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FOR  THE   PEOPLE 

FOR  EDVCATION 

FOR  SCIENCE 


LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  AMERICAN  MUSEUM 

OF 

NATURAL  HISTORY 


CANADA 

DEPARTMENT  OF  MINES 

Hon.  Martin  Burrell,  Minister;  R.  G.  McConnell,  Deputy  Minister. 


GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY 

William  McInnes,  Directing  Geologist. 


MEMOIR  104 


No.  3,  Biological  Series 


Birds  of  Eastern  Canada 


BY 

P.  A.  Taverner 


OTTAWA 

J.  DB  LABROQUERIE  TACHfi 

PRINTER  TO  THE  KING'S  MOST  EXCELLENT  MAJESTY 

1919 


No.  1563 


lo  .^o^-^C.'""^ 


-'\ 


CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Introduction 1 

Acknowledgments 4 

Classification "5 

Geographical  distribution 8 

Migration 10 

Protection 12 

Means  of  attracting  birds 12 

Ornithological  literature 13 

Key  to  the  birds  of  eastern  Canada 16 

Explanation 16 

Key 18 

Systematic  index 29 

Descriptive  ornithology 41 

Index 273 

Illustrations. 

Plate       I.    A.  Pied-billed  Grebe 223 

B.  Common  Loon 223 

II.    A.  HerringGull 224 

B.  Common  Tern : . .  224 

III.  A.  Red-breasted  Merganser 225 

B.  Mallard  Duck 225 

IV.  A.  Black  Duck 226 

B.  Blue-winged  Teal 226 

V.    A .  Wood  Duck 227 

B.  Canada  Goose 227 

VI      A.  American  Bittern 228 

B.  Groat  Blue  Heron 228 

VII.    A.  Sora  Rail 229 

B.  American  Woodcock 229 

VIII.    A.  Wilson's  Snipe 230 

B.  Spotted  Sandpiper 230 

IX.    A.  Killdeer 231 

B.  Bob-white 231 

.     X,    A.  Spruce  Grouse 232 

B.  Ruffed  Grouse 232 

XI.    A.  Mourning  Dove  and  Passenger  Pigeon 233 

B.  Marsh  Hawk 233 

XII.    A.  Sharp-shinned  Hawk 234 

B.  American  Goshawk , 234 

XIII.  A.  Red-tailed  Hawk 235 

B.  Red-shouldered  Hawk 235 

XIV.  A.  Duck  Hawk 236 

B.  American  Sparrow  Hawk 236 

XV.  J  A.  Osprey 237 

B.  Barred  Owl 237 

XVI.    A.  Screech  Owl 238 

B.  Great  Homed  Ow 238 

XVII.    A.  Black-bUled  Cuckoo;  Yellow-billed  Cuckoo 239 

B.  Belted  Kmgfisher 239 

XVIII.    A,  Downy  Woodpecker 240 

B,  Arctic  Three-toed  Woodpecker 240 

57172—1^ 


XIX. 

A. 

B. 

XX. 

A. 

B. 

XXI. 

A. 

B. 

XXII. 

A. 

B. 

XXIII. 

A. 

B. 

XXIV. 

A. 

B. 

XXV. 

A. 

B. 

XXVI. 

A. 

B. 

XXVII. 

A. 

B. 

XXVIII. 

A. 

B. 

XXIX. 

A. 

B. 

XXX. 

A. 

B. 

XXXI. 

A. 

B. 

XXXII. 

A. 

B. 

XXXIII. 

A. 

B. 

XXXIV. 

A. 

B. 

XXXV. 

A. 

B. 

XXXVI. 

A. 

B. 

XXXVII. 

A. 

B. 

XXXVIII. 

A. 

B. 

XXXIX. 

A. 

B. 

XL. 

A. 

B. 

XLI. 

A. 

B. 

XLII. 

A. 

B. 

XLIII. 

A. 

B. 

XLIV. 

A. 

B. 

XLV. 

A. 

B. 

XLVI. 

A. 

B. 

XLVII. 

A. 

PAGE 

Yellow-bellied  Sapsucker 241 

Pileated  Woodpecker 241 

Red-headed  Woodpecker 242 

Flicker 242 

Nighthawk 243 

Chimney  Swift 243 

Ruby-throated  Hummingbird 244 

Kingbird 244 

Phoebe 245 

Horned  Lark 245 

Blue  Jay 246 

Canada  Jay 246 

American  Crow 247 

Bobolink 247 

Cowbird.  „ 248 

Red-winged  Blackbird 248 

Meadowlark 249 

Baltimore  Oriole 249 

Bronzed  Grackle 250 

Pine  Grosbeak 250 

Purple  Finch 251 

House  Sparrow 251 

American  Goldfinch ". .  252 

Snow  Bunting 252 

Vesper  Sparrow 253 

White-crowned  Sparrow 253 

White-throated  Sparrow , .  254 

Tree  Sparrow 254 

Chipping  Sparrow 255 

Junco 255 

Song  Sparrow 256 

Rose-breasted  Grosbeak 256 

Scarlet  Tanager 257 

Purple  Martin 257 

Barn  Swallow 258 

Tree  Swallow 258 

Bank  Swallow 259 

Cedar  Waxwing 259 

Migrant  Loggerhead  Shrike 260 

Red-eyed  Vireo 260 

Warbling  Vireo 261 

Black  and  White  Warbler 261 

Yellow  Warbler 262 

Black-throated  Blue  Warbler 262 

Myrtle  Warbler 263 

Magnolia  Warbler 263 

Blackburnian  Warbler 264 

Black-throated  Green  Warbler 264 

Oven-bird 285 

Northern  Yellow-throat 265 

Redstart 266 

Catbird 266 

Brown  Thrasher 267 

House  Wren 267 

Brown  Creeper 268 

White-breasted  Nuthatch 268 

Chickadee 269 


Ill 


PAGE 

B.  Golden-crowned  and  Ruby-crowned  Kinglets 269 

XLVIII.    A.  Wood  Thrush 270 

B.  WUson's  Thrush 270 

XLIX.    A .  Grey-cheeked  and  Olive-backed  Thrushes 271 

B.  Hermit  Thrush 271 

L.    A.  American  Robin 272 

B.  Bluebird 272 

Figures  1  to  68.  Illustrations  to  key 18 


Birds  of  Eastern  Canada. 


INTRODUCTION. 

OBJECT    OF    THE    BOOK. 

Of  late  years  there  has  been  a  great  awakening  of  interest  in  the  subject 
of  natural  history.  More  and  more  people  are  beginning  to  realize  the 
pleasure  and  profit  that  can  be  derived  from  observation  of  common  natural 
objects.  In  this  growing  field  of  nature  study,  few  subjects  have  attracted 
so  much  popular  attention  as  birds  and  few  forms  of  life  appeal  so  strongly 
to  the  aesthetic  sense.  They  are  beautiful;  they  arouse  curiosity;  their 
elusiveness  piques  the  imagination;  and  by  presenting  constantly  new 
aspects  they  never  become  commonplace. 

V(;,-The  ornithological  side  is  one  from  which  the  problems  of  nature  can 
be  successfully  attacked  from  so  many  standpoints  and  in  so  many  ways 
that  there  is  interesting  and  valuable  work  for  all  to  accomplish  according 
to  individual  tarste  or  opportunity.  Those  who  incline  towards  systematic 
work  can  spht  their  definitions  as  finely  as  human  powers  of  observation 
permit.  The  animal  psychologist  can  develop  his  problems  as  far  as 
ingenuity  can  devise  methods  for  experimentation.  The  ordinary  nature 
lover  can  observe  and  note  as  painstakingly  as  opportunity  permits;  he 
can  record  information  of  scientific  as  well  as  popular  interest,  take  pleasure 
in  observing  passing  beauties,  train  his  powers  of  observation,  and  acquire 
a  knowledge  that  greatly  increases  his  capacity  for  appreciation  of  nature. 
Even  the  unsentimental,  practical  man,  who  has  little  outward  sympathy 
with  abstract  beauty,  has  his  attention  attracted  by  the  evident  economic 
value  of  birds. 

The  "Birds  of  Eastern  Canada"  has  been  written  to  awaken  and, 
where  it  already  exists,  to  stimulate  an  interest,  both  sesthethic  and  practical, 
in  the  study  of  Canadian  birds  and  to  suggest  the  sentimental,  scientific, 
and  economic  value,  of  that  study;  to  assist  in  the  identification  of  native 
species;  and  to  furnish  the  economist  with  a  ready  means  of  determining 
bird  friend  from  bird  foe  that  he  may  act  intelligently  towards  them  and 
to  the  best  interest  of  himself  and  the  country  at  large;  to  present  in  a 
readily  accessible  form  reliable  data  upon  which  measures  of  protective 
legislation  may  be  based;  to  point  out  some  of  the  pitfalls  that  have 
caught  the  inexperienced  in  the  past;  and  to  suggest  methods  for  their 
future  avoidance. 

SCOPE    OF    THE    BOOK. 

This  work  covers  all  the  birds  that  the  ordinary  observer  is  Hkely  to 
meet  with  between  the  Atlantic  coast  and  the  prairies  north  of  the  Inter- 
national Boundary.  This  region  forms  a  natural  zoological  area  (see 
Distribution,  page  8),  including  what  may  be  called  the  eastern  woodlands 
of  Canada,  a  fairly  homogeneous  section,  physically,  geographically,  and 
zoologically.  The  prairies  are  radically  different  in  character  and,  con- 
sequently, exhibit  an  entirely  different  aspect  of  bird  life.     The  birds  of 


the  open  are  naturally  different  from  those  of  the  woodlands;  hence 
Manitoba  has  been  taken  as  the  western  boundary  of  the  zoological  area 
dealt  with  in  this  book. 

Although  not  a  scientifically  complete  check-list  of  the  birds  of  Eastern 
Canada,  this  book  is  nearly  so.  A  few  species  whose  Canadian  status  is 
doubtful,  and  some  of  extreme  rarity  or  of  accidental  occurrence,  have 
been  disregarded.  The  utmost  freedom  has  been  used  in  this  respect  and 
species  have  been  admitted  freely  upon  the  basis  of  expediency;  some  as 
being  of  probable  occurrence  and  to  be  looked  for,  others  as  illustrating 
some  point  of  general  interest  more  pointedly  than  regular  native  species, 
and  some  because  in  the  past  they  have  been  confused  with  commoner 
forms. 

PLAN    OF    THE    BOOK. 

The  systematic  arrangement  (see  Classification,  page  5,  and  nomen- 
clature, page  7)  used  are  those  of  the  Check-list  of  the  American  Orni- 
thologists' Union,  third  edition,  1910.  Though  this  arrangement  is 
acknowledged  to  be  somewhat  imperfect  and  its  details  tentative,  it  is 
that  upon  which  most  of  the  recent  American  bird  literature  is  founded  and 
is  the  one  in  common  use  in  North  America. 

In  the  treatment  of  subspecies  a  departure  has  been  made  from  cur- 
rent practice,  which  the  writer  believes  to  represent  more  accurately  the 
facts  of  nature  and  modern  concepts.  Species  have  been  treated  as 
aggregations  of  subspecies,  each  of  equal  rank  and  importance,  and 
not,  as  is  customary,  as  species  with  subordinate  sub-species  depen- 
dent upon  them.  The  species  is  first  given  as  a  whole,  including  its 
subspecific  races,  and  under  a  subhead  mention  is  made  of  the  special 
subspecies  that  occur  within  the  geographical  scope  of  the  work.  This  has 
caused  no  confusion  or  change  except  in  the  use  of  vernacular  names  in 
which  the  reader  will  find  a  few  departures  from  those  given  and  authorized 
by  the  American  Ornithologists'  Union.  In  the  scientific  nomenclature 
the  true  relative  importance  of  species  and  subspecies  has  been  expressed; 
but  the  common  names  have  not  heretofore  always  reflected  this  conception 
of  subordination  and  this  fact  in  many  cases  has  caused  the  use  of  definite 
subspecific  terms  when  it  was  by  the  very  nature  of  the  case  impossible  to 
determine  their  correctness  or  when  it  was  unadvisable  to  recognize  them. 
Thus  there  has  been  a  tendency  to  attach  unwarranted  importance  to 
these  minor  distinctions  in  popular  as  well  as  scientific  estimation.  In  the 
correction  of  this  condition  certain  adaptations  of  common  names  have 
been  necessary,  but  as  little  change  as  possible  from  accepted  practice 
has  been  made.  Older  terms  have  been  revived  wherever  possible,  but  as 
current  names  have  also  been  given  no  confusion  should  result.  It  has,  in 
some  cases,  been  necessary  to  apply  the  recognized  type  subspecific  name 
to  the  whole  species  and  adopt  a  new  one  for  the  form  so  robbed.  In  doing 
this  it  was  advisable  that  as  little  change  should  be  made  in  current  usage 
as  was  consistent  with  the  end  in  view.  Therefore,  except  where  good 
reasons  prevented,  the  new  subspecific  name  was  formed  by  prefixing 
an  adjective  to  the  specific  term  hitherto  applied  to  it.  Each  departure 
from  accepted  practice  has  been  decided  upon  its  own  merits.  Though 
there  can  be  little  doubt  as  to  the  advisabihty  of  the  principle  of  the  reform, 
the  manner  of  carrying  it  out  has  been  the  subject  of  much  thought,  con- 
siderable consultation  with  others,  and  some  hesitation  in  individual  cases. 


The  Horned  Lark  is  one  example  of  this  problem.  The  type  subspecies 
Oiocoris  alpestris  alpestris  has  generally  been  known  as  the  Horned  Lark 
regardless  of  the  fact  that  any  one  of  the  fourteen  or  more  other  geogra- 
phical races  have  an  equal  claim  to  the  name  and  that  it  is  the  only  one 
for  the  species  as  a  whole.  The  obvious  course  is  to  call  the  typical  sub- 
species, Otocoris  alpestris  alpestris  (only  typical  in  the  sense  of  being  des- 
cribed first  and  not  on  account  of  any  taxonomic  superiority  to  other 
forms),  Eastern  Horned  Lark  and  to  apply  the  name  Horned  Lark  to  the 
whole  collection  of  co-ordinate  subspecies,  making  it  synonymous  with  the 
scientific  binomial  Otocoris  alpestris. 

The  Migrant  Shrike  offered  other  difficulties.  The  logical  proceeding 
would  be  to  call  the  whole  species  Louisiana  Shrike,  from  its  scientific  name 
ludovicianus.  This  would,  however,  introduce  an  unfamiliar  name  recog- 
nizable by  only  a  few.  The  species  has,  therefore,  been  called  here  the 
Loggerhead  Shrike  and  the  form  of  eastern  Canada  the  Migrant  Logger- 
head, on  the  assumption  that  a  geographical  term  such  as  southern  could 
be  appHed  to  the  type  race  to  which  Loggerhead  has  hitherto  been  restricted. 

It  would  be  too  much  to  expect  that  the  result  attained  will  satisfy 
everyone;  the  writer  hopes,  however,  that  it  will  be  accepted  until  the 
American  Ornithologists'  Union  committee  takes  the  matter  up  and 
makes  authoritative  decisions. 

In  the  following  pages  the  number  and  vernacular  name,  with  as 
little  modification  as  possible,  have  been  taken  from  the  American'  Ornith- 
ologists' Union  check-list  and  appear  first  as  a  specific  heading  in  heavy 
type.  Following,  in  smaller  type,  are  the  more  common  local  names  by 
which  the  species  has  been  or  is  known  in  various  localities.  The  French 
equivalent  is  then  given,  preceded  by  the  contraction,  "Fr.".  These 
formal  French  names  have  been  adapted  from  "Dionne's  Les  Oiseaux  de 
la  Province  de  Quebec"  and  are  followed  when  possible  by  vernacular 
terms  in  current  use  in  French-speaking  sections.  Many  of  them  were 
furnished  by  Dr.  C.  W.  Townsend  who  has  had  considerable  ornithological 
experience  in  the  eastern  provinces.  Where  French  terms  are  missing, 
there  is  as  far  as  the  writer  is  aware  no  accepted  French  name. 

The  Latin  specific  name  follows  in  italics  and  is  always  binomial. 

Preceded  by  the  initial  "L"  the  length  of  the  species  is  next  given  in 
inches  and  decimals  of  an  inch.  The  length  of  a  bird  is  determined  by 
measuring  it,  in  the  flesh,  in  a  straight  line  from  the  tip  of  the  bill  to  the 
end  of  the  longest  tail  feather,  the  bird  being  stretched  only  enough  to 
straighten  the  neck  curves.  The  measurements  given  are  those  of  the 
average  adult  male  and  indicate  the  comparative  size  of  the  species  under 
consideration.  They  are  not  for  specific  identification,  as  in  most  species 
there  is  more  or  less  individual  and  sexual  variation. 

Only  an  outHne  description  of  species  is  given  and  where  there  are 
illustrations  the  description  is  omitted  and  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
illustration  instead. 

Under  "Distinctions,"  an  attempt  is  made  to  bring  out  the  salient 
points  by  which  the  species,  when  in  hand,  may  be  separated  from  other 
similar  forms,  and  the  work  of  other  authorities  has  been  freely  drawn  upon 
to  supplement  the  writer's  observations.  Many  of  the  distinctive  points 
are  naturally  only  superficial,  but  all  are,  as  far  as  possible,  reliable. 

Under  the  heading  "Field  Marks,"  the  features  by  which  the  species 
may  be  recognized  in  life  are  mentioned.     In  these  the  writer  has  been 


guided  largely  by  his  own  experience  and  has  stated  the  points  that  seem 
most  characteristic  to  him.  In  species  with  which  he  has  had  little  experi- 
ence in  hfe  he  has  relied  upon  others. 

Under  "Discussion,"  as  many  facts  of  general  interest  relating  to  the 
species  have  been  included  as  the  space  allows  or  the  importance  of  the 
species  warrants.  Scattered  among  the  various  species,  where  applicable 
under  this  head,  numerous  matters  are  discussed  and  general  laws  govern- 
ing zoological  life  stated.  Many  of  these  apply  to  a  number  of  speci6s 
and  some  might  well  be  repeated  under  each  specific  heading  were  it  not  for 
the  constant  repetition  that  it  would  necessitate.  An  attempt  has  been 
made  to  encourage  a  wholesome  protective  attitude  from  an  aesthetic 
viewpoint. 

"Nesting"  is  merely  a  brief  description  of  the  nest  and  its  situation. 
Much  of  this  is  drawn  from  other  authors,  especially  from  the  invaluable 
"Handbook  of  Birds  of  Eastern  North  America." 

Under  "  Economic  Status  "  is  given  a  summary  of  present  knowledge 
of  the  species  in  their  relation  to  man.  Most  of  this  is  drawn  from  the 
admirable  work  done  by  the  United  States  Biological  Survey.  Of  necessity 
anly  a  brief  outline  of  the  data  upon  which  conclusions  are  founded  can  be 
given  and  the  reader  is  referred  to  Ornithological  Literature  on  page  13, 
for  greater  details. 

Under  "  Distribution  ",  it  has  been  deemed  best  to  give  the  distri- 
butions in  such  general  and  well  understood  terms  that  all  can  get  at  least 
a  general  conception  of  the  ranges  of  the  species.  The  result  may  be  a 
little  vague  owing  to  the  lack  of  sharply  defined  boundaries  of  the  ranges, 
but  the  centres  of  distribution  are  made  clear.  For  definite  ranges  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  "  Catalogue  of  Canadian  Birds  "  by  John  and 
James  M.  Macoun,  issued  by  this  department  in  1909. 

Throughout  it  has  been  the  endeavour  to  avoid  the  use  of  technical 
terms,  substituting  familiar  words  wherever  possible.  Some  technical 
terms,  however,  have  no  general  vernacular  equivalent  and  a  glossary  of 
these  is  given  on  page  219,  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  are  unfamiliar  with 
them. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 

The  writer  wishes  to  acknowledge  valuable  assistance  received  in  the 
course  of  his  work  from  the  following  sources: 

Mr.  Frank  Chapman,  whose  "  Handbook  "  has  been  invahiable  in 
filUng  out  gaps  in  the  writer's  personal  experience;  in  suggesting  ideas  of 
construction,  and  plan  and  methods  of  execution. 

The  United  States  Biological  Survej'-  for  data  on  the  economic  relations 
of  birds. 

Mr.  J.  H.  Fleming,  of  Toronto,  and  Mr.  W.  E.  Saunders,  of  London, 
,  who  have  been  untiring  in  giving  advice  and  assistance  from  the  time  of 
the  inception  of  this  work  until  its  completion. 

Frank  Hennessey,  of  Ottawa,  and  Claude  Johnson,  of  this  depart- 
ment, who  are  responsible  for  the  illustrations;  the  former  for  the 
coloured  pictures  and  the  latter  for  the  line  details  of  the  key. 

James  M.  Macoun,  of  this  department,  who  has  been  a  constant 
source  of  helpful  advice,  and  has  assisted  in  preparing  the  following  pages 
for  the  printer's  hands. 


To  these,  as  well  as  to  a  multitude  of  other  private  and  pubhshed 
sources  I  wish  to  express  thanks  for  aid  and  assistance. 


CLASSIFICATION. 

The  first  step  in  any  science  is  that  of  classification.  The  present 
system  of  generic  grouping  of  species  was  first  advanced  by  Linnaeus  in 
his  epoch-making  "  Systema  Naturse  "  and  has  since  been  followed  con- 
sistently by  zoologists.  By  this,  species  are  grouped  together  in  genera 
according  to  fundamental  structural  relationships  and  not  accidental 
resemblances.  The  fact  that  upon  the  discovery  of  the  laws  of  evolution 
these  relationships  were  found  to  agree  with  lines  of  descent  proved  the 
logic  of  the  system  and  gave  it  an  added  meaning.  Thus  the  various 
specific  members  of  a  genus  can  be  conceived  as  having  descended  from  a 
common  specific  ancestor;  the  genera  of  a  family  from  a  common  generic 
one,  etc. 

DeaHng  only  with  existing  North  American  birds,  they  may  be  divided 
into  a  number  of  Orders,  which  are  the  largest  groups  with  which  the 
Canadian  ornithologist  has  direct  concern.  Orders  are  divided  into 
Families,  Families  into  Genera,  and  Genera  into  Species.  These  divisions 
may  be  again  subdivided  into  Suborders,  Subfamilies,  Subgenera,  and 
Subspecies  whose  positions  in  the  scheme  are  evident  from  their  titles. 

Though  the  limitations  of  book  construction  necessitate  the  presenta- 
tion of  the  classification  scheme  as  a  linear  succession  of  forms  following 
one  another  in  single  file,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  system  is 
not  linear  in  conception.  The  component  species  instead  of  following  a 
single  line  of  relationship  and  sequence  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest 
present  many  parallel  or  divergent  lines  of  equal  or  subordinate  rank. 
The  class  Aves  or  Birds  may  be  represented  by  a  tree,  the  height  of  the 
tree  representing  time  in  geological  ages  from  the  earliest  at  the  bottom 
to  the  present  near  the  top.  The  trunk  should  be  shown  as  double  at  the 
base;  one  stem  would  be  a  short  dead  stump  and  would  represent  the 
fossil  toothed  birds  which  became  extinct  before  present  geological  time; 
the  other,  large  and  thrifty,  would  represent  the  modern  untoothed  forms. 
This  in  turn  would  divide  into  two  main  branches  a  short  way  from  the 
base  and  would  represent  the  two  subclasses,  the  Raft-breasted  and  the 
Keel-breasted  birds.  The  former  would  be  represented  by  much  the 
smaller  branch,  whereas  the  latter  would  divide  and  subdivide  into 
branches  representing  first,  orders;  next,  families;  then,  genera;  and 
finally  species. 

The  value  of  these  divisions,  that  is,  the  amount"  of  differentiation 
sufiicient  to  raise  a  group  of  genera  to  a  family,  or  a  collection  of  famihes 
to  an  order,  is  a  matter  for  experienced  individual  decision  as  there  is  no 
authoritative  ruhng  upon  the  subject.  However,  there  has  gradually 
grown  up  an  approximate  agreement  on  this  subject,  though  the  constant 
tendency  among  speciahsts  has  been  to  make  finer  and  finer  distinctions 
and  to  multiply  the  number  of  the  various  groups. 

The  smallest  division  generally  accepted  is  the  Species.  Though 
everyone  has  a  more  or  less  accurate  conception  as  to  what  a  species  is, 
whether  it  be  called  by  that  name  or  another,  no  satisfactory  definition 
has  ever  been  constructed  for  it.     It  is  what  is  commonly  known  as  a 


*'  kind  of  an  animal  ".  Thus  the  horse  is  a  different  "  kind  "  or  species 
from  a  donkey,  a  bluebird  from  a  robin.  They  are  sharply  marked  off  from 
each  other,  regularly  breeding  together  within  the  species  only  and  pro- 
ducing like  species  as  offspring.  Distinct  species  do  not  commonly  interbreed, 
but,  when  they  do  so,  they  form  crosses  or  hybrids  that  are  usually  sterile. 
Up  to  comparatively  recent  years  no  smaller  division  was  recognized,  but 
with  intensive  study  of  material  it  has  become  evident  to  advanced  students 
that  within  the  species  there  is  considerable  individual  and  geographic 
variation. 

Individual  variation  is  the  natural  difference  that  may  occur  at  any 
time  between  members  of  common  parentage  such  as  amongst  full  brothers 
and  sisters.  Just  as  like  begets  like  so  within  certain  limits  like  begets 
unlike  for  no  two  creatures  are  ever  exact  duplicates.  This  is  individual 
variation,  usually  small  and  irregular  in  appearance  and  direction,  but 
sometimes  persisting  progressively  generation  after  generation  in  one  direc- 
tion and  forming  the  basis  upon  which  present  day  evolutionists  explain 
the  origin  of  new  species.  Individual  variation,  however,  is  disregarded  in 
classification,  unless  it  has  proceeded  far  enough  to  produce  marked 
and  constant  differentiation  over  a  definable  natural  group  of  a  species. 

Geographical  variation  can  be  regarded  as  the  result  of  a  common 
tendency  of  individual  variation  acting  over  a  whole  community  of  indi- 
viduals tending  towards  a  common  goal  and  is  held  to  be  induced  and 
directed  by  local  climatic  and  other  conditions.  Thus  we  often  find  that 
within  a  widespread  species  all  individuals  inhabiting  certain  localities 
have  characteristics  that  separate  them  from  those  of  the  surrounding  areas. 
Individuals  in  a  dry  desert  country  are  apt  to  be  smaller  and  lighter  in 
coloration,  whereas  those  in  a  warm,  moist  country  are  usually  larger  and 
darker.  These  differences  are  sometimes  marked  and  obvious;  at  other 
times  they  are  so  slight  as  to  be  noticeable  only  by  comparison  of  large 
numbers  of  specimens  and  can  be  detected  only  by  averages.  Thus  there 
is  every  degree  of  differentiation,  due  to  geographical  habitat,  from  pro- 
nounced departures  from  type,  of  almost  specific  value,  to  the  finest  shades 
of  differentiation  that  skilled  specialists  can  distinguish  and  which  are 
inappreciable  to  the  ordinary  eye.  The  outstanding  fact,  however,  that 
prevents  the  most  marked  geographical  variation  from  full  specific  standing 
is  that  these  minor  forms  intergrade  and  in  intermediate  localities 
every  shade  of  differentiation  between  the  extremes  can  be  found.  Between 
species  this  gradual  merging  of  character  is  not  supposed  to  occur,  and 
however  fine  the  distinctions  may  be,  the  divisions  should  be  sharp  and 
defined.  We,  therefore,  recognize  these  intergrading  variations  due  to  or 
based  upon  geographical  distribution  as  Geographical  Races,  Varieties,  or 
Subspecies,  the  latter  term  being  now  in  best  current  use,  and  we  regard 
them  as  species  in  the  making  before  the  connecting  stages  binding  them 
to  the  original  stock  have  disappeared,  owing  to  the  growing  sterility 
between  the  extreme  variants.  Except  in  such  rare  cases  of  physical 
isolation,  as  where  an  oceanic  island  habitat  precludes  contin\ious  distri- 
bution, we  take,  in  practice,  the  existence  of  intergrades  ap  t^e  evidence 
of  subspecific  status.  Besides  these  divisions  of  taxonomic  value  there 
are  a  few  other  variants  that,  owing  to  their  erratic  occurrence,  cannot 
be  recognized  in  our  classification.  These  are  "Albinos,"  "  Melanos,"  and 
"  Dichromatic  Forms." 


Albinism,  or  unusual  whiteness,  is  the  sporadic  occurrence  of  white 
individuals,  in  species  that  are  normally  otherwise  coloured,  and  may  occur 
in  almost  any  species.  It  may  be  either  perfect  or  partial  and  is  due  to 
lack  of  pigment  or  colouring  matter  in  the  feather  or  skin  substance.  It 
can  be  regarded  as  a  manifestation  of  physical  weakness  and  is  said  to  be 
induced,  among  other  things,  by  close  inbreeding.  A  good  test  as  to 
whether  a  pure  white  coloration  is  albinism  or  is  normal  is  the  colour  of 
the  pupils  of  the  eyes.  In  albinos  the  pupils  are  pink  in  colour,  as 
the  lack  of  normal  colour  in  the  retina  allows  the  blood  coloration 
to  show. 

Melanism,  or  unusual  blackness,  is  due  to  an  excess  of  pigment.  A 
good  example  of  melanism  is  the  Black  Fox,  which  is  a  melanic  variant 
of  the  common  red  species. 

Dichromatism  is  the  term  applied  to  occurrence  of  two  different  types 
of  coloration  in  a  single  species,  irrespective  of  sex,  age,  or  season.  Thus 
the  Screech  Owl  occurs  in  both  red  and  grey  phases  (see  Plate  XVI  A). 
They  breed  together  indiscriminately  and  the  offspring  may  be  of  either 
coloration.  The  Rough-legged  Hawk  and  the  Jaegers  occur  in  light  and 
in  almost  black  phases;  the  difference  between  dichromatism,  and  melanism 
in  these  cases  is  slight. 

Hybrids  form  another  departure  from  specific  type.  They  are  the 
offspring  of  parents  of  two  distinct  species.  It  is  only  occasionally  that 
such  matings  are  fruitful,  and  when  they  are  the  offspring  is  generally 
sterile.  Hybrids  occur  most  often  among  ducks,  especially  with  the 
Mallard  as  one  of  the  parents. 

Every  North  American  bird  has  a  common  or  vernacular  name  author- 
ized by  usage  and  recognized  by  the  leading  ornithologists  and  there  is  seldom 
necessity  for  using  the  scientific  nomenclature.  However,  it  is  well  for 
all  who  are  interested  in  birds  to  familiarize  themselves  with  as  many  of 
the  scientific  names  as  possible,  as  they  are  not  only  necessary  in  more 
advanced  w^ork,  but  the}'-  are  of  practical  use  in  grasping  the  general  re- 
lationships between  various  species. 

The  present  Binomial  System  of  nomenclature  was  introduced  by 
Linnteus,  the  great  Swedish  botanist,  and  embodied  in  his  Systema  Naturse, 
tenth  edition,  1758,  which  is  the  authority  accepted  by  American  ornith- 
ologists. In  this  system  each  species  is  given  a  double  name,  the  first  term 
being  that  of  the  genus  to  which  it  belongs,  the  second  that  of  the  species. 
Generic  names  are  not  dupHcated  within  the  sphere  of  zoology  and  specific 
names  never  within  the  genus.  Thus,  the  American  Robin  is  Planesticus 
migratorius;  that  is,  that  species  of  the  genus  Planesticus  which  is  named 
migratorius.  Other  species  of  Planesticus  have  other  names  than  migra- 
torius. 

The  three  objects  of  scientific  nomenclature  are  exactitude,  univer- 
sality, and  permanence.  To  this  end  the  naming  of  zoological  material 
is  subject  to  strict  laws  whose  principles  are  universally  accepted  and 
appHed  according  to  strict  codes.  Under  these  laws  the  scientific  name  of 
a  species  is  not  a  matter  of  personal  preference,  but  is  fixed,  so  that  few  or 
none  can  dispute  it,  and  no  changes  can  be  made  in  scientific  nomenclature 
except  such  as  are  necessary  to  correct  current  mistakes  in  the  appHcation 
of  the  laws  of  the  code.  With  increased  knowledge  it  has  become  neces- 
sary to  depart  slightly  in  letter,  though  not  in  spirit,  from  the  strict  bi- 


8 

nomial  system  of  Linnaeus,  and  by  adding  a  third  term  as  name  of  the 
subspecies  to  make  it  a  trinomial  one.  Wherever  a  three-term  name 
is  used,  it  is  that  of  a  subspecies  of  the  original  binomial  form.  The  first 
specimen  described,  or  the  first  specimen  to  which  a  name  has  been  at- 
tached, is  regarded  as  the  so-called  "  Type  "  form.  Therefore,  in  dividing 
a  species  into  subspecies  the  form  which  was  first  named  as  a  species 
becomes  automatically  the  type  race,  and  its  subspecific  name  is  formed 
by  a  repetition  of  its  specific  name.  Thus  the  American  Robin  that  was 
first  described  and  specifically  named  by  Linnseus  in  1766  as  migratorius 
when  mentioned  subspecifically  in  distinction  from  the  Southern  Robin  or 
the  western  one  becomes  Planesticus  migratorius  migratorius.  The  Western 
Robin  first  separated  from  it  by  Ridgeway  in  1877,  was  named  by  him  as 
Planesticus  migratorius  propinquus,  and  the  Southern  Robin  by  Bachelder 
in  1900,  is  Planesticus  migratorius  achrusterus.  In  practice, where  the  generic 
or  specific  names  are  evident  from  the  context,  it  is  customary  to  indicate 
them  by  initial,  as  P.  migratorius,  or  P.  m.  migratorius. 

Subspecific  varieties  are  divisions  of  the  species  and,  except  in  special 
lines  of  work,  or  where  special  exactitude  is  necessary,  of  minor  importance. 
As  these  subspecies  are  also  often  based  upon  points  of  difference  only 
perceptible  to  the  most  experienced  observers,  they  generally  lie  outside 
the  sphere  of  interest  of  the  average  amateur  observer. 


GEOGRAPHICAL   DISTRIBUTION. 

The  broader  facts  of  the  geographical  distribution  of  life  are  patent 
to  the  most  casual  observer.  The  primary  divisions  of  distribution,  the 
Tropics,  Temperate,  and  Arctic  zones  are  obvious,  but  closer  study  shows 
that  within  these  broad  associations  minor  and  less  obvious  ones  can  be 
detected.  In  America,  north  of  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  there  are  three  life 
regions,  roughly  following  the  above,  called  the  Tropic,  the  Austral,  and 
the  Boreal  regions.  These  are  subdivided  into  life  zones  each  characterized 
by  its  own  peculiar  assemblages  of  plants  and  animals. 

The  Tropic  region  is  sufficiently  characterized  by  name  and  need  be 
only  mentioned. 

The  Austral  region  corresponds  roughly  to  the  popular  geographical 
conception  of  the  Temperate  zone.  It  is  divided  into  three  life  zones, 
the  Lower  Austral,  the  Upper  Austral,  and  the  Transition  zones.  The 
Lower  Austral  might  be  designated  as  subtropic  and  extends  north  includ- 
ing the  gulf  and  the  south  Atlantic  states,  not  occurring  in  Canada  at  all. 
The  Upper  Austral  is  the  first  that  we  are  directly  interested  in  in  eastern 
Canada,  it  merely  crosses  the  border  on  the  lake  Erie  shore  and  includes 
the  famous  Niagara  fruit  belt.  The  frequent  or  regular  occurrence  of 
numerous  southern  species  on  Pelee  point  in  Essex  county,  Ontario,  marks 
the  strongest  development  of  this  zone  in  the  Dominion.  It  slightly  touches 
our  southern  boundary  again  in  Saskatchewan  and  perhaps  some  of  the 
warmer  valleys  running  into  southern  British  Columbia.  The  northern- 
most Austral  or  Temperate  life  zone  is  the  Transition  zone  which  includes 
the  greater  part  of  the  more  highly  cultivated  areas  of  Canada.  It  occupies 
the  shores  of  the  bay  of  Fundy,  the  upper  St.  Lawrence  river,  southern 
Quebec  and  Ontario,  the  lower  sections  of  the  prairie  provinces,  and  a 


strip  of  sea  coast  in  southern  British  Columbia  and  marks  the  limit  of 
extensive  cultivation. 

The  Boreal  region  is  divided  into  the  Canadian,  Hudsonian,  and  the 
Arctic  zones.  The  Canadian  includes  the  remainder  of  the  forested  land 
north  of  the  Transition  and  is  mostly  coniferous,  continuing  across  the 
continent  to  the  northern  limit  of  general  cultivation.  The  Hudsonian 
zone  is  in  the  more  northern  country  of  small  shrubs  or  stunted  tree  growth 
unsuited  to  agriculture,  and  the  Arctic  zone  extends  across  the  barren 
grounds  north  to  the  pole. 

These  hfe  zones  based  upon  temperature  and  roughly  following  the 
lines  of  latitude,  are,  however,  deflected  from  their  natural  east  and  west 
sweep  by  varying  local  conditions,  the  vicinity  of  cold  or  warm  ocean 
currents,  the  presence  of  large  bodies  of  water,  elevation  above  the  sea, 
the  prevalence  of  cold  or  warm  winds  or  mountain  barriers  to  the  same, 
and  other  causes.  Thus  instead  of  being  even  belts  they  are  irregular 
and  only  roughly  follow  parallels  of  latitude. 

Elevation  is  an  important  factor  in  the  distribution  of  life  depending 
upon  temperature.  In  the  tropics  in  ascending  a  high  mountain,  repre- 
sentatives of  each  zone  between  that  of  the  surrounding  lowland  and  the 
Arctic  of  the  snow-covered  peak,  may  be  met  with  and  appropriate  assem- 
blages of  species  will  be  found  inhabiting  each.  The  juncture  of  Arctic 
and  Hudsonian  zones  at  the  straits  of  Belle  Isle,  in  the  same  latitude  as 
Lands  End  in  England,  illustrates  the  enormous  effect  of  the  cold  Arctic 
current,  coming  down  from  Davis  strait,  in  contrast  to  the  influence  of 
the  warm  Gulf  stream  that  dies  against  the  English  shores. 

We  can  also  observe  minor  groupings  east  and  west  based  upon  con- 
ditions other  than  temperature,  these  determining  factors  being  mostly 
variations  of  humidity.  Thus  the  life  of  the  eastern  woodlands  is  plainly 
different  from  that  of  the  more  arid  plains  of  the  prairie  provinces  and  both 
are  strikingly  different  from  that  of  the  moist  Pacific  slope. 

Taking  the  eastern  forms  as  typical  in  the  ordinary  acceptance  of  the 
word,  comparable  birds  of  the  prairie  will  be  found  to  be  sUghtly  smaller 
and  considerably  paler  in  coloration,  whereas  on  the  humid  Pacific  coast 
they  will  be  larger  and  much  darker  in  colour.  Through  these  influences 
we,  therefore,  find  in  the  west  many  subspecies  of  eastern  forms.  A  com- 
paratively few  species  range  unmodified  across  the  continent,  many  are 
represented  east  and  west  by  two  or  more  subspecies  showing  greater  or 
less  differentiation,  and  in  other  cases  they  are  replaced  by  closely  allied 
species  or  not  represented  at  all. 

In  noting  these  faunal  divisions,  however,  it  must  be  remembered 
that  as  far  as  birds  are  concerned,  these  associations  have  to  be  based 
entirely  upon  breeding  individuals.  Birds  travel  so  widely  and  along  so 
many  devious  routes  in  their  migration,  that  they  may  pass  through  several 
faunal  areas  spring  and  autumn  though  breeding  in  only  one.  Therefore, 
in  determining  the  faunal  zone  to  which  any  given  area  should  be  referred, 
such  transients  must  be  disregarded. 

Though  the  distributions  given  under  the  specific  headings  following 
are  rather  vague  and  indefinite,  many  tend  to  follow  similar  general  lines. 
Thus  some  are  given  as  "the  lower  Great  Lakes  region";  these  are  prob- 
ably Upper  Austral  forms.  "Southern  Ontario  and  Quebec"  refers  to 
Transition  species,  whereas  "beyond  dense  settlement  or  to  the  limit  of 
cultivation"  would  naturally  be  species  of  the  Canadian  zone. 


10 


Transition^ 
Bobolink 
Wood  Thrush 
Yellow-throated  Vireo 
Baltimore  Oriole 
Towhee 
Cuckoo 
Field  Sparrow 

Bluebird 
Catbird 


Canadian 

Hudsonian  Chickadee 
Red-breasted  Nuthatch 
Olive-backed  Thrush 
Three-toed  Woodpecker 
Hermit  Thrush 
White-throated  Sparrow 
Canada  Jay 
Grey-cheeked  Thrush 
Slate-coloured  Junco 

Hudsonian 

Rough-legged  Hawk 
Fox  Sparrow 
Northern  Shrike 
White-crowned  Sparrow 
Pine  Grosbeak 
American  Pipit 


Arctic 


The  following  species  are  given  as  representative  of  what  birds  are  to 
be  expected  in  each  zone: 

Upper  Austral 

Cardinal  ' 

Orchard  Oriole 
Carolina  Wren 
Grasshopper  Sparrow 
Blue-grey  Gnatcatcher 
Dickcissel 


Ptarmigan 
Snowy  Owl 
Snow  Bunting 
Gyrfalcon 
Longspur 


MIGRATION. 

The  migration  of  birds,  their  periodical  and  seasonal  appearance  and 
disappearance,  is  one  of  the  most  obvious  phenomena  of  nature.  The 
fact  that  many  birds  disappear  in  winter  is  common  knowledge  and  has 
attracted  attention  for  ages.  Though  once  regarded  as  a  mystery,  and  still 
far  from  being  throughly  understood  in  many  of  its  details,  we  are  beginning 
to  wonder  less  but  admire  more  as  accurate  knowledge  gives  place  to  vague 
speculation.  To-day,  where  most  of  our  northern  species  spend  the  winter 
is  known  and  many  of  the  routes  by  which  they  come  and  go  have  been 
mapped  out.  We  know  that  on  the  whole  they  are  governed  by  ordinary 
and  well  known,  though  perhaps  highly  developed,  senses  and  common 
every  day  influences,  and  not  by  the  mysterious  powers  and  instincts  once 
ascribed  to  them. 

The  fundamental  cause  of  migration  is  obviously  the  waxing  and  the 
waning  of  the  food  supply.  Birds  leave  the  northern  land  of  their  birth 
because  there  is  no  other  way  by  which  to  avoid  starvation.  Many  species 
can  withstand  extreme  cold  but  none  can  go  long  without  food  and  though 
some  bird  food  still  remains  in  Canada  throughout  the  winter,  its  amount 
is  small  and  only  sufficient  for  a  limited  population  and  even  that  supply 
rapidly  decreases,  or  to  the  north  is  buried  under  deep  snow.  The  cause 
of  the  southward  migration  in  the  autumn  then  is  obvious,  but  why  should 
a  bird  leave  the  soft  cHmate  and  plentiful  food  supply  in  the  south  to  brave 
dangerous  travel  and  finally  find  itself  in  a  land  where  retiring  winter  still 
fingers  and  the  danger  of  starvation  is  imminent.  Many  ingenious  explan- 
ations have  been  advanced  to  account  for  this,  longing  or  homesickness 
for  the  land  of  birth,  hereditary  memories  of  an  ancient  home  enduring 
through  geological  ages,  the  seeking  of  special  food  for  nestlings,  and 
insufficiency  of  nesting  sites  in  the  southern  areas,  have  all  been  given  as 
possible  reasons.  However,  it  is  unnecessary  to  advance  a  complicated  or 
far-fetched  explanation  when  a  simple  and  direct  one  exists.  If  we 
remember  that  in  the  nesting  season  the  bird  population  is  increased  many 


iMost  of  the  species  of  this  zone  also  occur  in  the  Upper  Austral,  but  reach  their  northern  limit  here.    The  occur- 
rence of  these  with  the  absence  of  the  speciee  of  bordering  zones  are  the  most  marked  characteristics  of  the  Transition 


11 

fold  by  the  birth  of  young ;  that  though  in  winter  there  may  be  room  for  a 
considerable  number  of  birds  in  the  southern  stations,  the  natural  spring 
increase  of  population  outgrows  the  supporting  power  of  the  land;  and  that 
just  at  this  critical  time  the  whole  northern  temperate  region  is  thrown 
open  to  occupation  with  an  abundance  of  food,  the  subject  is  mysterious 
no  longer.  In  fact,  it  is  only  by  migration  that  it  is  possible  to  use  the 
supporting  power  of  the  temperate  regions  unless  the  birds  fast  or 
hibernate  through  the  winters,  to  neither  of  which  the  avian  nature  takes 
kindly. 

