES. There are two subspecies of the Saw-whet Owl occurring in Canada;
but only one, the Acadian Owl, the type form, is ever found in the east.

This diminutive owl is the smallest of the Birds of Prey in eastern
Canada. It haunts the dark tangle of cedar and tamarack swamps,
passing the day close against the trunk of a tree where its plumage blends
indistinguishably into the bark. It has such great reliance in its protective
coloration that it will allow close approach and can at times be almost taken
in the hand. It takes its vernacular name from its call notes which are said
to resemble the sound made by filing or whetting a saw.

133

Economic Status. Of 19 stomachs examined, 1 contained a sparrow;
17, mice; and1,amoth. With this record the species should be given pro-
tection.

373. Screech Owl. FR.—LE HIBOU MACULE. Otus asio. L, 9-40. Plate XVI A.

Distinctions. The species is dichromatic, that is, it occurs in two well marked colour
forms irrespective of sex, age, or season. One form is rich brown with shades of grey and
white, and the other has the grey replaced by bright rufous. The plumage pattern of
each is the same. Many intermediate stages occur. In apparent size it comes between
Richardson’s and the Saw-whet Owls, but the presence of well-defined horns from the
sides of the crown and the sharply defined figures of its colour pattern are characteristic.

Field Marks. Size, and the distinct horns are the best field guides.

Nesting. In hoilow trees.

Distribution. All temperate North America. Breeds in Canada wherever found.

SUBSPECIES. The Screech Owl is divided into a great number of subspecies, some
nine geographical races being recognized in North America by the American Ornitholo-
gists’ Union check-list. The only one found in eastern Canada, however, is the type form
—the Eastern Screech Owl.

Although called the ‘‘Screech Owl’’, the notes of this bird are melo-
dious and soothing with a tinge of melancholy, and contain nothing harsh
or grating. The most common call is a long, soft, tremolo whistle on a
descending or even scale. Occasionally it consists of low croons, gurgles,
and other quiet and conversational notes. Although inoffensive, these
smali birds show surprising courage in defence of their young. At night
they will sweep down on the head of an intruder with a startling, hollow-
sounding ‘“‘whoo-whoo”’ and snapping of the bill. Just before striking,
however, they wheel away to gather momentum for a return. Such
attacks while disconcerting are far from dangerous. The habit of nesting
in old hollow apple trees on the farm where its mousing is of the most
immediate importance makes this bird most valuable to the husbandman.

Economic Status. The official finding on the food of the Screech Owl
is warrant for its protection. Of 212 stomachs examined, 1 contained
poultry; 38, other birds; 91, mice; 11, other mammals; 2, lizards; 4, frogs
and toads; 1, fish; 100, insects; 5, spiders; 9, crawfish; 7, miscellaneous;
2,scorpions; and 2,earth worms. The poultry item must be regarded as an
accidental occurrence, as the bird represented, a pigeon, would be ex-
ceedingly large prey for this bird.

375. Great Horned Owl. FR.—LE DUC DE ViRGINIE. Bubo virginianus. L, 22.
Plate XVI B.

Distinctions. Our only owl over 15 inches in length wearing horns. Its ochraceous, ~
and black and white coloration is distinctive.

Field Marks. Large size, ochraceous colour, and prominent ear tufts.

Nesting. Usually in abandoned hawks’ nests or m hollow trees.

Distribution. In various subspecies the Great Horned Owl ranges over all of
North America. The ranges of the subspecies in Canada are sufficiently indicated by
their names.

SUBSPECIES. The Great Horned Owls of North America are split up into a
great number of geographical races or subspecies, some of which occur as migrants in
eastern Canada. The Arctic form B. v. subarcticus is nearly white in colour with the
ochre and rufous of the common variety almost absent and the black pattern much reduced.
The Western Horned Owl B. v. pallescens is about intermediate between the Arctic and
the Eastern Horned Owl, the type form shown in the illustration. The Labrador Horned
Owl B. v. heterocnemis is a very dark form. As these intergrade with each other indis-
tinguishably and overlap in range in migration, exact subspecies designations should only
be made with great care and, except in extreme plumages, only after comparison with
duly authenticated specimens.

134

The Great Horned Owl is the evil genius of the woods. Winding
silently in and out through the shadowy foliage, it is master of all except
the larger animals. The animosity the crows show the Great Horned Owl
must be based upon bitter experience.

Economic Status. The economic status of this bird depends upon
where it lives. In the deep woods away from settlement it is, of course,
harmless and only the wild creatures it preys upon are affected by it. In
settled districts this bird is to be guarded against in every possible way.
Of 110 stomachs examined, 31 contained poultry or game birds; 8, other
birds; 13, mice; 65, other mammals; 1, a scorpion; 1, fish; and 10, insects.
The evidence is, therefore, decidedly against this owl. There is no danger
that restriction will result in its extermination since it is perfectly able to
take care of itself and there are large sections where the species can hold
sway over the wilderness without molestation.

376. Snowy Owl. FR.—LE HARFANG. Nyctea nyctea. L, 25. A large, white owl
with short, sharp, dark-brown barring practically all over and without perceptible ear
tufts. Adult birds which have reached maturity may be almost immaculate.

Distinctions. The only owl that is markedly white, except the Arctic Horned Owl
which sometimes approaches it. The lack of horns or ears, however, is diagnostic.

Field Marks. Nearly white bird without ear tufts.

Nesting. On ground.

Distribution. Arctic regions of North America, migrating south in winter to the
latitude of the Great Lakes across the continent.

This is a winter visitor in the settled parts of Canada. It frequents
frozen marshes and lake shores and is typically a bird of the open. Usually
the birds that come from the north are heavily marked juveniles, but
occasionally flights occur in which the very white and almost unspotted
adults are in the majority. Probably the juveniles are naturally greater
wanderers than the adults which migrate far from their home grounds
only when driven out by a scarcity of food or attracted south by a great
abundance of rabbits.

377. Hawk Owl. FR.—LA CHOUETTE EPERVIERE D’AMERIQUE. Surnia ulula’

L, 15. A medium-sized owl of somewhat hawk-like build and habits. Above, rich’
warm brown variously spotted with white. All underparts and breast, sharply and regu-
larly barred with brown and white. A rich seal brown line bordering the outer sides of
the facial disks and meeting in the throat. Facial disk not as perfect as in most owls.

Distinctions. The less flattened and less typically owl-like face, long tail, and sharp
and regular barring of the underparts are distinctive.

Field Marks. Diurnal habits, general coloration, and long tail are good field marks.
Any owl seen hunting in the daytime or perched in commanding position in full daylight
is probably this species, though the Long and Short-eared both do so occasionally.

Nesting. In evergreen trees or in holes in dry trunks.

Distribution. The northern wooded parts of the continent, occurring within the
settled regions only rarely in winter.

SUBSPECIES. The Hawk Owl occurs in both the New and Old Worlds as allied
subspecies, the type being European. The American Hawk Owl S. wu. caparoch is the
only form found in Canada.

This is the most strictly diurnal of Canadian owls. It is very hawk-
like in action and form, being of more slender and lighter build than other
members of its family. It may often be seen perched on the tip of a dry
tree trunk, reminding one very much of the Sparrow Hawk both in outline
and in the distinctive way in which it Jerks its tail.

SORES eT FON ee = =

135

Economic Status. This is a northern bird which occurs within the
bounds of cultivation only in winter and rarely. Few data are available
upon its food, but without doubt it is a mouser as it is too small to prey upon
larger animals.

Order—Coccyges. Cuckoos and Kingfishers.

Systematic zoologists are not agreed on the classification of these
birds. The present American Ornithologists’ Union check-list (1910
edition) recognizes these as composing a full order and divides the Canadian
representatives into two suborders: Cuculi, including the American Cuckoos
and extralimital families, and Alcyones, the Kingfishers. Distinctive
characters are most easily described under the subfamily and specific
headings.

SUBORDER—CUCULI. CUCKOOS, ETC.

This suborder is represented in North America by only one family,
Cuculide, comprising the Anis and two groups of Cuckoos.

FAMILY—CUCULIDH. AMERICAN CUCKOOS.

A family represented in North America by three subfamilies, only
one of which occurs in Canada—Coccyzine, the American Tree Cuckoos.

Subfamily—Coccyzine. American Tree Cuckoos.

General Description. Birds with weak feet and yoke toes, two toes directed forward
and two backwards (Figure 37, p. 24). The bills are rather long, gently curved, and sharp
pointed. The plumage is soft and thin, lacking in cohesion, and has the soft silky feeling
associated with many tropical species. The tail is long, soft, and graduated.

Distinctions. May be distinguished from the Woodpeckers, which also have yoke
toes, directed two and two, by the difference in the bills and tails. In the Woodpecker
the bills are straight, stout, the tip chisel-pointed, and the tail is rather short, very stiff,
and bristle-like at the tip.

The Cuckoos are largely tropical in distribution. The two Canadian
euckoos are outliers from the main body of species in warmer latitudes.
They are possessed of a sensuous tropical grace and air that are out of keeping
with northern climes. This is exhibited in their lithe, sinuous carriage,
full round deep throat, long graceful tail, and thin but soft and silky plumage.
They haunt hot and humid jungles of shrubbery, and flit across the open
spaces with a silent undulating flight that seems in harmony with their
exotic nature. English literature is rich in reference to the Cuckoo, but
little that is said is applicable to the Canadian Cuckoo. The latter is not
an early arriving species and comes in spring with a quietness and a silence
that hides its presence for some time after arrival. Its notes, too, are
entirely different from those with which European writers have made us
familiar. The calls of cur birds are less musical but have a charm of their
own and a wildness and unusual quality in keeping with their natures.
The two Canadian species are very much alike in their calls; a loud
startling ‘“‘Kaow-kaow-kaow”’ is one of the most characteristic and one
that, on the still summer air, can be heard for a quarter of a mile or more.
Again they have a “‘ Kuck-kuck-kuck”’ note like a big clock beating seconds,
that has not the range of the above but has considerable carrying power.

136

In regard to their parental duties, our birds show considerable more reali-
zation of responsibility than the European. ‘They are slightly parasitic
in their habits, that is, they occasionally drop their eggs in the nests of
other birds and shelve upon them the cares of raising their young, but the
practice is not common. The old English word ‘‘Cuckold” refers to and
is based upon this habit of the European bird. This is not a common
practice with the American, as it is with the Old World species, and is
perhaps only accidental.

Economic Status. Cuckoos are almost entirely insectivorous, but
occasionally take small amounts of wild fruit. Their great value lies in
the fact that they show special fondness for certain insects that other
species rarely touch. Hairy caterpillars which, on account of their bristly
coatings, are safe from most fastidious birds are regularly eaten by Cuckoos.
The interior of a Cuckoo’s stomach will be found to be lined with a coating
of spiny caterpillar bristles set in the walls and projecting from them
like fur.

387. Yellow-billed Cuckoo. FR.—LE coUCcOU A BEC JAUNE. Coccyzus americanus.
L, 12-20. Plate XVII A.

Distinctions. The Yellow-billed Cuckoo may be mistaken only for its relative the
Black-billed. The yellow on the bill, from which it gets its name, is the easiest means of
identification. Additional distinguishing marks are a broad area of suffused cmnamon on
the wees that is conspicuous in flight, and considerably more white on the ends of the tail
feathers.

Field Marks. The long flexible outline in flight and the general coloration make this
bird recognizable as a Cuckoo. The yellow lower mandible, cinnamon wing marks, and
the large amount of white on the tail fix the species.

Nesting. Loose structure of sticks not far from ground.

Distribution. This species is of rather more southern distribution than the next,
but the data seem to point to its increase in numbers and range within the past thirty
vesre: Its range just overlaps the southern borders of Ontario, Quebec, and New Bruns-
wick.

SUBSPECIES. There are two races of this species recognized in Canada. The
Eastern Cuckoo, the typical form, extends west to the plains.

388. Black-billed Cuckoo. FR.—LE coucoU A BEC NOIRE. Coccyzus erythrophthal-
mus. L, 11-85. Plate XVII A.

Distinctions. Can be distinguished from the Yellow-billed by its all-black bill, lack
of cinnamon on the wings, and the smaller amount of white tips on the tail.

Field Marks. The above make the best field marks available for the species. The
characteristic Cuckoo flight and outline are easily recognized.

Nesting. Loose structure of sticks not far from ground.

Distribution. A bird of wider and more northerly distribution than the yellow-hilled
Cuckoo; irregularly in the more settled parts of the country south of the gulf of St. Lawrence
and west to the Manitoba line.

SUBORDER—ALCYONES. KINGFISHERS.

The Kingfishers form a well-marked group represented in nearly all
parts of the world. Though evidently adapted to catching fish some have
given up their ancestral habits and watery habitats to live in the woods
on insects and earthworms. However, all these departures from type are
extralimital and mostly tropical; the well known Laughing Jackass of
Australia is a large aberrant Kingfisher. The North American Kingfishers
are all included under one family, Alcedinide.

137

FAMILY—ALCEDINIDA. KINGFISHERS.

As there is only one species of the family in Canada the description
given under the species will serve for the family.

390. Belted Kingfisher. FR—LE MARTIN PECHEUR. Ceryle alcyon. L, 13-02.
Plate XVII B.

Distinctions. The great ragged crest and slaty-blue back of the Kingfisher cannot be
very well confused with ary other American bird. The weak feet, three toes in front,
the two outer (Figure 36, p. 24) joined for half their length, and the peculiar clumsy
grasping surfaces are diagnostic of the Kingfishers.

Field Marks. The ragged crest and large head, general coloration, and habit of sitting
motionless on a perch overhanging the water or diving into it with a splash make the
Kingfisher easily recognizable in life.

a ei esting. Usually on ground at end of a tunnel driven in the face of an exposed earth
an

Distribution. All of North America, breeding wherever found in Canada.

All frequenters of Canadian waters know the Kingfisher. It sits
motionless on a commanding perch over the water watching for the fish
below. Suddenly it dashes off, hangs suspended a moment in the air, and
then drops with a resounding splash into the water, rising a moment later
with a luckless fish in its capacious bill, and is off around the bend of the
stream. Within its daily range the Kingfisher knows every perch and
branch from which it can get a comprehensive view of its fishing grounds
and returns to them again and again. Streams are not its only habitat;
it frequents lakes and ponds and even the seashore. The Kingfishers
fish sometimes at considerable distances from their nests as they are often
seen in country where earth banks such as they require for nesting are
few. However, they are adaptable and sometimes use the most unexpected
substitutes, such as the earth clinging to the roots of an overturned tree,
or the sides of a drainage ditch.

Economic Status. The Belted Kingfisher lives upon small fish, and
whether or not this constitutes a grave economic offence is a question
that cannot be answered offhand. The minnows caught by this bird along
our larger streams, ponds, or lakes are certainly not of importance, but
when Kingfishers frequent small preserved trout streams they may possibly
commit rather serious depredations. Their effect on the larger salmon
waters is less clear. Ordinarily the fish they take are small perch, shiners,
chub, and other minnows that frequent the surface or shallow warm water.
The number of young game fish that are taken cannot be great. On waters
given to the culture of trout the question is different. The fish taken
there are comparatively well grown and even if they are not very numerous
the Kingfisher cannot be looked upon with friendly eyes by the angler.

On the salmon streams the Kingfishers are regarded with strong
disfavour and the guardians are usually busy reducing their number with
gun and trap on every possible occasion, and even offer bounties upon their
heads and nests. How far this is justified is questionable. In many of
these streams the fish have little other food than the smaller of their own
species. The large fish, except the spring run of breeders, are all busy
eating the small ones. The fry evidently live on micro-organisms and
plankton, the fingerlings upon the fry, the parr upon the fingerlings, and
so on. The fingerlings are those taken by the Kingfishers. Now if the
final number of adult salmon depends on the fingerling, if the fingerling

138

is the critical stage in the salmon’s life beyond which its chances for
survival are greatly increased, the Kingfisher can possibly commit appre-
ciable depredation; but if on the other hand this critical point occurs later,
during the sea life of the fish for instance, the effect of the taking of even
a considerable number of fingerlings will be negligible. At any rate it
will take several Kingfishers to equal the damage done by one comparatively
small fish in the waters frequented by the salmon. It would seem, therefore,
that the good and evil in the case of the Kingfisher nearly balances.

Order—Pici. Woodpeckers.

Thé world wide order Pici is a rather heterogeneous division including
numerous subdivisions and there is little uniformity of opinion as to their
exact relations. In Canada there is only one family of the order—Picide,

the Woodpeckers.

FAMILY—PICIDH. WOODPECKERS.

General Description. "The Woodpeckers are an easily recognized family. They have
either three or four toes, as in the Cuckoos, two permanently directed forward, ending in
well hooked claws for clinging to the rough bark of trees. In one group, the Three-toed
Woodpeckers, one of the hind toes is absent. The bill is straight, stout, and chisel-shaped
at the tip (Figure 41, p. 25). The tail is well developed; not remarkably long but stout
and ending in stiff bristles that are worn and frayed by pressure against rough bark.

Distinctions. Feet, bill, and tail characters make reliable distinctions.

Field Marks. Tree climbing habits; and flight by series of quick wing strokes with
slight pauses between, causing a waved course like a succession of festoons.

Nesting. In holes excavated in trees or stubs.

The Woodpeckers are well known for their ability to cling to per-
pendicular or overhanging surfaces. The stout chisel-shaped bill is
admirably adapted to drilling into wood whence the larve of borers or other
insects are extracted. The tongue is modified into a long, extensible
spear furnished with a sharp point and armed with minute barbs to assist
in holding the impaled prey and withdraw it from the wood. The hyoid
or tongue bones are so long that in the normal position of rest they wind up
over the base of the skull along the crown and in some species penetrate the
nostrils beneath the bill-sheath and finally rest their ends near the tip of
the bill. As a further aid, large salivary glands secrete a sticky fluid for
the tongue to which small insects stick and are caught as with, bird lime.
A few species, for example the Sapsuckers, have the tip of the tongue frayed
out into a sort of brush that is evidently used in gathering up the sap.

Economic Status. Of the general usefulness of the Woodpeckers,
with the exception of the Sapsuckers, there can be little doubt. They
are almost entirely insectivorous. They pursue wood-boring grubs by
drilling holes even in apparently healthy trees and hence they are bene-
ficial not harmful.

393. Hairy Woodpecker. FR.—LE PIC CHEVELU. Dryobates villosus. L, 9-40.
Almost exactly like the next species, but larger. Plate XVIII A.

Distinctions. The Downy Woodpecker is the only species with which this is likely to
be confused. Size is the best point for differentiation, but the white of the outer tail feathers
being solid instead of barred with black, is diagnostic.

Field Marks. The spotted black and white coloration to mark the genus and the size
to separate it from the Downy.

139

Nesting. In holes drilled in dead stubs or living trees.

Distribution. The Hairy Woodpecker in its various sub species is found over all the
wooded parts of Canada, breeding everywhere except perhaps in the most southern portions
of Ontario.

SUBSPECIES. The species in eastern Canada is divided into two geographical
races, the Eastern Hairy, the type form, and the Northern Hairy, D. v. lewcomelas. The
latter is the one usually but incorrectly given as the bird of southern Canada. It is of
slightly larger size and of more northern distribution, only occasionally coming down into
settled districts in winter and perhaps never appearing in the Lower Great Lakes region.

The Hairy Woodpecker gets its name from the white feathers of the
back, which fall over the black borders in a loose disconnected way faintly
suggestive of hairs. It is one of the common woodpeckers and quite
typical of the family in its habits. It is not as familiar about houses or
orchards as the Downy Woodpecker, preferring the woods to orchard or
shade trees.

Economic Status. Insects constitute 77 per cent of the food of this
species; they are mostly beetles, but include ants, scales, and sawflies;
22 per cent is vegetable, almost entirely wild fruit.

394. Downy Woodpecker. FR.—LE PIC MINULE. Dryobates pubescens. L, 6-83.
Plate XVIII A.

Distinctions. The Downy can be separated from the Hairy Woodpecker by its smaller
size and the black barring on the white outer tail feathers.

Field Marks. Size is the best field mark.

_ Nesting. In holes drilled in dead trees and stubs.

Distribution. The Downy Woodpecker with its various subspecies occupies all of

temperate America, breeding in Canada wherever found.

SUBSPECIES. The species is divided into several geographical races. The form
of eastern Canada, the Northern Downy D. p. medianus, is separated from the type form
only by a slight difference in size.

The Downy Woodpecker is our commonest woodpecker. It comes
close about the house and is quite at home in the orchard and among the
shade trees of towns and parks. As it is resident in Canada throughout
the year it is of particular value to the husbandman.

Economic Status. Being the most fearless of the woodpeckers and
coming close about the fields and houses where it is most needed, it is an
invaluable bird. Peering into every crack and crevice of shade and fruit
trees and drilling for deeper lying insects it well complements the work of
the little Chickadee and Nuthatch. In fact, these three species often travel
in company in the winter and there is little in the food line that is overlooked
when the three species work together. The food of the Downy Woodpecker
is similar to that of the Hairy Woodpecker, but, as would be expected
from its smaller size and its more common presence in summer, includes
more of the smaller insects. The various scale insects make a larger item
in its food and it takes more moth caterpillars, including the Tent Cater-
pillar and those of the Codling Moth.

400. Arctic Three-toed Woodpecker. BLACK-BACKED WOODPECKER. FR.—LE PIC
ARCTIQUE. Picoides arcticus. L, 9-50. Plate XVIII B.

Distinctions. A woodpecker with three instead of four toes and a solidly black back.

Field Marks. Except the Red-headed, the only solidly black-backed woodpecker in
eastern Canada. The all black back for specific, and the yellow crown patch of the male
for generic recognition. Plate XVIII B.

Distribution. The northern coniferous forests, west to the prairie provinces.

57172—10

140

A bird of the northern coniferous forest, seldom coming under the
notice of the ordinary observer, except towards the verge of present settle-
ment where it is of regular occurrence.

Economic Status. This woodpecker is of growing importance for the
protection of the coniferous forest from introduced and other insect pests
which have greatly increased in recent years.

401. American Three-toed Woodpecker. LADDER-BACKED WOODPECKER. FR.—LE
PIC D’AMERIQUE. Picoides americanus. lL, 8-75. Almost exactly similar to the Arctic
Three-toed, but with the middle of the back barred with white.

Distinctions. The yellow crown of the male is distinctive of the Three-toed Wood-
peckers. This species can be distinguished from the Arctic by the white-barred instead
of solid black back. Except the Red-bellied, the only woodpecker in eastern Canada with
a barred back.

Field Marks. Yellow crown of male and the black and white barring in the middle
of the back.

SUBSPECIES. The form occurring in eastern Canada. is the Eastern Three-toed
Woodpecker, the type race of the species. In the west, other forms occur.

A much rarer bird than the preceding, but of similar habits, status,
and distribution, and extending into the western mountains in subspecific
form.

402. Yellow-bellied Sapsucker. FR—LE Pic MACULE. Sphyrapicus varius. L,
8-56. Plate XIX A.

Distinctions. The well-defined red cap just covering the top of the head will usually
distinguish this species. Some females have a black crown, but the general coloration
is always recognizable even in young birds, although in them it is veiled and indicated
rather than expressed.

Field Marks. The red cap of both sexes and red throat of the male are the most cons-
picuous field marks. In other plumages the broad white bar that shows along the wing
and the black gorget below the throat are distinctive.

Nesting. In holes in dead trees.

Distribution. astern North America from well north of cultivation, scuthward.
Breeds everywhere in eastern Canada excepting in the most southerly portions.

SUBSPECIES. The eastern form of the Yellow-bellied Sapsucker is the type
race—the Eastern Sapsucker. In the extreme west another subspecies occurs.

The Sapsuckers have departed somewhat from their ancestral wood-
pecking habits. Although numerous during migration through southern
Canada, they are scarce breeders in the lower Great Lakes region though
common elsewhere.

Economic Status. This is the only bird of the family that seems
to be harmful. The harm is done in quest of sap, by girdling the trunks
and branches of orchards and other smooth barked trees with rows of small
squarish pits regularly spaced in horizontal lines penetrating both outer
and inner barks to the sap-wood beneath. Several trees may be so tapped
and visited in turn as the sap exudes. Though it is primarily the sap
which is sought, the insects attracted are also eaten, for though sap is
a large item in the Sapsucker’s diet, animal food is also necessary.

Although the damage to trees so girdled is not nearly as great as
might be expected, they are sometimes permanently injured and even
killed. All are weakened and a lodgment prepared for fungoid growth
and insects. Unless severely and repeatedly attacked, however, most
survive and completely recover. Even forest growth suffers considerable
damage; valuable timber trees are attacked and the consequent burr

tance

141

growths and wood stains in the manufactured lumber, marking the old,
healed attacks of the Sapsucker, reduce the marketable value of the lumber
products. The whole question of the damage done by Sapsuckers has been
exhaustively discussed in a United States Biological Survey Bulletin, No.
39, ‘‘Woodpeckers in relation to trees and wood products,’’ by W. L.
MeAtee. Under the heading of defensive measures against Sapsuckers
the author advises a limited use of the gun where the species is doing
appreciable harm, or the use of poison. If the gun is used care should be
taken that only Sapsuckers are killed and it must be remembered that
with poison, Hummingbirds and other small birds, especially warblers,
are likely to suffer also.

405. Pileated Woodpecker. COCK-OF-THE-WOOD. FR.—LE PIC A HUPPE ECARLATE.
Phleotomus pileatus. L,17. Plate XIX B.

Distinctions. The size of this woodpecker makes identification easy. It can be
confused with no other Canadian Woodpecker.

Field Marks. Large size, striking, red crest, and the white on the outspread wings.

Distribution. Once ranging over all of eastern Canada it is now practically con-
fined to the wilder parts and the wilderness of the north.

SUBSPECIES. The Pileated Woodpecker is divided into two subspecies, of which
only the Northern Pileated P. p. abieticola occurs in Canada.

On account of the wanton destruction of this beautiful bird which
was once of wide distribution, it is now to be found only in the quiet of the
north woods. The colloquial name ‘‘Cock-of-the-woods’’ has been locally
corrupted into ‘‘Woodcock’’, and its use for this species is a source of
confusion and misunderstanding. The Pileated Woodpecker is not a
legitimate object of sport; it will not ‘‘lie to a dog’’, cannot be hunted
by sportsman-like methods, and is too small for use as food, but has great
value as a forest preserver. It should, therefore, be rigidly protected
for economic as well as sentimental reasons.

Economic Status. The Pileated Woodpecker is now restricted to the
wildest sections. It is mainly beneficial in the protection of forest trees
and, therefore, its greatest value is to the lumberman. Its food is much
the same as that of the other woodpeckers, but its superior strength enables
it to dig deeply and exhume larve and insects that are safe from a less
powerful bird.

406. Red-headed Woodpecker. FR.—LE Pic A Thre ROUGE. Melanerpes erythro-
cephalus. L, 9-75. Plate XX A.

Distinctions. The bright red head and contrasting broad masses of black and white
body-plumage are easily recognized.

Field Marks. The striking coloration of this species makes it easily recognizable.

Nesting. Generally in holes in dead stubs and occasionally in telegraph and other
such poles.

Distribution. A bird of rather southern distribution, only regularly and commonly
entering Canada on the southern border along the lower Great Lakes.

The Red-headed Woodpecker is one of the familiar species about
orchards and wood lots. It is, therefore, well known wherever it
occurs. The Red-headed has rather less of woodpecker habits than
the forms hitherto considered, or it has evolved other flycatcher-like
traits in addition to its ancestral ones.

Economic Status. The Red-headed eats fewer larve and grubs than
other species, and more useful, predaceous ground-beetles. However,
57172—103

142

the balance between good and evil is in its favour, for although it eats
some fruit, May beetles or June bugs and weevils form a large part of its
food. It has been accused of eating fruit and without doubt the charges
have some foundation, but careful study has shown that these cases are
local and confined to limited areas and perhaps to certain individuals.

409. Red-bellied Woodpecker. FR.— LE PIC DE LA CAROLINE. Centurus carolinus.
L, 9:50. Entire back and upperparts sharply and regularly barred with black and white.
Whole back of neck to shoulder and, in the male, the top of head, bright red. All re-
mainder and below ashy white with slight olive tinge. Abdomen slightly tinged with red.

Distinctions. The even barring of the whole back and the red colour of the crown
and rear neck are easily distinguished.

Distribution. From the gulf coast to northern United States, occurring as a straggler
to the north of the boundary in southern Ontario.

This Woodpecker is of rare and local occurrence in Canada. Its
economic status is good although it is fond of wild fruit and occasionally
turns its attention to cultivated varieties.

412. Flicker. GOLDEN-WINGED WOODPECKER. HIGHHOLE, HIGHHOLDER, YELLOW-
HAMMER. FR.—LE PIC DORE. Colaptes auratus. L, 12. Plate XX B.

i Distinction. A large Woodpecker with the under surface of the wings and tail bright
yellow.

Field Marks. General Woodpecker-like actions; size; yellow underwing surfaces
and white rump conspicuous in flight.

Nesting. Nests in holes excavated in dead stubs, usually in the open, rarely if ever
in dense woods. The peculiar inter-relation of distinct species is well illustrated by this
bird. Its deserted nesting-holes are made use of by many other species which are incap-
able of excavating their own. Sparrow Hawks, Tree Swallows, Crested Flycatchers,
and some other useful species are thus directly dependent upon Woodpeckers, especially
Flickers, for nesting sites. There are many other such cases in nature of imterdepen-
dence; some are obvious and well known, some we surmise, and others May be that we
do not and cannot at present even suspect. This is a cogent reason for caution in disturb-
ing the established order of nature.

Distribution. The Flicker in its various subspecies is distributed all over eastern
North America, north to the tree limits. It breeds wherever found in Canada.

SUBSPECIES. The Flicker is divided into several subspecies, the eastern Canadian
variety being known as the Northern Flicker C. a. luteus.

The most familiar of the Woodpeckers to the general public, as is
indicated by the great number of vernacular names that have been appplied
to it; only the principal ones are given above. The loud ‘Flicker, flicker,
flicker”, of the male and the piercing ‘‘Peiu-w’ of both sexes are well
known and easily recognized sounds. Though a true Woodpecker the
Flicker is a pronounced ground feeder and is especially fond of ants, of
which its food is often largely composed. It delights to cling to a hollow
reverberating tree trunk and beat out rattling tattoos that can be heard
for great distances. This noise seems to be made as a call to its mate
or may sometimes be from pure exuberance of spirits. The reproductive
powers of the Flicker are phenomenal. By taking away the eggs as they
are laid it has been known to lay thirty or more in a season. It seems
to be able to keep up the deposition until the set is completed.

Economic Status. Ants constitute nearly half the food of the Flicker.
The remainder of its insect food consists of both beneficial and harmful
species, but the latter noticeably predominate. It takes some fruit,

grain, and mast, but on the whole must be considered to be beneficial
rather than harmful. Perhaps the worst charge that can be made against

143

the species is its scattering of the seeds of the poison oak and ivy and so
aiding in the spread of these harmful plants.

Order—Macrochires. Goatsuckers, Swifts, and Hummingbirds.

In this order are grouped a number of birds that after further inves-
tigation may be rearranged. The present classification of the American
Ornithologists’ Union is avowedly tentative and adhered to only until
a permanent system can be agreed upon. The various suborders of
the division are more easily recognized by their differences than by their
agreements, and those points in which they differ will be emphasized in
the following descriptions.

SUBORDER—CAPRIMULGI. GOATSUCKERS.

This is a widely distributed suborder divided into a number of families.
A description of the one family represented in North America will serve
for the recognition of the native species.

FAMILY—CAPRIMULGIDH. GOATSUCKERS.

General Description. The Goatsuckers have flattened heads, very small bills, and
enormous mouths, with gape extending to behind the eye (Figure 38, p. 24). The
feet are small and very weak and the middle claw pectinated or furnished with comb-
like serrations as in the Herons (Figure 19, p. 21). The plumage is very soft in texture
and coloured in wood browns, neutral buffs, and grey.

Distinctions. The above characters should be sufficient to characterize this family
as they are dissimilar to those of any other Canadian birds.

The Goatsuckers were given their name from an oid but mistaken
belief that they sucked the milk from the goats in the pastures over which
they were seen to wheel and circle, and their immense mouths and pink
throats gave support to the popular impression. In truth the birds that
frequented the pastures were hawking for flying insects that had been
attracted by the animals. The birds of this family are nocturnal or cre-
puscular. They feed entirely upon insects caught on the wing and seldom
come to ground except to nest or for repose. Their feet are too small
and weak to clasp a branch securely and in perching they normally sit
on large branches, lengthwise of them instead of crosswise, as do most
birds.

416. Chuck-will’s Widow. FR.—ENGOULEVENT DE LA CAROLINE. Antrostomus
carolinensis. L, 12. A large Whip-poor-will. See next species.

Distinctions. Size; it is a considerably larger bird than the Whip-poor-will; the
long bristles about the mouth with hair-like branches at their base instead of being clean
and bare throughout their length.

Distribution. The southern states. Of accidental occurrence within our borders.

The basis for the inclusion of this bird here is the taking of a specimen
/at Pelee point on lake Erie and another at Pictou, Nova Scotia. It is
rare and is similar-to the Whip-poor-will in appearance, habits, and notes.

417. Whip-poor-will. FR—L’ENGOULEVENT CRIARD. Antrostomus vociferus. L,
§-75. Coloured in soft indefinite patterns of wood-browns and greys with suggestions
of rufous and cchre. There is little broad pattern in the colouring, but much fine detail.
On the underparts there is only a faint suggestion of barring, and the coloration of the
whole bird is like that of a great brown moth.

144

Distinctions. Only to be mistaken for the Nighthawk or the very rare Chuck-will’e
Widow. It is easily distinguished from the Nighthawk by the following points: th;
throat is dark instead of white; there is a narrow white collar across the base of the throats
the final half of the tail feathers, except the middle pair, is white in the male and tipped
with buffy white in the female. The spread wing shows no white spot.

Nesting. Eggs are laid directly upon the ground or on dead leaves.

Distribution. Common throughout most of the settled parts of eastern Canada,
scarcer in the extreme east, and more common in undisturbed than in highly cultivated
sections.

SUBSPECIES. ‘Two subspecies of Whip-poor-will are recognized in North America,
of which the Eastern Whip-poor-will, the type form, is the only one occurring in Canada.

There is no other sound in the Canadian woods as poetically mournful
as the reiterated call of the Whip-poor-will. The translation of bird
notes into words usually requires a stretch of the imagination, but this
bird says “Whip-poor-will, whip-poor-will’”’ with unusual distinctness.
For a calling station it selects a perch on a fallen tree-trunk, a bare branch,
the roof of a building, or even a tent pole. It returns to its various stations
regularly on successive nights and seems to visit each in turn. Between
periods of calling the bird hawks and wheels through the tree tops in
large interlacing circles, sometimes swooping towards the ground in a long
pendulum-like swing. In the daytime it seeks the ground in some quiet
patch of underbrush where it passes the time at rest. When disturbed
by an intruder it rises with a loose, poorly controlled flight that gives no
indication of its wonderful command of the air at other times, flutters
a short distance over the tangle, and drops again to earth.

The Whip-poor-will is often regarded as identical with the Nighthawk.
This is a not unnatural mistake when they are not seen side by side as
they are quite similar enough to be confused.

Economic Status. The Whip-poor-will feeds largely upon night-
flying beetles, especially May beetles or June bugs.

420. Nighthawk. MOSQUITO HAWK. BULL-BAT. NIGHT-JAR. FR.—L’ ENGOULEVENT
p’améR 19Un. Chordeiles virginianus. L, 10. Plate XXI A.

D‘stinctions. The Nighthawk and the Whip-poor-will are often mistaken for one
another. This species, however, can be distinguished from the Whip-poor-will by the
following characters: the throat is white instead of dark, there is no white collar below
the throat, and the long mouth-bristles are lacking. The tail is slightly forked instead
of round and has little or no white except a narrow subterminal bar. The underparts
are distinctly barred and the wings have a white spot at the base of the primaries instead
of being all black.

Field Marks. The Nighthawk flies about in daylight and in the early evening,
whereas the Whip-poor-will never hawks about in the open until evening. A white spot
in the wing shows in flight very plainly, resembling from a little distance a clear cut shot
hole. The sudden and perpendicular dive in the air with hollow booming accompaniment
is also distinctive of the species.

Nesting. A clear spot on the ground—usually the bald tops of flat rocks in the open.
Eggs laid directly on ground with little or no preparation. Often utilizes the flat gravel
roofs of buildings.

Distribution. North and South America, north to the tree limits, breeding in Canada
wherever found.

SUBSPECIES. Several subspecies of Nighthawks are recognized in Canada, but
the only form occurring in the east is the Eastern Nighthawk, the type form.

Though called Nighthawk this bird has no relation to the Raptores
in habit, structure, or outward appearance. Its large eyes directed slightly

forward sometimes causes it to be mistaken for an owl by casual observers.
This species nests to some extent on the flat gravel roofs of buildings.

!
/

145

These graceful aeronauts may be seen over almost any city or town as
evening draws on, beating about on long, strong wings with slow, powerful,
but slightly erratically timed beats. At intervals one will mount in steep
spirals higher and higher, and then face earthwards and come nearly
perpendicularly down like a falling stone. As it falls a hollow dull tremolo
buzz is heard. Just before the observer thinks the bird must dash to
the ground it catches itself and glides off safely to repeat the operation.
Its notes are not musical, though from the high upper air its hoarse
squawking voice comes down softened and harmonized by distance.

Economic Status. Of few birds can more good or less harm be told
than of the Nighthawk. Its food is wholly of insects and it takes most
of it on the wing, high in the air where many of the insects are mating
and at a time when their destruction does the most good. It isa surpris-
ingly small bird when stripped of its thick coat of soft feathers, but requires
a great amount of food. A list of the species taken by it includes great
numbers of ants, June bugs, squash beetles, chinch bugs, leaf-hoppers,
and other obnoxious species. The habit, common in some places, of using
this bird as a live target by gunners when practicing is inexcusable and
those guilty of it should be rigorously prosecuted. It should be realized
that every offence against the laws protecting insectivorous birds is
something more than a technical offence against an impersonal state;
it-is a direct blow at the welfare of the whole community.

SUBORDER—CYPSELI. SWIFTS AND ALLIES.

A widely spread suborder consisting of one family of which in eastern
Canada we have only a single species.

FAMILY——MICROPODIDZ. SWIFTS.

The North American Swifts are divided into two subfamilies, only
one of which, the Spine-tailed Swift Cheturine, is represented in eastern
Canada.

Subfamily—Cheturine. Spine-tailed Swifts.

The Swifts are a group of birds superficially resembling swallows, but
structurally very different from them, the similarity being brought about
by common requirements and not by relationship. A description that is
applicable to the whole subfamily is given under the specific heading
following.

423. Chimney Swift. FR—LE MARTINET DES CHEMINES. Chetura pelatica. L,
5:43. Plate XXI B.

Distinctions. The even, sooty-brown colour lightening on the throat and becoming
darker towards the vent, is almost sufficient for recognition. The projection of the shafts
of the tail feathers (Figure 39, p. 25) beyond the webs as sharp stiff spines is a positive
identification mark.

Field Marks. The peculiar, long, narrow, and rather club-shaped wings, well shown
in the illustration; the nearly continuous quick beating; the dense dark coloration; and
_ the habit of entering chimneys, are distinctive and characteristic.

Nesting. Originally in hollow trees or clefts in rocks, now over most of the range of
the Chimney Swift, in unused chimneys. The nest is a firm structure of twigs cemented
together with a natural glue furnished by the salivary glands. The edible nests so much
in demand by Chinese epicures, are composed of the cement from a closely allied Swift.

Distribution. astern North America, north to the limit of cultivation. Breeds in
Canada wherever found.

146

This is an interesting species, swallow-like in outward appearance and

food-hunting habits yet structurally distinct from the Swallows. It is an
odd example of parallel development of widely separated characters induced
by similarity of requirement. Its habits have entirely changed since the
advent of the white man and, forsaking hollow trees, it is now practically
dependent upon chimneys for sites in which to build its nest. The winter
home of the Chimney Swift is unknown. The mystery, however, should
not be exaggerated, as there are numbers of Swifts in the western hemisphere
looking very like this one and the bird has probably been overlooked in its
winter quarters or confused with closely allied forms. The Swift spends
much time on the wing and seldom comes to rest except in a chimney or
hollow tree. In the autumn, before migration, great numbers gather to-
together and at evening seek the shelter of some ample chimney where
they pass the night. They may be seen just before dusk flying about in
complicated patterns near the chosen chimney, and as the sun sets, circling,
until as they throw the wings straight up over the back and drop fluttering
into the stack, one rapidly following another, they appear to pour in like a
miniature maelstrom. The birds cling to the perpendicular walis of the
chimney by hundreds, in masses like lumps of soot. Occasionally one with
insecure hold drops a few feet, loosening as it does so, others below; there
is a momentary flutter of wings and a small chorus of fine sharp chippings
until they find new holdings and settle for the night.

SUBORDER—TROCHILI. HUMMINGBIRDS.

These tiny, insect-like birds with brilliant flower-like coloration,
unbird-like flight, and wonderfully varied form, are a typically American
order. Ina way, they occupy much the same position in the New World
as the Sun Birds do in the Old World, but the similarity between the two is
superficial and not one of relationship. Many species are highly specialized
and exhibit some of the strangest forms in the bird world, including crests,
ruffs, fans, and muffs, exaggerated tails, long plumes, and enormous sword-
like and fine awl-shaped bills, but their most striking feature is the brilliant
- metallic colorations on various parts of the body, that gleam in the sun. They
feed largely upon the nectar of flowers. The tongue is very long and
protrusive as in the Woodpeckers, with its sides curled over towards the
middle to form a double tube frayed into a brush-like tip which makes a
most efficient organ for sucking liquids. Numbers of small insects, however,
are taken with the nectar and, from feeding experiments on captives, they
seem to be necessary to the bird’s welfare. They are usually minute forms
taken from the flowers from which the nectar is obtained.

Hummingbirds as a group are tropical and subtropical species and
increase greatly in number to the south, though one species in the east
ranges well to the north.

FAMILY—TROCHILIDA. HUMMINGBIRDS.

As there is only one family of Hummingbirds, represented in eastern
Canada by a single species, see preceding and succeeding headings for des-
eription.

428. Ruby-throated Hummingbird. FR.—LE COLIBRI A GEORGES RUBIS. Archilo-
chus colubris. L, 3-74. Plate XXII A.

147

Distinctions. Size; slender bill (Figure 40, p. 25); and metallic coloration are
distinctive.

Nesting. In a beautiful structure covered with bits of lichens and cobwebs, saddled
on the top of a branch.

Distribution. Eastern North America north to the limits of present cultivation.

Hummingbirds fly forwards, backwards, sideways, or remain per-
fectly stationary in the air with equal ease—another instance of parallel
development—a bird flying like an insect yet in structure strictly bird-like.
The wings vibrate with a rapidity that can only be measured by the tuning
fork method used with insects. This system of flight is fundamentally
different in method from that of other birds and consequently the wings
differ from the usual type. They are long, narrow, non-flexible, and the
keel of the sternum is immensely deepened to give support to the great
muscles that move them. In proportion to its wing spread a Humming-
bird has a breast keel nearly three times larger than that of a pigeon, a bird
of average flight, or forty times larger than that of an albatross.

Economic Status. When it is remembered that some of the smallest
insect pests are the most destructive, we can realize that possibly the
economic importance of the Hummingbird may be greater than suspected.
Besides nectar, its food seems to be composed of small flies, gnats, minute
bees, wasps, and other flower-haunting and pollen-eating forms. Appa-
rently no harm can be charged against the species and it may do good out
of all proportion to its size.

Order—Passeres. Perching Birds.

The order Passeres, Passerine or Perching Birds, is the largest and
most important division of modern birds. The lower and more generalized
types of birds have in the past been in the ascendant; but to-day the
highly specialized Passeres are dominant; they constitute nearly if not
quite half of our present living forms and are put at the head of the classi-
fication by systematists. They have a greater number than any other
order,of characters that are common to themselves but special in relation
to other orders, for instance, the highly developed larynx or singing organ,
with complicated muscular control and many other special characters.
Generally, a bird may be referred to this order by a process of elimination,
as not belonging to any of the previous orders. The feet (Figure 42, p.25)
are not webbed, the hind toe is as long as the middle one, and the whole foot
is well adapted for perching. The bill is hard and horny, without cere or
soft base, and the nostrils do not communicate with each other as in some
of the other orders. Two suborders are represented in Canada: Calmatores,
the Songless Perchers; and Oscines, the Song Birds.

SUBORDER—CLAMATORES. SONGLESS PERCHERS.

This suborder is constituted upon a basis of anatomical structure.
The name Songless Percher is not intended to indicate that the birds are
silent, but that they are less tuneful than the Oscines, with a larynx less
highly specialized. Only one family of this suborder occurs in Canada, the
Tyrannide or Tyrant Flycatchers.

148

FAMILY—-TYRANNID4. TYRANT FLYCATCHERS.

General Description. The Tyrant Flycatchers are most easily recognized among
Canadian birds by their bills (Figure 43, p. 25) which are comparatively long, somewhat
flattened and broadened at the base, wider than high, and slightly hooked at the extreme
tip.

Field Marks. Easily recognized in life by their characteristic habits and attitudes
which soon become familiar to the discerning observer. When perching they usually sit
in an upright attitude, quite still except for an occasional spasmodic jerking of the tail.
On observing a passing insect they dash out and capture it in the air with a nimble evolu-
tion and quick snap of the bill.

The Flycatchers are one of the most difficult families to identify
specifically. Some of them are strongly characterized, but of the com-
monest ones, several species are so nearly alike as to puzzle the experienced
ornithologist when they are silent or not in normal habitats. In identifying
them in life, attention should be paid to their notes. These and the type
of habitat in which they are observed are good guides to differentiation in
the case of the more puzzling species.

Economic Status. Their food consists almost entirely of insects,
caught on the wing, for which the broad bill is well adapted. As they take
most of their food in the air near the ground they catch varieties of insects
not taken by other birds. The species found in their stomachs include
beetles, flies, wasps, crane flies, ants, grasshoppers, tent caterpillars, and
moths. Indeed, nearly all the harmful species of insects are found in their
crops and they must be classed as highly beneficial.

443. Scissor-tailed Flycatcher. Muscivora forficata. L, 13 (about). (Tail, 9.)
This Flycatcher is an occasional wanderer within the borders of Canada, from sub-
tropical America. It is unmistakable—a light, ash-coloured bird about the size of a
Kingbird, with darker wings, scarlet or orange cap and the same colour under the wings,
and with a great tail 8 to 9 inches long, split to a depth of 6 inches or more, which,
when the bird is at rest, opens and closes like a pair of scissors. Strangely enough one
of our best authenticated records comes from York Factory on Hudson bay. With
this record before us, it is difficult to state positively what species may or may not be
found anywhere in Canada.

444. Kingbird. BEE MARTIN. FR.—LE MOUCHEROLLE DE LA CAROLINE. Tyrannus
tyrannus. L, 8-51. Plate XXII B.

Distinctions. The black and white coloration, orange crown patch showing in
moments of excitement, and the black tail conspicuously tipped with white as if dipped
in white paint.

Field Marks. Easily recognized in life by the above marks. The orange crown,
however, is rarely seen. In life, the head and tail appear to be dead black in colour in
strong contrast to the pure white below.

Nesting. In trees, 5 to 40 feet above the ground; the nest a well built structure of
weed stalks, grasses, and waste vegetation lined with plant-down, rootlets, and fine grasses.
The fact that the bird not uncommonly nests in orchards and near cultivated fields is
much in its favour.

: Eee North America north to near tree limits. Breeds in Canada wherever
ound.

The Kingbird is a familiar species, coming close around houses and
orchards, and the presence of a pair nesting close by is one of the best
preventives of the depredations of hawks or crows. None come anywhere
near the Kingbird’s home, without being vigorously challenged. The
Kingbird flies at the intruders with an energy that is surprising in so
small and weak a bird. It cannot do them any real harm, but drives them
away and its outcries give wide notice of the impending danger. Owing to

149

its small size and agility in the air, it can attack a large enemy from any
quarter and is practically safe from counter attacks from anything heavier
and less agile.

Economic Status. The name Kingbird is of obvious application, but
the other term applied to it, ‘‘Bee Martin,” naturally raises suspicion as
to its feeding habits. It is accused of catching honey bees, and most
circumstantial accounts of its doing so are given credence. The record
given below shows that the charge of taking bees is to some extent true,
but it shows also that the bees caught are mainly drones that can well be
spared. The old story of the Kingbird opening its brilliant crest to decoy
the bee within reach under the impression that it is a flower may be dis-
missed as groundless folk-lore, though it has received wide circulation and
acceptation. Of 624 Kingbirds’ stomachs examined by the United States
Department of Agriculture in 1911, 22 contained a total of 61 bees: 51 of
which were drones; 8, workers; and 2 were indeterminate. The remainder
of the food consists of other insects, including many noxious forms and a
little wild fruit and berries.

452. Crested Flycatcher. GREAT CRESTED FLYCATCHER. FR.—LE MOUCHEROLLE
A HUPPE. Myiarchus crinitus. L, 9-01. Olive-brown above, turning to rufous on the
inner webs of the tail. Throat and upper breast, ash-grey. Underparts, sulphur-yellow.

Distinctions. The above coloration is distinctive. | No other Flycatcher in eastern
Canada is similarly coloured.

Field Marks. The bright yellow colour below and the long rufous tail are the most
striking recognition marks. The loud, hoarse cry, a long drawn ‘‘wheeeeep” and a lower
“ whip-whip-whip,”’ are very characteristic though sometimes mistakable for the notes of
the Olive-sided Flycatcher.

Nesting. In holes abandoned by woodpeckers. The bird shows a remarkable pre-
ference for cast snake skins as nesting material. Scarcely a nest of the species but con-
tains one or more.

Distribution. Eastern North America. In Canada all along the southern border,
breeding wherever found.

A Flycatcher of the woodland tree tops. Its voice is constantly heard
in the summer, but rarely at any distance from dense forest.

Economic Status. Beetles, locusts, ants, crickets, flies, and moths
constitute the bulk of its food. It takes more parasitic wasps and beetles
than most birds but not enough to counterbalance the pests it destroys.

456. Phoebe. BRIDGE PEWEE. FR.—LE MOUCHEROLLE BRUN. Sayornis phoebe.
L, 6:99. Plate XXIII A.

Distribution. The small, greenish Flycatchers are perhaps the most difficult of
American birds to separate. Fortunately each has a typical habitat and characteristic
note which form good guides to differentiation. The Phoebe is the largest of these puzzling
little birds and the most easily recognized. It is most likely to be confused with the Wood
Pewee, but examined in the hand, the larger and stouter legs and feet of this species
are easily recognizable.

Field Marks. The head of the Phoebe seems a little darker and in stronger contrast
to the body than in the other Flycatchers. The sideways sweep of the tail is character-
istic and in adults the lack of wing bars. The note, however, a quickly uttered Phoe-be
with a strong accent on the first syllable, is the most easily recognized field mark. The
Wood Pewee’s note is long-drawn and that of the Least is short and explosive.

Nesting. A large structure of mud, moss, and grasses under bridges, the overhang
of buildings, or ledges of rock.

: a haiiaale Eastern America, north to near tree limit. Breeds in Canada wherever
ound.

_No place suits the Phoebe so well for nesting as the flat timber or
projecting ledges of an old bridge over some little stream where the air

150

over the water abounds in insect food. In many parts of the country
scarcely a bridge but has its pair of Phoebes in the summer. However,
the mud nests are not restricted to bridges but are plastered on the slightest
projection under the eaves of an outbuilding or even under the family
porch. It is a friendly, familiar bird and comes close to man wherever it
finds a welcome. Unfortunately its great nests are occasionally the dwelling
place of innumerable parasites, in other words bird-lice. The usual course
when they appear is to knock the nest down with a stick and apply boiling
water. The application of common insect powder to the nest is better.
This will kill the parasites and help to retain about the house this easily
domesticated and attractive bird.

459. Olive-sided Flycatcher. FR.—LE MOUCHEROLLE AUX COTES OLIVE. WNui-
tallornis borealis. L, 7-39. Much like a large Phoebe, but with less olive and with exten-
sive masses of dark colour on either side of the chest.

Distinctions. In the hand the conspicuous dark patches at the sides of the chest,
and the dark under-tail coverts with light tips will separate this species from the Phoebe
which it resembles. At the sides of the back, usually concealed under the closed wings,
though occasionally displayed over them, are patches of fine sifk-like plumage of pure
white or cream colour. These will distinguish the Olive-sided from any other species.

Field Marks. In life the Olive-sided looks more like a dark breasted Kingbird than
a Phoebe or other Flycatcher. The dark chest areas separated by a line of white, however,
distinguish them with comparative ease. When the white silky feathers show over the
wings at the sides of the lower back, as sometimes occurs, the species cannot be mis-
identified. The call notes are somewhat similar in tone and execution to those of the
Crested Flycatcher, but a little attention and experience will enable the hearer to dis-
tinguish between the two.

Distribution. North America. Breeds in Canada from the tree limits to the bound-
aries of regular cultivation.

This is typically a bird of the burnt ridges of the north. Its favourite
perch is the top of a tall lone stub in the open, from which its loud, pene-
trating voice is heard far and wide. In migration it is rather scarce and
local in distribution and though great numbers pass through the populous
southern counties it is usually regarded as a scarce migrant.

Economic Status. It is too rare in settled districts to have great
economic value, but it is distinctly beneficial.

461. Wood Pewee. FR.—LE MOUCHEROLLE VERDATRE. Myiochanes virens. L, 6-58.
Very similar in coloration to the Phoebe but smaller.

Distinctions. The Wood Pewee can be separated from the Phoebe and other Fly-
catchers of comparable size by its short tarsus and long wings, these being decidedly
longer than the tail.

Field Marks. The Pewee never flirts its tail as does the Phoebe. The sides of the
breast are also slightly darker, giving a better defined and narrower light median line.
Its best identification mark, however, is its call-note which is much like that of the Phoebe
but drawn out inte a long pee-e-weee without appreciable accent but with a rising inflection
at the end. The female varies the call by dropping the last note, making it pee-e-e-e.

Nesting. A well made but slight structure of fine fibres and rootlets covered with
lichens and saddled on a branch, 20 to 40 feet from the ground.

Distribution. It is distributed over nearly all of eastern North America west to
the prairies, breeding in Canada wherever found.

The long-drawn plaintive pee-e-we of this bird is a characteristic sound
of the open woodlands in the spring, and after other birds have relapsed
into mid-summer silence one still occasionally hears the mournful note.

}

151

Economic Status. The food of the Wood Pewee is quite similar to
that of the other Flycatchers, but modified, of course, by its woodland
habitat. As it is not retiring and frequents open groves and orchards
freely, it is of direct benefit to the agriculturist.

463. Yellow-bellied Flycatcher. FR.—LE MOUCHEROLLE A VENTRE JAUNE. Em-
pidonax flaviventris. L, 5-63. Similar to the Wood Pewee and the Phoebe in colour,
but smaller than either and with the browns and olives of those species replaced by dis-
tinct olive-green and the whites by dull sulphur-yellow.

Distinctions. The distinctly yellow colour of the whole bird makes this the most
easily recognized of the small Flycatchers.

Field Marks. The yellow colour, especially on the throat, is the best sight mark.
The notes te-pee-a are distinctive—three syllables, with accent on the middle one. Its
pe-wick is something like the name call of the Phoebe, but the first syllable is not accented.

Nesting. On ground; nest built of moss and lined with grasses.

Distribution. From the Great Plains east and north to the edges of cultivation.
Breeds in Canada along the northern boundary of its range, not in the lower Great Lakes

region.

Another woodland Flycatcher; but one that is less confined to large
timber. Thickets bordering heavier woods seem to be its favourite locality.

Economic Status. Food habits very similar to those of the other
small Flycatchers. Its normal station on the edges of woods bordering
cultivated land makes it of value to the agriculturist.

465. Acadian Flycatcher. LITTLE GREEN-CRESTED FLYCATCHER. Empidonazx vires-
cens. Li, 5-63. A small Flycatcher of about the same size as the Yellow-bellied, Traill’s,
and LeastFlycatchers; smaller than the Wood Pewee; and much smaller than the Phoebe.
In colour, like the Phoebe but distinctly olive-green above and more yellowish below.
Wing-bars rather prominent.

Distinctions. This species agrees so closely in size and coloration with Traill’s and
the Least Flyeatchers as to make identification most difficult. It is not so yellow in
colour as the Yellow-bellied, there being no pure yellow on it anywhere, but it is the yellow-
est and greenest of the other small Flycatchers. It is very rare in Canada and new records
should be accepted only on the authority of experts.

Distribution. Eastern North America north to the borders of Canada along the
western end of Jake Erie.

466. Traill’s Flycatcher. ¥R.—LE MOUCHEROLLE DES AULNES. Empidonaz traillt.
L, 6-09. A small Flycatcher, slightly larger than the Yellow-bellied or the Least and
of almost identical coloration to the latter and the Acadian.

Distinctions. The back is browner than in the Acadian and without its decided
suggestion of green. From the Least, size is sometimes the only means of differentiation.

_ Field Marks. Colour or size details are of little use in the field determination of

this or the next species. Habitat and call notes are, however, reliable. Traill’s Fly-
catcher is a bird of the aider, willow, or raspberry thickets, and overgrown marsh edges;
the Least Flycatcher is a woodland bird; and though either may be occasionally found
in other habitats the surroundings are usually a good guide to identification. The call
notes, however, make recognition easy. ‘Traill’s are ee-zee-e-wp with stress on the second
syllable and the Least utters quickly an explosive che-bec that is sometimes repeated
several times.

Nesting. Ina crotch of small growth near the ground; in nest of coarse grasses, plant-
down, and fibres lined with grasses.

Distribution. Traill’s Flycatcher as a species inhabits nearly all of North America.
The eastern subspecies, the Alder Flycatcher, is found from the east coast of Canada
west across the mountains.

SUBSPECIES. Two subspecies of Traill’s Flycatcher occur in Canada. The
eastern form, the Alder Flycatcher EL. ¢t. alnorum, is the only one that occurs within the
area under consideration. The Western Alder Flycatcher £. t. frailli is a more southern
and western form.

152

Economic Status. Similar to that of the other Flycatchers. Its
food is almost entirely insects, the species destroyed being mostly those
frequenting waste land.

467. Least Flycatcher. cCHEBEC. FR.—LE PETIT MOUCHEROLLE. Hmpidonax
minimus. L, 5-41. The smallest of our Flycatchers. In general coloration of the
Phoebe-like flycatcher type and almost indistinguishable from the Acadian and Traill’s.

Distinctions. Browner on back and without the distinct green suggestion of the
Acadian, but almost identical with Traill’s in colour, from which it can sometimes only
be separated by size. Its habitat in woodland localities instead of shrubby wastes offers
a suggestion as to its identity and its call note is different from that of any other species.
This call is a quick explosive che-bec, sometimes repeated several times, with a not distant
resemblance to a series of hacking coughs.

Nesting. Usually in a crotch 15 to 30 feet from the ground; in nest of plant-down,
fine wood fibres, rootlets, and long hairs.

Distribution. Throughout Canada west to the mountains and north beyond cul-
tivation. Breeds in Canada wherever found.

This is a bird of the orchard and the trees about the house, overgrown
fence-lines, and other familiar localities where close proximity to cultiva-
tion makes its services of noteworthy benefit.

Economic Status. The food of the Least Flycatcher does not differ
materially from that of the other members of the family, but its familiarity
and confidence bring it close to man where its useful qualities have the
maximum influence.

SUBORDER—OSCINES. SONG BIRDS.

The suborder Oscines is a large division of birds, placed at the head of
the list as exhibiting the highest development of the class Aves. It includes
a great number of families and species, the exact relationships of many
of which have never been satisfactorily defined. According to present
American usage the suborder begins with the Larks and ends with the
Thrushes which are regarded as constituting the most highly developed
family. The characters differentiating the Oscines from the Clamatores
are technical and anatomical and beyond the scope of a popular consider-
ation of the subject. As might be gathered by the name the high develop-
ment of the vocal organs and muscles attached are important points in
the classification. The members are more easily recognized from family
descriptions than under this more general heading.

FAMILY—-ALAUDIDA. LARKS.

The Larks comprise a large family of wide distribution. The sys-
tematic distinctions that characterize the family are rather technical,
and as there is only one species in Canada to consider, they will be
described under the species on the next pages.

474. Horned Lark. sHoRE LARK. FR.—L’ALOUETTE ORDINAIRE. Otocoris alpestris
L, 7-75. Plate XXIII B.

Distinctions. The long hind toe nail (Figure 44b, p. 25), is one of the distinctive
marks of the Larks. However, this is shared with the Titlark (Figure 60, p. 27), and
the Longspur ; the latter, however, is a sparrow having the typical conical sparrow bill,
very different from that of the Larks. The yellow throat, with black gorget below, and
the erect-like horns or crest tufts, are distinctive of the Horned Lark (Figure 44a, p. 25).

ths Marks. The colour marks above and the horns make easily recognizable field
marks.

153

Nesting. On ground, in nest of grass often amidst snow drifts in early spring.
Distribution. The Horned Lark in its various forms ranges over all of North America.

SUBSPECIES. The Horned Lark is divided into many geographical races or
subspecies. It has a very wide range in North America and living under many and varied
conditions has developed in different parts of the country along different lines. Thus
the desert form is small and pallid or bleached, whereas the northeastern, which is the
type form, is large and strongly coloured. The commonest form in eastern Canada is
the Prairie Horned Lark O. a. praticola. Originally when the country was well wooded
this was probably the prairie form, and did not occur in eastern Canada. The making
of clearings, artificial prairies, has permitted it to come east, where it is to-day the breeding
form. In the north, east of Hudson bay, occurs the typical or originally described form
O. a. alpestris at present without a recognized common name and here called the Eastern
Horned Lark. This is a large bird with a strong suffusion of yellow over the face and
eyebrow line. As the average difference is only about half an inch in total length and
as all intermediate sizes occur it can be seen that the differentiation between the forms
may be somewhat difficult. An attempt to show the difference in coloration is made in the
illustration. The Eastern Horned Lark occurs within the settled districts of eastern
Canada only as a winter migrant and is rare except in the Maritime Provinces where it is
probably the common winter form. Another race, Hoyt’s Horned Lark O. a. hoyti, is
a northern form, breeding west and northwest of Hudson bay. It is about as large as
the Eastern and has the general coloration of the prairie form. The brownish instead
of greyish ear coverts should identify it, but the difference is not great. This form occurs
occasionally in the lower Great Lakes region as a winter migrant.

The distribution of the various races and their migrations in Canada have not been
completely worked out and the difficulty of exact determination is so great that no sub-
specific determination should be made without expert assistance and a good series of
authenticated specimens for comparison.

The Horned Lark is a bird of the open, frequenting bare fields, beaches,
or roadways. In the winter the seeds of weeds left projecting from the
snow are its main food supply, and numbers frequent travelled roads for
the weeds that grow at their sides and for the partly digested grain dropped
by the horses. Occasionally large winter flocks appear. It is in such
cases that the rarer migrant forms should be looked for.

FAMILY—CORVIDAH. JAYS AND CROWS.

The Crow family is very large and diverse, including many beautiful
and highly coloured birds; indeed the famous Bird of Paradise is closely
related to this family. The bill (Figure 45, p. 26) is the most easily —
distinguished character. It is moderately long and stout with a well
arched culmen. At the base are tufts of dense, stiff, bristle-like feathers
pressed close to it and covering the nostrils. The Woodpeckers and the
Titmice have a suggestion of this, but the latter are all small and the
former well characterized otherwise. They are not songsters in any
sense of the term; their voice is hoarse and raucous, but the complexity
of their vocal organs is very great and some of them can be taught to
articulate words. They are amongst our most intelligent species and
by some authors have been put at the head of the whole avian list.

Subfamily—Garruline. Magpies and Jays.

Medium-sized: birds, many of them brilliantly coloured and with
ornamental crests and flowing tails. They can be most easily recognized
under their specific headings.

475. Magpie. AMERICAN MAGPIE. FR.—PIE D’AMERIQUE, Pica Pica. L, 15-20.
(Tail 10.) Only slightly larger in body than a Blue Jay but much longer owing to the

154

great tail some 10 inches long. Strikingiy coloured in sharply contrasted masses of black
and white. Head, neck to upper breast, back, tail, and much of wings, black, glossed
with green on wings and tail. A conspicuous white bar on shoulders over wings. Inner
webs of primaries, lower breast, and below, all white.

Distinctions. Easily recognized by the very long tail and the strong black and white
contrasts in colouring.

Distribution. As a species the Magpie occurs in the north temperate regions of
both the New and Old Worlds. The American form is properly a bird of the west,
regularly coming to the central prairie provinces and occurring occasionally farther east.

SUBSPECIES. The American Mapgie is a subspecies, under the trinomial P. p.
hudsonia, of a species common to both New and Old Worlds, and differs from the European
form in slight details only. This is a matter for experts.

The Magpie is with some doubt included among the native birds of
eastern Canada. The species is common in the far west and we have a
number of records in the Maritime Provinces and lower Great Lakes
region as well substantiated as is possible without specimens. In 1879
a number of Magpies imported from England were liberated at Levis
opposite Quebec. Some of the records may refer to descendants of these
introduced birds and not to natives. Specimens for the determination
of these eastern birds are greatly desired. The species is too rare to
require economic discussion.

477. Blue Jay. FR.—LE GEAI HUPPE. Cyanocitia cristaia. L, 11-74. Plate
XXIV A.

Distinctions. Well characterized by crest and colour.

Field Marks. The predominance of blue in the general coloration, the white tail
borders, and the crest. The flight of the Blue Jay is easily recognizable. Its numerous
calls are distinctive, ranging from the loud raucous jay-jay, through its barn door squeak,
to many quiet conversational chuckles.

Nesting. Nest of twigs and rootlets 10 to 20 feet from the ground.

Distribution. Eastern America from the borders of settlement to the gulf of Mexico.
Breeds wherever found in Canada.

The Blue Jay is alert, inquisitive, and mischievous. A strange noise
in the woods or a moving figure attracts him and he steals quietly up
to it; on discovering an enemy he flees shrieking away in exaggerated
fright. In this way Jays have spoiled many careful stalks and caused
great annoyance to hunters. In the autumn he is provident, and gathers
acorns which he carefully stows away in bark crannies and like places.
Whether he ever returns to his stores may be open to some doubt.

Economic Status. Economically the Blue Jay occupies a doubtful
place; in food habits it is omnivorous, eating in turn, insects, fruit, acorns,
grain, eggs, or young birds. Undoubtedly acorns in their season form
its staple food. It is a bird that should be discouraged about the orchard
when other more useful birds are nesting.

484. Canada Jay. WHISKEY JACK. MOOSE BIRD. MEAT BIRD. CAMP ROBBER.
FR.—LE GEAI DU CANADA. Perisoreus canadensis. lL, 13. Plate XXIV B.

Distinctions. Size; soft, neutral-grey coloration with black cap and white forehead
are distinctive. The juvenile, rather rarely seen in early plumage, has an evenly dark
head and neck. All have loose, fluffy, ragged plumage.

Field Marks. Size, even grey coloration, and white forehead and face.

Nesting. Nests of twigs and fibres, closely felted with fur and feathers into a com-
pact deeply-cupped structure which serves as a protection to the eggs which are some-
times incubated at a temperature of 30 below zero Fahrenheit.

Distribution. The northern coniferous woods across the continent.

SUBSPECIES. The Canada Jay is divided into a number of very slightly differ-
entiated subspecies. In eastern Canada, the Eastern Canada Jay, the type form, is the
generally distributed one, with Labrador Jay P. c. nigricapillus inhabiting Newfoundiand
and the Ungava peninsula.

155

The Canada Jay has most of the characteristics of the Blue Jay in an
exaggerated form. Every camper in the northern woods knows Whiskey
Jack. No sooner is a new camp fire lighted than it appears, looking
expectantly for waste scraps. The offal from dressed game is eagerly
sought and hardly has the sound of the rifle shot died away before the
Whiskey Jack is on hand and expectant. Vocally the bird has all sorts
of surprises for the uninitiated. In fact, in its proper habitat any bird
sound that cannot be referred to any other possible species may be ten-
tatively attributed to the Canada Jay.

Economic Status. A bird of the unbroken forests, and only rarely
seen in populated areas. Its status is probably very similar to that of
the Blue Jay, but its retired habitat removes it from any conflict with
the agriculturist.

Subfamily—Corvine. Crows.

The Crows form a well marked subfamily of remarkably similar
appearance. They are common almost everywhere and a reference to
Plate XXVA is sufficient description. The European Rook belongs
to this division.

486. Raven. FR.—LE CORBEAU. Corvus corax. L. 22. Like the Crow (Plate
XXvV A) but larger.

- Distinctions. The Raven is in general appearance a very large Crow. The most
obvious distinction is the long pointed shape of the feathers on the throat, each lying
distinct on the other and not softly blended together as in the Crow.

Field Marks. In addition to size, which is always an uncertain criterion in wide open
spaces, the voice is the most certain guide. The croak of the Raven is hoarse and rattling,
not clear and distinct like the caw of the Crow. However, young Crows have notes almost
indistinguishable from those of the Raven and where both species occur, vocal characters
are not always reliable guides. When one sees a Raven one can easily imagine marked
characteristics of form and flight, but it must be confessed that they seldom become
obvious to the ordinary observer until after the identity has been determined.

Nesting. Usually on cliff ledges, sometimes in trees; in nest of sticks.

Distribution. The species is found in both the Old and the New World far into the
polar regions, where its black coat against the general whiteness sounds a warning against
too ready tendency to stretch the protective coloration theory to cover the whole of animated
creation. It once occupied all of Canada, but now is restricted to the most unsettled parts
in the north and southward along the mountain ranges of both coasts to well into the
United States.

SUBSPECIES. The Raven is divided into several geographical races. The Euro-
pean is the type form. In Canada, we have the Northern Raven C. c. principalis.
The differences between them are slight.

The Raven is traditionally a bird of ill-omen. Sombre of colour,
dismal in voice, solitary and wild of habit, it fills in the north the place
of the Vulture in the south. The Raven holds aloof from the haunts of
men. As civilization has advanced into the primeval vastnesses, the
Raven, unlike its close relative the Crow, has retired and is to-day what
it was in the beginning, a bird of the wilderness. Knowing only the
physical requirements and food habits of the two species, one would
naturally think that the Raven could thrive as well under civilization
as the Crow. It is omnivorous and can adjust itself to almost any food
supply. It is hardy and can live in climates and under conditions where
its weaker congener can not exist, yet for some unexplained cause, the
Crow increases and the Raven disappears when settlement advances.

57172—11

156

Economic Status. The Raven eats both animal and vegetable food,
but has a strong partiality for the former. It seeks the offal from the
hunter’s dressed game, or the game itself if it is available. It lurks about
the outskirts of bird rookeries and makes dashes for eggs and young.
By the sea it searches the shores at low water for crabs and other sea
life and for anything edible that may be washed up. Avoiding cultivation
as it does it has little direct influence on the crops.

488. American Crow. FR.—LA CORNEILLE D’AMERIQUE. Corvus brachyrhynchos
L. 19-30. Plate XXV A.

Distinctions. May be mistaken for Raven but distinguished from it by size and the
absence of the long, pointed, lanceolate feathers on the throat.

Field Marks. General appearance, with which one soon becomes very familiar.

Nesting. In trees; in nest of sticks.

Distribution. AU of temperate North America.

SUBSPECIES. Two subspecies of American Crows occur in Canada, but in the
east we have only the type form, the Eastern Crow.

Whereas the Raven retreats before the advance of civilization, the
Crow increases. It is omnivorous, feeding readily on anything from
carrion to freshly sprouting corn. Without doubt the Crow has increased
enormously in the country since the removal of the forests, and probably its
advent in eastern Canada was coincident with the arrival of the white
man. The Crow is a partial migrant. Most of the birds go south in
winter, but slaughter-houses and garbage dumps in the neighbourhood of
cities and towns have induced numbers to become permanent residents.

Economic Status. The economic status of the Crow cannot be summed
up in a few words. It undoubtedly does much good but it also does much
harm. Moreover the harm is concentrated and easily measured whilst
the good is scattered and not easily estimated. The detailed results of
nearly a thousand stomach examinations and testimonies from all over
North America are published in Bulletin No. 6 of the United States
Department of Agriculture, by W. A. Barrows and E. A. Schwarz. The
greatest complaint against the Crow arises from its fondness for sprouting
grain, especially corn. Corn was found to constitute 29 per cent of its
annual food and strangely enough, from May to August, constituted only
from 8-4 to 17-7 per cent and was greatest in December, 48-2 per cent,
when the grain must have represented gleanings from the bare fields.
Insects form a large part of the Crow’s food and balancing the useful with
the harmful species, the result is obviously in the bird’s favour. Mice and
other rodents and reptiles are also eaten very extensively and are preferred
to all other food. In the autumn, mast (acorns, beech-nuts, etc.) is eagerly
sought. Judged by food habits alone, therefore, the Crow is a valuable
bird. However, this is not all the tale, for the Crow does harm that cannot
be overlooked. It matters little to a farmer that the Crows destroy all
the cut worms in a field if they also pull all the grain. On the whole, there
seems to be no very good reason for extending any greater measure of
protection to the Crow; it is in no danger of extinction and probably needs
to be controlled.

FAMILY—ICTERIDH. AMERICAN STARLINGS.

This family includes the Blackbirds, Orioles, and Meadowlarks, which
are the American representatives of the European Starlings. They are
closely related to the Sparrows and clear differentiation cannot be made

157

between them in a popular description. Most of them have rather long,
pointed, tapering bills (Figures 46, 47, 48, 49, p. 26) and some have
the middle of the culmen running up in a short keel on the forehead. The
Bobolink and the Cowbird have quite sparrow-like bills, but they are
shortened Icterine rather than Passerine bills. These species can also
be easily separated by their marked colour patterns.

494. Bobolink. sKUNK BLACKBIRD. RICEBIRD. FR.—LE GOGLU. Dolichonyx
oryzworus. L.7-25. Plate XXVB.

Distinctions. The spring male in its striking piebald plumage is unmistakable. The
female and the autumn birds of either sex show no colour relation to the spring male and
are easily confused with some of the sparrows (bill, Figure 46, p. 26). The newly
plumaged autumn birds are yeilowish-buff in colour, unstriped below and heavily striped
above. The spring female, more worn and faded and slightly olivaceous, looks much
like a female House or English Sparrow, but the decidedly streaked back and crown
and the buffy line over the eye are distinctive.

Field Marks. The male in spring needs no special mention of field marks for recog-
nition; the streaks and yellowness of other plumages and the buffy eye and crown stripes
are good recognition marks. These with habitat and general actions should prevent
confusion.

Nesting. On ground; nest built of grasses.

Distribution. North America, wintering in South America ; in eastern Canada, along
_ the southern border breeding wherever found.

The Bobolink in spring and summer is a bird frequenting the hay and
clover fields. It can be seen any summer’s day perched on the surrounding
fences or launching into the air on quivering wings, pouring forth its song
of ecstasy. Later in the season the rollicking male doffs his parti-coloured
gayness for the duller ochre and brown stripes of the female. His song is
replaced by metallic clinks, and with hundreds of others of this species
joined together in flocks he seeks the marshes until autumn. On leaving
Canada for his winter home in South America he stops for a time in the rice
fields of the Carolinas and here he is hailed not as Bobolink, the merry
songster, beloved for both practical and sentimental reasons, but as the
plaguy “Rice Bird’’ that settles upon the crops in thousands and causes
decided damage. In the south he is shot and sold for food in great numbers.

Economic Status. The Bobolink in Canada is an irreproachable bird who
charms us with his song and whose bad habits have yet to be discovered.
In May and June, 90 per cent of its food consists of injurious insects, and
10 per cent of weed seeds with a few useful insects. In J uly and August
a very little grain is added. Yet this bird is regarded as a pest in the
southern States.

495. Cowbird. coOW BLACKBIRD. FR—L’ETOURNEAU ORDINAIRE. Molothrus ater.
L, 7-92. Plate XXVI A.

Distinctions. A small Blackbird with a seal black head and neck. The female is
ashy-brown, lighter on throat, and can be distinguished from any of the sparrows, which
she resembles in having a conical bill, by the even, unmarked coloration.

Field Marks. Small Blackbird with short conical bill, a harsh rattling note, and
grating squeak.

Nesting. Eggs laid in the nest of other, usually smaller species, on the ground or in
low situations. :

Distribution. Over most of North America. In Canada north to the limits of culti-
vation. Common except in the extreme coastal provinces of the east.

The Cowbird is our only habitually parasitic bird. It never builds a
nest or incubates or cares for its young. In the absence of nesting birds it
takes the opportunity of depositing one of its own eggs in the unguarded

57172—113

158

nest. Uusally the birds so imposed upon accept the foreign egg without
protest, at other times there is strong objection and final resignation.
In a few cases, the nest is deserted or a new nest is built over the
offending egg, as is sometimes done by the Yellow Warbler. On incubation
an interesting case of adaptation is shown. The Cowbird’s egg usually
hatches a few hours before those of the original occupant of the nest and
consequently the changeling is strong and well grown when the proper
occupants of the nest preak their shell. It can monopolize the food, thus
increasing the difference in strength, and is able finally to hoist its compe-
titors from the nest to perish on the ground while it receives the attention
that should have been given to the whole brood. Thus practically every
Cowbird means the destruction of at least one brood of another species and
probably the Cowbird must be considered one of the greatest enemies of
the species imposed upon. Once the foster parents accept the intruding
egg they do not make any distinction between it and their own. The
Cowbird receives its name from its habit of following cattle, evidently
attracted by the flies and insects which gather about those animals.

Economic Status. From a study of their food, Cowbirds would seem
to be purely useful birds. They consume large amounts of weed seeds and
harmful insects and only small quantities of grain or fruit, the former
largely waste and the latter wild. Their effect upon other equally useful
birds, however, puts a different complexion on their activities. Practically
every Cowbird raised to the fledgling stage means the elimination of a nest

full of other species. Perhaps the economic effects of the changelings equal
those of the individuals they displace, but the substitution cannot be looked
upon with equanimity.

497. Yellow-headed Blackbird. FR—L'éTOURNEAU A TETE JAUNE. Xantho
cephalus tanthocephalus. L, 10. A Blackbird with white wing patches on the primaries,
and yellow head, neck, and breast. Female similar, but brownish rather than black;
brightness of yellow reduced, and white lacking on the wings.

Distinctions. Above characterization unmistakable.

Distribution. Western North ‘America to northern parts of prairie provinces.
Only of accidental occurrence in eastern Canada.

A marsh or swamp bird rare in eastern Canada.

498. Red-winged Blackbird. SOLDIER BLACKBIRD. FR.—L’RTOURNEAU A AILES
RouGES. Agelaius pheniceus. L, 9-51. Plate XXVI B.

Distinctions. All male plumages have at least suggestions of the red shoulders, though
sometimes they are reduced_to scattered spots of orange. The female is always dis-
tinguishable from any other Blackbird by her sharply streaked coloration.

Field Marks. ‘The male is plainly characterized by its red shoulders, and the bird can
be recognized in all plumages by its characteristic notes, the most common one, only
uttered by the male, being well rendered into “ O-ke-lee”’ or “ O-ke-ree” with a rising
inflection at the end.

Nesting. In well made structure of rushes and grass tied 2 or 3 feet above the water
to reeds, cat-tails, or low bushes in swampy places.

Distribution. As a species, the Red-wing is distributed over all of North America
north to the limit of trees.

SUBSPECIES. The Red-wings are divided into a number of subspecies. The

common one in eastern Canada is the type form, the Eastern Red-wing. In the western |
end of Ontario we probably get the Northern Red-wing A. p. arctolegus from the central

northern regions. It is characterized by somewhat larger size, but correct differentiation
can only be made by the expert.

No marsh in eastern Canada is typical without one or more pairs of
Red-wings chasing each other or clinging to the cat-tails, the mal es

ES RY oa

159

spreading their wings and tail and screwing themselves into constrained
attitudes as they squeeze out their clear ‘‘O-ke-ree”’ with a roll on the last
syllable, in sight and hearing of the females. In the spring the Blackbirds
usually arrive in large flocks of mixed species which keep together a few
days and then separate. The Red-wings repair to the marshes and before
the reeds begin to grow they settle down to their domestic arrangements.
When the family cares are over for the season all Blackbird species unite
again in flocks that darken the sky, roosting together in the marshes when
possible and scattering through the day in groups of various sizes which
frequent the harvest fields.

Economic Status. The character of its food makes the Red-wing
decidedly beneficial. Weed seeds and injurious insects form 80 per cent
of its food and grain about 15 per cent. In July and August more grain
is eaten, and in the early days of settlement when the acreage under cul-
tivation was small and Blackbirds many they were a serious menace to the
erops.

501. Meadowlark. rr—.’fTrouRNEAU DES PRS. Sturnella magna. UL, 10-75.
Plate XXVII A.

— Unmistakable for any other species in eastern Canada. (Bill, Figure
47, p. 26).

Field Marks. The striking, yellow breast with sharp black necklace is unmistakable.
Flying, the white outer tail feathers and peculiar manner of flight are good recognition
marks. The familiar clear, long whistle of the Meadowlark is characteristic.

Nesting. On ground, nest of grasses, usually arched over like an oven.

Distribution. Eastern North America north to the limits of cultivation.

The clear call of the Meadowlark is often the first indication of the
coming of spring. Coming with or sometimes even before the Robin and
the Bluebird, it haunts upland pastures and from the top of an isolated
tree or fence-post, pours out its rich, clear, far-carrying calls.

Economic Status. The Meadowlark is one of the farmer’s most
valuable assistants. Living close to the ground it attacks most of the
worst crop foes. Its food is made up of 75 per cent insects, 12 per cent
weed seeds, and 13 per cent grain nearly all taken in the late autumn and
early spring months and obviously owing to the scarcity of insects. This
bird should receive absolute protection.

506. Orchard Oriole. J[cterus spurius. L. 7-32. A small Oriole, like the Balti-
more (Plate XXVII B) with the orange of that bird replaced by 3eal brown and
with a black tail. The female is an even dull green. The young male is like the female,
but has a black throat.

Distinctions. The seal brown and black coloration of the male isunmistakable. The
female has a certain resemblance to the female Tanager, but is smaller and of more delicate
shape and has a fine pointed, unnotched bill. (Compare Figures 48 and 53, p. 26.)

Field Marks. Colour, size, and voice somewhat like that of the Baltimore Orivle, but
richer and with characteristics of its own.

Nesting. Nest woven of green grass hanging from a crotch. A beautiful structure,
not as elaborate nor as deeply bagged as that of the Baltimore.

Disiribution. A more southern species than the Baltimore Oriole, occurring in Canada

i ty along the lake Erie shore and occasionally north to the southern end of lake
uron.

The Orchard Oriole is commonly met with only along the southern
borders of Ontario and in habits is quite similar to the Baltimore.

160

507. Baltimore Oriole. HANG-NEST, GOLDEN ROBIN. FR.—L’ORIOLE DE BALTIMOR®
Icterus galbula. L, 7-53. Plate XXVII B.

Distinctions. Coloration.

Field Marks. The striking flashes of golden orange and the rich contralto voice are
absolute identification marks. The species can only be confused with extralimital forms.

Nesting. The nest of the Baltimore Oriole is one of the avian curiosities. It is in the
form of a bag woven of fibres, plant down, hairs, and string and hangs from the end of long
drooping branches. With her sharp, awl-like bill the female Oriole thrusts a fibre into the
side of the nest, then reaching over to the inside pulls it through, tugging to make all tight
and solid, another fibre is thrust in and the process repeated until when complete the nest
is so knitted, woven, and felted together that though tossed at the end of long flexible
whip-like branch tips through summer and winter storms, it remains intact for several
years.

Distribution. Eastern North America north to the bounds of dense settlement.

Open country with scattered groves and occasional large isolated elms
is the ideal habitat of the Baltimore Oriole. It obtains its name from its
brilliant orange and black livery, the colours of Lord Baltimore, under
whose patronage the state of Maryland was first settled and in whose
honour the bird was named by the early settlers.

Economic Status. The food of the Oriole consists mostly of insects,
including, in order of numbers, caterpillars, click beetles, of which the
pestilent wire worms are the larve, May beetles, and grasshoppers. Very
few predaceous beetles are taken. The amount of vegetable matter is
small. This species, therefore, ranks very high as an insect destroyer.
Complaints are sometimes made that the Oriole spoils fruit and it has been
accused of puncturing grapes for the juice. It is not the amount which
it takes that is objected to but the quantity of fruit that is spoiled, for it
goes from bunch to bunch puncturing many and consuming little. This,
however, seems to be a very local and perhaps an individual habit and
except in vine country is of comparatively small importance. In Canada,
the Baltimore Oriole leaves shortly after mid-August and before the autumn
fruit season is well advanced, so that grapes are usually too green to be
attractive to it. Hence, though it cannot be wholly exonerated from the
charges which have been made against it, the damage done by the Oriole
in Canada has certainly been greatly exaggerated. The good the bird
does is constant and important, the harm is occasional and slight.

509. Rusty Blackbird. RUSTY GRACKLE. FR.—LE MAINATE COULEUR DE ROUILLE.
Euphagus carolinus. L, 9-55. About the size of a Red-wing, but all black with green
reflections and with straw-coloured eyes. In the autumn the feathers are broadly edged
with rusty, lighter on the crown and head. The female is a nearly evenly dark grey bird
with traces of rusty marks in spring, much more extensive in both sexes in autumn when
they form a well-defined, reddish cap and a light eyebrow line.

Distinctions. Small size compared with the Crow Blackbird, the only other comparable
species with light coloured eyes; even blackness or rusty overwash tending towards a light
line over the eye, and straw-coloured eye.

Field Marks. Size, coloration, and straw-coloured eyes.

Nesting. In coniferous trees or on ground, in nest of grasses or moss.

Distribution. Eastern and northern North America; usually breeding just north of
the cultivated areas in Canada.

The Rusty Blackbird visits us in great numbers spring and autumn,
joining and forming a considerable part of the large flocks of mixed Black-
birds that are seen about the fields and marshes. The name Grackle which
is commonly applied to the two yellow (nearly white) eyed Blackbirds
is doubtless derived from the sound of their harsh, crackling notes.

161

511. Crow Blackbird. BRONZED GRACKLE. FR.—LE MAINATE BRONZE. Quisculus
quiscula. L, 12. Plate XXVIII A.

Distinctions. Large size, complete iridescent blackness, and straw-coloured eyes.

Field Marks. The all black body, straw-yellow eyes, and size are good field marks.
When flying the long tail is “boated’’, that is spread and turned up at the sides so that a
cross section through it would be U-shaped. This is a most characteristic feature and
easily seen in outline against the sky.

N soe Usually in communities in coniferous trees; nest a large bulky mass of grass
and mud.

Distribution. All of temperate North America east of the Rockies. The Bronzed
Grackle occupies the Canadian section of the range overlapping that of the Purple south of
our borders.

SUBSPECIES. The species is divided into three subspecies. The Canadian bird is
the Bronzed Grackle Q. q. aeneus. The type form, the Purple Grackle, is a more southern
bird that so far has not been taken in Canada, though it should be watched for along our
southern borders. It can be recognized by the feathers of the back showing semicircular
poe iridescence instead of being an evenly metallic brass. The third form is found in

orida.

The Crow Blackbird is a gregarious bird and likes to nest in company
with its own kind. Evergreens are its favourite nesting trees and it often
takes possession of ornamental rows edging gardens. With its metallic
colours and yellow eyes it is a brilliant and striking bird. It walks with
comical pomposity over the lawn, or uncouthly gesticulates while it emits
unusually discordant noises.

Economic Status. Through the months the bird is in Canada, insects
constitute 29-7 per cent of its food and vegetable matter 70-3 per cent.
The insects include useful predaceous species, but not in large numbers.
The vegetable matter contains about 48 per cent of grain and domestic
fruit, the remainder being wild fruit, mast, and weed seeds. Much of the
grain is waste, and the total cultivated fruit is only 2-9 per cent. On the
whole the work of the Bronzed Grackle is beneficial but its numbers should
not be allowed to greatly increase. As it is an inveterate nest robber it is
: poor bird to have about the house if other more attractive species are

esired.

FAMILY—FRINGILLIDH. SPARROWS, LINNETS, FINCHES, OR BUNTINGS.

General Description. As represented in Canada this is generally an easily recognized
family. It is composed of small birds, no Canadian species being over 84 inches in length—
with unnotched conical bill adapted for cracking seeds, and the gape of the mouth usually
decidedly turned down (Figures 50, 51, 52, p. 26). This latter feature is not equally well
developed in all species and some of the American Starlings, as previously described (p. 156),
exhibit it strongly; but having other marked characters they can be easily distinguished
from the Sparrows.

Distinctions. The bill is the best point of recognition; that of the ordinary domesti-
cated Canary is of the characteristic sparrow type. The birds most likely to be mistaken
for members of this family are the Bobolink (Figure 46, p. 26) and Cowbird (p. 157) of
the previous family and the Tanagers, of the next one. These are all easily separated by
their striking colours (see under specific headings.) The Tanagers show notches in the
cutting edges and tip of the mandibles which make them easy to recognize (Figure 53,
p. 26). _ In one group of Sparrows, the Crossbills, the tips of the bill cross each other
S aee p. 26); in another, the Grosbeaks, the bill is very large and heavy (Figure

»?p. :

The sparrows form the largest and most important family of the
Perchers, and are probably the most important family of birds in the world.
They are found everywhere except in Australia and are represented in all

162

habitats from wet swamps, grassy uplands, and brushy thickets to dry
plains and sand dunes. The terms Sparrow, Linnet, Finch, and Bunting
are almost synonymous and are applied to various species irrespective of
their relationship. The name Sparrow is, therefore, a very broad one and
can be applied to many species of very different rank and value. It is
to be regretted that one objectionable introduced form should have
cast discredit upon a large family which includes many beautiful as well as
useful birds and some of great sweetness of song. The most typical feature
of the Sparrows in popuiar estimation is a plain earthern coloration, but
some of the brightest of plumages are found amongst them and in place of
the commonly expected Sparrow chirp are some remarkable vocal achieve-
ments. The Sparrow can be divided roughly into ground species, tree
species, winter wanderers, and Grosbeaks. Superficially observed, the
first are dull in appearance, but, on close examination, often show beautiful
colour harmonies. ‘The tree species are often very brightly coloured. The
winter wanderers usually exhibit a large amount of dull reds. The Gros-
beaks, recognized by their great, heavy bills (Figure 50, p. 26) are highly
coloured. This is not a scientific subdivision but as the recognition of
Sparrows is difficult to the amateur any classification that will help is of
use.

514. Evening Grosbeak. FR.—LE GROS-BEC A COURONNE NOIRE. Hesperiphona
vespertina. L, 8. One of the largest Sparrows with the very large powerful bill which is
typical of the Grosbeaks (Figure 50, p. 26). It is coloured in broad masses of strong
yellow with black wings, tail, and crown and a white band over the wing. The female is
similar, but duller in colour with an ashy wash over all.

Distinctions. Size, bill, and large amount of yellow. The female retains enough
yellowish showing through the ashy to be easily recognized. The yellow or yellow-green
colour of the bill is diagnostic of all plumages. For a comparison of the female with the
Pine Grosbeak, see that species.

Field Marks. Size and yellow coloration. As it is a winter visitant only, it cannot
be confused with other birds.

Nesting. In trees; nest of small twigs lined with bark, hair, and rootlets. The nest
has been seldom seen.

Distribution. Central and western North America, south along the mountains.
Migrating east irregularly in winter.

SUBSPECIES. The Evening Grosbeak is divided into an Eastern and Western
subspecies; only the former, the type form, occurring in eastern Canada. The breeding
grounds of the eastern bird are still to be accurately determined.

This is only an irregular winter wanderer in eastern Canada. Some-
times years will pass without the bird being seen and then suddenly it
appears everywhere. The causes of these irregular appearances have
not been definitely detericined. Whether the birds are driven from
their usual winter ranges by lack of food or are attracted to others by an
unusual abundance cannot be stated. Food is probably the determining
factor.

Economic Status. The Evening Grosbeak, coming only in winter,
ean do very little harm. Its favourite food is the seed of the Manitoba
Maple left hanging on the trees, or the fruit of the Mountain Ash or
Rowan trees. The fact that the Manitoba Maple has in recent years
been planted extensively in all parts of Canada may affect the migration
habits of this bird. Almost any dried winter fruit is taken and it delights
to remove the seeds from old rotten apples left hanging through the winter

163

The charge that it damages trees by picking off the buds may contain
an element of truth, but cannot be seriously considered as a source of
appreciable damage.

515. Pine Grosbeak. ¥FR.—LE GROS-BEC DES PINS. Pinicola enucleator. L, 9-08.
Plate XXVIII B.

Distinctions. From descriptions, the females of the Pine and Evening Grosbeaks
might possibly be confused as they are both grey overwashed with yellow; but the yellow
in the Pine Grosbeak is stronger, especially on head and rump, rather rusty instead of
clear lemon, and is superimposed on the body colour instead of seeming to show vaguely
through. The dark bill of the species is also diagnostic.

Field Marks. Size, dark grosbeak bill, and general red of adult males. The majority
of the birds which visit Canada are in the dull female plumage, hence the general effect
is that of a flock of large, dull slate-coloured birds warming to yellow on head and rump
in favourite lights, accompanied by an occasional red individual. The ordinary notes
are ridiculously small and fine for so large a bird, though it also has a clear, loud whistle.

Nesting. In coniferous trees; in nest of twigs and rootlets.

Distribution. As a species, confined to the northern parts of the northern hemi-
sphere. The Canadian Pine Grosbeak breeds in the coniferous forest of the north, west
to the Mackenzie river, migrating to settled sections only in winter.

SUBSPECIES. There are several subspecies in Canada, the eastern form, the
Canadian Pine Grosbeak P. e. leucura, being the only one which comes within the scope
of this work.

These are irregular winter visitors from the north. Their presence
with us can rarely be anticipated, though they may occur any winter
almost anywhere in eastern Canada. They are frequenters of coniferous
trees, but are fond of Mountain Ash or Rowan berries and the fruit of
the sumach.

Economic Status. As the Pine Grosbeak spends the summer in the
northern woods and only visits settled sections in winter, the damage
it can do is reduced to a minimum. It eats wild and waste fruit left
hanging on the trees so that its economic effect is too slight to be appre-
ciable. It has been accused of destroying fruit buds, but the damage it
thus does, if any, is very slight. There is every humanitarian reason for
protecting the species and no serious charge can be brought against it.

517. Purple Finch. HEFLING. FR.—LE PINSON POUPRE. Carpodacus purpureus
L, 6-22. Plate XXIX A.

Distinctions. Size and general coloration of male are distinctive. Female is streaked
in olive-browns, but the general evenness of the olive cast to the coloration, and abundance
of streaks below are quite characteristic. The bill is rather larger for the size of the bird
than in other species except the Grosbeaks.

Field Marks. Size, general coloration, sometimes resembling a small Pine Grosbeak,
and striking song are the best field marks.

Nesting. In coniferous trees; in nest of twigs, grass, and rootlets.

Distribution. As a species it occupies all America between Mexico and Canada.
In eastern Canada it extends north to the extreme limit of regular settlement. Along
the eae borders it is a regular winter visitor breeding less commonly than farther
north.

SUBSPECIES. The Purple Finch is represented by two subspecies; the eastern
Canadian form, Eastern Purple Finch, is the type of the species.

The Purple Finch, though so-called, is not purple; ‘‘magenta’’ would
better describe its coloration. It is one of our finest songsters and is
occasionally caged for that purpose. Like its allies, the Pine Grosbeak
and the Crossbills, when kept in captivity it loses the bright redness of
its plumage and assumes a ruddy yellow, so peculiar and characteristic
that escaped caged birds can be recognized on sight. The song is a con-

164

tinued and clear warble like that of a glorified Warbling Vireo, but more
rapidly delivered. The young male in the autumn sings almost as well
as the adult.

Economic Status. The Purple Finch eats largely of buds and fruit.
The fruit eaten in eastern Canada is trifling, as the species is not numerous
in summer-time in fruit-growing sections. The bird retires from the
southern borders to less cultivated sections in the breeding season. The
fruits it takes are mostly waste winter left-overs and wild forms as it is
specially fond of Mountain Ash or Rowan berries. The charge that it
eats buds is more serious, but so far has been based upon general asser-
tions not substantiated in the east by results of stomach examinations.
It is possible that at times the Purple Finch can do considerable local
harm picking off the fruit buds of the coming year. That it does so to
an extent to cause uneasiness to the fruit grower has yet to be proved. .

House Sparrow. ENGLISH SPARROW. FR.—LE MOINEAU DOMESTIQUE. Passer
domesticus. L, 6-50. Plate XXIX B.

Distinctions. Black bib of the male is distinctive. Females have a slight olive sugges-
tion and might be confused with the female Purple Finch were it not that they are unstreaked
below. The female or autumn plumages of the Bobolink are somewhat suggestive of this
plumage, but the pronounced streakiness above and the general yellowness are quite
distinctive of the Bobolink. With a little observation of the species in our streets or
barnyards, no one need ever confuse this species with anything else.

Field Marks. The characteristic notes and chirrups of the House Sparrow make the
best recognition mark in the field.

Distribution. Originally distributed over all of Europe and most of Asia. Now found
through North America to the limits of settlement.

This bird is not native to America, but is one of our most undesirable
importations from Europe. In spite of its obvious seed-eating habits
and structure, it was originally introduced as a caterpillar destroyer.
It does, of course, like nearly all birds, sometimes eat caterpillars, but
does not approximate in this direction the capacity of the birds it has
displaced. Being a bird of cities and barnyards most of its activities
are in localities where there is plenty of food of non-insectivorous
character, garbage, waste grain, etc. In the autumn, it makes excur-
sions into the country and visits fields in large flocks, mostly after harvest
when waste grain is abundant, but occasionally before, and then causes
considerable loss. Its food habits thus are harmful or not according to
circumstances and perhaps the balance on the whole lies well in its
favour. The principal other objections to the House Sparrow are three
in number. It drives more useful species away, it is very dirty about
buildings, and it is suspected of spreading poultry diseases.

The House Sparrows drive other birds away by three methods: monopo-
lizing the focd supply; occupying their nesting places; and by pugna-
cious and bulldozing habits. During the nesting season while the young
are being fed they come into direct competition with other species depending
for the support of their young on the same insect forms (the young of
all Passerine birds require insects, though those of this species are not
long dependent upon them). Thus far perhaps they may be nearly as
useful as the forms they displace, but most of the displaced birds are
continuous insect hunters and the House Sparrow only a seasonal one.
After nesting duties are over they again turn their attention to waste mate-
rial and become of smaller importance, whereas the superseded birds

oo . .

165

continue to be useful through the season. The House Sparrows are with
us through the winter, showing no tendency to migrate, hence they are
on the ground in the early spring, and when our native summer residents,
which are with only one or two exceptions more or less migratory either
as species or individuals, arrive, they find the most attractive nesting sites
already occupied. The difficulty of keeping Sparrows out of nesting boxes
is proof enough of this situation. They are quarrelsome, also, and though,
when once established, most native species are quite able to hold their
own against aggression, they do not like the constant turmoil in which
they must engage when in the vicinity of the House Sparrow. Ii is far
easier to avoid than combat them. Hence few other birds care to live in
their immediate neighbourhood.