Though  food  supply  is  the  fundamental  or  originating  cause  of  migra- 
tion we  must  look  for  other  and  more  immediate  impulses  for  an  explanation 
of  its  methods  to-day.  Originally  forced  to  and  fro  by  hunger,  the  annual 
movements  now  have  become  instinctive  and  take  place  before  the  situation 
becomes  acute,  the  actual  hunger  pinch  felt,  or  the  physical  system 
weakened  by  want. 

The  extent  of  the  migrations  of  the  different  species  varies.  A  very 
few  species  do  not,  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word,  migrate  at  all.  In  other 
species  the  more  northern  individuals  only  recede  from  their  stations, 
the  southern  remaining  practically  stationary,  though  in  the  majority  of 
Canadian  species  the  whole  body  moves  south.  The  bird  of  greatest 
length  of  migration  is  doubtless  the  Arctic  Tern,  a  bird  that  nests  from 
the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  to  the  polar  regions  and  winters  as  far  south  as  the 
Antarctic  continent. 

The  methods  of  migration  are  nearly  as  varied  as  their  extent.  Some 
species  drift  along  throughout  the  day  from  treetop  to  treetop,  from  wood 
patch  to  wood  patch,  gradually  working  their  way  in  the  desired  direction. 
Others  take  long  flights,  some  high  in  the  air,  others  lower.  Some  travel 
altogether  by  day;  others  travel  at  night  and  we  are  only  aware  of  their 
passage  through  accidental  opportunities,  their  faint  voices  coming  down 
to  us  from  overhead  in  the  darkness,  or  by  their  sudden  appearance  about 
us  in  the  morning.  They  travel  in  flocks  of  single  or  mixed  species,  scattered 
groups,  or  as  individuals. 

Many  species,  if  not  all,  follow  more  or  less  definite  routes  to  and 
from  their  breeding  grounds  and  some  go  and  return  by  altogether  different 
paths.  Comparatively  small  bodies  of  water  deflect  some  species  from 
their  course,  others  unhesitatingly  cross  vast  reaches  of  sea,  indifferent 
to  nearby  and  convenient  land  passages  that  are  made  use  of  by  closely 
allied  species.  In  some  species  the  older  birds  precede  and  in  others 
the  males  may  precede  the  females. 

How  birds  find  their  way  is  still  only  vaguely  understood,  and  indi- 
viduals far  out  of  their  natural  range  and  course  show  evidence  of  being 
as  hopelessly  lost  as  any  other  animal  would  be  on  unfamiliar  ground. 
Certainly  experience  has  much  to  do  with  it  and  undoubtedly  young  birds 
are  largely  guided  by  the  movements  of  their  elders  which,  it  can  be 
assumed,  through  previous  experience,  already  know  and  can  lead  the  way. 
We  can  understand  how  birds  can  follow  great  landmarks — large  river 
systems,  mountain  ranges,  or  sea  coasts  in  their  journey,  but  no  sense  with 
which  we  are  familiar  explains  how  some  species  return  unerringly  to  lonely 
oceanic  islands  over  wastes  of  monotonous  sea.  It  may  be  that  they  have 
a  special  sense  which  aids  them  in  orienting  themselves. 

57172—2 


12 


PROTECTION. 


In  food  habits,  birds  are  eminently  adaptable;  seeds,  plants,  fruit, 
insects,  flesh,  or  fish  are  all  acceptable  to  various  species  and,  consequently, 
nearly  all  regions  have  their  quota  of  appropriate  birds.  A  bird  lives  fast, 
its  heart  beats  more  rapidly  than  that  of  other  animals,  the  blood  temper- 
ature is  higher,  and  it  consumes  an  enormous  amount  of  energy  in  flight. 
This  feverish  heat  and  strenuous  exertion  requires  a  correspondingly  large 
amount  of  food,  consequently  the  bird  as  an  economic  factor  is  one  to  be 
regarded  seriously.  Though  it  may  be  an  exaggeration  to  say,  as  some 
writers  have  inferred,  that  the  whole  balance  of  nature  depends  upon 
birds  and  that  without  them  the  country  would  be  a  barren  waste  peopled 
only  by  insects,  yet  birds  cannot  be  seriously  reduced  in  number  without 
the  gravest  results.  The  destruction  of  tons  of  weed-seeds  and  millions 
of  insects  must  necessarily  have  a  great  influence  upon  human  welfare  and 
neglect  of  this  fact  must  seriously  react  upon  any  community  that  fails 
to  give  proper  protection  to  its  birds. 

However,  the  problem  of  the  status  of  individual  species  of  birds 
is  not  the  simple  thing  that  it  superficially  appears  to  be.  More  than 
a  cursory  examination  is  necessary  and  many  things  must  be  considered 
in  order  to  arrive  at  the  truth.  Sometimes  birds  work  in  harmony  with 
human  welfare  and  sometimes  against  it.  They  may  be  directly  beneficial 
at  one  season  and  harmful  at  another,  or  their  indirect  influence  may  alter 
the  sum  of  their  direct  effects  in  a  most  surprising  manner. 

General  impressions  then  as  to  whether  a  bird  is  beneficial  or  harmful 
require  careful  checking.  Mere  casual  observation  in  life  is  never  sufficient 
to  determine  even  its  food  supply.  Modern  practice  bases  such  conclusions 
almost  entirely  upon  the  examination  of  the  stomach  contents  of  wild 
birds  taken  throughout  the  year,  which  is  the  only  evidence  that  is  not 
subject  to  question.  In  this  work  the  United  States  Biological  Survey 
has  examined  and  passed  upon  thousands  of  bird  stomachs  and  the  results 
of  its  researches  are  available  to  those  who  care  to  study  and  use  them. 

As  one  of  the  factors  in  the  delicate  balance  of  nature  birds  should 
be  respected. 

There  are  certain  birds  which  from  their  size,  habits,  and  general  food 
value  are  regarded  as  legitimate  game.  The  pursuit  of  these  is  invigorating 
sport  and  tends  to  the  healthful  welfare  of  the  sportsman,  teaching  wood- 
craft, hardihood,  out  of  door  adaptabihty,  and  marksmanship.  The  true 
sportsman  has  a  code  of  ethics  of  his  own  founded  upon  economic  as  well 
as  humanitarian  principles.  He  shoots  nothing  without  giving  it  a  fair 
chance  and  little  that  cannot  be  used  as  food.  He  is  also  careful  not  to 
deplete  the  game  upon  which  his  future  sport  depends.  Restrictive 
measures  have  invariably  followed  rather  than  preceded  the  results  that 
have  made  them  necessary,  the  regulations  that  are  enacted  to-day  should 
have  been  adopted  yesterday  and  the  consequence  is  that  over  much  of  the 
country,  game  is  a  thing  of  the  past. 

'  MEANS    OF    ATTRACTING    BIRDS.     , 

To  anyone  interested  in  birds,  the  pleasure  of  having  them  about 
the  house  and  garden  where  they  can  be  observed  at  leisure,  is  a  very  great 
enjoyment.     A  small  garden  patch  can  be  made  attractive  to  many  species 


13 

by  proper  methods.  The  effects  of  strict  protection  are  well  illustrated 
in  some  of  the  larger  parks  where  the  shyest  waterfowl,  finding  there  is 
notching  to  fear  from  man,  become  almost  as  confiding  as  barnyard  poultry. 
This  is  the  case  also  with  the  smaller  garden  species.  Next  to  freedom 
from  disturbance  by  the  human  inhabitants  protection  from  the  domesti-c 
cat  is  necessary. 

The  supplying  of  food  in  winter  is  also  important.  Shrubs  carrying 
fruit,  suet  hung  in  trees,  and  grain,  broken  nuts,  and  small  fragments  of 
dried  meat  sheltered  from  the  snow,  never  fail  to  attract  birds  in  the 
winter  time. 

In  summer,  when  natural  supplies  are  plentiful,  food  seldom  has  to  be 
supphed,  though  a  row  of  fruiting  sunflowers  or  the  seed  heads  of  many 
garden  flowers  well  repay  the  trouble  they  may  cost  to  provide.  A  shallow 
pool  of  clean  water  is  a  never  failing  source  of  pleasure  to  nearly  all  the 
common  garden  birds.  They  both  bathe  in  it  and  drink  it  and  on  a  hot 
day  it  is  no  uncommon  sight  to  see  several  birds  awaiting  their  turns  to 
enjoy  the  grateful  coolness.  The  simplest  form  of  bird  bath  is  a  shallow 
pan,  set  well  out  in  the  open  and  away  from  cover  as  a  protection  from 
cats.  In  cities  where  the  trees  are  well  cared  for  and  dead  wood 
promptly  removed,  certain  species  of  birds  are  always  hard  pressed  to  find 
suitable  nesting  sites.  There  are  at  least  half  a  dozen  species  naturally 
nesting  in  hollow  hmbs,  that  readily  come  to  bird  boxes  of  various  kinds 
and  a  number  of  other  birds  can  be  occasionally  induced  to  do  so.  Suitable 
boxes  are  described  in  some  of  the  books  Hsted  on  page  16.  In  many 
schools  where  manual  training  is  taught  the  boys  are  encouraged  to  build 
bird  houses.  Scope  is  thus  given  to  their  natural  inventive  genius, 
and  at  the  same  time  they  become  interested  in  the  birds  that  occupy 
the  houses. 


ORNITHOLOGICAL    LITERATURE. 

North  American  ornithological  literature  is  rich  and  varied,  and  per- 
haps no  natural  science  can  be  studied  with  such  efficient  written  aids 
either  to  beginner  or  advanced  student  as  that  relating  to  birds.  A  publi- 
cation can  be  found  to  suit  all  stages  of  knowledge  and  almost  any  purse. 
The  following  list  of  books  on  the  subject  is  recommended,  the  first  named 
being  specially  suited  to  the  requirements  of  the  beginner. 

Birds  guides,  by  Chester  K.  Reed:  Part  I,  Water  and  game  birds  east  of  the  Rockies 
(including  the  hawks  and  owls) ;  Part  2,  Land  birds  east  of  the  Rockies.  Doubleday, 
Page  and  Company,  Garden  City,  N.Y.,  price  each,  $1  in  cloth,  $1.25  in  leather. 

These  are  small,  almost  vest  pocket  editions  in  hmp  bindings,  3j  by  5?  inches, 
very  convenient  for  carrying  in  the  pocket  in  the  field.  They  contain  small,  easily 
recognized,  coloured  illustrations  of  all  the  birds  in  both  sexes,  and  brief  descriptions. 

Colour  key  and  guide  to  the  birds  of  eastern  North  America,  by  Frank  M.  Chapman  and 
Chester  K.  Reed:  8  vo.,  Doubleday,  N.Y.,  price  $2.50. 

Similar  in  plan  to  above  but  more  detailed  and  instructive. 

A  guide  to  the  birds  of  eastern  New  York,  by  Ralph  Hoffman:  8  vo.,  Houghton,  Mifflin 
&  Co.,  price  $1.50. 

A  most  desirable  book,  though  dealing  with  an  extraMmited  area  it  includes  most 
of  the  birds  of  eastern  Canada.  It  contains  keys  for  the  birds  of  each  season  based 
upon  colour,  detailed  descriptions,  and  also  many  illustrations  in  black  and  white 
showing  specific  details  and  gives  much  information  of  various  kinds. 

57l72-2i 


14 

The  birds  of  Ontario,  by  Thomas  Mcllwraith:    2nd  edition,  1894,  8  vo.,  Wm.  Briggs, 

An  annotated  list  of  all  the  birds  known  to  the  writer  to  occur  in  Ontario  at  that 
date,  with  descriptions  and  much  information  regarding  habits,  etc.  Unfortunately 
it  is  now  out  of  print  and  can  probably  only  be  obtained  through  second-hand  book 
dealers  who  maJce  a  specialty  of  ornithological  hterature. 
The  handbook  of  the  birds  of  eastern  North  America,  by  Frank  M.  Chapman:  12  mo., 
D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  price  $3.50. 

This  is  an  almost  complete  text  book  on  the  birds  of  eastern  North  America  and 
is  invaluable  for  the  advanced  as  well  as  the  beginning  student.  It  contains  detailed 
accurate  descriptions  of  aU  plumages,  measurements  and  migration  dates,  and  an 
immense  amoimt  of  interesting  and  valuable  detail  with  a  most  valuable  introduction 
on  birds  and  bird  study.  As  soon  as  a  student  is  famihar  with  the  rudiments  of  orni- 
thology, he  should  supply  himself  with  this  handbook. 
Key  to  the  birds  of  North  America,  by  ElUot  Coues:  5th  edition,  1903,  vols.  2,  large  8  vo., 
Dana  Estes  &  Co.,  price  $12.50. 

This  is  perhaps  the  most  generally  accepted  authority  upon  the  subject  of  Amer- 
ican birds.  It  is  primarily  intended  for  the  advanced  student  but  it  contains  a  mass 
of  information  that  can  be  found  nowhere  else  and  is  a  final  court  of  decision  to  the 
majority  of  our  working  ornithologists. 
The  catalogue  of  Canadian  birds,  by  John  and  James  M.  Macoun:  8  vo.,  pubhshed  by 
the  Department  of  Mines,  Geological  Survey  Branch,  Ottawa,  1909. 

This  is  a  complete  Ust  of  all  the  species  and  subspecies  of  birds  known  to  occur  in 
Canada,  Greenland,  and  Newfoundland,  with  their  ranges  both  breeding  and  migra- 
tory as  thoroughly  stated  as  the  condition  of  knowledge  at  the  time  of  pubhcation 
permitted.  It  is  based  largely  upon  the  explorations  and  experiences  of  the  authors, 
supplemented  by  knowledge  from  all  available  sources  and  contains  considerable 
information  regarding  breeding  habits  but  little  else  of  popular  interest.  The  original 
EngUsh  version  is  now  out  of  print  but  the  French  translation  is  stiU  available  for 
distribution  and  can  be  obtained  from  the  Department. 
The  birds  of  North  and  middle  America,  by  Robt.  Ridgeway:  Bulletin  No.  50,  8  vo., 
United  States  National  Museum. 

This  is  a  monumental  work  planned  in  eight  volumes  but  later  extended  to  ten 
or  more,  of  which  seven  are  in  print,  the  remainder  to  follow  as  rapidly  as  the  work 
can  be  prepared.  It  is  the  latest  and  most  detailed  and  scientific  work  on  the  subject 
but  contains  nothing  on  life  histories  or  aUied  popular  subjects.  It  is  not  for  general 
sale  but  may  be  procured  from  second-hand  book  dealers  or  through  the  Department 
of  Public  Documents  at  Washington. 

Besides  these  general  works,  the  following,  deahng  with  special  divisions  of  birds,  are 
recommended : 
The  Warblers  of  North  America,  by  Frank  M.  Chapman:    D.  Appleton  &  Company, 

price  $3. 

The  Water-fowl  family,  by  Sanford,  Bishop,  and  Van  Dyke:  The  McMiUian  Co.,  price,  $2, 

North  American  land  birds  by  Baird,  Brewer,  and  Ridgeway:  Little,  Brown  &  Co.,  3  vols. 

Reprint  of  the  original.     The  water-birds  of  the  series  was  originally  pubhshed 

in  Memoirs  of  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology,  Harvard  College,  1884,  but  is 

now  out  of  print  and  very  difficult  to  obtain. 

For  general  reading  the  following  can  be  recommended : 

How  to  study  birds,  by  Herbert  K.  Job:  Outing  Pubhshing  Co.,  price,  $1.50. 
The  sport  of  bird  study,  by  Herbert  K.  Job:  Outing  Pubhshing  Co.,  price,  $2. 
Wild  wings,  by  Herbert  K.  Job:  Outing  Pubhshing  Co.,  price,  $3. 

These  are  all  intensely  interesting  books  and  cont-ain  a  wonderful  collection  of 

photographs  of  birds  from  hfe. 
Bird  craft,  by  Mable  Osgood  Wright:  MacMillian  Co.,  price,  $2.50. 

Many  full  page  illustrations. 
Rambles  of  a  Canadian  naturahst,  by  S.  T.  Wood:  Illustrated,  J.  M.  Dent  &  Sons,  Ltd., 

London  and  Toronto,  1916,  price,  $1.50. 

This  is  a  series  of  short  sketches  and  observations  on  the  nature  hfe  about  Toronto. 

They  are  well  and  sympathetically  written — many,  though  not  all  of  them,  refer 

to  birds. 
The  bird,  its  form  and  function,  by  C.  William  Bebee:  Henry  Holt  and  Co. 


15 

This  list  could  be  extended  indefinitely  but  probably  sufficient  has 
been  mentioned. 

On  economic  ornithological  subjects  the  reader's  attention  is  directed 
towards  the  immense  amount  of  valuable  literature  published  by  the  United 
States  Biological  Survey  in  their  many  bulletins,  circulars,  and  reports. 
Though  these  were  prepared  primarily  for  use  in  the  United  States  they 
apply  to  Canadian  birds  almost  equally  well,  A  complete  list  of  them 
with  prices  can  be  obtained  from  the  Superintendent  of  Pubhc  Documents, 
Washington.     The  prices  are  merely  nominal. 

Of  Canadian  publications  of  this  nature,  the  following  may  be  men- 
tioned : 

The  birds  of  Ontario  in  relation  to  agriculture,  by  Chas.  W.  Nash:    Ontario  Dept.  of 
Agriculture,  BuUetin  173. 

Of  literature  of  local  application  in  Canada  only  a  few  of  many  can 
be  mentioned,  for  their  name  is  legion  and  they  are  scattered  throughout 
many  publications,  periodicals,  proceedings,  and  reports. 

Ontario : 

The  birds  of  Ontario,  by  Thomas  Mcllwraith,  2nd  edition,  1894,  8  vols.,  Wm.  Briggs, 

Toronto. 
The  birds  of  Toronto,  by  J.  H.  Fleming:  Auk,  vol.  XXIII,  pp.  437-453:  vol.  XXIV, 

pp.  71-89. 
The  natural  history  of  the  Toronto  region.     Birds  by  J.  H.  Fleming:   Published  by 
Canadian  Institute,  Toronto,  1913,  price,  $2  or  $2.50. 
Quebec : 

Lea  oiseAux  de  la  Province  de  Quebec,  par  C.  E.  Dionne:  Dussault  &  Proulx,  1906. 
The  birds  of  Montreal,  by  E.  D.  Wintle:  Drysdale  &  Co.,  Montreal,  1908. 
Nova  Scotia  : 

Birds  of  Nova  Scotia,  by  A.  Downs,  edited  by  Harry  Piers:  Proc.  and  Trans.,  Nova 
Scotia  Inst.  Sc,  vol.  VII,  pp.  142-178. 
New  Brunswick  : 

A  catalogue  of  the  birds  of  New  Brimswick,  by  M.  A.  Chamberlain:  Bull.  Nat.  Hist. 
Soc,  New  Brunswick,  No.  1,  pp.  23-68. 

Ornithology,  like  all  other  branches  of  science,  has  its  own  periodicals. 
The  principal  one  of  these  in  North  America  is  the  Auk,  a  quarterly 
magazine,  which  is  the  official  organ  of  the  American  Ornithologists' 
Union.  In  addition  to  purely  scientific  papers,  it  contains  hundreds  of 
articles  of  interest  to  Canadians,  including  local  lists  copiously  annotated 
with  life  history  notes  from  all  over  the  Dominion  and  descriptions  of 
habits  popularly  discussed.  Subscription  is  $3  a  year.  Editor,  beginning 
1912,  Witmer  Stone,  Academy  of  Science,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Office  of 
Publication,  30  Boylston  street,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

The  Wilson  Bulletin,  a  bi-monthly  magazine,  is  the  official  organ  of  the 
Wilson  Ornithological  Club  and  is  devoted  to  the  interests  of  the  middle 
west.  Subscription  $1  a  year,  edited  by  Lynds  Jones,  Oberlin,  Ohio. 
Address,  The  Treasurer,  P.  B.  Coffin,  3232  Groveland  ave,,  Chicago,  111. 
This  is  a  less  pretentious  publication  than  the  Auk,  but  contains  much  of 
interest  to  the  general  reader  and  publishes  some  of  the  most  popularly, 
interesting  articles  on  birds  and  their  habits. 

"  Bird  lore  "  is  an  avowedly  popular,  monthly  magazine  notable  for 
its  beautiful  makeup  and  illustrations.  It  is  the  official  organ  of  the 
National  Audubon  Societies  and  is  devoted  to  the  popular  study  and 
protection  of  birds.     It  is  now  in  its  eighteenth  volume  and  is  edited  by 


16 

Frank  Chapman.  Subscription  $1  per  year.  Address,  Bird-Lore,  Crescent 
and  Mulberry  streets,  Harrisburg,  Pa. 

The  Canadian  Field  NaturaUst,  the  continuation  of  the  Ottawa 
NaturaUst,  is  a  monthly  (nine  numbers  a  year)  published  by  the  Ottawa 
Field  Naturalists  Club,  Editor,  Arthur  Gibson,  Entomological  Branch, 
Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Ottawa,  Ont.  Subscription  $1  per  year.  Address 
G.  L.  Patch,  Sec,  Geological  Survey,  Ottawa,  Ont.  This  publication 
contains  a  great  deal  of  interesting  zoological  material  and  numerous 
notes  and  articles  on  the  birds  of  Canada. 

On  the  subject  of  protection  and  attraction  of  birds  about  the  home, 
among  the  great  mass  of  Uterature  available,  the  following  can  be  specially 
recommended: 

How  to  attract  and  protect  wild  birds,  by  Martin  Hiesmann:   Witherby  &  Co.,  London, 

Is.  6d. 

This  is  an  extended  account  of  the  methods  pursued  by  Baron  Berlepsch  in 

Germany  and  gives  innumerable  methods  by  which  the  end  can  be  obtained  on  both 

large  and  small  estates. 
Wild  bird  guests,  by  Harold  Baynes:  E.  P.  Dutton  &  Co.,  1915,  $2. 

This  gives  a  most  interesting  and  readable  account  of  the  method  pursued  by 

the  writer  and  his  friends  whereby  they  made  Meriden,  New  Hampshire,  a  veritable 

model  bird  village,  where  the  birds  became  as  famihar  and  friendly  as  household  pets, 

coming  when  called  and  ahghting  freely  upon  the  person.     It  is  beautifully  illustrated 

with  innumerable  photographs  showing  both  methods  and  results. 
The  domestic  cat,  by  Edward  H.  Forbush,  State  Ornithologist,  Mass.:   State  Board  of 

Agriculture,  Bulletin  No.  2,  1916. 

This  is  an  exhaustive  treatment  of  the  house  cat  in  its  relation  to  wild  bird  life. 
Bird  houses  and  how  to  build  them,  by  Ned  Dearborn:    United  States  Department  of 

Agriculture,  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  609.     Address  Department  of  PubUc  Documents, 

Washington,  D.C.     Cost  about  ten  cents. 

On  the  subject  of  the  English  Sparrow  as  a  pest  the  following  can  be 
recommended : 

The  English  Sparrow  in  North  America,  by  Walter  B.  Barrows:   Bull.  No.  1,  U.S.   Dept- 

of  Agriculture,  1889,  pp.  405. 
How  to  destroy  the  English  Sparrow,  by  Ned  Dearborn:    Farmer's  BuUetia  No.  383, 

U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  1910. 
The  Enghsh  Sparrow  as  a  pest,  by  Ned  Dearborn:  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  493,  U.S.  Dept. 

of  Agriculture,  1912. 

These  reports  give  the  English  Sparrow  a  fair  trial  and  an  honest  conviction,  and 

suggest  various  means  of  keeping  its  number  under  control. 


KEY   TO   THE   BIRDS   OF   EASTERN   CANADA. 

Explanation. 

In  zoological  descriptions  a  "  key  "  is  a  device  through  which  a  speci- 
men can  be  gradually  referred  from  larger  to  smaller  groups  by  picking 
out  salient  characters  and  its  specific  identity  thus  finally  fixed. 

The  key  here  pubhshed  is  a  modification  of  one  originated  by  Mr. 
Frank  Chapman  and  Ernest  Thompson  Seton  and  published  in  the  former's 
"  Handbook  to  the  birds  of  eastern  North  America."  It  is  hoped  that 
it  will  be  found  of  great  assistance  to  the  beginner.  One  advantage  of 
this  key  is  that  it  is  independent  of  the  varying  characters  of  age,  sex,  or 
season,  and  may  be  used  for  juveniles  and  females  as  well  as  adult  male 
specimens. 


17 

The  method  of  its  use  is  as  follows:  given  a  bird  in  the  hand  of  un- 
known species  to  determine  its  name.  It  is  first  compared  with  the  first 
heading  in  small  capitals  numbered  in  Roman  numerals — i,  feet  fully 
WEBBED.  If  this  description  does  not  fit  the  bird,  the  next  Roman 
numeral  heading  is  referred  to — ii,  feet  partly  webbed,  or  iii,  feet 
WITHOUT  pronounced  WEB.  Assuming  that  the  latter  correctly  describes 
the  bird  under  discussion,  we  refer  to  the  headings  of  next  lower  rank, 
which  are  numbered  alphabetically  with  capital  letters,  where  we  find 
the  alternatives — F,  Legs  long,  and  G,  Legs  short.  Sometimes  it  may  be 
difficult  to  decide  whether  a  leg  should  be  regarded  as  long  or  short,  and 
the  various  pictured  details  following  may  then  assist  determination.  In 
this  case  the  legs  we  decide  are  not  remarkably  long,  no  longer  in  comparison 
to  size  of  the  bird  than  are  the  legs  of  a  chicken  or  sparrow;  we,  therefore, 
under  G,  refer  to  a  number  of  subordinate  alternatives,  distinguished  by 
small  initial  letters — k,  feet  chicken-like,  strong  and  compact  for  scratch- 
ing; 1,  feet  strongly  clawed  for  holding  prey;  m,  feet  small  and  weak; 
n,  feet  small  or  medium-sized,  solidly  made  and  legs  covered  with  horny 
scales  or  plates.  Glances  at  various  feet  shown  under  each  heading  will 
assist  in  determination.  Assuming  a  decision  in  favour  of  the  last,  we 
compare  our  specimen  with  the  next  alternatives,  numbered  with  ordinary 
Arabic  numerals — 19,  two  toes  in  front;  20,  three  toes  in  front.  There 
can  be  Httle  confusion  here  and  we  assume  that  our  specimen  having  three 
front  toes  is  one  of  the  great  body  of  perching  birds.  We,  therefore, 
compare  it  with  the  following  Une  detail  drawings  to  see  with  which  it 
agrees  most  closely.  The  bill  is  not  wide  and  flat;  it  is,  therefore,  not  a 
flycatcher;  there  are  no  ear-tufts  or  long  hind  toe  and  the  nostril  is  not 
covered  with  feather  tufts,  therefore  it  cannot  be  either  a  Horned  Lark, 
a  Crow,  or  a  Jay.  The  next  picture,  the  Bobolink's  bill,  catches  our  eye 
and  the  sparrow  bill  in  the  next  lot.  A  glance  through  the  remainder 
shows  that  our  bird  must  be  a  bobolink  or  one  of  the  sparrows.  The  picture 
p.  247,  and  description  of  the  former,  is  nothing  like  it;  therefore,  we  turn 
to  the  sparrows,  read  the  general  sparrow  description,  and  remarks  on  p.  181, 
and  then  work  through  the  pictures.  After  looking  at  all  the  illustrations 
we  find  that  our  specimen  agrees  with  that  of  the  Song  Sparrow,  and  on 
reading  over  the  distinctive  characters  we  have  our  opinion  confirmed. 
It  has  the  sharply  striped  breast  aggregated  in  the  centre,  and  is  without 
either  the  yellow  stripe  over  the  eye  of  the  Savannah  Sparrow  or  the 
white  outer  feathers  of  the  tail,  as  in  the  Vesper.  We  are,  therefore, 
confident  that,  starting  with  no  other  ornithological  knowledge  than  that 
the  specimen  was  an  Eastern  Canadian  bird,  we  have  been  able  to  refer  it 
to  its  proper  species. 


18 


Key. 


^SupArcit/ary  Line 


Figure  1. 

Plumage  areas  of  a  typical  bird. 

L  Feet  Fully  Webbed — Two  or  three  complete  webs  to  each'^foot. 


A,  Toes,  four, 

a,  Tarsus  flattened. 


Figure  2. 


Loons p.  44. 


Figure  3. 


Figure  4. 


Figure  5. 


b,  Closed  wing  longer  than  tail,  except  in  some  Jaegers  (Figure  3) 
and  Terns  (Figure  5),  in  which  the  rule  only  holds  if  the  greatly 
elongated  central  tail  feathers  of  the  former  or  the  outer  ones  of 
the  latter  are  disregarded.     Bills  as  shown 

Long-winged  Swimmers — Gulls,  Tern,  Jaegers p.  48. 


19 


c,  Webs  between  all  toes  (3  webs) 


Figure  6. 

Full-Wehhed  Swimmers — Gannets,  Cormorants,  etc., p.  59. 


/'  ^ 


Figure  7. 


Figure  8. 


Figure  9.  Figure  10. 

d.   Bill  toothed   or  flattened    (Duck-like). 
Sieve-hilled  Swimmers — Mergansers,  Ducks,  Geese,  and  Swans p.  62. 


e,  Nostrils  in  tubes  on  top  of  bill. 


Tube-nosed  Swimmers — Petrels,  etc. 


Figure  11. 

p.  56 


20 


B,  Toes  three  (without  hind  toe),  except  Kittiwake 
(p.  50). 


Figure  12. 

Auks,  Murres,  etc p.  45. 

II.     Feet  Partly  Webbed — Webs  reduced  to  scallops,   bordering  flaps,  or 
small  webs  at  base  of  toes.    Toes  four,  except  as  otherwise  noted. 


C,  Tarsus  much  flattened;  webs  as  shown. 

Figure  13. 

Grebes p.    42. 

D,  Bill  extending  on  forehead  and  forming 

frontal  plate. 

Figure  li. 

Coot p.  90. 

E,  Small  birds;  bill  long  and  slender;    toes 

three  or  four.  c^^^ 

f,  Bill  without  hard  terminal  enlargement; 

toes  four,  except  Sanderling  (p.  97). 

Shore  Birds — Phalaropes,  Snipe,  Sandpipers,  Plover p.  90. 

/ 

g.  Bill  with  hard  terminal   enlargement;  ^^ 1^^^-^^^% 

toes  three,  except  Black-belUed  ^<::^      ^H f*" 

Plover  (p.  103).  ^, 

Figure  16. 

Flover p.  1 02. 


21 


III.    Feet  Without  Pronounced  Web. 


F,  Legs  long,  for  wading  in  water  or  mud; 

toes  long,  slender,  and  flexible  at  joints. 


h,  Bill  stout  and  horny;  bare  space 
about  eyes. 


Figure  17. 


Figure  18. 


1,  Middle  toe  with  comb. 


Herons. 


Figure  19. 

p.  80. 


2,  Forehead  bare. 


Figure  20. 


Cranes. 


p.  85. 


i.  Bills  long,  flex- 
ible, and  even- 
ly tapered. 

Figures  21  and  22. 

3,  Bill  rather  slender, 
not  markedly  deeper 
at  base  than  tip.   Toes 
four,  except  Sanderling  (p.  97). 

Phalaropes,  Snipe,  Sandpipers , p.  90. 


22 


4,  Bill  rather  decidedly  heavier  at  base 
than  at  tip. 


Figure  23. 


Rails  (King  and  Virginia  Rails). 


j,  Bills  short. 

5,  Bill  soft  at  base  ending  in  hard 
terminal  enlargement.  Toes  three, 
except  Black-bellied  Plover,  (p.  103). 


Figure  24. 

Plover p.  102. 


6,  Bill  quite  stout. 


Figure  25. 


Rails  (Sora  and  Yellow  Rails) p    gg 


7,  Bill  stout  with  frontal  shield  extending 
on  forehead. 


Gallinules, 


Figure  26. 


p.  88. 


8,  Bill  horny  to  base,  wedge-shaped  in 
profile,  and  appearing  to  be  slightly 
turned  up. 


Figure  27. 


Turnstone p.  105. 


G,  Legs  short  for  perching,  walking,  climbmg, 
and  Hving  in  trees  or  on  land, 
k,  Feet  chicken-like,  strong  and  compact; 
toes  less  flexible;  claws  strong  and 
blunt  for  scratching.  Tarsus  feathered 
or  bare.  With  or  without  comb-like 
api>endages  on  toes. 


Figure  28. 


23 


9,  Bill  rather  conical;  feathered 
to  or  about  nostril. 


Figure  29. 


Grouse  and  Quail P  ■  106. 


10,  Bill  hooked;  neck  and  head  bare. 


Figure  30. 

Vultures p.  114. 


1,  Feet  powerful  for  hold- 
ing prey;  claws  long, 
strong,  sharp,  and 
curved,  tarsus  feather- 
ed or  bare. 


Figures  31  and  32. 


Birds  of  Prey p .  113. 


11,  Naked  cere  at  base  of  bill. 
Tarsus  always  (except  Roughleg 
Hawk  and  Golden  Eagle)  bare. 
Toes    always  bare    (Figure    31). 


Figure  33. 

Hawks  and  Eagles p.  116. 


24 

12,  Cere  hidden  in  feathers;  eye  •''J"^^^f^^^'^i''^'^^^''^\ 
in  centre  of  more  or  less  circular  A'^^y^  y -■•'^^^  '^•^\*f 
feather  disks.  Tarsus  and  toes  <U^^^4.^^^^^  *> '> 
feathered    (Figure  32).  ^V^^^  f|(#^^-^S/^ 

Figure  34. 

Owls p.  129 

m,  Feet  small  and  weak. 

13,  Nostrils  opening  in  a  soft  and  somewhat 
swollen  base. 

Figure  35. 

Pigeons P-  HI 

\ 

14,  Two  outer  toes  joined  together  /^\ 
for  half  their  length.                                u^^  {' — '         '^^\ 

Figure  36. 

Kingfishers P-  1^5. 

15,  Two  toes  directed  forward,  two  j<W^ — 
backward  (see  also  Woodpeckers).              /i?^^l 

Figures?. 

Cuckoos., p ■   135. 


16.  Bill  very  small;  mouth  enor- 
mous, opening  to  below  eyes. 


Figure  38. 

Goatsuckers,  Whip-poor-will,  Nighthawks p.  143. 


26 

17,  Tail  feathers  ending  in  sharp  '^^s^'^s^^f-''*^*'' 
spines.  ^^^^^^^5- 

Figure  39. 

Chimney  Swift p.  145. 

18,  Bill  very  slender  and  awl-shaped.  ^_-_.      ■  --^^^^»^-' 
Exceedingly  minute  birds.  "-<}''>',' 

Figure  40. 

Hummingbird P-   146- 

n,  Feet,  medium-sized  or  small,  but  not 
noticeably  weak,  flabby,  or  loose 
jointed.      Legs  covered  with   scales         :^ 

or  plates.  'CZI!3__^2Il3ir~vC^^' 

19,  Two  toes  in    front,    either  one  "         " — ^  "^^ 
or  two  directed  backwards.  Bill  "''■- 
chisel-shaped  at  tip.                                            Figure  4i. 

Woodpeckers p.  138. 

20,  Three  toes  in  front;  hind  toe  as  well 
developed  and  as  long  as  middle  toe; 
claw  on  hind  toe  usually  as  long  as 
or  longer  than  that  on  middle  toe. 

Figure  42. 

Perchers p.  147. 

Recognition  of  Details  of  the  Perchers. 

Bill  wider  than  high  at  base; 

tip  shghtly  hooked.  •\::*r-  n. 

a  Figure  43.  6 

Flycatchers p.  148. 

Note  ear  tufts  and    long    hind  "'      ;>"^""^^^« 
toe    nail.       Longspur    and 
Pipit     only     other    species  ^^f    / 

having   latter  feature.  '^^- /  jf^=&^'^'^ 

«  Figure  44.  * 

Horned  Lark p.   152. 


26 


Bill  stout,  nostrils  covered  by  bristly  tufts. 


Figure  45. 


Crows,  Jays,  etc. 


Keel  of  bill  us- 
ually extending 
more  or  less  up 
on  forehead. 

Cowbird  and 
Bobolink  (Fig- 
ure 46)  have 
bills  resembHng 
the  sparrow, 
see  species. 


/l^;ji 


Figures  46  and  47. 


p.  153. 


Figures  50,  51  and  52. 

Bill  conical,  stout  for  seed  cracking.      (Bills    of   BoboHnk   and    Cowbird 
superficially  similar,  see  descriptions.) 

Sparrows p.  161. 


Shght  or  marked  tooth  on  cutting  side  of 
upper  mandible. 


Tanagers p.  igo. 


27 

Bill  very  small,  wide,  and  flattened  at  base. 

(«)  '   (b) 

Figure  54. 

Swallows P- 182. 

/I 

/  > 

Crest  and  black  eye-band  most  conspicuous. 

Figure  55. 

Waxwmgs P- 184. 

Tooth  near  tip  of  upper  mandible.  ^<iC_/\^ 

•  V. 
Figure  56. 

Yireos  and  Shrikes pp.  188,  186. 

Small,  brightly  coloured  birds.  Olive-  ""^V-C'*-''  "V^^^ 

greens  and  yellows  are  perhaps  the  "  '^' 

commonest  colours,  but  blues,  reds, 
and  other  colours  are  often  present.  — .,^   -.     ..  ^ 

Figures  57,  58,  and  59. 

Wood  Warblers p.  190. 

Fine  sharp  bill  and  long  claw  on      j^-- — ^^r.^^^         A^ 
hind  toe.  C*>'"*i-    .ArrfJ 

(a)  (6) 

Figure  60. 

Fivii P-  205. 

57172—3 


28 

Figures  61  and  62, 

Bills  as  shown.    Thrasher  large  red-brown  and  white  bird;  Catbird  even 
slate  grey. 

Thrasher  and  Catbird p.  205. 

Small  birds  coloured  in  shades  of  wood-brown.  ^ri=:=^^^!  /^-ife 

Figure  63. 

Wrens p.  207. 

Small  birds  in  wood-brown  colours.     Tail  '^'" 

long  and  stiff,  feathers  pointed  at  end.  '^  "^^^^^^s_^ 

■■•.  .•:  "^^^ 

Figure  64. 

Creepers p.  210. 

Bill  pointing  slightly  upwards.  "^^^^-^^   -■^■t 

Figure  65. 

Nuthatches p.  210 

Very  small  birds  coloured  in  greys,  white,  and  black.  _  __^ 

Figure  66. 

Titmice p.  212. 


29 


Very  small    birds,  olive-coloured.       Males   with  small, 
brightly-coloured  crown  patch. 


Figure  67. 

Kinglets p.  213 


Medium-sized  birds,  coloured  usually, 
except  Robin  and  Blue-bird,  in  soft 
browns  with  more  or  less  spotted 
breast. 


Figure 


Thrushes p.  215. 


SYSTEMATIC    INDEX. 


Titles  given  in  small  capitals  have  special  headings  devoted  to  them; 
those  in  italics  are  mentioned  incidentally  in  the  text.  Starred  species 
are  illustrated  in  colours. 


Class . . . . 
Subclass . 
Subclass . 
Order . . . . 
Suborder. 
Family.  . 


Family . 

Family . 


.  AVES,  birds 

.  .  .  RATiTiE,  Raft-breasted  birds 

CARiNAT^,  Keel-breasted  birds 

PYGOPODES,  Divers 

Colymbi,  Grebes 

coLYMBiDiE,  Grebes 

Western  Grebe 

holbcell's  grebe 

horned  grebe 

*pied-billed  grebe 

GA viiD^,  Loons 

*COMMON   LOON 

RED-THROATED   LOON 

ALCiD^,  Auks,  Murres,  and  Puffins 

PUFFIN 

BLACK   GUILLEMOT 

Atlantic  Guillemot. . . . 
Mandt's  Guillemot . . . . 

COMMON   MURRB 

Atlantic  Murre 

THICK-BILLED    GUILLEMOT. 

Briinnich's  Murre 

RAZOR-BILLED   AUK 

GREAT  AUK 

DOVEKIE 


PAGE. 