The nests are great, bulky, untidy masses of straw and grasses and
the tendency of these birds to fill down-spouts and load every projecting
architectural feature of buildings with litter makes them objectionable.
Added to the nesting habits of the House Sparrows, their congregation
in numbers throughout the whole year in sheltered corners under cornices
and porches causes accumulations of filth that is exasperating to the
householder. To-day one of the important problems in architectural
offices is to design satisfactory detail that will not harbour sparrows,
whose dirt disfigures the most careful design and disintegrates the mate-
rial of which the building is composed. The last charge, that of carrying
disease, is not the least of the charges against the species. Feeding
familiarly with the hens and freely flying about from one poultry yard
to another they have every opportunity to be effective disease carriers.
That they carry disease has not been definitely proved, but its possi-
bility and likelihood are obvious. The fact that turkeys are to-day so
subject to the ravages of the blackhead which’has spread rapidly over the
country, whereas on some of the coastal islands of Massachusetts from which
the House Sparrow is absent they can be raised with old time ease, is
more than suggestive.

Without doubt the introduction of the House Sparrow into America
was a mistake. It was known in its original home as a rather undesirable
species and unfitted for the work it was brought over to perform. In this
country, removed from the natural checks that kept it under control, it
has multiplied beyond all reason and though its objectionable features
have increased, its commendable ones have not. However, the House
Sparrow is here to stay. It has been legislated against, and large sums
have been spent in the ‘endeavour to control it, but without avail. Local
endeavour has reduced the numbers from time to time, but only to have
new hordes pour in from the surrounding country when the effort has
spent itself. Constant effort will keep the numbers reduced but only
continent-wide persistent effort will destroy them altogether. Traps,
poison, and systematic destruction of the nests are the most satisfactory
means of control. Poison is effective, but care must be taken that it is
used only in the seasons and places where no other species have access to it.
Wire fabric traps that are always set and will catch numbers at a time
are the most satisfactory. A good type of such trap has been described
by the United States Biological Survey in Farmers Bulletin 493.

521. Crossbill. Fr.—.E BEc-cROISs D’aAM@RIQUE. Lozia curvirostra. L, 6-19. A
medium-sized Sparrow with the bill tips prolonged and crossing each other when closed

166

(Figure 52, p. 26). The male is dull red, brighter on rump; females and juveniles similar
with the red replaced by greenish or yellow. No wing bars.

Distinctions. The crossed bill is distinctive of the Crossbills; the lack of white wing
bar designates this species.

Field Marks. Small winter bird often in large flocks. Notes somewhat similar to
Hts of Goldfinches, but individuals show red coloration. Climbing, almost parrot-like,

abits.

Nesting. Usually in coniferous trees; in nest of twigs and grasses lined with moss
and rootlets.

Distribution. The coniferous forests of both hemispheres. ‘The American Crossbill
breeds north of dense settlement and southward along the mountain ranges east and
west. Irregularly common in winter in southern Canada.

SUBSPECIES. The American Crossbill is a subspecies of the Crossbill, an Old as
well as New World species, and bears the trinomial name L. c. minor. /

The Crossbills are also birds that irregularly come out of the north to
southern Canada in the winter, reoccur commonly for successive seasons,
and then vanish perhaps for years.

Economic Status. This species feeds almost entirely upon coniferous
seeds—pine, hemlock, and cedar; berries of the climbing bittersweet and
seeds of rotten apples on the trees are also taken. The speed and skill with
which the seed is removed from pine cones makes one think that the crossed
bill is necessary for this work until one finds normally billed species doing
the same thing with equal ease.

522. White-winged Crossbill. FR.—LE BEC-CROISE A AILES BLANCHES. Lozia
leucoptera. 1, 6-05. Similar to preceding species, but with white bars on wings.

Distinctions. Perhaps a little brighter in coloration than the American, but showing
considerable variation in tint and shade. The white wing bars and crossed bill are always
diagnostic.

So similar to the preceding in habits and occurrence that no special
discussion is necessary.

GENUS—ACANTHIS. ReEppouus. L, 5-5-50.

General Description. Small sparrows with short, sharp bills; crown with a dull crimson
cap; a suffused black chin spot; back and flanks streaked with browns, ashy, and white.
Adult males have rosy breasts and the rump more or less tinged with pink; suggestions
of this tint show in other plumages.

Distinctions. The small crimson cap is always distinctive.

Nesting. In low shrubs; nest of grasses lined with hair, often white rabbit or fox
fur, feathers, or plant-down.

Distribution. Cireumpolar and Arctic in breeding range, migrating south irregularly
in winter.

There are two species of Redpolls in eastern Canada, divided into five
subspecies, all so nearly alike that it requires special experience to differ-
entiate them accurately. The dividing line between species is very fine, the
subspecies intergrade and, as considerable individual and age variation
exists, it is only by attention to small details that they can be separated.

The distinctive characters are given more as suggestions than as final
differentiations.

Economic Status. See Red poll Linnet.

527. Hornemann’s Redpoll. Acanthis hornemanni. L, 5. Light-coloured Redpolls
with white or rosy unspotted rump. Adults with feather edgings light so that a typical
bird looks like a Common Redpoll seen through a white veil.

167

Distinctions. The unspotted rump is the most constant and easily recognized specific
character.

Distribution. Arctic and subarctic parts of the northern hemisphere. The Greenland
Redpoll breeds in Arctic Europe, Greenland, and perhaps adjoining America. The Hoary
breeds in Arctic America east to Ungava and in adjacent Asia.

SUBSPECIES. Hornemann’s Redpoll is divided in America into two subspecies;
a large form, the Greenland Redpoll, the type form; and the Hoary Redpoll A. h. exilipes.
They are most easily separated by size, the former having a wing measurement of 3-37
and the latter of 3.

In general habits so nearly like the next species, which is much more
common, that separate discussion is unnecessary. This species is generally
so rare in settled districts that its identification must be made with great
eaution. During occasional winters this species occurs in greater or less
numbers with large flocks of the Common Redpolls, but there is no regular-
ity in their visits.

528. Redpoll Linnet. Fr.—sizeERIN A TETE ROUGE. Acanthis linaria. L, 5-5-5.
A rather dark Redpoll with rump more or less heavily streaked and not noticeably frosted
with white.

Distinctions. The streaked rump is the most easily recognizable character.

Distribution. Northern part of northern hemisphere. The Common Redpoll breeds
across the northern parts of the American continent, south in the east to the gulf of St.

Lawrence. MHolboll’s breeds in America on the west Arctic islands and the Greater in
Greenland.

SUBSPECIES. The species is divided into three subspecies: the Common Redpoll
A. 1. linaria, which is commonest in fact as well as name; Holboll’s Redpoll A.l. holbelli,
a slightly larger form; and the Greater Redpoll A. /. rostrata, the largest of the species.
There are small differences visible to the eye of the expert in the bills and details of
coloration, but size is, on the whole, the best criterion, though it should not be entirely
relied upon as intergrades occur. The wing of the Common Redpoll should be 2-9 inches,
Holboll’s 3-0 with slightly longer bill, and the Greater 3-5 with bill shorter and stouter,
However, in identifying Redpolls it should be remembered that the Common is the only
one likely to be met with and no other determination should be made unless confirmed
by expert opinion.

With more or less regularity our winter fields and waste lands are taken
possession of by immense flocks of tiny sparrows, feeding on the weed tops
which project from the snow or perching in the low trees and bushes nearby.
From the throng comes a subdued but constant twitter from many little
throats, no one of the birds producing a song in the usual sense of the word,
but collectively making an undercurrent of low music that is distinctly
agreeable. The round, fluffy, heavily plumaged bodies, the little, rich
crimson cap, and the occasional flash of rosy breast and pink rump declare
them Redpolls. They are tame and unsuspecting little fellows and if the
observer conducts himself discreetly they may at times alight all about him
or even upon his person with as much indifference as if he were a stump or
some other inanimate feature of the landscape. They remain until just as
the spring breakup is due when they vanish until another winter. Their
winter wanderings are irregular and erratic.

Economic Status. Coming in flocks of large numbers and searching
weed tops diligently the Redpolls should be hailed by the farmer with
pleasure, not only for their pretty ways but also for the evident good they
do in destroying weed seed. One cannot go over the ground where they

168

have fed and examine it closely without being impressed with the amount
of good work they have done. Their tracks are seen everywhere in the
snow and every little weed-top seems to have been scrutinized with micro-
scopic eye. Considering their numbers and that they come in the coldest
weather, it is evident that their presence must have a marked deterrent
effect upon the following season’s weed crop.

529. American Goldfinch. THISTLEBIRD, WILD CANARY. FR.—LE CHARDONNERET
JAUNE. Astragalinus tristis. L, 5-10. Plate XXX A.

Distinctions. In summer, male with its strongly contrasting yellow body and black
wings, tail, and cap is most characteristic. In winter, the colours are less distinctive
but there is always a suggestion of yellow about the throat, head, and back, if not else-
where, and the wings and tail remain a decided black though with more or less buffy or
white edgings on wing bars.

Field Marks. Inhabit, disposition, and the general quality of their notes, winter Gold-
finches resemble Pine Siskins or the Crossbills. They can be distinguished from the
former by their lack of streakiness and from the Crossbills by the absence of red, lighter
coloration, and white rump.

Nesting. Nest of grasses and plant down lined with the latter.

Distribution. As a species, throughout the United States and southern Canada
north to the limits of settlement. The Eastern Goldfinch extends west to, and inclu-
ding, Manitoba.

SUBSPECIES. The American Goldfinch is divided into three recognized subspecies,
only one of which, the Eastern Goldfinch, the type form, occurs in eastern Canada. , ,

One of the merriest of summer birds, sometimes remaining through
the winter in the more southern parts of Canada. It is a great lover of
fluffy white thistle and dandelion seed-heads and can often be seen plucking
the down, cutting off the fruiting end, and letting the airy tops float away on
the wind. Itssongis as pleasant as its bright appearance as it sits on some
lone elevation and sings ‘‘ sweet-sweet-chewit-chewit-chewit ’’ or goes speeding
off through the air with a merry flock with their cheerfully repeated per-chic-
o-pee. The American Goldfinch, though a relative of the Old World bird
of the same name, is an entirely different species, named, as the original
settlers named many birds, from various fancied or real resemblances to the
familiar forms known at home.

Economic Status. A bird of no bad habits and many good ones.
Weed seeds are its staple food, but grain is rarely touched. If the House
or English Sparrows do not exhaust the supply prematurely, sunflower
seed heads are a neverfailing attraction to Goldfinches and a supply of
these along the back fence will ensure their constant attendance through the
autumn and winter. Insects are taken more or less and some fruit, usually
wild species, as no complaint is made of any damage done to cultivated
varieties.

533. Pine Siskin. FR .— LE CHARDONNEERT DES PINS. Spinus pinus. L, 5
Small, goldfinch-like birds striped with olive-brown on a dull white ground sometimes.
slightly tinged with yellowish; lighter below and with a lemon-yellow spot and
suffusion on the wings.

Distinctions. General streakiness and suffused yellow wing spot.

Field Marks. Goldfinch-like habits and voice and general streakiness.

Nesting. In coniferous trees; nest of twigs and rootlets lined with plant down.

Distribution. The north coniferous woods across the continent, migrating to settled
districts in winter and locally breeding there.

A winter visitor to the more southern sections of Canada. Very fond
of coniferous evergreen trees.

169

Economic Status. As it is only a winter visitor to settled Canada and
shows strong partiality for the fruit of coniferous trees, it is a neutral species,
doing perhaps no great good but certainly no harm.

534. Snow Bunting. SNOWFLAKE. FR.—LE PLECTROPHANE DE NEIGE. Plectrophe-
naz nivalis. L, 6-88. Plate XXX B.

Distinctions. Sharply contrasting black and white colouring with most of the feathers
heavily bordered with rusty, especially on the head, back, and breast-band. Through
the winter the rusty borders gradually wear off and the breeding plumage of black and
white results without moult. The general scheme of colouring of the Snow Bunting is
found in no other Canadian bird.

_ Field Marks. Gregarious ground sparrows showing large amounts of white on black
wings when flying.

Nesting. On ground in moss, nest of grass, rootlets, and moss lined with feathers
and fur.

Distribution. Circumpolar Arctics. In Canada, breeding from the edge of barren
grounds northward across the continent.

SUBSPECIES. Though the Snow Bunting is divided into several subspecies, in
eastern Canada only the type form, the Common Snow Bunting, occurs.

Winter visitors in southern Canada, feeding on the weed-tops that
project from the snow in open fields and rarely perching in trees. A flock
alights in the weed-spotted snow and gradually works across it, the rear
of the flock rising up from time to time like a flurry of snow and pitching
ahead, the process being repeated until the whole field is covered.

536. Lapland Longspur. FR.—LE PLECTROPHANE DE LAPONIE. Calcarius lap-
ponicus. L, 6-25. A gregarious, winter sparrow frequenting open fields. Males—dark
brown above sharply streaked with buff to crown of head, with a rufous collar across
back of neck, cheeks, throat, and bib black. Flanks streaked with black, brown, and
buff. White, below. Females and juveniles are similar, but with the black on the face
and throat replaced by suffusions of brown and buff or showing only vaguely in scattered
irregular feathers. The nail of the hind toe is greatly elongated as in the Horned Lark
(Figure 44, p. 25).

Distinctions. In habits the Longspur may be mistaken for Snow Bunting, but the
sharply streaked back, lack of white on the wing, and the elongated hind claw are dis-
tinctive. The lack of ear tufts, the absence of yellow on the throat, and the sparrow-
like bill will separate it from the Horned Lark. Large size, ground habit, and occurrence
in winter in flocks will distinguish the Longspur from any other sparrow of similar
coloration.

Field Marks. The lack of white masses on the wings will distinguish the Laplnd
Longspur from the snow Bunting, and the lack of ear tufts and yellow throat from ahe
Horned Lark, the birds with which it is most likely to be confused in life.

Distribution. A circumpolar species coming down into settled districts only in winter’
In America it breeds in high latitudes across the continent.

SUBSPECIES. In the east, only one subspecies of Lapland Longspur, the Eastern
Longspur,:the type form, ever occurs.

Similar in habits to the Snowflake and often accompanying flocks of
Snowflakes and Horned Larks.

540. Vesper Sparrow. GRASS FINCH. BAY-WINGED SPARROW. FR.—LE PINSON A
AILES BATES. Poecetes gramineus. L, 5-75. Plate XX XI A. A dull coloured ground
sparrow softly streaked with shades of brown, above; below, white, with suffused streaks
on the flanks, across the breast, and on the sides of throat. Shoulders, brownish rufous.
_ Distinctions. The Vesper can be separated from other earth-coloured sparrows by
its red-brown upper wing coverts or shoulders, and the white on the outer tail feathers.

Field Marks. The Vesper Sparrow is easily mistaken for the Song Sparrow in life,
but the lack of the central breast spot caused by the aggregation of the streaks and the
presence of the white outer tail feathers visible in flight are distinctive. The Junco,
an evenly dark grey bird, is the only other comparable species having such a tail mark.

170

ah esting. In grass on ground in nest of grasses, rootlets, and hairs, finer grasses
within.

Distribution. Distributed, as a species, over all of temperate North America. Breed-
ing wherever found in Canada.

SUBSPECIES. Though eastern and western subspecies of the Vesper Sparrow
are recognized, only the Eastern Vesper Sparrow, the type form, occurs in eastern Canada.

The Vesper Sparrow is comparable with the Song Sparrow in its
habits, song, and general appearance. It is less a bird of the brush, however,
and usually frequents the edges of fields, or where there is slight cover as
in the vicinity of ditches or roads. Its song is similar to that of the Song
Sparrow, but can be readily distinguished from it by the educated ear.

Economic Status This is one of the most beneficial of the Sparrows.
It feeds farther afield than most of the common summer Sparrows and
takes a greater percentage of insects than they, and large quantities of
weed seeds. Some grain is found in its stomach, but under circumstances
that point to its being waste from the stubble or roadways. The Vesper
Sparrow, therefore, should receive every possible protection.

541. Ipswich Sparrow. Passerculus princeps. L, 6-25. Like a large and very
pale Savannah Sparrow (see next species).

Distinctions. Distinguished from the Savannah Sparrow by larger size, and light
coloration; in auttimn also, by an almost complete lack of yellow on the bend of the wing
and in front of the eye. Distinguished from the Vesper Sparrow by light coloration,
lack of red on shoulders, and, in spring, by yellow on the bend of the wing and in front
of the eye. Distinguished from the Song Sparrow by its lighter colour and, in spring,
by the yellow as above.

Field Marks. A very pale sparrow about the size of a Vesper Sparrow.

This bird has a limited and isolated distribution. Its only known
breeding place is Sable island, about 60 miles south of Cape Breton. In
winter it migrates down the Atlantic coast never wandering far inland.
It is of small economic importance.

542. Savannah Sparrow. FR.—LE PINSON DES PRES. Passerculus sandwichensis.
L. 5-68. A rather small sparrow striped above with brown, ashy, and intermediate shades.
Below, white with sharp brown streaks on the breast, flanks, and in some cases on the
throat. Yellow on the bend of the wing and a spot in front of the eye. Autumn birds
are generally overwashed with buffy and the markings are softer and more diffused.

Distinctions. The Savannah Sparrow can be distinguished from the Song Sparrow by
the yellow spots in front of the eye and on the bend of the wing and by the lack of the
aggregated streaks which form a spot in the middle of the breast of the Song Sparrow. From
other allied sparrows of the Grasshopper and Passerherbulus groups it can be told by the
sharply defined streaks on white ground beneath.

Field Marks. The Savannah Sparrow can be recognized in the field'by the yellow line
over the eye and by its notes. Its song isa fine, insect-like tsip-tsip-you-re-e-e-e-e-e-you, the
first notes often too faint to be heard and the whole with a peculiar far-carrying intensity
and high pitch that leaves one in doubt whether it is close at hand or very far away. It
resembles a similar song of the Grasshopper Sparrow, but the latter omits the final note.

Nesting. On ground, in nest of grasses lined with finer material.

Distribution. America, north to the Arctic coast. The Eastern Savannah Sparrow
P.s. savanna occupies eastern North America west to the prairies, when it is displaced by a
western form.

SUBSPECIES. Our form, the Eastern Savannah Sparrow, P. s. savanna, isa
subspecies of which the type form occurs in the Aleutian islands. There are several other
geographical races but the differences between them are too slight for popular recognition.

A bird of damp meadows and waste land, where the grass grows in
rank and coarse bunches and water lies close to the surface; or of sandy

meal

171

barrens where the grass and weeds grow in scattered clumps. It runs in
the grass like a mouse and rises with a low quick flight, often before a good
view of it can be obtained. It is an interesting little bird, but is so incon-
spicuous as to readily pass unnoticed by the casual observer.

Economic Status. Besides great quantities of weed seeds the Savannah
Sparrow consumes more insects than most sparrows and more beetles than
any other sparrow. The insects taken include a great number of weevils
and other harmful forms. Although usually inhabiting waste places it
also frequents cultivated land often enough to make it a most efficient
helper to the agriculturist.

546. Grasshopper Sparrow. YELLOW-WINGED SPARROW. Ammodramus savanna-
rum. L, 5-38. A small, grass-haunting sparrow. Back marked with fine, short streaks
of brown, ashy, and light buff in indefinite pattern; dull white below, with a light buffy
wash across the breast fading away on the sides of the throat. A yellow spot in front of
the eye; upper wing coverts and the bend of the wing yellow or yellowish.

Distinctions. The yellowish upper wing coverts are distinctive of the species. The
unstriped and unspotted breast will separate it from most of the other small grass sparrows.

Field Marks. This species can be distinguished from most of the other small sparrows
by its unstreaked, faintly buff-coloured breast. Its song is like the last part of the song of
the Savannah Sparrow, without the final syllable, and dies gradually away like bz-bz-bz-
2-2-2-Z.

Nesting. On ground, in nest of grasses, arched over.

Distribution. United States to South America; regularly crosses the Canadian
border only in the vicinity of lake Erie.

SUBSPECIES. The Eastern Grasshopper Sparrow is a subspecies A.s. australis.
The type form is extralimital. Another subspecies occurs in the west.

This sparrow is to be looked for in grassy fields along with the Bobo-
link and Meadowlark, but is very local in its distribution.

Economic Status. A rare sparrow of little economic importance, but,
at least, harmless.

547. Henslow’s Sparrow. Passerherbulus henslowi. L, 5. A very small grass
sparrow. Back of head and lower neck yellowish-olive, and back vinaceous; both
colours streaked with short strokes of brown. Below, white, finely streaked across
ee and on flanks with dark brown. Bill large for the size of the bird and tail feathers
pointed.

‘ Distinctions. Olive and vinaceous ground colour of upper parts and fine streaking of
reast.

Field Marks. Asmallbird that runs in the grass and is very difficult to flush. Rises with
a quick, low zig-zag flight and drops back into the grass with unexpected suddenness. The
best identification character in life is its note, a fine penetrating se-slick of such light volume
as to be almost inaudible close at hand, yet decided enough to have considerable carrying
power.

Nesting. On ground, in nest of grass exceptionally well hidden.

Distribution. The Eastern Henslow’s Sparrow occurs in eastern Canada only in
southern Ontario. Another subspecies is found in the west.

SUBSPECIES. The eastern form of Henslow’s Sparrow is the Eastern Henslow’s
Sparrow, the type subspecies of the race.

One may be in the midst of quite a colony of Henslow’s Sparrows
without knowing it, as they are rarely seen unless attention is directed to
them by their notes. Waste grass-grown meadows are their favourite
habitats.

548. Leconte’s Sparrow. Passerherbulus lecontei. L, 5. A very small and elusive
grass sparrow. Above, crown dark brown with light buff median stripe, nape vinaceous
with buff-grey stripes, back dark brown with sharp light buff stripes. Below, white suffused
with ochre on breast, throat, and cheeks.

57172—12

172

Distinctions. The contrasting light buff median stripe, vinaceous nape, and dark
brown back.

Nesting. On ground, in nest of fine grass.

Distribution. Central North America. A prairie form of only accidental occurrence
within the limits covered by this work.

The species has been recorded only once in eastern Canada, at Toronto.
Owing to its mouse-like habits it is most difficult to find or to recognize
when seen, and, therefore, may be more common that it is thought to be.

549. 1. Nelson’s Sharp-tail. FR.—LE PINSON A QUEUE AIGUE. Passerherbulus
nelsoni. L,5-9. Asmall grasssparrow. Above, median line of crown slaty-blue bordered
with dark brown, with an ochre line over eye. A faint slaty and olive band across nape
and shoulders. Back sharply striped with rich brown and light buff with a light slaty
overwash. Below, white with ochre breast extending more or less to the cheeks and
flanks and lightening on the throat. Breast sometimes, and flanks always marked with
indistinct darker stripes.

Distinctions. Slaty median crown stripe and long, strong stripes on back.

Field Marks. The general strong buff or yellow coloration below, the yellow line above
the eye, and the faint streaking of breast.

Nesting. On ground; in nest of fine grass.

Distribution. Eastern America, mostly in northern United States and southern
Canada. The type form is confined to the prairies and the other to the Atlantic coast.

SUBSPECIES. Nelson’s Sparrow is divided into two subspecies, the type form,
Nelson’s Sharp-tailed Sparrow, a prairie race; and the Acadian Sharp-tailed Sparrow P.n.
subvirgatus, an extreme eastern race. The Acadian Sharp-tail is confined to the salt marshes
of the east coast of Prince Edward Island and below the gulf of St. Lawrence. Its breast
and throat are lighter, buff rather than ochre coloured, and distinctly though faintly
streaked on breast. The colouring of the back is fainter and more diffused and the slaty
median line wider and in less contrast to the brown. There is little chance of confusion
between them for the races can be divided geographically with considerable certainty.
Nelson’s Sharp-tail is only of casual and accidental occurrence in the Great Lakes region,
whereas the Acadian is practically confined to the vicinity of salt water.

The Sharp-tailed Sparrows are marsh-haunting birds, running and
hiding in the grass and refusing to take wing until absolutely forced.

552. Lark Sparrow. Chondestes grammacus. lL, 6-25. <A very striking and
conspicuously marked sparrow. Above, striped with brown and buffy brown; below,
white with buffy flanks. Crown, chestnut-brown with conspicuous light median line;
ear coverts chestnut-brown in strong contrast to the white face; and three sharp black
lines, one through eye, one from lower mandible to ear coverts, and one down sides
of throat. Outer tail feathers and ends of all except the middle ones, white.

Distinctions. The bright reddish brown ear coverts contrasting with black and white
face are certain distinguishing characters of the species.

Field Marks. The strongly marked head and face and the large amount of white in
the tail make easily recognized field marks.
ae Nesting. In low trees or bushes, in nest of grasses lined with fine grass, rootlets, and

airs.

Distribution. The Mississippi valley westward. The Eastern Lark Sparrow, the
type form, extends from the Great Plains east and north into southern Ontario. Another
subspecies occurs in the west.

SUBSPECIES. The eastern subspecies of this bird is the Eastern Lark Sparrow,
the type form of the species.

The Lark Sparrow is rare in eastern Canada. It is to be looked for in
open brushy wastes and along the wooded edges of fields.

553. Harris’ Sparrow. Zonotrichia querula. L, 7-50. <A large sparrow, streaked
with brown and ashy brown, above; white, below. Crown, face, throat, and front neck
solid black fading into stripes on flanks.

Distinctions. In adults, the black face as if dipped in ink which had spread over
crown and throat.

173

Nesting. On ground under dwarf birch, in nest of grass. Nest rarely discovered.
Distribution. The prairie regions of America, north to the edges of the Barren lands.

This bird may be more common in western Ontario near the Manitoba
line than is supposed, but that is the only section in which the species
may be looked for. One has been recorded from London, Ont., but this
was, of course, accidental.

554. White-crowned Sparrow. FR.—LE PINSON A COURONNE BLANCHE. Zono-
trichia leucophrys. L, 6-88. Plate XXXI B.

Distinctions. Only likely to be mistaken for the White-throated Sparrow, the next
species, and can be distinguished from it in any plumage by the absence of the yellow spot
in front of the eye and, in the adult form, by its nearly even grey throat instead of the
strongly white throat of that species.

Field Marks. The white crown and lack of white throat or yellow spot in front of the
eye. In life, the back has a grey rather than a reddish cast.

Nesting. On ground or in low bushes, in nest of grass and fine vegetable fibres,
rootlets, etc.

Distribution. North America from tree limit south. Our Eastern White-crowned,
the type of the species, extends to the western prairie province, where its place is taken by a
subspecies, Gambel’s Sparrow Z.i. gambeli.

SUBSPECIES. Though three subspecies of this species are recognized in Canada,
only one, the Eastern White-crown, the type form, occurs in the east.

One of the most beautiful of the sparrows. Though it lacks gaudy
colours, its sharply contrasting black and white crown and grey throat
and neck give it distinction. Its song too is sweet, having much of the
clear quality of that of its near relative, the White-throat, but unhappily
it is usually heard at its best only in its northern breeding grounds.

Economic Status. Though only within the bounds of cultivation for
about two weeks in the spring and autumn it does good work while there.
Weed seeds form a large part of its food, ragweed and grass seed being in
large proportion. Insects form only a small part of its food.

558. White-throated Sparrow. CANADA WHITE-THROAT. PEABODY-BIRD. FR.—
LE PINSON A GORGE BLANCHE. Zonotrichia albicollis. LL, 6-74. Plate XXXII A.

Distinctions. In adult plumage it is most likely to be taken for the White-crown
previously mentioned, but its distinctly white throat and the yellow spot in front ofthe
eye are distinctive. Young birds are apt to be mistaken for the Swamp Sparrow, but the
yellow spot and redder coloration of the back will always separate them.

Field Marks. The White throat, yellow lores, and reddish instead of greyish back will
readily distinguish adults from White-crowns. Juveniles are rather more difficult to identify
from several other species, but if neither the yellow loral spot nor the vague white throat
sometimes suggested by the Swamp Sparrow are recognizable, the greater redness of the
back will usually suffice for identification.

Nesting. On ground or in low bushes; in nest of coarse grasses, rootlets, and moss
lined with finer grass.

Distribution. Eastern North America to near the tree limits on the north. Breeds
everywhere it is found in Canada except in the most southern portions.

This is the most famous songster of the northern woods. At its best
the song is a clear, flute-like, slowly measured whistle which has been very
well put into words. Hard-times-can-a-da-can-a-da-can-ada or Poor-Bill-
Pea-bo-dy-Pea-bo-dy-Pea-bo-dy. The White-throat is a brush-wood bird;
tangled thickets or brush piles in the vicinity of open ground are its
favourite haunts. Throughout most of the cultivated sections of Canada
the bird is a migrant only and its best song is rarely heard. In the
autumn when the young birds fly south the notes are heard in a softened,
shortened version.

57172—124

174

Economic Status. The White-throat isa valuable bird. It is important
as a destroyer of weed seeds, especially of ragweed, and consumes a con-
siderable number of insects and a little wild fruit. As the species comes
down in great numbers to the thickly cultivated sections in early autumn,
its effect on the succeeding season’s weed crop must be pronounced.

559. Tree Sparrow. FR.—LE PINSON DE MONTAGNE. Spizella monticola. lL, 6-36.
Plate XXXII B.

Distinctions. Much like the Chipping and Field Sparrows, but larger and the bill
yellow with dark tip instead of black as in the former, or cinnamon as in the latter and with
a semi-concealed dark spot in the middle of the breast.

Field Marks. Red-brown cap, prominent white wing-bars, ashy-grey throat, and
dark spot in middle of the evenly coloured unspotted breast.

Nesting. On or near ground, in nest of grasses, rootlets, and hair.

Distribution. Eastern North America. Breeds in the far north beyond the limits of
civilization; winters in northern United States.

SUBSPECIES. Eastern and western subspecies of the Tree Sparrow occur in Canada.
The cornet is the type form and the only one that occurs within the region covered by this
work.

Among the hosts of sparrows that congregate in the shrubbery in the
autumn or return early in the spring, is the Tree Sparrow. In the
southern parts of the Dominion it sometimes remains all winter, but is a
migrant elsewhere. It is a natty little bird and its modest song in the
early spring is most welcome after the long silent winter.

Economic Status. The Tree Sparrow is valuable for its destruction of
weed seeds and seems to have no bad habits.

560. Chipping Sparrow. CHIPPIE, HAIR BIRD. FR.—LE PETIT PINSON A COURONNE
RoussE. Spizella passerina. L, 5-37. Plate XX XIII A.

Distinctions. A familiar bird, separable from the Swamp and Tree Sparrows which,
like it, have red caps, by size; and from them and the Field Sparrow by its black bill and
the black stripe through the eye. Juveniles have streaked heads and closely resemble
the Clay-coloured Sparrow, a western bird that occasionally may be confused with them
in far western Ontario. The Chipping Sparrow, however, has a slaty instead of an
olive-buff rump.

Field Marks. A small, slim sparrow with red cap, unstreaked breast, and a black
line through the eye. Its long drawn out song, a series of unaccented chirps running into
each other in a single sustained trill, is very characteristic.

Nesting. In trees or bushes, in nest of grasses, rootlets, and fibres plentifully inter-
mixed with long hairs. The amount of horse hair used in the nest is the origin of one of this
bird’s popular names.

Distribution. Eastern North America to well north of civilization. Breeds in Canada
wherever found.

SUBSPECIES. The form of the Chipping Sparrow occurring in eastern Canada
is the Eastern Chipping Sparrow, the type form. Another subspecies occurs in the west.

The Chipping Sparrow is rarely absent from the vicinity of suburban
or village homes, coming close to houses and frequenting the orchard and
shade trees, the front yard, and even the door step. It does not fear man,
but though not avoiding him it escapes notice through its quiet and un-
obtrusive habits.

Economic Status. The Chipping Sparrow is a greater insect eater
than most of the family. In fact, through June, 93 per cent of its food is
composed of insects, only 1 per cent of which are beneficial species such as
predacious beetles and parasitic wasps. The average for the year is 38
per cent of insects, and for the months spent by the bird in Canada, the

175

average must be considerably higher. The vegetable matter consumed
consists of small weed seeds in which those of crab grass, lambs quarters,
and ragweed predominate. It will be seen that a bird having these desirable
qualities and coming into the immediate vicinity of the garden is most
useful and one to be encouraged in every manner possible.

561. Clay-coloured Sparrow. Spizella pallida. L, 5-20. A small sparrow with
upper parts streaked in light buff and dark brown to crown, where a whitish median stripe
is indicated. A faint collar of slaty suffusion about the back of the neck. White below,
slightly tinged with buff on flanks.

Distinctions. On account of size and habits only likely to be mistaken for the Chipping
Sparrow; but the back is lighter than in that bird and more clay-coloured, and the rump
instead of being faintly slaty is slightly olive-buff.

Nesting. On ground or in bushes, in nest of grasses lined with hairs.

Distribution. The interior of America. It is a prairie form extending north to the
limits of the prairie provinces, and only of accidental occurrence in eastern Canada, except
perhaps in the country adjoining the Manitoba boundary.

A bird of the west; of rare occurrence in the western limits of the
region treated of in this work.

563. Field Sparrow. FR.—LE PINSON DES CHAMPS. Spizella pusilla. L, 6-68.
A small sparrow of the same general colour as the Chipping, but with the colours subdued,
suffused, and blended. The red crown is darker and inconspicuous and there is no line of
biack through the eye. The bili is cinnamon coloured instead of black.

Distinctions. The above distinctions are sufficient to distinguish this bird.

Field Marks. Dull reddish crown, lack of facial marks other than a touch of red on
ends of ear coverts, and cinnamon-coloured bill. The song is its most easily recognized
characteristic and when learned is the best means of identification.

Nesting. On ground or in low bushes, in nest of rather coarse grasses, weed stalks,
and rootlets, lined with fine grasses and hair.

Distribution. Eastern America; in Canada including most of the settled sections,
but rather local in distribution and unaccountably absent from some localities well within
its range.

SUBSPECIES. The Field Sparrow is divided into an eastern and western subspecies;
the former, the type form, is the only one occurring in eastern Canada.

The Field Sparrow is an inconspicuous bird and though often very
common is so like a Chipping Sparrow with worn plumage that it may be
mistaken for it. It is a bird of the open fields and fence rows and though
uot shy or unusually retiring, must be looked for and listened for to be
ound.

Economic Status. Very much like the Chipping Sparrow in food
habits, taking a few more useful insects though not enough to perceptibly
affect its usefulness.

567. Junco. GRAYBIRD. BLACK SNOWBIRD. FR.—PINSON NIVEROLLE. Junco
hyemalis. L, 6-27. Plate XX XIII B.

Distinctions. Solid dark slate-grey above and on breast, cutting sharply against the
white underparts.

Field Marks. Sharp line of the dark breast against the white below, and white outer
tail feathers which show in flight.

Nesting. On or near the ground in nest of grasses, moss, and rootlets lined with finer
grasses and long hairs.

Distribution. As a species, all of America to the tree limits. The Slate-coloured
Junco extends west to Alberta.

_SUBSPECIES. The Juncos are divided into a number of subspecies, only one of
which, the Slate-coloured Junco, the type form, occurs in eastern Canada.

176

The Junco with its black breast, light coloured bill, and white bordered
tail is conspicuous amongst the large flocks of sparrows passing through or
tarrying in the spring and autumn.

Economic Status. The effect of the Junco on agriculture is almost
wholly beneficial. During its stay in the more settled sections it consumes
large quantities of weed seeds. ‘The insects it takes are mostly harmful
Little or no exception can be taken to it as it does no perceptible damage.
to crops or fruit.

581. Song Sparrow. FR.—LE PINSON CHANTEUR. Melospiza melodia. L, 6-30.
Plate XXXIV A.

Distinctions. Rather like the Vesper Sparrow in size and general coloration, but
darker and more decided in tone; lacks the white outer tail feathers. The breast streaks
are also sharper and darker brown and aggregated in the middle into a well-defined spot.
The lack of the yellow stripe over the eye separates the Song from the Savannah Sparrow
and the sharply streaked breast from any of the other sparrows of comparable size and habit.

Field Marks. Sharply striped breast and central spot. The absence of the white
outer tail feathers will guard against confusion with the Vesper Sparrow, and longer tail,
lack of yellow lores, voice, and general attitude distinguish the Song Sparrow from the
Savannah.

Nesting. On ground, more rarely in bushes, in nest of coarse grasses, rootlets, dead
leaves, strips of bark, etc., lined with finer grasses and sometimes long hairs.

Distribution. As a species, the Song Sparrow inhabits all of America to the tree limits.
Our eastern form extends west to the central prairie provinces.

SUBSPECIES. The Song Sparrow is a wide ranging species and has been divided into
many subspecies, twenty being recognized in North America and a number more proposed.
Most of these are western forms originating in the broken land of the Pacific coast where
isolated colonies and varied conditions have favoured numerous departures from type.
In eastern Canada the form recognized is the Eastern Song Sparrow M. m. melodia, the
type race.

It is difficult to form a just and unprejudiced estimate of the standing
of the Song Sparrow in the avian chorus. Its little medley of chirps and
trills makes a sustained song of some duration and to those who listen
to it sympathetically it has a gladness, brightness, and sweetness of tone
that is dificult to surpass. The bird is almost omnipresent. It lives in
the shrubbery close about the house and is one of the familiar birds of the
garden. It haunts the thickets on the edge of the wood-iot or bordering
little streams or rivulets. The deep woods and the clean open fields are
the only places where it is generally absent and even there it sometimes
surprises us with a burst of liquid song.

Economic Status. The great numbers of the Song Sparrow render it
most important to the agriculturist. An analysis of its food shows that
only 2 per cent is composed of useful insects and 18 per cent of harmful
insects. Waste grain constitutes 4 per cent and weed seeds 50 per cent.
The remainder is composed of wild fruit and other unimportant material.
It is seen from this that the Song Sparrow is of considerable economic
importance. Investigation has shown that one-quarter of an ounce of
weed seed a day is a fair estimate of the amount consumed by a seed-
eating sparrow. For the nine months the Song Sparrow is with us in the
average eastern Canadian locality the consumption amounts to four
and a quarter pounds per individual per year. Allowing seventy-five
Song Sparrows per square mile as a very conservative estimate of population
we get a total for the southern cultivated parts of Ontario of over eleven
thousand tons of weed seed destroyed annually by this one species.

177

583. Lincoin’s Sparrow. ¥FR.—LE PINSON DELINCOLN. Melospiza lincolni. L, 5°75.
Like the Song Sparrow but with a belt of buffy across the breast which is marked also
with small, fine spots.

Distinctions. The above distinctions will separate Lincoln’s from all other sparrows
it may be confused with.

Field Marks. A good view will show the faint buff breast and fine spotting. Other-
wise it is with difficulty separated in life from the Song Sparrow. The back is rather
‘greyer than the Song Sparrow and this often arouses a suspicion of the presence of
Lincoln’s Sparrow that may be confirmed by other characters.

Nesting. Similar to that of the Song Sparrow, on ground.

Distribution. The species is distributed all over America, breeding in the northern
coniferous woods.

SUBSPECIES. Eastern and extreme western Lincoln’s Sparrows can be differen-
tiated into two subspecies. The form occupying the territory here treated is the Eastern
Lincoln’s Sparrow M. 1. lincolni, the typical race.

Though a rare sparrow it is an interesting one. It has reduced hiding
in brush to as fine an art as any bird. When first disturbed it hops to a
branch, where it obtains a good view, regards the intruder for an instant,
and then dives into the tangle and is gone. The most diligent search
thereafter gives no more than a fleeting glimpse of a brown shadow dis-
appearing into the nearest brush pile. The species is a passing migrant
through the settled sections of Canada and is rare.

584. Swamp Sparrow. FR.—LE PINSON DES MARAIS. Melospiza georgiana. L, 5‘89.
Much like the Song Sparrow, but of stronger and less blended coloration and without
any distinct breast streaks or markings.

Dis*‘inctions. The Swamp Sparrow is difficult to separate from several other forms
comparable in both colour and size. It may be distinguished from the Song Sparrow,
most likely to be confused with it, by the unstreaked breast, and, in adult birds, by the
red crown. Young autumn birds strongly resemble juvenile White-throats but lack the
faint yellow loral spot, are not as evenly ruddy on the back, and usually have a suggestion
of an ashy bar across the shoulders at the base of the neck, an ashy cast to the crown, and
eyebrow lines that are absent in that species. It can be toid from the Tree Sparrow by
the Jack of the dark middle breast spot or of the white wing-bars.

Field Marks. Its resemblance to a Song Sparrow without breast streaks, the lack
of the yellow loral spot of the White-throat or the wing-bars of the Tree Sparrow. In
summer when the Tree Sparrow is not present the red cap is distinctive.

Nesting. Nest similar to that of the Song Sparrow, on ground, sometimes ir the
grass.

Distribution. North America east of the prairies, breeding in most of the inhabited
parts of Canada.

As its name implies this is a bird of the swamps and marshes. The
long grass and shrubby edges of marshes are its typical haunts. Late in the
autumn it joins the large mixed flocks of sparrows in the brush heaps and
tangled fence rows and then comes into closer contact with man.

Economic Status. The food habits of the Swamp Sparrow are not very
different from those of cther comparable sparrows. Owing to its living
in waste places it is not important.

585. Fox Sparrow. FR.—LE PINSON FAUVE. Passerella iliaca. L, 7°26. A rather
large sparrow. Above, bright reddish-brown, solid on tail and rump but with dull slaty
showing through the red on hind neck and crown. Below, white heavily spotted and
streaked with red like back, on sides of throat, across breast, and on flanks. The throat
is almost free from markings and the spots tend to aggregate on the breast in a centre
spot.

Distinctions. Rather large size and general bright foxy red coloration are distinctive.

Field Marks. Rich red coloration, especially on rump and tail. The Hermit Thrush
has a similar appearance as it flies, but the upper back is more olivaceous.

Nesting. On ground or in low trees and bushes, in nest of coarse grasses lined with
finer grass, hair, moss, and feathers.

178

Distribution. As a species the Fox Sparrow ranges over all of North America north
to the tree limits. The Canadian form, the Eastern Fox Sparrow, the type, extends west
to the foot of the Rockies, where its place is taken by a number of other subspecies.

SUBSPECIES. The Fox Sparrow is a highly variable and plastic species and
numerous well marked subspecific forms can be distinguished. The one cecupying eastern
Canada is the Eastern Fox Sparrow P. 7. iliaca, the typical race.

This sparrow remains within the limits of civilization only for a few
days spring and autumn. Occasionally in spring it greets us with a song
of full clear tone that is equalled by few other birds and hardly surpassed
by any.

Economic Status. It is with us hardly long enough or in sufficient
numbers to be of great importance to the agriculturist. It eats a little more
fruit than the majority of the sparrows, but at the seasons of its visits
little cultivated fruit is available and the insect and weed seed portions
of its food are such that it need cause no anxiety.

587. Towhee. FR.—LE PINSON AUX YEUX ROUGES. Pipilo erythrophthalmus. L, 8°35.
Male, all above pure black including tail, head, throat, and breast where it cuts in a
sharp line against the clear white of the underparts. Broad reddish or bay flanks. A
few white feather edges on the flight feathers and considerable white in tail margins.
Female, similar but with the black replaced by reddish brown.

Distinctions. Owing to its large size, long tail, and striking coloration the Towhee
can hardly be mistaken for any other bird. Young birds do not have much indication of
these distinctive colours, being a vague, generally rusty colour, faintly and brokenly
striped; but the long tail, size, and general outline are usually sufficient for recognition.

Field Marks. With a good view of the black or brown head and back,and the red
flanks, the species can hardly be mistaken. As it dashes away into the underbrush the
strongly accentuated black and white of the wings and tail of the male, or the reddish
brown and white on the tail of the female are easily recognizable.

Nesting. On or near ground, in nest of dead leaves and strips of bark, lined
with fine grasses.

Distribution. Eastern North America, from southern Canada to the gulf. Occurs in
Canada only along the southern border and is common only in the lower Great Lakes
region.

SUBSPECIES. The Towhee of eastern Canada, P. e. erythrophthalmus, is the
Eastern Towhee, the type race of the species.

The Towhee is a bird of brushy wastes or wood edges, where its dis-
tinctive note ‘‘Chewee”’’ or ‘‘Te-wee’’ is a familiar sound. It delights to
perch on the top of a sapling standing alone in the underbrush and sing its
clear ‘‘dick-yoo, chiddle-chiddle-chiddle’’. On being disturbed it drops
straight down into the underbrush, its black and white uniform flashing an
instant, then vanishes in the tangle, whence it peers about uttering its
usual ‘‘chz-wee”’ in inquisitive accents. In feeding it scratches over the
surface like a hen, making the dead leaves fly in all directions.

593. Cardinal. RED-BIRD. CARDINAL GROSBEAK. Cardinalis cardinalis. L, 8°25.
A large sparrow and a typical Grosbeak. The male is bright cardinal red with a black
splash about the base of the bill and throat. Both sexes have a decided crest as promi-
nent as that of the Blue Jay. The female is warm buff in colour, almost white below
and olive-buff on the back, the wings, tail, and crest approaching the rosy colour of the
male. The black face and throat of the male are faintly indicated.

Distinctions. Absolutely unmistakable for anything else. The Pine Grosbeak may
suggest the Cardinal, but the red is never as solid and brilliant and it is without the crest
or the striking black face mark. The Scarlet Tanager is as brilliantly red, but is without
crest or face mark and the wings and tail are black.

Field Marks. The brilliant all red coloration of the male, the flash of warm reddish
on the wings and tail of the female, and the prominent crest and large red bill in both
sexes.

Nesting. In bushes, in nest of twigs, rootlets, and strips of bark, lined with grasses
and rootlets.

179

Distribution. The Cardinal in its various subspecies has a wide distribution in the
United States and the type form crosses the Canadian border commonly along the western
end of lake Erie, occurring as scattered individuals and in isolated communities there and
in adjoinging localities. The Eastern Cardinal, the one here considered, is the type form
of the species.

The Cardinal Grosbeak is not generally distributed in Canada, but is a
permanent resident wherever it is found and its gorgeous colouring and
brilliant whistling give an added interest to nature. It may surprise many
that this southern bird ever occurs in Canada, but in some sections along
the lake Erie shore it is not only regular but common. It should be
rigorously protected for its beauty as well as for more material reasons.

Economic Status. The Cardinal feeds largely upon locusts, cicadas,
potato bugs, rose chafers, plum and cherry scales, cutworms, weevils, and
other destructive pests. In addition, it takes weed seeds in considerable
amount and some wild fruit. There is no evidence that it damages cul-
tivated varieties.

595. Rose-breasted Grosbeak. FR.—GROS BEC A POITRINE ROSE. Zamelodia
ludoviciana. L, 8°12. Plate XXXIV B.

Distinctions. The male with his black back and rose-coloured bib is unmistakable.
The female is the only sharply streaked Grosbeak in eastern Canada. Young autumn
males are much like the female, but have a slight rosy suffusion showing through the buff
colour of the breast. They vary considerably, but indications of the more pronounced
spring plumages can usually be seen.

Field Marks. A full view of either sex with their characteristic colorations and
large bills is distinctive enough. The black-backed male with contrasting white rump and
wing-bars can be recognized at a glance even as it vanishes in the brush. The female,
if not clearly seen, may be mistaken for the much smaller female Purple Finch; but the
unstriped underparts, more heavily marked head with conspicuous line over the eye,
and more prominent white wing-bars usually serve for its identification.

Nesting. In bushes or trees 5 to 20 feet above ground, in nest of fine twigs, weed
stalks, and rootlets.

Distribution. Eastern America, north to well beyond settlement. Breeds in Canada
wherever found.

The Rose-breasted Grosbeak is one of our most beautiful birds and
best songsters. It prefers tangled thickets interspersed with open spaces
and large tree clumps. It frequents thickets along rivers, edges of wood-
land abutting on clearings, overgrown fence lines, and sometimes orchards.

Economic Status. If the number of Rose-breasted Grosbeaks could
be greatly increased on the farms the potato bug scourge would soon
disappear. This bird is one of the few that eats the potato beetle and it
takes them in both adult and larval stages. One-tenth of the contents
of the stomachs examined consisted of potato bugs and this species is
equally efficient against other insect pests. To increase the numbers of
Rose-breasted Grosbeaks may be difficult, but the next best thing is to
conserve what we have, protect them from preventable destruction, and
see that suitable nesting corners are left in waste corners of the farm and
woodlot. In carrying out plans for clean cultivation and the elimination
of waste places, care should be taken that bits of shrubbery are left to
afford shelter for birds which without these sanctuaries must disappear.
The preservation of the birds will more than compensate for the small
losses entailed.

597. Blue Grosbeak. FR.—LE GROS-BEC BLEU. Guiraca cerulea. L, 7. A small
Grosbeak, coloured like a large Indigo Bunting, but not quite as bright and with
chestnut-rufous bars on wing and shoulder.

180

Distinctions. The plumages in seasonal and sex variation closely follow those of the
Indigo Bunting, from which it can be told by size and its Grosbeak bill. In mixed plumage
it may resemble the Bluebird even to the reddish breast, but the bill is entirely unlike the
bill of that bird. (See Figure 50, p. 26).

Field Marks. The above will suggest field marks, but the Blue Grosbeak is too rare
in Canada to safely rely on sight identification.

Distribution. Eastern North America, in the north stopping normally considerably
short of the Canadian border.

SUBSPECIES. The subspecies of the Blue Grosbeak to be expected in Canada is
the eastern form, the Eastern Blue Grosbeak, the type race of the species.

The records of this bird’s occurrence in Canada are too fragmentary
for the species to be expected otherwise than as a rare and accidenta
straggler. It can only be hoped for in the southern parts and perhaps
the southern coast.

598. Indigo Bunting. FR.—LE PINSON INDIGO. Passerina cyanea. L, 5°59. A
rather small sparrow; the male, brilliant blue all over, the female nearly uniformly
buffy rust colour with occasional faint suggestions of the blue of the male, slightly whitish
below with faint and indistinct stripes. Autumn birds show intermediate stages between
the above eoloration or with stronger reddish rust.