41 
41 
41 
41 
42 
42 
42 
42 
43 
43 
44 
44 
44 
45 
45 
46 
46 
46 
46 
46 
46 
46 
47 
47 
47 


67172—3^ 


30 

PAGE 

Order longipbnxbs,  Long-winged  Swimmers 48 

Family stbrcorariid^,  Jaegers  and  Skuas 48 

POMARINE   JAEGER 48 

PARASITIC   JAEGER 49 

LONG-TAILED   JAEGER 49 

Family larid^e,  Gulls  and  Terns 49 

Subfamily larin^,  Gulls 50 

KITTIWAKE 50 

Atlantic  Kittiwake 51 

glattcous  gull 51 

iceland  gull 51 

great  black-backed  gull 51 

*herring  gull 52 

ring-billed  gull 53 

Bonaparte's  gull 53 

Franklin's  Gvll 53 

Laughing  Gull 53 

Subfamily stbrnin^,  Terns 54 

caspian  tern 54 

forster's  tern 55 

*common  tern 55 

arctic  tern 55 

black  tern 56 

American  Black  Tern 56 

Order tubinares,  Tube-v.osed  Swimmers 56 

Family Procellariidoe,  Lesser  Tube-nosed  Swimmers 57 

FULMAR 57 

Atlantic  Fulmar 57 

Genus PUFFiNUS,  Shearwaters 58 

GREATER  SHEARWATER 58 

SOOTY  SHEARWATER 58 

PETRELS 58 

leach's   PETREL 59 

Stormy  Petrel 59 

Wilson's  petrel 59 

Order stbganopodes,  Full-webbed  Swivimers 59 

Family sulid^e,  Gannets  or  Boobies 60 

gannet 60 

Family phalacrocoracid^,  Cormorants 60 

common  cormorant 61 

double-crested  cormorant 61 

Eastern  Double-crested  Cormorant..  61 

Family l.ecanid^,  Pelicans 62 

White  Pelican 62 

Brown  Pelican 62 

Order anseres,  Sieve-hilled  Swimmers 62 

Family anatid^,  Ducks,  Geese,  and  Swans 63 

Subfamily MERGiNiE,  Mergansers 63 

AMERICAN   merganser 64 

*RED-BREASTED   MERGANSER 64 

HOODED   MERGANSER 64 

Subfamily anatin^,  River  and  Pond  Ducks 65 

*MALLARD 65 

*black  duck 66 

GADWALL 66 

BALD  PATE 66 

GREEN-WINGED   TEAL 67 

*BLUE-WINGED   TEAL 67 

Cinnamon  Teal 67 

shoveller 67 

PINTAIL 67 

*wooD  duck 68 


31 

PAGE 

S^Jamily fuligclin.e,  Bay,  Sea,  or  Diving  Ducks 68 

REDHEAD 69 

CANVAS-BACK 69 

GREATER   SCAUP   DUCK 70 

LESSER   SCAUP   DUCK 70 

EING-NECKED   DUCK 70 

GOLDEN-EYE 70 

American  Golden-eye 71 

barrow's  golden-eye 71 

buffle-head 71 

old-squaw 72 

harlequin  duck 72 

Genera somateria    and  oidemia,  Eiders   and 

Scoters 72 

EIDER   DUCK 73 

Northern  Eider 73 

AMERICAN   EIDER 73 

KING   EIDER 74 

AMERICAN   SCOTER 74 

WHITE-WINGED   SCOTER 74 

SURF   SCOTER 74 

RUDDY   DUCK 75 

S-ubJamily anserin^e,  Geese 75 

SNOW  GOOSE 75 

Lesser  Snow  Goose 75 

Greater  Snoio  Goose 75 

BLUE    GOOSE 76 

WHITE-FRONTED   GOOSE 76 

American  White-fronted  Goose 76 

*CANADA   GOOSE 76 

Hutchin's  Goose 76 

BRANT 77 

American  Brant 77 

Black  Brant 77 

Subfamily cygnin^,  Swans 77 

WHISTLING   SWAN 78 

TRUMPETER   SWAN 78 

Order hebodiones,  Deep  Water  Waders 79 

Suborder ibides,  Ibises 79 

Family ibidid^,  Ibises 79 

GLOSSY  ibis 79 

Suborder herodii,  Heron-like  Waders 80 

Family ardeid^,  Herons  and  Bitterns 80 

Subfamily botaurin.«,  Bitterns 80 

*american  bittern 80 

least  bittern 81 

Cory's  Least  Bittern 81 

Subfamily ardein^,  True  Herons  and  Egrets 81 

*GRBAT   BLUE   HERON 82 

Eastern  Great  Blue  Heron 82 

WHITE   HERONS 83 

AMERICAN   EGRET 83 

LITTLE   BLUE   HERON 83 

Louisiana  Heron 84 

GREEN   HERON 84 

Northern  Green  Heron 84 

BLACK-CROWNED   NIGHT   HERON 85 

Yellow-crowned  Night  Heron 85 

Order paludicol^.  Marsh  Birds 85 

Suborder grues,  Cranes  and  Courlans 85 

Family gruid^,  Cranes 85 

SANDHILL   CRANE 85 

Little  Brown  Crane 85 

Whooping  Crane 86 


32 

pagh 

Suborder raxli,  Smaller  Marsh  Birds 86 

Family rallid^,  Rail-like  Birds 86 

Subfamily rallus,  True  Rails .  86 

KING  RAIL 87 

Clapper  Rail 87 

VIRGINIA    RAIL 87 

Black  Rail 87 

*80RA    RAIL 88 

TELLOW   RAIL 88 

Svhfam/ily gallinulin^,  Gallinules  or  Mud-hens 88 

PURPLE    GALLINULE 89 

FLORIDA    GALI-INULE 89 

Subfamily fulicin^,  Coots 90 

American  Coot 90 

Order limicol^,  Shore  Birds 90 

Family phalaropodid^,  Phalaropes 91 

red  phalarope 91 

northern  phalarope 91 

Wilson's  phalarope 92 

Family .  .  recurvirostrid^,  Avocets  and  Stilts 92 

AMERICAN   AVOCET 92 

Family scolopacid^,  Snipe-like  Birds 92 

*AMERICAN  WOODCOCK 93 

i                                                           *WILSON's    SNIPE 93 

DOWITCHER 93 

Long-billed  Doivitcher 94 

&T1LT   SANDPIPER 94 

KNOT 91 

PURPLE   SANDPIPER 94 

Eastern  Purple  Sandpip 95 

PECTORAL   SANDPIPER 95 

WHITE-RUMPED    SANDPIPER 95 

BAIRD's   SANDPIPER 95 

LEAST   SANDPIPER 96 

DUNLIN •.  .  96 

Red-backed  Sandpiper 96 

CURLEW    SANDPIPER 96 

SEMIPALMATED    SANDPIPER 97 

Wester7i  Sandpiper 97 

SANDERLING 97 

MARBLED    GODWIT 97 

HUDSONIAN    GODWIT 98 

GREATER    YELLOW-LEGS 98 

LESSER   I'ELLOW    LEGS 99 

SOLITARY   SANDPIPER 99 

Eastern  Solitary  Sandpiper 99 

WILLET 99 

Eastern  Willet 99 

Western  Willet 99 

UPLAND    PLOVER 100 

BUFF-BREASTED    SANDPIPER 100 

*8POTTED    SANDPIPER 100 

Genus numenius,  Curlews 101 

LONG-BILLED    CURLEW 101 

HUDSONIAN    CURLEW 102 

ESKIMO    CURLEW 102 

Family charadriid.e,  Plover 102 

BLACK-BELLIED    PLOVER 103 

AMERICAN    GOLDEN    PLOVER 103 

Eastern  Golden  Plover 103 

*KILLDEER   PLOVER 104 

SEMIPALMATED    PLOVER 104 

European  Ring  Plover 104 

PIPING  PLOVER 104 

Snowy  Plover 105 


33 

PAGB 

Family aphrizid^,  Turnstones 105 

TURNSTONE 105 

Rvddy  Turnstone 105 

Family HiBMATOPODiD.E,  Oyster-catchers 105 

AMERICAN   OYSTER-CATCHER 105 

Order gallin.e,  Scratching  Birds 106 

Suborder phasiani,  True  Fowls 106 

Family odontophorid^,  American  Quail 106 

*BOB-WHITB 107 

Virginia  Bob-white 107 

Family tetraonid^,  Grouse 108 

*8PRUCE   PARTRIDGE 108 

Hudsonian  Spruce  Partridge 108 

Canada  Spruce  Partridge 108 

*RUFFED   grouse 108 

Canada  Ruffed  Grouse 108 

Genus lagopus,  Ptarmigan 109 

WILLOW    GROUSE 110 

Willow  Ptarmigan 110 

Aliens  Ptarmigan 110 

ROCK    ptarmigan 110 

Arctic  Ptarmigan 110 

Reinhardts  Ptarmigan 110 

Welsh's  Ptarmigan 110 

prairie   CHICKEN 110 

Northern  Prairie  Chicken 110 

SHARP-TAILED    GROUSE Ill 

Northern  Sharp-tail Ill 

Prairie  Sharp-tail Ill 

Family meleagrid^e,  Turkeys Ill 

WILD   TURKEY Ill 

Northern  Wild  Turkey Ill 

Order columbjE,  Pigeons  and  Doves Ill 

Family columbid^,  True  Pigeons  and  Doves Ill 

*PA8SENGER   PIGEON 112 

*MOURNlNG   DOVE 113 

Carolina  Mourning  Dove 113 

Order raptores,  Birds  of  Prey 113 

Suborder sarcorhamphi,  American  Vultures 114 

Family cathartid^,  Turkey  Vultures 115 

TURKEY   VULTURE 115 

Northern  Turkey  Vulture 116 

BLACK   VULTURE 116 

Suborder palcones,  Diurnal  Birds  of  Prey 116 

Family buteoniad^,  Buzzards  and  Eagles 116 

Genera el,anoii>es  and  ciRCVS,Kites  and  Harriers  117 

swallow-tailed  kite 117 

*marsh  hawk 117 

Genera accipiter  and  ASTvn,Accipiters,  Short- 
winged  Hawks 118 

*SHARP-SHINNED    HAWK 118 

cooper's   HAWK 119 

*AMERICAN   GOSHAWK 119 

Eastern  Goshawk 119 

Genera- buteo  and  archibuteo,  True  Buzzards.  120 

*red-tailed  hawk 120 

Eastern  Red-tail 121 

*red-shouldered  hawk 121 

Eastern  Red-shouldered  Hawk 122 

swainson's  hawk 122 

broad- WINGED   HAWK 122 

rough-legged  hawk 123 

American  Rough-legged  Hawk 123 


34 

PAGE 

Genera aqxtila  and  hali^etus,  Eagles 123 

GOLDEN  EAGLE 123 

BALD  EAGLE 124 

Northern  Bald  Eagle 124 

Family falconid^,  Falcons  and  Caracaras 125 

Subfamily falconing,  True  Falcons 125 

GYRFALCON8 125 

WHITE  GYRFALCON 126 

GYRPALCON 126 

Grey  Gyrfalcon 126 

Black  Gyrfalcon 126 

*PEREGRINE   FALCON 126 

Duck  Hwak 126 

PIGEON   HAWK 127 

Eastern  Pigeon  Hawk 127 

*AMERICAN   SPARROW   HAWK 127 

Eastern  Sparrow  Hawk 127 

Family.  .  .    '. pandionid^,  Fish-hawks,  Ospreys 128 

*OSPREY 128 

American  Osprey 128 

Suborder striges,  Nocturnal  Birds  of  Prey 129 

Family alttconid^,  Barn  Owls 129 

AMERICAN   BARN   OWL 129 

Family strigid^,  Horned  or  Eared  Owls 130 

AMERICAN   LONG-EARED   OWL 130 

AMERICAN   SHORT-EARED   OWL 130 

*BARRED   OWL 131 

Eastern  Barred  Owl 131 

CINEREOUS   OWL 131 

Great  Grey  Owl 131 

ARCTIC   SAW-WHET   OWL 132 

Richardson's  Owl 132 

SAW-WHET   OWL 132 

Acadian  Owl 132 

*SCREECH   OWL 133 

Eastern  Screech  Owl 133 

*GREAT   HORNED    OWL 133 

Eastern  Horned  Owl 133 

Western  Homed  Owl 133 

Arctic  Horned  Owl 133 

Labrador  Horned  Oiol 133 

SNOWY  OWL 134 

HAWK  OWL 134 

American  Hawk  Owl 134 

Order coccyges,  Cuckoos  and  Kingfishers 135 

Suborder cuctjli,  Cuckoos 135 

Family cvcvlxdm,  American  Cuckoos 135 

Subfamily coccyzinjs,  American  Tree  Cu/;koos 135 

*yellow-billed  cuckoo 136 

*black-billed  cuckoo 136 

Suborder alcyones,  Kingfishers 136 

Family alcedinid^,  Kingfishers 137 

*BELTED   KINGFISHER 137 

Order pici,  Woodpeckers 138 

Family PiciDiE,  Woodpeckers 138 

HAIRY    WOODPECKER 138 

Eastern  Hairy  Woodpecker 139 

Northern  Hairy  Woodpecker 139 

*DOWNY   WOODPECKER 139 

Northern  Downy  Woodpecker 139 

*ARCTIC   THREE-TOED   WOODPECKER 139 

AMERICAN   THREE-TOED   WOODPECKER..  140 

Eastern  Three-toed  Woodpecker 140 

*YELLOW-BELLlED   SAPSUCKER 140 


35 

PAGE 

Family picid^. — Continued. 

Eastern  Sapsucker 140 

*PILEATED  WOODPECKER 141 

Northern  Pileated  Woodpecker 141 

*RED-HEADED   WOODPECKER 141 

RED-BELLIED   WOODPECKER 142 

*FLICKER 142 

Northern  Flicker 142 

Order macrochires,  Goatsuckers,  Sivifts,  and  Hummingbirds 143 

Suborder caprimulgi,  Goatsuckers 143 

Family caprimulgid^,  Goatsuckers 143 

chuck-will's  widow 143 

whip-poor-will 143 

Eastern  Whip-poor-wiU 143 

*NIGHTHAWK 144 

Eastern  Nighthawk 144 

Suborder cypseli,  Svnfts  and  Allies 145 

Family micropodid^,  Sunfts 145 

Subfamily chjettjrin^,  Spine-tailed  Swifts 145 

*CHIMNEY    SWIFT 145 

Suborder trochili,  Hummingbirds 146 

Family trochilid^,  Hummingbirds 146 

*RUBY-THROATED    HUMMINGBIRD 146 

Order passeres,  Perching  Birds 147 

Suborder clamatores,  Songless  Perchers 147 

Family tyrannid.e,  Tyrant  Flycatchers 148 

scissor-tailed  flycatcher 148 

*kingbird 148 

crested  flycatcher 149 

*phoebe 149 

olive-sided  flycatcher 150 

wood   PEWEB 150 

YELLOW-BELLIED   FLYCATCHER 151 

ACADIAN   FLYCATCHER 151 

TRAILL's   FLYCATCHER 151 

Alder  Flycatcher 151 

Western  Alder  Flycatcher 151 

LEAST   FLYCATCHER 152 

Suborder oscines,  Song  Birds 152 

Family alaudid^,  Larks 152 

*horned  lark 152 

Eastern  Horned  Lark 153 

Prairie  Horned  Lark 153 

Hoyt's  Horned  Lark 153 

Family corvid^,  Jays  and  Crows 153 

Subfamily garrulin^,  Magpies  and  Jays 153 

magpie 153 

American  Magpie 153 

*BLUE  JAY 154 

*CANADA   JAY 154 

Eastern  Canada  Jay 154 

Labrador  Jay 154 

Subfamily corvine,  Crows 155 

RAVEN 155 

Northern  Raven 155 

*american  crow 156 

Eastern  Crow 156 

FamUy icterid^,  American  Starlings 156 

*BOBOLINK 157 

*COWBIR0 157 

yellow-headed  blackbird 158 

*red-winged  blackbird 158 

Eastern  Red-wing 158 

Northern  Red-wing 158 


36 

PAGE 

Family icterid.e. — Concluded. 

*MEADOWl,ARK 159 

ORCHARD   ORIOLE 159 

*BALTIMORE   ORIOLE 160 

RUSTY   BLACKBIRD 160 

CROW   BLACKBIRD 161 

*  Bronzed  Grackle 161 

Purple  Grackle 161 

Family pringillidje,  Sparrows,  Linnets,  Finches,  or  Buntings..  161 

EVENING    GROSBEAK 162 

Eastern  Evening  Grosbeak 162 

*PINE   GROSBEAK 163 

Canadian  Pine  Grosbeak 163 

*PURPLE  PINCH 163 

Eastern  Purple  Finch 163 

*HOUSE   SPARROW 164 

CROSSBILL 165 

American  Crossbill 166 

WHITE-WINGED    CROSSBILL 166 

Genus acanthis,  Redpolls 166 

HORNEMANN's   REDPOLL 166 

Greenland  Redpoll 167 

Hoary  Redpoll 167 

REDPOLL   LINNET 167 

Common  Redpoll 167 

Holboll's  Redpoll . , 167 

Greater  Redpoll 167 

*AMERICAN   GOLDFINCH 168 

Eastern  Goldfinch 168 

PINE  SISKIN 168 

*SNOW   BUNTING 169 

Common  Snow  Bunting 169 

LAPLAND   LONGSPUR 169 

Eastern  Longspur 169 

*VESPER   SPARROW 169 

Eastern  Vesper  Sparrov) 170 

IPSWICH   SPARROW 170 

SAVANNAH   SPARROW 170 

Eastern  Savannah  Sparrow 170 

GRASSHOPPER   SPARROW 171 

Eastern  Grasshopper  Sparrow 171 

HENSLOW's   SPARROW 171 

Eastern  Henslow's  Sparrow 171 

leconte's  sparrow 171 

nelson's  sharp-tail 172 

Prairie  Sharp-tail 172 

Acadian  Sharp-tail 172 

lark  sparrow 172 

Eastern  Lark  Sparrow 172 

Harris'  sparrow 172 

*white-crowned  sparrow 173 

Eastern  White-crowned  Sparrow. .  .  173 

*white-throatbd  sparrow 173 

*tree  sparrow 174 

Eastern  Tree  Sparrow 174 

*chipping  sparrow 174 

Eastern  Chipping  Sparrow 174 

CLAY-COLOURED   SPARROW 175 

FIELD   SPARROW 175 

Eastern  Field  Sparrow 175 

*SLATE-COLOURED    JUNCO 175 

*SONG   SPARROW 176 

Eastern  Song  Sparrow 176 

Lincoln's  sparrow 177 

Eastern  Lincoln's  Sparrow 177 


37 

PAGE 

Genus acawthis — Concluded. 

SWAMP  SPARROW 177 

FOX   SPARROW 177 

Eastern  Fox  Sparrow 178 

TOWHEE 178 

Eastern  Towhee 178 

CARDINAL 178 

Eastern  Cardinal 178 

*ROSE-BREASTED   GROSBEAK 179 

BLUE    GROSBEAK 179 

Eastern  Blue  Grosbeak 180 

INDIGO   BUNTING 180 

DICKCI8SEL 180 

Family tangakid^,  Tanagers 180 

*SCARLET   TANAGER 181 

SUMMER  TANAGER 181 

Family hirundinid^,  Swallows 182 

*PURPLE   MARTIN 182 

Eastern  Martin 182 

CLIFF   SWALLOW 183 

Eastern  Cliff  Swallow 183 

*BARN   SWALLOW 183 

*TREE   SWALLOW 183 

*BANK   SWALLOW 184 

ROUGH-WINGED   SWALLOW 184 

Family bombtcillid^,  Waxicings 184 

BOHEMIAN   WAXWING 185 

*CEDAR   WAXWING 185 

Family laniid^,  Shrikes,  Butcherbirds 186 

northern  shrike 186 

*loggerhead  shrike 187 

Migrant  Loggerhead 187 

Family vikeonid^,  Vireos  or  Greenlets 188 

*red-eyed  vireo 188 

philadelphia  vireo 188 

*warbling  vireo 189 

Eastern  Warbling  Vireo 189 

YELLOW-THROATED   VIREO 189 

SOLITARY   VIREO 189 

Blue-headed  Vireo 190 

WHITE-EYED   VIREO 190 

Northern  White-eyed  Vireo 190 

Family mniotiltid^,  Wood  Warblers 190 

*BLACK   AND   WHITE   WARBLER 191 

PROTHONOTARY   WARBLER 192 

Genus vermivora,  Worm-eating  Warblers ....  192 

WORM-EATING   WARBLER 192 

BLUE-WINGED   WARBLER 192 

GOLDEN-WINGED   WARBLER 192 

NASHVILLE    WARBLER 193 

Eastern  Nashville  Warbler 193 

ORANGE-CROWNED    WARBLER 193 

Interior  Orange-croum 193 

TENNESSEE   WARBLER 193 

PARULA   WARBLER 194 

Northern  Parula 194 

Genus dendroica,  Woodland  Warblers 194 

CAPE  may  warbler 194 

*YELLOW   WARBLER 194 

Eastern  Yellow  Warbler 195 

*BLACK-THROATED   BLUE   WARBLER 195 

Northern  Black-throated  Blue  Warbler  195 

*MTRTLE   WARBLER 195 

*MAGNOLIA   WARBLER 196 

CERULEAN   WARBLER 196 


38 

PAGE 

denu--^ DENDROiCA — Concluded. 

CHESTNUT-SIDED   WARBLER UHJ 

BAY-BREASTED   WARBLER 197 

BLACK-POLL   WARBLER 197 

*BL.\CKBrRNL\N   WARBLER 198 

*BLACK-THROATED    GREEN   WARBLER 198 

KIRTLAXD's   WARBLER 198 

PIXE   WARBLER 199 

PALM   WARBLER 199 

Inta-ior  P^ilm  Warbler 199 

Yelloic  Palm  Warbler 199 

PR.VIRIE   WARBLER 199 

Genus sErTRUs,  Wagtail  Warblers 200 

*0\'ENBIRD 200 

NORTHERN    WATER-THRUSH 200 

Ea.<:U-rn  Wattr-thntsh 201 

GrinrieU's  Water-ihru^h 201 

LOUISL\XA   WATER-THRUSH 201 

Gefiera opororxis  and  geothlypis.   Ground 

Warblers   201 

KEXTUCKY   WARBLER 201 

COXXECTICUT   WARBLER 201 

MOURNING    WARBLER 202 

MARYX.\ND    YELLOW-THROAT 202 

*Xartheni  Yelhu^hroat 203 

YTELLOW-BREASTED    CHAT 203 

Genus wilsoxia,  Flycatching  Warblers 203 

HOODED    WARBLER 203 

BLACK-CAPPED   WARBLER 204 

WiUon's  Warbler 204 

CAXADA    WARBLER 204 

*AMERICAX   REDSTART 204 

Family motacilhd^,  Wagtails  or  Pipits 205 

AMERICAN   PIPIT 205 

Family mimid^,  Mockers  and  Thrashers 205 

MOCKIXGBIRD 206 

Eastern  Mockingbird 206 

*CATBrRD 206 

*BROWX   THR.\SHER 207 

Family troglodttid^.  TTre/iit 207 

CAROLIXA   WREN 207 

Xorthem  Carolina  Wren 207 

Bewick's  wren 208 

Easirrn  BeiricX-'s  Wren 208 

*house  wrex 208 

Eastern  House  Wren 208 

WIXTER   WREX 209 

East-ern  Winter  Wren 209 

SHORT-BILLED   MARSH   WREN 209 

LOXG-BILLED   MARSH    WREN 209 

Easlem  Marsh  Wren 209 

Family CERTEriiD^,  Creepers 210 

*BROWN   CREEPER 210 

Eastern  Broum  Creeper 210 

Family sittidj:.  Xuthatches 210 

*CAROLINA    NUTHATCH 211 

Whiie-breasted  Xiithatch 211 

RED-BREASTED   M  THATCH 211 

Ftttiily PARTDiE,  Titmice 212 

tufted  titmouse 212 

*black-capped  chickadee 212 

Eastern  Chickadee 212 

Carolina  Chiekadee 212 

BROWN-HEADED    CHICKADEE 213 

Hudscmior,  Chickadee 213 

Acadian  Chickadee 213 


39 

PAGE 

Family bylviwjc,  Old-vx/rUi  Warblers  and  Kinffleis 213 

Subfamily eeoulin^,  Kinglets 214 

*GOLL»EN-CEOWNED   KINGLET 214 

Eastern  Golderi^-crrjvm 214 

*BUBY-€EOWNED   KINGLET 214 

Eastern  RiJjy-crovm 215 

Subfamily polioptilin^,  OrMtcatcf^uers 215 

BLUE-GREY    GNATCATCHEE 215 

Eastern  Gnatcatcher 215 

Family TuaoiDiE,  Thrushes  and  Allies 215 

Subfamily tuedin^,  T^m  Thrusl-ves 215 

*wood  theu8h 216 

*T\TLS0N'8  theush 216 

Veenj 216 

Willow  Tkrij^h 216 

*alice'6  thrush 216 

Grey-c^i^eked  Thrush 216 

Bickroell's  Thrush.  .  .            217 

*OLr\'E-EACKED   THEUSH.             217 

Swainson's  Thrush 217 

*HERMIT   THRUSH 217 

Eastern  Hermit  Thru,!'.. .     217 

*AMEBICAN   EOBIN 217 

Eastern,  Robin 218 

WHEATEAR 218 

Greeniand  Wheatear 218 

*BLUEBIED 218 

Eastern  Bbjebird 218 


41 


DESCRIPTIVE  ORNITHOLOGY. 


CLASS— AVES,  BIRDS. 

Birds,  as  a  class,  can  be  divided  into  toothed  and  toothless  birds, 
although  the  former  are  now  extinct  and  are  known  only  by  their  frag- 
mentary remains  preserved  as  fossils.  All  modern  birds  are  toothless. 
Some  species,  as  the  mergansers,  are  furnished  with  serrations  in  the  horny 
bill  that  have  a  superficial  resemblance  to  teeth  (Figure  7,  p.  19),  but 
examination  shows  that  these  are  not  true  teeth. 

SUBCLASS— CARINAT^.     KEEL-BREASTED   BIRDS. 

Present  day,  toothless  birds  are  divided  into  two  subclasses,  the 
Ratitce  or  raft-breasted  birds  and  the  Carinatce  or  keel-breasted  birds.  The 
Ratitce  include  the  Ostriches  and  Emues  which  are  without  a  keel  to  the 
breast  bone  for  the  attachment  of  wing  muscles  and  are  flightless.  There 
are  none  in  North  America  and  they  are,  therefore,  not  dealt  with  here. 
The  term  keel-breasted  is  derived  from  the  high,  thin,  keel-like  projection 
from  the  middle  of  the  breast  bone,  to  which  the  powerful  breast  or  wing 
muscles  are  attached. 

Keel-breasted  birds  (subclass  Carinatce)  are  divided  into  numerous 
orders  which  are  considered  in  the  sequence  adopted  by  the  American 
Ornithologists'  Union. 

Order — Pygopodes.     Diving  Birds. 

General  Description.  The  Divers,  as  their  name  implies,  are  birds  fitted  for  subaquatic 
pursuits.  The  hip  joint  is  set  far  back  on  the  body  and  the  leg  mechanism  is  better  fitted 
for  swimming  than  for  walking.  The  tarsus,  the  visible  part  of  the  leg,  is  much  flattened, 
(Figure  2,  p.  18),  and  the  toes  are  either  partly  (Figure  13,  p.  20)  or  completely  (Figures  2 
and  6,  p.  19)  webbed.  The  wings  are  small  in  comparison  with  the  size  of  the  body.  The 
bill  is  straight  and  generally  tapered,  moderately  long,  but  occasionally  flattened  and 
deepened,  as  in  the  cases  of  the  Auks  and  Puffins;  in  the  latter  species  this  specialization 
reaches  its  highest  development  in  the  order. 

Distinctions.  Toes,  three  or  four  entirely  or  partly  webbed,  tarsus  flattened,  tail 
inconspicuous  or  small. 

Field  Marks.  Small  wings  and  tail  and  straight,  narrow,  unduck-like  bills.  The 
Divers  bear  a  supei-ficial  resemblance  to  ducks  but  where  the  ducks  would  fly  the  Divers 
dive. 

Nesting.  In  the  immediate  vicinity  of  water  on  reedy  shores  or  rocky  ledges,  or  in 
crevices  and  holes  in  the  ground. 

In  consequence  of  the  peculiar  leg  construction,  an  unusually  upright 
carriage  of  the  body  is  necessitated  when  on  land,  and  they  walk  with 
difficulty.  Indeed  some  species  are  almost  helpless  on  the  ground  and  are 
unable  to  rise  into  the  air  except  from  the  water,  off  steeply  rising  ground, 
or  against  a  strong  head  wind.  They  swim  and  dive  with  ease  and,  though 
their  wings  are  small  in  comparison  to  the  size  of  the  body,  when  once  on 
the  wing  they  fly  with  rapid  beats,  swiftly  and  strongly,  in  straight  lines 
or  long  curves  without  evolution  or  manoeuvring. 


42 

Economic  Status.  The  Diving  Birds  feed  almost  entirely  upon  aquatic 
life  usually  captured  by  diving  and  pursuit  under  water.  Economically, 
they  are  of  slight  importance.  The  Canadian  representatives  of  this  order 
are  divided  into  three  families:  the  Grebes,  Colymbidce;  the  Loons,  Gaviidoe; 
the  Auks,  Murres,  etc.,  Alcidce. 


FAMILY COLYMBID2E.       GREBES. 

General  Description.  Grebes  and  Divers  with  feet  lobed  and  not  fully  webbed,  and 
without  perceptible  tails.  Instead  of  full  webs  extending  from  toe  to  toe,  as  in  most 
swimming  birds,  the  digits  are  provided  with  a  scalloped  edging  of  fiat  lobe-like  flaps  or 
processes  hinged  to  the  toe.  These  make  excellent  paddles  during  the  stroke,  and  folding 
away,  offer  the  minimum  of  resistance  to  the  water  on  the  return.  Their  wonderful  diving 
ability  has  given  these  birds  the  common  sobriquets  of  Hell-diver,  Water-witch,  etc. 

Distinctions.  Scalloped  toe  webs  (Figure  13,  p.  .  . ),  short  tail,  sharp  pointed  bill,  and 
the  peculiar  silvery  sheen  of  the  feathers  of  the  underparts. 

Field  Marks.  Pointed  bill  and  inconspicuous  tail.  Feet  carried  straight  out  behind 
when  flying. 

Nesting.  In  the  reeds  or  rushes  bordering  sloughs  or  ponds,  on  either  floating  or 
stationary  vegetable  heaps. 

Distribution.  Grebes  are  distributed  over  the  whole  of  Canada,  and  north  well  into 
the  Arctic  zone.  In  the  breeding  season  they  are  generally  more  common  on  fresh  than 
on  salt  water.  There  are  three  species  of  this  family  occurring  regularly  in  eastern  Canada; 
a  fourth  species,  the  Western  Grebe,  not  further  mentioned  here,  has  been  incorrectly 
recorded  several  times,  and  only  one  case  of  its  occurrence  can  be  substantiated. 

Grebes  are  typically  inhabitants  of  fresh  ponds  and  lakes,  though  at 
times  they  frequent  the  sea  in  numbers.  The  adults  are  coloured  in  rather 
broad  masses;  the  young  show  sharp  stripes,  especially  about  the  head, 
indicating  that  the  family  has  descended  from  a  common  striped  ancestor. 
The  grebe  breasts,  so  much  used  for  trimming  and  millinery  purposes,  are 
procured  from  birds  of  this  family.  The  sacrifice  of  large  numbers  for  this 
purpose  and  the  drainage  of  many  of  their  natural  breeding  grounds  are 
continually  reducing  their  numbers. 

Economic  Status.  Feeding  almost  entirely  upon  water-inhabiting 
creatures  they  are  of  little  direct  economic  importance.  Considerable 
masses  of  feathers  are  often  found  in  grebe  stomachs,  but  no  satisfactory 
explanation  of  their  presence  there  has  been  offered.  There  is  no  evidence 
that  they  are  remains  of  birds  preyed  upon, 

2.  Holboell's  Grebe,  red-necked  grebe,  fr. — le  grIjbe  a  ecu  rouge.  Colymbus 
holboelli.  L.  19.  This  is  the  largest  of  our  Grebes.  Siunmer  adults  have  a  rich  chestnut- 
red  neck. 

Distinctions.  Size  is  usually  sufficient  to  distinguish  this  Grebe.  Juvenile  birds  gener- 
ally have  only  a  suggestion  of  the  rufous  neck. 

Field  Marks.  Size  will  also  separate  it  in  the  field  from  other  Grebes;  and  the  pre- 
sence of  a  white  wing  patch  and  an  unmottled  back,  from  the  Red-throated  Loon  with  which 
it  might  be  confused. 

Nesting.  On  floating  or  stationary  vegetable  compost  or  marshy  islands  near  the 
shores  of  freshwater  lakes. 

Distribution.  Across  the  continent;  breeding  in  the  east,  north  of  present  settlement. 
In  the  prairie  provinces  and  west  it  nests  southwards  to  and  across  the  United  States 
border. 

The  bird,  except  in  the  west  in  the  breeding  season,  is  more  commonly 
seen  on  large  bodies  of  water  than  small.  It  is  comparatively  scarce  in 
eastern  Canada, 


43 

3.  Horned  Grebe,  fr. — le  grebe  cornu.  Colymbus  auritus.  L.  13  50.  The 
Horned  Grebe  is  about  the  same  size  as  the  Pied-billed  Grebe  mentioned  next,  but  with  a 
much  sharper  and  more  slender  bill.  The  summer  adult  has  a  red  neck  (much  like  Holboell's), 
prominent  ochraceous  ear  tufts,  and  a  full  projecting  ruff  on  the  cheeks  from  hindhead  to 
throat.  In  the  autumn  and  winter  a  shining  almost  black  and  white  head  contrasts  with 
the  duller  coloration  of  the  Pied-billed  Grebe. 

Distinctions.  The  juvenile,  a  plain,  greyish-black  and  white  bird,  may  be  mistaken 
for  the  young  Pied-billed  Grebe,  but  can  be  distinguished  by  its  shiny  white  forehead  and 
breast,  slender  bill,  and  white  wing  patch. 

Field  Marks.    Slender,  sharp  bill,  white  foreneck  and  wingpatch. 

Nesting.    Similar  to  the  preceding. 

Distribution.  Across  the  continent,  breeding  locally  within  the  borders  of  present 
settlement  and  northward,  but  more  commonly  west  than  east. 

The  Horned  Grebe  on  migration  inhabits  the  larger  bodies  of  water 
and  is  less  commonly  seen  on  the  small  mud  holes  where  the  Pied-bill 
often  occurs. 

6.  Pied-billed  Grebe,  dab-chick,  hell-diver,  water-witch,  pr. — le  grebe  a 
BEC  BiGARRE.    Podilymbus  podiccps.    L,  13  50.    Plate  I  A. 

Distinctions.  The  Pied-bill  can  be  separated  from  all  other  Canadian  Grebes  by  its 
lelatively  heavier  and  stouter  bill  with  its  spot  and  its  more  strongly  arched  cuhnen,  and 
from  the  juvenile  Horned  Grebe  in  any  plumage,  by  its  darker,  less  shiny  foreneck,  breast, 
and  underparts,  and  the  absence  of  a  white  wing  patch. 

Field  Marks.  Size  and  shape  of  bill,  spot  on  bill,  lack  of  white  wing  patch,  and  black 
throat  patch  in  spring. 

Nesting.  Along  the  marshy  edges  of  ponds  and  lakes  on  stationary  or  floating  plat- 
forms. 

Distribution.  Across  the  continent,  breeding  from  our  southern  borders  northwards; 
probably  any  grebe  found  nesting  south  of  a  line  drawn  between  Ottawa  and  Sault  Ste. 
Marie  will  be  of  this  species. 

This  is  the  common  breeding  grebe  of  eastern  Canada,  where  it  is 
found  in  the  nesting  season  or  during  migration  on  nearly  every  pond  or 
slough.  It  frequents  clear,  open  water  less  than  its  relatives.  The  diving 
powers  of  the  grebes  are  well  known,  and  they  are  well  developed  in  this 
species.  Diving  at  the  flash  of  the  gun  it  is  often  safe  under  water  by  the 
time  the  shot  reaches  the  spot  it  recently  occupied.  Even  breech-loading 
guns  are  not  always  quick  enough  to  catch  it,  though  the  general  use  of 
smokeless  powder  has  put  it  at  considerable  disadvantage.  The  grebes 
have  the  faculty  of  swimming  either  low  or  high  in  the  water.  By  pressing 
the  air  from  the  thick  soft  plumage  and  by  compressing  that  in  the  body 
cavities  the  grebe  can  increase  its  specific  gravity,  and  gradually  sink  into 
the  water  until  only  the  bill  is  above  the  surface,  in  which  position  it  will 
hide  and,  barring  accidents,  escape  the  most  prying  eyes. 

Economic  Status.  We  have  little  accurate  information  as  to  the 
exact  constituents  of  the  food  of  the  grebes.  The  Pied-bill,  however, 
probably  lives  upon  small  fish  and  aquatic  insects,  supplemented  more 
or  less  by  vegetable  matter.  The  fish,  owing  to  the  bird's  habitat,  are 
mostly  mud-frequenting  species  of  little  economic  importance.  The 
insect  content  of  its  food  probably  consists  largely  of  predaceous  species 
like  large  water  beetles  that  occasionally  do  some  damage  to  fish  fry. 
The  vegetable  matter  is  unimportant.  On  the  whole,  we  can  regard  the 
Pied-billed  Grebe  as  absolutely  harmless  except  in  the  rare  cases  when  it 
pays  a  passing  visit  to  pools  or  ponds  devoted  to  trout  or  other  valuable 
fish  culture. 

57172—4 


44 

FAMILY GAVIID^.    LOONS, 

General  Description.  The  Loons  are  large  divers  with  straight,  sharply  pointed  bills 
and  with  the  feet  fully  webbed  (Figure  2,  p.  18).  In  the  adult  state  they  are  coloured 
in  strikingly  contrasting  patterns,  mostly  black  and  white. 

Distinctions.  Larger  than  ducks  and  have  shorter  necks  than  geese.  These  points 
and  the  sharp  pointed  bill  are  diagnostic.     Tails  more  evident  than  in  the  Grebes. 

Field  Marks.  Size,  length  of  neck,  and  bill.  In  flight,  the  feet  are  trailed  behind 
the  tail. 

Nesting.  On  low  shores  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  water  where  they  can  dive 
directly  into  the  water  from  the  nest. 

The  Loons  are  probablj^  even  better  divers  than  the  Grebes  but  they 
rise  less  easily  from  the  water,  and  unless  there  is  a  good  breeze  that  they 
can  face,  require  a  long  splashing  start  over  the  surface  before  being  wing 
borne. 

Economic  Status.  Their  food  is  composed  almost  entirely  of  fish, 
but  owing  to  the  small  number  of  loons  in  any  given  locality,  their  direct 
economic  importance  is  small. 

7.  Common  Loon,  great  northern  diver,  fr. — le  plongeon  A  collier. 
HUARD.     Gavia  immer.  L,  32.     Plate  IB. 

Distinctions.  The  adult  Common  Loon  is  easily  separated  from  other  loons  by  its 
marked  coloration,  but  juveniles  are  somewhat  more  difficult  to  differentiate.  Size  and 
the  lack  of  spots  on  the  back  will  separate  it  from  the  Red-throated  Loon  with  which  it 
is  most  easily  confused. 

Field  Marks.  Size  and  unspotted  back  of  the  juveniles  as  above.  Most  loons  seen 
on  our  inland  lakes  are  of  this  species. 

Nesting.  Close  to  the  water  on  the  boggy  or  rocky  shores  of  inland  lakes  where 
when  alarmed  the  loons  can  shde  directly  into  the  water.  The  rather  bulky  nest  is  built 
of  decaying  vegetable  matter. 

Distribution.  Over  the  whole  of  Canada,  breeding  wherever  conditions  are  suitable 
and  often  remaining  in  the  winter  until  the  last  open  water  is  closed  by  ice. 

Most  frequenters  of  our  waterways  and  lakes  are  familiar  with  the 
long  loud  laugh  of  the  Loon.  The  loon  has  another  call  beginning  low, 
rising  high,  and  then  dropping  suddenly.  It  is  often  noisy  at  night  or  just 
before  a  storm  and  birds  frequently  call  to  and  answer  one  another  across 
the  water. 

Owing  to  the  constant  encroachments  of  settlement,  and  the  consequent 
disturbance  of  its  nesting  places,  the  Loon  has  been  growing  scarcer  of  late 
years  and  in  many  of  its  old  haunts  it  is  seldom  seen  now  except  during 
migration.  However,  there  are  still  great  numbers  of  lonely  lakes  in  the 
great  uninhabited  north  where  they  can  live  and  breed  undisturbed,  and 
the  immediate  loss  of  this  picturesque  species  need  not  be  anticipated. 
Proper  local  protection,  enforced  by  an  awakened  public  opinion,  would 
undoubtedly  restock  our  lakes  and  ponds  with  summer  residents  as  well 
as  augment  the  number  that  make  passing  visits. 

Economic  Status.  Although  the  Loon  is  a  large  bird  the  capacity 
of  its  gullet  limits  the  fish  it  takes  to  comparatively  small  sizes.  This 
fact,  taken  in  connexion  with  the  small  number  of  birds  on  the  smaller 
lakes  and  the  immense  numbers  of  fish  in  the  larger  bodies  of  water,  makes 
its  depredations  economically  unimportant.  The  species,  therefore,  should 
not  be  destroyed. 

11.  Red-throated  Loon,  le  plongeon  a  gorge  rousse.  Gavia  stellata.  L,  25. 
This  is  smaller  than  the  Common  Loon,  and  is  without  its  intensely  contrasted  black  and 


45 

white  back  coloration.     Its  head  and  neck  are  grey  and  summer  adults  have  a  dull  red 
throat  patch. 

Distinctions.  Adults  can  be  distinguished  from  the  Common  Loon  by  size  and  colo  r- 
ation  as  above.  Juveniles  can  be  recognized  by  their  finely  spotted  backs  in  distinction 
from  the  slightly  grey  marginations  of  the  Common  Loon. 

Field  Marks.     Size  and  back  coloration. 

Nesting.     Breeding  habits  similar  to  those  of  the  preceding  species. 

Distribution.  Ranges  over  the  whole  of  Canada,  scarce  in  the  interior,  more  common 
on  the  coasts.  Breeds  in  the  east  from  northern  Ontario,  central  Quebec,  and  New  Bruns- 
wick northward. 

Economic  Status.     Similar  to  the  Common  Loon  in  this  respect,  but 
of  less  importance  on  account  of  its  smaller  numbers. 


FAMILY — ALCIDiE.    AUKS,    MURRES,    AND    PUFFINS. 

General  Description.  This  family  is  composed  of  strictly  maritime  species  of  rare  or 
only  acci  dental  occurrence  on  fresh  water.  Though  most  at  home  in  the  water  they  stand 
upright  on  land  and  walk  about  with  considerably  more  ease  than  either  the  grebes  or 
loons.  Their  bills  are  subject  to  a  greater  degree  of  variation  than  the  aforementioned 
families,  ranging  from  the  straight  tapering  shape  of  the  Murres  to  the  deep  compressed 
bill  of  the  Puffin. 

Distinctions.  The  obvious  diver-like  form  combined  with  webbed  feet  and  no  hind 
toes  (Figure  12,  p.  20)  is  diagnostic. 

Field  Marks.  General  resemblance  to  ducks,  but  their  short  necks  and  pointed  and 
sometimes  deepened  and  narrowed  bill  are  characteristic. 

Nesting.  Breed  in  large  colonies,  often  of  mixed  species,  on  rocky  islets  or  on  inaccess- 
ible sea-washed  cliffs.  Build  no  nest  but  lay  their  eggs  directly  on  the  ground.  Their 
eggs  are  unusually  large  for  the  size  of  the  bird  and  markedly  pyriform,  a  shape  that 
causes  them  to  roll  in  circles  rather  than  in  straight  lines  and  lessens  the  danger  of  their 
falling  from  the  bare,  rocky,  nesting  ledges. 

Distribution.  Over  our  sea  coast  from  our  southern  borders  to  the  Arctic.  They  are 
only  casual  on  fresh  water,  though  one  species  has  indulged  in  occasional  abnormal,  erup- 
tive migrations  to  the  lower  great  lakes. 

This  family  frequents  the  open  sea,  coming  ashore  only  to  breed. 
They  differ  from  the  other  divers  in  habitually  using  their  wings  under 
water  as  in  flying.  On  the  Labrador  coast  their  eggs  are  much  used  by  the 
fishermen  for  food. 

Economic  Status.  Eating  nothing  but  the  smaller  sizes  of  fish  and 
crustaceans  taken  at  sea,  where  the  supplies  are  more  than  ample,  there  is 
little  harm  that  these  species  can  do, 

13.    Puffin.      SEA  PARROT.      PAROQUET.     FR. — LE     MACAREUX   ARCTIQUE.       PERROQUET. 

Fratercula  arctica.  L,  13.  The  Puffin  is  a  grotesque  little  diver,  black  above,  white 
below,  and  with  a  grey  face.  It  is  notable  for  its  absurdly  deepened  and  flattened  bill, 
nearly  as  high  as  long  and  highly  coloured  with  reds  and  yellows. 

Distinctions.     Bill  is  always  distinctive. 

Field  Marks.     Bill  can  be  recognized  in  life  nearly  as  far  as  the  bird  can  be  seen. 

Nesting.  Breed  in  the  crannies  and  cracks  of  rocky  chffs  or  burrow  in  the  soil  on 
lonely  islets.  Along  the  Canadian  Labrador  coast  there  are  several  "Paroquet"  islands 
so-caUed  from  the  great  numbers  of  these  birds  breeding  on  them.  However,  the  depreda- 
tions of  fishermen  have  sadly  reduced  their  numbers  and  unless  protective  steps  are  taken 
they  will  shortly  be  exterminated. 

Distribution.  Puffins  are  distributed  over  the  sea  coast  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic 
from  Canada  and  England  northward  far  into  the  Arctic  zone. 

A  sight  of  this  bird  is  suflBcient  for  recognition  of  the  appropriateness 
of  the  names  Parrot  or  Paroquet.     Unlike  other  divers  it  stands  up  on 
its  toes  and  is  quite  agile  afoot. 
57172— 4i 


46 

27.  Black  Guillemot,  pigeon,  sea  pigeon,  fr. — le  guillemot  noir.  Cepphua 
grylle.  L,  13.  In  summer  the  Black  Guillemot  is  a  small,  coal  black  diver  with  large 
white  wing  patches  and  red  feet.  In  winter  the  underparts  are  white  and  the  feathers 
above  are  black  but  broadly  tipped  with  white.     The  wings  remain  as  in  summer. 

Distinctions.  In  summer  the  species  cannot  be  mistaken  for  any  other.  In  winter, 
the  size  and  wing  coloration  are  almost  equally  distinctive. 

Field  Marks.     The  characters  above  make  easily  recognizable  field  marks. 

Nesting.  In  cavities  in  the  rocks  or  in  openings  in  the  rough  talus  at  the  foot  of  sea 
cliffs. 

Distribution.  The  Atlantic  Guillemot  is  common  along  our  Atlantic  coast  but  is 
rarely  if  ever  seen  inland. 

SUBSPECIES.  There  are  two  subspecies  of  the  Black  Guillemot  in  Canada,  the 
Atlantic  Guillemot,  the  type  form,  and  Mandt's  Guillemot,  Cepphus  grylle  mandti,  a 
northern  race  inhabiting  Arctic  regions  and  distinguished  by  having  all  the  wing  coverts 
white  to  the  base  instead  of  with  a  concealed  dark  wing  bar.  This  form  is  given  by 
the  American  Ornithologists  Union  check-list  as  a  full  species,  but  should  probably  be 
reduced  to  subspecific  status. 

The  Black  Guillemot  is  one  of  the  commonest  inhabitants  of  our  sea 
coast  and  is  known  to  nearly  all  who  visit  there.  It  is  less  gregarious  than 
the  other  members  of  the  family  and  usually  nests  alone  and  not  in  rookeries, 
though  sometimes  numbers  are  drawn  together  in  localities  by  a  community 
of  interest. 