Distinctions. The Indigo Bunting is our only all blue bird; the Bluebird, the only
comparable bird, has a reddish breast. The even, almost unvaried dull rusty colour of the
female and juvenile distinguishes them from other species.

Field Marks. The all blue colour of the male and the even reddish of the females
and juveniles.

Nesting. Generally in the crotch of a bush 2 to 3 feet above ground, in nest of grasses,
dead leaves, and strips of bark, lined with fine grasses, rootlets, and long hairs.

Distribution. North America east of the plains and north well into Canada.

The Indigo Bunting commonly frequents brushy overgrown wastes,
burnt land, or slashes. It has a pleasing song.

Economic Status. Our knowledge of the food of the Indigo Bunting
is not complete. There is little doubt that it has the usual food habits
of its family; and it is credited with doing good work against the Brown-
tailed Moth. It is undoubtedly as worthy of protection as the others
of its kind.

604. Dickcissel. Spiza americana. L, 6. Back striped with dark brown and
ruddy buff changing to solid dull red on wing coverts; hind neck slate-grey to crown
where it is strongly tinged with yellow; cheeks grey with pure yellow eyebrow line.
Ned ttes below; breast pure yellow and throat with a sharply defined black throat-patch
or bib.

Distinctions. The yellow breast and black throat, slightly suggesting a small Meadow-
lark, are distinctive.

Distribution. Tastern America, mostly in the interior and central portions. In
eastern Canada, irregularly across our borders in southwestern Ontario.

This beautiful open field species is rare in Canada. A few have
appeared for a short series of years in the region at the west end of lake
Erie and then vanished to reappear some years later.

FAMILY—TANGARIDH. TANAGERS. L, 7-25-7-50.

General Description. Brilliantly coloured birds with bills resembling those of spar-
rows but slightly elongated, with an evenly curved culmen, a slight notch in the upper
mandible opposite the tip of the lower one and a tooth and notch in the middle of the
upper cutting edge (Figure 53, p. 26). In some species the notch is too slight to be
seen without careful examination.

Distinctions. Besides the bill features above, the eastern Canadian species can be
easily recognized by colour. The spring males are birds of brilliant red coloration, the
females and autumn birds are dull warm yellows or greens with no sharp, detailed mark-

181

Ings and little variety in colour except in the even masses of the wings and tail. Spring
males can only be compared with the Cardinal in colour, the autumn birds and females
only with the female Orioles, but the lack of crest of the Tanagers will easily separate
_ them from the Cardinals and the bill characters from either the Cardinals or Orioles.

The Tanagers are a typically American family that reaches its highest
development in the Tropics and is only regularly represented in eastern
Canada by one species. As a family the Tanagers are so closely related
to the Sparrows that the status of some extralimital species is still un-
determined.

608. Scarlet Tanager. RED BIRD. FIRE BIRD. WAR BIRD. FR.—LE TANGARA
ECARLATE. Piranga erythromelas. L, 7-25. Plate XXXV A.

Distinctions. Excepting the next species, the Summer Tanager, the Scarlet Tanager
is only comparable with the Cardinal, but it is easily recognized by its lack of crest, slighter
and longer bill, and black wings and tail. The even green of the female is distinctive,
being approached only by a few much smaller Warblers and the Orioles. The autumn
male is like the female, but with black wings and tail.

Field Marks. Brilliant scarlet colour, with black wings and tail in the male and
the even green coloration and size in other plumages.

Nesting. Usually near the extremity of a branch, about 20 feet above the ground,

in nest of leaves, strips of bark, etc.

Distribution. Eastern America north to near the limit of settlements.

The Scarlet Tanager shows remarkable seasonal and sexual plumage
ehanges. In the spring the sexes are so entirely different that one wonders
at their specific relationship, and in the summer the brilliant scarlet male
gradually assumes the dull green of his mate.

The Scarlet Tanager is a bird of light woodlands, where large timber

grows with a sprinkling of small underbrush below, but in spring it

occasionally visits the orchard. On arrival in spring the Scarlet Tanager
is a most conspicuous object, but as the trees put on their leaves it becomes
cautious in exposing itself and if it were not for its distinctive note ‘‘chip-
chur” that directs attention to it, it would be most difficult to find. The
song is cheerful, rythmical, and fairly sustained, something like a robin’s
but more connected and not quite so clear.

Economic Status. The food of the Scarlet Tanager consists mostly
of insects and fruit. The insects are usually woodland species and their
destruction is of importance to the forester and fruit grower. The fruit
eaten is mostly wild, in fact most birds prefer wild to domestic fruit and
given an abundance of the former seldom eat the latter. The Scarlet
Tanager does no serious damage.

610. Summer Tanager. SUMMER RED-BIRD. FR.—TANGARA VERMILLON. Piranga
rubra. L, 7-50. Much like the Scarlet Tanager, but with red instead of black tail and
dull brownish wings edged and tinged with red; the females bear the same relation to the
male as do those of the Scarlet Tanager.

Distinctions. The wings and tail are different from those of the Scarlet Tanager and
the red is more rose-coloured, less brilliant and lighter below than on the back. The
female is a warm orange-green of quite a different shade to the cold greenish of the allied
female. She bears a fairly close resemblance to the female Baltimore Oriole, but the
evenly coloured, unmarked back and wings and the Tanager bill make separation easy.

Distribution. Southeastern United States and north to the latitude of southern
Ohio. Has been recorded in Canada near the southern boundary along the lower Great
Lakes and in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia.

The Summer Tanager is an accidental straggler in Canada, from

the south, along the ijower Great Lakes and in Nova Scotia and New
Brunswick.

182

FAMILY——HIRUNDINIDAZ. SWALLOWS.

General Description. Mostly small birds, wings very long and pointed; feet small
and wee unsuited to walking; head flattened and bill very short with deep gape (Figure
54, p. 27).

Distinctions. Superficially resembling the Goatsuckers, but much smaller and of
different type of coloration. More apt to be confused with the Chimney Swift than with
any other species, but without the spines at the end of the tail feathers.

A world-wide family, of aerial habits, seldom coming to the ground
except for nesting material. Their feet are weak and suitable for alighting
only on small twigs, telegraph wires, and similar perches. They take
their food on the wing and can often be seen sweeping over ponds, slightly
furrowing the still surface as they drink. They are skilful nestmakers
and build a remarkable variety of forms from bottle-necked structures
of kneaded mud to holes tunnelled in earth banks.

Economic Status. Flying insects constitute almost the entire food
of the Swallows. Sailing high or low in the air as food results justify,
the Swallows attack many winged insects which are otherwise almost
unmolested. Over grain fields and about barnyards where insect eating
birds are few the Swallows congregate and give efficient assistance to the
agriculturist. They are sometimes dirty when they nest in numbers
under eaves and in similar situations, but instead of merely knocking
down the nests, suitable nesting sites should be provided about the farm
buildings where they can congregate without offence. A large flock of
Swallows about the barnyard is of very great advantage to the farmer.

611. Purple Martin. FR.—L’HIRONDELLE POURPREB. FProgne subis. L, 8.
Plate XXXV B.

Distinctions. The largest of our swallows. Size and iridescent blue black coloration
of the male Martin should be sufficient for the separation of the species.

Field Marks. Size, colour, almost falcon-like manner of flight, and the voice make
good field marks.

Nesting. Under primeval conditions in hollow trees. In civilization in artificial
bird houses, cavities in cornices of buildings, etc. They are sociable nesters and prefer
to build in communities of their own kind.

Distribution. North America. A western subspecies occupies the Pacific coast.
The eastern form, which is the type race, frequents the most of the settled sections of
eastern Canada.

SUBSPECIES. The subspecies of the Purple Martin that occurs in eastern Canada
is the Eastern Martin P. s. subis, the type form.

Through the day the birds scatter over the country, returning at
frequent intervals with food for their young. At evening all return to
the house they occupy and retire within its shelter for the night. The
young remain for a considerable time in the nest and even after their
first flight old and young return to the nest at night. Martins are domestic
and sociable birds and greet each other with welcoming gurgles and chat-
terings. Each is interested in the other’s family affairs and there is a
constant interchange of visits between neighbours. They rarely quarrel
among themselves but show a united front to common enemies, especially
the English Sparrow. A colony can hold its own against that pest
very well indeed, after it has established itself. A Martin house should
contain several rooms about 8 by 8 inches, weather and draft proof at
all points except the door which should be about 2 inches in diameter
and 13 inches from the floor. The house should stand 15 to 20 feet above
the ground, up well in the open, and in such a manner that it ean be lowered
for cleaning.

183

There are indications that the Purple Martin is growing fewer in
numbers. Old colonies from time to time are broken up and few new
ones take their places. The Martins return to their summer quarters
very early in the spring and at times suffer severely from late frosts and
cold rains which stop the flight of insects and deprive them of the necessary
large and constant amount of food.

Economic Status. The Martin like the other Swallows is a bird with
no bad habits, and with so many good ones that every effort should be
made to aid its increase.

612. Cliff Swallow. EAVE SWALLOW. MUD SWALLOW. FR.—L’HIRONDELLE A
FRONT BLANC. Petrochelidon lunifrons. L, 6-01. Similar in general coloration to the
Barn Swallow (Plate XXXVI A), but different in detail and without the !ong,
deeply forked tail.

Distinctions. Throat, richer in colour and more reddish brown than that of the
Barn Swallow; the brown colour extending in a narrow band across the back of the neck
and with a black spot in the middle of lower throat instead of a broken black bar
across breast. Forehead sharply contrasting creamy white instead of reddish. Rump
light reddish. Below, dull white. Tail, almost square.

Field Marks. The white forehead and reddish rump make the best field marks.
The square tail will separate it from all Barn Swallows except juveniles which have not
yet grown the fork.

Nesting. A typical nest is built entirely of mud carried in little pellets in the bill and
on the feet. The mud is mixed with saliva and plastered pellet by pellet on the wall
under the eaves of some building. The nest is first a shelf built out from the wall, then
saucer-shaped and then cup-shaped, in any of which states it may be left as finished.
In the best examples the sides are continued until the nest assumes the shape of a round
flask with the neck drawn over and pointing outwards.

Distribution. America. In eastern Canada to well north of civilization.

SUBSPECIES. Thesubspecies of the Cliff Swallow occupying most of North America
and all of Canada is the Eastern Cliff Swallow P. l. lwnifrons, the type form of the species.

Originally a cliff dweller as the name implies, within the confines of
civilization this Swallow now nests almost entirely on barns and other
buildings. It is often of rather local distribution, different colonies
nesting in many cases in widely separated groups of farm buildings.

613. Barn Swallow. FR.—L’HIRONDELLE DES GRANGES. Hirundo erythrogastra.
L, 6:95. Plate XXXVI A.

Distinctions. Broken black bar across the chest beneath the reddish throat, black
rump, and, in adult, long forked tail are distinctive of the species.

Field Marks. Rufous tints beneath and black rump are good field marks; also,
in the adult the long forked tail and in juveniles the white in the tail.

Nesting. The nest is far from being the beautiful structure the Cliff Swallow builds.
It is largely made of mud mixed with grasses, lined with grass and feathers, and set on a
support such as a rafter or beam; but often the slightest projection will be utilized as a
foundation upon which to build. Some farmers ensure the presence of the birds about
the place and induce them to nest where they will be unobjectionable by furnishing small
supports for their nests close under the eaves of their barns or inside where they will be
sheltered but can do no damage.

Distribution. America. Probably not quite as northern as the preceding species.

This is the Swallow commonly nesting in barns and outbuildings.
It not only builds under the eaves but enters the building and occupies
the interior. Its long ‘‘swallow tail’’ assists in making it perhaps the
most graceful of all the Canadian swallows.

_ 614. Tree Swallow. WHITE-BELLIED SWALLOW. FR.—LE HIRONDELLE BICOLORE.
Tridoprocne bicolor. L, 5:90. Plate XXXVI B. :

184

Distinctions. The even blackness with pronounced steely reflections of the upper
parts and pure whiteness below are distinctive.

Field Marks. The pure unmarked whiteness of the underparts make an easily re-
cognized field mark. Young birds have the black above replaced with dull brown and
a suggestion of suffused brown on the sides of the breast, but this never forms a con-
tinuous band across the breast as in the Bank Swallow. }

Nesting. In old woodpecker’s holes in dead stubs, hollow trees, or bird boxes. Lined
with grasses and feathers.

Distribution. America north to near the limit of trees.

Though normally using woodpecker’s holes in dead stubs over the
water the Tree Swallow is easily induced to nest in boxes in the garden.
The beauty of its bright iridescence and the grace of its flight make ample
payment for the work of preparation, even if its presence were not an
important safeguard against insects in the garden. The continued existence
of the species is threatened through the growing scarcity of natural nesting
sites unless an effort is made to supply the nests artificially.

616. Bank Swallow. SAND MARTIN. FR.—L’HIRONDELLE DE RIVAGE. Hiparia
riparia. L, 5-20. Plate XX XVII A.

Distinctions. Dull brown instead of iridescent coloration of back, and white under-
parts with distinct dark breast-band are distinctive. The band is always full and com-
plete and the white pure. The complete breast-band will separate the Bank from the
young Tree Swallow; and from the Rough-winged in which the white is not pure and
the breast and throat are evenly suffused with ashy brown.

Field Marks. The white underparts crossed by a conspicuous dark bar makes the
best field mark.

Nesting. Nearly every one has seen how quickly the exposed sides of a sand or
gravel pit excavation become pitted with the small nesting holes of these swallows.
Too often the heedless small boy digs them out. Not only is this dangerous to the boy
from the possibility of the bank caving, but it is striking a direct blow at the existence of
one of the farmer’s best friends.

617. Rough-winged Swallow. Stelgidopteryx serripennis. L, 5:75. Much like the
Bank Swallow in general coloration, but with the breast and throat suffused with
light ashy-brown instead of being crossed with a sharp brown band.

Distinctions. The above difference, together with the absence of much pure white
below and any white on throat are diagnostic. Grown birds have the small outer web of
the outer primaries converted into a series of fine recurved hooks almost too small to
see with the naked eye, but obvious to the touch as the finger is drawn along the edge
towards the tip. Young birds do not show this well, sometimes not at all, and various
stages of its development appear. It is present in some degree in all spring specimens.

Field Marks. The best field mark by which to separate the Rough-winged from
the Bank Swallow is the evenly suffused breast instead of the white one with broad dark
bar. In watching a mixed flock the Rough-wings can usually be picked out by the slightly
redder or rusty-coloured back which seems more conspicuous in life than in the hand.

Nesting. Similar to the Bank Swallow, but more solitary and perhaps more given to
nesting in crevices in rock piles, cliffs, or masonry.

Distribution. America. North to across the Canadian border in the lower Great
Lakes region.

The Rough-wings belong to a genus widely scattered over the world,
all exhibiting the peculiar modification of the wing which cannot be
accounted for in the present state of our knowledge.

FAMILY—BOMBYCILLIDH. WAXWINGS.

The Waxwings are striking birds, distributed over the northern parts of
both the New and Old Worlds. They are represented in America by two
species so well characterized in form and colour and so nearly alike that

185

description here is unnecessary. There is remarkably little seasonal or sex
variation and Plate XX XVII B and Figure 55, page 27, designate them
plainly. The shafts of the secondaries and sometimes those of the tail are
enlarged at the tips into brilliantly-coloured appendages having a close
resemblance to bits of sealing wax.

618. Bohemian Waxwing. WANDERING CHATTERER. FR.—LE JASEUR DE BOHEME.
Bombycilla garrula. 1,8. Almost exactly similar in form and colour to the Cedar Wax-
wing, but larger; the secondaries are tipped with white and most of the primaries with
white or yellow or both; there is likewise a small white wing bar. The under tail coverts are
chestnut and the abdomen greyish without the yellow suffusion.

Distinctions. No further distinctions are necessary; the Cedar Waxwing is the only
species with which it can be confused.

Field Marks. Their trim figures and conspicuous crests easily identify the Waxwings.
The white or yellow on the wings and the chestnut under tail coverts are the best specific
field marks.

pong: In trees, in nest of twigs, roots, moss, etc.

Distribution. Northern sections of the northern hemisphere. In America, breeding
in the far north, northwest of Hudson bay, visiting settled districts irregularly in winter.

Their irregular wandering habits in winter have given these birds the
name ‘‘ Bohemian ”’ which in this sense is synonymous with ‘‘ wandering.”
They are northwestern birds, but come into cultivated sections of eastern
Canada occasionally in winter, as does the Evening Grosbeak. They are
too rare to have any great economic influence. Their favourite food is the

dried waste fruit that hangs through the winter.

619. Cedar Waxwing. CEDAR BIRD, CAROLINA WAXWING, CHERRY BIRD. FR.—

| LE JASEUR DU CEDRE. Bombycilla cedrorum. lL, 7-19. Plate XXXVII B.

Distinctions. With the aaa the Cedar Waxwing can hardly be mistaken for

_ any other species except the Bohemian. For distinctions see that species. This is the only

Waxwing to be seen in eastern Canada in summer and the most probable one, in the
southern sections, in winter.

Field Marks. ‘The natty shape and bearing and the conspicuous upstanding crest are
easily recognizable field marks. The note, a fine sharp wheeze, is distinctive and soon
learned. See previous species.

Nesting. Often in fruit or shade trees, in a bulky structure of strips of bark, leaves,

grasses, twigs, rootlets, moss, etc., lined with finer materials of the same nature.

Distribution. America, north in Canada to and somewhat beyond the limits of
regular cultivation.

The Cedar Waxing is one of the familiar birds of the orchard. It
builds in the fruit trees in the summer and is rather too well known in the
vicinity of early ripening cherries. In the winter it seeks the various kinds
of old dried fruit left hanging on the branches. The coloration is soft and

| ee monigus with just enough accent of contrasting colour to give character.

he peculiar smooth, silky texture of the plumage seems to cause the
eathers to cling together so that they always lie smoothly and never seem
awry. The red-sealing-wax-like processes in which the shafts of the
secondaries and sometimes the tail feather end, common to this and the
Bohemian Waxwing, are unique amongst American birds and give an added
touch of individuality.

Economic Status. About 13 per cent of the Waxwing’s food is noxious
insects, the remainder largely fruit. The greater part of the fruit is wild
and of no economic importance, in fact, as with most birds, wild fruits are
evidently much preferred to cultivated ones. However, when early

186

cherries ripen before wild forms the damage Waxwings can do is con-
siderable. The same amount of fruit distributed over many later trees
might pass unnoticed, but when the damage is concentrated upon the earliest
and most valuable part of the crop the loss is keenly felt. The protection
of early fruit from the depredations of this and a few other species of like
habit is a subject that has received considerable attention. To shoot all
birds visiting the orchard is one solution, but a very poor one. It gives only
partial protection and has to be repeated each season; for as long as any
rema n in the vicinity the annual increase will undo the results of previous
efforts. Besides, the entire community is deprived of the valuable
assistance of a number of species in order that a certain amount of early
fruit may be protected. A cover of netting is generally cheaper than
shooting. As the birds prefer wild to cultivated fruit early ripening wild
fruit trees in waste corners and along fences provide inexpensive protection.
The Russian Mulberry and Service-berry and later, the Black-currant,
Mountain ash, Raspberries, and Blackberries, Sumach, Alder, Wild grape,
Bittersweet, Nightshade, Snowberry, and Elders will serve the purpose.

FAMILY—LANIID@&. L. 9-10-32. SHRIKES. BUTCHER-BIRDS.

General Description. The Shrikes are medium-sized passerine birds of raptorial
nature. They are easily recognized by their bills which are plainly hooked at the tip and
furnished with a notch and tooth near the end of the upper mandible (Figure 56, page 27).
The two species which occur in Canada are very similar in coloration and differ in minor
characters only (Plate XX XVIII A).

The Shrikes are interesting examples of passerine or seed and insect-
eating birds adapted for a predatory life. The true raptores, the Hawks,
etce., which also prey upon the higher living forms, have powerful feet with
which to secure their food and hold it while they tear it with their bills.
The Shrikes are without these efficient grasping and holding limbs, having
in fact feet no stronger than those of a sparrow or blackbird of equal size.
They, therefore, seize prey with their bill and, to hold it while feeding,
have evolved the habit of impaling it upon strong thorns, etc.; this habit
gives them the popular title of Butcher-bird. Shrikes are bold, spirited
birds and quite as daring and capable in proportion to their size as any of
the true birds of prey. The family is large and widely distributed. Only
one genus is represented in America and two species in North America.

621. Northern Shrike. BUTCHER-BIRD. FR.—LA PIE-GREICHE BOREALE. Lanius
borealis. L, 10-32. Similar to the Loggerhead Shrike, (Plate XXXVIII A) but
larger and with a series of fine wavy lines or vermiculations faintly showing across most of
the underparts.

Distinctions. General coloration and notched bill will distinguish this as a Shrike.
Size and the distinct vermiculations below will characterize it as the Northern Shrike.

Field Marks. The sharply contrasted amount of black and white on the wings and
tail, the grey upperparts, and the black band through eye. Any Shrike seen in eastern
Canada in winter between October and March will be of this species.

Nesting. In low trees or bushes in nest of twigs, grasses, etc.

Distribution. Northern America, breeding beyond regular settlement across the
continent, south in winter.

The Northern Shrike is the bolder and more energetic of our two species.
It is a northern breeder and is only seen in cultivated sections in the winter
where it follows the flocks of Snow Buntings, Redpolls, ete. It has shown

187

some tendency to come into cities and villages in pursuit of the House or
English Sparrow, in which work it is to be encouraged in every way. Dry,
mummied mice and birds occasionally found pinned to thorns and
barbs of wire fences or hanging from the close forks of twigs are usually
the work of this species.

Economic Status. Though thoroughly raptorial in habit the Northern
Shrike cannot be said to do a great amount of damage. It is not common
enough within settlement to be a serious factor in the small bird life of the
fields. It catches numbers of mice and probably its attacks on them and
on the House or English Sparrow compensate for the seed-eating birds it
takes.

622. Loggerhead Shrike. MIGRANT SHRIKE, BUTCHER-BIRD. FR.—Lanius ludo-
vicianus. L, 9. Plate XXXVIII A.

Distinctions. This species can hardly be mistaken for any thing but the Northern
and it is considerably smaller than that species. The adult is without the fine vermi-
culations of the breast and in the juvenile they are only faintly suggested. A summer and
not a winter bird in Canada.

Field Marks. The clear white and light grey of the body plumage, black wings, and tail
strongly accentuated with white , and the black band through the face are distinctive of the
Shrikes. Any summer Shrike within the cultivated sections will be of this species.

Nesting. Nest of strips of bark, small twigs, and vegetable fibres lined with fitted
wool and feathers.

Distribution. As a species, North America north to the limit of cultivation. The
migrant Shrike occupies eastern North America north of the gulf states and west to the
prairie provinces.

SUBSPECIES. The Loggerhead Shrike, like many other wide ranging species,
develops various local characteristics in different parts of its diversified range, each forming
a recognized subspecies. The form occupying eastern Canada is the Migrant Shrike, Z.l.
migrans separable from the type subspecies in the southern states or the White-rumped of
the west by only slight differences of colour and proportions.

The Loggerhead is a bird of open, brushy pastures and hillsides.
Thorn-apple trees, cropped and trimmed by cattle until dense and repellent
are its favourite nesting sites and in such neighbourhoods it can usually
be seen on some commanding perch, such as the tip of a dead sapling or
a telegraph wire, keenly regarding the surrounding country. The impaling
of prey is not quite as strongly developed a habit in this species as in the
previous one, probably because it is more insectivorous and can handle
much of its smaller prey without so doing. At any rate evidence in the
shape of remains stuck on thorns is decidedly rare in haunts where the
Species is common and where it would be expected to be numerous.
The song of the Loggerhead Shrike is quite musical and pleasing, but the
call notes are harsh and discordant.

Economic Status. The food habits of the Loggerhead are similar
to those of the Northern Shrike, differing only as would be expected in a
smaller and weaker bird and a summer rather than a winter resident.
Thus we find fewer birds and mammals and more insects are taken, indeed
during the height of the insect season the latter seem to constitute the
greater part of its food. Early in the season great numbers of beetles are
eaten, useful and harmful forms being about equally divided in numbers.
Later, grasshoppers and crickets form a large proportion of the food, but
numbers of caterpillars, many of them hairy, cutworms, some wasps,

57172—13

188

spiders, and other insect forms are also taken. The food of the species
throughout the year is regarded by the United States Biological Survey
as being beneficial in the ratio of 4 to 1.

FAMILY—VIREONID®. VIREOS OR GREENLETS. lL, 4-75-6-23.

General Description. Small, warbler-like birds generally coloured in greens and white
with more or less yellow in softly suffused masses and without much definite marking.
The bill is perceptibly notched and hooked at the tip much like that of the Shrike (Figure
56, page 56), but is on a much smaller and much lighter scale.

Distinctions. The Vireos are most apt to be mistaken for warblers which in habit,
size, and general coloration they resemble. The bills, however, are stouter, more strongly
arched on the culmen, higher for the width, and more evidently hooked and notched
at the tip. The Yellow-breasted Chat has a bill that might answer this description
in outline, but it is not hooked nor has it any indication of notch at tip.

Field Marks. In addition to specific markings, which form the best guide to
species, the Vireos can be recognized by their warbler-like habits but slower and more
sluggish movements, peering under leaves and gleaning from the branches and twigs with
less activity.

The Vireos constitute a small family peculiar to America. Three
genera occur in Canada, represented by six species.

Economic Status. Economically the Vireos can be treated together
as they are similar in their food habits. Their food consists of 91 per cent
of insects and the remainder of fruits. The latter are almost without
exception wild varieties. The insects taken are among the most harmful,
including scales and other close lying species that no birds but the careful,
close-peering Vireos ordinarily seek. They are among our more useful
birds. :

624. Red-eyed Vireo. PREACHER-BIRD. TEACHER. FR.—LE VIREO AUX YEUX
RrouGES. Vireosylva olivacea. L, 6-23. Plate XXXVIII B.

Distinctions. The Red-eyed can be distinguished from other Vireos by its superior
size, the lack of yellow, the grey confined to the crown, and the white eyebrow line bordered
with dark both above and below. The iris is red, but this can only be seen on very close
examination.

Field Marks. The markings of the face of the Red-eyed makes the best field mark.
The white eyebrow bordered with darker colour and the lower line through the eye can
usually be seen as the bird peers through the leaves at the intruder.

Nesting. Suspended from between the forks of a small branch 5 to 15 feet above the
ground in pensile nest or hanging-cup, woven of strips of bark, dead wood fibres, paper,
plant down, or birch bark lined with fine materials.

Distribution. North America to near the limit of trees.

The Red-eyed Vireo is one of the commonest frequenters of our
groves and woods. Its song, a leisurely repetition of slight variants of the
same phrase with pauses between, and continued ad libitum, can be heard
in the tree tops almost anywhere in Canada and has given the species the
name of Preacher-bird.

626. Philadelphia Vireo. FR—LE VIREO DE PHILADELPHIE. Vireosylva phil-
adelphica. L, 4-75. Almost exactly similar in coloration to the Warbling Vireo (Plate
XX XIX A) but more generally suffused with yellow on breast, flanks, and below.

Distinctions. The Philadelphia can always be separated from the Warbling Vireo by
the length of the first primary feather. In this species it is nearly as long as the second,
whereas in the Warbling it is reduced to a rudimentary condition and is barely three-
quarters of an inch in length.

Field Marks. In life it looks like a Warbling Vireo with unusually yellow breast and
underparts.

189

Nesting. Suspended from a branch about 8 feet from the ground in pensile.nest of
fibres and birch bark.

Distribution. Eastern America. More northern in breeding range than the Warbling
and only a migrant in most of the settled sections of Canada.

Usually a rather rare little Vireo and too inconspicuous to be often
seen or recognized by the ordinary observer.

627. Warbling Vireo. rr—L.e virko GRIS-oLIVE. V treosylva gilva. L, 5-80.
Plate XX XIX A.

Distinctions. The even unmarked coloration and small size will distinguish the
Warbling from any other Vireo except the Philadelphia. The lack of yellow overwash in
front and below will usually be diagnostic. The final test of the species, however, is the
small rudimentary condition of the first primary which is hardly three-quarters of an inch
long instead of one and three-quarters.

Field Marks. The almost pure white underparts instead of the yellow suffusion of
the Philadelphia makes the best recognition mark from that species and the small size and
dull even coloration from other Vireos.

Nesting. Suspended between the forks of a small branch 15 to 50 feet above the ground
in pensile nest of fine bark strips and plant fibres, smoothly and firmly interwoven and
lined with pine needles and hairs.

Distribution. As a species, occupies all of temperate America; the Eastern Warbling
Vireo extends west to the prairie provinces.

SUBSPECIES. The Warbling Vireo is divided into an eastern and a western sub-
species. The Eastern Warbling Vireo V. g. gilva, the type of the species, is the only one
met with in eastern Canada.

The Warbling Vireo, hidden in leafy tree tops, is more often heard
than seen. Its song is very different from that of the Red-eyed, being
continuous and not composed of disconnected phrases.

628. Yellow-throated Vireo. FR —LE VIRGO A FRONT JAUNE. Lanivireo flavifrons.
L, 5°95. Head, cheeks, and back greenish; rump and tail slaty; breast and throat bright
yellow; below white; wings with two distinct white bars.

Distinctions. _The bright yellow breast and throat of this species is distinctive. The
Solitary and the White-eyed are the only other Vireos with wing bars. In the former the
bars are white as in the breast, in the latter the bars are yellowish. In coloration the Yellow-
throated Vireo is very similar to the Pine Warbler, but there is much less white on the under-
parts of the latter species, the yellow suffusing and covering most of it instead of stopping
almost sharply at the breast line.

Field Marks. The bright yellow throat and breast are distinctly recognizable and
prevent confusion with any other native Vireo. The voice, similar to that of the Red-
eyed but with the phrases following each other less rapidly 2 to 3 seconds apart instead of
about one per second, will distinguish it from others of its family or from the Warblers.

Nesting. Suspended from a forked branch 10 to 80 feet above the ground, in pensile
nest of strips of bark, plant fibres, etc., lined with fine grasses and covered externally with
lichens, spider webs, etc.

Distribution. Eastern North America. Common in eastern Canada only in the
southern parts of the lower Great Lakes region.

A woodland and orchard bird. Besides its characteristic song it is a
maker of many queer noises and has an extensive voeabulary.

629. Solitary Vireo. BLUE-HEADED VIREO. FR. — LE VIREO A TATE BLEUE.
Lanivireo solitarius. L, 5°61. Back greenish shading into bluish ash on head and adjacent
parts of cheeks; white loral spot and white ring about eye; all underparts white with suffu-
sion of yellow on flanks; wings with two whitish bars.

Distinctions. The ashy blue head with conspicuous white lores and eye-ring are
distinctive.

_ Field Marks. The bluish head with conspicuous white eye-ring and lores and, pure
white throat make conspicuous field marks.

Nesting. Suspended from between the forks of a small branch 5 to 10 feet above the
ground, in pensile nest of wood fibres, bark strips, and pine needles, plant down, etc.

57172—133

190

Distribution. As a species the Solitary Vireo extends over all of the United States and
Canada north to the extreme limits of settlements. The Blue-headed, the eastern repre-
sentative of the species, ranges west to central Alberta.

_ SUBSPECIES. The Solitary Vireo is divided into several subspecies, only one of
which, the Blue-headed Vireo L. s. solitarius, the type form, occurs in eastern Canada.

A pretty little Vireo and a common inhabitant of woodland and
orchard during migrations. The song is similar to that of the Red-eyed,
but an attentive ear can easily distinguish between them.

631. White-eyed Vireo. Vireo griseus. L,5°27. A small Vireo like the Warbling
but of much richer green colour on back and with yellow loral mark and eye-ring; iris
white. Throat and underparts almost pure white; strongly yellow on flanks; wings have
two yellowish bars.

Distinctions. White iris, yellow eye-ring and loral mark, strong yellow on flanks, and
white breast and abdomen.

Field Marks. This species is too rare in Canada and too similar to other species to
be recorded on eyesight observation alone.

Nesting. Nest usually similar to that of the Red-eyed.

Distribution. All forms of the species are southern. The eastern White-eyed occurs
in the eastern United States north to New York and Massachusetts and is only accidental
in Canada.

SUBSPECIES. The White-eyed Vireo is represented by several subspecies, the
type form, the Northern White-eye V. g. griseus being the only one which occurs in Canada.

A bird of the south noted for its remarkable voice. This species is
included here on the basis of a few records scattered along the southern
borders of Canada.

FAMILY—MNIOTILTIDZH. WOOD WARBLERS. L, 4-25-—7-44.

General Description. Small birds, only one Canadian species being over 6-28 inches
long and very few over 5.75. They are usually bright coloured woodland and treetop
birds though a few inhabit the ground and the grass. They are, as a family, difficult
of diagnosis and the genera can be most easily recognized by the bills (Figures 57, 58, 59,
p. 27) though considerable familiarity with the species is necessary to recognize the
generic characteristics.

Field Marks. No reliable field marks which cover the whole family can be given.
However, after a little experience with them their small size, bright colours, and sprightly
actions are easily recognized. They are most likely to be confused with the Vireos.

Nesting. The nesting habits of the family are various, some build in trees, from down
near the ground to well up towards the tops of the taller trees, others on the ground or in
grass, and some in holes in dead stubs, etc.

Distribution. Most of the warblers breed in the northern spruce woods beyond the
limits of general settlement. A few nest in the more cultivated sections and some just
cross the International Boundary. All are migratory and spend the winter, according to
species, from northern United States south to the Amazon country of South America.

The American Wood Warblers constitute a large family peculiar to
the Americas. In fact they divide the honours in point of numbers with
the sparrows. The Warblers are the delight of the amateur bird observer.
So small that few but the enthusiast ever see them, but so numerous and
brilliantly-coloured that their discovery opens up a new world of interest
to the beginner. The sexes are usually dissimilar and there is considerable
seasonal change in plumage. This, multiplied by the large number of
species makes the task of identifying all of them seem almost hopeless to
the beginner. It is not, however, as difficult as it seems at first. The
spring males are usually distinctly marked and as many of them are fur-
nished with descriptive names their differentiation is comparatively simple.

191

As the females and autumn birds almost invariably retain suggestions of
the characteristic spring markings of the males the difficulty is really less
than is generally anticipated. Of course, puzzling specimens occur which
give even the experts some difficulty, but itis usually an alternative between
two species, which can be settled by giving attention to one or more
small details. In studying the warblers the observer is advised to first
become familiar with the spring males. When the males of the common
species are known, a comparatively easy matter with such strongly char-
acterized forms, most of the females are recognized without much difficulty
as they usually carry a subdued reflection of their mate’s brighter colour
pattern. In the autumn, most juveniles resemble the females closely
enough to make recognition not so very difficult. There are thus compara-
tively few plumages besides the spring males that have to be learned
individually. The Canadian Warblers represent twelve genera, seven of
which are represented by single species only. Dendroica has sixteen species,
Vermivora five, and three others are represented by three species each.
The generic details of the most important will be discussed under their
proper headings.

Though called ‘‘ Warblers” their song should as a rule hardly be
dignified by such a term. With few exceptions the songs are only insig-
aificant little notes without much prolonged continuity, but as they are
often specifically distinctive the student is advised to pay close attention
to them, for when the great warbler migrations are on, the presence of a
new or rare species is often first made known by a single unfamiliar sound
directing attention from the many to the one that would otherwise escape
notice.

Economic Status. The Warblers are highly insectivorous. A few
take more or less seed and a little fruit, the latter almost invariably wild,
and no complaints have been made against any of the family. Their
effect, therefore, is wholly beneficial. Being active they reach all kinds of
insect habitats from the axils of highest flung leaves to between blades of
grass on the ground, and as they are small they are satisfied to take insects
and insect eggs that are too insignificant or too well hidden to receive the
attention of larger birds.

636. Black and White Warbler. BLACK AND WHITE CREEPER. FR.—LA FAUVETTE
NOIRE ET BLANCHE. Mniotilta varia. L, 5-30. Plate XXXIX B. There is little
plumage variation.

Distinctions. A small black and white warbler which creeps about holes and branches
like a woodpecker. In the autumn the colours of the young bird are similar to those of
the adult but slightly veiled and have small washes of buff and less black on the throat.
It is only to be mistaken in spring for the Black-poll but the white median stripe on the
crown instead of all black can distinguish it from that species.

Field Marks. Its creeping habits, strong black and white coloration with median
ee stripe. In the autumn it is the only all black and white warbler to be seen in eastern

fanada.

Nesting. On ground at the base of a stump, log, or rock, in nest of strips of bark,
grasses, etc., lined with rootlets and long hair.

Distribution. Eastern North America; breeds in most of Canada north to well beyond
the settlements.

This is one of the earliest warblers to arrive in the spring and one of
the easiest to identify at any time as it is always well marked and there is
little difference in seasonal or sexual coloration.

192

637. Prothonotary Warbler. Protonotaria citrea. L, 5-50. A golden yellow war-
bler, bright rich chrome or golden on head and most of underparts and with greyish
wings, tail, and rump. There is little plumage variation.

Distinctions. The only warbler with an intense even golden head, neck and breast
without wing-bars. The Pine and Wilson’s Warbler have green or black crowns; the
Yellow Warbler is without the grey wings and tail and is lemon yellow rather than
orange or golden.

Field Marks. The Prothonotary is too rare a species in Canada to record from
living specimens.

Nesting. In a hole in a stub or stump in nest of rootlets, fine twigs and moss, plant
down, or feathers.

Distribution. Mississippi valley north barely to Canadian boundary which it only
crosses accidentally in the lower Great Lakes region. é

This is only included in the Canadian list on the basis of afew accidental
occurrences in the lower Great Lakes region. It isa bird of drowned lands,
and of bushes standing in dead water.

GENUS—VERMIVORA. WORM-EATING WARBLERS.

The genus Vermivora is a group of small slightly built warblers in
which the following characters are most easily recognized. The bill is
small, sharply pointed, almost spine-like, and the culmen line is straight or
almost concave rather than convexor slightly arched (Figure 57, p. 27).
The tails are solidly coloured and without white spots.

639. Worm-eating Warbler. Helmitheros vermivorus. L, 5-51. Dull olive above;
head buffy with conspicuously contrasting dark brown lines through the eye and bor-
dering crown. There is little plumage variation.

Distinctions. The only warbler with this distinctive dark and buffy head marking.
The bill is rather heavy for a warbler of this genus.

Field Marks. Too rare in Canada to trust to sight record for identification.

Nesting. On ground; nest of rootlets, leaves, and bark.

Distribution. Eastern United States; only one record in Canada, in southern Ontario.

A bird of wooded banks or swampy thickets, feeding near the ground.

641. Blue-winged Warbler. Vermivora pinus. L, 4:80. A green warbler with
yellow forehead, throat, breast, and underparts; a fine black line through eye and blue-
grey wings and tail. Two white wing-bars. Female similar but duller. Little plumage
variation.

Distinctions, The bright yellow face and underparts with black eye stripe and blue-
grey wings with white bars are distinctive.

Field Marks. Too rare in Canada to rely on field marks for identification.

Nesting. On ground generally in or at the border of second growth.in nest of bark
and leaves lined with fine strips of bark and tendrils, firmly wrapped with leaves.

Distribution. Eastern North America; regularly stopping south of the Canadian
border and only accidentally crossing it in southern Ontario.

Though taken only once in Canada this is a most interesting species as
it hybridizes with the next species, the Golden-Winged, forming puzzling
hybrids that were long regarded as separate species under the names of
Lawrence’s and Brewster’s Warblers.

642. Golden-winged Warbler. Vermivora chrysoptera. L, 5-10. A _ blue-grey
warbler; male, white or very light grey below darkening on the flanks, with yellow cap
and wing-patch and black cheeks and throat. Female similar to male but somewhat
reduced in brightness and the blacks represented by dark grey. There is little age or
seasonal plumage variation.

Distinctions. The blue-grey body, yellow wing patch, and black throat and eye-
patches are distinctive.

193

Field Marks. The above marks are easily recognizable in life. The black throa}
somewhat suggests the Chickadee but the other marks make it easy to separate them.

Nesting. On ground or in bushy fields or second growth in nest much like that of
Blue-winged Warbler.

Distribution. Eastern United States; regularly crossing our borders only in southern
Ontario along lake Erie and the lower corner of lake Huron.

Usually found in shrubby wastes or the bushy edges of woodland.
To be expected only in southern Ontario.

645. Nashville Warbler. FR.—LA FAUVETTE DE NASHVILLE. Vermivora rub-
ricapilla. L, 4-77. A yellow and green warbler with a greyish head and a more or less
concealed chestnut. crown patch. Sex, season, and age plumages varying only in intensity
of yellow and the amount of chestnut in cap. In females the cap may be entirely concealed
by the grey edgings of the feathers and occasionally it may be altogether absent.

Distinctions. The unmarked green above and yellow all below to tail, but brightest
on throat and breast; and the grey or greyish head and cheeks are distinctive. This greyish
head and hind neck may not be marked but is always present as a slight differentiation
from the green back. When present the chestnut crown (not orange-rufous as in the
Orange-crowned Warbler) is an unmistakable specific character.

Field Marks. Bright yellow, unstreaked underparts and grey head and cheeks.

Nesting. On ground in partial clearings or tree grown pastures in nest of grasses and
moss lined with finer grasses and fine rootlets.

Distribution. Eastern North America. In Canada north to beyond the settlements.
The Eastern Nashville Warbler extends west to near the mountains.

SUBSPECIES. The Nashville Warbler is divided into the Eastern Nashville, the
type form, V. r. rubicapilla, and an extreme western one the Calaveras Warbler.

This warbler is most likely to be found in open shrubbery and the
small growth that lines.country roads.

646. Orange-crowned Warbler. FR.—LA FAUVETTE A COURONNE ORANGEE. Ver-
mivora celata. L, 5. A dull yellowish, grey-green warbler with a concealed orange-rufous
crown-patch. Very little sexual difference. Immatures are without the crown spot and
the brightness of the yellow below is reduced to almost the colour of the back.

Distinctions. Similar to the Nashville but without the grey or greyish on the head.
The crown spot when present is still more concealed than that of the Nashville and often
entirely hidden until the feathers are separated to show their coloured bases. The yellow
throat is duller than in the Nashville. The juvenile bird is an almost evenly greyish green
bird with faint suggestions of ashy to it and rather similar to the immature Tennessee but
without the faint light eyebrow line ; it is more evenly coloured, and without any suggestion
of white below.

Field Marks. Like a very dull coloured Nashville Warbler or a juvenile Tennessee
without the faint eyebrow line.

Nesting. On or near the ground in nest of leaves and fine grasses.

Distribution. Central and western America. The Interior Orange-crown breeds from
Alaska to Manitoba and is only a migrant through eastern Canada.

SUBSPECIES. The species is divided into three subspecies. The Interior Orange-
crown JV. c. celata, the type form, ranges west to the mountains.

One of the rarest of the regular Eastern Canadian Warblers. Eyesight
alone is hardly reliable for records in eastern Canada.

647. Tennessee Warbler. FR.—LA FAUVETTE DU TENNESSER. Vermivora peregrina,
L, 5. Back of male green, underparts nearly pure white. Head and hind neck ash-grey,
suffusing on cheeks. White eyebrow line and suggestion of dark line through eye. Females
and juveniles have-the grey head and hind neck replaced by the green of the back which
suffuses more or less as dull yellow or greenish yellow over breast and underparts. The
eyebrow line is always visible as a lighter coloration of the green.

Distinctions. The general green and white coloration and light eyebrow line are the
best distinctions in any plumage.

Field Marks. General coloration as above, with light eyebrow line and without wing-
pone fal patches, or the whitish spot at base of primaries of the Black-throated Blue

arbler.

194

Nesting. In moss on ground in small, dense, coniferous growth in nest of fine grass,
rootlets, and long hairs.

Distribution. Eastern America, probably to the northern tree limits. Usually a
rare migrant through our settled sections but locally common. °

A rather rare warbler'in most sections of eastern Canada. In migra-
tion usually found well up in the trees.

648. Parula Warbler. BLUE YHLLOW-BACKED WARBLER. FR.—LA FAUVETTE D’A-
MERIQUE. Compsothlypis americana. L, 4°73. Above and sides of face and neck blue,
almost bright blue, with yellow suffusion over middle of back. Below white, throat and
breast clear yellow with a vaguely defined black (or bluish-black), and rufous band across
breast. Females and juveniles are duller, without the breast band, and with the yellow
more or less suffused over all upperparts but strongest in middle of back. White wing-
bars in all plumages.

Distinctions. The blue back, either pure or overwashed with yellow, wing-bars, and
yeliow breast and throat are always distinctive.

Field Marks. See just above.

Nesting. In hanging bunches of Usnea (the old man’s beard) or other hanging lichens.

Distribution. Mostly eastern America. The Northern Parula occupies the northern
part of the specific range to the limits of present settlement; not breeding in the lower
Great Lakes region.

SUBSPECIES. The Parula Warbler is divided into a northern and a southern

subspecies. The Canadian form, the Northern Parula C. a. usnee, is named from the lichen
in which it builds its nest.

GENUS—DENDROICA. WOODLAND WARBLERS.

The genus Dendroica is composed of warblers of slightly sturdier
build than Vermivora. The bill is longer and the culmen more decidedly
arched (Figure 58, p. 27). The tail, except that of the Yellow Warbler,
has a considerable amount of white.

650. Cape May Warbler. FR.—LA FAUVETTE DU cAP MAY. Dendroica Tigrina.
L, 5, Male: throat, breast and most of underparts bright yellow finely and sharply
striped with black on lower throat, breast, and flanks. A chestnut patch in the middle of
the cheek cuts sharply against the yellow. Top of head black continuing as elongated
spots on the yellow-green of back. The rump is yellow and the wing has a large white
patch. Female: Olive-grey above, dirty white below warmed with yellow suffusion
across breast which is faintly striped with dark. Rump yellowish and white wing-patch
replaced with vague bars. Juvenile: similar to spring birds but less bright; male without
chestnut cheeks. Females: even dull olive-grey, slightly yellow on rump; dull white slightly
olive below, faintly streaked with soft dark lines, and with faint washes of yellowish olive
on breast and flanks.

Distinctions. Males are distinctive with their tiger-like colours of yellow with black
stripings. Adult females show enough of the male’s pattern to be recognizable. Juvenile
females are more difficult to recognize. However, all show at least an appreciable yellow-
ness on the inner parts of the feathers on the sides of the neck just behind the ears. This
slight tinge sometimes shows in life when the bird turns its head but with the bird in the
hand the feathers must be separated to show it.

Field Marks. Adults and juvenile males are distinctive. Juvenile females can
be recognized by the peculiar fine, dim striping of breast against a slightly buffy, light
olive-grey ground or by the concealed yellow spot on sides of the neck as described above.

Nesting. On low branches in small trees in pastures or woodlands in partly pensile
nest of twigs and grasses fastened together with spider web and lined with horse hair.

Distribution. Eastern America west to the prairies and north to beyond settlements.

One of the most beautiful of the warblers; usually regarded as rare
but locally growing commoner. It is a woodland treetop species but often
seen in orchard and shade trees.

652. Yellow Warbler. SUMMER YELLOW BIRD. FR.—LA FAUVETTE JUANE. Den-
droica estiva. L, 5-10. Plate XL A.

—

195

Distinctions. The Yellow Warbler is apt to be confused with few other species.
Its tail, with yellow on the inner vanes of the feathers, will distinguish it from all other
evenly yellow or green species.

Field Marks. The even and uniform bright yellow of spring birds is unmistakable.
Some dull females are more green than yellow but the green-edged wings and yellow
tail, lack of colour contrasts, size, and actions of the bird are easily recognized.

Nesting. In an upright crotch in bushes and small trees in nest of fine fibres and a
large amount of plant down, lined with plant down and sometimes long hairs.

The Yellow Warbler is one of the few species that sometimes refuses to incubate
Cowbird’s eggs. Instead of throwing out the intruding egg, however, it builds a new
nest over the old one, burying it and its entire contents, including often some of its own
eggs, in the foundation of the new structure, in which another set of eggs is deposited.

Distribution. Nearly all of North America. The Eastern Yellow Warbler inhabits
all of Canada except the Pacific slope.

SUBSPECIES. The Yellow Warbler is divided into four subspecies; the Eastern
Yellow Warbler D. gestiva which occupies most of Canada, is the type of the species.

This is the commonest breeding warbler in southern Canada. It shares
with the Goldfinch the popular name of Wild Canary, but the lack of black
will determine it at a glance. It is found in shrubby localities in open
country or along stream or marsh edges. It is a common visitor to the
garden and its cheery little song is very pleasing. In the autumn the
Yellow Warbler is one of the first species to leave. Shortly after July
it disappears and by mid-August only a few stragglers are left. It goes
before many observers begin to think of autumn migrations and thus
details of its autumn movements are difficult to get.

654. Black-throated Blue Warbler. rr.—FAUVETTE BLEUE A GORGE NOIR. Den-

droica cerulescens. L, 5-28. Plate XL B.
_ Distinctions. The male, so descriptively named and strongly marked, is very dis-
tinctive. The female, however, especially in autumn, is more difficult to distinguish,
it may resemble either the juvenile of the Tennessee, the autumn Black-poll, or the
Bay-breast. The streaked back and wing-bars, however, of the latter two are absent.
They are darker and more greyish-green than the Tennessee above and more buffy below.
An indistinct and partly concealed white or light spot at the base of the primaries is
always diagnostic of females of this species.

Field Marks. The male is distinctive. The female in any plumage can usually
be recognized from all other evenly coloured dull green warblers by the sometimes very
faint light spot at the base of the primaries, which shows far more conspicuously in life
than would be expected.

Distribution. Eastern North America, breeding in the north, south to the borders
of civilization.

SUBSPECIES. The black-throated Blue Warbler is divided into two subspecies
of which we have only one in Canada, the type form D. c. cerulescens, the Northern
Black-throated, though occasionally specimens closely approach the southern variety,
Cairn’s Warbler D. c. cairnsi, in having a suggestion of black spots on the back.