30.  Common  Murre.  fr. — mormette.  le  guillemot  ordinaire.  marmette.s. 
Uria  troille.  L,  16.  The  Murre  in  summer  is  white  below,  with  the  head  and  neck  dark, 
smoky,  seal  brown.  The  back  and  wings  are  black.  In  winter  the  throat  is  light,  veiled 
with  more  or  less  greyish,  and  the  brown  is  replaced  on  the  head  and  neck  with  black  more 
or  less  shaded  with  grey  especially  on  the  throat. 

Distinctions.  The  Common  Murre  is  very  much  hke  Briinnich's  Murre  and  the  Razor- 
billed  Auk.  Can  be  differentiated  in  summer  from  the  former  by  the  lighter  brown  colora- 
tion of  the  head  and  neck  and  by  the  fact  that  the  back  of  the  neck  is  not  darker  than  the 
front.  At  all  seasons  it  has  a  somewhat  shorter  and  decidedly  heavier  bill.  From  the  Auk 
it  can  be  told  by  its  bill  which  is  not  markedly  flattened  or  deepened. 

Field  Marks.  Bill  sizes  and  neck  coloration  are  the  only  field  marks  that  can  be  given 
to  separate  the  two  Murres  and  in  life  these  can  only  be  seen  under  the  most  favourable 
circumstances.  The  birds  are  said  to  swim  with  level  instead  of  up  turned  tail  as  does  the 
Razor-bill.  The  difference  between  the  latter's  bill  and  that  of  the  Murre,  however,  is 
quite  obvious  under  ordinary  conditions. 

Nesting.     In  large  colonies  amongst  the  rocks,  making  no  nest  and  laying  only  a  single 

egg.  ,  ,    . 

Distribution.  Abundant  along  the  eastern  sea  coast,  never  or  rarely  ever  being  found 
in  the  interior  on  fresh  water. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Common  Murre  inhabits  the  northern  parts  of  both  Pacific  and 
Atlantic  oceans,  being  represented  by  different  subspecies  in  each.  The  Atlantic  Murre 
is  the  type  form  and  is,  of  course,  the  one  that  occurs  on  our  eastern  coasts. 

The  number  of  Murres  that  will  occupy  a  nesting  ledge  is  sometimes 
remarkable.  At  the  edge  of  the  rocky  shelves  they  gather  as  close  as  they 
can  stand,  like  files  of  soldiers,  bearing  strong  resemblance  to  the  lines 
of  penguins  that  are  familiar  to  us  in  pictures. 

31.  Thick-billed  Guillemot,  brunnich's  murre.  fr. — le  guillemot  de  BRtrN- 
NiCH.  Uria  lomvia.  L,  1650.  This  Murre  is  almost  exactly  similar  to  the  preceding 
species. 

Distinctions.  Head  and  neck  are  darker  and  richer  brown  without  the  smokiness  of 
the  Common  Murre  and  the  neck  is  somewhat  darker  behind  than  in  front.  Bill  is  some- 
what larger  and  noticeably  heavier. 

Field  Marks.  Longer,  heavier  bill  and  coloration  of  the  head  and  neck  will  under 
exceptional  visual  conditions  separate  this  bird  in  life  from  the  Common  Miu-re.  Sharp 
and  tapering  instead  of  blimt  and  deep  bill,  and  tail  not  turned  up  in  swimming,  should 
serve  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Razor-billed  Auk. 


Nesting.     Similar  to  the  preceding  species. 

Distribution.     Somewhat  more  northern  than  that  of  the  Common  Murre. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Thick-billed  Guillemot  occm-s  in  the  northern  Pacific  and  Atlan- 
tic oceans  but  as  distinct  subspecies.  Our  eastern  form  is  the  type  and  is  known  as  Briin- 
nich's  Murre. 

Brtinnich's  Murre  is  the  only  member  of  this  family  that  is  found  on 
the  Great  Lakes.  The  birds  have  at  times  come  in  hundreds  on  lakes 
Ontario,  Erie,  and  tributary  waters  in  late  autumn  and  early  winter, 
all  in  a  starving  condition,  and  none  seem  to  survive  or  return  to  their 
sea  homes.     These  occurrences  are  as  yet  inexplicable. 

32.  Razor-billed  Auk.  tinker,  fr.^ — ^godd  or  gudd.  le  pingouin  commun 
Alca  torda.  L,  16' 50.  The  Razor-billed  Auk  is  of  the  same  general  appearance  as  the 
last  two  species. 

Dislindions.  Bill  is  considerably  deepened  and  flattened  (though  not  nearly  as  much 
so  as  in  the  Puffin);  it  is  thus  easily  distinguished  from  the  Mm-re  especially  in  summer 
when  a  white  line  connects  the  eye  and  the  base  of  the  cuhnen,  and  the  bill  is  crossed  by 
a  white  band  near  the  tip.  Bill  of  the  winter  juvenile  is  less  characteristic  but  may  still 
be  distinguished  from  that  of  the  Murres. 

Field  Marks.  Deepened  bill  and,  when  swimming,  cocked-up  tail  make  good  field 
marks. 

Nesting.     Similar  to  that  of  the  two  preceding  species  but  rather  less  gregarious. 

Distribution.     Frequents  our  Atlantic  coasts  north  to  the  Arctic. 

33.  Great  Auk.  gare-powl.  fr. — le  grand  pingouin.  Plautus  impennis.  L,  30. 
The  Great  Auk  was  the  largest  of  the  American  Divers.  Its  wings  were  so  reduced  in 
size  that  though  they  made  excellent  swimming  organs  they  were  useless  for  other  purposes 
and  hence  the  bird  was  unable  to  fly.     As  the  species  is  now  extinct  no  further  description 

is  necessary. 

This  bird  had  become  so  well  adapted  to  an  aquatic  life  that  flying 
was  no  longer  necessary  and  consequently  its  wings  became  reduced 
to  mere  swimming  flippers  like  those  of  the  penguins  of  the  Antarctic, 
and  flight  was  impossible.  Though  as  well  able  to  live  at  sea  as  any  fish 
or  marine  animal,  land  was  as  necessary  to  it  for  reproduction  as  to  any 
other  bird.  Even  then,  if  it  had  inhabited  the  very  extremes  of  the  Arctic 
regions  for  nesting  purposes  it  would  probably  have  survived;  but  lonely 
outlying  rocks  and  islets  about  the  British  isles  and,  on  our  side  of  the 
ocean,  south  to  Newfoundland,  were  its  nesting  places  and  immediately 
in  the  course  of  the  fleets  of  hardy  fishermen  who  early  in  our  history' 
flocked  to  our  shores.  To  them,  these  then  countless  thousands  of  large 
sea  birds  inhabiting  islets  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  their  fishing  groimds, 
so  helpless  on  land  that  they  could  be  killed  in  unlimited  numbers  with 
sticks  and  clubs,  w^ere  irresistible.  They  took  full  advantage  of  their 
opportunities  and  the  story  passes  current  that  to  save  labour,  gang  planks 
were  placed  ashore  from  the  boats  and  the  unresisting  birds  were  driven 
aboard  in  droves  to  be  clubbed  to  death  on  deck.  Of  course  no  numbers 
could  long  resist  such  destruction  and  to-day  the  Great  Auk  is  only  an 
interesting  memory  and  is  represented  by  only  individual  specimens  and 
fragments  in  a  few  favoured  museums. 

34.  Dovekie.  sea  dove.  fr. — le  mergule  nain.  Alle  alle.  L,  8.  The  Dovekie 
is  a  diminutive  Diver,  the  smallest  of  its  family  in  eastern  Canada.  When  in  our  waters 
it  is  generally  black  above  and  white  on  throat,  cheek,  and  below. 

Distinctions.     Its  size  is  enough  to  separate  it  from  any  other  Diver  in  eastern  Canada. 
Field  Marks.     Size  and  extremely  rapid  wing  beats  make  the  best  field  marks. 
Nesting.     On  chff  ledges  in  the  far  north. 

Distribution.  In  summer  in  the  far  north  in  the  eastern  Arctic,  in  winter  along  the  sea 
coasts. 


48 

On  our  coastal  shores  and  harbours  this  Httle  bird  should  be  looked 
for  onl}^  in  the  winter.     It  flies  with  a  very  rapid  wing  motion. 

Order — Longipennes.     The  Long-winged  Swimmers. 

General  Description.  The  Long-winged  swimmers  are  sea  birds,  with  four  toes  and 
two  webs,  and  with  the  wings  longer  than  the  tail  if  the  excessively  lengthened  middle  tail 
feather  of  some  Jaegers  and  the  equally  elongated  outer  swallow  tails  of  some  Terns  are 
disregarded. 

Distinctions.  Can  be  recognized  as  an  Order  by  their  long  wings  and  bill  characters 
(Figures  3,  4,  5,  p.  18)  and  are  separated  from  the  Tube-nosed  Swimmers  by  the  position 
of  the  nostrils  which  are  in  the  sides  of  the  bill  and  not  in  a  tube  on  top  (See  Figure  11,  p. 19, 
for  comparison). 

Field  Marks.  No  field  marks  can  be  given  covering  the  order  except  length  of  wing 
and  mode  of  flight. 

Nesting.  Usually  breed  on  the  ground  or  on  cliff  ledges,  but  there  is  little  uniformity 
in  their  nesting  habits. 

Distribution.     Some  species  are  more  or  less  common  over  all  the  waterways  of  Canada. 

The  long-winged  Swimmers  are  wonderful  fliers,  being  both  tireless 
and  agile  on  the  wing.  In  habit  they  are  fishers,  scavengers,  or  pirates. 
There  are  only  two  families  of  the  order  in  Canada;  the  Jaegers  and  the 
Gulls,  the  latter  including  the  closely  allied  Terns  or  "Sea  Swallows". 

Economic  Status.  Being  sea  birds,  the  damage  they  do  is  slight  and 
some  of  them  are  actively  beneficial  to  man. 

FAMILY — STERCORARIID^.       JAEGERS    AND    SKUAS. 

General  Description.  The  Jaegers  are  predaceous  sea  birds.  In  colour  they  are  dark 
brown  and  white.  The  family  shows  a  peculiar  dichromatism  and  all  Canadian  species 
occm*  in  two  coloiu*  phases,  an  almost  evenly  dark  brown  one  and  a  dark  or  slaty  brown 
with  white  or  hght  head,  neck,  and  underparts  and  an  almost  black  cap. 

Distinctions.  The  bills  of  the  Jaegers  (see  Figure  3,  p.  18)  are  characteristic, 
there  being  a  distinct  nail  at  the  tip  forming  a  well-marked  hook,  plainly  separable  from 
the  remaining  cere  at  the  base  of  the  bill.  This  character  separates  them  easily  from  the 
Gulls,  whereas  the  presence  of  nostrils  and  two  instead  of  three  toe  webs  (Figure  6,  p.  19 
for  comparison),  distinguishes  them  from  the  Cormorants  which  have  bills  similar  in  out- 
line. The  fact  that  the  nostrils  are  not  in  tubes  (Figure  11,  p.  19)  differentiates  them  from 
the  Petrels  which  they  otherwise  resemble. 

Field  Marks.  Jaegers  are  dark  in  colour  above,  have  a  quite  conspicuous  light  band 
across  the  underside  of  the  wing  near  the  tip,  and  are  hawk-Uke  in  flight.  Two  of  the 
three  species,  in  the  adult  state,  show  elongated  tail  feathers  that  are  good  recognition 
marks. 

Nesting.     On  ground,  in  grass. 

The  occurrence  of  the  two  colour  phases  as  well  as  every  possible 
intermediate  plumage,  makes  the  identification  of  some  of  the  Jaegers  a 
difficult  matter.  Jaegers  are  pirates  of  the  air;  they  pursue  successful 
fishing  birds  and  force  them  to  disgorge  the  fish  they  have  swallowed; 
and  eggs  and  young  birds  in  the  nest  are  never  safe  from  them. 

Three  Jaegars  accur  in  eastern  Canada  and  one  Skua — the  latter 
too  rare  and  accidental,  except  off  the  outer  Newfoundland  coast,  for 
further  mention. 

Economic  Status.  The  Jaegers  are  not  very  numerous  and  except  in 
far  away,  wild  localities  where  numbers  give  them  local  importance,  they 
are  of  little  economic  influence. 

36.  Pomarine  Jaeger,  bo'sn.  (boatswain),  fr. — le  labbe  pomarin.  Stercorarius 
pomarimis.  L,   22.     (Tail  9-25,  projections  of  centre  feathers  beyond  outer  ones  4-25.) 


49 

This  is  the  largest  of  the  Jaegers.  It  resembles  the  other  two  species  in  coloration  so 
closely  that  its  separation  is  difficult  except  by  size  and  in  adult  condition.  The  species 
occurs  in  two  colour  phases  and  in  all  intermediate  stages. 

Distinctions.  Elongated  middle  tail  feathers  of  adult  are  wide  and  twisted  at  the 
tip  so  as  to  lie  in  a  vertical  instead  of  a  horizontal  plane. 

Field  Marks.  The  broad,  elongated,  twisted  tail  feathers  are  propably  the  best 
field  marks. 

Nesting.     On  ground,  in  grass. 

Distribution.  Breeds  on  the  islands  and  mainland  in  the  Arctic  across  the  contiaent. 
Occurs  on  the  sea  coasts  farther  south,  only  as  a  migi-ant. 

37.  Parasitic  Jaeger,  fr. — le  labbe  parasite.  Stercorarius  parasiticus.  L,  17. 
(Tail  8-25,  projection  of  middle  feathers  beyond  outer  ones  3-25.)  This  species  occurs 
in  two  colour  phases,  a  light,  and  a  dark  one.  In  the  dark  phase  the  general  colour 
is  dark  brown  slightly  hghter  below  and  with  a  black  cap.  In  the  hght  phase  the  under- 
parts,  breast,  neck,  and  face  are  white,  with  black  cap.  Intermediate  stages  of  coloration 
also  occur. 

Distinctions.  The  smaller  size  of  this  bird  should  distinguish  it  from  the  preceding 
in  all  plumages.  In  the  adult,  the  middle  tail  feathers  project  only  3  inches  beyond  the 
others  instead  of  7  inches  as  in  the  next  species  and  are  slender  instead  of  broad  and  twisted 
as  in  the  last  species.  Immature  birds  of  the  Long-tailed  species,  not  having  the  long 
tail  feathers,  are  almost  exactly  similar  to  this  species,  and  can  best  be  distinguished  by 
the  colour  of  the  shafts  of  the  primary  feathers.  In  the  Parasitic,  the  shafts  of  the  three 
first  feathers  are  white  and  the  remainder  are  progressively  darker  as  they  succeed  each 
other  on  the  wing.  In  the  Long-tailed,  there  is  an  abrupt  darkening  of  colour  of  the  shafts 
after  the  third  prunary. 

Field  Marks.  Small  projection  of  the  middle  tail  feathers  as  above  and  their  not 
being  twisted  make  a  field  mark  of  fair  reUabihty  in  adult  birds. 

Nesting.     On  ground,  on  the  moors  and  tundras  of  the  north. 

Distribution.  Breeds  in  the  Arctic  across  the  continent  and  is  much  more  common 
on  the  seaboard  in  migration  than  inland,  where  it  is  a  very  rare  though  possibly  a  regular 
straggler. 

This  is  the  only  Jaeger  that  is  hkely  to  be  met  with  in  the  interior  on 
tlie  Great  Lakes.  Other  species  have  been  recorded,  but  upon  investigation, 
except  in  one  instance,  they  have  been  found  to  be  young  birds  incorrectly 
identified,  usually  on  the  ground  of  their  lack  of  elongated  tail. 

38.  Long-tailed  Jaeger,  fr. — le  labbe  a  longtje  queue.  Stercorarius  longi- 
caudus.  L,  21.  (Tail  13-25,  projection  of  centre  feather  beyond  outer  ones  8.)  Very 
similar  in  coloration  to  the  preceding,  but  the  long  slender  middle  tail  feathers  project  7 
or  8  inches  beyond  the  others  instead  of  only  3. 

Distinctions.  The  Long-tailed  Jaeger  although  having  nearly  the  measurements 
of  the  Pomarine,  owing  to  the  great  tail  length  being  included,  is  a  much  smaller  bird 
than  either  of  the  other  two  species.  Size  should  distinguish  it.  Juveniles  are  often  con- 
fused with  the  Parasitic  but  the  wing  characters  given  under  that  species  are  diagnostic. 

Field  Marks.  It  is  possible  to  separate  only  adult  Jaegers  in  fife;  the  long  middle 
tail  feathers  being  the  best  guide. 

Nesting.     Similar  to  that  of  the  other  Jaegers. 

Distribution.  Breeds  in  the  Arctics  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America.  Is  only  of  rare 
occurrence  on  east  coast. 

Though  the  Long-tailed  Jaeger  has  been  recorded  on  the  Great  Lakes 
most  of  such  occurrences  are  misidentifications  of  juveniles  of  the  preceding 
species. 

FAMILY LARIDiE.       GULLS    AND    TERNS. 

General  Description.  The  Gulls  and  Terns  are  long-winged  swimmers,  easily  separable 
rom  the  Jaegers  by  the  shape  and  construction  of  the  bill  which  shows  a  single  continuous 
surface  without  distinct  parts  or  joints  (Figures  4,  5,  p.  18).  The  colours  of  the  adult 
are  usually  pure  white,  with  white,  pearl-grey,  or  black  mantles,  often  with  black  wing 
tips,  hood,  cape,  or  cheek  spots. 


50 

Dislinclions.  Bill  with  continuous  surface  and  sharp  projecting  angle  on  lower  man- 
dible is  sufficient  to  diagnose  the  family  in  aU  plumages.  Colours  are  quite  characteristic, 
though  some  species  during  juvenility  are  evenly  (over  all)  dark,  approaching  the  dark 
phases  of  the  Jaegers. 

Field  Marks.     Coloration  and  flight  characteristics  are  the  best  field  marks. 

Nesting.  Gulls  generally  build  on  gromid,  on  rocky  ledges  or  flat  shores,  in  either 
sandy,  gi'assy,  or  marshy  places;  rarely,  in  trees. 

Distribution.  Gulls  and  Terns  are  distributed  over  all  the  world,  usually  near  large 
bodies  of  water,  but  sometimes  occiu-ring  fai-  inland,  for  instance  in  our  prairie  regions. 

Subfa7nily — Larince.     Gulls. 

General  Description.  With  the  family  description  in  minti  the  Gulls  can  only  be 
confused  with  the  Terns,  which  follow  (see  p.  54). 

Distinctions.  Can  be  distinguished  from  the  Jaegers  by  the  bill  and  coloration  char- 
acters. (See  family  description  on  previous  page);  from  the  Terns,  by  their  more  robust 
build  and  mode  of  flight.  Bills  especially  are  heavier  and  stronger  (compare  Figures  4 
and5,  p.  18).  As  a  rule,  tails  are  square  without  evident  fork.  Though  as  much  masters 
of  flight  as  the  Tern  they  have  less  agility  and  perform  fewer  aerial  gymnastics.  Young 
Gulls  are  often  quite  brownish  and  dark  in  coloration,  in  marked  contrast  to  the  adult. 
Young  Terns  are  usually  light  in  coloration. 

Field  Marks.  Large  birds  of  heavier  flight  than  the  Terns.  Square  tails  and  surface 
feeding  habits;  not  diving  from  the  wing  and  the  horizontal  carriage  of  the  bill  when  flying 
(see  Tern,  p.  54)  are  the  best  guides  by  which  to  separate  the  Gulls  from  the  closely  allied 
Terns. 

Nesting.  On  rocky  shores  or  cliffs  near  the  water  in  various  localities,  depending 
upon  the  species  and  their  distribution. 

Distribution.  Almost  cosmopolitan  in  range  and  few  countries  without  representatives 
of  the  subfamily.  In  Canada  about  twenty-five  species  are  known  to  occur,  but  some  are 
only  casual  within  the  bounds  of  settled  areas  and  are  not  discussed  here. 

Though  Gulls  are  essentially  sea  birds  they  are  at  times  found  at 
considerable  distances  from  large  bodies  of  water  and  flocks  often  follow 
the  prairie  ploughman  to  search  for  insects  in  the  newly  turned  furrows. 
They  feed  from  the  surface  of  the  water,  never  diving,  or  glean  from  the 
shores,  beaches,  or  fields. 

Economic  Status.  Gulls  eat  anything  in  the  way  of  animal  matter, 
fish,  crustaceans,  molluscs,  insects,  offal,  and  even  when  opportunity  offers 
young  birds  and  mice. 

The  amoimt  of  fish  they  consume  is  relatively  unimportant,  as  it  is 
usually  only  very  abundant  small  species  occurring  in  great  schools  that 
attract  their  attention;  they  are  not  patient  fishers  hke  the  Herons.  They 
search  low  tidal  shores  for  crabs  and  shell  fish,  showing  considerable  ingen- 
uity in  breaking  the  hard  shells  and  extracting  the  contents.  The  food 
supply  from  these  sources  is  economically  insignificant.  The  Gulls  annually 
dispose  of  vast  quantities  of  garbage  and  offal  thrown  into  harbours  and 
waterways;  they  frequent  agricultural  land  for  insect  food  and  some 
species  have  been  known  to  have  been  instrumental  in  stopping  mouse 
and  other  small  mammal  plagues.  The  Gulls  must  be  considered,  therefore, 
to  be  beneficial  and  consequently  should  be  protected,  although  they  do 
sometimes  destroy  eggs  and  young  birds. 

40.  Kittiwake  Tickler,  fr. — la  mouette  a  trois  doigts.  Rissn  tridaciyla. 
L,  16.  A  small  or  medium  sized  Gull  of  the  same  general  coloration  as  the  Herring 
Gull  (see  p.  52). 

Distinctions.  Rudimentary  condition  or  almost  total  absence  of  a  hind  toe  is  always 
diagnostic. 


51 

Field  Marks.  Resembles  so  many  other  Gulls  in  general  coloration  that  it  can  only 
be  separated  in  life  by  close  observation  of  minute  characters  under  favoui-able  conditions. 
In  size,  is  smaller  than  the  Herring  and  Ring-billed  Gulls  and  larger  than  Bonaparte's 
Gull. 

From  the  Herring  and  Ring-billed  Gulls  it  differs  by  having  black  instead  of  flesh- 
coloured  or  yellowish  legs  and  in  lacking  the  small  terminal  white  spots  on  the  black  primary 
tips.  The  bill  is  an  even  yellow  in  the  adult,  without  the  red  spot  of  the  Herring  Gull 
or  the  black  transverse  band  of  the  Ring-billed.  Juveniles  resemble  Bonaparte's  Gull 
very  closely  in  having  a  black  bill  and  similar  colour  pattern,  but  the  forward  edge  of  the 
outstretched  wing  is  mostly  black  instead  of  conspicuously  white.  Juvenile  Kittiwakes 
do  not  pass  through  a  brown  stage,  as  do  the  Herring  Gulls,  but  resemble  the  adult  in  modi- 
fied but  similar  coloration 

Nesting.  Makes  a  substantial  and  well  built  nest  of  sea-weed  on  small  projections 
from  the  faces  of  perpendicular  cliffs. 

Distribution.  A  marine  species,  the  Atlantic  Kittiwake  occurs  only  casually  on  fresh 
water  or  inland.  Inhabits  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic;  breeding,  in  America,  from  the  gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence  north  to  well  into  the  Arctics.  It  should  be  recorded  on  the  Great  Lakes 
only  upon  unimpeachable  evidence. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Kittiwake  occurs  in  distinct  subspecific  form  on  both  the  north 
Atlantic  and  north  Pacific  oceans.  Our  eastern  form,  the  Atlantic  Kittiwake,  is  the  type 
and  occurs  in  both  Europe  and  America. 

Economic  Status.  The  food  of  the  Kittiwake  is  probably  similar  to 
that  of  the  other  marine  Gulls,  but  its  smaller  size  renders  it  even  less  open 
to  objection  than  some  other  members  of  its  family. 

42.  Glaucous  Gull,  burgomaster,  fr. — le  goeland  a  manteau  glauque. 
Larus  hyperboreus.  L,  28.  The  Glaucous  Gull  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the  Gulls.  In  the 
adult,  the  mantle  is  only  shghtly  tinged  with  grey;  younger  specimens  are  nearly  pure 
white  all  over.  It  is  the  largest  of  the  white-winged  Gulls  (those  having  no  black  on  the 
wing  tips).     Bu-ds  of  the  year  are  only  slightly  barred  with  ashy  or  brownish  grey. 

Distinctions.  Its  nearly  white  coloration  separates  it  from  the  Black-backed  which 
it  resembles  in  point  of  size. 

Field  Marks.  Size,  general  white  coloration,  and  lack  of  black  wing  tip  make  the 
best  recognition  marks  in  life. 

Nesting.     On  groimd,  in  the  far  north. 

Distribution.  Breeds  along  the  circumpolar  coasts  and  islands  of  both  hemispheres. 
Occui-s  on  our  Atlantic  coast  in  autumn  and  winter  when  a  few  individuals  wander  inland 
to  lake  Ontario  and  perhaps  to  lake  Erie. 

Economic  Status.  Being  only  a  winter  visitor  to  our  coasts  and  rarely 
appearing  inland,  its  economic  importance  is  unappreciable. 

43.  Iceland  Gull.  fr. — le  goeland  a  ailes  blanches.  Larus  leucopterus.  L,  24. 
The  Iceland  Gull  is  of  about  the  same  size  as  the  Herring  Gull,  but  with  very  light  grey  or 
white  mantle  and  white  wing  tips — a  smaller  edition  of  the  Glaucous. 

Distinctions.     Size,  and  white  instead  of  black  wing  tips. 
Field  Marks.     Size,  wing  tips,  and  general  whiteness  of  coloration. 
Nesting.     On  ground. 

Distribution.  Breeds  in  the  Arctic  regions  of  eastern  America  and  western  Europe. 
Visits  our  Atlantic  coast  in  winter  only,  rarely  straggling  inland  as  far  as  lake  Ontario. 

Economic  Status.  As  it  is  only  a  winter  visitor  on  our  sea  coasts  and 
accidental  on  the  Great  Lakes,  it  has  little  if  any  economic  importance. 

47.  Great  Black-backed  Gull,  saddle-back,  coffin  carrier,  fr. — le  goe- 
land A  manteau  noir.  le  gros  GOTLAND.  Larus  marinus.  L,  29.  A  very  large  Gull, 
the  adult  with  a  distinctive  black  mantle. 

Distinctions.  Large  size  and  black  back  are  characteristic  of  the  adult.  Juveniles 
are  brown  instead  of  ashy  or  white  as  in  the  Glaucous  Gull,  more  striped  on  back  and  less 
evenly  coloured  than  the  Herring  Gull. 

Field  Marks.  Large  size  and  black  back  are  good  field  marks  for  the  adult.  Size 
is  the  only  describable  distinction  for  juveniles  in  hfe. 


52 

Nesting.     On  ground,  nest  of  sea  weed  or  vegetable  fragments. 

Distribution.  Breeds  on  the  Atlantic  coast  from  Nova  Scotia  northward  to  the  high 
Arctic.  Owing  to  advancing  settlement  nesting  localities  have  at  present  been  reduced  to 
the  more  isolated  situations.  Is  a  more  or  less  regular  but  rather  sparse  winter  visitor 
upon  lake  Ontario,  but  rarely  wanders  farther  inland  along  the  Great  Lakes. 

Economic  Status.  With  similar  feeding  habits  to  those  of  the  other 
Gulls,  the  superior  size,  strength,  and  numbers  of  the  Black-backed  Gull 
increase  its  powers  for  good  or  harm.  The  species  is  certainly  not  to  be 
trusted  in  the  vicinity  of  unprotected  nests  of  other  species,  or  even  young 
birds,  as  both  eggs  and  young  are  eagerly  devoured  when  opportunity 
offers.  To  offset  this,  however,  the  opportunity  to  become  an  important 
pest  is  small  except  in  a  few  localities,  as  on  the  Labrador  coast  where  the 
Black-back  breeds  abundantly  in  close  proximity  to  great  numbers  of 
Eiders  and  other  sea  birds.  The  damage  it  does  on  the  Labrador  coast, 
however,  is  small  compared  with  the  more  serious  and  wanton  waste  of 
some  of  the  fishermen. 

51.  Herring  Gull.  fr. — le  goeland  argente.  Larus  argentatus.  L,  24.  Plate 
II  A. 

Distinctions.  Size  and  general  coloration  are  generally  sufficient  to  distinguish  the 
Herring  GuU  from  all  other  Canadian  species,  but  as  size  alone  is  seldom  a  sufficiently 
rehable  criterion  when  the  contrasted  species  are  not  together  for  comparison,  the  following 
points  will  assist  in  accurate  determination. 

The  juvenile  Herring  Gull  is  the  darkest  of  the  family,  approaching  the  dark-phased 
Jaegers  closely  in  this  respect,  but  the  biU  shape  and  gull  habits  will  prevent  confusion  with 
the  Jaeger.  In  the  adult,  the  black  wing  tips  serve  to  distinguish  it  from  any  of  the  white- 
winged  GuUs  and  the  small  white  terminal  spots  from  the  Kittiwake.  The  lack  of  a  dark 
transverse  bar  on  the  bill  distinguishes  it  from  the  adult  Ring-biU.  However,  the  juvenile 
Herring  GuU  at  one  stage,  as  the  bill  is  turning  from  black  to  the  yellow  of  maturity,  shows 
a  very  similar  mark  and  comparative  size  is  then  about  the  only  distinguishing  point  of 
recognition. 

Field  Marks.  Size  and  the  colour  marks  above  given  are  the  best  field  guides.  It  is 
often  very  difficult,  sometimes  impossible,  to  separate  the  Herring  and  the  Ring-biU  in 
Ufe  when  immature  birds  of  either  species  are  seen  separately. 

Nesting.  On  ground,  or  on  rocky  ledges  or  the  flat  tops  of  large  isolated  rocks,  in 
nests  of  seaweed  or  waste  vegetable  matter. 

Distribution.  Found  practically  aU  over  Canada,  and  common  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood  of  the  larger  bodies  of  water  either  fresh  or  salt.  Breeds  either  generaUy 
or  locally  in  all  but  the  more  southern  sections  of  Canada. 

The  Herring  Gull  is  the  commonest  of  our  Gulls.  It  is  a  wanderer  and 
often  seen  on  the  smallest  of  our  lakes,  even  at  considerable  distance  from 
its  nesting  grounds.  The  Gulls  that  remain  on  the  lower  Great  Lakes 
through  the  summer  are  immatures  or  non-breeding  birds.  In  winter  the 
species  remains  upon  the  larger  waters  until  they  are  frozen  over  and 
often  throughout  the  entire  season,  beating  over  the  open  water  or 
perched  on  the  floating  ice.  The  Gulls  haunt  harbours  for  the  offal  and 
congregate  in  large  numbers  about  sewer  outlets.  They  have  also  learned 
that  ships  are  abundant  providers  of  toothsome  scraps.  Fishing  stations 
are  great  attractions  to  them  and  there  is  almost  certain  to  be  a  large  flock 
in  attendance  about  the  cleaning  tables  on  the  shore.  At  the  seashore, 
shell  fish  and  crabs  are  eagerly  sought  for  at  low  tide  and  the  Gulls  have 
learned  the  trick  of  carrying  their  hard  shelled  prey  into  the  air  and  dropping 
it  upon  the  rocks  below,  after  which  they  descend  and  extract  the  savoury 
morsels  from  the  broken  case.  In  rough  weather  they  congregate  in  numbers 
about  foamy  breakers  off  stormy  points  for  the  food  that  is  brought  to  the 


53 

surface.    Occasionally  they  follow  the  immense  schools  of  small  fish  that 
periodically  visit  our  shores  and  take  toll  of  the  inexhaustible  supply. 

Economic  Status.  It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  summary  of  the 
Herring  Gulls  food  habits'  that  as  scavengers  they  are  important  and 
should  be  protected. 

54.  Ring-billed  Gull.  fr. — le  goeland  de  Delaware,  mauve.  Larus  dela- 
warensis.  L,  1S"50.  Like  the  Herring  Gull  (see  p.  52)  but  smaller;  the  adult  with  the 
biU  crossed  near  the  tip  with  a  transverse  bar  or  ring. 

Distinctions.  Except  when  adult  and  ring  on  biU  obvious,  size  is  best  guide  to 
separation  of  this  species  from  the  Herring  Gull.  On  the  sea  coast  this  species  may  be 
mistaken  for  the  common  but  smaller  Kittiwake.  The  presence  of  terminal  white  spots 
on  the  black  wing  tips  serves  to  distinguish  the  Ring-bill.  In  juvenihty,  the  brown  colora- 
tion of  the  Ring-bill  is  in  contrast  to  the  lighter  coloration  of  the  yoimg  Kittiwake.  It 
lacks  the  distinct  termLaal  tail  band  of  those  birds  and  has  flesh-coloured  instead  of  black 
feet  and  legs.  The  absence  of  the  sharp,  narrow,  black  tail  band  and  dark  cheek  patch, 
and  great  difference  in  size  should  be  sufficient  to  differentiate  it  from  Bonaparte's  Gull 
in  juvenile  or  winter  plumage. 

Field  Marks.  A  careful  study  of  the  characters  above  will  reveal  the  only  good  field 
marks  known  to  the  author. 

N^estiiig.     On  ground  in  nest  of  grasses  or  vegetable  material. 

Distribution.  Foimd  over  almost  the  whole  of  Canada.  Breeds  locally  throughout 
its  range  in  Canada  except  in  the  most  southern  parts  of  the  Dominion  in  the  lower  Great 
Lakes  region. 

Economic  Status.  The  food  habits  of  the  Ring-bill  are  similar  in  a 
general  way  to  those  of  the  Herring  Gull,  but  the  smaller  size  of  the  Ring-bill 
reduces  its  influence. 

60.  Bonaparte's  Gull.  fr. — le  goeland  de  bonaparte.  Larus  Philadelphia. 
L,  14.  Bonaparte's  is  our  smallest  eastern  Gull.  Its  general  coloration  is  similar  to  that 
of  the  Herring  or  Ring-bill  but  the  adult  has  a  black  hood  over  the  head  and  neck.  Juven- 
iles and  winter  birds  are  without  the  hood,  but  ai-e  marked  with  a  veiled  or  indistinct  dark 
ear  spot. 

Distinctions.  The  black  hood  serves  to  distinguish  this  Gull  from  all  eastern  species 
when  in  summer  plumage.  In  western  Ontario,  Franklin's  Gull  may  occasionally  be  seen. 
It  is  a  slightly  larger  bird  with  a  red  bill  and  almost  black  feet  instead  of  black  bill,  coral  red 
feet,  and  the  exposed  primary  tips  are  mostly  black  instead  of  mostly  white  with  small 
black  tips.  Juveniles  may  be  recognized  by  their  dark  ear  spot.  They  are  distinguished 
from  the  Kittiwake  which  they  somewhat  resemble  by  the  con.spicuous  amount  of  white 
on  the  forward  edge  of  the  outstretched  wing  and  by  the  dark  terminal  tail  band.  Bona- 
parte's Gull  may  at  times  be  confused  with  the  Common  Tern  or  other  Terns,  but  its 
heavier  build  and  action,  and  lack  of  any  suggestion  of  a  forked  tail  should  make  differentia- 
tion comparatively  easy. 

The  Laughing  Gull  which  occasionally  occurs  on  our  southern  sea  coast  looks  very 
much  like  this  species,  but  the  outer  wing  feathers  are  black  instead  of  mostly  white  and 
it  is  a  breeder  not  a  winter  migrant.  It  is,  however,  so  rare  that  its  identification  should 
be  accepted  with  the  greatest  caution. 

Field  Marks.  Size,  black  hood  in  summer  adults,  white  on  forward  edge  of  wings,  and 
the  bill  and  feet  colour  on  other  plumages  make  the  most  valuable  field  characters  for 
recognition  in  life. 

Nesting.     On  stumps,  bushes,  or  trees,  sometimes  as  high  as  20  feet  from  the  ground. 

Distribution.  Breeds  in  Alaska  and  the  far  northwest,  but  occurs  in  winter  or  migra- 
tion practically  throughout  Canada. 

This  little  Gull  is  more  often  seen  in  passing  or  visiting  flocks  than  the 
other  species.  It  also  haunts  marshes  and  flooded  lands  more  than  they 
do  and  is  rarely  noted  as  a  solitary  individual.  It  shows  a  markedly  com- 
munistic habit  and  flocks  seem  to  be  held  together  more  by  sociability 
than  by  a  community  of  interest,  as  appears  usually  to  be  the  case  with 
other  species  of  Gulls. 


54 

Subfamily — Sternince.     Terns. 

General  DescriiHion .  The  Terns,  or  Sea  Swallows  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  are 
small  gulls  of  a  lighter  and  more  graceful  build  and  habit  (see  bill.  Figure  5,  p.  18). 

Distinctions.  The  bill,  lighter,  and  more  slender  than  that  of  the  Gulls,  and  the  forked 
tail  are  characteristic  of  the  Terns  and  will  usually  separate  them  without  difficulty.  All 
Canadian  species  have  a  more  or  less  forked  tail  and  all  but  one  in  summer  adult  plumage 
have  a  sharply  defined  black  cap.  The  forking  of  the  tails  of  young  birds,  though  beginning 
to  show  early  in  their  development,  does  not  reach  its  maximiun  until  after  they  leave  for 
the  winter;  hence  through  the  summer  and  autumn  many  individuals  will  be  seen  with 
much  smaller  forks  than  the  measurements  indicate. 

Field  Marks.  The  greater  lightness  of  action  on  the  wing  and  constant  and  rapid 
aerial  evolution;  the  fact  that  Terns  constantly  dive  from  the  wing,  and  the  habit  of 
commonly  tm-ning  the  bill  straight  down  towards  the  water  instead  of  carrying  it  on  a  line 
with  the  body  are  characteristic.  The  forked  tails  and  black  caps  are  also  good  recognition 
marks  for  adults. 

Nesting.  Whereas  Gulls  seem  to  prefer  rocky  shores  upon  which  to  breed,  the  Terns, 
except  Forster's  and  the  Black,  favour  sandy  beaches,  laying  their  eggs  in  a  smooth  circle 
of  pebbles  without  other  nest  preparation. 

Distribution.  As  a  subfamily,  Terns  are  more  southerly  in  distribution  than  Gulls, 
though  at  least  one  species,  the  -Ai'ctic  Tern,  has  been  found  as  far  north  as  man  has  ever 
gone.     All  our  species  migrate,  none  remaining  in  eastern  Canada  through  the  winter. 

One  has  only  to  watch  a  flock  of'  Terns  feeding  to  recognize  the  appro- 
priateness of  the  popiihir  term  Sea  ShviHow.  Their  active  grace  and  dainty, 
pearl-hke  colours  are  a  joy  to  the  nature  lover.  Terns  are  on  the  whole 
less  marine  in  their  habits  than  Gulls  and  are  not  as  often  seen  far  from  land. 
They  haunt  harbours,  shores,  and  beaches,  and  live  largely  upon  small 
fish  caught  near  the  surface  by  quick  sudden  dives  from  the  wing,  but 
they  are  not  scavengers.  In  these  dives  the  birds  plunge  in  head  first  with 
a  splash  of  white  spray  in  which  for  a  moment  they  disappear,  but  unlike 
Gannets  and  Cormorants  they  never  go  far  under  water. 

64.  Caspian  Tern,  fr.^la  sterne  caspienne.  le  grand  esterlette.  Sterna 
caspia.  L,  21.  (Forking  of  tail  1 -50)1  The  largest  of  our  Canadian  Terns.  In  colour 
very  similar  to  the  Common  Tern  (see  p.  55). 

Distinctions.  Large  size  of  this  Tern  is  characteristic.  There  are  two  other  equally 
large  species,  but  they  are  too  rare  to  require  more  than  passing  mention  here.  The  Cas- 
pian Tern  is  as  large  as  some  of  the  smaller  Gulls;  but  its  bill  though  comparatively 
heavy  for  a  Tern  is  too  gi'aceful  and  tapering  to  be  gull-like. 

Field  Marks.  Characteristic  Tern  coloration,  and  habit  and  size  make  the  best  field 
marks. 

Nesting.     On  sandy  beaches,  or  rocky  or  gravelly  islands. 

Distribution.  A  nearly  cosmopolitan  species.  Found  in  the  Old  as  well  as  the  New 
World.  Occurs  rather  irregularly  all  over  Canada,  but  its  known  nesting  stations  are 
few  and  scattered  over  the  continent  from  lake  Huron  to  Labrador  and  the  gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence. 

The  peculiarly  disconnected  and  irregular  distribution  of  this  beau- 
tiful Tern  suggests  that  it  is  a  gradually  disappearing  species.  This  is 
greatly  to  be  deplored  as  it  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  our  sea  birds 
and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  careful  conservation  of  its  few  remaining  breeding 
stations  will  be  inaugurated  so  that  it  will  continue  to  adorn  our  waterways 
for  generations  to  come. 

Economic  Status.  Though  feeding  largely  upon  fish,  the  size  of  its 
prey  is  limited  to  small  fry.  The  rarity  of  the  species  precludes  its  doing 
any  appreciable  amount  of  damage. 

^This  measurement  shows  the  difference  in  length  between  the  middle  and  outer  tail  feathers.  A  great  part  o 
the  total  length  of  these  birds  is  in  the  greatly  elongated  outer  tail  feathers  and  these  do  not  reach  their  maximum 
in  juvenile  birds.  Hence  this  figure  is  given  to  correct  the  oftentimes  greatly  misleading  nature  of  the  usual  length 
measurement. 


55 

69.  Forster's  Tern.  Sterna  Jorsleri.  L,  15.  (Forking  of  tail  4).'  Closely  resemb- 
ling the  Common  Tern  (see  next  species)  in  size  and  coloration. 

Distinctions.  Forster's  Tej-n  lacks  the  dehcate  grey  shading  on  the  flanks  and  under- 
parts  characteristic  of  the  Common  Tern,  and  the  outer  feathers  of  the  tail  have  the  dark 
web  on  the  inside  instead  of  the  outside  of  the  shaft. 

Field  Marks.  The  pm-e  white  underpaits  are  the  most  reliable  field  guides.  The 
species  is,  however,  so  rare  east  of  lake  Huron  that  its  identification  in  life  should  be  based 
only  on  birds  in  the  hand. 

Nesting.  On  slight  elevations  in  grassy  marshes,  in  nests  built  of  fragments  of  waste 
vegetation. 

Distributioti.  Western  or  interior  bird.  At  one  time  it  nested  on  the  Detroit  river, 
but  seems  to  have  deserted  that  station  and  ndw  as  a  breeder  must  be  sought  for  farther  west. 

These  Terns  frequent  marshes  rather  than  beaches  and  do  not  usually 
gather  in  flocks  like  the  Common  Tern.  They  should  be  looked  for  as 
individuals  in  flocks  of  other  species. 

Economic  Status.  Though  fish  eaters,  their  size  and  usual  habitat 
prevent  their  being  harmful. 

70.  Common' Tern,  wilson's  tern.  fr. — la  sterne  commune.  Sterna  hir undo. 
L,  15.     (Forking  of  tail,  3-0  ).»     Plate  II  B. 

Distinctions.  The  dark,  outer,  instead  of  inner,  webs  on  the  outer,  long  tail  feathers 
and  delicate  greyish,,  instead  of  pure  white,  breast  and  under  parts  distinguish  the  com- 
mon from  Forster's  Tern.  The  grey  of  breast  and  underparts  is  rather  less  pronounced 
than  in  the  Arctic  Tern  and  the  legs  and  feet  are  decidedly  larger  and  heavier.  The  bill  is 
usually  dark  in  colour  towards  the  tip,  whereas  that  of  the  Arctic  is  evenly  red.  Juveniles 
are  more  or  less  washed  with  brownish  above  and  have  blackish  bills.  With  adults  in  winter, 
the  black  cap  is  replaced  by  a  more  or  less  broken  dark  cape  over  hind  head  and  upper 
hind  neck.     In  this  plumage  Forster's  Tern  has  a  broad  black  streak  across  the  eye. 

Field  Marks.  Except  in  the  few  locahties  where  other  Terns  are  known  to  occur 
commonly  it  is  always  safe  to  conclude  that  this  is  the  species  seen.  The  pearly-grey 
underparts  will  usually  distinguish  it  from  Forster's  Tern,  but  it  is  difficult  to  separate  it 
from  the  Arctic  Tern  which,  however,  is  onty  to  be  expected  on  our  extreme  eastern  sea 
coast. 

Nesting.     Depression  in  sand  on  beach. 

Distribution.  A  circumpolar  species  migrating  to  South  America  and  Africa.  More 
or  less  common  all  over  Canada  and  breeding  in  favourable  localities  throughout  its  Cana- 
dian range. 

This  is  the  most  abundant  Tern  of  eastern  Canada.  Common  about 
sand}^  shores,  scarcer  on  rock}^  shores,  it  may  be  seen  on  any  of  our  larger 
bodies  of  water,  salt  or  fresh,  throughout  the  summer.  Its  wonderful 
lightness  of  wing,  graceful  circlings,  one  instant  hovering  on  rapidly  beating 
wings  stationary  in  the  air  as  it  regards  some  coveted  prey  below  and 
the  next  dropping  like  a  plummet  with  a  sparkling  splash,  are  constant 
delights  to  a  seeker  of  the  beautiful.  Its  shrill  cry,  harsh  if  taken  by  itself. 
blends  harmoniously  into  the  soft  surge  of  the  surf  and  remains  in  keeping 
with  marine  surroimdings. 

Economic  Status.  Though  fairly  numerous  in  suitable  localities  this 
species  is  too  small  to  be  seriously  destructive. 

71.  Arctic  Tern.  fr. — la  sterne  arctique.  Sterna  paradiscea.  L,  15 -.50. 
(Forking  of  tail  4  -50)1  Closely  resembling  the  Common  Tern  (see  above)  in  size  and  colour. 

Distinctions.  The  Arctic  Tern  has  a  little  stronger  greyish  suffusion  over  breast  and 
imderparts  than  the  Common  Tern.  Bill  is  red  to  tip  and  feet  and  legs  are  very  small  and 
weak.  Its  range  separates  it  from  Forster's  Tern  and  there  is  only  the  Common  and  the 
Roseate  with  which  it  can  be  confused,  but  the  latter  is  too  rare  in  Canadian  waters  to  be 
considered. 


'See  footnote,  p.  54. 


56 

Field  Marks.  Except  the  even  red  coloration  of  the  bill,  which  is  not  an  absolutely 
reliable  guide,  there  is  no  field  mark  that  can  be  described  by  which  this  species  can  be 
recognized  with  certainty.  As  in  eastern  Canada  it  is  a  sea  coast  species,  it  should  be 
recorded  on  eyesight  evidence  only  where  it  is  known  to  occur  commonly. 

Nesting.     Depression  in  sandy  beaches. 

Distribution.  Nearly  cosmopohtan,  but  of  eastern  and  Arctic  distribution  in  Canada 
and  rarely  if  ever  seen  in  the  Great  Lakes  region.  It  is  notable  from  havin-z;  perhaps  the 
greatest  migration  range  of  any  species  of  bird.  Though  found  in  summer  north  close  to 
the  pole,  it  winters  as  far  south  as  the  Antarctic  continent. 

The  remarks  made  under  the  heading  of  the  Common  Tern  will  very 
well  apply  here,  bearing  in  mind  that  this  species  is  regularly  onl}^  of  extreme 
eastern  and  Arctic  distribution. 

Economic  Status.  The  small  size  of  the  fry  it  takes  and  the  known 
abundance  of  such  fish  in  the  sea,  renders  this  species  as  harmless  as  any 
of  the  other  Terns. 

77.  Black  Tern.  fr. — la  sterne  noire.  Hydrocheledon  nigra.  L,  10.  (Forking 
of  tail,  0-8)'  The  smallest  of  our  Common  Terns,  dark  slate-grey  deepening  to  dull  black 
on  head,  neck,  and  underparts. 

Distinctions.  The  above  diagnosis  is  sufficient  to  separate  summer  adults.  Winter 
and  immature  birds  have  a  dirty  white  face,  throat,  neck  ring,  and  imderparts  and  the 
grey  above  is  suffused  with  more  or  less  brownish.  It  is,  however,  always  considerably 
darker  than  corresponding  plumages  of  other  species.  This  fact  and  its  small  size  should 
be  sufficient  to  differentiate  it  at  all  times. 

Field  Marks.     Size  and  coloration  make  this  species  easy  to  recognize  in  life. 

Nesting.  On  slight  elevations  such  as  old  muskrat  houses  or  floating  debris  in  wet 
marshes,  nest  of  vegetable  matter. 

Distribution.  The  American  Black  Tern  is  a  bird  of  the  interior,  breeding  from  the 
Great  Lakes  region  westward. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Black  Tern  occurs  in  both  Europe  and  America  in  aUied  sub- 
specific  forms  of  which  the  European  is  the  type.  The  American  Black  Tern  H.n.  sur- 
inamensis  is  the  only  subspecies  with  which  we  are  concerned. 

This  is  a  bird  of  the  inland  marshes.  It  is  rarely  seen  on  the  larger 
bodies  of  water,  but  within  its  regular  range  no  extensive  expanse  of 
watery  marsh  is  without  it.  Its  general  habits  are  much  like  those  of  the 
other  Terns. 

Economic  Status.  The  insect  content  of  this  bird's  food  is  probably 
larger  than  that  of  the  other  Terns.  In  the  south  it  is  known  to  consume 
the  larvae  of  the  cotton-boll  weevil  and  probably  retains  some  insectivorous 
habits  with  us.  Therefore,  we  can  venture  to  state  that  it  is  probably 
actively  beneficial.  At  any  rate  the  fish  it  takes,  if  any,  are  mud-inhabiting 
forms  of  small  economic  importance. 

Order — Tubinares.     Tube-nosed  Swimmers. 

General  Description.  Tireless  fliers  of  the  deep  sea,  of  various  sizes  from  the  large 
Albatross  to  the  small  Petrel.     Usually  dull  and  evenly  coloured  birds. 

Distinctions.  Nostrils  are  encased  in  tubes  laid  on  top  of  the  bill  proper  (Figure  10, 
p.  19). 

Field  Marks.  General  flight  habits  and  coloration.  Familiarity  with  the  various 
species  is  necessary  to  recognize  members  of  the  order. 

Nesting.  On  ground  or  in  burrows  in  out-of-the-way  localities,  often  on  rocky  islets 
far  out  at  sea  to  which  they  find  their  way  in  some  mysterious  manner  that  we  cannot  as 
yet  explain. 

'See  footnote,  p.  S4. 


57 

Distribution.  As  a  family,  they  are  birds  of  the  southern  hemisphere,  for  it  is  there 
that  they  reach  their  fullest  develop  aent  in  numbers  of  individuals  and  species.  How- 
ever, some  inhabit  the  north  far  into  the  Arctics. 

The  Tube-nosed  Swimmers  are  essentially  marine,  using  the  land 
only  for  breeding  purposes.  The  whole  ocean  is  their  home  and  its  lonely 
waste  is  sufficient  for  all  their  needs  except  that  of  rearing  their  young. 
They,  therefore,  as  a  class,  rarely  come  into  shallow  water  and  are  most 
commonly  seen  by  the  deep  water  sailor,  the  offshore  fisherman,  or  the 
ocean  voyageur.  There  are  two  families  of  the  order:  the  Albatrosses, 
Diomedeidce;  and  the  Fulmars,  Shearwaters,  and  Petrels,  Procellariidoe; 
that  are  here  called  for  convenience  the  Lesser  Tube-nosed  Swimmers 
owing  to  their  inferior  size.  As  there  are  no  Albatrosses  on  our  east  coast 
we  are  concerned  only  with  the  Procellariidce. 

Economic  Status.  Owing  to  their  pelagic  habitat  they  are  of  little  if 
any  known  economic  interest. 

FAMILY PROCELLARIIDiE.       LESSER    TUBE-NOSED    SWIMMERS.       FULMARS, 

SHEARWATERS,    AND    PETRELS. 

General  Description.     See  previous  description. 

Distinctions.  Lesser  Tube-nosed  Swimmers  are  smaller  than  the  Albatrosses  and 
are  the  only  members  of  the  order  found  on  our  eastern  coast. 

Field  Marks.  General  coloration  and  flight  habits.  Wings  stiffly  held  straight  out 
from  the  body  and  long  steady  glides  on  motionless  wings  (Fuhnars  and  Shearwaters), 
or  gently  flitting  close  to  the  surface  up  one  side  of  a  wave  and  down  the  other  with  feet 
occasionally  paddUng  along  as  if  running  on  the  surface  (Petrels). 

Distribution.  The  family  is  distributed  over  the  oceans  of  the  world  from  pole  to  pole. 
Though  many  species  are  regularly  confined  to  the  southern  hemisphere  they  are  great 
wanderers  and  the  list  of  stragglers  on  our  northern  coasts  is  comparatively  large.  Of 
many  species  very  little  is  known  and  our  knowledge  of  several  of  them  is  confined  to 
single  or  a  few  individual  specimens  that  have  found  their  way  into  collector's  hands. 
Other  species  than  those  here  listed  may  be  found  on  our  coasts  or  even  occasionally  on 
the  Great  Lakes  in  the  interior,  but  their  identification  should  be  made  with  the  greatest 
caution. 

Economic  Status.  Though  feeding  almost  entirely  on  fish  and  offal, 
their  deep  sea  habitat  renders  them  of  little  economic  importance. 

86.  Fulmar.  fr. — le  fulmar.  Fulmarus  glacialis.  L,  19.  A  large  bird  of 
gull-like  coloration  (light  phase),  or  evenly  dark,  slaty  grey  (dark  phase),  and  tube  en- 
cased nostrils. 

Distinctions.  One  of  the  larger  of  the  Lesser  Tube-noses,  even  grey  or  white  and  grey 
gull-like  coloration. 

Field  Marks.  Fhght  habits,  stiffly-held  outstretched  wings,  and  long  glides,  together 
with  light  or  grey  coloration  instead  of  dark  brown  as  in  the  Shearwaters  which  approach 
the  Fulmars  in  size,  should  usuaUy  render  this  species  recognizable  in  life. 

The  Fuhnar  occurs  in  allied  subspecific  form  on  both  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans. 
The  Atlantic  Fulmar  is  the  type  form. 

Nesting.     In  large  communities  on  ledges  of  rocky  cliffs. 

Distribution.  The  Fulmar  is  a  bu-d  of  the  north  Atlantic,  breeding  in  high  latitudes 
and  migrating  to  our  southern  coasts. 

More  often  seen  by  sealers  and  whalers,  the  offal  of  whose  trade  attracts 
numbers  of  Fulmars.  They  are  often  seen  by  transatlantic  travellers  in 
mid-ocean  or  near  the  shores. 

Economic  Status.     Of  no  economic  importance. 


58 

Genus — Puffinus.     Shearwaters. 

General  Description.  Tube-nosed  Swimmers  from  17  to  20  inches  long.  The  nasal 
tubes  are  apparent  but  much  less  pronounced  than  in  either  the  Fulmar  or  the  Petrel. 

Distinctions.  The  only  two  east  Canadian  species  that  the  ordinary  observer  is  likely 
to  meet  are  either  very  dark  or  seem  almost  crow  black  from  a  distance. 

Field  Marks.  The  long  narrow  wings  held  stiffly  at  right  angles  to  the  body  and  the 
long  ghdes  of  half  a  mile  or  more  on  fixed  wings  are  distinctive.  Their  colour  in  browns 
should  separate  them  from  the  Fulmar  which  is  grey  but  has  much  the  same  flight  habits. 

Nesting.  Very  little  is  known  of  the  nesting  habits  of  the  Shearwaters.  Many  of 
them  nest  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  migrating  north  in  the  summer. 

Shearwaters  are  wonderful  fliers,  breasting  the  storms  and  gales  with 
the  ease  and  grace  of  swallows.  They  are  rarely  seen  by  the  casual  observer 
except  from  the  decks  of  transatlantic  steamers. 

Economic  Status.  Gleaning  from  the  surface  of  the  high  seas,  taking 
small  fish  or  such  offal  as  is  thrown  from  deep  sea  fishing  or  whaling  boats, 
their  economic  influence  is  too  small  to  be  appreciable. 

89.  Greater  Shearwater,  fr.— le  grand  puffin.  Puffinus  gravis.  L,  20.  The 
larger  of  our  two  commoner  Shearwaters,  lighter  below  with  under  tail  coverts  ashy  grey. 

Distinctions.  Its  hght  coloiu-  below  should  separate  this  from  the  Sooty  Shearwater; 
and  its  general  browTiness  of  back  instead  of  greyness  and  its  variegated  colour  differenti- 
ate it  from  the  Fulmar. 

Field  Marks.  Flight  habits  as  described  previously,  together  with  brown  coloration 
and  white  imderparts  should  separate  this  in  life  from  either  the  Fulmar  or  the  next  species. 

Nesting.  There  is  little  if  anything  known  of  the  nesting  habits  of  this  species.  Pro- 
bably breeds  in  the  southern  hemisphere  on  lonely  islets  that  have  not  been  ornithologically 
investigated. 

Distribution.  Ranges  over  the  whole  Atlantic  ocean  from  the  Aictic  to  Cape  Horn. 
Visits  Canada  irregularly  in  summer. 

Economic  Status.     Of  no  economic  importance. 

95.  Sooty  Shearwater.  Puffinus  griseus.  L,  17.  The  smaller  of  our  two  more 
common  Shearwaters.     Very  diirk  brown,  almost  black,  and  but  little  hghter  below. 

Distinctions.     Size,  when  possible  to  estimate  or  measure,  and  general  dark  coloration. 

Field  Marks.  Flight  habits  as  described  imder  Shearwater  and  very  dark,  almost 
crow  black,  appearance  in  life  are  probably  the  best  field  distinctions. 

Nesting.     In  burrows  in  the  ground. 

Distribution.  The  oceans  of  the  southern  hemisphere,  migrating  up  our  coasts  in 
summer  rather  rarely. 

The  two  Shearwaters  and  Wilson's  Petrel  are  the  only  species  of 
Canadian  birds  that  are  known  to  nest  at  the  southern  extremity  of  their 
migratory  range  instead  of  at  the  northern.  Specimens  seen  here  in  the 
summer  are  migrants,  not  nesting  birds. 

Economic  Status.     Of  no  economic  importance. 

Genera — Oceanodroma,  Oceanites.    Petrels. 

General  Description.  The  Canadian  species  of  Petrel  are  small  birds,  scarcely  as  large 
as  robins  and  of  even  dark  brown  coloration. 

Distinctions.     Small  size,  general  sooty-brown  coloration,  and  white  rump. 

Field  Marks.  Size,  colour  as  above,  and  the  habit  of  pattering  up  and  down  the  waves 
as  if  walking  on  the  water  are  diagnostic  of  the  Petrels. 

The  origin  of  the  name  Petrel  is  after  Peter  who  walked  the  sea  of 
Galilee.     The  birds  are  also  well  known  to  sailors  and  voyageurs  under 


59 

the  name  of  "Mother  Carey's  Chickens"  and  their  appearance  is  said  to 
presage  a  storm.  In  spite  of  their  diminutive  size  they  are  met  with  far 
out  at  sea  and  are  seldom  seen  by  the  longshoreman  except  in  the  vicinity 
of  their  breeding  grounds. 

Economic  Status.  The  Petrels  though  feeding  on  fish  are  too  small 
and  their  regular  habitat  is  too  far  removed  from  man's  usual  activities 
to  be  of  measurable  economic  importance. 

106.  Leach's  Petrel,  fr. — le  petrel  de  leach.  Oceanodroma  leucorhoa.  L,  8. 
A  small,  sooty-brown  bird,  very  slightly  lighter  below,  with  a  white  rump.  Tail  forked 
about  one-half  an  inch  deep. 

Distinctions.  Forking  of  the  tail,  shghtly  lighter  general  coloration,  and  all  black 
feet  will  separate  this  from  Wilson's  Petrel,  the  only  one  likely  to  be  confused  with  it. 

Field  Marks.     The  shght  forking  of  the  tail  is  perhaps  the  surest  specific  guide  in  life. 

Nesting.     In  burrows  in  the  ground  or  under  rocks. 

Distribution.  Inhabits  both  the  north  Pacific  and  north  Atlantic  oceans,  breeding 
on  the  eastern  side  of  the  continent,  from  Greenland  to  Maine. 

This  is  the  only  Petrel  breeding  on  our  coasts.  It  may  be  locally  very 
abundant  in  the  nesting  season  and  its  burrows  may  riddle  the  ground 
without  the  observer  having  a  suspicion  of  its  presence.  It  remains  in  its 
burrow  through  the  day,  but  at  night  comes  out  in  great  numbers,  wheeling 
about  the  deserted  neighbourhood,  uttering  a  low,  wierd  oft  repeated  little 
song  with  most  eerie  effect. 

Economic  Status.     Of  no  economic  importance. 

109.  Wilson's  Petrel,  mother  caret's  chicken,  fr. — le  petrel  de  wilson. 
Oceanites  oceanicns.  L,  7.  A  shghtly  smaller  bird  than  Leach's  Petrel,  of  same  general 
colour  but  averaging  slightly  darker,  less  forked  tail,  and  with  toe  webs  mostly  yellow 
instead  of  all  black. 

Distinctions.  Smaller  size,  sUghtty  darker  coloration,  square  instead  of  forked  tail, 
and  the  yellow  foot  webs  will  separate  this  Petrel  from  Leach's.  The  Stormy  Petrel  also 
is  said  to  occur  off  the  Atlantic  coast,  but  is  too  rare  to  be  considered  here.  Unimpeachable 
evidence  of  its  occurrence  is  desirable.  It  is  recognizable  by  having  the  white  rump  feathers 
tipped  with  black. 

Field  Marks.  Square  instead  of  slightly  forked  tail  is  probably  the  most  rehable 
guide  to  the  specific  identity  of  this  Petrel  in  hfe,  but  accurate  observation  is  necessary 
to  make  the  distinction. 

Nesting.     In  groimd  burrows  or  rock  crevices. 

Distribution.  From  the  Antarctic  to  Labrador  and  to  the  British  Isles  across  the 
Atlantic. 

Wilson's  Petrel  is  notable  as  being  one  of  the  very  few  North  American 
species  that  nest  at  the  southern  end  of  their  migratory  range.  Hence 
individuals  seen  here  in  the  summer  time  are  migrants  and  do  not  breed. 

Ord  er — S  teganopodes . 
Totipalmate  Swimmers.    Full-webbed  Swimmiers. 

General  Description.     Birds  with  webs  between  all  four  toes,  making  three  webs  in- 
stead of  the  usual  two  as  in  other  orders  (Figine  6,  p.  19). 
Distinctions.    The  feet  characters  are  always  distinctive. 

Canadian  Totipalmates  are  divided  into  three  families:     Sulidce,  the 
Gannets;  PhalacrocoracidcB,  the  Cormorants;  and  Pelecanidce,  the  Pelicans. 
There  are  other  families  that  have  occurred  or  may  occur  accidentally 
in  Canada  but  are  too  rare  to  be  included  here. 
57172—5 


60 

Economic  Status.  This  order,  being  composed  of  large  birds,  all  fish- 
eaters,  and  many  of  them  frequenting  inshore  or  inland  waters  in  consider- 
able numbers,  is  open  to  a  certain  amount  of  suspicion  as  to  its  economic 
effect.  However,  no  step  should  be  taken  against  any  species  until  careful 
investigation  has  proved  its  necessity. 

FAMILY SULID^.       GANNETS    OR    BOOBIES. 

General  Description.  Large  birds,  mostly  white  when  adult,  bill  sharp  and  straight 
without  hook  or  pronounced  throat  or  gular  pouch. 

Distinctions.  The  bill  characters  of  this  family  serve  to  distinguish  it  from  all  except- 
ing Tropic  Birds,  one  species  of  which  has  been  taken  off  Newfoxindland.  As  the  Tropic 
Birds,  however,  have  enormously  elongated  middle  tail  feathers  there  is  little  chance  of 
confusion,  even  if  they  were  not  too  rare  in  our  waters  to  merit  detailed  consideration  here. 

The  Gannets  are  strictly  marine  birds  never  seen  away  from  the  sea 
except  as  stragglers.  The  family  on  the  whole  is  tropical  and  only  one 
species  occurs  in  Canada. 

117.  Gannet.  solan  goose,  pr. — le  fou  de  bassan.  (old  French — j.  cartier- 
morgaud)  m argot.  Sula  bassana.  L,  35.  A  completely-webbed  swimmer  with  straight 
bill  without  pronounced  hook  or  conspicuous  throat  or  gular  pouch. 

Distinctions.  The  bill  characters  are  distinctive.  The  adult  is  piu-e  white  except  for 
the  black  primaries  and  a  rich  creamy  suffusion  over  the  crown  and  hindneck.  The  young 
bird  of  the  year  is  greyish-brown,  lighter  below,  and  each  feather  has  a  small  white  V  at 
the  tip  that  gives  an  even  mottUng  over  all.  Several  intermediate  spotted  stages  occur 
between  these  plumages. 

Field  Marks.  Dazzling  white  body  and  black  wing  tips  of  the  adult  are  distinctive. 
The  habit  of  diving  from  the  wing,  entering  the  water  head  first  Uke  an  arrow,  and  remain- 
ing under  an  appreciable  length  of  time  is  also  characteristic.  Terns  dive  from  the  wing 
but  they  rise  again  almost  immediately  and  seldom  completely  disappear  from  sight  hke 
the  Gannet.     Even  were  it  otherwise  the  great  difference  in  size  would  be  diagnostic. 

Nesting.  In  large  communities  on  the  rocky  shelves  of  sea  cliffs;  nests  made  of  sea- 
weed. 

Distribution.  Both  sides  of  the  north  Atlantic,  breeding  in  Canada  only  on  Bird  Rock 
off  the  Magdalen  islands,  and  on  Bonaventure  island,  Gaspe  county,  Quebec,  both  stations 
being  in  the  guff  of  St.  Lawrence. 

The  Gannet  had  at  one  time  a  much  wider  and  commoner  distribution 
than  now,  nesting  as  it  did  on  many  of  the  rocky  islets  on  both  sides  of  the 
north  Atlantic.  Of  very  slight  value  either  for  food  or  other  uses,  except 
in  the  most  primitive  communities,  it  has  been  driven  from  one  breeding 
station  after  another  until  in  the  New  World  only  two  remain  and,  unless 
prompt  measures  are  taken,  these  will  likely  go  the  way  of  the  others. 

Economic  Status.  Though  the  Gannets  have  been  accused  of  doing 
considerable  damage  to  fishing  interests  their  harmful  effects  have  been 
much  overestimated.  The  greater  part  of  the  life  of  the  Gannets  is  spent 
on  or  near  the  deep  sea.  When  they  come  inshore  for  breeding  purposes 
they  can  make  very  little  impression  on  the  mighty  shoals  of  herring  and 
other  fish  they  pursue. 

FAMILY PHALACROCORACID^.       CORMORANTS. 

General  Description.    Large  birds  of  black  or  very  dark  coloration,  with  bills  ending 
in  a  decided  hook  and  with  a  small  throat  or  gular  pouch. 
Distinctions.     BiU  and  small  gular  pouch  are  diagnostic. 


61 

Field  Marks.  In  life  the  Cormorants  look  somewhat  similar  to  Loons,  but  have  a 
distinctive  wing  action  more  easily  recognized  than  described.  In  flight  the  Cormorant 
carries  its  neck  outstretched  and  its  feet  hidden  under  the  long  tail,  instead  of  trailing  them 
behind  like  the  Loon.  On  the  water,  it  is  easily  recognized  by  its  plainly  visible  tail,  and 
even  dark  coloration. 

A  cosmopolitan  family,  only  two  species  of  which  are  found  in  eastern 
Canada. 

119.  Common  Cormorant,     fr. — le  cormoran  ordinaire.     Phalacrocorax  carbo. 
L,  36.     See  family  description  previously  given. 

Distinctions.  With  the  family  description  in  mind,  this  species  can  easily  be  distin- 
guished from  all  but  the  one  following.  The  adult  of  this  species  has  a  flash  of  white  at  the 
base  of  the  gular  pouch  and  another  on  the  flank.  In  other  plumages,  its  superior  size 
and  fourteen  instead  of  twelve  tail  feathers  are  diagnostic.  The  absence  of  crest  even 
when  adult  is  not  a  reliable  guide  for  the  determination  of  the  species  (see  next  species). 

Field  Marks.  Unless  size  or  the  white  marks  are  obvious  it  is  rarely  possible  to  separate 
the  two  Cormorants  in  life. 

Nesting.     Similar  to  that  of  the  next  species. 

Distribution.  The  northern  hemisphere  of  all  three  continents.  In  Canada,  it  is 
closely  confined  to  the  eastern  coast  and  is  rarely  seen  inland. 

Though  called  "Common"  Cormorant  this  is  the  rarest  of  our  eastern 
Canadian  Cormorants.  The  species  occurs  on  the  European  coast  and  was 
given  the  name  "Common"  because  of  its  abundance  about  the  British 
Isles. 

Economic  Status.  Owing  to  its  rarity  it  is  of  little  economic  import- 
ance in  Canada. 

120.  Double-crested  Cormorant,  fr. — le  cormoran  a  aigrettes.  Phalacro- 
corax auritus.     L,  30.     See  family  description  on  previous  page. 

Distinctions.  This  species  is  likely  to  be  confused  with  the  preceding  one  only.  In 
adult  plumage  the  absence  of  any  white  at  the  base  of  the  gular  sac  and  on  the  flanks  is 
diagnostic.  In  other  plumages,  size  and  the  presence  of  twelve  instead  of  fourteen  feathers 
in  the  tail  must  be  rehed  upon.  Early  in  the  spring  the  filamentous  crests  on  the  sides  of  the 
head  instead  of  a  ragged  ruff  as  in  the  previous  species  are  characteristic;  but  these  features 
are  lost  early  in  the  season,  before  nesting  begins,  and  hence  are  usually  of  little  help  in 
determination. 

Field  Marks.  Though  Cormorants  can  be  easily  recognized  by  the  characters  given 
under  the  family  heading,  size  and  the  presence  or  absence  of  the  white  spots  are  about  the 
only  features  that  serve  to  separate  the  two  species  in  Ufe. 

Nesting.  On  the  ground  amongst  rocks,  or  on  cliff  ledges,  occasionally  in  bushes  or 
low  trees,  in  rather  bulky  structures  of  sticks  or  weeds. 

Distribution.  The  Double-crested  Cormorant  breeds  on  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and 
on  lakes  in  the  prairie  provinces.  It  is  a  rather  uncommon  though  perhaps  regular  migrant 
on  the  Great  Lakes. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Double-crested  Cormorant  occurs  in  both  the  New  and  Old 
Worlds.  Those  of  North  America  are  divided  into  four  subspecies,  of  which  within  the 
range  of  this  book  there  is  only  one,  the  Eastern  Double-crested  Cormorant,  the  type 
race. 

This  is  the  most  common  Cormorant  of  eastern  Canada.  Unlike  the 
previous  species  it  is  not  strictly  maritime  and  is  found  on  fresh  as  well 
as  salt  water.  It  captures  its  prey  by  diving  and  pursuit  under  water. 
Unlike  the  Gannet  it  never  dives  from  the  wing  but  first  alights  on  the 
surface  and  then  goes  under  with  a  serpentine,  gliding  movement  like  a 
loon.  It  remains  under  water  not  longer  than  forty  seconds  as  a  rule. 

Economic  Status.     The  danger  of  jumping  at  conclusions  based  upon 
superficial  observation  or  common  report  was  well  illustrated  by  the  out- 
57172—51 


62 

come  of  a  study  of  the  food  of  these  birds  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
Gaspe  sahiion  rivers.^  Though  commonly  accused  of  damaging  the  salmon 
fisheries  by  devouring  the  small  fish  and  fry,  careful  examination  of  about 
thirty  specimens  showed  that  the  hundreds  of  birds  present  were  eating- 
fish  of  no  economic  value  and  no  salmonoid  remains  were  found  in  them. 
Probably  the  eels,  sculpins,  and  other  fish  taken  by  the  Cormorant  make 
the  species  beneficial  rather  than  harmful  to  the  salmon,  and  probably 
more  than  compensate  for  the  few  valuable  fish  that  it  occasionally  takes. 
This  is  a  good  example  of  the  caution  that  is  necessary  before  condemning 
any  species  of  birds. 

FAMILY PELECANID^.       PELICANS. 

General  Description.  Large  bird  with  a  very  long,  flattened  bill  and  enormous  throat 
or  gular  pouch. 

Distinctions.  The  enormous  throat  pouch,  holding  a  gallon  or  more,  and  the  long 
flattened  bill  are  always  diagnostic. 

These  extraordinary  birds  are  of  too  rare  occurrence  in  eastern  Canada 
to  be  specifically  dealt  with  here.  There  are  two  species  that  have  been 
occasionally  taken,  the  White  Pelican,  Pelecanus  erythrorhynchos  a  western 
form,  that  may  be  looked  for  towards  the  Manitoba  boundary  and  westward, 
but  in  the  east  only  as  stragglers;  the  Brown  Pelican,  Pelecanus  occidentalis, 
a  southern  bird  of  only  accidental  occurrence  in  Canada.  The  descriptive 
names  are  sufficiently  explanatory  to  differentiate  them.  The  White 
Pelican  is  practically  pure  white  with  black  wing  tip  in  all  plumages;  any 
other  pronounced  colours  are  indications  of  other  species. 

Order — Anseres.  Sieve-billed  Swimmers.   Lamellirostral  Swimmiers. 

General  Description.  Swimming  birds  with  four  toes  and  two  webs,  having  bills  with 
a  hooked  or  flat  nail  at  the  tip  and  furnished  with  tooth-like  projections  or  thin  laminae 
on  the  sides  (Figures  7,  8,  9,  10,  p.  19)  through  which  they  strain  the  water  from  their 
food. 

Distinctions.     As  above. 

Field  Marks.  The  outstreched  neck,  obvious  tail,  and  rapid  wing  beats  of  the  ducks 
and  geese  are  familar  to  most  of  us.  In  the  water  some  species  bear  superficial  resemblance 
to  the  divers,  but  the  straight,  narrow,  unduck-like  bills  of  the  latter,  the  obvious  tails  of 
the  ducks  and  their  general  readiness  to  fly  instead  of  diving  when  disturbed  should  make 
diff'erentiation    easy. 

Nesting.  Usually  on  ground,  sometimes  in  hollow  trees,  and  rarely  in  deserted  crow's 
and  other  large  nests,  but  seldom  far  from  water.  The  young  are  able  to  run  about  and 
take  to  water  as  soon  as  hatched,  but  how  they  are  brought  to  the  ground  from  a  tree 
nest  some  20  or  30  feet  in  the  air  is  a  subject  upon  which  a  considerable  difference  of  opinion 
exists. 

Distribution.  The  Anseres  are  of  world-wide  distribution.  In  America  the  great 
majority  of  the  species  breed  north  of  the  International  Boundary.  They  can,  therefore, 
be  regarded  as  birds  of  northern  distribution.  In  winter  some  few  remain  in  Canada  as 
long  as  there  is  open  water  and  others  journey  south,  even  to  the  warm  waters  of  the  Caro- 
Unas,  the  gulf  of  Mexico  or  beyond. 

The  order  Anseres  contains  but  one  family — Anatidce  composed  of  the 
Mergansers,  Ducks,  Geese,  and  Swans,  and  comprises,  therefore,  the  great 
bulk  of  the  larger  wild  fowl  pursued  by  sportsmen.  One  of  the  greatest 
sources  of  confusion  in  distinguishing  the  various  species  is  the  occurrence 

i"The  Double-crested  Cormorant,  Phalacrocorax  auritus,  and  its  relation  to  salmon  industries  on  the  gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence",  Dept.  of  Mines,  Geol.  Surv.,  Can.,  Mus.  Bull.  No.  13,  Biological  Series  No.  5,  1915. 


63 

of  what  is  called  the  eclipse  plumage.  Contrary  to  the  rule  that  generally 
governs  plumage  changes,  many  of  these  species  moult  all  their  wing  quills 
at  once  and  are,  therefore,  flightless  until  refledged.  During  this  period  of 
comparative  helplessness  many  males  assume  a  peculiar  plumage  of  less 
conspicuous  character  than  that  normally  worn,  usually  approcahing  that 
of  the  female.  During  this  time  the  birds  withdraw  to  the  innermost 
recesses  of  their  habitats  and  hide  so  closely  as  to  be  seldom  seen  by  the 
casual  observer.  By  the  time  the  shooting  season  opens  most  have  come 
out  of  the  eclipse,  but  the  few  that  still  retain  traces  of  it  are  sufficiently 
numerous  to  increase  the  number  of  plumages  to  be  recognized  and  to 
comphcate  their  differentiation.^ 

Economic  Status.  Anseres  is,  economically,  one  of  the  most  important 
orders  of  birds;  not,  as  in  the  case  of  other  birds,  so  much  on  account  of 
their  food  habits,  for  these  are  largely  of  negative  influence  in  human 
affairs,  as  in  other  ways.  In  the  early  days,  of  settlement  of  the  country 
they  furnished  a  most  important  food  supply  to  the  struggling  inhabitants 
and  even  now  the  total  annual  number  killed  by  sportsmen  is  an  imposing 
addition  to  our  food  resources. 


FAMILY — ANATID^.       DUCKS,    GEESE,    AND    SWANS. 

General  Description.  As  this  is  the  only  family  included  under  the  order  Anseres  the 
descriptive  matter  under  the  previous  heading  apphes  here  and  need  not  be  repeated. 

The  family  is  divided  into  five  subfamilies :  the  Merginoe  or  Mergansers; 
Anatidce  or  River  Ducks;  Fuligulince  or  Sea  Ducks;  Anserince  or  Geese; 
and  the  Cygnince  or  Swans.  For  the  characters  of  these  see  under  proper 
headings  following. 

Subfamily — MergincB.    Mergansers.    Fishing  Ducks.    Saw-bills. 

General  Description.  Fish-eating  ducks  with  a  more  cylindrical,  tapering,  and  less 
spatulate  or  flattened  bill,  than  the  other  ducks  (Figure  7,  p.  19).  The  cutting  edges  of 
the  mandibles  have  a  seriea  of  serrations  giving  foimdation  for  the  popular  name  "Saw- 
bill".  The  nail  on  the  tip  of  the  bill  forms  a  small  but  evident  hook.  The  hind  toe  is 
developed  into  a  flat  paddle  or  fin-shaped  lobe  similar  to  that  of  the  Sea  Ducks  but  quite 
different  from  the  hind  toe  of  the  River  Ducks  which  follow.  The  males  are  brightly  and 
strikingly  coloured,  mostly  in  black  and  white.  The  females  are  dull  coloured  with  reddish 
heads  and  necks.  Most  plumages  have  crests.  In  the  females  and  young  birds  the  crests 
are  ragged  and  without  well-defined  shape. 

Distinctions.  The  bill  is  always  diagnostic  and  easily  distinguishes  the  Mergansers 
from  the  Sea  Ducks  which  resemble  them  in  the  character  of  the  hind  toe. 

Field  Marks.  Evident  duck-Hke  form  combined  with  the  long,  slender,  cylindrical, 
and  shghtly  hooked  bill. 

Nesting.  Mergansers  are  mostly  river  haunters  in  the  breeding  seasons,  nesting  either 
on  groimd  or  in  hollow  trees. 

Distribution.    A  small  family,  most  of  its  species  inhabit  the  northern  hemisphere. 

Mergansers  feed  upon  fish  and  shell-fish  captured  under  water  by 
diving;  for  this  method  of  feeding  their  hooked  and  serrated  bills  are  admir- 
ably adapted.  They  are,  during  the  breeding  season,  mostly  freshwater 
frequenters  though  they  visit  the  sea  sometimes  in  large  numbers.     They 

'Another  common  source  of  confusion  is  the  prevalence  of  a  red  rust  coloration  that  often  occurs  on  various  parts 
of  the  head  or  body  and  is  common  to  many  species  of  Anseres.  It  is  due  to  an  iron  deposit  from  the  water  the  birds 
nhabit,  and  should  not  be  regarded  as  normal  plumage  coloration. 


64 

are  not  very  desirable  table  birds,  though  some  young  autumn  birds, 
properly  cooked,  are  not  to  be  altogether  despised. 

Economic  Status.  Mergansers  eat  fish  and,  in  certain  waters,  such  aS 
at  the  heads  of  salmon  streams,  they  may  do  appreciable  harm.  Ordinary 
trout  streams  are  too  small  for  these  species,  and  as  no  careful  examinatiori 
of  stomach  contents  has  been  made  they  should  not  be  condemned  without 
more  exact  knowledge. 

129.  American  Merganser,     saw-bill,     goosander,  shelldrake.     shelldttck. 
FR. — LE  HARLB  d'amerique.     Mevgus  americanus.     L,  25.     Of  the  same  general  appearance 
aa  the  next  species  (Plate  III  A),  but  the  males  without  crest  or  reddish  breastband. 

Distinctions.     See  next  species. 

Field  Marks.  General  coloration  and  the  lack  of  crest  or  breast-band  in  the  male  are 
distinctive.  When  flying,  the  long,  outstretched  head  and  neck  and  generally  grey- 
coloured  back  will  separate  the  females  of  these  two  Mergansers  from  other  Ducks  having 
white  wing  patches. 

Nesting.     In  hollow  trees  or  rock  cavities  near  water;  nest  of  grasses,  etc. 

Distribution.  Common  across  the  whole  continent,  nesting  throughout  eastern 
Canada  except  in  the  most  southern  parts. 

The  American  Merganser  is  a  bird  of  small  rather  than  large  waters 
and  hence  is  less  common  on  the  larger  lakes  or  the  sea  than  the  Red- 
breasted.  Otherwise  remarks  under  that  species  will  apply  to  the  American 
Merganser  as  their  habits  are  similar. 

Economic  Status.     See  under  subfamily  heading. 

130.  Red-breasted  Merganser,  saw-bill,  fishdttck.  shellduck.  shell- 
drake.  FR. — LE  harle  a  poitrine  rousse  bec  scie.  Mergus  serrator.  L,  22.  Plate 
III  A. 

Distinctions.  The  ragged  crest,  and  reddish  breast-band  separated  from  the  head  by 
a  conspicuous  white  collar,  are  sufficient  to  diagnose  the  male  of  this  species.  The  female 
and  the  juveniles  of  this  and  the  last  species  are  much  alike.  The  bill  is,  however,  consider- 
ably lighter  in  build  and  the  nostrils  are  slightly  nearer  the  base  than  in  the  American 
Merganser.  The  head  is  not  as  rich  a  brown  and  the  upper  throat  only  a  lighter  shade 
of  the  same  colour  and  not  white  as  in  that  species. 

Field  Marks.  The  crest  and  breast-band  of  the  adult  male  and  the  lack  of  the  white 
upperthroat  in  the  females  and  young  birds  will  separate  the  Red-breasted  from  the  Ameri- 
can Merganser.  The  grey  appearance  of  the  back  and  the  length  of  the  outstretched 
head  and  neck  will  diagnose  the  species  as  a  Merganser  against  other  Ducks  having  white 
wing  patches. 

Nesting.     On  ground  near  water,  sometimes  in  trees. 

Distribution.  Occurs  more  or  less  commonly  over  the  whole  of  Canada,  nesting  where- 
ever  found  except  in  the  more  southern  parts. 

A  bird  of  the  open  waters,  hence  more  often  seen  on  the  open  lakes  and 
the  sea  than  the  preceding  species. 

Economic  Status.     See  subfamily  heading. 

131.  Hooded  Merganser,  fr. — le  petit  harle.  Lophodytes  cucullatus.  L,  17-50. 
The  smallest  of  our  Mergansers.  The  male  is  a  most  striking  black  and  white  bird  with 
rich  chestnut  flanks.  Its  distinctive  ornament,  the  hood,  is  a  flat  disk-hke  crest  spring- 
ing from  the  base  of  the  bill,  arching  over  the  crown,  meeting  the  neck  at  the  base  of  the 
head,  and  coloured  mostly  pure  white  with  a  narrow  black  edge.  The  female  is  a  much 
duller  coloured  bird  with  brownish-fuscous  body,  lighter  below,  and  with  a  ragged,  shghtly 
reddish  crest,  in  shape  similar  to  that  pictured  in  Plate  III  A. 

Distinctions.  The  hood  of  the  male  is  unlike  anything  else  worn  by  American  birds. 
The  female  can  always  be  distinguished  from  other  Mergansers  by  its  smaU  size. 


65 

Field  Marks.    Hood  of  the  male  and  reddish  crest  and  size  of  the  female. 
Nesting.     In  hollow  trees. 

Distribution.  Across  the  continent  but  scarcer  in  the  east  than  in  the  interior.  Breeds 
locally  wherever  found  in  Canada. 

The  Hooded  Merganser  is  a  bird  of  the  interior,  of  quiet  ponds  and 
woodland  streams.  It  is  the  most  edible  of  the  Mergansers;  this  fact, 
combined  with  the  clearing  of  the  forests  and  too  little  restriction  on 
shooting,  is  probably  the  cause  of  its  growing  scarcity  to-day. 

Economic  Status.  It  is  doubtful  if  any  serious  charge  can  be  substan- 
tiated against  the  Hooded  Merganser. 

Subfamily — Anatince.     River  and  Pond  Ducks. 

General  Description.  Typical  flucks  with  flattened  spatulate  bill  furnished  with 
flat  nail  tip  and  straining  laminae  or  plates  along  the  inner  margins  (Figure  8,  p.  19)  in- 
stead of  tooth-hke  projections  (Figure  7,  p.  19).  Feet  with  a  small  though  well  formed  hind 
toe,  not  modified  into  a  flat  lobe  or  fin-hke  appendage. 

Distinctions.  Bill  will  separate  the  River  Ducks  from  the  Mergansers  and  the  hind 
toe  as  above  from  the  Sea  Ducks. 

Field  Marks.  Under  the  most  favourable  conditions  of  view  the  bill  will  separate 
the  Anaiinoe  from  the  Mergansers.  The  greater  length  of  neck  and  more  slender  bodies  are 
shght  and  rather  uncertain  guides  to  separate  them  from  the  Sea  or  Bay  Ducks.  The 
members  of  the  subfamily  are  more  easily  recognized  in  hfe  by  species  than  as  a  class. 

Nesting.     On  groimd  with  the  exception  of  the  Wood  Duck. 

Distribution.  As  a  class  the  Pond  and  River  Ducks  are  more  abundant  in  the  interior 
than  on  either  coast. 

As  their  name  implies,  the  River  and  Pond  Ducks  frequent  our  smaller 
inland  waters  more  than  they  do  the  larger  ones.  They  feed  from  the 
surface  by  'Hipping"  and  reaching  under  the  water.  The  food  is  gathered 
in  the  bill  and  the  water  squeezed  out,  the  laminae  of  the  bills  retaining  the 
solid  portions. 

Economic  Status.  They  are  strictly  water  birds  and  vegetable  and 
insect  feeders,  consequently  their  food  habits  are  not  a  menace.  It  has 
lately  been  shown  that  Ducks  feed  largely  upon  mosquito  larvae  and  that 
the  good  they  may  do  in  this  direction  is  of  surprising  magnitude.  By 
actual  experiment  a  pair  of  ducks  in  a  small  pond  did  more  to  reduce  these 
pests  in  it  than  a  considerable  school  of  goldfish.  As  game,  they  are  of 
great  importance,  see  p.  12, 

132.  Mallard,  green-head,  grey  duck.  fr. — le  canard  ordinaire.  Anas 
platyrhynchos.     L,  2.3.     Plate  III  B. 

Distinctions.  The  male  cannot  be  mistaken  for  any  other  wild  duck  though  many 
domestic  strains  approach  it  closely.  The  female  is  often  regarded  as  belonging  to  another 
species  and  is  sometimes  called  Grey  Duck.  There  are  several  other  ducks  approaching 
her  in  coloration  but  the  purple  speculum  with  the  white  bar  both  before  and  behind  the 
speculum  will  always  distinguish  her. 

Field  Marks.  Green  head  and  white  neck  ring  are  conspicuous  recognition  marks  for 
the  male.  The  speculimi  with  its  white  bars  wiU  identify  the  female  in  life.  Her  tail  has 
also  a  general  whiteness  in  flight  that  is  quite  characteristic. 

Nesting.  On  ground  usuaUy,  in  high  grass  or  reeds  not  far  from  water,  though  occasion- 
ally at  considerable  distance  inland. 

Distribution.  Distributed  over  practically  the  whole  of  Canada  but  less  common  in 
the  extreme  east.     Breeds  throughout  Canada  except  where  disturbed  by  settlement. 