655. Myrtle Warbler. YELLOW-RUMPED WARBLER. FR.—LA FAUVETTE A CROUPION
JAUNE. Dendroica coronata. L, 5-65. Plate XLIA.

_ Distinctions. A very easily recognized species. All plumages have at least sugges-
tions of the yellow crown, rump, and side marks. The juveniles are largely rusty brown
above and have more or less of a wash of same colour across breast with the streaks only
slightly indicated.

Field Marks. The yellow rump is always distinct and bright and makes the most
conspicuous field mark. Its presence and the side and crown marks of the same colour,
eaeennts indistinct in autumn but always present, make reliable identification guides
in life.

_ Nesting. In coniferous trees 5 to 10 feet above the ground in nest of vegetable fibre
lined with grasses.

Distribution. Nearly all of North America north to tree limits. Breeding just beyond
the dense settlements.

196

An early warbler to arrive in spring and the last one to depart in
autumn. At times in the latter season the brushy wastes, roadsides, and
the overgrown fence lines are filled with Myrtle Warblers each showing, as
it darts away, its distinct yellow rump as proof of its identity.

657. Magnolia Warbler. BLACK AND YELLOW WARBLER. FR.—LA FAUVETTE A
THTE CENDREE. Dendroica magnolia. L, 5-12. Plate XLI B.

Distinctions. The bright yellow breast and underparts sharply striped with black,
black cheeks, and greyish upperparts are perfectly distinctive in the spring. Autumn
birds have recognizable reflections of the adult plumage but the breast markings are absent
and those of flanks reduced. The head and cheeks are evenly greyish and the back greyish
shaded with green to the rump which is suffused with yellow.

Field Marks. The yellow below and on rump will separate the Magnolia from all
warblers but the Cape May. The latter’s yellow breast is sharply and more evenly
striped with black and it has the chestnut ear patch. Close examination of the Magnolia
in autumn plumage always shows a vague, light ashy bar across the upper breast.
The tail is also a good identification mark. The characteristic white marking of the
tails is well back from the tip and rather extensive, giving, when seen from below, the
appearance of a white tail broadly banded with black.

Nesting. In coniferous trees 3 to 6 feet from the ground in nest of fine twigs and
leaf stems lined with hairlike rootlets.

Distribution. Eastern North America north to tree limits; breeds mostly north of
general cultivation.

One of the most beautiful of the warblers, on migration coming into
shade trees and orchards where its rich coloration makes a pleasing com-
bination with the blossoms.

658. Cerulean Warbler. Dendroica cerulea. lL, 4-50. Male: sky-biue and white.
Above, all blue with fine black markings on back and sides of crown. Below, pure white
with blue breast-band and flank stripes;wing-bars white. Female: even dull greenish-
blue above, white below, more or less stained with greenish and yellow suggestions.
Juvenile similar but yellower all over.

Distinctions. The male is unmistakable. Other plumages have a peculiar bluish,
instead of olive or yellowish, green above that is quite characteristic. The Juvenile with
its yellowish-greenish underparts is somewhat similar to the young Tennessee, having
a similar eyebrow stripe, but its white wing-bars and tail patches will separate it.

Field Marks. The blue of the adult and the bluish sheen of other plumages. Other-
wise like a juvenile Tennessee but with wing-bars and white in tail. :

Nesting. In a tree 20 to 60 feet above the ground in nest of fine fibres bound with
spider’s web, lined with strips of bark fibres and with a few lichens on the outer surface.

Distribution. Eastern United States except the coast; north along lake Erie to
just within Canadian territory.

Too rare in Canada to be expected regularly except in a limited area
in southern Ontario.

659. Chestnut-sided Warbler. FR.—LA FAUVETTE DE PENSYLVANIE. Dendroica
pensylvanica. L, 5-14. Male: Crown yellow; back black and grey in stripes, over-
washed with yellowish green; below white with chestnut bands along flanks; two white
or yellowish wing-bars. Juvenile: an almost even yellowish-green above, white below,
cheeks grey; usually with suggestions of the chestnut sides of the male. ;

Distinctions. Superficial attention to the above description might confuse this
species with the Bay-breasted but the white throat is distinctive. Spring birds with
their yellow cap, chestnut sides, and white underparts; and autumn birds white below,
yellowish green above, and yellowish wing-bars are easily recognized.

Field Marks. The white underparts and peculiar lemon yellowness of the green above
ae good recognition marks even in plumages where the characteristic markings do not
show.

Nesting. In bushes some 3 feet from the ground in nest of strips of bark, leaf stems,
etc., lmed with tendrils and rootlets.

197

Distribution. Eastern North America west to well into the prairie country and
north to beyond settlement. Nests locally almost wherever found in eastern Canada
except in the extreme southern portion.

The Chestnut-sided is usually found in dry brushy clearings, second
growth, and raspberry tangles.

660. Bay-breasted Warbler. FR—LA FAUVETTE A POITRINE BAIR. Dendroica -
castanea. L, 5-63. Male: finely striped with dull olive-ochre and black above; under-
parts white; top of head, throat, foreneck, and flanks bay colour (reddish chestnut); fore-
head and cheeks black; a light ochre spot on side of neck. Female has all these charac-
teristic marks obvious enough for recognition but veiled and dimly indicated. The
autumn birds, however, are entirely different; above, yellowish-green faintly striped with
dark, below, white, more or less tinged with yellowish or buffy greenish; the bay of the
sides is often indicated by a slight ruddy warmth or by individual, fully coloured feathers.

Distinctions. Spring birds are distinctive enough. Autumn specimens resemble
the juvenile Black-poll so closely that often they can be separated only with difficulty even
when in the hand. The Bay-breast almost invariably has a certain amount of warm
ochre on the flanks which is lacking in the Black-poll and the under tail coverts are cream
instead of pure white. The presence of wing-bars will distinguish these two species from
any other plain greenish warbler.

Field Marks. The adult male is distinctive in colour. The spring female always
shows enough of the bay breast for recognition. Adult autumn birds also usually have
a trace of the bay on the flanks and the warm ochreish of these parts can usually be seen
in juveniles. When these characters fail to distinguish the species, however, close at-
tention will show that the breast colour is perfectly even and sharp eyes or good glasses
will usually reveal very faint dark stripings showing on the sides of the breast of the Black-
poll. None of these marks, however, can be seen except under the most favourable cir-
cumstances, but in mixed flocks one can usually tell the proportion of each species with
fair accuracy.

Nesting. In coniferous trees 5 to 20 feet above the ground in nest of grasses and
plant fibres lined with plant down and long hairs.

Distribution. Eastern North America west to across the prairies and north to the
tree limits. Breeds beyond regular cultivation.

The Bay-breast in spring migration prefers brushy growth in sandy
wastes, roadsides, etc., but often comes close about the house in shade
trees and the orchard. The similarity of the autumn Bay-breast and the
autumn Black-poll, a bird in full plumage totally different, is one of the
interesting phenomena of bird coloration. The autumn plumages of these
two birds were at one time confused with each other under the name
of Autumnal Warbler.

661. Black-poll Warbler. rr.—LA FAUVETTE RAYEE. Dendroica striata. lL, 5°56.
Male: black and white stripes with a solidly black crown; finely lined with black and grey
on back; below all white with black from base of bill down sides of neck breaking into
stripes on flanks; cheeks white. Female: greenish above; white below washed with green-
ish on throat and breast but with enough of the black striping showing more or less
vaguely to make the bird recognizable as the female of the above. Autumn birds are
almost indistinguishable from the preceding Bay-breast (see above).

_ Distinctions. The spring males with their clear black and white markings can be
mistaken for nothing except the Black-and-White Creeper, but their non-creeping habits
and the crowns solidly black, instead of with a broad white median stripe, easily separate
them. The striping of the female is distinctive. The autumn birds can be told from the
epee by their lack of ochre, bay, or buffy on flanks and their pure white undertail
coverts.

Field Marks. The Black-poll is seen in three plumages: the male black and white;
the female greenish, white below and more or less streaked with black; and autumn birds
like Bay-breasts with faint stripes, visible only to sharp eyes or with good glasses, showing
through the yellowish flanks.

Nesting. Generally in spruce trees about 6 feet above the ground in nest of twigs,
mosses, rootlets, etc., lmed with fine grasses and tendrils.

Distribution. Nearly similar to that of the preceding species.

198

The Black-poll Warbler is one of the latest warblers to arrive in the
spring, usually after most of the other migrant hordes have gone north.

662. Blackburnian Warbler. FR.—LAFAUVETTE DE BLACKBURN. Dendroica fusca.
L, 5:25. Plete XLII A. The black upperparts and flaming orange throat are distinctive
in the esse of the adult male. In the female the orange colour of the throat though faint is
easily recognizable. The young in the autumn are like the adult female although the young
females are duller in colour, the throat and breast only retaining a faint yellow colouring.

Distinctions. Adult and autumn males are unmistakable. Autumn females may be
confused with autumn Black-polls and Bay-breasts but the clearer yellow on the throat,
the absence of a greenish tinge below, and the dark ear coverts with conspicuous buff eye-
brow line are diagnostic characters.

Field Marks. The bright orange or warm yellow confined to throat and breast and
orange-yellow or buff eyebrow stripe, in contrast to the dark cheeks and crown, make the
best field marks.

Nesting. In coniferous trees 10 to 14 feet or more above the ground in nest of fine
twigs and grasses lined with grasses and tendrils.

Distribution. Eastern North America west to the prairie provinces; breeding mostly
north of dense settlement.

The male Blackburnian has the bright plumage commonly associated
with the tropics rather than with our colder climates. The species asso-
ciates with many other warblers in the treetops of the open woods or orchard.

667. Black-throated Green Warbler. FR.—LA FAUVETTE A POITRINE NOIRE:
Dendroica virens. L, 5-10. Plate XLII B.

Distinctions. A green warbler with bright yellow cheeks and sharply contrasting black
throat and breast. In females and juvenile males the black is almost wanting or indicated
only by vague interrupted black suffusions which are stronger on the breast. In young
females the black is reduced to dull cloudings at the sides of the breast and flanks. In all
plumages the underparts are white and the back and crown clear, even green. Bright
yellow predominates on the cheeks.

Field Marks. For juveniles, the green back, yellow cheeks, and white below. For
adults, the black throat and breast contrasting with yellow face and white below.

Nesting. In coniferous trees 5 to 30 feet above the ground in nest of small twigs and
moss lined with rootlets, fine grasses, and tendrils.

Distribution. North America, west to the mountains. Breeding in eastern Canada
wherever cedar or evergreen thickets are found except in extreme scuthern portions.

A striking bird, fond of scrubby evergreen when available but is also
found in the orchard and in hardwood tree-tops. |

670. Kirtland’s Warbler. Dendroica kirtlandi. L, 5-75. Blue-grey above heavily
striped with black on back, and finely striped on crown. All below, except under tail,
pale yellow with black stripes on sides of breast and flanks. Females and juveniles
similar but duller, and breast stripes broken and forming spots.

Distinctions. Kirtland’s Warbler resembles the Canadian Warbler, but is larger;
the yellow is paler and the black stripes are on the flanks and do not tend to make
necklace suspended from the ears as in that species; and the back is marked with black
instead of being clear grey. The only other warbler that might be mistaken for it is the
Magnolia but the black does not cross the breast as it does in adult Magnolias, and there is
no yellow or greenish on the back or rump.

Field Marks. The species is too rare to be accepted on eye identification alone.

Nesting. On ground at foot of pine or oak trees in nest of soft bark, strips of vegetable
fibre, and grass lined with fine grass, pine needles, and hair. ;

Distribution. Winters in the Bahama islands. The only known breeding station is 4
limited section of the jack-pine plains in the northern part of the lower peninsula of
Michigan. The species has only been taken twice in Canada, both specimens being taken
in the lower Great Lakes region. Its nest should be looked for in the Bruce peninsula of
Ontario and around the Great Lakes west to the lake Superior country.

199

In the winter this species is confined within a limited oceanic island
habitat and is an instance of the difficulties in the way of abnormally
increasing the numbers of native species. It is evident that we can never
have in the north a greater number of Kirtland’s Warblers than can live
through the winter on the Bahama islands.

671. Pine Warbler. FR.—LA FAUVETTE DES PINS. Dendroica vigorsi. , 5-52.
A dull green warbler, the green changing to dull yellow on throat and breast with greyish
or brownish wings and tail and faint wing-bars; in high plumage rarely becoming fairly
bright yellow on throat and breast. There is little sexual or seasonal change.

Distinctions. Very similar to the Yellow-throated Vireo but greener in colour and
with the yellow below stronger and more extensive. The white abdomen is inconspicuous.
The bill is lighter and warbler-like instead of being stout, hooked, and of Vireo type. From
the Yellow Warbler it can be separated by its duller colour and the contrast between its
wings and tail and body. Its preference for pine trees is at least suggestive of its identity.

Field Marks. A dull green warbler, yellow on breast with greyish brown wings, white
wing-bars. Canadian specimens are usually somewhat soiled and bedraggled in appear-
ance. Almost invariably found in pine trees.

Nesting. In pine trees 10 to 80 feet above the ground, in nest of strips of bark, leaves,
plant fibres, etc.

Distribution. Eastern North America, west to the prairies and north to the limits of
the pine wocds; breeding in Canada mostly beyond settlement.

The preference for pines, which this bird shows, is striking. It is
rarely, if ever, found away from them. In consequence, it is likely to have
its plumage more or less soiled with pitch which gives it a dull and worn
appearance. Bright, clean birds of this species are rare with us.

672. Palm Warbler. FrR.—LA FAUVETTE A COURONNE ROUSSE. Dendroica palmarum.
L, 5-25. A dull or greenish warbler. Male: all underparts bright or suffused yellow; cap
reddish-chestnut. The breast and flanks are streaked more or less with rufous and a yellow
eyebrow line contrasts with dark cheeks and red cap. Females similar but colour
subdued. Juveniles and autumn birds are greyish brown above; buff below with faint
streaks, almost white on throat and suffused with distinct yellow increasing to pure
yellow on undertail coverts. There is a blended yellowish rump patch in all plumages.

Distinctions. The yellow underparts and red cap are unmistakable in all spring birds.
In autumn the vaguely striped underparts, brown back, and yellow undertail coverts are
distinctive.

Field Marks. The habitual, sandpiper-like upward jerk of the tail will distinguish this
from all other warblers with yellow underparts except the Prairie Warbler. The bright
yellow confined to the undertail coverts, light throat, and vaguely striped buff breast of the
juveniles will assist in separation of the species from comparable forms.

Nesting. On or near the ground in boggy ground or sphagnum barrens in nest of
coarse grass, lined with fitted feathers.

Distribution. Eastern North America west to the prairies and north to near tree
limits; breeding mostly beyond the bounds of civilization. The Yellow Palm Warbler is of
eastern distribution west to the eastern Ontario boundary. The Interior Palm Warbler
occupies the remainder of eastern Canada.

SUBSPECIES. The Palm Warbler is divided into two subspecies, the type form, the
Interior Palm Warbler D.p. palmarum, distinguished in adult spring plumage from the
Yellow Palm Warbler D.p. hypochrysea by the smaller amount of yellow and the reduced
brilliancy of the underparts which are slightly tinged with greyish. The two forms, how-
ever, are too similar to separate without specimens of both for comparison.

A ground-haunting bird. On migration to be looked for in low,
scrubby, and sandy wastes. In breeding season in mossy bogs.

673. Prairie Warbler. Dendroica discolor. L, 4-75. A green and yellow warbler.
Throat, cheeks, and all underparts of male bright yellow; a black line through the eye, a
black wedge below the ear coverts, and a succession of black lines along the sides of the
breast and flanks. Middle of back has a saddle of reddish spots. Female similar but
occasionally almost or quite without the reddish on back. Juveniles similar but colours

200

reduced and veiled, the underparts yellow, brightest on breast, and the black lines on the
face, side of breast, and flanks only indicated. ;

Distinctions. The fine black, facial marks against bright yellow, their sharp con-
tinuation along flanks, and the reddish back spots are the best distinguishing features of
adults. In juveniles the underparts brightest on breast rather than throat or elsewhere and
the indications of stripes on the sides instead of in the middle of breast make the easiest
recognition characters.

Field Marks. Too rare in Canada to be recorded by sight unless the observer has had
considerable experience.

Nesting. In briery bushes, in nest of plant fibres and plant down lined with rootlets
and long hairs.

Distribution. Eastern United States, north rarely, though perhaps locally regular
across the Canadian border in the lower Great Lakes region.

The Prairie Warbler prefers dry, sandy, or open second growth wastes.
From the data on its occurrence in Canada it should be looked for nesting
in the neighbourhood of the lower end of lake Huron.

GENUS—SEIURUS. WaGTAIL WARBLERS. L, 6-04—6-17.

Birds of the genus Seiurus look more like Thrushes than Warblers as is
indicated by the popular names of Golden-crowned and Water Thrushes
that are sometimes given them. They are, however, true warblers of
woodland habits; ground birds, walking instead of hopping; of large size
for warblers; brown or dark olive coloration above, white below with the
breast heavily streaked. They can be mistaken for thrushes either in life
or in the hand but by attention to specific characters they can be easily
distinguished. :

674. Ovenbird. GOLDEN-CROWNED THRUSH. FR.—LA GRIVE COURONNEE. Seiurus
aurocapillus. L,6-:17. Plate XLIII A.

Distinctions. The partly concealed dull golden erown patch bordered with brown will
always determine this species.

Field Marks. Though very thrush-like, there is generally little probability of actual
confusion between this species and the thrushes. Its pure white throat, foreneck, and
underparts with little or no suffusion of other colour and the sharply contrasting stripes
rather than spots of the breast are easily distinctive.

Nesting. On ground, in a bulky structure of coarse grasses, weed stalks, leaves, and
rootlets; covered over with leaves and with the entrance at the side, like an oven, from
whence the specific name is derived.

Distribution. Wooded sections of North America east of the Rockies, north to beyond
settlements; breeds in Canada wherever found.

It is a woodland bird, usually common wherever open timber is
interspersed in the heavier woods. Its common song Teacher—teacher
teacher—teacher, beginning low and ending very loud is a familiar woodland
sound and once heard will be remembered.

675. Northern Water-thrush. WATER-THRUSH. FR.—LA GRIVE DES RUISSEAUX.
Seiurus noveboracensis. L, 6-04. Dark olive brown above, yellowish white finely and
sharply streaked with dark below, disconnected lines on throat, breast, and flanks. A
buffy blended line over the eye and a fine, sharp, dark one through it.

Distinctions. Easily distinguished from the Oven-bird by the finer, more evenly
distributed striping, darker coloration, yellowish underparts, and the lack of crown
patch. From the Louisiana Water-thrush it may be told by the buffy instead of white
line over the eye, the yellowish instead of buffy or creamy underparts, and the presence
of spots on the throat.

Field Marks. The Water-thrushes can be told in life by their habitual upward jerking
of the tail as they walk or stand, much similar to the actions of the common Spotte
Sandpiper. The two Water-thrushes can be told apart by the difference in the cclour
details given above.

201

Nesting. In a mossy bank or in the roots of a turned-up tree, usually near or over
water, in nest of moss lined with tendrils and fine rootlets.

Distribution. North America north to the limits of settlement. Breeds in Canada
wherever found except in the extreme southern parts.

SUBSPECIES. The Water-thrush is divided into an eastern and a western sub-
species, the Eastern Water-thrush C. n. noveboracensis, the type form, ranges westward to
southern Ontario where it intergrades with Grinnell’s Water-thrush S. n. notabilis which
occupies the country to the west.

The favourite home of the Water-thrush is in wet cedar swamps.

676. Louisiana Water-thrush. Seiurus motacilla. L, 6-28. Dark olive brown
above, buffy-white below finely streaked with sharp dark disconnected lines from upper
neck to breast and flanks. A sharp, white line over the eye and a fine blended dark line
through it.

Distinctions. Easily separatedfrom the Ovenbird by lack of coloured crown streak;
very similar to the Northern Water-thrush but separable by slightly larger size, buffy
rather than yellowish underparts, and by the whiteness of the face markings.

Field Marks. The Louisiana Water-thrush has the jerking tail habit of the Northern
Waterthrush and can only be distinguished from it in life by attention to the differences
given above.

Nesting. Similar to that of the Water-thrush.
4a Distribution. Eastern United States, only appearing in Canada in southwestern

tario.

Very similar to the Northern Water-thrush in habits as well as in
colour and form. It is, however, a bird of more southern distribution than
it and is of only rare occurrence in Canada.

GENERA—OPORORNIS AND GEOTHLYPIS. GROUND WARBLERS.
L, 5-40-5-56.

The Ground Warblers are rather larger than the Woodland Warblers
but considerably smaller than the Wagtail Warblers and have compara-
tively stout legs and short wings. Their colours are largely green and
bright yellow. They inhabit low shrubbery and are seldom seen far above
the ground.

677. Kentucky Warbler. FR.—LA FAUVETTE DU KENTUCKY. Oporornis formosus
L, 5-40. Greenish above; all underparts clear yellow; forehead black, shading off on mid
erown; bright yellow eyebrow line hooking around eye. A sharp black patch extends
from base of bill, including lores and most of ear coverts, to side of neck. Female and
ag birds similar but duller, the black face mark being more or less veiled though still
visible.

Distinctions. Coloured much like the Prairie Warbler but with the black leaving
only a narrow eyebrow line in front of the eye instead of a largely yellow cheek and without
flank stripes. Somewhat similar to the Canadian Warbler but with back greenish instead
of grey and without breast markings of any kind.

Field Marks. Too rare in Canada to be identified in life by sight.

Nesting. On or near ground in bulky nest of twigs and rootlets firmly wrapped with
several thicknesses of leaves and lined with fine rootlets.

Distribution. Eastern United States, not reaching the Canadian border except as
an accidental straggler.

This species has been taken in Canada on only a few occasions. It
can be reasonably looked for only in the most southern sections in the
region of the lower Great Lakes.

678. Connecticut Warbler. Oporornis agilis. L, 5-40. A greenish warbler. Male:
clear lemon yellow below; face and throat to upper breast even bluish-grey with a fine
white eye-ring. The female is similar but grey paler. Juveniles have the grey replaced
by a lighter buffy shade of the back coloration.

202

Distinctions. This species is so like the Mourning Warbler that at times they can
be separated only with difficulty. Adult males, having a conspicuous eye-ring and per-
fectly even grey throat and breast, are distinctive enough. Females can be told by the
eye-ring and by having the top of the head strongly suffused with the olive of the back
and not showing clear grey. Juveniles when they show the eye-ring are usually quite
distinctive, though Mourning Warblers of similar age have an indication of it. When the
eye-ring is not conclusive evidence the difference in the colour of the throat and breast,
a buffy olive instead of an even lightening and greying of the pure yellow below, is a good
guide.

Field Marks. The evenly grey throat and white eye-ring of adults and the buffy
olive throat and buff eye-ring of the juveniles. Both this bird and the Mourning Warbler
walk instead of hop.

Nesting. On ground in nest of dry grass.

Distribution. Eastern North America west of the Alleghanies. It appears to breed
along the edge of settlement in Canada but data is lacking. It is regular in migrations
only locally along the shores of lake Erie and lake Ontario.

The Connecticut is one of the rarest of our regular warblers. It is
a late arrival in the spring and is so retiring that it is seldom seen in the
autumn. There is not sufficient data to determine whether it is very local
in its migratory range or has been overlooked. It is to be looked for near
the ground in waste brush.

679. Mourning Warbler. FR.—LA FAUVETTE DE PHILADELPHIE. Oporornis phil-
adelphia. L, 5-63. A greenish warbler. Male: clear lemon-yellow below; whole head,
neck, and breast bluish-grey with semi-concealed black spots on breast and throat giving
a fancied resemblance to crape which suggests the common name. The female is similar
but the grey lighter and without the crape markings on breast, thus resembling the male of
the Connecticut. Juveniles have the grey of the crown, etc., replaced with the body
green and the yellow of the underparts extends up neck to throat slightly modified by
lighter and greyish tinges.

Distinctions. The Mourning Warbler can usually be distinguished by the crape on
the breast or by suggestions of it, the greyness of the crown, and the lack of eye-ring,
though juveniles sometimes have faint eye-rings. See previous species.

Field Marks. The black crape of the breast and lack of eye-ring for adults and the
lack of sharp distinction between the breast, throat, and underbody yellows for juveniles.

te esting. On or near ground in nest of strips of bark and other fibrous materials lined
with hair.

Distribution. Eastern North America mostly west of the Alleghanies. Breeds along
the northern bounds of settlement west through the wooded sections of the prairie provinces.

One of the late spring warblers and one of the earliest to return in the
autumn, going through before many observers are on the watch for migrant
warblers and thus usually slipping by unobserved. The latter half of August
is the time to watch for the Mourning Warblers. By the first of September
most of them have gone.

681. Maryland Yellow-throat. FR.—LA FAUVETTE TRICHAS. Geothlypis trichas.
L, 5-33. Plate XLIII B.

Distinctions. The adult male with its black mask is easily recognized and needs no
special characterization. Juvenile males have sufficient indications of the mask to be
easily recognizable. Adult females and juveniles are very much alike. They can
be recognized by their even coloration above, warm yellow throat, buffy white
underparts washed with darker on flanks, and undertail coverts yellowish. They are
most likely to be mistaken for the Mourning or Connecticut juveniles but the sharp division
between throat and cheek colours, the brightness of the throat, and the general warmer
yellow tint will separate them. They have been confused with the Nashville and the
Tennessee but the grey rather than buffy or ruddy-olive head and crown of the former
and the nearly white breast instead of distinct yellow of the latter should make separation
easy.

203

Field Marks. In addition to coloration, the marshy habitat, hiding habits, and
characteristic actions of the Maryland Yellow-throat soon become familiar to the observer.
Its scolding wren-like note is easily recognized.

Nesting. On or near ground in bulky nest of strips of bark, coarse grasses, and dead
leaves lined with fine grasses, tendrils, and rootlets.

Distribution. North America north to the limit of settlement. The Northern Yellow-
throat, our eastern Canadian subspecies and the type form, breeds west to the prairies
and south to Virginia, being replaced in both directions by other subspecies.

SUBSPECIES. The Yellow-throat is divided into a number of subspecies only one
ft ah, the Northern Yellow-throat G. t. trichas, the type form, is found in eastern

anada.

The particular haunts of the Maryland Yellow-throat are damp
marshes where the wire grass grows long and clumpy. It regards its
immediate neighbourhood as its own particular property and resents
human intrusion vigorously. The usual song of the Yellow-throat is one
of the characteristic sounds of the damp meadows. It has been poetically
translated as witchery—witchery—uwitchery, which gives a close approxima-
tion to it.

683. Yellow-breasted Chat. Jctleria virens. L, 7-44. The largest and least
warbler-like of its family. All upperparts and cheeks green; lores black bordered above
and below with white; throat to breast bright clear yellow; underparts white; bill
comparatively shorter and stouter than that of any other warbler.

Distinctions. Size is sufficient to distinguish the Chat at all times but its colours
are equally characteristic.

Field Marks. ULarge size, bright yellow foreparts, and black lores bordered above
and below with white make striking field marks.

Nesting. In a crotch near the ground in rather bulky nest of coarse grasses, leaves,
and strips of bark lined with finer grasses.

Distribution. Eastern United States and just across the Canadian boundary in
southern Ontario along lake Erie.

The Chat frequents tangled thickets and brushy wastes, coming and
going unseen but not unheard. It is a rare bird in Canada and is found
regularly only in Essex county, Ontario, along the border of lake Erie.

GENUS—WILSONIA. FLYCATCHING WARBLERS.
[5202-5 67.

Small warblers largely coloured yellow. Bill slightly flattened or
widened at base suggesting that of the flycatchers and with well developed
bristles about the mouth. In these respects like the Redstart but not as
extreme. The Redstart, however, being without much or any clear yellow,
can be easily distinguished.

684. Hooded Warbler. Wilsonia citrina. L, 5-67. Male: green above and bright
yellow below; entire head and neck black with a bright yellow mask similar in shape to
the black one of the Maryland Yellow-throat. The female is without the black except for
an indistinct patch on rear head and the yellow mask blends softly into the yellow of
throat and underparts.

Distinctions. The adult male of this species is too distinctive for confusion. The
yellow face with dark hind crown of the female is aiso easily recognized.

The Hooded Warbler is included here on the basis of a few Canadian
records in the lake Erie region of southern Ontario.
57172—14

204

685. Black-capped Warbler. WILSON’S WARBLER. WILSON’S BLACK-CAPPED WAR-
BLER. FR.—LA FAUVETTE DE WILSON. Wilsonia pusilla. L, 5. A small green warbler.
Male is all bright yellow below with a sharply defined black cap on crown. The sexes
are similar but some juvenile females are entirely without the cap, and in others it is
present but less perfect than in adults.

Distinctions. The black cap and all green and yellow coloration are distinctive of
the adults and young males. When without the cap the vague yellow eyebrow stripe is
characteristic.

Field Marks. The small size, all bright yellow and green with black cap or
traces of it, or having yellow eyebrow line when the cap is absent.

Nesting. On ground in nest made almost wholly of fine grass lined with a few hairs;
nest deeply cupped and quite substantial for a warbler.

Distribution. North America. The subspecies Wilson’s Warbler occurs in Canada,
extends west to the central prairie region, and breeds from the northern settlements to
the tree limits.

SUBSPECIES. The black-capped Warbler is divided into three subspecies ail of
which occur in Canada though only one, Wilson’s Warbler W. p. pusilla, the type form
occurs in the east.

A very pretty little warbler usually found in willows or in similar
trees and bushes near the water.

686. Canada Warbler. CANADIAN FLYCATCHER. FR.—LA FAUVETTE DU CANADA.
Wilsonia canadensis. L, 5-61. Male: even grey above slightly marked with black
on crown; all below bright yellow except undertail coverts which are white, yellow pre-
loral line and eye-ring; black lores extending down sides of neck and forming a necklace
of short stripes across upper breast leaving throat clear yellow. Female is similar but
necklace and black reduced, though usually remaining strong enough to retain the easily
recognized specific character. Juveniles are like the female but the necklace almost
obliterated only showing in vague, suffused, and interrupted cloudings.

Distinctions. The even grey above without markings and yellow below with the
black necklace marks either sharp, dim, or suggested.

Field Marks. See distinctions.

Nesting. In mossy banks or under roots in nest of strips of bark and bits of dead
wood wrapped in leaves and lined with fine rootlets.

Distribution. Eastern North America west to near the foothills and north to the
limit of large trees; breeding occasionally and locally in southern Canada except in the
most southern parts and regularly north from the edge of settlement.

A bright active warbler with some flycatching habits. Its typical
habitat is similar to that of Wilson’s Warbier, but it is more often found
higher in the trees.

687. American Redstart. FR.—LA FAUVETTE A QUEUE ROUSSE. Setophaga ru-
tictlla. L, 5-41. Plate XLIV A.

Distinctions. A perfectly characteristic bird in all plumages. No other warbler has
anything like this combination of orange-red and black, the former replaced in female
by similar yellow or white patches on tail and wings. Juveniles have a slight yellow
suffusion over breast and are without the wing blotch but that of the tail is always present.
Some young males in the spring look like females but with irregular patches of the
perfect male plumage showimg on throat.

Field Marks. Colour is the most easily noted distinction but even in black silhouette
the manner in which the long tail is thrashed about soon becomes familiar and distine-
tive.

Nesting. In the crotch of a sapling in nest of fine strips of bark, fibres, and plant
ee lined with tendrils and fine rootlets and nearly always covered outside with silvery

ark strips.

Distribution. North America north to the limit of large trees. Breeding in Canada
wherever found.

The brilliancy of a high plumaged Redstart against the dark green of
the trees is a constant source of pleasure to even the most blasé observer

205

and is a sight that never loses its charm. Its sprightly movements, constant

fluttering, and spreading of wings and tail give it a vivacity that few other

species exhibit. Like many other American birds the term Redstart was

given it by early settlers who bestowed upon it the name of a familiar
Old World form though the resemblance is far from close.

FAMILY—MOTACILLIDH. WAGTAILS OR PIPITS.
There is only one species of this family in eastern Canada and for the
family characters the reader is referred to the specific description following.

697. American Pipit. TITLARK. FR.—LAFARLOUSE D’AMERIQUE. Anthus rubescens.
L, 6-38. A ground-coloured and ground-haunting bird; bill very warbler-like; hind claw
elongated like that of the Longspur and the Horned Lark (Figure 60, p. 27, compare with
Figure 44, p. 25). Adult spring male: greyish above, purest on head and growing slightly
olive on rump; back faintly mottled with dark feather centres; pinkish buff below, with
sparse fine breast stripes of brownish grey, tending to form a necklace across breast and
extending along sides; wings brown with faded feather edges. Autumn birds and females
im spring: even dull olive slightly mottled above; buffy white below with diffuse and
more or less aggregated spots descending sides of throat and extending across breast and
along flanks.

Distinctions. The fine warbler-like bill together with the long hind claw are dis-
tinctive. The only other birds with such a claw are the Horned Larks and the Lapland
Longspur, but the horns of the one and the sparrow-like bill (Figure 51, p. 26) of the
other make differentiation simple.

Field Marks. A ground-coloured bird seen in the open in settled parts of Canada
in the spring and autumn, often in large scattered flocks like the Snow Bunting and Horned

Its even coloration, constant habit of tail dipping, and the conspicuous white
outer tail feathers are good field marks.

Nesting. On ground in nest of grasses.

Disiribution. North America; breeding in high latitudes beyond the tree limits.

A spring and late autumn migrant, occurring sometimes in large
flocks and feeding in open meadows, ploughed fields, or on dry sandy
uplands and shores. On its breeding grounds it has the Skylark-like habit
of mounting and singing high in the air and descending in a perpendicular
dive like a falling stone.

Economic Status. Coming as it does while the fields are bare and
returning after the harvest, its food is necessarily confined to weed seeds
and early or belated insects. Its effect must be beneficial.

FAMILY—MIMID#. MOCKERS AND THRASHERS.
L. 8-94—11-42.

_ The imitative faculty of the Mockingbird that has given the family
its name is well developed in Canadian representatives. The family is
peculiarly American and like many of the subdivisions of the order Passeres
is difficult to diagnose in non-technical language. The birds are rather
large, as shown by the above measurements. The Catbird and Mocking-
bird are of even shades of stone-grey and the Thrasher bright rufous
brown above with heavily spotted whitish or creamy underparts and an
unusually long full tail. They are all good mockers and diversify their
song with imitations of all the common sounds around them, including the
songs of other birds, and are capable of effects that are rarely equalled by
the most famous songsters of either the New or Old World. Any one of
57172—143

206

these species is a sufficient and crushing answer to the charge that there
are no song birds in America.

703. Mockingbird. FRr.—LA GRIVE poLtyGcottE. Mimus polyglottos. L, 10-50.
A large Catbird in appearance without black cap or red under the tail; almost white below
and with large amounts of white in wing and tail.

Distinctions. The above characters will separate the Mockingbird from the Catbird.
It closely resembles the Shrikes in coloration but is without the conspicuous black patch
across the eyes.

Field Marks. General greyness and white patches on wing and tail with absence of
black face mask.

Nesting. In thickets of coarse twigs and weed stalks in nests lined with rootlets and
shreds of cotton.

Distribution. Southern United States north into Canada at the western end of
lake Erie. This is the only locality where the species has obtained what approaches an
eeebed foothold in Canada. A few pairs have been known to summer there for the
ast decade.

SUBSPECIES. The Mockingbird is divided into southeastern and southwestern
forms—the former, the common Mockingbird, the type race of the species, being the
only subspecies to be expected in Canada.

The species is rare in Canada. It is very similar to the Catbird and
most of what is said of that species applies with even greater force to the
Mockingbird, for it is in many ways only a glorified Catbird and is prob-
ably the finest native singer in America.

e & Catbird. FR.—LA GRIVE DE LA CAROLINE. Dumetella carolinensis. LL, 8-94.
ate :

Distinctions. This evenly grey bird can be confused only with the Mockingbird
and the black cap, red undertail coverts, and lack of white on wing, tail, or below are
distinctive.

Field Marks. Even grey colour; black cap and call-notes, especially the cat-like
‘“meouw” from which the bird derives its name.

Nesting. In thickets or densely foliaged shrubs in nest of twigs, grasses, and leaves
ined with rootlets.

Distribution. Eastern North America; in Canada including most of the more densely
settled sections.

Though inferior to the Mockingbird the Catbird at its best takes a
high position as a songster, though there is much individual variation in the
excellence of its efforts. Its usual call-note like a cat’s meouw, which it
utters in the brush while it curiously investigates the human intruder, is
well known to most country frequenters and by some queer twist of
psychology has aroused a prejudice against it.

It is a frequenter of thickets and, like many other species frequenting
such habitats where close observation can be made of dangerous objects
with a minimum of danger to the concealed observer, its curiosity is well
developed. On some tall spray rising out of the tangle it sits in the bright
sun with its tail depressed and body held low to the perch, and pours out a
medley of song. Phrase follows phrase in rapid succession and snatches of
all the bird songs of the neighbourhood are intermixed with occasional
harsher, mechanical sounds which are given with as much gusto as the
more melodious ones. The Catbird is a most desirable neighbour.

Economic Status. The Catbird lives largely upon fruit in season, of
which perhaps a third can be regarded as cultivated, but many insects are
also taken. The fruits are small, soft varieties and it is very seldom if ever
that perceptible damage is done.

207

705. Brown Thrasher. FR.—LA GRIVE ROUSSE. Toxostoma rufum. L, 11-42
Plate XLV A.

Distinctions. The Brown Thrasher with its red-brown back and sharply streaked
breast has the general outward appearance of a thrush, but its large size, ruddiness of the
brown, and long tail are distinctive.

Field Marks. The bright red-brown back, sharply striped breast, long tail, and
general carriage and habits.

Nesting. In thickets or on ground in nests of twigs, coarse rootlets, and leaves lined
with finer rootlets.

Distribution. Eastern United States and southern Canada, except Atlantic coast,
north including the sections of thickest settlements.

The Brown Thrasher is probably the best common Canadian songster.

Its song is very similar to that of the Song Thrush of Europe. Itisa
succession of phrases like that of the Catbird but without its occasional
discordance and more liquid and mellow in tone. The notes are uttered
close together and continue for several minutes, sometimes in great
variety. Thoreau has translated some of them as ‘“‘ Drop it — drop it —
cover it up cover it up—pull it up pull it up.” The repetition of each
variation is one of the peculiarities of the song of the Brown Thrasher,
by which it can be distinguished from the Catbird.

This is also a bird of the thickets, inhabitating open tangles, clumps of
bushes in meadows, and the edges of woods and fence-rows. The Thrasher
is rather more retiring than the Catbird and is less easily induced to come
into the home grounds.

Economic Status. A decidedly useful bird, over one-half of its food
being injurious insects, beetles, caterpillars, grasshoppers, etc. The
remainder is largely fruit, a small part of which is probably cultivated and
is mostly raspberries. On the whole it does little damage and much good.

FAMILY—-TROGLODYTIDA. WRENS.

The Wrens are small brown birds living close to the ground. Though
diminutive in size they are very energetic and except when brooding or
asleep are rarely still. They can be recognized by their small size, brown
coloration, small stubby tail often thrown up over the back, and their
restless habits, winding in and out amongst the densest brush piles more
like mice than birds. The Wrens are a large family well distributed over
the world but better represented in species in the New than in the Old World.
Their habitat varies from watery swamps to dry uplands and from open
thickets to deep dense woods. The family name Troglodytide, cave-
dwellers, is derived from their habit of nesting in holes.

718. Carolina Wren. Thryothorus ludovicianus. L, 5-50. The largest of our
Wrens and the reddest, the back approximating the red of the Brown Thrasher, ef a
lighter yet distinctly warm tint below.

_ Distinctions. Size, comparative redness of back, and the distinct light eyebrow
line are distinctive of this species.

Field Marks. The above distinctions make the best field marks. The Long-billed
Marsh Wren has a similar eyebrow line but size, general colour, and habitat will prevent
confusion with it.

Nesting. In holes in trees or stumps or in nooks and crevices about buildings, in
bulky nest of grasses, feathers, leaves, etc., lined with finer grasses, long hairs, etc.

Distribution. Eastern United States, north intermittently into Canada in the western
lake Erie section. For a number of years the species was quite common on Pelee point
and on Pelee island, but since 1913 it seems to be becoming rarer.

_ SUBSPECIES. Of the three subspecies of Carolina Wren only one, the Northern
Carolina Wren, the typical race, is to be expected in Canada.

208

The Carolina Wren is the finest singer of the family. The song is not
continuous or long but it has a peculiar flute-like, liquid quality and is of
striking beauty. The species is rare in Canada and its song is heard either
regularly or occasionally only in a few localities.

Economic Status. Too rare in Canada to have any perceptible
economic influence.

719. Bewick’s Wren. Thryomanes bewicki. L, 5. Similar to the House Wren but
whiter below and tail longer, larger, and distinctly greyish. It has a light eyebrow line.

Distinctions. Characters given above will serve for the identification of the species.

Field Marks. A House Wren with long tail and loud, sparrowlike song.

Nesting. Nest similar to that of the House Wren.

Distribution. Eastern United States not reaching the Canadian border except as a
straggler in southern Ontario.

SUBSPECIES. The eastern Canada form is the Eastern Bewick’s Wren, the type
race of the species.

This Wren is only a rare visitor from the south and has seldom been
recorded from eastern Canada. It should only be recorded on the most
trustworthy evidence.

Economic Status. Too rare a species in eastern Canada to be of
economic interest.

721. House Wren. FR—LE TROGLODYTE &DON. Troglodyte aedon. Li, ie

Plate XLV B.

Distinctions. This is the commonest Wren of eastern Canada. The even wood-
brown back, throat and breast tinged with lighter brown; the almost white underparts;
and the barring confined to the flanks will separate it from other native wrens.

Field Marks. The light underparts and longer tail will separate the House from the
Winter Wren, and the even brown colour of the back and its habitat, from either of the

Marsh Wrens.

Nesting. In a hole in a tree, bird-box, or similar places, ina nest of twigs, lined with
grasses, feathers, etc. "The House Wren will occupy any kind of a bird-house that is suitably
placed. The English Sparrow can be kept away by making the entrance hole small, a one-
inch auger hole is sufficient for a wren and will bar the sparrows entirely.

Distribution. As a species, all United States and Canada north to the edges of settle-
ment. ae eastern or type form, the Eastern House Wren, inhabits from the Great Lakes
eastward.

SUBSPECIES. The House Wren is divided into eastern and western subspecies of
which the former, the Eastern House Wren, is the type.

The House Wren is a most attractive bird about a garden; it steals
around, under, and over everything; not a crack nor a crevice in the fence
escapes its fine investigative bill and hardly a leaf stalk but at one time
or another is carefully examined for insects. It has been charged with
piercing and destroying the eggs of other species nesting in its immediate
vicinity and undoubtedly sometimes does so, but the damage done in this
way is probably an individual habit and perhaps not sufficient to warrant
the taking of any very drastic preventive measures against the species as
a whole.

Economic Status. As the food of the House Wren consists almost if not
entirely of insects nothing can be said against it in that direction. Its small
size causes it to deal with minute insects that are beneath the notice of
larger birds and so it often controls pests before they are large enough to do
damage or be attractive to other birds.

209

722. Winter Wren. FR.—LE TROGLODYTE D’HIVER. Nannus hiemalis. L, 4:06.
Of typical wren-like build and coloration. Much like the House Wren but smaller and
darker below and more or less finely barred across the abdomen.

Distinctions. The complete barring below is distinctive of this species.

Field Marks. A small, very dark Wren with a short tail; found in dense woods.

Nesting. In roots of a tree or a brush heap or in side of mossy log in nest of small twigs
and moss lined with feathers.

Distribution. As a species, all of North America to tree limits; breeding throughout
Canada in the coniferous woods except in the more southern sections.

SUBSPECIES. The Winter Wren, distributed over most of the continent, is
divided into a number of geographical races or subspecies of which the type form, the
Eastern Winter Wren, is the only one that comes within our geographical limits.

Only a migrant within most of the more southern sections of Canada
this bird breeds commonly in the cool deep forest. Its song is nearly enough
in spirit and character like that of the House Wren for the recognition of its
relationship but has a fuller and richer quality and purer tone. Heard
in the quietness of the still forest it has a wild woodland beauty possessed
by no other native species.

Economic Status. Being a frequenter of the woodlands this bird
does not come into close contact with man but its effects so far as they go
are entirely beneficial.

724. Short-billed Marsh Wren. Cistothorus stellaris. L, 4. Much like the long-
billed Marsh Wren but smaller and more finely streaked.

Distinctions. The two Marsh Wrens are the only wrens native to eastern Canada which
have sharply striped upperparts. The Short-billed is the only one with a streaked crown.

Field Marks. A small Marsh Wren with little or no redidsh tinge in the brown colour-
ing and with a streaked head. Its notes are quite different from those of the Long-bill with
which it is most likely to be confused .

Nesting. On wet ground, in nest, a ball of green grass woven near the top of grass
clumps with a small circular entrance hole in the side.

Distribution. Eastern United States crossing into Canada in the east along lake Erie
and adjacent country but more common in the prairie provinces.

The Short-billed Marsh Wren is local and irregular in its distribution;
it may be present one year in a locality and absent the next, and little is
really known of its distribution in Canada. It frequents damp, grassy
marshes rather than wet swamps and is usually found in little colonies.

725. Long-billed Marsh Wren. FR.—LE TROGLODYTE DES MARAIS. Telmato—
dytes palustris. 1L,5-2. A richly coloured wren with an almost black mantle falling from
hind neck over shoulders where it is streaked with white; all remainder, reddish brown
above, creamy white below with flanks washed with the same colour as the back.

Distinctions. The variation and colours of back will distinguish the two Marsh Wrens
from all others; the crown evenly coloured or with only a diffuse brown median stripe
instead of numerous short, fine stripes will separate it from the Short-billed.

Field Marks. The locality which it frequents—wet, reedy, or cat-tail marshes—is
usually sufficient for identification but the dark crown contrasting with the light eyebrow
line is always specifically diagnostic.

Nesting. Near the top of the reeds or rushes in wide wet marshes, nest a ball of
dead cat-tail leaves, grass, or reeds. Unlike many other marsh-haunters this species is not
attracted by marshes. of small size. A swampy pool a few yards across attracts the Red-
wing and perhaps a Rail or two but the Long-billed Marsh Wren demands a considerable
area. An interesting trait of the Marsh Wren is the habit of building numerous mock nests
near the one really occupied. The use made of these nests is not known but as many as
eet or ay nests that can be reasonably attributed to the efforts of one pair may at times

e found.

Distribution. As a species the United States and southern Canada. Our Eastern

Marsh Wren, the type subspecies, occurs west to the Great Lakes region.

210

SUBSPECIES. The Long-billed Marsh Wren is divided into several subspecies; the
Eastern Marsh Wren, the only form in which we are directly interested in eastern Canada,
is the type form of the species.

Wide wet swamps and quaking bogs grown with cat-tails or reeds are
the places frequented by this wren.

FAMILY—CERTHIIDA. CREEPERS.

The name of the only eastern Canadian Creeper, the Brown Creeper,
describes the bird very well. It is a small brown bird that creeps or
climbs woodpecker-fashion on the trunks and larger branches of forest
trees. It is smaller than any Canadian Woodpecker and the bill is com-
paratively long, light, delicately tapered, and sickle-shaped (Figure 64,
p. 28), adapted for extracting small insects and insects’ eggs from narrow
cavities but not for chiselling in even the softest wood or bark to reach
them. The tail is rather long and stiff and the claws are quite long and
much curved.

726. Brown Creeper. AMERICAN BROWN CREEPER. FR.—LE GRIMPEREAU D’ANERI-—
QuE. Certhia familiaris. L, 5-66. Plate XLVI A.

Distinctions. The brown and white stripings, lacking in decided design; the fine,
delicate, sickle-shaped bill and long stiff tail feathers, worn on the tips, are easily recognized
distinctions of the species.

Field Marks. Our only small brown bird with pronounced tree-creeping habits.

Nesting. Behind the loose bark of trees in nest of twigs, strips of bark, bits of dead -
wood, moss, etc.

Distribution. As a species, occupying most of the northern hemisphere. In eastern
North America the Eastern Creeper is the native subspecies, in Canada extending west as
far as the prairie provinces and north to beyond settlement.

SUBSPECIES. The Brown Creeper occurs in the Old as well as the New World.
The species is divided into several subspecies in America, only one of which, the Eastern
Brown Creeper C.f. americania, occurs in eastern Canada.

Pressed tightly to the trunk of forest trees the Brown Creeper may
be seen spiralling up the perpendicular trunk and industriously gleaning
from every crack and crevice in the bark. Reaching the section where
the branches begin to grow smaller and the bark smooth it drops down
to the base of an adjoining tree and works upward again, never hurrying,
never pausing, filling its stomach with small beetles, larve, and insect
eggs. The skill with which this bird can cling to smooth surfaces is remark-
able. The writer once knew a Brown Creeper to climb the polished
corner of a black walnut bookcase with as much unconcern as if it had
been the roughest barked oak in the woods.

Economic Status. The Brown Creeper is purely insectivorous in its
habits and its constant microscopic attention to every little crevice in
the rough bark must account for innumerable insect pests. Most of
its work is done in the woods but as the bird frequently appears in the
orchard and on shade and ornamental trees about the town and house
the species has a powerful beneficial influence.

FAMILY—SITTIDAH. NUTHATCHES.

The Nuthatches are small, woodpecker-like birds in general habit
but their toes are of the usual passerine type with three toes in front and

211

one behind instead of the characteristic two and two of the Woodpeckers.
The bills are somewhat like those of the Woodpecker in outline but without
their chisel-shaped point and are set on a slightly up-tilted angle with the
head giving a turned-up or retrousse appearance (Figure 65, p. 28,
compare with Figure 41, p. 25). The colours of our species are char-
acteristic. The name Nuthatch is derived from their habit of wedging
nuts and other hard food into crevices and “hatching” or hacking
them until an entrance is made. Though capable of considerable ex-
eavating in wood or bark they do not use their powers to delve deeply
into trees but as a rule content themselves with flaking off the loose Park
scales and searching the open cavities and seams.