This  is  the  "Wild  Duck"  par  excellence,  and  is  known  as  such  to  the 
sportsman  of  the  Old  World  as  w^ell  as  the  New.     It  is  the  original  stock 


66 

from  which  our  domestic  varieties  sprang  and  nearly  any  mixed  flock  will 
show  the  green-black  heads,  white  collar,  or  recurved  upper  tail  coverts 
denoting  reversion  to  the  original  form.  As  well  as  being  one  of  the  best 
table  birds  it  is  one  of  the  wildest  of  ducks,  which  latter  accounts  for  the 
fact  that  it  still  breeds  in  limited  numbers  on  the  edges  of  civilization. 

133.  Black  Duck,  dusky  duck,  black  mallard,  fr. — le  canard  noir.  Anas 
rubripes.    L,  22.     Plate  IV  A. 

Distinctions.  The  general  dark  coloration  combined  with  size  renders  this  species  un- 
mistakable among  River  Ducks. 

Field  Marks.  Size,  dark  coloration,  and  a  silvery  sheen  to  the  lining  of  the  underwings 
that  shows  in  flight.  The  absence  of  the  white  bar  boundiBg  the  speculum  behind  will 
separate  it  from  the  Mallard. 

Nesting.     On  ground,  in  grass  near  water. 

Distribution.  The  Black  Duck  is  a  more  eastern  species  than  the  Mallard  and  is  not 
commonly  found  west  of  the  Great  Lakes.     It  breeds  in  eastern  Canada  wherever  found. 

Now  that  the  Wood  Duck  is  growing  scarce  the  Black  Duck  is  the 
commonest  nesting  Duck  in  the  southern  parts  of  Canada  and  the  only 
one  that  can  now  be  called  a  common  breeder  near  the  lower  Great  Lakes. 
Originally  almost  every  little  lake  and  pond  raised  its  brood  of  Black  Duck, 
but,  owing  to  the  drainage  of  the  marshes  and  human  interference  with 
nesting,  it  is  now  practically  restricted  to  the  larger  marshes  or  more 
inaccessible  situations. 

It  is  still  in  dispute  whether  or  not  there  are  two  forms  of  the  Black 
Duck.  Late  in  the  autumn  a  number  of  very  large  birds  with  red  legs 
are  taken.  Whether  these  are  subspecifically  distinct  has  not  been  con- 
clusively determined. 

Economic  Status.  Though  the  Black  Duck  often,  especially  in  the 
breeding  season,  haunts  the  edges  of  cultivated  fields  where  it  gleans  what 
food  it  can  find,  it  does  little  or  no  harm.  There  is  little  crop  to  damage 
at  that  season  and,  as  at  other  times  it  confines  its  attention  to  aquatic 
life,  there  is  no  harm  that  can  be  charged  against  the  species. 

135.  Gadwall.  grey  duck,  speckle-belly,  fr. — le  canard  chipeau.  Chaule- 
lasmus  streperus.  L,  19  •  50.  A  finely  speckled  or  vermiculated  grey  duck,  of  same  general 
tone  as  the  female  Mallard,  but  with  chestnut-red  shoulders  and  a  white  speculum. 

Distinctions.  White  speculum  is  always  diagnostic.  Females  are  otherwise  likely 
to  be  mistaken  for  small  female  Mallards  or  Baldpates. 

Field  Marks.     White  speculum  and  general  greyish  appearance. 

Nesting.     On  ground,  in  grass  or  under  bushes. 

Distribution.  Nearly  cosmopohtan.  One  of  the  rarest  Ducks  on  the  lower  Great 
Lakes,  nearly  absent  from  the  east  coast,  commoner  to  the  west  where  it  breeds. 

137.  Baldpate.  American  widgeon,  fr. — le  canard  d'am^rique.  Mareca 
americana.  L,  19.  A  mediimi-sized,  greyish  Duck,  The  male  has  white  shoulders  and 
cap,  and  a  broad  green  stripe  through  the  eye,  a  black  speculum  with  green  reflections, 
and  a  soft  wash  of  pink  over  breast  and  back. 

Distinctions.  The  male  is  distinctive,  the  female  might  easily  be  mistaken  for  a  female 
Mallard  or  Gadwall  but  for  its  black  speculum  and  pure  white  underparts. 

Field  Marks.  The  white  crown  and  green  eye-bar  are  characteristic  of  the  male; 
the  white  underparts  and  the  abrupt  ending  of  the  brown  breast  against  the  underparts 
distinguish  the  female  in  hfe. 

Nesting.     On  ground,  in  grass  or  under  bushes. 

Distribution.  Ranges  over  nearly  all  of  Canada;  rare  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  more 
common  to  the  west. 

Closely  related  to  the  Widgeon  of  Europe,  which  has  occasionally 
been  taken  on  our  coasts  and  which  it  closely  resembles. 


67 

139.  Green- winged  Teal.  fr. — la  sarcelle  A  ailes  vertes.  Nettion  carolinense. 
L,  14-50.  The  smallest  of  our  Ducks.  The  male  has  a  chestnut-coloured  head,  bar 
back  from  eye  and  speculum,  iridescent  green; finely  vermiculated  back,  and  spotted 
breast;  nearly  white  below.  The  female  is  a  duU-brownish  bird  considerably  hghter  below 
and  has  the  characteristic  green  speculum  of  the  species. 

Distinctions.  Size  will  always  separate  this  Uttle  Duck  from  all  others  except  the 
next  species  and  the  BufHehead,  but  the  presence  of  the  brilliant  green  speculum  will  separ- 
ate it  from  the  latter  and  the  entire  absence  of  chalky  blue  on  the  shoulders  from  the 
former. 

Field  Marks.  Small  size  together  with  green  speculimi  and  lack  of  chalky  blue  on 
shoulders  are  recognition  marks  for  any  plmnage. 

Nesting.     On  ground,  near  water. 

Distribution.  Distributed  across  the  continent  but  scarce  in  extreme  east.  Breeds  in 
eastern  Canada  occasionally  and  probably  originally  nested  commonly  in  the  lower  Great 
Lakes  region. 

This  is  one  of  the  daintiest  of  the  Ducks.  Its  habit  of  flying  in  large 
flocks  at  great  speed  makes  it  well  known  to  sportsmen.  The  European 
Teal  also  occasionally  straggles  to  Canada  but  is  very  rare. 

140.  Blue-winged  Teal.  fr. — la  sarcelle  a  ailes  bleues.  Querquedula  discors. 
L,  16.    Plate  IV  B. 

Distinctions.  Size  will  separate  the  Blue-winged  Teal  from  any  other  Duck  except 
the  Green-winged  and  the  Bufflehead  and  the  hght  blue  on  the  wings  will  do  so  in  these 
cases.  The  Shoveller  also  has  a  similar  blue  on  the  wing,  but  the  small  size  of  ihe  Blue- 
winged  and  the  lack  of  the  broad  shovel  bi|l  distinguish  these  two  species. 

Field  Marks.  Small  size,  together  with  white  face  mark,  dark  underparts,  and  chalky 
blue  on  wings. 

Nesting.     On  ground,  amidst  grass. 

Distribution.  Across  the  continent;  now  rather  rare  in  the  extreme  east.  It  is  one 
of  the  few  species  that  still  breed  regularly  though  sparsely  in  the  lower  Great  Lakes 
region. 

A  western  Teal,  the  Cinnamon  Teal,  is  occasionally  reported  from 
eastern  Canada,  but  most  of  such  records  are  based  upon  the  Blue-winged 
heavily  stained  below  with  iron^  from  the  water. 

142.  Shoveller,  spoonbill,  fr. — le  canard  souchet.  Spatula  clypeata.  L, 
20.  The  male  is  strikingly  marked,  with  a  green-black  head,  white  breast  and  line  over 
wings,  imderparts  rich  chestnut,  cutting  in  a  sharp  line  against  the  breast.  The  shoulders 
are  chalky  blue  and  the  speculvmi  green.  The  bill  widens  out  at  tip  to  a  broad  shovel  or 
spoon  shape.     The  female  is  much  like  the  female  Mallard  though  distinctly  smaller. 

Distinctions.     Shovel  bill  separates  this  species  from  all  others  in  any  plumage. 

Field  Marks.  White  breast,  rich  chestnut  beUy,  blue  on  the  wings,  and  size  dis- 
tinguish the  male.  The  bill  will  distinguish  any  plumage  and  when  it  can  be  seen  is  perhaps 
the  best  means  of  separating  the  female  from  the  larger  female  Mallard  which  it 
resembles. 

Nesting.     On  groimd  in  grass,  not  always  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  water. 

Distribution.  This  is  a  bird  of  the  west.  It  occurs  sparingly  on  the  lower  Great  Lakes 
and  only  occurs  farther  east  as  a  straggler. 

143.  Pintail,  springtail.  fr. — le  canard  pilet.  Dafila  acuta.  L,  28.  A  very 
long  and  slenderly  shaped  Duck.  Head  seal  brown,  foreneck  and  underparts  white,  back 
finely  vermiculated  in  greys,  speculum  bronze-green  bounded  by  a  light  chestnut  Hne  before 
and  a  white  one  behind.  The  tail  is  graduated  with  two  greatly  elongated  middle 
feathers.     Female  is  much  like  the  female  Mallard. 

Distinctions.  The  long  tail  is  diagnostic  of  the  male,  the  Old-Squaw  being  the  only 
other  American  Duck  with  anything  like  this  feature,  but  otherwise  the  Old-Squaw  is 
entirely  different  and  is  a  Sea  not  a  River  Duck.  The  bronze-green  speculum  and  its 
bounding  lines  of  rufous  and  white  are  characteristic  of  any  plmnage.  Young  Green- 
winged  Teal  show  almost  the  same  speculum  features  but  the  difference  in  size  will  obviate 
confusion. 


'See  footnote,  page  63. 


68 

Field  Marks.  Long  slender  head  and  neck  and  long-pointed  tail  make  good  field 
marks.  The  dark  head  and  white  foreneck  and  underparts  are  recognition  marks  for  the 
male. 

Nesting.     On  ground,  sometimes  at  considerable  distance  from  water. 

Distribution.  Rare  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  becoming  commoner  towards  the  west. 
Breeds  from  the  prairie  provinces  north  to  the  Arctic  and  formerly  east  to  lake  Erie. 

144.  Wood  Duck,  summer  duck,  the  bride,  fr. — le  canard  hupp^.  Aix 
sponsa.     L,   18  50.     Plate  V  A. 

Distinctions.  With  the  illustrations  as  a  guide  there  should  be  no  difficulty  in 
recognizing  this  species.  The  male  even  in  eclipse  plumage  always  retains  a  suggestion  of 
the  cheek  markings. 

Field  Marks.  This  is  the  only  common  summer  Duck  in  our  southern  sections  having 
a  pure  white  underbody.     The  white  eye-ring  of  the  female  is  quite  conspicuous. 

Nesting.     In  hollow  trees  or  stumps  in  the  vicinity  of  quiet  water. 

Distribution.  Temperate  North  America  as  far  north  as  southern  Canada  and  across 
the  continent;  more  common  in  the  lower  Great  Lakes  region  than  on  either  of  our  coasts 
or  in  the  prairie  provinces. 

This  is  the  brightest  coloured  and  most  beautiful  Duck  in  America 
and  perhaps  in  the  world.  The  only  species  that  can  approach  it  is  the 
Mandarin  Duck  of  China  which  is  often  seen  in  confinement  with  it.  The 
Wood  Duck  was  originally  the  "Summer  Duck"  of  our  southern  borders 
and  almost  every  woodland  stream  and  back-water  pond  had  at  least 
one  pair;  but,  since  the  clearing  of  the  land,  the  farmer's-boy-shot-gun 
combination  has  been  too  much  for  it.  Its  bright  colours,  the  relative 
conspicuousness  of  its  nesting  places,  and  the  ease  with  which  it  can  be 
stalked  or  "jumped"  in  its  more  or  less  wooded  haunts  have  made  it  an 
easy  prey  for  even  the  inexperienced  shooter  and  it  is  in  great  danger  of 
being  exterminated.  A  duck  that  alights  in  trees  is  more  or  less  paradoxical 
to  most  European  sportsmen,  but  this  species  does  so  commonly.  It 
builds  its  nest  in  a  hollow  tree  some  distance  from  the  ground,  usually 
overlooking  quiet  oxbow  pond  or  other  dead  water.  How  the  young  are 
brought  to  the  ground  is  not  authoritatively  settled  yet,  and  many  con- 
flicting reports  are  circulated  regarding  it;  such  as  the  old  birds  carrying 
their  young  in  their  bills  or  on  their  backs,  or  shoving  them  out  to  take 
chances  with  their  little  unfledged  wings  in  fluttering  to  the  ground.  In 
some  way  they  reach  the  ground  at  an  early  age  and  follow  the  mother 
about  the  reaches  of  the  streams  or  other  quiet  waters,  the  male  keeping 
nearby  to  give  his  family  the  benefit  of  his  (moral)  support  in  times  of 
danger.  Later  they  seek  the  marshes,  which  they  inhabit  through  the 
autumn,  leaving  for  the  south  before  the  first  frost  has  chilled  the  waters. 

As  the  Wood  Duck  takes  readily  to  nesting  boxes  prepared  for  the 
purpose  it  would  seem  probable  that  its  numbers  could  be  increased  in 
this  way. 

Subfamily — Fuligulince.    Bay,  Sea,  or  Diving  Ducks. 

General  Description.  Heavily  or  compactly  built  Ducks  with  typically  flattened  or 
spatulate  duck-Uke  biU  sometimes  swollen  or  high  at  base  (Figure  9,  p.  19),  but  always 
with  flattened  nail  at  tip  (Figm-es  8  and  9,  p.  19).  Hind  toe  modified  into  a  flat, 
paddle,  or  fin-shaped  lobe. 

Distinctions.  Bill  will  separate  the  Sea  Ducks  from  Mergansers  and  hind  toe  from 
River  and  Pond  Ducks. 

Field  Marks.  Bill,  when  observed,  will  separate  these  from  Mergansers  though  they 
are  more  easily  recognized  in  life  as  species  than  as  a  subfamily. 

Nesting.     Usually  on  ground,  though  sometimes  in  trees. 


69 

Dislribution.  Although  some  representatives  of  this  subfamily  are  found  commonly 
on  every  water-way  in  Canada  both  species  and  individuals  are  more  numerous  on  the 
coast  than  in  the  interior. 

The  Bay  and  Sea  Ducks,  though  more  at  home  in  large  open  waters, 
often  frequent  the  marshes  and  shallower  waters  for  feeding.  They  are 
good  divers,  sometimes  descending  to  astonishing  depths  for  shell-fish 
or  vegetable  matter.    They  include  some  of  the  finest  table  species. 

Economic  Status.  The  direct  economic  importance  of  their  food 
habits  is  even  less  than  that  of  the  other  Ducks. 

146.  Redhead,  fr. — le  milotjin  a  t^te  rousse.  Marila  Americana.  L,  19.  A 
rather  large  Duck  with  an  even  coloured,  brick-red  head  and  upperneck;  black  breast: 
grey  back  finely  vermiculated  with  black;  white  below.  Head  of  female  duller  in  colour, 
even  to  dull  grey-brown,  and  canvas-coloured  back  replaced  by  an  even  wash  of  brown 
sometimes  without  hint  of  fine  vermiculation. 

Distinctions.  Male  resembles  the  Canvas-back  but  back  considerably  darker  and 
red  of  head  does  not  come  to  shoulders  as  in  that  species.  Females  of  these  two  species  are 
even  more  ahke,  but  shape  of  the  biU  is  always  diagnostic  (See  Canvas-back).  Female 
also  somewhat  Uke  those  of  Scaup  and  Golden-eye  but  distinguished  by  grey  instead  of  white 
speculum  or  wing  patch  and  absence  of  any  white  face  mark.  Ring-necked  Duck  has  a 
similar  speculum  but  is  a  much  smaller  bird  and  has  the  white  face  mark. 

Field  Marks.     Colour  of  head  and  outline  of  head  and  biU. 

Nesting.  Usually  on  land  or  elevated  over  water,  nest  of  reeds  with  more  or  less 
down. 

Distribution.  Usually  only  a  migrant  east  of  the  prairie  provinces,  though  at  one  time 
a  few  bred  locally  in  Great  Lakes  region;  rare  on  east  coast. 

One  of  our  finest  Ducks  and  when  fed  on  wild  celery  its  flesh  has  as 
fine  a  flavour  as  that  of  the  Canvas-back.  It  is  rather  less  of  an  open 
water  bird  than  many  of  the  Sea  Ducks  and  is  often  found  on  marshes 
and  ponds. 

147.  Canvas-back.  fr. — milouin  aux  yeux  rouges.  Marila  valisineria.  L.  21 
A  large  Duck;  male  with  dull  brick-red  head  and  neck;  black  breast;  white  below;  back 
white  with  very  fine  dark  vermiculations  bearing  a  close  resemblance  to  canvas  and  to 
which  the  species  owes  its  name.  In  female  the  redness  of  head  and  neck  is  reduced  to 
brownish-grey  and  the  back  is  brownish. 

Distinctions.  Colours  very  close  to  those  of  comparable  Redhead  plumages;  dis- 
tinguished from  Redhead  by  shape  of  bill  which  in  Canvas-back  is  longer  and  heavier, 
springing  from  well  up  on  forehead  and  giving  an  almost  straight  culmen  line  rather  than  a 
concave  one  as  in  Redhead.  Male  much  whiter  on  back  and  the  red  comes  down  to  the 
shoulders  instead  of  stopping  halfway  down  the  neck.  Young  and  females  may  possibly 
be  confused  with  the  Scaups,  Ring-bill,  or  Golden-eye,  but  may  be  separated  by  superior 
size  or  the  lack  of  white  or  grey  on  the  wing  or  of  white  on  the  face. 

Field  Marks.  Red  or  reddish,  or  reddish-grey  head,  lack  of  white  on  face  or  wing, 
and  shape  and  outUne  of  head  and  bill. 

Nesting.     Built  over  water,  in  nest  of  reeds  lined  with  down. 

Distribution.  Of  regular  though  not  very  common  occurrence  on  lower  Great  Lakes 
east  to  lake  Erie;  rare  on  Atlantic  coast  but  more  common  in  western  Canada  where  it 
breeds. 

One  of  the  best  known  and  most  highly  esteemed  of  the  Ducks.  The 
Canvas-back  is  associated  in  the  popular  mind  with  terrapin  and  high- 
Uving.  This  gastronomic  fame  is  largely  due  to  the  wild  celery,  Vallisneria 
spiralis,  upon  which  it  frequently  feeds  and  from  which  its  specific  name 
is  derived.  However,  many  other  Ducks  feeding  upon  the  same  plant 
become  equally  palatable.  On  the  Great  Lakes  the  introduction  of  the 
German  Carp  has  proved  very  destructive  to  the  once  extensive  beds  of 
wild  celery  and  wild  rice  both  of  which  plants  are  extremely  attractive  to 


70 

all  kinds  of  Ducks.  One  of  the  first  steps  to  attract  Ducks  to  reservations 
and  private  waters  should  be  the  clearing  out  of  carp  and  the  planting  of 
wild  celery  and  wild  rice  Zizania  aquatica. 

148.  Greater  Scaup  Duck.  American  scaup,  broad-bill,  greater  or  lake 
BLUEBiLL.  FR. — MORiLLON  A  T^TE  NOIRE.  Mania  marila.  L,  18-50.  A  medium-sized 
Duck — male,  white  below;  head,  neck,  and  upper  breast  black;  and  a  black  and  white 
vermiculated  canvas-Uke  back.  Females  without  canvas-back;  blacks  reduced  to  reddish 
browns  of  various  shades;  white  face  mark  at  base  of  bill. 

Distinctions.  Greater  and  Lesser  Scaups  are  of  almost  exactly  similar  coloration 
but  can  usually  be  distinguished  by  size,  or  by  shape  and  size  of  terminal  nail  on  biU.  Nail 
proportionately  wider  and  more  nearly  circular  in  the  Greater.  Head  of  adult  Greater 
Scaup  has  greenish  gloss  instead  of  changing  to  slightly  purple  on  crown.  Reddish 
shade  on  heads  of  young  and  females  sometimes  quite  noticeable,  and  they  may  be  mis- 
taken for  the  Canvas-back,  Redhead,  or  sometimes  the  Golden-eye,  but  white  spot  at 
base  of  biU  and  across  forehead,  or  white  wing  patch  are  always  distinctive  of  the  Scaups. 
Ring-necked  Duck,  which  also  resembles  them,  has  grey  speculum  instead  of  white. 

Field  Marks.  Almost  impossible  to  distinguish  the  two  Scaups  in  hfe.  Males  of  both 
species  in  flight  appear  black  on  front  third  of  body  and  on  the  remainder  except  tail, 
but  including  secondary  wing  quiUs,  white.  White  face  mark  at  base  of  bill,  as  above, 
is  best  field  mark  for  female. 

Nesting.     On  ground,  in  grass  near  grassy  ponds. 

Distribution.  Uncommon  migrant  and  rare  breeder  on  Atlantic  coast;  common 
on  Great  Lakes;  nests  in  numbers  in  northwest. 

The  Greater  Scaup  is  more  of  an  open  water  bird  than  the  Lesser  as 
is  indicated  by  one  of  its  common  names,  but  it  often  comes  with  other 
species  into  the  marshes  lor  wild  celery  and  rice. 

149.  Lesser  Scaup  Duck,  river  broad-bill.  little  or  marsh  bltjebill. 
FR. — LE  PETIT  MORILLON.  Marila  affinis.  L,  16-50.  Almost  exactly  similar  to  the  last 
but  a  little  smaller.  Crown  of  adult  male  has  a  purphsh  instead  of  greenish  gloss  as  on 
other  parts  of  head. 

Distinctions.     See  previous  species. 

Field  Marks.  See  previous  species.  Scaups  in  hfe  distinguished  from  each  other 
only  by  size. 

Nesting.     On  groimd,  near  grassy  ponds. 

Distribution.  Shghtly  less  common  in  eastern  Canada  than  the  preceding.  Breeds 
in  western  Canada  and  occasionally  farther  east  to  Great  Lakes. 

This  is  one  of  the  commonest  ducks  away  from  the  seacoast  and 
more  of  a  marsh  and  small-water  bird  than  the  preceding. 

150.  Ring-necked  Duck,  ring-billed  duck.  fr. — morillon  a  collier.  Marila 
collaris.  L,  16-50.  Very  close  in  coloration  to  preceding  two  species,  but  without  the 
canvas-coloured  back;  with  a  light  ring  about  bill  near  end,  and  faint  brown  or  copper- 
coloured  ring  about  neck. 

Distinctions.  Young  Ring-necks  and  females  may  be  mistaken  for  either  the  Scaups, 
Golden-eye,  Redhead,  or  Canvas-back',  but  may  be  distinguished  from  the  Scaups  by 
the  grey  instead  of  white  speculum,  the  female  by  fine  white  eye  ring,  and  from  any  of 
the  other  ducks  by  white  face  marks  usually  connected  across  chin. 

Field  Marks.  Male  can  be  told  from  the  Scaups  by  its  black  back,  and  female  by 
its  white  chin  and  fine  hght  eye  ring;  and  either,  in  adult  plumage,  by  light  ring  on  the 
biU. 

Nesting.     On  groimd,  near  grassy  ponds. 

Distribution.  Scarce  migrant  in  the  east  where  it  once  nested  occasionally;  scarce 
on  Great  Lakes;  breeds  regularly  in  the  west. 

151.  Golden-eye.  whistle-wing,  whistler,  great  head.  fr. — la  buc£- 
PHALE  d'am^rique.  plongeur.  Clangula  Clangula.  L,  20.  A  rather  large,  heavily 
built  duck,  strikingly  coloured  in  black  and  white.  The  back  and  head  are  black;  the 
remainder  of  the  plumage,  including  a  very  conspicuous  circular  spot  between  the  eye 

'See  footnote,  p.  63. 


71 

and  the  bill,  and  the  wing  patch  are  white.  The  female  and  young  male  are  marked  with 
liglit  greys  and  blacks  on  the  back,  large  white  wing  patches,  and  a  seal  brown  head; 
the  upperneck  usually  strongly  contrasted  with  white  or  grey  neck  and  breast. 

Distinctions.  In  young  and  female  plumages  it  may  sometimes  be  confused  with 
the  Redhead,  Canvas-back^,  or  the  Scaups.  In  such  plumages  the  lack  of  white  face 
mark  or  its  restriction  to  the  sides  of  the  face  wiU  distinguish  it  from  the  Scaups;  the 
white  wing  patches  from  the  Redhead  and  Canvas-back. 

Field  Marks.  The  striking  black  and  white  coloration  of  the  male  and  the  brown 
head  and  lack  of  face  markings  of  most  juveniles  and  the  females.  The  large  head,  short 
neck,  and  loud  whistling  of  the  wings  in  flight  are  characteristic. 

Nesting.     In  stumps  or  hollow  trees. 

Distribution.  Golden-eyes  inhabit  most  of  the  northern  parts  of  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere. The  American  Golden-eye,  the  only  New  World  representative  of  the  species,  is 
generally  distributed  over  most  of  Canada.  A  common  migrant  and  locally  a  winter 
resident  in  eastern  Canada,  breeding  sparingly  in  the  eastern  provinces  but  more  com- 
monly in  the  northwest. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Golden-eye  is  divided  into  two  eubspecific  races:  an  Old 
World  and  a  New  World  form — the  latter  the  American  Golden-eye.  C.  c.  Americana 
being  the  only  one  that  occurs  in  America. 

One  of  the  best  known  of  the  larger  ducks.  A  very  hardy  bird  remain- 
ing on  our  waters  in  winter  until  they  close  with  ice. 

152.  Barrow's  Golden-eye.  fr. — le  bucephale  d'isi.ande.  Clangnla  islandica 
L,  20.  Like  the  American  Golden-eye,  but  the  male  has  a  crescent-shaped  instead  of  a 
circular  face  spot.  The  head  glossed  with  purple  instead  of  green  and  the  biU  relatively 
higher  at  the  base. 

Distinctions.  Males  easily  separated  from  the  Golden-eye  as  above,  but  young  birds 
and  females  of  the  two  species  more  difficult  to  distinguish  and  shape  of  bill  perhaps  only 
reUable  guide.  Young  males  can  be  recognized  by  a  slight  lump  in  the  forehead  just  at 
base  of  bill,  which  though  not  visible  through  the  plumage  can  be  plainly  felt  with  the 
finger. 

Field  Marks.  Exceptional  circumstances  may  allow  some  of  the  above  points  to 
be  recognized  in  Hfe. 

Nesting.  In  stumps  or  hollow  trees  when  possible,  otherwise  probably  in  rock  cavities 
or  on  ground. 

Distribution.  A  bird  of  very  unusual  distribution;  common  near  the  eastern  and 
western  coasts  but  absent  from  most  of  the  great  interior;  eastern  birds  probably  breed 
in  northern  Ungava. 

This  is  a  more  northern  species  than  the  former  which  it  closely 
resembles  in  habits  as  well  as  appearance. 

153.  Buffle-head.  spirit  duck,  butterball.  fr. — le  petit  bucephale.  Char- 
itonetta  albeola.  L,  14-75.  A  very  small  duck,  almost  as  diminutive  as  the  Teal,  but 
coloured  in  striking  contrasts  of  black  and  white.  Male  :  white  below  and  around  base 
of  neck,  black  above  with  an  iridescent  black  head  broken  by  a  large  white  triangular 
patch  with  apex  below  the  eye  meeting  its  fellow  along  the  nape.  The  feathers  of  the 
cheeks  lengthened,  making  puffs  on  the  sides  of  the  face,  hence  its  name.  Female  :  white 
below  and  dull  brownish-grey  elsewhere  except  for  a  vague  white  spot  on  each  cheek . 

Distinctions.  Male  cannot  be  mistaken  for  anything  else;  female  rather  like  the 
Scaup  but  can  be  distinguished  by  small  size  and  dash  of  fight  extending  from  behind 
eye  towards  back  of  crown  instead  of  a  white  patch  at  base  of  bill.  One  facial  spot  instead 
of  two  and  the  evenly  light  underparts  will  separate  it  from  the  female  Harlequin  which 
it  also  resembles. 

Field  Marks.  SmaU  size  and  white  head  spot  for  the  male,  and  size,  cheek  spot, 
and  white  wing  patch  for  the  female. 

Nesting.     In  a  stump  or  hoUow  tree. 

Distribution.  A  common  migrant  from  the  Atlantic  coast  westwards;  breeds  in 
the  west  and  northwest. 

The  name  Spirit  Duck  refers  to  its  diving  powers  and  the  remarkable 
ease  with  which  it  disappears  when  wounded. 

^See  footnote,  p.  63. 


72 

154.  Old-Squaw,  south-southerly,  coween.  long-tailed  duck,  old-wipe. 
COCKAWEE.  FR. — Le  CANARD  A  LONGUE  QUEUE.  Harelda  hyemalis.  L,  21.  (Projection 
of  middle  tail  feather  beyond  others,  4  -SO— 5.)  A  medium-sized  duck  showing  remarkable 
seasonal  change  of  plumage.  Male  in  spring  has  a  seal-brown  breast,  neck,  head,  and 
back;  an  almost  white  facial  mask;  and  ochraceous  striping  over  wings  and  at  base  of 
hindneck.  Winter  plumage  white,  with  black  or  dark  brown  breast,  back,  and  line  across 
shoulders;  a  spot  of  same  colour  over  the  hindcheeks  and  upperneck;  white  stripes  over 
wings.  In  both  seasons  male  has  two  greatly  elongated  middle  tail  feathers  about  8 
inches  from  base  to  tip  and  projecting  4  or  5  inches  beyond  other  tail  feathers.  Plumage 
of  female  is  intermediate  between  the  above  two  plumages,  showing  mostly  white  without 
any  sharp  line  between  the  dark  of  the  breast  and  the  white  underparts  as  in  males. 

Distinctions.  Males  are  characteristic;  females  may  be  confused  only  with  those  of 
next  species,  but  are  much  lighter  underneath  and  head  is  mostly  white  instead  of  mostly 
dark. 

Field  Marks.  Long  tail  of  the  male,  and  head  mostly  white  with  dark  cheek  mark  in 
juvenile  and  female  plumages. 

Nesting.     On  ground,  near  water  hidden  imder  bushes  or  grass. 

Distribution.  Breeds  across  the  continent  in  the  far  north.  More  common  on  the 
coast  or  Great  Lakes  than  on  smaller  bodies  of  water. 

This  is,  with  us,  essentially  a  winter  duck.  It  haunts  our  harbours 
and  often  congregates  about  the  mouths  of  sewers  remaining  as  long  as 
open  water  prevails,  even  throughout  winter.  It  is  a  great  diver  and  a 
fish-eater,  but  is  nearly  worthless  as  a  table  bird.  It  descends  to  great 
depths  after  food  and  is  sometimes  taken  in  the  fishermen's  nets  far  from 
land  and  at  surprising  depths — in  one  known  case  90  feet. 

155.  Harlequin  Duck,  rock  duck,  lord  and  lady.  fr. — le  canard  his- 
TRiON.  Histrionicus  histrionicus.  L,  17.  A  small  duck  appropriately  named  after 
particoloured  Harlequin.  Male's  general  coloration  is  from  dull  slate-blue  to  blue-black, 
but  on  this  ground  is  arranged  a  striking  series  of  crescents,  stripes,  circular  spots,  triangles, 
and  a  collar  of  pure  white,  each  narrowly  bordered  with  black  that  makes  it  stand  out  in 
striking  contrast ;  a  brilliant  splash  of  rich  chestnut  adorns  the  flanks  and  borders  the  sides 
of  the  crown.  Female  very  dull  and  subdued,  all  brownish  with  white  spotting  on  abdomen 
aggregated  into  a  not  quite  continuous  and  even  middle  area.  An  obscure  white  blotch 
in  front  of  and  below  eye  and  another  more  sharply  defined  one  over  ear. 

Distinctions.  Male  cannot  be  confused  with  that  of  any  other  species.  Female 
resembles  female  Buffle-head  in  size  and  colouring,  but  has  a  more  or  less  speckled  bellj' 
instead  of  an  evenly  light  one,  two  facial  spots  instead  of  one,  and  no  wing  patch. 

Field  Marks.  Male  is  unmistakable.  Female  may  be  recognized  by  size  and  general 
darkness  of  coloration,  scarcely  lighter  below;  absence  of  a  wing  patch;  and  two  light  face 
patches. 

Nesting.     On  groimd,  under  rocks  or  driftwood  or  in  hollow  stumps. 

Distribution.  Only  a  migrant  in  the  east,  very  rare  in  the  interior  though  common 
in  the  mountains  of  the  west  where  it  breeds. 

This  is  one  of  the  prettiest  of  our  ducks,  coming  next  to  the  Wood 
Duck  in  point  of  beauty.  Its  proper  home  is  in  the  brawling  streams  of 
the  west  and  northwest  where  it  is  well  known  to  the  prospector  and  miner. 
In  eastern  Canada  it  haunts  rocky  bays  and  shores  where  it  feeds  largely 
on  the  sea  fleas  and  small  shrimps  that  throng  the  inshore  salt  waters. 

Genera — Somateria  and  Oidemia.    Eiders  and  Scoters. 

Though  not  forming  a  recognized  systematic  division  of  ducks  these 
two  genera  are  peculiar  and  show  enough  common  characters  to  receive 
special  mention  here. 

General  Description.  Large  sturdily  built  birds,  the  largest  of  our  ducks.  Male 
Eiders  have  broad  masses  of  sharply  contrasting  colours  and  dehcate  tints;  Scoters  nearly 
all  black,  some  with  small  accents  of  pure  white.  Both  genera  have  swollen  bills  with 
strange  excrescences  and  briUiant  colorations  (Figure  9,  p.  19). 


73 

Distinctions.  General  dark  colorations  unrelieved  by  much  pattern  of  the  Scoters; 
the  bright  coloration  in  broad  masses  of  male  Eiders;  and  finely  and  evenly  barred  tones  of 
browns  of  females;  size,  build,  swelling,  and  protuberances  of  bills  of  both  sexes  of  most 
species  are  the  most  obvious  characteristics. 

Field  Marks.     General  coloration  and  bills. 

Nesting.  On  ground  near  water,  sometimes  imder  shelter  of  overhanging  rocks  or 
bushes;  nest  hned  with  down  from  the  parent's  body.  The  eiderdown  of  commerce  is 
obtained  from  the  nests  of  the  Eiders. 

Distribution.  Distributed  over  the  whole  of  Canada,  nesting  in  the  north;  most 
common  on  the  coasts  and  the  large  bodies  of  water  during  migration. 

These  are  "Sea  Ducks"  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term,  built  for  buffet- 
ing heavy  weather  and  rarely  coming  in  to  the  shallow  pools  or  marshes. 
They  feed  on  shell  fish  and  marine  life  obtained  by  diving. 

Economic  Status.  Their  food  habits  have  little  economic  interest 
to  man,  but  in  certain  localities,  as  in  Labrador,  they  furnish  in  themselves 
and  their  eggs,  the  bulk  of  the  fresh  animal  food  available.  As  the  down  is 
a  valuable  object  of  commerce  the  Eiders  are  of  distinct  and  easily  recog- 
nized value.  They  are  being  rapidly  reduced  in  numbers  (see  discussion 
of  American  Eider)  and  drastic  steps  should  be  taken  for  their  conserva- 
tion. 

160.  Eider  Duck.  fr. — l'eider  du  nord.  Somateria.  mollissima.  L,  23.  Male: 
black  below,  cutting  sharply  against  the  white  breast  which  is  deUcately  suffused  with 
vLnaceous  pink;  white  above;  head  white  with  nile-green  suffusion  from  cheeks  to  nape; 
broad  black  bar  through  eye  to  hind  head.  Female  :  evenly  coloured  in  a  fine  pattern  of 
various  browns,  blacks,  and  hght  ochres  arranged  in  broken  bars  aroimd  the  body.  Bill 
processes  extending  up  either  side  of  forehead  in  long  fleshy  tongues. 

Distinctions.  Male  unmistakable;  female  may  be  separated  from  that  of  King  Eider 
by  feathering  of  crown  not  extending  as  far  forward  as  rear  end  of  the  nostril.  This  species 
is  much  hke  the  American  Eider  from  which  it  can  only  be  separated  by  size  and  shape  of 
the  bill  processes  on  the  forehead — in  the  Eider  Duck  they  terminate  acutely  and  are  not 
rounded  at  the  tips — and  distance  from  point  of  feathering  on  side  of  biU  to  tip  of  process 
is  less  than  in  the  American  Eider. 

Field  Marks.     Size  and  general  coloration. 

Nesting.     On  ground,  nest  built  entirely  of  down. 

Distribution.  Eider  Duck  inhabits  northern  parts  of  Europe  and  eastern  America. 
The  Northern  Eider  is  the  more  northern  of  our  two  similar  Eiders  (see  next  species) .  A 
strictly  Atlantic  bird  breeding  in  the  eastern  Canadian  Arctic  and  in  Greenland. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Eider  Duck  is  represented  in  America  by  a  subspecies,  the 
Northern  Eider  S.  m.  borealis.  The  European  Eider,  the  type  race,  has  never  been  recorded 
in  America. 

161.  American  Eider,  fr. — l'eider  d'amerique.  moyak.  Somateria  dresseri. 
L,  23.     Almost  exactly  similar  to  the  preceding  species. 

Distinctions.  Female  may  be  mistaken  for  that  of  King  Eider,  but  can  be  separated 
from  it  by  the  feathering  of  crowoi  not  extending  as  far  forward  as  rear  of  nostril.  It  may 
not  be  specifically  distinct  from  preceding  species  and  either  sex  can  only  be  separated 
from  it  by  rounded  ends  of  bill  process  on  forehead  and  the  fact  that  the  distance  from 
point  of  feathering  on  side  of  bill  to  tip  of  processes  is  greater. 

Field  Marks.  Size  and  general  coloration;  cannot  be  distinguished  from  Northern 
Eider  in  hfe. 

Nesting.  On  ground,  sometimes  under  overhanging  rocks  or  bushes,  nest  built  of  down 
plucked  from  the  parent's  breast. 

Distribution.  A  bird  of  our  eastern  coasts,  nesting  on  the  north  shore  of  the  gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence. 

In  Scandinavia  and  Iceland  the  Eiders  are  semi-domesticated  and  the 
down  derived  from  their  nests  is  an  important  source  of  revenue.  Though 
on  the  Labrador  and  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  coasts  there  are  immense  flocks 
of  these  birds  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  turn  them  to  account  except 


74 

as  food;  but  the  numbers  have  been  so  rapidly"  reduced  by  reckless  kiUing 
that  only  a  small  fraction  of  the  original  number  remains.  On  these  bleak 
and  desolate  coasts  where  fresh  meat  is  scarce  the  Eiders  should  be  con- 
served for  food  if  for  nothing  else.  An  intelligent  and  far-seeing  policy 
would  conserve  the  Eiders  for  all  time  to  come,  supply  a  liberal  amount  of 
flesh  food  and  eggs,  and  at  the  same  time  produce  a  crop  of  down  worth  in 
the  markets  far  more  than  the  carcasses  of  the  dead  birds. 

So  closely  is  this  species  related  to  the  last  that  it  would  not  be  surpris- 
ing were  it  eventually  included  together  with  the  Northern  Eider  as  a 
subspecies. 

162.  King  Eider,  king  duck.  fr. — l'eider  remarquable.  Sotnateria  spec- 
tabilis.  L,  23.  Male  much  like  the  preceding,  but  the  back  mostly  black,  cheeks  nile- 
green,  top  of  head  and  hindneck  light  bluish-grey,  and  a  black  V  on  the  throat;  bill  is 
distinctive,  the  bright  yellow  fleshy  forehead  processes  almost  meet  on  the  forehead  where 
they  widen  out  to  nearly  an  inch  across,  forming  a  comparatively  mountainous  hump  on 
the  forehead.  Female  is  without  the  great  bill  process  and  is  coloured  in  the  same  browns 
and  blacks  in  fine-barred  pattern  as  are  the  other  Eiders. 

Distinctions.  Male  with  its  biU  processes  cannot  be  mistaken  for  any  other  species. 
Females  resemble  those  of  other  Eiders  but  can  be  separated  from  two  preceding  species 
by  feathering  of  crown  extending  as  far  forward  as  rear  of  nostrils. 

Field  Marks.  Less  amount  of  white  on  the  back  and  biU  processes  of  the  male. 
Females  cannot  with  certainty  be  distinguished  from  the  other  Eiders  in  life. 

Nesting.     On  ground,  nest  lined  with  down. 

Distribution.  The  most  northern  of  our  Eiders.  Nesting  across  the  continent  along 
the  coast  and  islands  of  the  Arctic.  Wintering  along  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  New 
England  shores.  It  is  the  only  Eider  that  straggles  in  to  the  lower  Great  Lakes  with  any 
regularity. 

163.  American  Scoter,  black  sea  coot.  fr. — la  macreuse  d'amerique. 
Oidemia  mnericana.  L,  19.  Male  all  black;  base  of  bill  much  swollen  near  forehead  and 
bright  yellow.  Female  without  swollen  bill;  dusky  all  over,  Ughter  below  and  with  evident 
d  arker  cap  contrasting  in  a  sharp  line  against  Ughter  cheeks. 

Distinctions.  Male  is  the  only  Canadian  all  black  Duck  uru-eheved  by  any  spot  of 
colour.     Dark  cap  of  female  is  distinctive  against  other  comparable  species. 

Field  Marks.  Evident  blackness  and  yellow  bill  of  male,  and  the  lack  of  white  spots 
or  facial  marks  and  the  dark  cap  on  the  female. 

Nesting.     On  ground,  near  water. 

Distribution.  Breeds  in  the  far  north  across  the  continent;  common  in  winter  on  our 
eastern  coasts  and  not  unusual  on  lower  Great  Lakes. 

165.  White-winged  Scoter,  white-winged  coot.  fr. — la  macreuse  veloutee. 
Oidemia  deglandi.  L,  22.  Dark  brown,  almost  black,  with  white  wing  patches  and  a 
small  white  crescent  under  the  eye;  bill  is  swollen  at  the  base  rising  more  abruptly  forward 
than  shown  in  Figure  9,  p.  19,  and  the  upper  mandible  is  coloured  with  bright  red  and 
white.     Female  even  dull  brown. 

Distinctions.  Wliite  wing  patch  is  distinctive  of  any  plumage  of  this  species. 
Field  Marks.  Large  size,  general  and  even  darkness,  and  white  wing  patches. 
Nesting.     On  ground,  under  or  among  bushes. 

Distribution.  Breeds  in  the  higher  latitudes  across  the  continent;  abundant  on  the 
coast  in  migration  and  is  the  commonest  Scoter  on  the  Great  Lakes  and  in  the  interior. 

166.  Surf  Scoter,  butter-bill  coot,  bottle-nosed  diver,  fr. — la  ma" 
creuse  a  large  beg.  Oidemia  perspicillata.  L,  20.  Male  all  black  with  white  patch 
across  forehead  and  a  triangle  of  same  colour  at  base  of  head;  bill  greatly  swollen  (Figure 
9,  p.  19)  and  coloured  most  strikingly  with  reds,  yellow,  and  black.  Female  dull  brown, 
lighter  below  and  much  like  that  of  American  Scoter. 

Distinctions.  White  patches  of  the  head  are  distinctive  of  male.  Female  can  be  told 
from  that  of  the  White- winged  by  lack  of  wing  patches;  and  from  the  American  by  absence 
of  cap  and  presence  of  two  vague  light  spots  on  side  of  the  face,  one  at  base  of  bill  and 
other  over  ear. 

Field  Marks.     White  on  head  of  male  and  the  two  vague  spots  on  face  of  female. 

Nesting.     In  grass  near  water. 


75 

Distribution.  Of  about  the  same  distribution  as  last  species,  but  perhaps  more 
common  on  the  coast  and  less  so  on  the  Great  Lakes. 

167.  Ruddy  Duck.  fr. — le  canard  roux.  Erismatura  jamaicensis.  L,  15. 
A  small  duck.  Male  strikingly  coloured,  rich  rufous-chestnut  on  neck,  shoulders,  back, 
and  flanks ;  crown  and  back  of  head  almost  black,  and  cheeks  and  lower  face  white.  Female 
small,  dull  greyish-brown,  hghter  on  underparts  and  cheeks,  and  with  a  dark  cap. 

Distinction.  Male  is  the  only  Duck  that  is  largely  red.  Female  can  be  told  by  the 
silvery  grebe-like  sheen  of  the  underparts,  and,  in  any  pliunage,  by  the  stiff  pointed  tail 
feathers. 