727. Carolina Nuthatch. WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH. BIG QUANK. FR.—LA
SITELLE DE LA CAROLINE. Sitta carolinensis. LL, 6-07. Plate XLVI B.

Distinctions. With the illustration and family description this species can be mistaken
only for the Red-breasted Nuthatch. It is, however, a larger bird and while there are
traces of chestnut on the lower belly and undertail coverts and sometimes a slight wash on
the flank, the breast and most of the underparts are pure white instead of being evenly
washed with rufous or rusty. The sides of the face are solid white instead of having black
ear coverts and distinct white eyebrow stripes.

Field Marks. The even blue-grey back and black crown are characteristic of the Nut-
hatches; the purity of the white below and lack of white eyebrow line separate the White
from the Red-breasted.

Nesting. Ina hole in a tree or usually a natural cavity, in nest of feathers, leaves, etc.

Distribution. As a species the Carolina Nuthatch inhabits all of temperate North
America. Our eastern subspecies, the White-breasted Nuthatch, the type of the species,
extends west to the prairie provinces in Canada and north to the limits of heavy forests.

SUBSPECIES. The Carolina Nuthatch is divided into several geographic races, only
one of which, the White-breasted Nuthatch, the type form, occurs in eastern Canada.

The climbing and trunk creeping of the Nuthatches is a wonderful
accomplishment. They travel upwards or downwards, forwards or
backwards, perpendicularly or horizontally, or even clinging to the under-
side of branches like flies on the ceiling, apparently with equal ease. Their
usual call note is a hoarse Quank Quank and they often travel in pairs
and little groups along with Chickadees and Creepers.

Economic Status. One of the most useful birds. Although it pays
much attention to forest trees it often comes to orchard and shade trees
and as a member of the above-mentioned company which examines every
part of the winter tree trunks for insects with microscopic eyes, it con-
sumes great quantities of pests in adult, egg, or larval stages.

728. Red-breasted Nuthatch. LITTLE QUANK. FR.—LA SITELLE DU CANADA.
Sitta canadensis. L, 4-62. Like the White-breasted Nuthatch (Plate XLVI B) but
smaller and with the underparts washed with rufous; black ear coverts, and with a white
eyebrow stripe.
a8 Distinetions. Size and above colour differences will separate this species from any other

ird.

Field Marks. An evident Nuthatch, smaller than the previous species, and with a
conspicuous white eyebrow line, all underparts obviously reddish.

Nesting. In hole in tree or stump, in nest of grasses.

Distribution. Rather more northern in breeding range than the preceding and a
migrant in most of the cultivated sections of Canada. It ranges over most of North
America north to near the tree limits.

A slightly more active bird than the preceding and more prone to
forage about the tips of branches. Otherwise its habits are very similar.

212

FAMILY—PARIDM. TITMICE.

The Titmice are birds of wide distribution in the northern hemisphere
and are as familiar to European residents as to us. They are small birds
with rather short but comparatively strongly arched bills (Figure 66,
p. 28). Their plumage characters are usually easily recognized.

731. Tufted Titmouse. Beolophus bicolor. L, 6. The largest of our Titmice and
without the characteristic Chickadee colouring. All above, an almost even stone-grey,;
white below slightly washed on flanks with rufous. A distinct almost Blue Jay-like
crest.

Distinctions. The plain grey and unmarked coloration with striking crest are
unmistakable distinctions and field marks. Its common note a loud clear Peeile-peetle—
peetle is most characteristic but is very like one of the phrases of the Orchard Oriole.

Nesting. In old woodpecker’s holes, stumps, etc., in nest of leaves, moss, strips of
bark, feathers, etc.

Distribution. Southern and eastern United States north to and just touching
Canadian boundaries in the lower Great Lakes region.

The only Canadian records for the Tufted Titmouse are two noted
on Pelee point in southern Ontario in the western Lake Erie country.
It is rather common on the Michigan side of Detroit river and even
on Grosse isle in midstream and should eventually be found on the Cana-
dian side of the river though as yet we have no record of its occurrence there.

735. Black-capped Chickadee. CHICKADEE. FR.—LA MSSANGE A THTE NOIR.
Penthestes atricapillus. L, 5-27. Plate XLVII A.

Distinctions. This species can be mistaken in eastern Canada only for the Brown-
headed Chicadee but is a far commoner and more generally distributed species.

Field Marks. The Chickadee is all field mark. Its shape, a round bundle of feathers
with tail and hardly any neck, its sprightly habit, its penchant for hanging upside down
while investigating the very tips of twigs, its colours, a black cap and throat, white cheeks,
and soft grey back, and its note Chick-a dee-dee in which its name is so plainly pronouneed,
all proclaim its species on the instant.

Nesting. In old stumps, holes in trees, etc., in nest of moss, grasses, feathers, and
plant-down.

Distribution. As a species, from about the centre of the United States north to the
tree limits; the Black-capped Chickadee occurs from a little south of the Canadian line
north, extending west to the prairie provinces where its place is taken by allied subspecies,

SUBSPECIES. Like other dominant and wide ranging species the Black-capped
Chickadee under the various conditions of the continent divides in North America into
several recognizable geographic races or subspecies. In eastern Canada there is only one
form, the type of the species, the Eastern Chickadee. To the south occurs the Carolina
Chickadee P. carolinensis, a closely allied but distinct species that may be looked for as
accidental in the lower Great Lakes region, as it has been taken in Michigan immediately
over the boundary. The specific distinctions, however, are too slight to be accurately
defined here and records can only be based on specimens.

Of all the birds of field or woods the Chickadee is the cheeriest and
merriest. ‘The Chickadee is often the centre of a little host of mixed
species of Warblers, Vireos, Kinglets, Nuthatches, and an occasional
Downy Woodpecker and Brown Creeper. After the migrants have left
for the winter the hardier ones remain casually together off and on
until the spring breeding scatters the good-natured little com-
pany. The Chickadee has another song composed of only two notes of
rather high register clear and whistle-like. The first is prolonged and
the second shorter about two tones lower and has been translated as
““Spring’s here’.

213

Economic Status. Few birds are more useful to mankind than the
Chickadee. Though small, it is constantly at work, and being with us
all winter its good work is continued throughout the year. All insects
are very small in their early stages and the little bird that devours a whole
cluster of eggs at a gulp may benefit agriculture as greatly as a larger
one that makes a meal from one or two large caterpillars or adult insects
but scorns the minute ones. The prying habits of the Chickadee and
its companions the Nuthatch, Creeper, etc., and their close examination
of the small crevices where many insects hide or hibernate render their
services of great value to the husbandman, especially in winter when
insect enemies are scarce, and the total taken through the year by these
allied species must be very great. These active little birds demand com-
paratively large quantities of food to resist the intense cold and the small-
ness of their game necessitates the consumption of innumerable indi-
viduals.

The Chickadee’s food is 68 per cent insect and 32 per cent vegetable.
The former comprises eggs, larve, chrysalids, and small insects, largely
weevils, and includes some of the worst orchard and crop pests. The
vegetable matter is largely small seed and wild fruit. No charges of
damage to cultivated varieties have been advanced. Chickadees can
easily be induced to come about the home grounds in winter and with a
little coaxing become tame enough even to alight on the person and feed
from the hand. A lump of suet fastened to a tree trunk is a never failing
attraction to them and ensures their constant visits.

740. Brown-headed Chickadee. HUDSONIAN CHICKADEE. FR.—LA MESANGE DU
canapa. Penthestes hudsonicus. L, 5-12. Similar to the Black-capped Chickadee but
duller and darker in general tone; cap greyish brown of nearly the same colour as the back;
throat patch present but veiled; flanks rufous tinted.

; Distinctions. The brownish cap and back and general duller and less contrasted
coloration.

Field Marks. A very dark Chickadee with coloration diffused and pattern lacking
distinctness. Its characteristic Chickadee note is hoarse but otherwise similar to that of the
common Chickadee.

Nesting. In holes in trees and stubs in nest of moss and felted fur.
Distribution. Northern America from beyond settlement to the tree limits.

SUBSPECIES. The Brown-headed Chickadee is represented by two subspecies in
eastern Canada. The type form, the Husdonian Chickadee, extends to central Ontario,
east of which it is replaced by the Acadian Chickadee P.h. littoralis which differs from it
slightly in size and colour.

The Brown-headed Chickadee is so similar in habits to the Black-
capped that further description would be little more than repetition.

FAMILY—SYLVIIDH. OLD-WORLD WARBLERS, KINGLETS, AND
GNATCATCHERS.

An old world family represented in America by only a few species.
Of these, the Old World Warblers, not to be confused with our Wood
Warblers, do not occur in eastern Canada, the Kinglets are represented
by two species, and the Gnatcatcher by one species.

214

Subfanmily—Reguline. Kinglets. L, 4-07-4-41.

General Description. The Kinglets are the smallest of Canadian birds except the
Hummingbird. They are wren-like in their short round body but more like Chickadees in
habits and actions. Their colours are dull olive-green, lighter below, and they have s all,
brilliantly coloured crown spots of red, orange, or yellow. The Dill is small and
straight, similar to but not as stout as that of the Chickadee (see Figure 67, page 29).

Distinctions. The Kinglets might be mistaken for some of the dull, evenly coloured
warblers, but as all plumages except the female and juvenile Ruby-crowned have brilliant
crown patches, this will usually prevent confusion and size should do so in any event.

Field Marks. Dall greenish coloration, chickadee-like restlessness, and custom of
hanging head downward from pendant sprays are characteristic. Their fine, sharp con-
versational tsee-tsee-tsee’s soon become familiar and are easily recognized.

748. Golden-crowned Kinglet. GOLDEN-CROWNED WREN. FR.—LE ROITELET
HuPPE. Regulus satrapa. L, 4-07. Plate XLVII B.

Distinctions. Kinglets, so nearly alike in general coloration, can be easily separated
by their crowns. The Golden-crowned has a black line over the eye that is absent in the
Ruby-crowned and the crown spot is orange and yellow in the male or plain yellow in the
female instead of ruby-red or even olive as in the Ruby-crowned.

Field Marks. Thecrown coloration and light eyebrow make the best field marks
but, owing to the small size of the bird, considerable patience is sometimes necessary to
distinguish these marks when the birds are constantly moving about high overhead in con-
iferous trees.

Nesting. Generally in coniferous trees. Pensile nest of green mosses lined with fine
strips of soft inner bark, fine black rootlets, and feathers.

Distribution. As a species, northern North America. The Eastern Golden-crown
ranges west to near the mountains, breeding in the coniferous belt north beyond settlement.

SUBSPECIES. The Golden-crowned Kinglet is divided into an eastern and western
subspecies. The Eastern Golden-crown, the type form, is the only one that occurs in
eastern Canada.

One often finds himself surrounded by a large flock of these little
birds flitting in and out of dense foliage, darting hither and thither, utterly
indifferent to the intruder’s presence, and coming and going so quickly
that it is difficult to note the specific characters. Some hang head down-
ward from a swaying bunch of twigs and others work in and out on
the branches and twigs, keeping up a continual interchange of fine sharp
tsee tsee tsee.

The Golden-crown remains in southern Canada most if not all the
winter. It is partial to evergreen trees and often frequents the ornamental
conifers about the house and in towns. It is fearless and trusting but
unlike the Chickadee seldom becomes familiar.

Economic Status. The Kinglets are so largely insectivorous that
they can be looked upon as most beneficial. They are small but their
numbers, when they occur, more than make up for their small size and
what is said of the Chickadee in this respect applies equally well to
them.

749. Ruby-crowned Kinglet. RUBY-CROWNED WREN. FR.—LE ROITELET A
COURONNE RUBIS. Regulus calendula. L, 4:41. Plate XLVII B.

Distinctions. The Ruby-crowned is likely to be mistaken only for the previous species
but the lack of black stripes on the head is always diagnostic.

Field Marks. In the quick movement of the lively flocks and the deep shadows of
dense conifers it is sometimes difficult to catch the distinctive head marks of the Kinglets.
It will be noted, however, that the Ruby-crowned has a habit of fluttering its wings ooca-
sionally, in a few short quick vibrations, during momentary pauses while hopping about
without flying. This will often suggest the species though it cannot be regarded as a
certain proof of identity.

215

Nesting. In coniferous trees, nest of moss and fine strips of bark neatly interwoven
and lined with feathers, usually semi-pensile.

Distribution. Northern North America. In eastern Canada breeding north above
settlement and slightly farther north than the Golden-crown.

SUBSPECIES. The Ruby-crowned Kinglet is divided into three subspecific races
only one of which, the Eastern Ruby-crown, the typical form, occurs in eastern Canada.

This species is so nearly like the Golden-crowned Kinglet that little
further discussion is necessary either of habits or economic status. The
song of the Ruby-crowned, however, is one of nature’s surprises. It
is loud, clear, and full throated and is audible for a surprising distance,
equalling in carrying power the song of the Purple Finch. When first
heard it is almost invariably ascribed to some of the better singing
sparrows rather than to this diminutive little bird.

Subfamily—Polioptiline. Gnatcatchers. L, 4-05.

A small family composed of only one genus and peculiar to America.
The colour is in soft bluish-ash and white. The bill is superficially warbler-
like but the first primary feather of the wing is small and almost
aborted, being considerably less than half as long as the next, as is the
ease with the Warbling Vireo. Only one species occurs in Canada.

751. Blue-grey Gnatcatcher. Polioptila cerulea. L, 4-05. All even bluish-grey
above, wings dark, and tail black, the outer tail feathers white; below and face all white.
Male has black line across forehead and over eye.

Distinctions. The small size,even blue and white coloration, and the short first wing
quill are diagnostic.

Field Marks. Inhabiting treetops so high up that the colours are usually difficult to
make out, the outline, with long narrow tail switched about much in the manner of the
Red-start, and the characteristic rather hoarse call notes make the best recognition marks.

Nesting. Nest of tendrils, fine strips of bark, and fine grasses firmly interwoven and
covered outside with spiderweb and lichens. It is chimney-like in shape, high with straight
sides, and is one of the most beautiful American bird nests.

Distribution. Southeastern United States north to the Canadian border along lake
Erie and the Detroit river.

SUBSPECIES. The eastern subspecies, the Eastern Gnatcatcher, is the typical
form. A western subspecies occurs in the southwestern states.

This is a bird of the large tree forests where it usually lives and builds
high up among the tree tops. As it is only regularly found in southern
Ontario along western lake Erie and has been taken elsewhere in Canada
only occasionally, it must be regarded as a rare bird in Canada.

Economic Status. Too rare in Canada to be economically considered.
FAMILY—TURDIDHZ. THRUSHES AND ALLIES.

This is a nearly cosmopolitan group systematically separated with
difficulty from the last family, though the individuals described in the
following pages are strongly enough marked to be easily recognizable.
In eastern Canada only one subfamily is represented.

Subfamily—Turdine. The True Thrushes. L, 6-25-10.

Most of the Canadian Thrushes are easily recognized as such. Sys-
tematically they are plainly marked by the number of primaries and

216

the scalation of the feet. As these are rather difficult features for the
amateur to discern, it is perhaps easier to differentiate them by other
more striking characters that apply to the representative of the group in
eastern Canada. For this purpose they may be divided into the Thrushes
proper and the American Robin, Bluebird, and Wheatear, the last very
rare and the other two so well marked as to be recognized with ease.
The Thrushes proper are medium-sized birds, brown above and white
below,with the breast more or less spotted, except one species, the Veery,
conspicuously so. Any Canadian bird of this description between 6-25
and 8-30 inches long, with the first primary very small and degenerate,
belongs to this group. The Thrushes are all ground-haunting birds and
usually more or less solitary. Their principal food is insects and soft
fruit. The woodland species are of little direct economic importance,
although their influence is beneficial. All the Thrushes of this group
are very sweet singers.

755. Wood Thrush. SONG THRUSH. FR.—LA GRIVE DES Bois. AHylocichla
mustelina. L, 8:29. Plate XLVIII A.

Distinctions. Easily recognized as a Thrush, though having somewhat the general
colour of the Brown Thrasher. The short tail, straight bill, and dark instead of light eye
make good separation marks. From the other members of the genus it can be told by its
larger size, the absolute whiteness of the breast, the sharper definition of the round spots, and
the yellowish rather than reddish or olive tinge of the back, brightest on head.

Field Marks. The sharp spots on the pure white breast and the tawniness of the back
make the best field marks.

Nesting. In saplings about 8 feet above the ground, in nest of leaves, rootlets, fine
twigs, and weed stalks firmly interwoven and lined with mud and fine rootlets.

Distribution. Eastern North America; north regularly to southern Ontario; occa-
sional or local in adjoining regions.

The Wood Thrush is a woodland bird of rather southern distribution;
common in Canada only in the more southern portions.

756. Wilson’s Thrush. VEERY. CATHEDRAL-BIRD. FR.—LA GRIVE DE WILSON.
Hylocichla fuscescens. L, 7-52. Plate XLVIII B.

Distinctions. In this Thrush the brown is almost as tawny as in the Wood Thrush but
the back is evenly coloured and no brighter on head or tail than elsewhere. The breast
spots are reduced to a vague series of darker spots down the sides of the neck and on a
tinted area across the upper breast.

Field Marks. The even, light coloration of the back and the light suffused colour of
the breast spots. j

Nesting. On or near ground, in nest of strips of bark, rootlets, and leaves wrapped with
leaves and lined with rootlets.

Distribution. The northern part of north America north to the limits of settlement.

SUBSPECIES. In Canada Wilson’s Thrush is represented by two subspecies, the
Veery, the type form, and the Willow Thrush of western distribution, coming east to
Manitoba and only occasionally occurring in eastern Canada.

The Veery has a wide distribution within settled sections. Beyond
the range of the Wood Thrush and before the other thrushes become
numerous this species is common and its cascade of bell-like notes poured
forth at sunset in the darkening bush are very pleasant to hear.

757. Alice’s Thrush. GREY-CHEEKED THRUSH. FR.—LA GRIVE D’ALICE. Hylo-
cichla alicie. L, 7-58. Plate XLIX A.

Distinctions. Although a distinct species, this thrush is so nearly like the next, the
Olive-backed, as to be separated from it with some difficulty. (The two can be distinguished
from other thrushes by their even dark olive backs and heavily spotted breasts with spots
suffused in places and running together. In the Grey-cheeked Thrush the sides of the face
and spotting of breast are suffused with dull cold grey instead of a warm buff.

217

Field Marks. Heavily spotted breast and evenly coloured back and tail will separate
this from all but the Olive-backed. The lack of buff tones on the side of the face will
differentiate it from that species though in actual field work it is only under the most favour-
able circumstances that this character can be made out with certainty and many specimens
seen in the dark woods or the fleeting moments given for observation go unidentified.

SUBSPECIES. Alice’s Thrush is divided into two geographical races: the Grey-
cheeked, the type, and Bicknell’s Thrush H.a. bicknelli. The latter in Canada is confined
as far as we know now to the Maritime Provinces below the gulf of St. Lawrence, but the
distribution of the two forms in eastern Canada is not well worked out.

Distribution. Northern North America; breeding mainly in Canada from the edges
of settlement northward.

758a. Olive-backed Thrush. FR.—LA GRIVE DE SWAINSON. Hylocichla ustulata.
L, 7:17. Plate XLIX A.

Distinctions. Evenly coloured back without colour variation on either head or tail and
heavily spotted breast will separate this from all the thrushes but Alice’s. The distinctly
buffy cast of the cheeks instead of cold grey will differentiate it from that species.

Field Marks. Back and breast characters as above. The facial coloration which
separates it from Alice’s can only be seen under the most favourable conditions and many
individuals usually go unidentified.

Nesting. In bushes or small trees about 4 feet above the ground, in nest of coarse
grasses, moss, rootlets, leaves, and bark lined with rootlets and grass.

Distribution. As a species, all of North America; breeding mostly in Canada from
the edges of cultivation northward. Swainson’s Thrush extends west to the Rocky
mountains.

SUBSPECIES. The Olive-backed Thrush is divided into two subspecies. The type
race, under the name of Russet-backed Thrush, is a Pacific Coast form. The Eastern
Olive-back or Swainson’s Thrush H.wu. swainsoni is the only one in eastern Canada.

In spring and autumn the open woods are invaded by great numbers
of these evenly coloured, spotted-breasted thrushes on their way to and
from their breeding grounds. They are rather wary and the numerical
proportion of each species present can usually only be estimated.

759. Hermit Thrush. Fr.—LA GRIVE SOLITAIRE. Hylocichla guttata. L, 7°17.
Plate XLIX B.

Distinctions. Very similar to the last two but the tail reddish brown in contrast with
the olive-brown of the back.

Field Marks. Brown back and white, spotted breast identifies it as a Thrush. The
ae coloration of the tail contrasting with the olive back serves for the identification

e species.

_ Nesting. On ground in nest of moss, coarse grasses, and leaves lined with rootlets and
pine needles.

Distribution. As a species, all of northern North America. The Eastern Hermit
Thrush extends westward to near the mountains and north to the tree limits, breeding usually
just beyond the cultivated districts but irregularly to or near our southern boundary.

_ SUBSPECIES. The Hermit Thrush is a flexible and adaptable species represented
in America by some six recognized subspecies. The typical form is an Alaskan race.
Eastern Canada has only one subspecies, the Eastern Hermit Thrush Hg. pailasi.

aie The Hermit Thrush is one of our most famous singers. Unfortunately,
it is usually silent as it passes through southern Canada and is heard
at its best only in the northern coniferous woods.

761. American Robin. FR.—LE MERLE D’AMERIQUE. Planesticus migratorius.
L,10. PlateL A. :

Distinctions. The robin is too distinctly marked and well known to require special
description. :

Field Marks. The robin is recognizable by those acquainted with the species, at
great distances, when no colour is visible, by its outline, carriage, and manner of flight.

Nesting. Frequently in fruit or shade trees or about buildings, in nest of coarse
grasses, leaves, rootlets, etc., with an inner wall of mud lined with fine grasses.

218

Distribution. As a species all of North America, north to tree limits. The Eastern
Robin covers all of Canada overlapping with the western form on the Pacific coast.

SUBSPECIES. The Robin is divided into three subspecies of which the Eastern
Robin, the type form, is the only eastern Canadian representative.

The Robin has more intimate associations with man than perhaps any
other bird. Its cheery voice is the harbinger of spring. Its song is the first
heard in the morning and the last at night, and in the autumn when
it has stripped the rowan tree of its last berry, and has disappeared we
know that winter is upon us. Though named after a famous Old World
bird, it only very superficially resembles the Robin Red-breast of England.
The only points of resemblance are its red breast and confiding habits.

Probably the worst enemy of the Robin is the household cat. Nesting
in readily accessible places young Robins are subject to many disturb-
ances, often leave the nest before they are able to fend for themselves
and so fall prey to the cat.

The spotted breast of the young Robin indicates its descent from
a spotted ancestor and its relationship to the thrushes of the previous
genus. In fact the young of most of the members of the family have spotted
breasts.

Economic Status. Though the Robin is an efficient aid to the agri-
culturist, its fondness for fruit occasionally gets it into trouble with the
small fruit raiser. Forty-two per cent of its food is animal, mostly insects,
the remainder is composed largely of berries and other soft small fruits
of which little more than 4 per cent is cultivated fruit.

765. Wheatear. FR.—LE TRAQUET MOTTEUX. Sazicola enanthe. L, 7°01. A
Titlark-like bird, light grey above, white below, warmed with buff colour on throat; a
black band through the eye and a white rump. The female and juvenile are similar but
duller and more evenly buff coloured.

Distinctions. The conspicuous and extensive white rump with the general colorations
given above are distinctive.

Field Marks. With its showy white rump the bird looks like a partly albino Titlark.

SUBSPECIES. The subspecies of Wheatear that occurs in eastern Canada is the
Greenland Wheatear S.o. leucorhoa.

This is a European bird of regular occurrence in Greenland and
perhaps in the adjacent parts of Ungava but of only casual or accidental
occurrence elsewhere in Canada.

766. Bluebird. FR.— LE ROUGE-GoRGE BLEU. Sialia sialis. L,7 01. Plate L B.
Distinctions. The only solidly blue bird with a reddish breast among Canadian
species—the Indigo bird is blue but lacks the red breast. Females and juveniles are duller
in colour and the breasts of young birds are spotted with brown but all have the character-
istic blue backs.
: Field Marks. The bright blue coloration of the back and the earthy red of the
reast.
Nesting. In hollow trees, posts, or stubs or in bird houses, in nest of grasses.
Distribution. astern North America, west to the prairie provinces and north nearly
to the bounds of settlement.

SUBSPECIES. The subspecies of Bluebird occurring in Canada is the typical race,
the Eastern Bluebird.

The Bluebird arrives in the early spring with the Robin and
the Meadowlark. It is a confiding bird building in the hollows of old
apple trees, holes in fence-posts, bird boxes, or nests abandoned by Wood-

219

peckers. It is characteristically a bird of the orchard and with a little
encouragement will build in birdhouses in the garden where its gentle
ways, pretty murmuring notes, and brilliant coloration make it quite
an acquisition.

Economic Status. The Bluebird feeds mainly upon insects and is,
therefore, highly beneficial. Weed seeds form an important part of
its food and it eats some soft fruit, but practically no cultivated kinds

aga Hence the Bluebird can be regarded as a consistently useful
ird.

GLOSSARY.

Albinism. The occasional and erratic occurrence of white specimens, either pure or
partial, complete or in irregular spots, in species that normally are not white. It is nothing
more than a freak caused by a deficiency of colouring matter in the plumage (p. 7).

Axillars or Axillaries. A fan-shaped group of feathers under the wing closing the
space between the innermost flight feathers and the body when in flight.

Bars. In descriptions of bird coloration, bars designate lines drawn across the body
and not parallel with the shafts of the feathers (see stripes).

‘ Cere. A wax-like appearing swelling about the base of the upper mandible, present
in some species, especially the Hawks. See Figure 33a and b, page 23.

Coverts. The feathers covering the bases of the larger flight and tail feathers. There
are upper and under wing coverts and upper and under tail coverts. The upper wing
coverts are divided into greater and lesser coverts, the former being the largest line imme-
diately next to the flight shafts and resembling them to some degree in texture (Figure 1
p. 18).

Crepuscular. Pertaining to twilight.
Crown. The top of the head from the forehead to near the base of the skull.

Culmen. This may be called the ridge line of the bill. Viewed sideways, the line
forming the top outline of the bill from the spring of the first forehead feathers to the tip is
the culmen line. It is measured in a straight line, as with dividers, not following the curves
as with a tape line (Figure 1, p. 18).

Dichromatism. The normal occurrence of two different colorations in the same
species due to neither sex, season, nor age and only partly hereditary. Both colorations
may occur in the same brood though the tendency is for like to produce like and one form
may predominate in any given locality (see p. 7).

Emarginate. When applied to the shape of feathers indicates that more or less of one
web is cut away as if a shaving had been removed with a jack-knife.

Extralimital. In describing distribution refers to the subject occurring without
the geographical bounds of the area under discussicn.

Family. In zoological classification is one of the larger groups of animals having
enough mutual resemblance to be classed together and apart from all other forms. It is
the next larger group to a genus and next smaller to an order or suborder. For example,
all the Ducks, Geese, and Swans belong to the same family, Anatide (see p. 5).

Flanks. Thesides of the body, below or under the closed wing. They are often
covered by a loose group of feathers that may be laid at will either over or under the shafts
of the closed wing (Figure 1, p. 18).

Genus (plural, genera). In zoological classification is one of the smaller groups of
animals having enough resemblance to be classed together and apart from all other groups
of like rank. It is a subdivision of a family or subfamily and next above a species. A
genus is, therefore, a group of species, and a group of genera is a family (see p. 5).

57172—15

220

Gular Pouch. A pouch of bare skin depending from the under side of the lower bill
between its Y-shaped arms and joining it to the neck below. Some species have only the
merest trace of it, and others have it remarkably developed, though in most species it is
entirely absent.

Hybrid. The offspring between parents of two different species—a ‘‘ cross.”

Iris. The coloured portion of the eye. The pupil, except in albinism, is always
black and the surrounding circle of colour is the iris. a

Lanceolate. Lance shaped, i.e., long and narrow with parallel edges or tapering
gradually to a point.

Length. Abbreviated in descriptions by its initial L and given in inches and tenths
of aninch. Length is taken in a straight line, as with dividers, from the tip of the bill to the
end of the longest tail feather, the bird being laid out flat on its back and stretched just
sufficiently to straighten the curves of the neck.

Lores. A small spot between the eye and the base of the bill (Figure 1, p. 18).

Mandibles. The two members forming the bill; thus there is an upper and a lower
mandible.

Mantle. A term covering the back, shoulders, upper wing coverts, and secondaries.
Applied more especially to the gulls where the even colouring of these parts suggests a
mantle covering the whole upper part of the body and closed wings.

Melanism. The opposite of albinism. It is the more or less erratic occurrence of
very dark or black individuals in a normally lighter-coloured species. It usually occurs
less frequently than albinism though some species are more liable to it and it glides im-
perceptibly into dichromatism in some cases. Albinism usually denotes a lack of virility.
Melanism does not seem to be an evidence of weakness and hence melanistic strains have
better chances of surviving. A melanistic animal is said to be a Melano (see page 7).

Nape. A small space at the back of the neck just below the base of the skull (Figure
1, p.1'8):

Neck. The space between the throat and breast in front, and the hind head and
shoulders behind. It is divided into fore neck and hind neck whose meanings are obvious

(Figure 1, p. 18).

Order. In zoological classification a group of families having mutual resemblance
enough to separate them from all other groups. It is next larger than the family and is the
largest subdivision of birds that we have to deal with in Canada (see page 7).

Pectinate. Furnished with comb-like teeth. In ornithology usually applied to the
claws of some species that are so furnished (Figure 19, p. 21).

Pelagic. Living largely or almost entirely at sea.

Pensile. Applied to nests when they hang suspended like a bag between the forks of a
branch or other such support, with nothing supporting from below.

Primaries. The large flight feathers secured to the first joint of the wing from the
wrist to the tip (see secondaries). (See Figure 1, p. 18.)

Race. As used here, practically synonymous with subspecies. In general, any
group within a species exhibiting recognizable common characters differentiating it from
others of the same species.

Rufous. Of a red or reddish colour.
Rump. The lower end of the back just before the root of the tail (Figure 1, p. 18).

Secondaries. The large flight feathers secured to the second joint of the wing
between the wrist and the elbow (see primaries). (Figure 1, p. 18.)

Species. In zoological classification the smallest constant group. is the scientific

221

term to denote what is understood in common language as a “kind of animal.” Thus a
house cat is a species, whether Maltese, tortoise shell, or tabby, the dog, whether grey-
hound or spaniel is another, and a horse, whether Shetland pony or draught, is a third
(see page 5).

Speculum. A somewhat rectangular patch of contrasting colour on the centre of the
upper surface of the wing. It often shows metallic iridescence and is a common feature of
coloration in some families, as in the Ducks.

Stripes. In ornithological descriptions, stripes always run lengthways of the bird;
lines if across the body are spoken of as bars (see bars).

Sternum. The breast bone. Ina bird a deeply keeled structure to which the wing
muscles are attached.

Subspecies. In ornithological classification, synonymous with geographical race or
variety, denoting a division of the species: usually correlated with geographic limitations.
It differs essentially from a full species by showing intergradations with allied races of equal
rank. Taking the horse as a representative species, the various breeds or strains, such as
Arab, Clydesdale, or Shetland pony are subspecies (see page 6, for discussion).

Tarsus. The metatarsal bones of the foot fused together into a single bone. This is
what we popularly regard as the bird’s leg but is properly the foot, extending between the
juncture of the toes and the end of the “ drum stick.’”’? A comparison with the joints of the
human leg will make it obvious that the knee is between the ‘‘ drum stick ”’ and the
“second joint ”’ of the fowl and that the first external joint on the bird corresponds with our
heel, the “‘ feet” being true toes.

)

Type. In zoological nomenclature the “type form” is that form first properly
described and named and the specimen from which the description was written is the type
specimen. It does not of necessity mean that the form is typical in the ordinary sense of
the word, though for convenience it is assumed to be so (see page 8).

Vermiculation. In descriptions of plumage, vermiculation refers to fine, irregularly
niet Pas suggesting the pathways of innumerable small worms, from which the word is
erived.

Vinaceous. Wine coloured. A peculiar purplish pink shown or suggested in the
coloration of some birds.

57172—153

eb yRE,. { f
} 1 i
eg i
Nites i
t
oh ie
Ray ae
Ly “
i"
Ny
f
OF

{ vy t ; uch
they el y
} a ‘ \
‘ Ade 7
.
fy +
: Me + “
i - , )
; f BR ou
Fi -
}
t nt \ i
Ai ; i y
AAD
,
‘1 1 a
2 Jp ; J
} \ paver id) 4
tf } + s
‘ % yy
i ‘
i fk ) y ‘ i weit
F ( iy Tele
j
wet, .
f a bor”
MA
. P\aigg
i PRAY fe rin en
ae a4 Sead,
j \ ed Nea
, pial a tacts Ee
“ ‘ One, cunt irly
‘ ri Cul
" n 1 eu ;
bi OPT ies Pay)
) >
= sf yy ae
) yf
1
( bil
}
ERNE Ba
sag it! | i}
: < rc tary
Pare | i ‘
‘A { Y
“any, 4
yun’
ibe + y *
ere i 1 ee
ve i Y
i Wil ‘ | 4 sb IR\ Neat
\r ? y we
uu 7 \ iy i i
hy ) Nee
Art
i]
‘
1 ;
/ ) )
‘
’
) it ; . ny

A. Pied-billed Grebe

Juvenile

;
>:

(p. 43).

Adult

B. Common Loon (p. 44)

Adult ~ Juvenile

ee eens maton Garena ee Aa

SSS

in a 2

PLATE IT.

A. Herring Gull (p. 52).

Adult Juvenile

B.- Common Tern (p. 55).

225

PLATE ITI.

A. Red-breasted Merganser (p. 64).

Male Female

B. Mallard Duck (p. 65).

Male Female

PLATE IV.

Fie dene esseys

A. Black Duck (p. 66).

B. Blue-winged Teal (p. 67).

Male Female

bo
bo
~I

PLATE V.

A. Wood Duck (p..68).

Male Female

Fctennesse }19-

B. Canada Goose (p. 76).

PLATE VI.

American Bittern (p. 80).

stl

ease
i

ee ec Henn

Great Blue Heron (p. 82).

Adult

Juvenile

229

PLAre VII.

inion

FC. Hennessey

A. Sora Rail (p. 88).

B. American Woodcock (p. 93).

230

PLATE VIII.

A. Wilson’s Snipe (p. 93).

B. Spotted Sandpiper (p. 100). ‘

Adult Juvenile

231

PLATE IX,

- EG Hennesse re

A. Killdeer (p. 104).

B. Bobwhite (p. 107).

Male Female

Red phase

Spruce Grouse (p. 108).

Female Male

Ruffed Grouse (p. 108).

Grey phase

PLATE X.

> ee

¢ \

} pas a \
She bidy Wier ahaa

Mourning Dove and Passenger Pigeon (pp. 112 and 113).

B. Marsh Hawk (p. 117).

Adult Juvenile

A. Sharp-shinned Hawk (p. 118).

Juvenile female Adult male

B. American Goshawk (p. 119).

Juvenile Adult

PLATE XII.

235

PLATE XIII.

A. Red-tailed Hawk (p. 120).

B. Red-shouldered Hawk (p. 121).

Adult Juvenile

bo
nw

A. Duck Hawk (p. 126).

Adult Juvenile

American Sparrow Hawk (p. 127).

Female Male

PEAre Soe

bo
os)
~I

PLATE XV.

A. Osprey (p. 128).

é.ttermnge

B. Barred Owl (p. 131).

tro

PLATE XVI.

A. Screech Owl (p. 133).

Red phase Grey phase

Ee Hennessey

b. Great Horned Owl (p. 133).

239

PrARE xvii:

A. Black-billed Cuckoo (p. 136).

Yellow-billed Cuckoo (p. 136).

B. Belted Kingfisher (p. 137).

Female Male

A. Downy Woodpecker (p. 139).

Male Female

Arctic Three-toed Woodpecker (p. 139).

Female Male

PLATE XVIII.

241
“PLATE Xe

Se wate”

A. Yellow-bellied Sapsucker (p. 140).

Female Male

B. Pileated Woedpecker (p. 141).

Ebon at Seles cin Soal

A. Red-headed Woodpecker (p. 141).

Juvenile Adult

ar 2) AR dees ie?

3. Flicker (p. 142).

Male Female

PLATE XX.

243

PATE exc.

A. Nighthawk (p. 144).

B. Chimney Swift (p. 145).

Ruby-throated Hummingbird (p. 146).

Female Males

B. Kingbird (p. 148).

PLATE XXII.

245
PLATE XXIIT.

A. Phoebe (p. 149).

B. Horned Lark (p. 152).

Eastern Horned Lark Prairie Horned Lark

246

PLATE-X XIV.

A. Blue Jay (p. 154).

B. Canada Jay (p. 154).

American Crow (p. 156).

3. Bobolink (p. 157).

Male Female

PLATE XXV.

248

PEATE DOVE

A. Cowbird (p. 157).

Female Male

B. Red-winged Blackbird (p. 158).

Juvenile Male Female

249

PLATE XXVII.

A. Meadowlark (p. 159).

B. Baltimore Oriole (p. 160).

’ Male Female

PLATE XXVIII.

A. Bronzed Grackle (p. 161).

Fe He anessey. 5

ars

B. Pine Grosbeak (p. 163).

Female Male

z
£

A. Purple Finch (p. 163).

Male Female

B. House Sparrow (p. 164).

Male Female

251

PLATE XXIX.

i)
on
bo

PLATE XOOe

A. American Goldfinch (p. 168).

Juvenile Female Male

Sere a Fedeamyssey,

B, Snow Bunting (winter plumage) (p. 169).

bo
on
Ww

PEATE ORK

A. Vesper Sparrow (p. 169).

B. White-crowned Sparrow (p. 173).

Adult Juvenile

RATE SOxXOxle

A. White-throated Sparrow (p. 173).

Adult Juvenile

eed

B. Treé Sparrow (p. 174).

255

PLATE XX XIII.

A. Chipping Sparrow (p. 174).

Juvenile

Adult

B. Junea) (ps 1175):

Female Male

PLATE XXXIV:

A. Song Sparrow (p. 176).

B. Rose-breasted Grosbeak (p. 179).

Male Females

257

PEATE XOXOave

A. Scarlet Tanager (p. 181).
Male changing to autumn plumage
Male Female

B. Purple Martin (p. 182).

Male Juvenile

PLATE XXXVI.

wallow (p. 1

Barn

Tree Swallow (p. 183)

ire)

PLATE XXXVII.

Bank Swallow (p. 184).

B. Cedar Waxwing (p. 1

Juvenile

Adult

260
PLATE XXXVIII.

A. Migrant Loggerhead Shrike (p. 187).

B. Red-eyed Vireo (p. 188).

c 261
PLATE XXXIX.

A. Warbling Vireo (p. 189).

B. Black and White Warbler (p. 191).

Spring plumage Autumn plumage

262

4 PLATE XL,

A. Yellow Warbler (p. 194).

Male Female

B. Black-throated Blue Warbler (p. 195).

Male Female

A. Myrtle Warbler (p. 195).

Female Male

FEEHmeesse

B. Magnolia Warbler (p. 196).

Female Male

WwW

PLATE XLI.

PrATE Xa iTe

A. Blackburnian Warbler (p. 198).

Male Female

B. Black-throated Green Warbler (p. 198).

Male Female

265

PEATE XLITL.

A. Ovenbird (p. 200).

B. Northern Yellow-throat (p. 202).

Male ~ Female

266
PLATE XLIV.

A. Redstart (p. 204).

Male Female

B. Catbird (p.-206).

267
PLATE XLV.

A. Brown Thrasher (p. 207).

* : B. House Wren (p: 208).

A. Brown Creeper (p. 210).

White-breasted Nuthatch (p. 211).

PLATE XLVI.

269

PLATE XLVI.

A. Chickadee (p. 212).

B. Golden-crowned Kinglets. Ruby-crowned Kinglets (p.214).

Male Female Male Female

bo
I

ANS

Wood, thrush (p. 216).

Wilson’s Thrush (p. 216).

PLate XLVIII.

271

PLATE XLIX.

A. Grey-cheeked Thrush (p. 216).

Olive-backe? Thrush (p. 217).

fc He: eae 4 ie

B. Hermit Thrush (p. 217).

“I

American Robin (p. 217).

Adult Juvenile

B. “Bluebird (p. 218).

Male Female

PEATEs:

273

Accipiter....... Tees ee create Vid bla ha abo)vis-e eau 2 Senne esis eee

ETE on. Se RS aie eet ag eel eae Slat
(pS GES LTTE Tc ES Sag ae eae eae ire isn) 2 ae Snes gs Omni en
Penne MRI ey ieee a oe Patera, fs eas 2 kOe i a ea:
PR IMPUMIREL ERE to to ava. 222 Se SE SRE A Ose CSE SB res a Oe

Agelaius PE OSES RECESS 5 Sek Si ie a eee aE Rea RSCG ee eC ay Se
umm unannicn te bat cs ol ec pe es uk ee ak eS
ITE. nd gsc Ea ee Gre eee retly Mumeene sy cane ret ye Caco

an SS IRD et IS Ce IPERS, ROR OR er ae rie Es, Beta pi 3 ee
20 PLS EL Tos EE Sa a eR ee ee eeearne vont pages
CREEPER ese ern TN boy ek se em A eee Wea

Anseres PERF aI) Rae ee NL eo 8 a ew eae

ESS URIs EOI). es Oe a a ee Ey ea he Te ON Ot BARTS
aR INES is aia ea oe te ace ons Peas ee
UPMMIMERICRE IA BAREIS. eae, ak ce dee on ee eg

Se MCPEERENS ieee POR pel he Mga ye ha
SIT RTRB Bires agh caro ee oA) EER Gd eee Sas oe. ei
Ardeidze sy oe OBES SOUL IRE ERE as rae Cae Seana eR eae ta oe No

AEs OS ko Me Re ie eR Gl PAS ER A on ee ee
Astur .. MMe a css a = SUrndin a tenis MSs ook, s a Saeco es Ses Nes 5 sated ON an ss e

EU est ty yn es ee yt 2. ee Ag Cig an Sey. eh

Page
D5 4: ee a se aE IMR ARPS ate Mer ea REA ab ewe oe 45
Austral region. /06 0s. ctsehalaiv go 6 oa Sider doa nee eg Ree tees 8
Autour & téte none... es ei Sok Sis na ee Ge on Co eee 119
Avocet, -AMePIGAI : . 5.25 cee yee aio. aheth eee ern ree 92
Avocette d’Amérique® - 2 is).ck cine 1 ae RA oe ee ee ee 92
B.
Beolophus' bicolots2) 552 osc) ses oe ee as A Gen a ee 212
Balbusard ‘d’ Amérique ..))005 0. Foe a ois so ha a ee ee 128
Barge de la baie d’Hudsons. 0. 02. iwags fale Sse nie ss 2 98
Marbrée. seco Re rat Rares tue pe Sea Se LR eet ae 97
Bartramia: longicnuda oo. bes ya aan a ea as ge le 100
Bec-croisé ‘A ailes Dlanthes:yicer 035. see ce ee ee eee 166
d’ Amérique. occ 36/82 te ate Cae eee at re one 165
POC-BCI6 oa ce ey Ge ein eh ae ote ee ee re ag 64
Bécasse d’AmMEriQue,, (3. 3102 654 is. Sides Ole aloe ee aR eee ae 93
BGCASSINE os o's 2 ii a Fon Siesee chad hag eee oe ete gl, Seta oe cee ec 93
de Wilson: 2 eee ae i a ie es Re ee 93
FROUSSG 2 2S acerheteie cee Oem ae SO CHS en aot ia a raed ee 93
Bernache ComMuUnes 55 25k okie ocr eae Cae aE ea ea 77
du ‘Canada Outarde:s.: 3. 6 oon Sos ee eee 76
Birds of Prey: 0 be 26 1 a PS ek SG ae Re ee 113
Auuarmal 5 ose sek Se oka oe oe bc niet 116
nocturnal. 72 72,2 See ohare nes ee 129
Birds: scrstehi pe cn si ok oo ee ee ee ee eee 106
Bittern; Americans 3.26252 css ooo wine nd Sens One eee 80
Tease soe Se Ge Sea wee a ron, Get tLe 81
YG COUTIS 5 cS eee So ea sree gy 6 bi Saakiches sek ots heats Nprattouay aye ER GaSy See Se Eyl eee ee 80
Blackbird, Cow. See Cowbird.
CROW esse igs UR woken os CeOe a oa tan Se eee 161
Red=winged)si.<5.03 ca sss edae sana ys 6 ot Ree Le eee 158
Rusby cle es Steele ee ona loe ee ee ee eee 160
Skunk. See Bobolink.
Soldier. 025.5. Sessa han ue veo cs sae wala Satna en BE eee 158
Yellowsheaded 0.5: grees tons G6 sd e eae oe eee 158
Bluebill, Greater or Lake. See Duck, Greater Scaup.
Little or Marsh. See Duck, Lesser Scaup.
Bluebird 2:5 cso 5 ec. ssa ets Soe Shc ese Ai oh ree 218
Bob-white j25.0- ce Wo oe a SO eee 107
Bobolwke «oe. So CR es Se oe EL es ee 157
Bombycilla, cedrorum’ 52 3255532005 sees ee eee 185
PONT VLA Sa. Wiese NE Soe See are eee ee 185
Bombycillidse. 2 c:65 os he sao ee aka) Pe eee» Pee ee 184
Bonasa umibellus: {25.05.00 eels oe oie a wo alee Oe Ce a Be 108
BOODIOS:. 5500s 2scesero's, Chu ushh akem ree is, Uk he cl ao Eo) eT tao 60
Boreal TPEeiOw.. 2. eh slic oak ween oo es ees ae ee ee 9
| 0): 0 aaa aaa eimarn rire UT En peg ALL er Wee raiser it mb UNIO R e 48
Botauriise : 5 oie), Sess 5S ec pove oie aha Oe ee Raye ee 80
Botaurus lentigmosus.: 0.0 022018 ue es Seg bow oe a eee 80
Branitis 222 dav as, <(Sice Pe aie eagle oh) SPU ae Se 77
Branta bernicla (520.006.6595 ee es oh ee Pe 77
CANAGENSIB. 213. 5 ES Sih be ee ee 76
Bride, The. See Duck, Wood.
Broad-bill. See Duck, Greater Scaup.
River. See Duck, Lesser Scaup.
Bubo: virginianus: 206% 6s 2 <b cwcnls (ale «cia eee ca ep ee ee tee 133
Bueéphale ‘d’Amérique:, 2), 5.) dis n.si es bo ee ee a ee 70
A Tala: eis. s 0 oh cstpin 5 eae one 71
Debit. sp SANG Be a whee bib dus, Ae ae Ee eee 71
Beertle-eeeanh 5 i sii sa os oy te leh eg ah Goa A sels 0G sas 2 Oa EN Rina eto 71

Bull-bat. See Nighthawk.
Bull-head. See Plover, Black-bellied.

BUaNTIMES =. oss .5 a2.

moo paaket nies el ey ee Leteirelpilcve in! alelst ae eXelsiic Si < wlnte elaine) s is) ele, = ev loraie ene) 6) me) a © w

Burgomaster. See Gull, Glaucous.

Busard des marais. .

mel aie) tate, wi oleh ald of diel aleu cyte phew alal simhel aie ohals ta¥.e)-of4)cleMni dct e1 ey ofan e ea) O1F) SG Ou amy oe

EVGE@ 3. TRTTEGO EPI WO) be aed Aiea nee nae ee eae Dee Br mintr ener Tre Ces a Nar ih,

Buse 4 queue rousse

Spa twelsie fal wi wis) e) \e\ eo; 6) .5- 0% bi lelal mane (previet » ‘elie wiss\e7 «| om. 0) 6's m0) ee (ee) © yew 8 0\'e) S Behe se,

SMES Bea ARANL CS SO gies oy gn ten ef cyeNceRate luca Ro nedacheinsie cee hesTe ath ara Sie wee leita arate

Sia INIBURNCIA ELS fs Soest. & ger Cryo PRGA ALE 82 sch oP aia noe ial gt ta ean ae

SMAI UERLCOICHIIG 93, oie cx p oresn2 ie cea ae cae Sei align tee Wave es pA Se ona
Butcher-bird. See Shrike, Loggerhead, and Shrike, Northern,

Butcher-birds.......

Butor d’Amérique. . .

Butorides virescens.

et are CLC ALOROLOPOLCE COO. CAL Tit ONO ated Sr Ietnt TO Cite CC Ca Rr SOC aR CSA a per UR

shied Mme) auc el oh ak aie) aise et sal pis) afl 6).a ef = ele swla eal a 6) wwii, ake s\’a 2) Oia)! 4.6 a) Cre) ¢-@ 8

adv otteiw feir eve, <0, = ipie\e)!e le fesa lois, ste lo fa levelels teeters ey ane Te t¥) 6) ym, 1 [6's) eh 6> 61 ele esl e086) 0 ee

Rubies helenae yale « ote (6.0 °ee lobe (a (qlSite me ge: we lete 0 oisileie ee. ey ee, €i0) 6x8) BLS 9) 6S 182 6,81

alin miata ai! nelle)» /e),0 (oe) <e) © @.16/ 2 6 elm ei) @ = Oe, odie © aa) se ¢ « 9) 6 Ss S (Se) 6760), 8) 6 0) 6 ee) Si e's fm

Butterbali. See Buffle-head.
Buzzard, Turkey. See Vulture, Turkey.