Field  Marks.  Size,  short  squatty  shape,  and  thick  neck.  Its  habit  of  occasionally 
carrying  its  tail  erect  and  spread  out  fan  wise  is  also  a  good  guide,  though  some  Scoters 
also  are  said  to  do  this  at  times. 

Nesting.     In  reeds  over  water. 

Distribution.  Nests  in  the  prairie  provinces  northward;  more  common  in  migrations 
on  the  Great  Lakes  than  on  the  coast. 

Sitb-family — At.serinoe.     Geese. 

General  Description.  Geese  resemble  ducks,  but  are  larger  with  a  lees  flattened  body 
and  comparatively  longer  legs;  bill  (Figure  10,  p.  19)  is  higher  and  somewhat  more  com- 
pressed at  base,  stouter  and  less  flattened  at  tip,  hardly  to  be  termed  spatulate  but  with 
the  broad  nail  at  tip  characteristic  of  the  order. 

Field  Marks.  The  strong  flight  of  the  geese  is  famihar  to  most.  Size,  coloration, 
and  flight  habits  are  the  best  field  guides.  Their  hoarse  honking  voices  so  often  heard 
during  migration  are  also  characteristic. 

Nesting.     On  ground. 

Distribution.  Geese  are  of  world  wide  distribution.  The  American  species  all  breed 
well  to  the  north,  migrating  through  the  interior  as  well  as  along  the  coasts. 

The  geese  are  more  terrestrial  and  herbivorous  than  the  ducks  but 
they  are  equally  at  home  on  the  water.  They  do  not  normally  dive,  but 
secure  food  from  the  bottom  by  tipping  and  reaching  by  means  of  their  long 
neck.  The  sexes  are  alike  and  there  is  little  seasonal  change  of  plumage.  The 
goose  is  an  excellent  table  bird  and  for  this  reason  and  on  account  of  its 
superior  size  it  is  much  sought  after  by  sportsmen.  Geese  are  exceedingly 
wary  and,  though  greatly  reduced  in  number,  have  been  able  to  take  better 
care  of  themselves  than  many  other  large  game  birds. 

Economic  Status.  Feeding  largely  upon  grasses  and  frequenting 
cultivated  areas  in  migration  more  than  other  members  of  their  order  they 
may  do  more  harm  than  the  ducks,  but  this  has  never  been  seriously  held 
against  them.  Their  value  in  other  directions  is  so  obvious  that  less 
complaint  has  been  made  against  geese  than  against  other  species  equally 
worthy  of  protection  but  whose  usefulness  though  real  is  less  obvious. 

169.  Snow  Goose,  laughing  goose,  wavey.  fr. — l'oie  blanche.  Chen  hy-per- 
boreus.  L,  23.  A  rather  small  goose,  pure  white  with  black  primaries.  Juveniles  with 
more  or  less  grey  or  greyish-brown  washing  locally  or  over  all. 

Distinctions.  Cutting  edges  of  mandibles  are  more  or  less  bowed  away  from  each 
other,  exposing  tooth-Uke  serrations  and  giving  the  face  that  appearance  from  which  the 
name,  laughing,  is  derived. 

Field  Marks.    Colour  and  evident  goose-hke  flight  and  outline. 

Nesting.    On  groimd. 

Distribution.  The  Lesser  Snow  Goose  breeds  on  the  Arctic  coast  and  islands  from 
Coronation  gulf  westward.  It  migrates  down  the  interior  of  the  continent,  the  Greater 
along  the  Atlantic  coast. 

SUBSPECIES.  There  are  two  subspecies  of  Snow  Goose  in  Canada,  the  Lesser 
and  the  Greater,  differing  only  in  size;  but  as  the  two  intergrade  this  is  not  an  entirely 
reliable  distinction.    There  is  a  difference  based  upon  the  comparative  shapes  and  sizes  of 

57172—6 


76 

the  bills,  but  it  requires  specimens  for  comparison  for  its  appreciation.  Though  often 
incorrectly  recorded  the  Greater  Snow  goose  is  a  very  scarce  bird.  It  is  the  extreme  eastern 
form  of  the  species  and  can  only  be  expected  along  the  Atlantic  coast. 

The  name  "Wavey"  is  a  corruption  of  the  Indian  word  "Wa-wa," 
meaning  Wild  Goose. 

169.1.  Blue  Goose,  fr. — l'oie  bleue.  Chen  ccerulescens.  L,  26.  Slaty-grey 
body,  wave-marked  with  lighter  feather  edges  on  back  and  more  or  less  so  below;  slate 
colour  strongest  on  wings  and  rump;  head  white.  Juvenile  similar  but  head  and  neck 
greyish-brown.  The  bill  shows  in  slightly  reduced  degree  the  teeth  serrations  of  the  Snow 
Goose. 

Distinctions.  The  combination  of  white  head  contrasted  with  blue-grey  wings  does 
not  occur  in  any  other  eastern  American  Goose. 

Field  Marks.     White  head  and  darker  body  probably  best  field  marks. 

Nesting.     On  groxmd. 

Distribution.  Seems  to  be  confined  in  breeding  season  to  the  east  of  Hudson  bay;  a. 
rare  migi-ant  on  the  Great  Lakes  on  its  way  to  or  from  the  Mississippi  vaUey. 

For  a  long  time  the  Blue  Goose  was  thought  to  be  only  a  juvenile 
plumage  of  the  Snow  Goose,  but  is  now  recognized  as  a  separate  species. 

171a.  White-fronted  Goose,  fr. — l'oie  a  front  blanc.  Anser  albifrons.  L,  27. 
Greyish-brown,  darker  on  head  and  neck,  lighter  below,  white  patch  about  base  of  biU; 
light  colour  of  vmderparts  irregularly  blotched  with  black  aggregating  in  maturity  into 
indefinite  bands  giving  an  immature  effect  to  even  adult  birds. 

Distinctions.     Brown  head  and  white  face. 

Field  Marks.     General  b^o^^^mess  and  white  face  mark. 

Nesting.     On  groimd. 

Distribution.  The  White-fronted  Goose  is  a  nearly  circumpolar  species.  The  Ameri- 
can subspecies  breeds  on  the  western  Arctic  mainland  and  islands.  Migrates  through  the 
interior  of  the  continent  and  is  found  rarely  as  far  east  as  the  Great  Lakes. 

SUBSPECIES.  Our  representative,  the  American  White-fronted  Goose  A.  a.  gambeli, 
is  a  subspecies  of  the  European  White-fronted  Goose  from  which  it  is  said  to  be  distinguished 
by  its  shghtly  larger  size. 

172.  Canada  Goose,  wild  goose,  grey  goose,  fr. — la  bernache  du  c.vnada, 
OUTARDE.     Branta  canadensis.     L,  35.      Plate  V  B. 

Distinctions.     Large  size,  black  head  and  neck,  white  throat  and  cheek  patch. 

Field  Marks.  Black  head  and  neck  and  white  throat  patch.  A  white  V  over  the  tail, 
displayed  when  flying,  will  separate  the  members  of  this  genus  from  any  of  the  larger  ducks. 

Nesting.     On  ground,  occasionally  in  large  deserted  nests  in  trees. 

Distribution.  Breeds  across  the  continent  from  the  northern  tree  hmit  to  the  borders 
of  settlement. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Canada  Goose  is  divided  into  several  geographical  races- 
In  the  west,  there  is  a  small  subspecies  called  Hutchins's  Goose  B.  c.  hutchinsi.  It  is  said 
to  have  a  different  note  and  to  be  quite  recognizable  in  life  by  experienced  hunters.  Its 
smaller  size  is  an  uncertain  criterion  but  is  the  only  distinction  that  can  be  given  here. 
Its  length  averages  imder  25  inches.  It  is  to  be  expected  only  as  far  east  as  Manitoba 
and  its  identification  elsewhere  should  be  made  with  great  caution. 

The  goose  is  a  wary  and  watchful  bird,  usually  spending  the  day  well 
out  in  the  open  water,  coming  in  to  the  marshes  and  cultivated  fields  to 
feed  at  night  or  in  the  evening  and  unless  disturbed  remaining  until  well 
into  the  next  day.  While  so  engaged  there  is  always  at  least  one  with 
long  neck  upstretched  surveying  the  surrounding  country  for  danger  and 
an  unobserved  approach  by  even  the  most  experienced  stalker  is  next  to 
impossible.  On  this  account  the  Canada  Goose  has  perhaps  suffered  less 
from  hunters  than  other  members  of  its  order  and  until  its  remaining 
breeding  grounds  are  invaded  there  is  little  danger  of  its  being  exterminated. 


77 

It  originally  bred  within  the  borders  of  our  present  inhabited  areas  but 
settlement  has  driven  it  from  its  more  southerly  breeding  range.  How- 
ever, it  still  occupies  large  areas  throughout  northern  Canada  as  far  as 
the  northern  tree  limits  and  as  much  of  this  territory  will  remain  unsettled 
for  many  years  the  goose  is  assured  of  safe  breeding  grounds  and  is  in  no 
immediate  danger  of  extermination.  However,  unless  intelligent  conserva- 
tion principles  are  adopted  in  the  future  the  Canada  Goose  will  probably 
decrease  as  its  breeding  grounds  are  opened  up. 

173a.  Brant,  fr. — la  bernache  commune.  Branla  bernicla.  L,  26.  Much  like 
the  Canada  Goose  but  smaller;  head,  neck,  and  upper  breast  black;  a  narrow  broken 
collar  of  white  on  neck. 

Distinctions.     A  small  dark  Canada  Groose  without  face  mark. 

Field  Marks.  Small  size,  dark  breast,  and  lack  of  face  mark.  The  wliite  V  over  tail, 
displayed  when  flying  low,  will  also  distinguish  the  Brant  from  any  of  the  larger,  black 
ducks  but  not  from  the  Canada  Goose. 

Nesting.     On  ground,  nest  of  grasses  lined  with  down. 

Distribution.  As  a  species,  circumpolar.  The  American  Brant  breeds  in  the  eastern 
Arctic  region,  migrating  do\vn  the  Atlantic  coasts,  rarely  in  the  interior. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Brant  is  a  circumpolar  species.  The  New  World  form,  the 
American  Brant  B.  b.  glaucogastra ,  is  subspecifically  distinct  from  the  Old  World  bird 
which  has  never  been  recorded  in  America.  The  Black  Brant  B.  nigricans  of  the  west  is 
characterized  by  having  the  black  of  the  breast  suffused  over  the  imderparts;  but  it  occurs 
in   eastern  Canada  only  as  an  accidental  straggler. 

The  Brant  is  a  small  goose.  It  occurs  on  the  lower  St.  Lawrence  and 
the  seacoast  in  flocks  of  hundreds  but  is  scarce  or  only  a  straggler  in  the 
interior  on  the  Great  Lakes. 

Subfamily — Cygninoe.     Swans. 

General  Description.  Very  large  white  Anatidce;  excepting  perhaps  the  Whooping 
Crane  or  the  Wild  Turkey,  the  largest  of  American  birds. 

Distinctions.  Size  combined  with  colour  is  sufficient  to  diagnose  the  two  Swans. 
Lores  (space  between  eye  and  bill)  imfeathered.  Bill  begins  high  on  the  forehead,  at  base 
is  almost  rectangular  in  cross-section  and  tip  is  provided  with  a  flat  nail. 

Field  Marks.     Size  and  colour:  they  are  our  only  large,  all  white,  bu'ds.^ 

Nesting.     On  ground,  nest  of  grasses  lined  with  down  plucked  from  parent  bird. 

Distribution.  Most  of  the  Swans  are  found  in  the  northern  hemisphere  but  are  not 
entirely  confined  to  it.  In  America,  they  now  nest  in  the  far  north;  though  originally 
the  Trumpeter,  now  verging  on  extinction,  bred  as  far  south  as  some  of  the  northern 
United  States. 

From  time  immemorial  Swans  have  figured  largely  in  Old  World 
folk-lore  and  the  fairy  tales  of  childhood  are  filled  with  references  to  them, 
but  it  comes  with  a  little  shock  of  surprise  to  many  people  to  learn  that 
even  to-day  wild  Swans  are  actually  common  in  Canada.  Geese  are  wild 
and  wary,  but  the  Swan  is  even  wilder  and  more  wary.  Its  long  neck 
allows  it  to  feed  in  deeper  water  than  other  non-diving  species  and  it  keeps 
well  out  in  deep  water  through  the  day,  where  unobserved  approach  is 
impossible.  It  rarely  comes  into  the  shallow  marshes  that  may  hide  the 
huntsman  and,  therefore,  it  is  rarely  taken. 

The  common  names  of  the  Swans  of  the  northern  hemisphere  are  indi- 
cative of  extraordinary  vocal  powers;  thus  in  America  we  have  the  Whistler 
and  the  Trumpeter,  and  in  Europe  the  Whooper  and  the  Mute  Swans. 
Peculiar  and  complicated  modifications  of  the  windpipe,  in  the  form  of 

'Other  large  white  birds  occurring  in  Canada  all  have  more  or  less  black  on  flight  feathers. 

57172—61 


78 

various  convolutions  in  special  bony  recesses  of  the  breast  bone  or  sternum, 
are,  evidently,  directly  connected  with  the  voice  and  their  complexity 
increases  directly  with  the  quality  of  the  voice  as  indicated  by  the  above 
descriptive  names;  thus  the  Mute  Swan  is  without  any  tracheal  convolu- 
tion and  the  highest  complexity  is  reached  in  the  Trumpeter  and  Whooper. 

180.  Whistling  Swan.  fr. — le  cygne  d'amerique.  Olor  columbianus.  L,  55. 
A  very  large,  all  white,  bird. 

Distinctions.  The  Whistler  can  only  be  mistaken  for  the  Trumpeter  Swan.  Super- 
ficially it  can  be  easily  separated  only  by  its  inferior  size.  As  Swans  do  not  obtain  their 
fuU  development  for  a  niunber  of  years,  size  may  not  always  be  an  accm-ate  test.  There 
is  a  difference  in  the  shape  of  the  bill,  but  it  is  too  difficult  of  characterization  to  be  clearly 
described  here.  The  convolutions  of  the  windpipe  in  the  breast  bone  makes  the  most 
satisfactory  differentiation.  In  the  Whistler  the  windpipe  makes  one  horizontal  loop 
over  the  floor  of  the  sternum,  whereas  that  of  the  Trumpeter  has  a  perpendicular  loop 
as  well.  The  absence  of  a  yellow  spot  on  the  lores  of  the  Trumpeter  has  been  given  as 
diagnostic,  but  this  is  so  often  absent  from  even  adult  Whistlers  as  to  be  of  no  use  for 
this  purpose. 

Field  Marks.  Size  and  complete  whiteness.  The  two  species  cannot  be  readily 
distinguished  in  life  except  by  those  familiar  with  the  voices  of  each. 

Nesting.     On  grovmd,  in  nest  of  grasses,  moss,  etc.,  lined  with  down. 

Distribution.  Breeds  in  the  far  north  across  the  continent  west  of  Hudson  bay; 
migrates  through  the  interior;  rare  or  absent  on  the  Canadian  Atlantic  coast,  but  locally 
ommon  on  the  large  waterways  of  the  Great  Lakes  region. 

Owing  to  its  extreme  wariness  and  its  breeding  far  in  the  north  the 
Whistling  Swan  has  not  been  seriously  reduced  in  numbers  during  the 
past  generation.  Its  larger  relatives,  the  Trumpeters,  whose  breeding 
grounds  well  within  the  borders  of  settlement  were  early  disturbed,  is 
now  on  the  verge  of  extinction. 

The  Swans  rarely  come»into  shallow  marshes  where  cover  may  hide 
the  huntsman.  They  are  exceedingly  wary  and  are  rarely  seen  except  in 
dense  white  flocks  like  ice  floes  far  out  in  the  open  water  or  in  flocks  flying 
high  overhead  and  beyond  the  reach  of  guns.  Their  regular  migration  is 
usually  by  night  and  usually  silent,  though  sometimes  extremely  noisy. 
To  such  habits  as  these  is  probably  due  the  fact  that  few  even  of  our  most 
experienced  huntsmen  know  the  Swan  in  life  and  fewer  still  can  boast  of 
having  taken  it.  Though  flocks  of  hundreds  appear  annually  on  lake  St. 
Clair  not  more  than  two  or  three  individuals  are  taken  there  each  year. 

The  species  also  occurs  in  large  numbers  on  Niagara  river  where  on 
misty  or  foggy  nights  in  the  spring,  they  often  drift  down  with  the  current 
into  the  swift  rough  waters  of  the  rapids  and  are  carried  helplessly  over 
the  falls.  This  catastrophe  has  occurred  several  times  within  the  last 
decade  and  hundreds  of  Swans  have  lost  their  lives  in  this  manner,  some 
have  every  bone  in  the  body  broken  whereas  others  are  only  slightly  hurt. 
The  dead  that  are  not  drawn  under  the  ice  and  carried  off  by  the  current 
are  picked  up,  the  dying  clubbed,  and  those  whose  injuries  are  only  slight 
are  shot.  As  the  birds  do  not  seem  able  in  the  close  quarters  to  rise  above 
the  sides  of  the  gorge  and  show  marked  reluctance  to  pass  beneath  the 
bridges  that  span  the  lower  pass,  all  are  confined  in  the  narrow  waters 
below  the  falls  where  there  is  no  escape.  The  flesh  of  the  Swan  is  not 
very  suitable  for  eating  and  the  birds  are  of  little  value  to  those  who  take 
them  except  as  curiosities. 

181.  Trumpeter  Swan.     Olor  buccinator.  L,  65.    Very  large,  all  white,  bird. 


79 

Distinctions.    Only  to  be  mistaken  for  the  previous,  which  see. 

Field  Marks.  Size  and  complete  whiteness;  the  two  Swans  cannot  be  separated 
with  certainty  in  life. 

Nesting.     On  ground,  in  nest  of  grasses  and  down. 

Distribution.  A  bird  of  the  interior,  breeding  from  the  central  of  the  northern  tier 
of  states  northward. 

Any  Swan  over  56  inches  in  length  or  over  20  pounds  in  weight  is 
probably  of  this  species.  It  was  at  one  time  a  fairly  common  bird  on  the 
Great  Lakes,  but  now  is  so  rare  as  to  be  regarded  as  nearly  or  quite  extinct 
there.  Its  breeding  range,  being  considerably  south  of  that  of  the  Whistling 
Swan  and  well  into  what  is  now  fully  occupied  farming  territory,  is  prob- 
ably the  cause  of  its  rapid  extermination. 

Order — Herodiones.    Deep  Water  Waders. 

General  Description.  Usually  large  birds  with  long  leg-s,  neck,  and  bill,  fitted  for 
wading  and  obtaining  food  below  the  surface  in  rather  deeper  water  than  the  majority  of 
waders.  Bills  may  be  either  straight  and  sharp  (Figure  18,  p.  21)  or  gently  curved 
and  blunt  as  in  the  Ibises.  Legs  are  bare  for  a  considerable  distance  above  the  heel  joint 
and  all  four  toes  are  perfect,  well-shaped,  and  adapted  for  perching  as  well  as  walking 
on  soft  ground  and  with  only  small  rudimentary  webs  or  none  (Figure  17,  p.  21). 

Distinctions.  Birds  of  this  order  may  be  mistaken  for  either  Cranes  or  one  of  the 
Shore-birds  (Curlews).  From  the  Cranes  they  can  be  distinguished  by  their  feathered 
forehead .  The  Wood  Ibis  combines  bare  forehead  and  curved  bUl,  but  is  of  only  possible 
occurrence  in  Canada.  From  any  shore  birds  they  can  be  distinguished  by  the  bare 
space  between  the  eye  and  the  base  of  the  bill. 

The  Canadian  forms  of  the  order  are  divided  into  two  suborders: 
Ibides  including  Spoonbills  and  Ibises;  and  Herodii  including  Herons, 
Egrets,  and  Bitterns. 

SUBORDER— IBIDES.  IBISES. 

This  suborder  includes  two  famihes:  Spoonbills  which  do  not  occur 
in  Canada,  and  Ibididce,  only  one  of  which  occurs  in  the  Dominion  and  that 
rarely. 

FAMILY IBIDIDiE.       IBISES. 

General  Description.  Birds  with  long,  decurved  bill  quite  blimt  at  the  point  and 
the  upper  mandible  grooved  throughout  its  length. 

Distinctions.  Curved,  blmit,  and  deeply  grooved  biU  is  characteristic.  Claw  of  the 
middle  toe  may  be  broadened  and  roughened  at  the  edge,  but  is  not  perfectly  pectinate 
or  furnished  with  weU-formed  comb-like  teeth  as  in  the  heron-like  Waders  of  the  suborder 
Herodii  (Compare  with  Figure  19,  p.  21). 

There  is  only  one  of  these  birds,  the  Glossy  Ibis,  that  may  be  found 
in  Canada  and  that  only  as  a  casual  straggler. 

186.  Glossy  Ibis,  black  curlew.  Plegadis  autumnalis.  L,  24.  Practically  an  all 
black  bird  with  chestnut,  green,  and  purple  reflections.  Juvenile  is  brown  with  head 
feathers  slightly  margined  with  hght  and  with  greenish  reflections  elsewhere. 

Distinctions.  The  Glossy  Ibis  looks  much  hke  a  large  Curlew,  but  its  almost  black 
or  very  dark  coloration  will  distinguish  it  from  the  Curlew  with  ease.  Its  grooved  bill 
(see  previous  family  description)  otherwise  differentiates  it. 

Nesting.     In  reedy  swamps  or  low  bushes. 

Distribution.     Tropical  and  subtropical  regions. 

The  Ibis  is  well  known  by  name  as  one  of  the  sacred  birds  of  ancient 
Egypt,  and  as  such  is  familiar  to  every  general  reader.     The  Glossy  Ibis 


80 

is  allied  to  the  Sacred  Ibis  of  the  Nile  and  shows  some  of  its  general  char- 
acters.   It  appears  only  occasionally  in  Canada,  along  the  southern  border. 

Economic  Status.  Of  too  rare  occurrence  in  Cauda  to  be  of  economic 
influence. 

SUBORDER— HERODII.     HERON-LIKE  WADERS. 

As  this  suborder  is  represented  in  Canada  by  only  one  family.  Ardeidce, 
the  description  under  that  heading  is  sufficient. 

FAMILY — ARDHIDM.       HERONS    AND    BITTERNS. 

General  Descriptio7i.  Heron-like  birds  with  straight  and  very  sharply  pointed  bills. 
Space  in  front  of  eyes  bare.  A  pecuUar  feature  with  this  suborder  is  the  occurrence  of 
"Powder-down  tracts" — ^aggregations  of  peculiarly  modified  feathers  giving  off  a  dry 
powder  of  unknown  use.  These  feathers  are  found  on  various  parts  of  body  hidden  under 
the  visible  plumage.  Claw  of  the  middle  toe  is  pectinate,  that  is,  furnished  with  a  series 
of  well-defined  comb-like  teeth  (Figure  19,  p.  21),  not  merely  roughnesses  as  in  the  Ibises. 

Distinctions.  This  suborder  might  be  mistaken  for  Cranes,  but  the  feathered  fore- 
head is  distinctive.  Back  of  neck  bare,  the  feathers  of  sides  reaching  around  behind  and 
hiding  the  bareness  from  casual  observation.  Hind  toe  very  long  and  set  level  with  the 
other  toes  and  not  slightly  raised  as  in  other  waders. 

Field  Marks.  Obvious  heron-hke  outline,  with  long  graceful  neck,  long  sharp  bill 
(Figure  18,  p.  21),  and  lengthened  legs  (Figiu-e  17,  p.  21).  Neck  folded  in  flight,  bringing 
head  close  to  shoulders,  the  legs  trailing  behind.  The  Cranes  with  which  they  may  be 
confused  in  hfe  carry  theh  necks  outstretched. 

Perhaps  no  birds  are  so  well  known  to  the  general  public  by  common 
repute  and  observation  as  these,  yet  we  seldom  hear  them  correctly  named. 
The  terms  Herons,  Storks,  and  Cranes,  are  applied  and  misapplied  indis- 
criminately. There  are  no  Storks  in  Canada.  The  Cranes  are  of  western 
distribution  and  are  rarely  seen  in  eastern  Canada.  The  birds  we  generally 
hear  called  by  the  latter  name  are  true  Herons.  The  family  is  divided 
into  two  subfamilies:  Botaurince,  the  Bitterns;  and  Ardeince,  the  true 
Herons  and  Egrets. 

Subfamily — Botaurince.      Bitterns. 

General  Description.  Marsh  inhabiting,  heron-Uke  birds  of  heavier  and  less  graceful 
build  and  habit  than  the  true  Herons. 

Distinctions.  Though  forming  a  well-defined  subfamily  they  are  difficult  to  define 
in  a  short  non-technical  diagnosis.  In  Canadian  species,  colour  is  the  best  and  most  easily 
recognized  guide.  Excluding  Cory's  Bittern,  which  is  very  rare  (see  under  Least  Bittern, 
p.  81),  the  Canadian  species  have  large  amounts  of  ochraceous  yellow  on  them,  a  colour 
that  is,  in  any  extensive  mass,  absent  from  all  our  true  Herons. 

Bitterns  are  bog  and  marsh  haunters.  They  do  not  frequent  wide  open 
reaches  of  water,  but  drop  down  in  the  middle  or  on  the  edges  of  grass- 
or  reed-grown  marshes,  stalking  their  prey  by  silent  approach  through 
the  close  cover. 

190.  American  Bittern,  marsh  hen.  thunder-pump,  stake-driver,  pr. — le 
BUTOR  d'amerique.     Botourus  lentiginosus.     L,  28.     Plate  VIA. 

Distinctions.  With  its  general  yellow  coloration,  alike  in  both  sexes  and  all  ages,  the 
Bittern  can  be  mistaken  for  no  other  Canadian  species.  The  Least  Bittern  is  the  only 
other  bird  of  hke  build  showing  mostly  yellow,  but  its  size  is  so  small  that  there  is  no 
chance  of  confusion.  Black  line  from  sides  of  face  may  be  present  or  absent  regardless 
of  sex,  age,  or  season. 

Field  Marks.  As  the  bird  rises  from  the  reeds  or  grass  its  long  neck,  dangling  legs, 
and  general  yellowish  coloration  are  easily  recognized.     At  a  distance,  in  flight,  its  outline. 


81 

head  drawn  in  to  the  body  and  legs  reaching  out  behind,  is  so  similar  to  that  of  the  Herons 
that  unless  the  hght  so  falls  as  to  show  the  colour,  apparent  size  only  differentiates  thecQ . 

Nesting.  On  ground,  in  grass,  hayfields,  or  reed-grown  marshes,  nest  of  grass  or 
reeds. 

Distribution.  Common  throughout  the  settled  portions  of  Canada,  breeding  wherever 
found . 

References  to  the  lonely  booming  of  the  Bittern  are  frequently  seen 
in  English  literature.  We  can  hardly  say  that  our  American  Bittern 
"booms,"  but  its  note  is  most  peculiar  and  is  unique  amongst  American 
bird  notes.  The  common  names,  "Thunder-pump"  and  "Stake-driver," 
are  applied  in  reference  to  the  strange  noises  it  makes.  Near  a  marsh  one 
may  hear  a  sound  as  of  some  one  driving  a  stake  with  a  wooden  maul  into 
soft  mud.  There  is  the  dull  thud  of  the  blow  with  a  sucking  liquid  echo 
followed  closely  by  a  squdgy  drive.  At  other  times  sounds  are  heard  like 
some  one  frantically  working  a  dry  sucking  pump  that  draws  the  water 
part  way  and  refuses  to  lift  it  farther.  These  are  variants  of  the  Bittern's 
love   song   and   contain   no   recognizable   vocal   qualities. 

Economic  Status.  The  Bittern  is  a  bog  haunter  and  eats  frogs,  craw- 
fish, snakes,  small  fish,  crustaceans,  insects,  and  probably  even  young 
birds  and  mice.  It  eats  little  or  no  vegetable  matter.  Bitterns  are 
quite  harmless  as  a  class  and  may  be  useful. 

191.  Least  Bittern,  fr. — le  petit  butor.  Ixobrychus  exilis.  L.  13.  Smallest 
heron-Uke  wader  foimd  in  Canada.  Coloured  in  broad  masses  of  creams,  ochres,  and 
Indian  reds,  with  black  or  browTi  back  and  cap,  depending  on  sex. 

Distinctions.  Owing  to  its  small  size  and  striking  coloration,  can  be  mistaken  for 
nothing  else  in  Canada  except  perhaps  its  very  close  and  rare  relative,  Cory's  Least  Bittern 
/.  neoxena.  This  latter  bird  has  the  creams  and  ochres  replaced  by  seal  or  reddish  brown 
and  it  is  still  undecided  whether  or  not  it  is  only  a  colour  phase  of  the  common  form. 

Field  Marks.  Small  size  and  striking  colours  make  the  species  unmistakable.  Seldom 
seen  except  at  close  range  when  colour  and  size  are  evident. 

Nesting.  Generally  over  water,  in  nest  on  platform  of  dead  rushes  in  a  marsh  or 
reed-patch. 

Distribution.  A  common  but  rather  local  bird  in  the  more  southern  parts  of  Ontario 
and  Quebec.     Breeds  wherever  found  in  Canada. 

The  Least  Bittern  frequents  wet,  cat-tail  marshes,  usuallj^  of  rather 
extensive  area,  and  is  rarely  observed  except  by  those  who  invade  its 
quiet  precincts.  The  American  Bittern  is  often  seen  winging  its  way  from 
marsh  to  marsh,  but  the  Least  Bittern  remains  within  its  home  swamp  and 
rarely  ventures  beyond  it.  It  is  a  silent  bird  and  has  little  or  no  vocal 
attainments. 

Sub-family — Ardeince.     True  Herons  and  Egrets. 

General  Desa-iption.  More  slender  and  graceful  birds  than  the  Bitterns  and,  on  an 
average,  of  larger  size.  Smallest  are  very  little  smaller  than  the  American  Bittern  and  none 
are  as  small  as  the  Least  Bittern.      Coloiu-  makes  the  easiest  differentiation. 

Distinctions.  Herons  are  usually  coloured  slate-blue  or  dull  greens,  but  are  sometimes 
white.  Bitterns  on  the  other  hand  have  a  pronounced  yellow  colour.  Many  Herons  have 
long  fine  plumes  on  the  crown,  lower  throat,  or  back,  and  all  Canadian  species  when  in  full 
breeding  plumages  show  the  plumes  to  greater  or  less  extent  at  one  or  more  of  these  points; 
but  they  are  usually  absent  in  the  autumn. 

Field  Marks.  The  characteristic  outline  m  flight,  with  sharp  pointed  bill,  head  drawn 
in  to  the  shoulders,  and  legs  trailing  behind,  is  common  to  both  the  Bitterns  and  Herons 


82 

which  are  better  recognized  by  species  than  as  a  subfamily.     However,  any  such  bird  that 
is  obviously  not  a  Bittern  is  probably  a  Heron. 

Nesting.  Herons  commonly  build  their  nests  in  communities,  usually  in  tree  tops 
in  wet  forests,  but  sometimes  in  bushes  or  on  ground. 

The  Herons  are  fishers  of  open  shallows,  haunting  grassy  bogs  less 
than  the  Bittern.  Instead  of  stalking  their  prey  they  remain  motionless 
until  it  comes  within  reach. 

194.  Great  Blue  Heron,  blue  crane,  blue  heron,  fr. — le  grand  heron 
BLEUE.       Ardea  herodias.     L,  42.     Plate  VI  B. 

Distinctions.  The  largest  Heron  found  in  Canada;  the  Sandhill  Crane  of  the  west 
is  the  only  bird  for  which  it  may  be  mistaken.  The  fully  feathered  forehead  is  diagnostic. 
Compare  Figures  18  and  20,  p.  21. 

Field  Marks.  Heron-Uke  outline,  size,  and  general  coloration  make  the  best  field 
marks.  Unlike  the  Crane  that  flies  with  neck  outstretched  the  Great  Blue  Heron,  hke 
other  Herons,  travels  with  neck  folded  and  head  drawn  into  shoulders. 

Nesting.  Usually  in  large  commmiities  in  wet  woods,  such  as  tamarack,  ash,  or  elm 
swamps,  in  nest  of  large  bulky  structure  of  sticks  in  tree  tops. 

Distribution.     Over  nearly  the  whole  of  Canada,  breeding  wherever  found. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Great  Blue  Heron  is  divided  into  several  subspecies,  of  which 
the  typical  form.  Eastern  Great  Blue  Heron  Ardea  herodias  herodias  is  the  only  one  that 
occurs  in  eastern  Canada. 

The  Great  Blue  Heron  is  a  haunter  of  open,  shallow  water.  It  rarely 
frequents  dense  reed  beds,  though  it  is  often  found  on  their  outskirts  or 
on  the  edges  of  pools  within  them.  It  prefers  wide  shallow  reaches  of 
rivers,  or  open  flats  of  marsh  or  tidal  shores.  It  is  a  still-hunter,  cautiously 
wading  with  almost  imperceptible  movements,  or  standing  statuesquely 
regarding  the  water  until  its  prey  comes  within  reach  when,  with  a  lightning 
stroke  of  the  sharp  bill,  the  prey  is  secured.  Herons,  nesting  in  large 
rookeries  in  wet  woods,  have  been  peculiarly  open  to  the  senseless  per- 
secution that  seems  to  follow  all  our  larger  birds.  Wary  and  -uspicious 
ordinarily,  in  the  vicinity  of  their  nests  they  lose  much  of  their  usual 
caution  and,  in  the  rookeries,  the  birds  can  be  shot  in  numbers.  Heronries 
are  usually  known  to  all  the  surrounding  country  and  are  in  the  breeding 
season  often  visited  by  the  rural  sportsman  who  kills  the  parent  birds  and 
leaves  the  young  to  die  of  hunger,  although  a  landowner  has  occasionally 
sufficient  public  spirit  to  protect  heronries  on  his  property.  The  result 
is  that  this  picturesque  bird  is  becoming  scarce.  Heronries  once  destroyed 
in  this  manner  are  seldom  if  ever  repopulated  and  new  ones  are  rarely 
established.  Birds  breeding  in  communities  are  seldom  driven  away  to 
new  locations.  They  remain  until  the  individuals  composing  them  are 
exterminated.  The  Blue  Heron  is  a  harmless  bird  and  should  receive 
every  protection  possible. 

Economic  Status.  The  food  of  the  Great  Blue  Heron  is  almost  entirely 
animal  in  its  nature  consisting  mainly  of  frogs,  snakes,  and  small  fish 
usually  of  no  economic  importance.  Cranes  frequent  the  fields  for  food 
but  the  Herons  never  do  so.  Occasionally  Herons  may  visit  trout  streams 
where  they  meander  through  open  meadows,  but  such  cases  are  rare  and 
insufficient  for  the  condemnation  of  the  species.  Herons  often  frequent 
the  pound  nets  of  the  fishermen,  but  the  limited  size  of  their  gullets  pre- 
cludes their  taking  anything  of  economic  importance  and  the  suspicion 
of  the  net  owners  against  them  is  unfounded. 


83 
White  Herons. 

Though  not  forming  a  recognized  systematic  division  of  the  Herons 
there  are  several  species  showing  pure  white  plumages,  that  are  distinct 
enough  to  warrant  discussion. 

In  some  of  these  species,  the  Egrets,  white  is  the  adult  plumage,  in 
others  it  is  a  dichromatic  form;  that  is  the  species  occurs  in  two  colour 
phases,  either  of  which  is  normal,  and  cannot  be  referred  to  either  albinism 
or  melanism  or  to  sex,  age,  or  season.  In  still  other  species  the  white  is 
a  plumage  of  juvenility  or  old  age  and  is  regularly  assumed  at  the  proper 
time.  These  white  plumages  were  a  source  of  considerable  confusion  in 
identifying  species  until  they  were  fully  worked  out.  All  of  the  White 
Herons  are  of  southern  distribution  and  are  rare  in  Canada. 

196.  American  Egret,  fr. — l'egrette  blanche  d'amerique.  Herodias  egretta. 
L,  41.  Almost  as  large  as  the  Great  Blue  Heron,  but  always  pure  white.  In  breeding 
season  cascade  of  some  fifty  fine  straight  plumes  originates  in  middle  back  region  and 
festoons  over  lower  back  and  tail. 

Distinctions.     Size,  colour,  and  obviously  heron-hke  outline. 

Field  Marks.     As  above. 

Nesting.  In  communities,  in  nests  of  sticks  in  trees  or  bushes  over  water. 

Distribution.  The  southern  and  Gulf  states,  appearing  in  Canada  only  as  an  accidental 
straggler. 

The  American  Egret,  with  the  Snowy  Heron  and  some  other  species  of 
like  character,  constitute  the  source  of  the  well  known  "aigrette"  or 
''osprey  "plumes  of  the  milUnery  trade.  As  these  plumes  are  grown  only  in 
the  breeding  season  and  as  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  breeding 
rookeries  is  the  only  place  where  these  wary  birds  can  be  easily  approached 
it  is  evident  that  the  harvesting  of  the  beautiful  crop  is  accompanied  by 
great  cruelty.  The  defence  is  often  made  that  the  plumes  are  picked  up 
after  being  shed  by  the  parent  bird.  This  is  a  doubtful  plea,  for  if  any  one 
will  search  domestic  poultry  yards  for  good  shed  feathers  he  will  quickly 
realize  that  recovered  "aigrette"  plumes  will  probably  be  few  in  number 
and  of  poor  quality.  The  plea  is  more  doubtful  as  the  rookeries  are  situated 
in  dense  subtropical  swamps  where  all  below  is  mud  and  water  and  the 
undergrowth  prevents  close,  systematic  search.  The  plume  hunter  usually 
hides  in  the  rookery  and  with  a  small  cahbre  rifle  shoots  the  birds  one  by  one 
until  the  flock  is  exterminated.  The  plumes  are  torn  from  the  bodies 
which  are  left  to  rot  on  the  ground.  The  remaining  young  starve  in  the 
nests  above.  Local  laws  have  been  passed  against  killing  the  birds  but 
without  avail.  A  few  years  ago  the  waters  of  Florida  and  the  Gulf  states 
were  made  beautiful  with  the  forms  of  these  immaculate  birds;  to-day 
they  have  almost  lost  one  of  their  greatest  attractions  as  the  birds  are 
approaching  extinction.  As  a  last  resort,  a  federal  law  has  been  passed  in 
the  United  States  prohibiting  the  importation  of  feathers  for  millinery 
purposes.  A  similar  law  has  been  passed  in  Great  Britain  and  the  colonies. 
Egrets  are  not  the  only  species  that  have  seriously  suffered :  tern  and  other 
sea  birds,  Birds  of  Paradise,  and  many  insectivorous  forms  have  been 
victims. 

200.  Little  Blue  Heron,  fr. — le  petit  heron  bleu.  Florida  ccerulea.  L,  22. 
A  beautiful  and  gracefully  built  small  Heron.  Adult  has  head  and  neck  maroon-chestnut, 
remainder  of  body  dark  bluish-slate  colour.  Fine-pointed  plumes  over  shoulders  and  on 
front  of  lower  neck.     Juvenile  is  almost  pure  white  more  or  less  washed  with  slate  colour. 


84 

Distinctions.  Adult  is  distinguished  by  colour  as  described  above.  The  white,  young 
bird  closely  resembles  the  juvenile  Louisiana  Heron  but  can  be  differentiated  by  its  greenish 
yellow  legs  and  blue-slaty  tips  to  the  primaries. 

Nesting.     In  communities,  in  nests  of  sticks  in  bushes  or  trees  over  water. 

Distribution.  Tropical  America.  Breeds  in  the  southern  and  Gulf  states.  Of  only 
accidental   occurrence   in    Canada. 

Birds  of  adult  plumage  seldom  occur  in  Canada.  The  juveniles  are  the 
only  ones  that  are  to  be  expected  to  wander  into  our  confines. 

Economic  Status.  Too  rare  in  Canada  to  have  any  economic  import- 
ance. 

201.  Green  Heron,  fly-up-the-creek.  fr. — le  heron  vert.  Butorides  vires- 
cens.  L,  17.  Smallest  of  the  common  Herons.  Back  lustrous  grey-green  with  short 
plume-like  feathers  draping  over  the  wings.  Face,  sides  of  neck,  and  throat,  as  well  as 
the  underparts,  rich  chestnut.     Head  has  a  black  cap  lengthened  into  a  small  crest. 

Distinctions.  The  above  description  may  seem  to  resemble  the  last  species,  but  the 
evident  green  sheen  of  back,  absence  of  neck  plumes,  smaller  size,  and  heavier  build, 
prevent  serious  confusion.  This  is,  moreover,  a  common  species  within  its  range  and  the 
one  most  hkely  to  be  met  with  in  the  Great  Lakes  region.  Any  comparable  species  is  very 
rare. 

Field  Marks.     Size  and  general  coloration. 

Nesting.  SoUtary  and  not  in  communities,  in  flimsy  and  open  nest  of  sticks  in  bushes 
or  trees  usually  over  water. 

Distribution.  Moderately  common  in  southern  Ontario,  but  rare  eastward.  Breeds 
wherever  found  in  Canada. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Green  Heron  is  subspecifically  divided,  but  the  type  form, 
Northern  Green  Heron,  is  the  only  species  that  occurs  in  Canada. 

The  Green  Heron  is  not  as  prone  to  frequent  open  water  as  is  the  Great 
Blue  Heron,  nor  grassy  marshes  like  the  Bittern.  Alder  thickets  in  drowned 
land,  the  bushy  edges  of  quiet  bayous,  back  waters  of  slack  streams,  and 
beaver  meadows  are  their  preferred  habitat.  They  are  more  solitary  than 
the  other  Herons  at  nesting  time  and  though  several  pairs  may  occupy 
a  peculiarly  favoured  locality  it  is  community  of  interest  that  draws  them 
together  and  not  sociability. 

Economic  Status.  The  food  of  the  Green  Heron  consists  of  crawfish, 
insects,  frogs,  and  small  fish.  An  accusation  has  been  brought  against 
it  that  it  is  harmful  to  certain  fish,  but  as  the  bird  is  small  and  compara- 
tively scarce  and  as  its  usual  still  water  habitat  does  not  bring  it  in  contact 
with  many  valuable  species,  it  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  serious  menace. 

202.  Black-crowned  Night  Heron,  qua-bird.  squawk,  fr.— le  heron  de 
NuiT.  Nycticorax  nycticorax.  L,  24.  Smaller  than  Gi'eat  Blue  and  larger  than  Green 
Herons,  more  like  Bittern  in  size.  Adult  plumage  is  recognizable  at  a  glance.  Body  is 
white,  softly  shaded  with  tints  of  light  grey.  Back  and  crown  black,  one  or  two  long, 
fine  pencil-shaped  plumes  falling  from  the  latter.  Juvenile  is  an  altogether  different  look- 
ing bird,  greyish-brown  stripes  against  whitish  ground. 

Distinctions.  Adult  is  distinctive.  Juvenile  may,  at  a  hasty  glance,  resemble  the 
Bittern,  but  lacks  any  decided  yellow  tinge,  and  the  plain  simple  colour-pattern  is  very 
different  from  the  highly  involved  and  finely  vermiculated  colour  scheme  of  that  bird. 

Field  Marks.  Size,  general  coloration  lacking  strong  yellow  of  the  Bittern;  often 
aUghts  in  trees,  the  Bittern  never  does  so. 

Nesting.  Often  in  communities  with  Great  Bhie  Heron,  nest  usually  of  sticks  in  irees, 
sometimes  on  ground. 

Distribution.  The  Black-crowned  Night  Heron  is  a  bird  of  irregular  and  local  distri- 
bution. It  is  found  in  eastern  Ontario,  western  Quebec,  and  Manitoba,  in  occasional 
colonies.  In  Ontario,  from  Kingston  west,  it  is  exceediagly  rare.  Even  in  the  western 
peninsula  of  Ontario  it  is  scarce. 


85 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Black-crowned  Night  Heron  occurs  in  both  eastern  and  western 
hemispheres.  The  New  World  bird  under  the  name  of  American  Black-crowned  Night 
Heron  N.  n.  noevius  is  subspecifically  distinct  from  that  of  the  Old  World. 

This  is  a  rather  heavily  built  Heron  which  though  not  without  some 
beauty  and  grace  lacks  the  fine,  slender  lines  of  most  of  the  Herons  and 
resembles  the  Bitterns  in  build.  Its  habits  are  a  composite  of  those  of  the 
Great  Blue  and  the  Green  Heron. 