Buzzards...........

Calearius lapponicus
Calidris leucophea. .
Camp Robber. See

mise .ausie tp ulti ie loteme: ishtie,\e: ice ta %e}\e elie a = (0) sole (e.« \s,\e) sear Se) 6.6 Xo)) =) © aire @.8) (8) 66S. w

Sy nekalkslerie isle \aiteite) lave: seh uve es cele, ee) e'e"'e.%9)'s. 10-2, ee, «ee a (vs) 0) =, u)= eS e) 6.0, a ele

Jay, Canada.

RL TLE D1 Dn Scriven er Gee NE BG ec i?
Canada White-throat. See Sparrow, White-throated.
Ermiate melonpue Queue, .<)...... 25.5.2. 5 sete ee e hse A Le hlok SEG ie Tee

Canvas-back.......
Caprimulgi.........
Caprimulgide......

PAwiula ya sllake te Kelivlie) le ie, j0'/<:"0, ‘alsee, 76 em walle), ae le) 10) ane) (eee sei wp eh/e, ela we A ope oe) «mee, wim ela

a paliiniielia \w Ac! nis lel sca. ela) eles ale efere= ges ofial6 sé fa “allele rs «le 6) wile) e sie lage le 6) my sitm ely) eS

ie bila > igiin\ Te Selim yale! “elle d'e. Seileide lie fale) Te! fo le le, fe) were, Sp le, /a! fe) =! jw) ike ve do: falta felnaial «) af a7 i@.7m)) ©) "er Wire) e -«)

Carpodacus purpureus................. SR Se: Maciek Ac eae es EE ae

Oxiird soe.

Cathartes aura.....
Cathartidw.........

Cathedral-bird. See Thrush, Wilson’s.
Srna PEP MIMETICNSTERIPIRITHSAIS (SoS 5 ORS ode Sew wn Blea Se oge o os Meee we
Cedar Bird. See Waxwing, Cedar.

Centurus carolinus. .

Ceryle aleyon.......

Cheetura pelatica. ..
Cheeturinz.........

tali’e. a: toy fa) w, lus ‘al (wr fe pathy, eae eb fene elle ete ig, cle lejos, shekelal (ss r/c @ = slew 0 0 6 6s a 8) pis a's

Page
Chapman, Prank: oo cea Coin inl oe 6 te oS hs Sele nicl eee 4
Charadmiiday 5 ic sea eae On eG ee ea a et 102
Charadrius dominicus : 3). 5 ic. Guede ee ose Ce ee DU eee 103
Chardonneret.des pins’. :1)s'0i3 eC oe Ee hoes ee iam Dee oe ne 168
JAUIC oo 2 sha aaa cine a ueig ealca. ssh 2 eRe et nS a 168
Charitonnetta-albeolay oss ne Con as ae a 2 ae 71
Chat, Yellow-breasted. 5. ui an laa a ne 203
Chatterer, Wandering. Sce Waxwing, Bohemian
Chaulelasmus streperuis:. . 50 eigen) 66
Chenveprulescensy ai ies oie os ae a lia nah Oe rrr 76
Chen hy perboreuss igh 2 Coe. Si Pe a Le eee a5
Cherry Bird. See Waxwing, Cedar.
Chevalier ou pattes jaunes.c) 62/5 ics ss pwimdans rons ole Ane OO ee 98
Chevalier a-pieds: jaunes, grand). 2s. sae eh ee en ee eee 98
OY 5) FR nee et or A het Loe Geaisond ie public dates S ieee gee 99
BOMAIT OS o5 sie oesls 6 SSS aiolane Sate ee LA secre 99
@hiekddee oo sis:sic die ise 8 ajorstarons W nicual cis ete Gad oe ee ee 212
Black-cappeds 6.00 o eves in Oakesen o anit cael ea eeeoh Gree 212
Brown-headed: ic: 20) avs sbi doe oe ge re 213
Himdsomtan ooo ioe alas ca has oe be Pe eee 213
Chicken, Mother Carey’s. See Petrel, Wilson’s.
TAUIO | 285502) aie Siete G olot las cjanwois sie aa eee ee ee ee 116
Chippie. See Sparrow, Chipping.
@hondestes grammacus so.) oon hose ook ok as ie a ee Oe 172
Chordetles virginiamis <5). 620 lines e eacs oe oh oaks ae oe Sato SG 144
Chouette cendrée ss oss iwc eis Bose) Ghee ee as Ge i3l
du Canada. io? eden kN seek os ek Cea Oke 131
éperviere: WAmérique s.(0i..2s660 os be ea eos cee ee eee 134
Chuck-wall's: Widow: :(.05. 5200 suo be noe tet ees sees eee 143
DIO oe Oo seca sated Rieuc va wnoreic ras eet ees cud Sree wee aS ee 117
hudeonius. 6050 h a es as oe oe ee eee LL
Cistothonus stellaris.... i060. bea sis ooece ee oe uae unten ee eee 209
Clamatoreseiet sii si 5d 60s diner os ces se ele Fe IER 147
Clangula Clangula . 0 eso 55 60 oe pcan Oe na seek see ee 70
ISL ATA ECA 520 ose Sogo acs alo is ei ank Dee bee le Le ee 71
Classification: oi 2)6. sesh. hee sun ase tenib ob av Aetbieceh eisletn Aa eee eR EE ee 5
CWOCCY BOS. o/h ead don) Denes ook ee a ee 135
Cocey Anew: ies ek ane OOO Bs Gi ee Be ee ae 135
CoccyzUs AMerICADIIS 20565 0.0. Sag Fc os yo ae See he Palo ee Oe ee ee 136
erythrophthalmug) 665k fos. oe oes ee el eee 136
Cock-of-the-Wood. See Woodpecker, Pileated.
Cockawee. See Old Squaw.
Coffin-carrier. See Gull, Great Black-backed.
Colaptes auratisii5 oe cL ie os Se Soe ee ee eee 142
Colibri'a: georges rubis. oo obi ee wah alee ic koe oe eae sa ee 146
COlNUs VARMA ss oes tein cides ws esis eae eee 107
Cohan 3. ie ie ie ha nals eee ling bie © DORE Ce eee 111
Coltimbids iid 55 0 Soe he Oe ok ak ERE Lo ee ee 111
@olymibidse eis... Sse 5s SE eee cbs Coa eel iee Be Mee ep ee ee 42
Colymbus-auritus: 65.00 065 bes Seas eas ne Bans se eee 43
Molboollies ii). ele SRT Ga a a 42
Compsothiypis americana. .)2)./226) occ os sade oe Sacs ws ee a ee 194
Coot American oo Fics swan cus oe seca oa le Gale aes ie aR 90
Black Sea. See Scoter, American.
Butterbill. See Scoter, Surf.
White-winged. See Scoter, White-winged.
COO si Oo ia es ae ats GI wr acacia cnn ce ek 90
Corben sie ee ee Bes Si Puk Se sis bee wil Ua RO RNS ER CE Ki 155
Corbigesar 2 62 a a sic le ww wie Eoin b ae RSE OR A 101
Ges MS quUUMaIK: 7 oseo eisai lea wad ae a Ne Oe ee 102
GormoransaalzretFes sss ie ee sie oes hea ceeds eats aaa orc ae oe 61
ORG AIT OMe Ae eer pe cry i wale Nee alia ete fies lave Sle eee 61
Cormorant; Commons ie ie eee sg ss os hte he ae ain eran ok ee 61

Double-crested ses hoses oes es Ss ea ee 61

Cormorants... .. CREECH ae Une Rn OF) DEG NOM orca a> aeiemtciriclc
Se ENEIHE TE PA MCFIQUEs sas eiatst si skayshessioee eae lonal Oars alee cle. Secs Seana s

CARING, GAG hse ene oer ee eras are We em Boe TER Fee

GOUIEAICHOS NOVEDOTACENSIS..:5).0./2)5 «cow .siele aicitls ao clelshaiavcla ols clew'e
DMEM MICO MAMNECY Ss oc. ko link soon ee Molelew ee wanes be nea

Coween. See Old Squaw.
Crane, Blue. See Heron, Great Blue.

LEICA LATTE ANS WAR y Cah yey hy how No Onomala aie Senet Sk weaken de

(LEERY EDS. [SUS LAP a Se ee ee
CCEPE SE GLUT ~ - s.cc ere ERSs Bs Be ta ena a ee

VATE WIN CU istrict seek aoe eas cs os ons Win oon SIA NS Bee
“TEDW, cAMT TVET QUT ao a ee a
CARESTIS S ce £ hin. cello: J Baing Ce re aa a coe EN nee aS a Ri

f
(DGG CT SOs I
Peclionve tle oma ws. mcs cianidersc Picea arc ko ee ee
OaREC CNC ERO Fee be ve yess etre dK V, Rntoriclmerbo Aa a fashons lolehataats tote

Curlew, Black. See Ibis, Glossy.

Eskimo. RRP eae Ete EU Be ON Het lea te Gs tome pe oe tetas

Totes 1 SY GO sry a ae AGA Ry Reve ROEM aire eer an oo
EL Eo TTL USA oo ae aac tat RTO re EU
ON EI res eu tei eo. a bole Sn bis teats ob Le Garages s
AIS ATEN PEN EINE SO iy choy I ae ests Sa old ied ello Sah Meme le oedsre owl Wha
De ge PREC silo sictaee cre waters suse Code Vietipady Slee ace

Dab-chick. See Grebe, Pied-billed.

TO NNEEIRS (2-SPTVHE og AA 2 SMe Ie Rg eR ee ae me Ree rhe tee eE
TESTOR GE oc oc SASSO eo erg een RD an tan ROERC Paee ee

NERD TRO TD SR LEM wh a oor o oie Saute Sarva be 7s omer ode testateel mice Tafa tote febee Soltarte tole
GUSICT! OTE eee Reet peas iat eS eark aps Se Near aap Oe are Res roe ag

palmarum. DAN 9 RHP sie DU Ne Pmt Rae aoe ge tad ele haere:

tigrina Bey Sopevch hehe Mare hahene Cake Loiens hoden opens tebexonsriclie hearer mishase“ahebeiiols

aoe aw 9) oe) 0} 0! 6) 8) 0-ae aie

218. eke inte ere de Tere, even. ose

at ep ere, 0i vo 8) e197 rer. ey ake.eviay

wea G tara. e (eiehienerra semana; >a

ei slve(a) eae ss settee 6) isi. le

aie bole! \e):w)\») 6, 6 'a),8' we) ss) .0

ee ee

Sievale die elece,e~s e's «elie

wae Ser ete 216 Stee ps ohe.'e

ea foie te. erate es, 6) 0106) a) eis

je ere sv 6 o 0.8 ee ee ees =

Dichromatism
Dickcissel

Distinctions
Distribution. .
Diver, Bottle-nosed. See Scoter, Surf.

Brass-Winged. See Scoter, White-winged.
Great Northern. See Loon, Common.

Diving birds
Dolichonyx oryzivorus
Dove, Carolina

INE OUTTTIN Goats dak eek en iier Ges hoe pee ea
Sea. See Dovekie.
| Gi Yay, t's] Y= Sah Gr ire ie ae ay eta Pea Ee M MIRAN SI Eiies em A crates ar tr
DOVES eee ise eee eon ea AT La, ey dear eta el oan Wr ge eC AA
ID Yon niche) aCe) esq tay pests tag ter eclenta ennai oaMUrE etre Ne otic W Rte gem dhe KUNA MTei er

Duc de Virginie
Duck, Black

Eider. See Eider Duck.

(GEEATCE SCAU ees ne ae og etcles eee ee
Grey. See Gadwall and Mallard.
Parle wine eerste ean eee CR

King. See Eider, King.

AG CSROT SEAUIPs Se oe semen ust Raabe oe en ame

Long-tailed. See Old-Squaw.

Burne ed ran sae a an ee i cept og a
ingen eckedin dice See ae ee Re eee
TROCK ines Set sais oe ee I Eee ee ee nee
1 RA Ta Lo higea me nraeaey ane Mey ee ee Pree ae eee ener Sern rat Olen ts

Spirit. See Buffle-head.

FTTH TEE Sa i Lag! agi ards te Bc <A a i PE doe

Bay Sea OF MOIVANE oo nope cite Said Carel
Pushing sere, eee hin ee ee aes Ce Chen Uh ac arieesmer he hege
REVEL ATG SE ON sehen oe hele ag to dy ene Pern Ee cal nr
‘Dumetella Garolinensisiege sca hes oe 2 eee eck als See ee
Drab heb Dich eesiac hee creer tone aoe Nees o Sdenale tome eee

PAClesiie ae scene, alii nec mets cy slc nuke my neyele rt eit enema

Hctopistes mMigvatOnius sc). aes ace ee eloe es maeeecrae
Bonet wAmneri Gane s) cieis cos sitet ete ney errors clei etal Neder aco
EIPTCLS ME aes a Ne ace rehab os SERIO RTS Soe oT oan ose meee
Berette blanche Gd AmErmique ss oso. ice crite cre Cosi Sau iete apace
Hid eravAINETiC AlN cee ees ose oe We RO Ree

D7 1s efs Ae tal eet ge adr Mates FON Nace NEA aE mae nA ae RUNS 2

o) aa) = Tote ie: vay 3: aie wee i810, wie) 16 jew! fe le. s) @)e (ste) e\fe (4 «Leese 8) 6118.0

1B IDV) a ae AB ages ce gute Son ar amt ep ees Anh edly Paulie

© ae Belo else) aie 108) © ele Pek
eye cai"el-a-.e lole(al siete miele) apie ane. te
@) “¢..a) Je} 0:3 a \hq\s) 0) \e;<e)ce ip) olalin Mee

ree eee ean nu ew fi

one: 6 aa) 0: © fe 6 mip) o-e, > e elene
« 6050 opens to oleic) fs \eniwilel pew eneis
2 5 0 0.8. 2 0,010, 6,\n alle heteleleitans) as
«0 s/s 0 0.10 \e wen @ Sle) le ate] wi eee.
© e090) 2 0 @ 8.0 eels we leueuel tala
PP aCe Cy

nos 4 2 bp whlte Ree ene 70

as
oo

II
oh

SSoesage

C6, (@, bijo ells, ais lo) otek we teeta lia

PEE ETS sears re SEPA OS eae ak te hit ie A KG RAESE en Ge EM Roane Ba i eae

EMRE ECEIACIN A on ely oe es mma te Ses ed in Se BSA cir ae

EEL TITEL PLOT GMa NOY DME RR et MMe ie ie CORD Soe Res ROP REELS aa 7 :

REINO AP CUINAC SS fe oho tries Sed AN ARE Ss ee ee

(lo oui [phltiasnd SrA SO ati ey te eet ae cet RR nar REE os act E

DE DD STE oe ee DER Se Se ta Ss to ch oe nay See PR INT oR

EPR SEERE MEN RP ECan oe inn ee abe oA is on Bice! oan clara CREE eRe hoe

SR IEP CUISTU Ete Ano nat Lent ba! oh Ub cw vane bean mee Le. Poke

SI EMIIRTEE ERTS EOE e scopietets Sc de wash ho 6h NS we ee ee ee
aE EE PERRI ED Re gs ey wa 6 wa Ripe kon OC ee

Rana EMRE PRES O TEES 8 od a as Side waits an w'ss +s 2 cist RE ees

iE TE VTRVTIVES Fe yea eget ha eis BAe er ERNIE ype hc Se yl rae oe

RPM ee SS es be e.S bE eo wc Br Ae a en et oe

Fier oeeers ETAT ES ATI Sp ents ee FR eee nc Oe 2 ate ee hi cleans
TEGO Pl SED ip ce eS ea gama oie yee 3) Galera Sea a
ie METI POE ee Pit ck ernest Si dah prion. ye a Oa Tahaka Shs ER
USUILLET) ROIS. spre ee ON a ie a aa ers pe in ay CP SRE be,
EMMITT ETRE Dyn, 2) 25. Se ie ci a Na tN Nie a le oe a

pete MNR EMEC elo of I oO aes cia G, wn cide « o SO MIL Eee Re

Faicones ene ey eg oe er Nl oe Na ey ae as we weno oh ea a

Pe ON Il ot Ba i ett ogg 5 ec, BED ec Oe
NCSC AMEE EIDE I eS eB es eel SSRs A ae RS hy URI SOL
a SRE ON tS Rs OS erg RR ooh SN da aise ok a So ig Se Ee

SPREE le nS EL Oe Te ae ee, ae i, oe
iL EYL SD eh Ae ena ete eRe OT nS Ie ee

EL CUPID TEE IS SIS ORR Ue eee mia an hung ts Deepa et tek
SETOHIERHGUISHE Seats APN deen a Nes rely cee eee ORL Ye GR) ere Me at Neg AY Reg
(DDT! ARIAS] OF aR hale are eee Me Serer Rome ER Mr ar athe eat eA ah a
PROPER CSE pape Se ee Soe see pena NCA aes cst emt NN ol ecetieg Sn ag One eR

PLP CET ETRE. siete SN er CO AAUP i a eR mR Ey A NN Seek ete
MT IERSESECMET ENED CN of hes Rene eh) ws aE eee ed oe Gen ew a a
EEL ARTNIREL SOE hit Preah Sees esas Se che ane aa ee hale ates
SORE RLRIFEEP ER RDN et og) | eu el eed Gee aie bale Reape
2 SLT MLALE De RS i A eh i RS eae UE Be a eee ser
PpSRMN URAC Mes a Gare et a Qed weet. MA ccd Oi seta Sete OE eee
PILE ELE 73) TGS Renee ae. ie bai pa en Ma PPTNSS Ee ALsaTeD ayer 8.0 «3 SA
ETE RSS ce ai gtt ie euaiIe RA Sencate VSO Sate tae cans

Finch Grass. See Sparrow, Vesper. Page
SBurple sires eaib Ae wks wo dee heels Se aig en Aen et ad 163
Win e@hesy occlu eae ced Wace aciiiw sie ice ike Se en 161

Pleraara gs WM osc diss ease he tace © eR ake peas ea Tes oe ee 4
1 Ita es AR aete ae n an ERNE ey iit ni aOR NERA IMAG ee Niner Sete ST 142
Hlorida cwmules . 05 So ic Be i ee eS eee 83
Hlycatcher; Acadian cio. casos Peak Fae are be ne eee 151
Canadian. See Warbler, Canada.
CHEDEC os 5S se ed Rn ee ee ee 152
COPESC Ed, sa Poesia hs Seatac aa os see ae eT ee Tos he Re ae 149 -
Great Crested ous Ae Si ws en IN A eee 149
BSE 5.5 1a32 Gh bee ve ve eal e cee ene es ole BIS Re TRU le ate ona axes are 152
little. Green-crestedony 4. isd cee ek eee 151
Olive-sided:i rr iva. Sok Oe ee ee eee 150
Scissor-tailed.. 25.5 Vee. oo a ee eee 148
Prats. doses oe oS cae bie Sea oa wk wot Ne eee 151
SPY PANG Bi. oak = Su Paice Sw We se iw A oe ee eee 148
Yellow-bellied 2. on ee AS See 151
Fly-up-the-creek. See Heron, Green.
Paw de Basadin: ars say acts Soe ane eee ne eee a eae risen oo ea 60
Foulque d)Amérique. <2. 220 oh. ska walkie bees Hn ee eee 90
Powis, Pres 2/6 05.3 eee ee a a ee ore 106
Pratercula arctica s.r ovis es nano oe 45
Bringallidee ss 202 3g eee stds On Poe ek Had Loa eee eee 161
Bulica‘americania. ooo 20 hee Rees Se es a a eee 90
Rhema): 2132 sg oho eae PS sie SE be BE Oe eee 90
Bulisulinie 2 0222S 5 Sirs 2 Sota Nae CRE SE eee 68
Bradman 6S. cond So a hes BO oa a eee 57
Balmarai inf 0 26. 22205 ose RE ee 57
Bulmarus ‘glacialis.:. 2.3). Weiss 6a Gas dels Se ak oo Oe eee 57
G.
Gad walle ois ee: AOR OR EE OE eee 66
AaTb Nn 8S Skok wc con his nae MSE on eS le eR eee 106
Gallinago' delicatac ois 55 v2) coe eno Po See cid be oe 93
Gallinula galenta yr) 20 66 ode ods od oe ddlawicakoaewt is Oa eee 89
Gallinule'dela Ploride: 2°. 06.55 505 wan co oe eee 89
PIGVIGa ss. B58 RES dos Po vo San Fd de OE eee 89
Purples. 356 Pe Paes Ne bo os Whee ME eee 89
Gallinules. os foo Foes nies hs nk RS eS eee 88
Gallinullinte 50 es hb eke SE i ee eee 88
Gannets e255 2) Ss teen ed es fhe ER eee 60
Gannetsie fp S85 SNe EE ee EEE ee 60
Gare-fowl. See Auk, Great.
Garruline 2 2238 5 oo oS eas ona ROA ih ES eee 153
Gavia IMMED neo PS NS oes Oe ke tT ee 44
stellatai cS reas oe oe ES EE ES Ee 44
Gavaide os. ce he eh ae Ro OR ee 44
Gear dw Canada 35 ol ee eA ES ee 154
MPDES 5 eo Bae oe PAE as Me eae © CevodaNe Sal ce wc Sate OU eee 154
WGeese se es Pee Se oil 9 ae eels es alg ih aller 63, 75
Gélinotteia-Praise 22 ss Lee is | ee ee ee AT
AiQUCUCS) AIPUC a sno ee a oes Se Sa De cio ane eee Oe eee 111
Geothly pis: cio oo aie OS wR an OE RE eee 201
ATICHAS cot ore, eRe aba CIS Ne DR OE Se OIE Ee 202
GIOSSAPY oo i ee 6 ais NEA Wd as CREE RS EE eee 219
Gnateatcher, ‘Blue=prey.<./ac050\0 2 ied oo ye so os oe oan whore ce 215
Gnatcatcherss 2.5500 ae Le iss oa EN 215
Goatsuckersss (eo eee a a eo ee 143
Godd or’ Gude 22 (ree On Bh eS ES SDE Le 47
GodwitHudsonian: 3) 2252s els oo oe oe Soe aed So ee ee ee 98

Marbled chee ccs suntiki. Bene ee 97

Page
Re LATI MCE LIEN ACIS csi ts att serra soclaiavie octane ain cath bea hia sos Dees Ra 51
AAT CCAIR UCM eae ese smn a eeeatte tn ie Wie reese eR nang a ae ae 51
SIDES ats ARCO Ay ENCE EME ee RES meat RR eet Re Minar ee NO Ae ai!
PIERCED A Bead ee ata ete, DUD Clee DU RR eee a gem Catia feats): a2
PEEPESOMEI ELC erate en Pe oii ale MEE PN Soy ee ns ae a ale Dee i era 53
ELT EN ie Se cia ya cate alee iat tg aetna Par ce a eaas Rept ec Sc aad te 53
Le. + = 2 ERR Te Ao Oa ae eerste noe Ne a PE AD Bellen Ae or oe 157
SRE ore ae ARERR RSS ge aN na ina an Em SMR MEE Si Len Co a 70
1 ESESTETECO AHS ea a ek Seen a a gc ONL mob NRE SUING cc val
7 Eos CEES STTSIPY aR RS ay a ea pee aby ed aR MRE EAA "rN Ya 168
Goosander. See Merganser, American.
a MEE ees EU on ys Le cis Bide sik Stoiaceean kf oR ee 76
Per PRP IE > Ente 08 Cree CEN Ln Se, ict nc) 3 Foren Sd id Se ale ra A ER 76
EE sg oan SEES ES TRIS Se a leet a Renn. ee Pu a med ed ay 76
NOMEN Te SCL gh 5 ia) CMC. sain. Ecos Ole bea apa te Rite WR 75
Solan. See Gannet.
SHEVES A w 2 SOS GS Sa RT Se DR en SP Merl ete bie Eat eS DA Gee re eee 75
ee free gh 252 is Saas la a tae ye oe RI 75
VAVTET i504 AYO Era ac ae ap RO eRe RR TSLN 2 Oe Me NNR aio 76
FG 6c seis acs kc. Ce Pe ge AA PU a rl a CA ences ater Sr 0 76
TPPURLED MULE. se TEPVRTTEESTIT Ska er PR I ane eer NOTES 7 = 119
Grackle, Bronzed. See Crow, Blackbird.
Rusty. See Blackbird, Rusty.
Graybird. See Junco.
Great Head. See Golden-eye.
eR TERE tg Fo Ea aio Oba cis ba Hon eee ee 43
BOIL PUES ores Big ee OPER SS er eer fare aie i on cee eg 42
ae ETL TELE = A SESE RS ioc Pg UREA e at 42
LELDSEIES «Sats NG OE ae aT Om arto edie pee De ninco tw eer 43
NE RMR 9 wt AN SS oe oe) SS ea, Ce Ss Ss as cig es OO eae 43
eee Ne et Ue Oh ae Secs AO ice A oe ee 42
a LMR EEE nS eS ae he Pg Bi sues Midsbin’ oS wee euclene ee ER 43
Ey ek crac CSSA a vr ae ee 42
Green-head. See Mallard
ee ee I SS eS coe Bea os eon eE ee 188
ag nap es AEC REEN IE ooo recc oo cle ho |o.e ad 2 ois Siw nate Wis eek se aie meeeee soe 210
SHROT®, GEE CIRID En 5 A Se ois aA a RRS oR REP? er eat ea neh 200
on = = che earner rep a Se ~ es 216
EIDE LEER "Eis a RE Se a igre camer ae en eee seemed se 206
CELTS UL ees eS SS gee er ee ety on AERTS ea an ote tere 217
eer eereae penne Sir a ee es rl aa ee S ate eee S 216
LEE LGD coc! Se eae ees meeaeeoe a Ch open mae eas 216
SrELATS LAP LSA a SHOR th tis ae keer 200
aE RTT e Oist Oxo ee tg eed whe ac stale an He, haces 206
IOUS TE. coo bo ced ig Oi SRO SCL ET eee RE NR EE oc a a NM re CON eck to Sta 207
SO TCH o< TS acta 2S ee aa re ee en NSS ann Set eRGENC eg Spas 217
TEE Eee nti eh ct BRR cS eae en a ne ER Ce TOT pe rier vee n? 179
Cardinal. See Cardinal.
ce LLL Es te eS See eM ratte eet oooh? ce 162
Li. E.s (se gin eee Se a er ee DC ee ature eka ttes feel 163
5 Be DIRE ESET PE ena ce Oa RANE re ere 179
ae ETE GIT Een se i Dr BL eat 0 yh ee ee 162
SM NMPERCARE DIOR Wi eects vo ere Thr Shh uA REDS ESET 179
SLE ae he 2a) CRE RR SE Se I RRR an ny fee ine eee 179
WUE NMRMAP OD ape Pe rete tt ia et ocho SUS OS pr TT OOS hs ina 163
ne are Mn rs FO OR Sg Bo eo neue any aes bees Pen OE, 51
FUMED s > 25 6.0.0 0 Sih 5 RRO a ee Ra RNa ere ct eee ENE Re cS oa ape 106, 108
eR i wae ASM Dae BN ee a ee ee! a A 108
Pinnated. See Chicken, Prairie.
TLS LNT 2s SR ASRS Seal agora ean apes ot eae eatin NOR ee Paes Saar en erate 111
RRP tc ES a foe AL ae Soe alts eR IS ate eee eS PGE 108
pCR tars int hs | ot te aa a oi Doak Gao. OER 111
PRIM EIN east ps (rN ae Re gon aa oto 2 Bi A 108
RE eat ai Wen 8S ch Sat Sri Papen Se A es ea a wt ppt ae 110

Page
LG's < Baeaee tg A RHR PANES aH Demin wet Sechaba sea MRED IA ee a. aw 85
Cra ao Sings soos Bios GS Be eA Ow w RAE WR ABs i Re nie CE a 85
Gris MEXICAN eG he ai eRe ceed cas SNe Ree ee A ES st a ae 85
Guillemot,’ Black ooegops es ae ok won bon leo ke 46
de Britnmich yo). 328 bc oe ies ek oan Gees eee ce ee 46
TROVE es ss ieee gS eae Chace atthe GaP at ey Sate eA 21 Oc 46
OVGINAITE, | ee ey Bes ey IS ee RN ees aE 46
Dhick-bulledy ios BOR Sek i ee 46
Guracel (oer le es 25 aac aaa a espe OIG Slav Sea ee ee Ce 179
Gull,“ Bonaparte’sx. 30 oars ee Se Ak Lea gnc te eo pe ee 53
GIAUGOUB ici eae ee ae a ee 51
Great Black-backed ie oe iss eat ce ohis Agee pane eee |
Blerrari ge ie) SS ars sew yaa nd Soak Gal wes aa Sd Rain a Goal oa ec ne 52
Beebe rns agit arin ha araatsy dla a a seete SUDA ad AO Aes ne 51
Ring-billed 3.) 65 fisacs Be oS Bs LS Meg Mises sah oe a A 53
MIMS aio BSE este is Male @ Sele Sede ete: cist aie! Slat aie "Shek Roe i ah ee achat ee ee 49, 50
Gryplaleon see sta os 3) cca Sale ars es Sate ahah es Desi ol a a 126
WIG Cie Sah ceo peek ho ah og) isi cea bel lag Rae oe 126
Giyrialeons. si oaecs FRA S eS Ces aie, Winletlaka are) she ee apne eee 125
H.
Hisomatopodidse 3. )..oy.3 aco ahere oc seks deme le te ee 105
Hair-bird. See Sparrow, Chipping.
PPA BEGUS yooh jics oes ose k Siw nbs 5 ie DeSos le Siavaties lola gene Sea laigess ee ae ceria ay. oles
leucocephalus 0. 222%.:syéc i oie date wg odd aoe 2 ss eG ae 124
Hang-nest. See Oriole, Baltimore.
Hareida hyemalis.. 07.6 0. eos coe nna he ole Pele soa degra ews as ee 72
Eva fa rig ois gs 15 ete iss ics oh cee ee he re aks le Sad OR 134
Harlea.poitrine rOUSSe® 6.55.3 scale 0 cscs ace Have oi hee + as ens ena nte ee ee 64
a’ Ammerique oil. Sa OS eins 8 giles 4 awa eo ee Re Se
Elarle; petites. oiacia 5 wings 0 Sa Face oe Sh Ow eee Sank gah an Tee Scone 64
1S Edy) clus ae eee nm mc en aera enn Ren TEE MERe a NYE RN aC gcc aS vo 0-0 - 116, 117
Hawk, American Sparrow... 22050650346 Sosa a ods boa ee eee 127
Blue Partridge. See Goshawk.
Brosdd-=winiged. 5 fc. bois ob adc ne cowie ine es a 122
Bullet. See Falcon, Peregrine.
Chickeme eee eo oe eas ie op i ee Id ar Se 119, 121
COOPER'S 5.5; Goss ssi enn ea boa ee beso Le chloe ene eRe es 119
Duck. See Falcon, Peregrine.
Fish. See Osprey.
Hen. See Goshawk, American.
Hen. See Hawk, Red-tailed.
Ware oo aes ie need Biba acd eave Bo a A dea eee Se ie SE 117
Mosquito. See Nighthawk.
PIB COM oe eis Maes! Savion cee Ree sd Gets Hes We Aud anew, HA eige ee See ee a et 127
Red-shouldered:. 3.600 55.. S.0 on bis + whe oe ep yee eee 121
Red tale ois se ore disrye aiad allan) w oie w baahid adele Malate Dealt ea este a 120
Rough=leg ged!) esos f5es o siaps ale dear Boel d wa lehe aheey BRU e eee oo Pee 123
Sharp-shinned 3.15 0th sere i oo caste’ s ood w clave peste eel er eo ee 118
WWHIISOD’ S81. 2 sadn 0 Saco au p's Wade soo © Owe aE BIE lel eee 122
Hawks, Buzzard, <5 36s.) 0 5s cae een Ws ova 6 bln e 2's «episod 116
RSNA eS a dew iad cl ce oid 'e ariotee wins ae asathe Ba gee Rye tence 128
Short-wiped 72. ioe cose the oc’ ooo 4/0 bb oue oe cis aaah Soe eM epee 118
Hefling. See Finch, Purple.
Hell-diver. See Grebe, Pied-billed.
Helodromas solitarius... 25655 fives sce oeid sole do ee eat ee eee 99
Hesmatopus:Palliatus.o' 5.5% lies sinie cle dice fi orsug. eo sca) Sisue RRO ee geen Loe eee 105
Hen, Fowl. See Grouse, Spruce.
Marsh. See Bittern, American.
Prairie. See Chicken, Prairie.
Hennessey. Hiram 3) ir. ioe scdoncs aeoeselo bah aie 5 wcatebeneie o, Bteut endo bi ese ckenler oye) ere eee ana 4
Herodiasiegrettan 3 ones 8s Pak eee fbi eacd o.oo nales Sibne eats sara anus a ee 83
nS 2106 5) ee era eee CO dM PI een AR Coenen er. oGto 00 a a. 80

Page.
PRM MITE ER ese Wee srs Sod ot GT ae as SS odd 2g Mee AS PRL ne ee 79
Pee oe e-CHOWHEM ING BGs 5 oa 2.55.0 Aad Sd le hos oo dd BAW Rane de See Aue 84
ee MEINE ACR! hia Sts ay Ses SP NYS Ose 2h eas fe AD Wlale Soa bao Le 82
UE NCIRL CPt iny Pere oo. te Se oe aceite heise 52 cio e cairn Ree Ae 83
JTLT. EE nok NAS SARE CME: ee el) Se RR ne ER ME Rae sinner nA 82
a PERRET crn Sg ped eet te P ale owen als we et abs Magen’ ea eee ee dad 84
EMME IIIC S203 2k ut) eee eR Ace oot ae ue Ree eka oe eae Roe 82
(i ESD ea 2 ee erage nS ge Roe I Oh Sa Re fo ta EPS Re MR ae ore AI Noe te 84
PPE VEE ot SF TN Fa oc aie ake a eo oe A BE RGA Sok Ca ae ee 83
MEET Pits 3 fre ak 5 ogee See els by O° USS Coe ate 84
TES ono 1 AERIS Ss ARS Die apc ea a PO gee wes Ace righ en ie. 80
Rr ye ea NIN a Se NR re yaaa ne Ness eke Ades Ne eee oe 81
(DEE Ie Da SS One ee hae OOO h Wee ee ee ee in iis Ee Rte ety Ai Ft 83
Pam SMM CO CHIANG Fone. 5 <2 Sk oe hl Se a ge he Suk oe Bees hey ee 162
REICH MEG OS Sits, 0S Ree ok ss a SRO oe or PR 130
MSRPTIES 3 2 yes sini SOEUR AED eae Oe aR mere bu Oa a gh ra NS EM 130
DOPE: 2 Sao Set ea Ne carter oe Ea oe Rie ee ar gy rn eis Re cet ae eae 133
Highhole. See Flicker.

Highholder. See Flicker.
Hirondelle bicolore...............: ee OV ee oe SARE eRe ai Re REAR aincn 6 UE 183
SRA ERNIE Re 6k Sd ai Rete Sel a ok ord SA OP ee 183
“BED TEA ee ee ee ee EM AP chi ast oa) 184
ET PRESSE: Se Shai cde ee ae Woy oe SP EPR UG Noten OG gah ee 183
POLLED eae 5. ei ees. g SS Se Tee oe BO er eed oT ee ee 182
eMNMIRREID EERIE ne Po. Sado ooo ak ic OARS oa ws ho ee 182
SPE RIMEMIM IRSA RSTSUD er So dg ene OE sce See A Rowe eee aL 183
eo DPD EUS ao ee er nn Pier arr ie ero Che ook 72
es ren eet deo eo eek s chad oe ek oe eRe Oo ee 44
Smumerrement Acuby=throated> =. o.oo ce os ooo oe de fb bee ee eee bios ee 146
IRIN IR ety. orcs Sa eh Ss dn eda cane eka ee eee 143, 146
2 EE a pe Ane ee 2 a aE ake Be 7f
ME PRESET Tate oy Waleed beige eee icc os Ses tecuda a's ce DAES Ae 56
MPMI ies) SS, oe a oh ec Bon EH Se RT 216
PLS FEY TEC SS SSM 2p Site Ras oe Poe ap CED RVR a agin EUR COR AGL fs 216
MUTE UMP eee ESS 7s cake SS FAIS oe IS AO, a IN AEE BSR AEA RT SET 217
UME METS RAT oo a Non 2S ON Re EY Y A229 REIS LS A OAS SENS CEN 216
MRED Pe bots eon SA tN A 2 Re ee Ae Se AS ETE A Te PANS

I.
PEER aren SOI ey or se gt, vag aoe tie sac dee ee 79
NEE EM ere a ek a A ole Sa bond Soe ee ee 79
oo felt A ee Se he Soe ea ea nes ee re ei 79
Oe EE cee aioe cons SSE SEE RR es OP i Lb 7
ee NPRM EN EU eC ATLL ep 2 ast 3 MK Sh alich ou al RSS SITES See 203
I a fei lo oe Uc ee) te see wcicloudhs ow an St De 156
2 SPD EET Oe ESE ee ee a gw eet Cn eR er 160
Be LOE IEE rs a a SE eh aut oc dee vib Be eh ee 159
EME 9 5S a oS KAD de hes aceedeee Sok Rie a see 29
NENTS ETP Aa Ch oS a a BS oy. AA bs BF SA oe 89
MINIMME MAMI SRM ek ne eh ees 2 Oe x oS ie dar cuik a ot MORES 183
ae

pert RPS ENE cachet 04 3 Shee ot Ag oo. Lm ade dG Bee oe eo eee 49
EYEE Es Gee ae tm a ce NSC lo Sr ear ol ge 49
Le TDL TS SR tea ty mg te pe es nan nee ERR pO ph pean. tc em aes 48
SUCRE IEC S Deh on Se fsck FG, Oe wR og HA SOY Oe ee Pes 48
PRE NR aR sh ee 5, SS ee BA Ay ok las Ea Fo Gna 185
Lr LE Se SRR aR pee ar ee ns a ae oS 185
RINE I 2028 oie is snc gras ciel ee eee to wcin cee 2s we Pee an a 2 154
rem MIR a 9 SS rar eos NRE NG ONG Cad od. csaif Sean OBds GRO ee 154
IE oe no ee eR a es P< © Rea en eee I Goh sn ON 153

Page.
Johnson, Claude 20055 io eat ANG ions saa eae tnd oe opens ae OR I eee 4
[UL AYE: Opener err eer et reir ora en a ealeea earn die en Dee NI) NaN a a ee as SG = 175
Junco Wh yemialisn oo oe Cas Fete eae ce Sere Re Oe en ALL eee 175
K.
1 6Gianed 2! gt Gaerne Mie ated rer eee fr ibaa nop gn oH ECR SEO REINER Cae SS 148
Kaingfisher cBelged oe vere oil Bois weave des epee ia tal ae a ta A ot 137
Kamphishers. ei care ace ees cal sia Boe ao Ng abe erat inca ac ae 135, 136, 137
Kanglet; Golden-erowneds yi3.5 6. ey eS Sisk PI ot 214
Kinglet, Ruby-erowneds. 2 (050056 « \icracwes Maule s Ms oe Poe oe Sah eh Oe eee 214
Kemgletar ccs is) pen cide ain o icciie wea in ose oom ret eae et a ne a 213, 214
Kite, Swallow=tailedcc2 soled Fae sais os olen 6 Re Sa Soe Bes OS ae ee 117
FRIGESS S05 Sei dtaraite wie oS 5 38 des ol eid hone alee aed See ERR Ee oe ee 116, 117
RIO bce a sel seacoast Hea E SELG wi fat eae GEST BUNT te Oe EA ae ee ee 94
L.
abberaclongue queue coe ee a re Nee ag 49
PATS sc ie a eae cae eteke w dae ares elas neal Guetta ea OLS aCe 49
POWIATIA 56S ba Ree ea ie bs oa AD Ae hs ee 48
Tagopede: des rochers2>) sai vice ok d Pea Sa ok ee a Oe eee 110
des Saulles ss 0 oo sie Biase a Gm wie wee eas ace hid wk gaa ee a 110
G BFX170) 6 [= piperen a bee Na tee Uo ee a TN AT NDR IRS oo oy os 109
MAGODUS 8 Fs ce ie eR alent aig ee wieie wie wis ae ee 110
PUPOS EVI sic ai ctl eos eile eae ea 110
1 BY: 0110 (0 12 eee ne rele tae Dll Sun OAs PH ADSM NEETU ena ES or a is
Taarrivis Doreahigs 32.00.65 cid sles he A hee Ga Less bien et 18
Fidovicianus: <2 600k. ake SRE Secs Sh ee cs ae en 187
Lanivareo: fla vitrons 25 0003 -h0:06 hee oe Peo eal eel re 189
SOLGATTUS 52555505 2.5 ocean nel ioise Siew ale clade era eI 189
MANGES 555.5 Sa is ob ek Sane acaba ew Rik Ge cw Hn Sid GWA OMAR oh en 49
1 TF 0: spree eee Rane ea ar ROI es hl a Mer Emer BERN MED 50
Tark Homedics eo oss cee oboe ol DE eas een ee eee 152
SHORES ois ood ee gee ose ale ein whale Oia ent Sula Wehclal ae ete ee ae 152
1 OS ics MONA TO an ORI Se oe ERM eT chee Ooo 152
Di APUS ALLOMCACUS He oleic aces each ae aa ale ot ace poate ee wT oe 52
delawarensia sii fi. Pek Pama wee Fk wes wn 6 Ua eee 53
HY PELDOLelss 255.5 as Soe See es Seka alee oe Ee eee 51
leucopbherws ss ses) Seco Behe ccs ee Re Sia eenG O 51
IMSS Gos ey re os obits aes by atte Sec ee eels] Lae NE Re Oa Ke ic 51
Mhiladelpl tay ese ee ah oe cee 7 TI hn ae cae ane ea 53
Tiamat co dae se Pe ie a ae ae Rane leet oe AU i ae 90
Temmmona: Fedo 2 oh NF St oeceisaclaek orosece sue 205 Sal 8 Rafal 5 ss Ss ROSE SR Se 97
HSM Ash Cais sic ks aoe oie es doe ne lals hw WIS ae ot eNOS ee 98
dumnet;: Redpolh wich paca ka Po oka & NS sibs Sele A oe OR a ee 167
GT UTATV CT ih AN ee a ea crs Tea AL sy ope ION a oe re 16:
Ihiterature; ornithological.) iF ce ee hele eek ee ee 13
THO DIPes TODA GUE HNL Se anc tate els ta oe) ace len. Cetin aR te a rr 91
Lonpipennes. ey ics ek aie ieee ate ei a cab Siac! Soo ce alos aes Sia ae 48
ongspurie Ta plan eek oo heb eos Se Rt cheno a Set oe 169
Loon; (Commoner oe ere i Gece ee ay A Sie 44
PUCU-EETOALEM e521) aaa fescue a nee ee gud elSein die oats ae 44
TAO OEN Sie is Tt eee SN eR ile arpa ESC Se aor GCT Sela Ue col ote vara av MeL eee 44
Lophodytes eucullatus:,.- 6606) cae ek Oe aiihik. oo ee ee 64
Lord and Lady Algy. See Duck, Harlequin.
TEORTS, -CULVATOBSELAS S22 oo coe Be ee a Fie SNe Digi ee Se Sin ae nee 165
HCUCODT ERA ie IO hos Day es ol car eal ony ee eee nS eee a rr 166
M.
Maar CleXtATCGICULe Hanis a. ieaceae oles edt Tete Aces Sa tale SE eS ge 45
Macoun® James Ni ys so eso ecse ae ba oe eee ste ie Meal ale ene 4
riko) ch a Wager ener tee te aie ae RG er ete Me eG aA ie AEP SS Soy 5 4

Page.
eM MUIR LER BEC 2, Seal iae ep avalos oie SRC oe a RES he bo EE. 74
eee ACRE soe Sey oes Mesto sete nes Ss ae So aE oy Se a 74
“TELLOUIIL/S ce eae ieee odor a a RR Se Olga Gh 74
MIMI a care re Arahh ie tisk cle eta tpg wi va ee eae 143
NAMED CPIBCNIS Stig arf rat OL ax bie bd Cuts SR OR Ue a 93
NMR AT ore Peano Lod eR ies kt er oat gn te Wikis a 153
VEE" SSS ap Bape bse Qn phat PSR TCO Ree ae AN SS oo 153
© ETT, POS IARRERSES SEE VIN Call gee ao eine ollie Whee OE IPO gen rei MeN eens ne 153
REMameanINeS EE eae, Sie Sac hee vey, ute) oC ar a Cea 161
Dame TEe OUI ES Ste = Ul auh vee hee cigkiak ys 25) Sat OS Ue 8 We ac moe 160
OTT EL os a Sale SIRI oe elements ee pee Ace Mela od ny DIE aint 65
Black, See Duck, Black
OETA Lb ac S/S aa YE ava RRS ISIS i Me cir ay Le Fae 60
MIP DEE ARLICU ris CE na SP) 2.2) ci peed GR co MSS hse eee ihe (coer NU Te Mea rg 7
A TLECILET TSS 9 ACR el ce a a ee RL Na SN Un MER sar one RSP GR 69
EDLE LS Ue Sea ee eae UE ee ie RM OER ae Saati Wes Souieg ea 70
PERE MER. ois: Co sae kak ca Lat) 2/2 Gl een Ma Reem aa we 70
RRP EER Peso OG harass o Siak Sik SPE RED CNS meas nats 69
UMMREEE SEI cote Se ae OU Nk ys GLa 4 kuch ong oe eae 46
ePIC BEDS Pao iS a out a eye de aan ao aN 85
SUEDE GTS OIG Sp Te a ee a De Ce RAT SOTO AA Bs ok Faderare ag 86
Marsh Harrier. See Hawk, Marsh.
Martin, Bee. See Kingbird.
ee: MAEM MAR RE ihe CF oes nny as ha ae ec StS eae Fon Teo ety oe 137
Lo RIED Ip OLS DU Eee aN Oe anaes Sat oe eR CRE RE A a 182
Sind. See Swallow, Bank.
Mar Bete AE EMI ES 50 se oe aso 2) sys pd hatte Be Son dase ones aie ates ee aR 145
Mere rE ORC eMINAIIP IOI DIATIC. «oss 55s as yo Fo we ea eo vale Cid ew wb Ode Puen 95
ORPEOUIRE PE Ge tnt. edtiapeh htaeya sey Sys SR ata eet oe eg ect on 96
MTP OAR a Pre) s S44 wo 2 he ERS Rae See ee Ree 94
Rete RC TOIENE A oti ey, og ads, FG & Sa es ed NE ee 100
“ BEETTE ES G72 7S Speak eae aC Remap Re Po PER SAA 95
Reema S STARE 5 dot hop aG whe Gy ki eae ees a RO ones 100
/U LL ESD SS S71 1SS eB eee Mer eR SS Re A OR 94
See RD hen ite sw Wg ag 20 ES hd PR Sy aoe ate 95
OUTSET 1 DRA Re tei RRs SE oP Eo cee Dp rir fu Sk SAR 96
PROTERDITEG pe eeree Pic eT heed oe eee een Nan tls Sa et tions toes 94
Ei MANNE TENS a9 Soe oa ordi 05 o ap hea Soon bso iat OS pee ee eR ee ts 97
SOREL A mE Pe Tbe S trop, Veo E as Dhak AS Lp ME SaIa Sada Diakee ae eee 100 |
MRR 2 ar Ne ae ao asl ah win tas Wheele les!’ eave alee lela. etebn kee 53
(FE RULES. Sits 2 SS gia ae ee nee ee Eee 159
Meat Bird. See Jay, Canada.
(nas SMMC ES (EG! e022) 0 EN a Ce are 141
eI INNES eo Epa ens by. cosiah aS aceganleh we tea os oe oh wlalp ot advl hw mee WEE 7
MIE 080 HOS na mh rook ne 2s a lon Gow sew Gl Disha Die Be Pe Pa ee 111
REITER EAE Ce BALE 8 hoa ioe cl che Sus, idiw ro ats lagged ee REE 111
nD IRM ATRIA For Gare sacs es vine vk ow ec bo as Be oa eR 177
OL EES ne = C'S So eT mem he UI aa De 177
TRESS 5p ACRES So ool sa aed ae ao eT PIL CPR Cee ARI 176
MARSH EE EEE Oe i aco a 5 ween gb nino vib oie He oleae apse Pew eete sees 47
Seniesa MPN PPLE TAC PEN ir, «er. ce, )ais Ac Pda a oho ee res Vise owe ee 64
MES MCHER RE TY ale ae Cans i Ps cies Sees PRE ba ee eee 64
Bae Sa ECA EG Pee G co MUS, 81k Shwe eee ade ate RET See UT 64
0 AE EEPSEDE. cies a RE gee a ee ee tg Cee ra eae A Se 63
NEMS SP fe ah Se G Gh is RE Ad Inas ie Sele Dive a Oe Be eve 63
|) 7) SEDER T EP ECAnE SS Sat ae ened ie eae etl iietiay ne aE oe CORES” ea Sah de 64
STIL eA tame Ss Pema INA bom nah om A lalas Mier asi Sony creua way a er calietchchere 64
(LE URL SETTER SRS i a cde er a oR 217
PUMA MIRC E PUTER i os Ui Re oh gk SD ges as a Mae a ph ecerb a pias toe. is Kia aS hae A ee 212
RE Tbe Orta eo tap te SL Ct hE cs wate na REN cee wa iewle 213
Remap PMU MIR TILOISIN, 5 SY.) 2) do 3 os oe arele nis OSs FE OOO RAED bE ving oe Ree 94
RR ROIS eee. See ee diy Fis ee wwe Sie ele We ae ao ace) we Glo te oRere ae One 145
RN SPIT a et nc ne uh peg ie et ee A a iN Sa a Mace slate aromas 10

57172—16

Milan & queue d’aronde! . 0055 2 .snie cicero wie Sisean ss ollterin ay teeters (ec
MGI OMIM AZhEEE TOUSSE soc vote no sre coc cos IR aoa cde a ae Re pee cee eae cE
MUX VEU TOURED. 2! o5-. bcoeiate a seseser ihm tnclors ace aheus Scene eves es ate oe eke ale ae

Mirus poly g@lottos. «.. 0) 20s os. oka wea ks a we ele eee nme als eee
AU Bat Cay irl Writs by a La et a Lee nea Me be Pea Mee MnO pa sian nie Cro. 4 mo OSE
INEOGICETS ee a eco eat ges Rear BUS pe Se anos cM cae cee
WMrockenig birds io een ee Sie ee oN Sa, ie grea oa arts as kN Aad
Moineaudomestique 2 i008 266 Ue ioe sa in a ie i igor ne oem ean eee oe
Molothrus ater gs ee ee ee eh ee ee esa ae ee ee
Moose Bird. See Jay, Canada. i
Miorillon’ A Co Uler si. e sy Senate a eh ohare NIST este e ek se lon Se SPRL aN ue na aA eR
ACSC MOU el ee LY ee aie ee a De coe pe CAN TAT RE a ae ea

BOUT Ge: oe ies NCIS ersten gl Eeataa act Dy Loe car lee eal port ete tan cna CO cee
Motacilladae ea oe RU REN oe a Cc AZ LON ae a
Moucherolle a huppe ye ee aOR SG nies a och ee a ag laelle ita Sor eee ee
ACVENERE FAUME hee a een ee ut ica le eae cele

BUX (COLES OLE VE ssc) 2 ies as Naa ehlse ae neta SATS ot ories tale 12) eae eto

| ose b hc Rae ia Pee Ren ty EM Ne ee USM RA MMe MNS eater eS S clarri'G < Co 5

Mud-hen. See Gallinule, Florida.
Red-billed. See Gallinule, Florida.
White-billed. See Coot, American.
YA U6 Ye) 1: Bee i ann ene Arena emer ia Ae aos Sc

Miuscivora forticatarss 32.23. ccenk eck cuarers e's cis elobeiih leo) aie a site ous allesiioa ted ene Aenetie ake ease aseme
MiyiarChus!GhimiGus:.. 6.4. =). oi 4's coetiads clot eve « She OMe tele wine ee oer
IMM ViOCHANES VIFENG. oo c'S 5.5 i Se ek wine wee OnE eye bisa uene age eee

Nias eT A US aye oe sien ieee cs aad eel atte sea es giue sal cya colle ato ea enc oe pac ee ee ea
NGS GTA a ho Sears al Sau rai Sea es peice ee ra ele paling telltale alates oe foe lode tae tase 62 alte a cele a ee
Niet tion Garolimense 0 2225 osc ciccc alee basse co sitha esas o Cele ve eae rer ae on She eee
Pag iG WC ses see baste ahs lela wien ecg nD ag deo aba tere eco wp le a RE
Nightjar.. See Nighthawk.
NAD LODU eS 0110 ts OUR its ea EOE aa Ae mali han SEEM IA iia eee hen oss, ona a-o E>
EHO (si 8 (621010 see es mC RR ne eee Me ao ncaa itd a Akai. 2S go On
ADOPTS aid to aie 20 avg See 0 ei'g in elisa. © lade in peli) sbb a Witt ne ya ekceat a een re
JoubVok='ay oW (oi) (= ee een CI Mn Cn aa an Oe e iM Renn mem IAC Sen iG ans on ec wi
Wruthateh } Carolinas 65% oes Sieog oo) a0 Pb ee lasid w oe ma 3Ue lene laleke! ot) eae eae ee
IRieG=Dreasted ios ccoiele couse eine silo: oer eae Ia hue eee mene eae ene oa ea

Wiathatelies eee cccliscsleeeys tells abe cove lauamauoriaise leva (Sukie cots rite lpeelteusselisseg oieienent at eneaa
Nuttallornis borealis (32 oa). cslere ean coche sis leurs eons eke She echelons oleae ee ene
Weyetale id) Acadte s)...3.65 22. 585s el ois eed wie sie ouaiece 01 visit Salemle ante fe eee

Ge Rachardsowie icici eco hee ohio a oe ee SO ere He ae ate oe ee eee
INGVCtEA AY CUA se ieicis Sulaieyercuevs austen ghers, slavnlaielav stele sluts tolellseteSesceet el cueseey eect et stele tome at aan
Ny ChiGOrax, Ty CICOTER 68 Seo c Gort. Saal eto doeierane ls eine ehslleislientea onsteseu pone a tees elie ae een

(Ole et nab Us: ter on ay Ont ey re ee SMR Comin vdetoniaminaice ting 2 c.0 2 oN

WCEANOAUTONID SS 5. ee OS REY I a eae ae ess Rah Roel
Teucorhoan cg Sei ek a ee iw aR ee ieee os Suge) SRS eee ee
Odonitephorides : 55) 6 05 ao 26s), oi dls che ere sw, 00 Syed adele nage ames in 3

sat
SFT I ae

EE EDI i Nip pe ae Se, Saas Pin a Se aE ne RE en
RARER CULL Ae Le Selina red eee BCR eins als nr cte Sow es abies ces aes

Oie a4 front blanc

Old-wife. See Old-Squaw.

CL LLETE [RVR GUEA GUT Fe TO ea pet Ok a a ese Re EN

| EELELMD ~ soc SE Sipe SS el ee eg ee TS
PLAS oleee ER aR ge pe ee Sa Se NS eee ue

EEL ESE IEE RR A ei Le ea rae

Oriole, Baltimore

Ospreys
Otocoris alpestris
Otus asio
Ovenbird
Owl, Acadian

American Barn

er ey. aed 2 ee Pe ea
Co ET) UST gS ie nO a elie ae eee mn rae

Saw-whet

BOs EINER EEN SS cea Paes sos ob oa. Goa. a's rus O$8,8vn 9 eage ee

Oyster-catcher, American
Oyster-catchers

LP SIRGIMEIG EDs <5 9 Ge ea ee aa Tanisha ee Sree era

LES UTUE 5s oS since ee ee ea a rg

Paroquet. See Puffin.

Parrot, Sea. See Puffin.

Partridge. See Grouse, Ruffed.
Birch. See Grouse, Ruffed.
Spruce. See Grouse, Spruce.

EMRE EIS BS fee 13S crate n carci hee e pak ogs, «si Sopa = he uw mse eas
SINISE EINGEDE coc a. visio wp etn S/o ao ice wine nee eee sees
BUTI WACO R IRE aye ce ees oe = eee ee Me ro koa ake

57172—163

eerie et ee a oe pee
(OE TPE G] 2's 2" AiR Ao ee ra en eh 2 NS CS IN

eC MCRN WONU-CATEU: 22s 52. soa tk bas ve we oe we eo ‘
SLOT ES Ob 1 IS Peas Nig a se pen REE ct

Monkey-faced Brora Ct A Cn ee Yee
EEN Eee eC et 7 He

Ruwical wa eye] wi ee 16! ac-ellh hale (07'u ise) ie) \a. 0; w\ ‘al a) ajo! 6, 0.\8)' 0, Si 0 [0,50 8\ele Behe (0 a, 10) .0)/a

SHR ESELD ng cag ee Oe a RTS ead eel core ice Set
Pe Sea ee ea oe

Page

Passerella tinea oo 0k oe be Ok Dd an Soe ON a ny AE eae 177

Pascerea 150 ie ic a a ee ite ae rr 147

Passerherbulus:Henslow1 62.0) Ge ee ee ee 171

COME assists IC aed Nera ha tale ee ae ay ee oe els oA 171

WELSOMN 1) i a eee ee BOTT ae aha 172

Passerinn, CY amen ios ox e ic isle Sis tate RN ES ONS ee eae 180
Peabody-bird. See Sparrow, White-throated.

Pedimcates phasianellig. sic 3 io ects gO ek Ce ee CE e ie ne ee ee 111

Peep, Black-legged. See Sandpiper, Semipalmated.
Green-legged. See Sandpiper, Least.
Mud. See Sandpiper, Least.

PRISCA EE RE i etek la Ws ek ech eee ie Sate Logue IU Ieee al ae 62
dS 2/1 oh 11 = Re a en a DRL PERI ee ere MRE OE IRON UNDA 62
Belicia alpina! ioc oN ork lees Sh So Sie bes Meee Ro ee 96
Penthestes atricapilltag so.) oi ede i adie ave oe eek in ee eee 212
RUGS OTIECTIS HS i F2 Sy ea a ie oe tos AES Se TRE Do 213
Perchers, Songless 2.6/3. :3oic certs wil sa Oe eae oleate he ah gin he 147
Perching Birds 3 ooh Oe dc Oh esc Ree 147
Perisoreus Canadensis. ..0n020% Gace sec eae cues ben es a a eee 154
PET POCnet soi iad SH Ae Sa aia Aa angio Gn hele aes eee 45
Petrel de Leach: 0.30) Fone 23 i ea, ee 59
WS ONT oe Fy se se Sas Se RR en aie clea a ae at a a 59
| rd 1): Ra Sean te BER a EOE NMR AVE he a 59
Walls’ aie oc eae hi Ga hs NR AE er 59
Be brels sie ee sg aie tan (eis uedin tates Minis Lhe OM GL a ote LIS ae ee a 57, 58
Petrochelidom lunirong:2 3) 625) es hn oS eA 183
Pewee, Bridge. See Phoebe.

WOO saeco eR i aN an ae Ee OS Sa A 150

Pewit. See Sandpiper, Solitary.
Phalacrocoracidae sre een ten be ie ene ete Ue 60
Phalacrocorax auritus.<: oh oi cee ba eee Se ee ee eee 61
CATO SiC he ei tacic ee ee Ta ee ea 61
Phalarope de Wilson) 00) das ee a oe Oe s Re ee eee 92
Phalarope,; Grey 260 22 bos a PE Oe ee 91
byperboréen:: 2 3.0.5). se acd eee 91
INOrGherme jae eee ee ee a eae ee aa AR te ae eth ee eg a 91
FROG seed 2 Hab cae teen, tee cn cust tS Rick eal Oe OnE arr 91
Red=necked iy singe disnieac coaustet teats hanes tee Tea eet 91
PRAIaTODe FOUR 62 6 oe ioe Has aay ares fa ie alia a eee oe icia otec aR 91
TUES(0) 0 < ee A Choe en RO Ry A SE ee oagic oe 92
Phalaropes ieee en GE Liete ote oho Rl, be ene ee 91
Phalaropodidee so 5255 snus ones Sie ce is we Seale a os eee 91
Phalaropus fulicartus. 2.626 Cane ace ike bn ee Le Oe eee 91
| 2 GSS) 1) RN ee a On Re IGT RE RY RGM NR TS 106
Bhilohela ming 24 eek ik ee eee Ee eee 93
Phiccotomus pilestus 000 Soi i A ee eee 141
POCO soo ea ih Gh EU ina 149
Pac'a huppe 6earlate: ices 6 eck Gk ek a wee oO IS Be eee 141
Eh Re) i sch bt << pea nL Pea ol t-te BIEN Ua Mae eR mr Mire Cotta As 141
BATCHING 28 og cE ten! MeN on ae Nien Oe) ei a 139
CHE Ve a ea ee nee es Seca yield (nc ete nt a ae ar 138
CD AMETIGUO 3. oles Cokes eS oe eee 140
de la Caroline 00h Ge ee es Ee ee eee 142
COTE Gaia at aR pail Sy ap ie 28 Stee 142
AN CUE ee ere ae nL br Olle teal be ese oc ae ea 140
[OTHE | LoRReRn eg Gesteas a ee erie Rm OE GREP E MLD OS RIN Ian A a gd oc 3 139
a (tz a (ch: EA eget ac iced ela athe ra er Maen Sei Tipe HED NR Bio's o on 153
1 Ea Cy I Soe a RE enh Rt Me Sal lee Ca Be aed RED MINS A To oy oe 138
Picidee i ea Dh eA Te RU TP ot Cade eld PERN (APB ER OREN Duce E Cae EE rm 5 yg so 138
'PICOId ESiAMEriCANUIs see ee i ee sees Ca eee Ree eee ee 140
AT CEICUS eet rete Ach Pas MU Fa sient eR en Ce rr 139
Pre ad Americge si eS heer ee laa Se dC oO 153
Pie-preiche-boréale ne ig coi uh GOR a al De ait ie ee 186

Pigeon. See Guillemot, Black.

Peet OOSSCURERS cae re eee bee ea dfs oh ce eeu eb es

Sea. See Guillemot, Black.

RM hears Sete oak te tee terns e s.o tsk ooo a eveléte Saws
2 SOE TE, SELENE Eo A i 8 sa de eg A
LE EE. 2 Sea a a ae SS I AE er ea aot Seer

LOUSHE HD CUILb clea anise aie See es See
POLES SES ESES ewe OS Se ie oe a aie Ree ta ON abel Ca

RAPER AERAIE eet ee te ne a, AM HS Spline
PERI M MEMRAM IMIEES eyo oan dtc cas sve alates wok av wieS'Eas's wee
SmeeH TENT eae PER LAE Mars, Suge Ohc vw fo, BER a 4

See PRIRRA ETE et rn ee cece SEs sabe eee
CELT LT TSU aes i eco mn Oey Sage Aas

SPELT TTL 2g ap hen Be 0 aS Sg nea eee ee a
Paloverythrophthalmus.. 0... .... .+s2cseeeescceseds ce ees

Pipits

Planesticus migratorius
Piautus impennis

Plongeon 4 collier

(LO TUTTLE), A mah co Minami a By ton lee a Haran te Ree ee

Black-heart. See Dunlin.
Calico. See Turnstone.
Carriquet. See Turnstone.

Field pen eat SN ane Coe mite bee rr Nate eed nas fells re

Ring-neck Soh OS Seog STIS BMS ce RPTL ee ae en ones
Semipalmated RP ye die cosas MS payee etl EIN Seer tote ree
Upland ner Se aa sce aeaatsy UR at 2 (ot anatate ne eRe wa
Pluvier 4 2 vere TACO te Sieg ie a ah eee ene eee Mines ea taahae ir ae

SRS ees lat io loslele, wm, oe) 9) .616)'d, 818. 6(eelo, @ we Oe. 6, ee eS 0.6 6.6) 6 oles. e9)'s

oie SRR TG IEE tee ae Sen APS SUAS etg rSRR Coe tue soe ake
peepee EAM CNIS ones 5 a wig. oy ee ee nie > Side wie Sion ws iv came
Pama DaM AU POMICODS, 2 oc sis cic oaG wis d vcclerlecwrthe va ib ass a eeentane

ReMi S PENT UPOMICIAS 2 5 2 oo. vse heed he ies oe vss oh dee

1 oe SOP RE Tn ae ee aa PE NT aan
eaurNenan, WV ANIBE > fat ese ve Ooo soc bee ok nb bes
PeeereemLrmmaimatnb co py ee

PE TAMIR eM Soe Shs, SG haan, a Ee Soh Ra

Seam ieiake | wie sia) 6e 3el/e\ e: 6/4) .6, 4) «6 \'e_6 106) 0s. e 0 (e) © ee ere wie @ Ovens 00 ele oan. .0 6 « 6 0.6 @ © a0) 4 0 \0) 6) = ee
of <9) 0.8 al ai wyeie,ie)\ e wie «is

Page.
Polioptila: coorules 203 fac) eset Se a tie eo ae ee ee ee 215
Phi po fet bara ge 558 Gach aca as ta oat a ee Rie bev atest sa ieee CL i Meare ees 215
Porzana carolina iis 9 BOs OC ee a are et an needa eae ne ah 88
Preacher-bird. See Vireo, Red-eyed.
Procell bari ee oii 'cfstars/ Misha eset hus ie a ee eee ee atk eg a Ce 57
POENE SUIS 5)! Re ats ss ao ale Stee et we le ee ae oe ee 182
PPOCCCRIOUE folate seis Sts VinPeletotata bw Bats ae eit ae oa © ee Rk 12
Protonotaria: citrea: 2. 4osch). weiner oe els Se weg oe 192
AB GERVUDUA GERD 8 yates Mts sister Shad os bala ou oaebor oe Pale Eats OCI CA ca CIS Sto ie a 106, 109
GG 5 teal Jota ASN a Mle Macon le ein tees Geta a as erent ee
Willow. See Grouse, Willow.
Lg ibii! s aMPUeE Nhe aR en MON. | MOH Iria ae a Mreue rn Aen Merny Soy 45
ci 6 at ae oo RR ae TNC. RO am Beleatan Cie A 58
PULETRTAS 58 Soe raa sn 9 As AW’ ols soa taa Une a ta eee ang NE Re Cae cree Ne 45
MP YEEEUTAN Sis Sa, safe tas Ce mw a ib canoer Ree Sie a Ren aude te an SE ere 58
og) dL Mae Oa a aN ane eae MAMA UMO RMI ue mE ial eh eM 58
PTISCUB iis cae edt be eh OS ag ee Sean ke ie ee 58
PV ROPOGOS 6 6/0 \e shite cs 5k Y Sah eck Riel sik eaikeh Sea SQM AL DLGUle Ci Uae ieee ae 41
Q.
Qua-bird. See Heron, Black-crowned Night.
AN cis ss os Biss is ais argh ee LE Ree Bare Sed ODE ete ee rence 106
American. See Bob-white.
@uails, Amierican:, 4/505: cis: hao bas be ek be eee Ne ee ee 106
Quank, Big. See Nuthatch, Caroline.
Little. See Nuthatch, Red-breasted.
Querquedula discors.sc. 6G. is ie oh Pak ba dene oo eee 67
Csculusquisctla 2.0 :ontt 2 ees Seth ue ee ee 2 hie avn pen eee ee 161
R.
Rael Carolina, Were ins a. ae 6 $5.0 eke ee oi ee Re 88
ATR 200 6 ie hiece Bg oiled 5 4 Tare lov a Eee SENS ae O eae eee 87
OES FM face Die kospiSie See S ees Bite ER ae Ook aoe ee RUDI le Oe 88
Vi UMA As heise Arar bec e eee eee Pe ge CT De Ore ete NR ne eet ee rr 87
Peal: VY CHOW 42): 06.6 ee Oe SS CEES Ce PR Se 88
Railbird. See Rail, Sora.
‘Rail-like Birds: io)6 05) 240 48 oh. oes Seb Re ee ee 86
aris sc lrite 0 ws g.clee ws za yo ite eins eee ee Bb ae Ren La ei SO te 86
Kale dela Caroline isi Pinta sen. vl $a es) oa bas Pee ae 88
WARGIUNIE Be Ghee ee OE eet Be ee Ee EEE OU 87
JAUME (Pe Sess Kee hale ee ESS AN Sip eRe Aa Oe 88
Be ia sia Oe ie Aa bs SE Be Re RINE UE Ue a ee ee Oe RA ie er | 86
Bra hig hd ahake Sakae hPa dh Re Ne LUE ee Nee So 86
UE LG Ti a pe ge a NE OP oe ee aur one Penbir (l ate RMR a Sy oes 86
PleP AMS Nl rs ices soos weg Nia rese dO) gi sleek ek oan) Bae cok ON a ee ee ae ‘epee ae 87
VAPSIMIATIUS , 2 7-c eso es ces hols SR AES lid oa, dw ods, Soba Ee ee cee a 87
RUS EONEB HS ii seniie a ealae Bless 2 iste le ae ads Gales Ne Becicli sre hel psd tes 0 Ne Ae Ue a 113
PVM else cara Sects asaya af Gi wc ile nual oehicc tk walnc big gi dhes cee hts Oe Re 155
Recurvirostra amerteanay aio sch seh is os ARO Le os alaban alee a ee 92
PRCCUPVEITOSURIGES 3-5. ack odd cis bak OAS SS Ce hee ek a be RRO SENS oe ee 92
Red-back. See Dunlin.
Red-bird. See Cardinal and Tanager, Scarlet.
Summer. See Tanager, Scarlet.
Redhead foi nii. je oes EOE eee hk ae ene nk Che a ae Se ee eee 69
Redpoll; Hormemann’s)) 24s hose) kes a kee ee Ske eee re ee 166
RSAMOlIS: ss sso RNS oe Ae Sik AS Be Dee CS EAD tee aa Oe Mee ae AO ae ee 166
Redstart; ‘Americans <. 52 fo sc eo So. 00 24.60 0 e Pb Ce FE Oe 204
Reeguilinae eck Pets esas ikea) gore eon Sak re sc al codce diac cla ate cds ate LHe ae cee 214
Reepulius esleridulay. sis sok eas wle ah Ps dae we a ah aed oee a Nae hoe ee a 214
BALLAD BA is sie hel Nike Melons wos ais austieh dish cud ava eee sucue lle othe uc te aac cent aie nea 214
Ricebird. See Bobolink.

See Gallinule, Florida.

291

Page.
Ring-neck. See Plover, Killdeer.
0 DUCE TS eTelecare MERC ce TU 184
A) SET, EL DS BLATT ete pal en ee a cel an a Se CRA A Dee ON Sati 2 50
EMMI PELC ANE seco Senn ence ea alate oie host OH Sa ae PE eR ee Ae ee 217
Golden. See Oriole, Baltimore.
RE BE EECIIEO UNE TUDIS A ce carne en AN BU Ike Ae inh ee 214
ICT Sa aR Me Talat eae nC earn ee SRN Se E Ameie, es en ene Te pM 2S 214
Sam esnIOnSSEE IL ESUR G3) he sete Nia rs face Oia a Soap gs NG ie ss eyayelnts eoeiels ths OMS en 218
S,
Saddle-back. See Gull, Great Black-backed.
ne NMR EI ee eer | SINS 2 Sao hth chy ss aM os Sate Sees ee oie oe ee 97
aS RNMRE MIURA 4 Si AS OT Rare Nd PL: a eau ne Meme trae eae 95
Bartramian. See Plover, Upland.
PSEELP AEGIS ae tN A ea rach ae AEN Sota ce Ae Ne Oe Rae S Mega 95
1 BXOUEE| OSE | (C00 | Rea eae ae ars ee ee a MRE he S-1y ee R teatw hat 11S 100
PAROS Rs bere Scart) eae 6 fo AM Oe he ee 96
OCHS PCNA OU Aa ni De OR Rel ee ENE OAS 3 Se Se en en a ese Rae 96
LEGTURTIIE |G Sie apeiron Eye eg hat Seok Daa WL PARR earl Spotl tL 95
Eee uGet SAE Sa 2 ORR oo | OS ASR SOS Ca nes 94
Red-back. See Dunlin.
SUESESTT OVE SP TEEHIre¥G PND BY Sa emer am NIE Ve RA trl ae 97
SMI PUMICE MYA 2h STS EH Soe de Le ON sce as, HORS Sera AS See ht eee 99
SHEDS 3 EGR ES Ee Se ee OE i nae eer di mn tike al ee as 100
RETR eLEre os Cina so re Aas Ae tote not ae HR ee oe 94
VATU aries cio oes | Sea en eet he ae Sees aEAE Re s Grea neice Mes Cocneee tr ee i 95
SURE T IU EEE whe heii Soe eee ie ge ga ee Le i pel Parga 90, 92
SPARE IC HED EGU Sr tes Sai ie Bs, Behn aS Se OSS be Soe Oe eee 140
eMC TERRE TRIP SF Se AP ye RS En 25 Sn Set i ea a2 Stoo eae tee hehe 67
VASE CR mre Soa ge MO NRE To ee LR oe eM echo ae St Aa ie aes eee 67
Oo STILE Sin ES ee eS oR avr amt SS ene = Re pega Ce fern 114
CLE T, 7. EELp aE See SOS er te Pe Deca a neti pn ee 4
Saw-bill. See Merganser, American, and Merganser, Red-breasted.
eee amr era nat ne 1 SS ts ea an oh ee et hee. Smee 63
“LED LS DEEL LT ny Aes beet ae gE eee Mh ab Oe tite se 218
2 ULDDTE TPLELE PAL See eee alee aR TEI At oa. an ea 149
Scaup, American. See Duck, Greater Scaup.
SPEER GTG E.G oe eats Sv Se Ogee nce oN ae ya ya eR at, ag Ba 92
SHEDS, /AGET GTEC tn Sas hig i alc ae a A oe Se or oe hee og Man NNT 74
SHR ner meee ly OIE ALS Sle Oe clo De a aint Rate arteries 74
LET RESS Tere ot ls A OB oe gi laa: ECON ae SiG aA As ae a 74
Pee ee SII rn el ek Le et DRA ea a ns ee eR uaneravs: 72
Oo EGE Eg BOLT BI a i an i i el ae a or a Ocean ESRI eel 131
EP VERT Sic ok oo 55. SIS Sge 2o InaaS een e aa ee rae ereL he Le I ure 200
PRELPE GDC ATE) Se cn, A Road oe MeN Rn er a aa co Do 200
EL LT oe 5 bee ee RS Sr eee ser a eh ek har ate eA 201
MOMMEMPESPERAS 822 Os 8 rae ey ie A Ek ita sca ae 200
eras RIEUNPEL Re RINT hE he SE OS SS By Saha heal acute he ee eo Meee oe 204
LE le EUS TEES TRS ai MR eS te A CS eet Geet 172
LE PLU a. CEPT URS Ce RR atari a nN eeaclee eEaR Ae 58
STD nes Blak teae a oRe AER oar 2 PN ARO ot DORM ee Mr eon SE MP BLS iE Bn vey” 58
ECR TMP et saa Deena Lent Ant LU ee en RS CEM ee She CeO OS
Shelldrake. See Merganser, American, and Merganser, Red-breasted.
Shellduck. See Merganser, American, and Merganser, Red-breasted.
TDR CLE wed ce RR Saat cing ile lt a neler en ep es ee aE 90
ee a Sh ee I aa, owe Selene makes Se ye Soe 67
cee te ELSES AB IRS i Sg ea a Pe tice ro 187
TETAS RS Se Ae Frit Wal Sai EIR ea en aI, Tier ast ase ch RiraiS beta EUR oe se 187
HSEQO TENET sea ge ses ha ec oe bene tT Ree e gaye tad hee cl amar hi gt Mem ecraettar ops 186
een MEnEINE r 08 oes SS PR A ee APR ee Toe eS SN een aera 186
pI 2 ASE RR, Ser ae eer UP er oRn renin SME 218

Page.

Sitelle: dela: Carolimess irc sap hays eos sata ee toa Ba Eee ee ani en |e eee 211

CO EDI GW nse F: Hen teegtiera tna be PANDA e MAS i ODN Neonat Gob oc 211

Sittacanadensis ee eae ei a ote a see al tot eres 0 eee 211

Carolinensise tet Gee ia Cana aa nao aint tee AES: BALD a ee 211

eT UALT (0 2 EA AMIS Sune MR A A MO ae eA ERR ela CMR Mea area ir yr ok oye 210

Fo} c10 12 f= mapa Gay NoPE ere] Me AGES LE NSE Aurao/e Set GCS VIO AAT RN a oe 48

PO) 50 | OT ears Pa BREE anes OE Aus EN ATE RN a IC ey eer Mee GEN RCA AC Se one 93
Grass. See Sandpiper, Pectoral.

PCa a a SR UN ROMO a IU ATES: he a oe 93

Red-breasted. See Dowitcher.
Robin. See Dowitcher and Knot.
Rock. See Sandpiper, Purple.
WY Hlseem ais 2 RS CUE ee Gas Ba ea ae a 93
Winter. See Sandpiper, Purple.
Snipe-like Birds

Seb Pon Nils aiat ee teed RIB) tie Sx ENS LEE ea TO Welch at ae eC STR Da 92
BEI OS eis tans yaar toe cats Soaracar eres Bereta e coaiteles es asm o ese payee gl Uncen ae te Sr 90
PCR Pe Siac cde ees bite Tas Wl he avers Cocoa a ss talieitlag Ae ae aoe ee ee 91
Snowbird, Black. See Junco.
SOMAPELIA cia coer ee ei ha a ae harie oa a seeteh case Rape RSME cere aR ef ea 72
(a boreal 21 ipege Fae mite tiene Un Pal esas a MEISE ROAD toga aE Re RNC EEL lS 73
cen ONL Tic) baa: YAS RNa eae banned Smee EN Oe ANG OM etd Duy UN NEN oe arcs 73
Specta pisos 5% Gerace weer Se ds aS Rs URIS ee eee 74
Seng Birds ye ei i a se ae tal hd NS a Ti 152
Sora. See Rail, Sora.
South-southerly. See Old-Squaw.
Sparrow, Day—wan wed oi. 2:5. hks.c sings teigiviale eya'e dicrorecee) 2 theca EEO tae eae ae 169
120} 6) 0114) apa eM remy eA UE Me BEG Rem ote a ean oar ET 174
Clay-coloured yr Soe sent ees aie ee east Rese ne ea rea 175
Papas os) 28 vite ws bin ok Ue eraccllaeea « ig DhSS iSite OE ee ea 164
1 Dr) (oan ais Seana ee ee te Aron aA Me CREE Me RPE eR a oS 175
OR eG eee Sa eS MPa rs Li asco hes gaa se rr 177
Grasshopper 6. ss... os ic Sie od he a naw de Oe ee 17i
ABEIS ries goa iSis coil aia seni lesa cal Rew ai oes ti 1G Fein Ws eee Nee en 172
Ha 250121 Coy, das pone ae ROT ners bret Te nine DE ge Alea SE Rit os oc a - 171
TR OUSE ees Paria sat eect Bie aime Neots oreo er seats cS SC oe 164
WS Wa Cla sis eee cata eda nes veatae seme le ane Sede Fae te TE TES Ree NS ea ee a 170
| Bd a ee Re eee an race Nn MMP ACR Ra ner ocn Sod ody oS ec 172
i rsve0) 0 =: Pe ean ce eta ee aI ph tee Peep omen Tear et od AC ag ho oc 171
Ta COMMS: 52s ssa o ceo sic aot oe se oe WOES A ee 177
SERIES oe « Wine pa ae Reeue CHM as Ma ari Ainn UEP Mn si R EU Ian ial cde cis Sg tials So 170
OTN 2 ES eS ae co sos Jaliecieiie allen book lovee vo Vor Sins ello doe atloy ona pekiole Today Stes Eee 176
SWARM Taare uy pee celnicas tate Mer Saeco Ee Eee 177
f (cya ener eee Niet Leen aE ROEM e Nr er eon le sin 8 as deo ors 174
A ie's) 021 ee aM eR ee a ne Te ra a UME SUMED Er ENON pha Ae aun to Ga Seu os 169
Wihite-crowned rise oi tae, bon ti otat Sie ha eaeuckore eee ee ne eee eee 173
White-throsted 0.2) owl re at Gale epee Shane eretd a alg Ore <a ee 173
Vellow=wim ged oe rio a Maia k elorare Sine Glee Sno eee 171
NO] OF: RO) fs SINE ene Pn er Re Rarer re NR Sa UE Rea en Mine errr ONES dE 161
Spatula, clypeata ss oo: sos os Sie wide G4 anes ieee be a ee 67
Speckle-belly. See Gadwall.
PRY TAPICUS VVAEIUS 5.5220 .20 oo wine dis BGs cialis one's 4 a ets osinke wala ee Sohal ae er 140
STILETTOS PONE E-Series eae aCe irs a MRE MUA aL rea a 168
SSPUZE (ATOR ICAN Soo oacesc os a lelsoul's Mins ayorlese sw wie lela lace tel ere age re OR La aIa Ne en 180
Spizella MONntieola wesc fs iE shed Gea wis wa Seine Lela ep ee ee ee 174
pallida 235 Pao ke PER a o's Bei oe sian es eee ee eee eee ene 175
PASSER i: Ae eel in eee i oe alee ee 174
| O}UTS10 I Bs Selb bg oO eErR Et eS i aR rsh NaN neem IRIN ape ian AAAS aU is se 175
Spoonbill. See Shoveller.
Squiatarolasquataro lances cis oe aan ieee on acer ake estates acai tet ee ee 103
Squawk. See Heron, Black-crowned Night.
Stake-driver. See Bittern, American.
LaTlin gs SAMeEniCaN os iene ies ee Se ig lic ia ee ya peels aa tale ute cca tte eee 156
SLEPANO DOES sa ye ene SSN TE al cece ate Se ea A alee 59

MECRANODUS APICOIOR So 23ec0) 6 Seed scene is wines dpe eran enter «AR os 92

Page.
eae METRO EC SCPE LPIC MAINE a2) eh, 0 Aes is 5 Sabi g a bid e's Sark Riv a oa Madore 184
SUIS LOVETT G ES SG eR ic Ret a a RR De ue ee 48
aN URR EME SCUT SATIRIC ANIESUIN Bf BOC cd Sa gaa ooh eS cr tvayc; oe Sie' da cla Wie bis ek hace an 2 Oe 49
EST UTTELASS ae ate SN ST a ra a oo ene Pees Re 49
ULE eee SIE oe Arce 48
ME UME oT ie, 0 ater ata Wega as eS cae © HS a aw hes COs oy Se hee 54
MIP ate sin r oatisa aes era Bos Ge ns SADE OS eo TRE Cee TPE RS 55
LES PRYG LT) 2 See ess ec Gee ae Ree gia ep i SRG 55
OL ESSE De ERA Ee Pa Sg TR eae Beers ee ae! 55
TED LE us ESS li Daa eae eg nr ete Se eee 55
SME MEMES tay TN NN oa Lance Aer mh AEA ely eae ve & TMT owes Pe 54
E PUREST DIU IOVS eh Bsa BG con es Sa Ere CR lene ge EAS Fido een ne err 55
aa ES a red Spa eer eel hn me SIN LS ck SEC oa sn 56
RRR nee Sahat Pe ep aa cele od Se watee v le cow eae 54
a EE an ee Neh Scie ge isha cae awe be hs 6.80 aw Dowd nea E Re. 129
NINE NII ret he eee kane eR A oe Oo Sinha aes Wolmg ae oes 136
TES coal ch ERTS aR SS ee tt Ue a er mE 131
NEE TIRE EE ott at WS Sg id, occa eee <a 6 win HEN mee Sh Oe 159
RRR IPI ene ice 2c Sok Oe Ey! Ed ORNs 5 oan Oh ata ore Aplaleteee 60
PE ed re te eo Gc aS ou he Sioa vb wed Coe he aoe DU NAO esses as 60
8 Ts ESS ie ca aaa on oe ee Se hone ee 134
ERIE MER Sets ooo oie) via sibs ais teats WS Sram > vv DE Sea Ts ew eeeteew ance 184
MMM SP e002, SBE gee aye et eS bg Scie: rks aca Mlape ASEAN SEAR 183
ee Ee ERSTE REESE a SSS apne er ag PRM Cea 183
EM ee FS ey sii) Naas Sache > cin hae Soe RAIS OR LI 183
IMEI it oe his CR URS, oe Teh ie 8a weed e ea aa 183
en winged Pe Re ATE ee oe Mie een ts Chey eine Sara testy Shei aU OR ers 184
cise ceo Se ER otis ES aE I Sa ae a NC at ae et 183
White-bellied SAS FS eR oR aS oe eC DE earns Sea Ne eer: CS Abey 183
(ETS ole a RGR AS eRe ey i a 182
MPEP OP ice a eg Ee gon ace nad ¥ wide a Ra Ne 78
(EE EL Es cy eR Sp I i ner RC Se NC SR eta 5 eS 78
a = 2h A SSC SI Ge i lg ce SG aeRO YP Rear NiO od Gasiel
RARE SGN Ce i Pa a eS 5a sala gk re Wott pate NaS me 145
RM ORME ie paper Se BUS) kee WG xt c's arp dw Ste cee Ps NO ae Re 145
MIE re So Oe eet ee eee 143, 145
SUMMER URPENMMIIEDICU tr ogee St ann, Cae, Glue SP RAE ye id ME ee Fe 59
EM EPP EIRESN ats Wtaie F 2G Le ee ra oe aegi Rd 5 CIE oe 62
PreeeP UO TOBE i G5 sie 01g Mota y eiese st bee De jaatd diego TERI oes 57
wl) STL LS 7 RN Ree ee ae eee Se ae epee aS 48
ae ee ap ase ote Ce wy Gao os oad Se Oa os 62
vo UTD TL IETS ies cS NSS eS gO eR 59
J) | VALDES Ze Gg senate PUR 5) spn Dinas Se emcee op me rac un ras ES ETC 56
OTTER so Sa SESS SS ach ae a OR ee 213
we
EE MC ERT Fa edie ds Sick oe aw cue keeueleun EDR 181
TST 2c. 2S a SSR AR SUR a cs ar oan nr nc ee 181
eee Oe ee so No hos ay wlan wed bem ee eee 180
meee IR REM Siete Ns es ove Seale he gb oa bos Sumo ewe eue » 181
Si emNBOOP EAU eee PEM ct cca ay piasg ata Head Boe La GND SO 181
8 SPST Tl a ce Pe RSA RSIRS eS SSS Ren eo a eee ee a 180
Teacher. See Vireo, Red-eyed.
7 pe ES TBP SRLS SAARI SP ie iat een Wy Ste eran ier ge op De 67
SSRI peer a eg ak oe FEM Ciel ar wak es oo arose eke 67
Teeter. See Sandpiper, Solitary.
Tell-tale, Greater. See Yellow-legs, Greater.
Little. See Yellow-legs, Lesser.
eu EMPMINESEISURNGLEUS 0) 05 .f ht eC 2 ocie wae Sw ee HE Sei ee ES 209
RRR Precis on a a Ra ng Bi Sisren cog no Cees eee 55
MRS a Meh Seana ss eats SY sean seats te a Sake be A 56
NRE AF arn einen et Yes VW aes she ave Rc oe a AS RES 54

Tern; Borsters..)2!0 2 yO ck oie Me Pe, Sie ee Sa cake a ae ih ee
Walson's3 i278 oe oy) salient late hc Ul eat ae 1k eine tee ae rr

Thistlebird. See Goldfinch, American.
Thrasher, Brow. 2G ae he Ne ain Be ae BE Oe Cae
Phrashers os 3552365 Se Le Pe Ey ners ae ya ea
Thrush; Alice’s..\.. san fi0) bs S22 hs wd ale Be ae DOs eer
Golden-crowned. See Ovenbird.
Grey-cheekced 5)... Fn a ee a a ee
Hermite f6 fee cee 8 cP ees Oe ee ac ee

Phrushéss eee.) ut lb Pai a GS taal Wate Sie aN er a

Thryomanes bewickds 220.0085 oe ee ee ee
fhryothorus. ludovicianus. «2. 605. 08 se a a ee ee
Thunder-pump. See Bittern, American.

Wrekler, Kattiwakel eek a a ay De a On
Tinker. See Auk, Razor-billed.

‘Pip-ups.: > See Sandpiper, Solitary.” .i3.:.).< aoe. 6002 sh fi.29 ces te ee
Aitlark; American Pipit. 6052 dacs. 254 ss Seo oe ee ee ee
Patmnice iio. se Se Es sd Dee aoe Dee ee
Pit: rouse, Tuftedss ..s5 6.0 os cd See os Se
Totanus flavipes.) 0..060 62 bk Ls baa Ho bw othe 2s 8 be eee

Pourne pierre: 6550205 ch eke a Sa Sake eee wy Ae a

& poltrime noire. 652 oe a Ne ass Saas Cae ee
Tourterelle:de-la Caroline: i...) sn Soc de sa a ck i ee ee eee
POWRCO rds fee si 85 Siete R RE ee nee ahs 2a aa ne

Praguet MoOpbeux es ee ia Ch cote ak ae ae Seid eUNS Se, ete eee Oe
ATUNGS |. CADUTUS 2. 5551.5 s as weds aia" oa teoalics eleeel eve at aca
Prochila. 2. oeses 3 Se ke ERR ee Ce ie SE ar

WM hiyeR se. ee 2 es
des 'maFais.o 0 ye oa ds Dal ce ee
Wroglodytide 035. o.0)8 ie a es Se ke es LG ee
Propie FEgiON.. 2... 5. a A cas Lo oS ow Seed a
‘Tryngites subruficollis.: Oye oe i eh ee eee

Darker, Wild i ke ee al Sea ee oa A Ra
Maree ye 5 ols bk hie ayaa ee Meee Ge alts bee cea ce aie eee aed
Murnstone so oe aa PS es wa We Sis 2 ee

American) ch ek ee Ae able ead a a

Ruddye: 208 Soren Fa a Eek te OR a
Duarnstones.:..30 0 G0... es Fee ie ee
Pympanuchus americanus: ..2. Lo... 6 sais Owe clon ie ae te
A yTanmidse | ie ine ek a nk be OE ee ee eee
Wyrannus tyrannus: i. oo a ek Ob ho es RE eee

Wria Hlomivaay a5. tere, Cee ae ey ee ee ee et SRE: dire
POUT EN Bee ART or ee FN i ie eee Piece IR a a a a $k ee

ORES [7ST pepe Pe uence Pll Sco ae SP a
“TS CoPEG TIED TN) Te ere ye ae NCIS aiG DROP O olitoc oo eco eee eC ag

Veery. See Thrush, Wilson’s.

tener maT fe sr to its oe wie sistent he sole sees ew eres
PETA ee an eer See ee Pate tc ere Stel sawed ikaw eas one

* op CO alee ym 6 Bch is = ec eS pe a
eabieaiailt sic eset 7 onesie ow tte yeas soe ese Sys
MepreeetGRh JAUNC....22. 0.5 oe oe ete re ew ee eee ee ee
PMR ah PRN tAken Seg acide seo ee Paielns = ie 6 y's

Fem yeUR FOULES. 2... ee ee ee eee ete tenes
Oa TS) Oe ena aren. eres cae
MetBiindelpine.. Seri 6. ec eee ee eee ee eee
Dee oo inane cic a ein gs Soeimyale oles wale ws eee
PRAM Mea ote cel os wiv vi ndineieie ot = Seite eB ele een ees
Ree ooo, rete ido halen silage s he wane fa
Sera ie oe we ea ace nie aise Se ee

eter tne epee ad faye Fs oes ol fate a Acaie ts cnaneter aller aSieve a lereseua a=

Paka ueR CRD cer hg ate ante ake ia asset aes Gualeta saat. =>
SN CI 0 ee eae
Vulture, oe ES OR Rhea Sain saree Get eee

Waders, Deep water: .:-.....055- 00556 -eee eeeee ee eee
Eber nice ees hpe oben ta en ele ty ares chose sis ale ae eee oars
Do eile wo woe see cele ee eee eee te et ae

War Bird. See Tanager, Scarlet.

Warbler, Bay-breasted... 2.0.0... 0... eee eee eee ect ees
Ree te CN Wit = ho aes Sass ele anvils wh alg! ie leness es
ICTR he She cielo ate sere sae) wibag since
Babee Ce co oa waar ila wa ee a ales eo ein ele ee el
ERP ad iain a ote an ses ole wie ecole le ee ce eee
Black-throated Pee SES PEN Binh OM eee SES PARE 2

aaNet oe we J coc aa lata be 8's aTolieie Finin are aoe mle
Blue, Yellow-backed.......-......-- ee ete eens eee

Canada

Golden-winged

Nashville

qh 01~w ial ony Coenen ow ee er Te)
soviiviete.sike .emere oie. a9 o

LEE EB RO ea

S!CTEERG EUV ADE pec Be ye ee ere SN ea eon

CSst LEG Le 5 Be eS eae oa te Aa ene pee he ia eae

sree eae te ocd ee BAe eae

CL a wile, ape tana aae a Se) 6

PPAVIG 8s oi spasgiio ne Sea ae ee Tore OTe, ET SD cE ED ca
Prothonotary!) 3 = ao /setacalese eclee geo Ge Fane Bese te RR
TP ENTIESSEG <2 50 ois etc Fae sates Cre aad alee SI oe eeta Ue One Ee ee
Wilson's ie ee Om aM emer MR lp meee Wyse I a 8

WV eliow Pept Hires pet oni on wee ee Reem em One Ra earecmiEt es Sos od Sans
Yellow-rumped 3/3. 5/52 Fe 02 Furia a Sele a dna Saws Eee eee Te
Warblers; Hlycatebing so. ose a es ow eo nk bana eee Oe ee
Old=world:. Fe i222 Sy oi. paislicn eg ass ore doa ben natal cies eet rr

Worm-eating 0000s oe te eee 8 ae eee
Water-thrush...... pin iaeasis'« shevatn eieie\y/ ¥yuisialeiabetm eualeiaée 6. clan apelin eects ie arr

INOTUNETI eis Boas ee hes eee oe a ae eee ate) AS

Water-witch See Grebe, Pied-billed.

Waxwing, Bohemian’... so35 52 Fcc. s datline vie doo Oe De ae oe ee
ed aR ie ical Co dterd www ss Figiale blsc ani so takes See ae ler

Waxwings
Whale Bird. See Phalarope, Red.

WRCALCSE 250. cio oe a Ce oad ose ee Ae ae le Ie tas a Saari epee
Wihip-poor-wall os sbi oe ek en ca 2 ae ay ee

Whiskey Jack. See Jay, Canada.
Whistle-wing. See Golden-eye.
Whistler. See Golden-eye.

WW aN bs eee sce Seco e eape cect ate aes ace Rc Re ete I ee
AY MSO 2 corse Ris scarce ss Sls eo eo ees ag CSE en oe

Woodpecker, American Three-toed. . . 3.0. fs) 64 cass od sae cee eee
Arctic “Phree-toed . oo. oo fas oh bos toe oan ee
Black-backed 3.) 1.00500 0 3 a's 2 hoes pan eee
DOWDY 1255 Soa. via side Aon bias own hein ba ee
Golden-winged, See Flicker.

Paar sit 8h bee bare oo ia Sic cle eed Pun eae Soe a

Woodpeckers iic.oa Ch sie sons coal os Sb boot etel SR ee
Wy POM PISO WIGK'S oioii0i oso ook Soe ie whee ehh dpe de Sc Biche Jed shoe ieee eh ee
AARON ES Soo oie nd Soca oe a Oe eek GRO De bea Ee eee

Golden-crowned. See Kinglet.

House: 605 ais 25 27 va Detige dade oe Se wae oo Sian eae ee eee
Long-billed Marsh icc i0050 6 lies ok bs bbe bee ieee ee
Ruby-crowned. See Kinglet, Ruby-crowned.

phort-billed Marsh: 05.33 200.2. eu bone so aed pee eee
Waban a ey 2 eee se ee kis e's akin aie 000 mew ae ea

Manthocephalus tanthocephalus,.. «060 os. bs oasd wees Hoes loess oo meee vista

OKO 6.76. 0.010.816 0 40 8-06 10 we) = 0,00 » 6 te, © \0'0%.0, 10) @ 8) © 10,000) 016 <0) v, 01,0 + Leikd' 01.6. ese). 91 ae) ie hw ke pes awl edie ie ie

O00 abe e mle 00 (0) 2/01 18's 6.'0- 2 0-10\\8| 0. 6. 6).¢ 0 0.0 <0) 0:9 0.8 .0.0\0 Xe ee ee 0 0 ete @ (916) 6) eye .e) = e/a) © (epenial wee ane

Se ee

297

Yellow Bird, Summer. See Warbler, Yellow.

Yellow-hammer. See Flicker.

MMBMA TREES TER LOR 60. Gee seine ant enone ota ne tia wig wee ci «ods ¥ oles Saintes od soapls
AE PaO aN aPC TM ah aE Rae TaN StS aR cna 'aere' 6 a alvcave UR Grove MIEN

BRS sra eA Tea TAMIL ATCA GS UATCCTSL IT Saar rr ete ear ath td Seales ee kee Gs 3 arta
pera De Neeegy CRESUETS OTT oe RIS Ket ee en ee
EEE TE ATLEAAT SILLA SYCCOL LI ee ee eee eee ls Sn Oe eee See ia Nae te op os

a9 > & . i; ina Wr
rae je ‘ ne rn - od
¢ Sees .= i — 4
be ' ‘ ‘
7 eau © 4
- "
= : eel = S $i. N ‘
é = ¥ ‘
Saad oe “ '
i
es ie
. ‘
Sth
o. PM
,

4 =
a)

a
{
peda
he
\
nm.

‘ |
“ i
=

‘i
.
7

i
i
i
’
Lowi

\
te
we

— oy
{

= a >
— * = + Se ‘ .
7 = re -
‘ — ~
ef \) am G aol
- = > - 7 ®
= = = "a ~.
ty 4"

; 7
1
H
\
;
3
> i
y
“
7 Ny.
ve is.”
Se
x

. : - a ‘ coat
— : s ‘ “ =)
~ is : 7 =
7 “ : ag =
mf +.
i: ; ‘
' i Sek 2 a

Ce
=

a,
r

7
oe

ue i atie i

eee
a ieee
ae : a

ZEN ih
Ws ean
vhshs

thie.

weed
HH : ae

a
AVE

Ade
Me a ra ries

ae iPass We
: ie

f
6,

pod

St
—
ae

if;
ath

1a,
i

Hiieg batty ie
Lr}, mot Babee

lig fuedita

a iat
“5 ce

yet
Fite Ae

lal itantss
ea, 3 ih

Quai 4

donnie Tareas
ae ee 4
he Today

i
Ot ibaa

ee
SEBS,

eee

<< soe
manegesoe awe
Sse

See eee

Geta

Vaer
ae

i |
pane

ene, Leartaea!
BoE a 7
ey ree
Saath

iefetary

wilt Hi)

TTS
an

ete ers

M
Gites
i

sivas hi"
i vas
Aa

AVA ub bash
¥ aee

ine ut
: i}
147

7 Ys bts
ees co

anh ete (Aneta iat
: se tty
see

FETUS ho
witeze

Sti
Tues
‘ ate ae

het rit 12 :
Ptah

DPE MHS STU
Wigs ig

ria it

it iat
fie

sai fy

it
weal he

{

thos

ie (i
TOR AYA :
rf Savbeey elt at
i betea be

say sithe
iit tin ons

teaiai/e aun
aan fib

LE eon

Wess tbupee
wary CO heth vat
nh

ptr se ;
Oy yprtvaes Hon
, ebay ‘

dhe

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "Birds of eastern Canada"

See other formats