The  Yellow-crowned  Night  Heron  Nyctanassa  violacea,  also,  occasion- 
ally occurs  in  Canada,  but  is  too  rare  to  require  more  than  passing  mention. 
The  adult  is  generally  a  slate-grey  bird,  sharply  streaked  on  the  back  with 
black  and  has  a  conspicuously  black  and  white  head.  The  juvenile  is  so 
similar  to  the  Black-crowned  that  it  is  distinguished  with  difficulty,  but 
its  head  is  darker  than  the  back  and  there  is  no  trace  of  rufous  on  the 
primaries,  which  close  inspection  reveals  on  the  young  Black-crown. 
Juvenile  Yellow-crowns  should  only  be  recorded  in  Canada  with  caution. 

Economic  Status.  Its  food  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Green  Heron  and 
its  status  is  much  the  same. 

Order — Paludicolae.     Marsh  Birds. 

General  Description.  This  is  a  poorly  defined  order,  including  a  number  of  families 
of  waders  that  can  be  referred  to  neither  the  Herons  nor  the  Shore  Birds,  but  superficially 
resemble  both.  They  are  birds  having  four  long,  well-developed  toes,  without  webs,  and 
legs  adapted  for  wading.  They  are  best  defined  by  subfamily  description.  The  Canadian 
species  are  divided  into  two  sub-orders:  Grues,  including  Cranes,  Courlans,  etc.; and 
Ralli,  including  Rails,  Gallinules,  and  Coots.  Of  the  Grues  only  the  family,  Gruidce, 
Cranes,  is  represented  in  Canada. 

SUBORDER— GRUES.     CRANES   AND  COURLANS. 

As  the  Courlan,  family  Aramidoe,  does  not  occur  in  Canada,  we  are 
interested  only  in  the  one  family,  Gruidce  Cranes.  As  far  as  Canada  is 
concerned,  this  suborder  may  be  called  the  "Large  Marsh  Birds,"  a  term, 
however,  which  has  no  other  warrant  than  that  of  convenience. 

FAMILY — GRUID^.       CRANES. 

General  Description.  Large  heron-like  birds;  dull,  slaty-blue  with  rusty  overwash; 
or  pui-e  white,  with  black  primaries.  All  colours  are  in  even,  over-all,  tints  and  the  birds 
have  no  plumes  nor  crests. 

Distinctions.  Distinguished  from  the  Herons  by  having  the  forehead  and  the  space 
about  the  eye  bare,  or  with  a  sparse  sprinkUng  of  peculiarly  modified  hair-like  feathers 
and  by  the  lack  of  pectinations  on  middle  claw  (see  Figure  19,  p.  21) ;  bill  is  smaller  pro- 
portionally than  that  of  Heron  but  more  heavily  built,  in  both  material  and  shape 
(compare  Figiu-es  18  and  20,  p.  21). 

Field  Marks.  Cranes  fly  with  outstretched  neck  instead  of  with  head  drawn  into 
the  shoulders  as  do  the  Herons,  and  contrary  to  the  habits  of  Herons  they  commonly 
feed  in  flocks  on  upland  fields. 

206.  Sandhill  Crane.  Grus  mexicana.  L,  40.  Very  similar  to  the  Great  Blue 
Heron,  but  without  plumes  at  any  season.  An  even  blue-grey  colour  all  over  with  a 
washing  of  rusty  red  or  brown,  strongest  in  the  juvenile  stages. 

Distinctions.  Distinguished  from  the  Great  Blue  Heron  by  its  bare  forehead,  etc., 
as  described  under  preceding  heading  (compare  Figures  18  and  20,  p.  21).  Otherwise  it 
can  only  be  confused  with  the  Little  Brown  Crane  Grus  canadensis,  from  which  it  can  be 
distinguished  only  by  size — the  length  of  the  latter  species  being  about  36  inches  and  the 


86 

ength  of  the  Sandhill  40  inches.  As  specimens  intermediate  in  size  are  not  uncommon, 
differentiation  of  the  species  is  not  always  easy;  and  both  forms  may  occur  in  eastern 
Canada.  Another  Crane,  the  Whooping  Crane  Grus  americana,  found  in  the  west,  has 
occasionally  occurred  in  eastern  Canada,  but  its  piu-e  white  colour,  or  white  washed  with 
rust  colour,  black  primaries,  and  extremely  large  size — 50  inches — make  it  easy  of  recogni- 
tion. 

Field  Marks.  Bare  forehead  coloured  dull  reddish,  flight  with  neck  outstretched  in- 
stead of  folded,  and  more  upland  habits> 

Nesting.     In  wet  marshy  places,  nest  of  waste  vegetable  matter. 

Distribution.  Western  Canada,  breeding  within  the  bounds  of  cultivation  and  north- 
ward. 

The  Sandhill  Crane  appears  to  have  been  a  more  common  visitor  to 
eastern  Canada,  the  Great  Lakes  region  at  any  rate,  in  the  early  days  than 
at  present.  It  is  now  only  a  rare  straggler  east  of  the  prairie  provinces, 
though  a  few  individuals  still  nest  in  southern  Michigan  and  it  is  not  impos- 
sible that  a  few  may  still  be  found  occasionally  in  adjoining  parts  of  Ontario. 

Economic  Status.  Too  rare  in  eastern  Canada  to  have  any  economic 
importance.  Though  a  more  graminivorous  feeder  than  the  Herons  and 
occasionally  visiting  r'ultivated  ground  in  numbers  in  the  migration  season, 
it  does  httle  damage;  for  in  the  spring  it  comes  early  and  in  autumn  it 
takes  only  waste  grtc  '.    The  insect  part  of  its  food  is  large. 

SUBORDER— RALLI.     SMALLER   MARSH   BIRDS. 

As  regards  Canada,  this  suborder,  comprising  the  Rails,  Gallinules, 
and  Coots,  may  be  called  Smaller  Marsh  Birds,  as  compared  with  the 
larger  Grues.  They  are  not  heron-like  in  form  and  cannot  possibly  be  con- 
fused with  the  Cranes  either  in  shape,  habit,  or  size.  Of  this  suborder 
only  one  family  Rallidce  occurs  in  eastern  Canada. 

FAMILY RA.LLID^.       RAIL-LIKE    BIRDS. 

General  Description.  Toes  long  and  slender  for  the  purpose  of  covering  a  large  area  of 
soft  uncertain  footing.  The  pedal  characters  are  somewhat  like  those  of  the  shore  Birds 
but  the  hind  toe  is  as  long  and  well  developed  as  the  others  and  inserted  on  a  level  with 
them  instead  of  being  sUghtly  elevated.  In  this  respect  they  resemble  the  Herons,  but  can 
be  distinguished  from  them  by  their  unheron-hke  build  and  their  feathered  lores. 

They  are  typical  marsh  birds,  skulking  in  the  long  grass  and  reeds, 
running  swiftly  over  yielding  masses  of  half-floating  vegetation,  and 
preferring  to  hide  rather  than  fly  on  the  approach  of  danger.  They  all 
swim,  some  habitually  and  others  on  occasion.  The  family  is  divided 
into  three  subfamilies:  Rallus,  the  true  Rails;  GallinuUnce,  Gallinules  or 
Mud  Hens;  and  FulicincB,  Coots. 

Subfamily — Rallus.      True  Rails. 

General  Description.  Very  flat-bodied  birds,  compressed  laterally,  adapted  for  slipping 
between  close  growing  reeds  and  grasses;  wings  small,  rounded,  and  comparatively  weak; 
the  whole  structure  of  the  bird  is  loose,  giving  the  flexibility  needed  by  habit  and  habitat, 
but  not  adapted  for  prolonged  or  strenuous  effort. 

Distinctions.  Most  easily  recognized  by  negative  characteristics:  rail-like  birds  as 
described  above  that  are  neither  Gallinules  nor  Coots;  without  the  frontal  shield  on  fore- 
head of  those  birds  (Figures  25  and  26,  p.  22). 

Field  Marks.  Ilails  rise  from  the  grass  at  one's  feet  with  a  loose,  feeble  flight,  legs 
dangUng  and  neck  outstretched.  They  rise  with  evident  and  hurried  difficulty,  fly  weakly 
a  short  way  over  the  marsh,  and  then  suddenly  collapse  into  it  again. 


87 

The  Rails  are  skulkers  and  expert  hiders  in  the  grass.  They  thread 
the  narrow  runways  between  the  clumps  with  mouse-like  dexterity  and 
speed.  They  rely  on  this  ability  to  hide  more  than  on  flight  to  escape 
danger  and  will  often  allow  themselves  to  be  caught  in  the  hand  rather 
than  take  wing.  A  Rail  will  flush  once  in  a  seeming  panic,  but  safely  down 
again  it  can  rarely  be  forced  to  wing  a  second  time  and  in  a  small  isolated 
clump  of  cover  will  seldom  be  detected  except  by  a  dog's  keen  nose.  Rails 
can  and  do  swim,  but  only  occasionally  and  only  for  a  short  distance,  as 
when  passing  from  one  grass  clump  to  another  they  fi  xl  the  w^ater  too  deep 
for  wading. 

Rails  are  very  noisy,  especially  at  night.  Ev.  m  in  the  day-time  a 
sudden  and  unexpected  noise  will  bring  forth  a  choru-  ii  their  loud  harsh 
cracklings  from  the  marsh,  though  not  a  bird  may     ■    seen. 

Our  Canadian  Rails  can  be  divided  into  two  divisions,  a  long-billed 
type  and  a  short-billed  type  (Figures  23  and  25,  p.  22) .  The  first  includes 
the  King  and  Virginia,  the  two  species  having  a  similar  coloration;  the 
second  includes  the  Sora  and  the  Yellow  Rails,having  only  a  general  resem- 
blance in  colour  but  similar  stubby  bills. 

208.  King  Rail.  Rallus  elegans.  L,  15.  Long-billed;  cheeks,  neck,  and  breast  cinna- 
mon-rufoua;  back  brownish-black,  each  feather  broadly  margined  with  an  ochraceous 
shade  of  the  breast  colour,  flanks  barred  with  black  and  white.  Juvenile  similar,  but  coloiu-s 
veiled  with  black. 

Distinctions.  In  Canada  can  only  be  mistaken  for  the  similarly  coloured  Virginia 
Rail,  but  King  Rail  is  much  larger. 

Fidd  Marks.  Loose  rail-hke  flight  as  it  gets  up  from  the  grass,  size,  general  coloration, 
and  long  red-brown  bill. 

Nesting.     In  wet  marshes,  in  nest  of  grass,  etc. 

Distribution.  Rather  southern  distribution;  comes  regularly  within  our  borders 
along  the  lower  Great  Lakes;  breeds  wherever  found  in  Canada. 

The  King  Rail  can  be  taken  as  the  type  of  the  Long-billed  Rails 
(Figure  23,  p.  22).  This  type  has  a  longer  neck  and  a  more  graceful  habit 
and  build  than  the  Short-billed  type.  This  series  is  one  of  several  among 
American  birds  where  distinct  species  differ  from  each  other  in  little  else 
than  size.  Included  with  our  King  and  Virginia  Rails  in  this  series  is  the 
extrahmital  Clapper  Rail  of  the  more  southern  sea-board  salt  marshes, 
never  occurring  in  Canada. 

212.  Virginia  RaiL  fe  — le  rale  de  vikginie.  Rallus  virginianus.  L,  9-50. 
Smaller  than  the  King  Rail  but  otherwise  similar  to  it. 

Distinctions.  Easily  distinguished  from  the  King  Rail  by  its  smaller  size  and  from 
the  Sora  by  its  long  reddish  bill  and  general  coloration.  Young  birds  are  overwashed 
with  a  considerable  amount  of  black  and  have  often  been  misidentified  as  Black  Rails. 
The  Black  Rail  is  even  smaller  than  the  Yellow  Rail  (5-0)  and  has  a  short  bill;  no  Canadian 
record  of  the  Black  Rail  rests  upon  perfectly  satisfactory  evidence.  It  may,  however, 
be  looked  for  in  the  Great  Lake  region,  especially  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  St.  Clair 
flats,  where  there  is  strong  evidence  of  its  occurrence,  though  a  specimen  has  not  yet  been 

Field  Marks.  Size,  coloration,  long,  reddish  bill  (Figure  23,  p.  22),  and  typical  loose 
rail  flight  as  it  rises  from  the  marsh. 

Nesting.     In  wet  marsh,  in  nest  of  grass. 

Distribution.  Southern  Canada  across  the  continent  and  north  to  the  present  limits 
of  cultivation.     Breeds  wherever  found  in  Canada. 

This  is  a  far  more  common  Rail  than  the  King  and  to  be  expected  in 
almost  any  marsh  or  very  wet  meadow  within  its  range.  Its  habits  do  not 
differ  essentially  from  those  of  the  other  Rails. 


88 

Economic  Status.  Its  waste  land  habitat  precludes  its  taking  anything 
of  economic  importance.  Its  food  consists  largely  of  insect  life,  marsh 
seeds,  and  vegetable  matter. 

214.  Sora  Rail,  sora,  railbird,  Carolina  rail.  fr. — le  rale  de  la  Caroline. 
Porzana  Carolina.     L,  8-50.     Plate  VII  A. 

Distinctions.  Distinguished  from  the  Virginia  Rail  by  its  short  conical  bill  (Figure  2.5, 
p.  22)  and  general  coloration;  and  from  the  Yellow  Rail  by  larger  size  and  coloration. 

Field  Marks.  Loose,  dangling  flight,  as  it  rises  from  the  grass,  proclaims  it  a  rail; 
short  bill,  general  coloration,  and  lack  of  white  on  wings  are  characteristic  of  the  species. 

Nesting.     On  ground  in  wet  marshes  in  nest  of  grass,  etc. 

Distribution.  Of  considerably  more  northern  distribution  than  the  Virginia  Rail, 
but  also  ranging  across  the  continent;  breeding  wherever  found  in  Canada. 

In  the  early  days  of  settlement  the  Sora  Rail  was  a  common  game 
bird ;  but  the  draining  of  the  swamps  and  the  ease  with  which  large  bags 
could  at  times  be  made  by  hunters,  have  greatly  reduced  its  numbers. 
On  the  tidal  marshes  of  some  of  the  Atlantic  states  it  is  still  regularly 
hunted  in  late  autumn.  This  is,  therefore,  the  best  known  of  our  rails  and, 
though  its  numbers  are  greatly  diminished  from  those  given  in  old  travellers 
accounts,  it  is  still  a  moderately  common  bird.  It  does  not  need  grounds 
quite  as  extensive  for  its  habitat  as  the  King  or  the  Virginia  Rails  and  at 
times  the  merest  little  slough  will  suffice  a  pair  and  their  young  for  the 
season. 

Economic  Status.  Not  notably  different  from  that  of  the  Virginia 
Rail. 

215.  Yellow  Rail.  fr. — le  rale  jaune.  Coturnicops  noveboracensis .  L,  7.  A 
smaller,  short-billed  rail,  somewhat  like  the  Sora.  The  coloration  is  also  similar  in  effect, 
but  the  underparts  are  overwashed  with  ochraceous  and  the  back  feathers  are  transversed 
with  a  few  fine  white  lines  instead  of  being  margined  by  them.  It,  also,  has  prominent 
white  wing-patches  that  are  characteristic  of  the  species. 

Distinctions.     Distinguished  from  the  Sora  Rail  by  size  and  coloration. 
Field  Marks.     Size  and  white  wing-patches. 
Nesting.     On  ground  in  damp  edges  of  marshes,  in  nest  of  grass. 
Distribution.     More  northern  than  the  other  rails,  extending  considerably  beyond  the 
limits  of  present  cultivation;  breeding  wherever  found. 

This  is  the  most  expert  of  the  Rails  in  skulking  and  hiding.  As  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  flush  it,  it  may  be  far  more  common  than  we  have 
reason  to  otherwise  suspect.  According  to  actual  records,  it  is  one  of  the 
rarest  birds  in  Canada.  Its  habits  do  not  seem  to  differ  much  from  those 
of  the  other  rails,  except  that  it  does  not  require  as  much  water  in  its  habitat 
and  is  more  often  found  on  the  shoreward,  grassy  sides  of  the  marsh  rather 
than  in  the  wet  reedy  locations. 

Subfamily — Gallinulinoe.     Gallinules  or  Mud-hens. 

General  Description.  Rather  large  duck-Hke  birds,  but  with  long  toes  without  webs 
either  partial  or  entire;  conical  bill  extended  on  the  forehead  in  a  plate  or  frontal  shield 
(Figure  26,  p.  22). 

Distinctions.  Distinguished  from  the  ducks  by  lack  of  webs,  and  by  shape  of  bill; 
and  from  the  Coot  by  absence  of  toe  lobes;  otherwise  quite  closely  resembles  these. 

Field  Marks.  Round,  duck-like  shape  of  body;  habit  when  swimming;  general  blue 
or  blue-grey  coloration;  red  bill,  and  frontal  shield;  and  long  legs  and  toes  of  yellow  or 
green. 


89 

Quietly  watching  the  open  leads  through  the  marsh,  one  sometimes 
sees  a  swimming  bird  of  duck-like  outline  sitting  high  in  the  water  with 
upturned  tail  and  progressing  with  a  series  of  graceful  backward  and  for- 
ward jerkings  of  the  head.  This  alone  is  nearly  enough  for  recognition 
of  the  Gallinules;  but  the  brilliantly-coloured  bill  and  frontal  plate,  visible 
at  considerable  distances  in  the  bright  sunshine,  will  make  recognition 
certain.  Sometimes  individuals  are  jumped  by  the  observer,  quietly  poling 
along  a  narrow  winding  channel,  when  off  they  go  spattering  along  the 
surface  and  making  a  great  amount  of  disturbance  until  wing  borne.  The 
Gallinules  swim  habitually  and  with  ease,  but  rarely  venture  out  in  open 
water  Uke  the  Coots,  confining  themselves  to  the  small  pools  in  the  marsh 
or  to  the  clear  leads  or  passages  that  thread  them. 

218.  Purple  Gallinule.  lonornis  martinicus.  L,  13.  Resembles  the  Florida 
Gallinule,  but  neck  and  underparts  iridescent  with  pronounced  purplish-blue;  frontal 
plate  (Figure  26,  p.  22)  plumbous  blue  instead  of  red;  and  legs  yellow  instead  of  green. 
Juveniles  are  similar  but  reduced  in  tones  and  with  only  traces  of  iridescence. 

Distinctiojis.  Can  only  be  mistaken  for  the  Florida  Gallinule,  but  above  characters 
and  absence  of  conspicuous  white  streaks  on  flanks  are  differences. 

Field  Marks.  Gallinule  or  Mud-hen-like  outline,  decided  blue  iridescence,  yellow 
legs,  and  all  wliite  under  tail  coverts. 

Distribution.     Tropical  and  subtropical  America  regularly  north  to  the  Carolinas. 

Of  only  accidental  occurrence  in  Canada.  To  be  looked  for  only  in 
the  most  southern  sections. 

219.  Florida  Gallinule.  rice-bird,  mud-hen.  red-billed  mud-hen.  fr. — 
GALLINULE  DE  LA  FLORiDE.  Gollinula  galeata.  L,  13-50.  An  almost  evenly  colouied, 
slate-blue  bird;  darker  on  head  and  a  little  lighter  below,  tinged  with  slightly  iridescent 
reddish-brown;  conspicuous  white  flank  streaks  and  a  small  edging  of  same  under  tail;  bill 
and  frontal  plate  (Figure  26,  p.  22)  bright  red;  legs  green  with  red  garters  just  below  the 
feathering. 

Distinctions.  Distinguished  from  Purple  Gallinule  by  the  characters  mentioned  above ; 
from  the  Coot,  which  it  closely  resembles,  by  red  instead  of  white  bill  and  frontal  plate, 
white  flank  lines,  brownish  back,  and  clean  unwebbed  toes. 

Field  Marks.  Red  bill  and  frontal  plate,  white  flank  streaks,  brownish  back,  and  all 
dark  secondary  tips  when  flying. 

Nesting.  Usually  on  a  slight  eminence  such  as  an  old  muskrat  house  in  watery  marshes, 
in  nest  of  waste  vegetable  fragments. 

Distribution.  More  northern  than  the  Purple  Gallinule,  and  regularly  common  in 
Canada  only  along  the  lower  Great  Lakes. 

This  is  the  best  known  Mud-hen  of  southern  Canada.  Its  fairly  large 
size  and  palatable  flesh,  due  to  its  fondness  for  wild  rice  and  other  marsh 
seeds,  renders  it  an  object  of  pursuit  by  the  sportsman.  It  requires  more 
open  water  than  the  Rails,  but  in  general  resembles  them  in  habits.  It 
is  a  rather  noisy  bird,  especially  at  night;  and  during  the  day  joins  the 
Rails  in  their  chorus  of  surprise  at  unusual  and  unexpected  disturbances. 
At  times  one  bird  will  suddenly  utter  a  volley  of  cackles,  answered  immed- 
iately by  another,  and  another,  and  for  a  few  moments  the  apparently 
deserted  marsh  is  a  small  pandemonium  of  unexpected  bird  sounds. 

Economic  Status.  Except  as  a  game  bird  the  Gallinule  is  of  little 
account  economically. 


90 

Subfamily — Fulicince.     Coots. 

General  Description.  Rather  large,  duck-like  birds,  but  with  long  toes  fiu-nished  with 
membranous  lobes;  bill  extends  up  on  forehead  in  a  white  frontal  plate  or  shield  (Figiu-e 
14,  p.  20). 

Distinctions.  Much  like  the  Gallinules;  distinctions  given  under  description  of  species 
in  following  section. 

221.  American  Coot,  white-billed  mud-hen.  fr. — -la  foulque  d'amerique' 
Fulica  aniericana.  L,  15.  An  evenly  coloured,  slate-grey  bird,  darker  on  head,  lighter 
below;  bill  and  frontal  plate  (Figure  14,  p.  20)  white  with  solitary  reddish-brov\Ti  spots  at 
top  of  plate  and  on  tips  of  mandibles.  Legs  dull  green  and  toes  with  bordering  scallop  of 
web-flaps  (one  to  three  lobes  on  each  toe). 

Distinctions.     Distinguished  from  the  Gallinule  by  white  bill  and  the  toe-webs. 

Field  Marks.  Size,  slate-grey  coloration,  white  bill,  and  frontal  shield  and  when 
flying  the  border  of  white  secondary  tips  on  the  wings. 

Nesting.     Nest  very  similar  to  that  of  the  Florida  Gallinule. 

Distribution.  More  northern  than  the  Gallinules;  found  throughout  Canada  well 
into  the  cultivated  area;  breeds  wherever  found  in  Canada. 

Unlike  the  Gallinules,  which  quietly  leave  our  marshes  in  early  autumn, 
the  Coots  remain  until  late  in  the  season  and,  their  numbers  augmented 
by  migrants  from  the  north,  gather  in  large  flocks  in  small  lakes  and  ponds 
where  they  are  sometimes  shot  by  the  hunter  who  later  finds  them  indiff- 
erent eating. 

Economic  Status.  The  Coot  is  more  of  a  vegetable  feeder  than  even 
the  Gallinule,  but,  owing  to  its  habitat,  cannot  be  of  economic  importance 
except  as  a  second-rate  object  of  sport. 

Order— Limicolae.     Shore  Birds,  Snipes,  Sandpipers,  Plover,  etc. 

General  Description.  Shore  Birds  constitute  an  order  comparatively  easy  to  recog- 
nize but  difficult  to  briefly  describe.  All  snipe  or  plover-like  birds  are  included  in  this  order. 
They  have  moderately  to  extremely  long,  dehcately-formed  legs  for  wading  in  shallow  water 
and  pond  edges  and  neck  and  bill  (Figures  15,21,22,23,  pp.  20-22)  to  correspond.  The  toes 
may  be  either  three  or  four  in  number,  and  are  poorly  adapted  for  perching.  They  may  be 
without  webs  entirely,  or  with  partial  webs  situated  either  at  the  bases  of  the  toes,  or 
forming  scalloped  or  entire  edgings  to  them  (see  Phalaropes).  The  hind  toe  when  present 
is  small,  weak,  and  shghtly  elevated  above  the  rest.  The  wings  are  long  and  pointed  and 
the  secondaries  next  to  the  body  are  lengthened. 

Distinctions.  Some  Shore  birds  show  superficial  resemblance  to  the  Rails,  whereas 
others  in  certain  characteristics  (Curlews)  may  be  mistaken  for  either  Ibises  or  Herons, 
but  can  be  distinguished  from  them  by  the  small  and  elevated,  or  absent  hind  toe  and  the 
lack  of  bare  skin  between  eye  and  bill. 

Field  Marks.  General  outUne,  habit,  habitat,  and  flight,  characteristics  which  are  quite 
recognizable. 

Nesting.    On  ground,  except  one  species. 

Distribution.  The  order.  Shore  Birds,  is  cosmopolitan  and  there  are  few  areas  in  the 
world  that  some  of  its  members  do  not  occupy.  The  Old  and  New  World  forms  of  the 
northern  hemisphere  are  closely  related:  some  are  identical,  many  are  subspecifically 
related,  and  a  few,  such  as  the  Turnstone,  are  found  all  over  the  world.  Most  of  our 
northern  species  breed  in  the  far  north,  some  of  them  as  far  as  exploration  has  gone,  though 
a  few  nest  on,  and  across,  our  southern  borders. 

The  Shore  Birds,  in  the  days  of  their  original  abundance,  were  favour- 
ite game  birds;  now  since  their  numbers  have  been  so  greatly  reduced  they 
are  seldom  systematically  hunted,  and  only  shot  incidentally.  Of  the 
Shore  Birds  of  eastern  Canada,  Woodcock  and  Wilson's  Snipe  are  of  the 
most  interest  as  game.  The  representatives  of  the  order  found  in  eastern 
Canada  are  divided  into  six  families:  Phalaropodidce,  Phalaropes;  Recur- 


91 

virotridce,  Stilts  and  Avocets,  of  only  casual  occurrence  in  eastern  Canada; 
ScolopacidcB,  Snipes  and  Sandpipers,  constituting  the  bulk  of  our  species; 
Charadriidce,  Plover;  Aphrizidoe,  Turnstones;  and  Haematopodid(B,Oyster- 
catchers,  once  casual  now  probably  extinct  within  our  eastern  borders. 

Economic  Status.  Most  of  the  order  inhabit  waste  land  and  are  of 
little  economic  injfluence  ;  others,  frequenting  cultivated  fields,  are  of 
greater  importance  and  will  be  discussed  under  their  specific  headings.  On 
the  whole,  however,  the  order  is  either  harmless  or  actively  helpful  to  man. 

FAMILY — PHALAROPODID^.       PHALAROPES.       SEA    SNIPES. 

General  Description.  Small  birds  between  7-75  and  8-75  inches  long,  wader-like  in 
form  but  with  plumage  dense  and  duck-hke.  This,  combined  with  their  toes  bordered  with 
web-lobes  or  edgings  and  flattened  tarsi,  makes  them  comparatively  easy  to  recognize. 

Distinctions.  Small  waders  characterized  as  above.  Cannot  be  mistaken  for  any- 
thing else. 

Field  Marks.  Size,  bill  characteristics,  and  the  habit  of  swimming  and  feeding  in  deep 
water.     These  are  the  only  Shore  Birds  that  habitually  swim. 

Nesting.     On  ground,  nest  lined  with  a  few  mosses  or  grasses. 

Distribution.  Northern  and  western.  One  species  breeds  in  the  lower  prairie  provinces, 
the  other  two  along  the  Arctic  coasts  and  adjoining  islands.  Regular  migrants  along  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  eastern  Canada  and  down  the  Mississippi  valley,  but  merely  stragglers  in 
the  Great  Lakes  region. 

The  Phalaropes  constitute  a  small  anomalous  family  of  Shore  Birds 
whose  true  affinities  are  hardly  well  understood  or  settled.  They  swim 
with  ease  and  are  often  found  in  the  open  water,  even  out  at  sea,  where 
they  are  as  much  at  home  as  any  pelagic  species. 

Anomalous  in  structure  and  systematic  relationships,  they  are  equally 
so  in  habits.  The  female  instead  of  the  male  is  the  bright-coloured  repre- 
sentative of  the  family  circle  and  she  takes  the  initative  in  courting  rites; 
makes  the  first  advance  towards  her  shy  and  modestly-coloured  prospective 
mate  and  upon  fulfilling  her  duties  of  egg  deposition  leaves  the  further  cares 
of  incubation  and  family  raising  to  him. 

Economic  Status.  Inhabit  water  or  waste  shores  and  are  of  Httle  or  no 
economic  importance. 

222.  Red  Phalarope.  gery  phalarope,  whale  bird.  fr. — le  phalarope  roux. 
Phalaropus  fulicarius.  L,  8  •  12.  Adult  female  is  easily  recognized  by  the  even,  dull  reddish 
brown  of  the  foreneck  and  underparts.  The  back  is  light  ochre  and  black  in  stripes.  The 
male  is  similar,  but  the  colours  veiled,  broken,  and  less  distinct.  In  winter  this  species  is 
slate-grey  above  and  white  below. 

Distinctions.  The  Red  Phalarope  can  be  easily  distinguished  from  either  of  the  other 
two  members  of  the  family  by  its  bill  and  feet,  the  former  comparatively  broad  and  flat. 
Toes  webbed  at  base  and  with  projecting  scalloped  lobes  on  either  side.  See  following 
species. 

Field  Marks.  General  habits  and  habitat.  In  breeding  season  colour  is  best  niark 
of  recognition.  At  sea  this  species  is  said  to  show  more  black  on  top  of  head  and  in  wings 
than  the  other  phalaropes.  In  other  than  full  plumage  the  comparatively  short  and 
flattened  biU  is  perhaps  the  best  point  for  identification. 

Distribution.  Breeds  along  the  whole  Arctic  coast  of  America,  migrating  down  the  sea 
coasts  on  either  side;  rare  inland  in  Great  Lakes  region. 

223.  Northern  Phalarope.  red-necked  phalarope.  fr. — le  phalarope  hyper- 
BOREEN.  Lobipes  lobatus.  L,  7-75.  Adult  female:  upperparts,  back  of  neck,  and  head 
dark  slaty;  throat  and  below,  white;  sides  of  neck  meeting  on  front  of  lower  neck,  rich 
rufous,   with  hnes  of  same  along  back  over  closed  wing.     Male  similar  but  veiled  and  re- 

57172—7 


92 

duced  in  colour.  Winter  birds  light  grey  above,  white  below,  with  only  faint  suggestions 
of  above  coloration. 

Distinctions.  Bill  very  slender  and  awl-shaped,  rather  hke  Wilson's  Phalarope  but 
shorter;  feet  have  small  webs  and  scalloped  flaps,  hke  Red  Phalarope. 

Field  Marks.  General  colour  and  fine  needle-hke  bill.  Smallest  of  the  Phalaropes 
of  eastern  Canada. 

Distribution.     Similar  to  the  preceding. 

224.  Wilson's  Phalarope.  fr. — le  phalarope  de  wilson.  Steganopus  tricolor. 
L,  8  •  75.  Beautifully  coloured  bird.  Adult  female  has  stripes  of  sharply  contrasting  colour 
arranged  on  head  and  neck.  Crown  of  pearl-grey  shading  to  white  on  hind  neck  and  to 
grey  again  on  shoulders.  Black  hne  through  eye  and  down  side  of  neck,  changing  to  rich, 
chestnut-red  which  continues  along  side  of  back.  Throat,  white  blending  into  delicate 
vinaceous  on  neck  and  breast  to  white  again  on  lower  parts.  Male  greyish-brown  above 
and  white  below,  with  suggestion  of  the  females'  brighter  coloration. 

Distinctions.  Bill  very  long,  1-25  inches,  slender  and  needle-like,  an  exaggeration  of 
the  last  species.     Toes  not  webbed  but  furnished  with  narrow,  even  edges  of  membrane. 

Field  Marks.     Colour,  size,  and  extremely  long  and  slender  bill. 

Distribution.  A  mid-western  and  more  southern  species  than  the  preceding,  breeding 
in  the  prairie  provinces  and  only  of  casual  occurrence  east  on  lower  Great  Lakes. 

FAMILY — RECURVIROSTRID^.       AVOCETS   AND    STILTS. 

General  Description.  Among  the  largest  of  the  Shore  Birds  and  recognizable  by  their 
strikingly  contrasted  colours  and  great  length  of  legs  and  bill.  This  is  carried  to  an  extreme 
in  the  Stilts  which,  however,  are  entirely  extrahmital.  The  Avocet  has  occurred  accidenta- 
ally  within  our  borders  east  of  the  prairies. 

225.  American  Avocet.  fr. — l'avocette  d'ameriqtje.  Recurvirostra  ainericans. 
L,  16-50.  Large  and  most  striking  Shore  Bird,  with  warm  vinaceous  head  and  neck 
blending  into  white  underparts;  and  fuscous  and  white  in  sharply  contrasting  masses  on 
the  back. 

Distinctions.  Very  long,  slender,  tapering  bill  with  decided  upward  curve  in  its  outer 
half.     This  is  always  distinctive. 

Nesting.     A  slight  depression  in  the  groimd  near  water. 

Distribution.  A  mid-western  bird  of  the  interior,  breeding  in  the  prairie  provinces 
and  only  of  accidental  occurrence  east  of  Manitoba. 

This  species  is  included  only  because  of  the  occurrence  of  a  few  in- 
dividual specimens  east  of  the  prairie  provinces. 

FAMILY — SCOLOPACID^.       SNIPE-LIKE    BIRDS.       TIP-UPS,     SANDPIPERS,     ETC. 

General  Description.  Small  to  medium  Shore  Birds,  the  Curlew  being  the  largest 
species.  Feet  never  entirely  webbed  nor  toes  furnished  with  web-flaps  or  web-margins. 
Some  species  have  small  webs  between  the  base  of  the  toes,  giving  rise  to  the  term  "semi- 
palmated"  or  half-webbed.  All  but  one  species,  the  Sanderhng,  page  97,  have  four  toes. 
The  bills  are  long,  slender,  and  tapering;  usually  straight  (Figures  21,  22,  p.  21)  ;  but 
sometimes  down-cm-ved;  occasionally,  as  in  the  Godwits,  page  98,  very  slightly  up- 
curved;  rather  flexible  and  usually  slightly  enlarged  and  sensitive  at  the  tip. 

Distinctions.  Obvious  Shore  Birds,  usually  recognized  by  the  above  popular  names. 
Bill  does  not  taper  to  fine  sharp  point,  hke  that  of  the  previous  famihes,  and  has  not  the 
soft  base  and  horny  tip  of  the  Plover,  but  is  soft  and  rather  flexible  throughout  its  length  in 
contrast  to  the  horny  bills  of  the  Turnstones  and  the  Oyster-catchers. 

Nesting.  All  except  one  species,  the  Sohtary  Sandpiper,  page  99,  nest  on  the  ground, 
in  shght  hollows  lined  sparsely  with  the  waste  vegetable  matter  adjoining. 

Distribution.  Greater  number  nest  in  the  far  north,  though  a  few  species  are  found 
south  of  the  United  States  border.  They  migrate  down  our  coasts  or  through  the  interior 
according  to  species  and  distribution.  Some  of  them  have  most  interesting  migration 
routes. 

Among  these  birds  are  the  Woodcock  and  Snipes  of  the  wet  woods  and 
marshes;  the  Tip-ups,  Teeters,  and  Sandpipers  we  see  along  the  shores  and 
streams,  and  the  Curlew^s  of  the  uplands.     These  species  formed  the  great 


93 

bulk  of  the  wonderful  flocks  of  Shore  Birds  that  once  thronged  our  shores. 
Breeding  mostly  far  beyond  the  confines  of  cultivation  the  occupation  of 
their  nesting  grounds  by  settlers  has  had  only  the  slighest  influence  upon 
their  numbers.  The  great  reduction  must  be  blamed  upon  indiscriminate 
shooting.  As  they  fly  in  dense  flocks  they  offer  an  easy  target  and  eighty 
or  more  have  been  known  to  fall  at  one  discharge  of  the  gun,  so  that  there  is 
little  wonder  that  they  are  now  comparatively  scarce. 

Economic  Status.  Either  perfectly  harmless  or  actively  useful  accord- 
ing to  habitat. 

228.  American  Woodcock,  fr. — la  becasse  d'amerique.  becassine.  Philo- 
hela  minor.     L,  11.     Plate  VII  B. 

Distinctions.  Long  bill  (Figure  21,  p.  21)  and  eyes  situated  high  in  the  head,  dead- 
leaf  colours  of  underparts,  and  rich  browns  of  back  are  distinctive. 

Field  Marks.  The  bird's  habitat,  combined  with  long  bill,  size,  and  coloration  in 
rich  brown  and  dead-leaf  tints  render  it  easily  recognizable  in  life. 

Nesting.  On  ground  amidst  last  year's  dead  leaves,  with  which  its  plumage  harmoni- 
zes so  weU. 

Distribution.  Regularly  in  southern  Ontario  in  the  lower  Great  Lakes  region,  though 
occasional  individuals  straggle  over  a  much  wider  range. 

Woodcocks  haunt  moist  or  wet  shrubbery,  alder  or  hazel  thickets,  or 
the  tangled  edges  of  damp  woods.  They  spring  suddenly  from  the  ground 
on  being  disturbed,  rise  erratically  on  peculiarly  whistling  wings,  and 
passing  just  over  the  tops  of  the  underbrush  drop  suddenly  into  concealment 
again  a  few  rods  beyond.  It  is  well  within  the  memory  of  the  present 
generation  that  the  thickets  of  southern  Ontario  swarmed  with  Woodcock; 
but  now,  owing  to  unrestrained  shooting,  the  drainage  and  clearing  of 
waste  lands,  and  perhaps  the  depredations  of  the  domestic  cat,  the 
Woodcock  is  a  scarce,  almost  a  rare  bird.  Unlike  the  Ruffed  Grouse  or 
Partridge,  which  requires  considerable  and  virgin  ranges,  there  is  no 
fundamental  reason  why  the  Woodcock  should  not  remain  plentiful 
and  give  abundance  of  sport  for  years  to  come.  Almost  any  small 
retired  covert  of  damp  shrubbery  will  suffice  for  its  needs.  The 
Woodcock  leaves  for  the  south  very  shortly  after  the  open  season  begins 
and  is  not  long  subject  to  legitimate  shooting.  Next  to  man  the  cat 
seems  to  be  its  principal  enemy  and  as  the  Woodcock  lives  and  nests  on  the 
ground  trusting  to  protective  coloration  and  hiding  to  avoid  danger,  it  is 
peculiarly  open  to  feline  attack. 

230.  Wilson's  Snipe,  jack  snipe,  snipe,  fr. — la  becassine  de  wilson.  Gallin- 
ago  delicata.     L,  11-25.     Plate  VIII  A. 

Distinctions.  Unlikely  to  be  mistaken  for  any  other  species  in  Canada,  but  the  reddish- 
brown  tail,  whitening  on  the  outer  feathers,  and  barred  with  black,  will  distinguish  it  if 
necessary. 

Field  Marks.  Habitat  (open  grassy  meadows),  long  bill,  peculiar  cork-screw  flight 
as  it  rises,  combined  with  size,  general  coloration,  and  reddish-brown  and  whitish  tail. 
The  Woodcock  and  the  Dowitcher,  are  the  only  other  siniilar  birds. 

Distribution.  Breeds  across  the  continent,  coming  just  within  the  bounds  of  culti- 
vation and  irregularly  to  our  southern  borders.     Common  throughout  the  Dominion. 

231.  Dowitcher.  red-breasted  snipe,  robin  snipe,  fr.- — la  becassine  rousse. 
M acrorhamphus  griseus.  L,  10-50.  Spring  adult — throat,  foreneck,  breast,  and  all  under- 
parts strongly  reddish.  Back  and  upperparts  variegated  with  shades  of  same  and  dark 
brown.  Autumn  plumage  dull  greyish-brown  on  head,  neck,  upper  breast,  flanks,  and  back, 
variegated  with  browner  on  the  latter ;  white  below.  Lower  back  always  white.  Interme- 
diates of  all  above  plumages  occur. 

57172— 7i 


94 

Distinctions.  Same  general  appearance  as  Wilson's  Snipe,  but  with  red  front  and 
underparts  in  spring,  and  without  the  rich  browns  of  that  species  in  autumn.  Bill  is  longer 
in  comparison  with  size  than  any  other  bird  except  Wilson's  Snipe.  A  very  similar  red 
breast  occurs  in  the  Knot,  but  the  longer  bill  of  the  Dowitcher  (L,  2  10-2 -50  against 
L,  1-30)  is  conclusive  identification. 

Field  Marks.  About  the  size  and  general  outline  of  Wilson's  Snipe,  but  with  conspicu- 
ous white  on  lower  back  and  more  white  on  tail.     Habitat  also  different. 

Distribution.  Breeds  in  the  far  north,  west  and  probably  east  of  Hudson  bay.  Scarce 
on  Great  Lakes,  more  common  on  coast.  Our  eastern  migrants  are  supposedly  Ungava 
breeders,  but  acciu-ate  data  on  this  point  are  lacking. 

SUBSPECIES.  A  slightly  differentiated  subspecies,  the  Long-billed  Dowitcher 
M.  g.  scolopaceous  occurs  in  the  west.  It  is  distinguished  by  its  §lightly  larger  size,  longer 
bill,  heavier  spotting  of  breast,  and  more  extensive  red  below.  It  is  difficult  to  differentiate 
bright  plumages,  and  birds  and  juveniles  can  rarely  be  told  apart.  The  Long-billed  Do- 
witcher is  to  be  expected  in  eastern  Canada  only  in  the  Great  Lakes  region  and  its  occurrence 
should  not  be  recorded  imless  the  specimen  has  been  well  compared  with  authentic  material. 

A  bird  frequenting  mud  flats  rather  than  grassy  meadows. 

233.  Stilt  Sandpiper,  fr. — -  la  maubIiche  a  longs  pieds.  Micropalama  himan- 
topus.  L,  8-25.  Brown  markings  on  gi-ound  of  dull  white;  underparts  lighter  and  the 
dark  arranged  in  uniform  bars  changing  to  obscure  striping  on  the  foreneck  and  to  fine 
spotting  on  the  throat.  Autumn  plmnage  shows  no  sign  of  this  characteristic  barring; 
back  with  various  shades  of  brown  in  strong  pattern,  underparts  nearly  pure  white,  shghtly 
veiled  with  ochraceous  on  breast  and  foreneck  where  it  is  faintly  and  obscurely  spotted 
with  dark. 

Distinctions.  The  evenly  barred  imderparts  of  the  spring  plumage  are  unmistakable. 
The  autumn  bird  resembles  several  species.  The  length  of  the  bill,  1-50,  and  of  the  tarsus, 
1  •  60,  are  greater  than  those  of  any  other  Shore  Bird  of  otherwise  equal  size.  The  Red- 
backed  Sandpiper  has  a  bill  of  almost  equal  length,  but  it  is  heavier  and  has  less  of  an 
abrupt  spatulate  enlargement  at  the  extreme  tip. 

Field  Marks.  Contrast  of  its  small  size  and  great  length  of  bill.  Upper  tail  coverts, 
instead  of  lower  back  as  in  the  Dowitcher,  are  light  in  spring  and  white  in  autumn. 

Distribution.  Breeds  on  Arctic  coast  northwest  of  Hudson  bay.  In  migration,  pro- 
bably more  common  in  the  interior  than  on  the  coast.  Regular  but  rare  in  autumn  on 
lake  Ontario. 

One  of  the  rarest  of  eastern  Shore  Birds,  sometimes  associated  with  the 
Dowitcher  and  Yellow-legs  on  mud  flats. 

234.  Knot,  red-breasted  plover,  robin  snipe,  fr. — la  maubeche  a  poitrine 
ROUSSE.  Tringa  canutjis.  L,  10-50.  In  spring — upper  parts  mottled  with  various  shades 
of  brown  and  ochre,  throat,  foreneck,  and  below  strong  duU  rufous,  lighter  towards  the 
tail.  In  autumn — hght  smoky  grey,  pure  white  below,  breast  and  foreneck  slightly  darker 
with  fine,  obscured  spotting. 

Distinctions.  Spring  birds  as  regards  size  may  be  confused  only  with  Dowitcher. 
The  short  bill,  L,  1-30,  as  against  L,  2 -10-2 -50  of  the  Dowitcher,  is  conclusive  differentia- 
tion. Autumn  birds  very  similar  to  several  species  of  like  coloration.  Even  light  grey 
coloration  of  back  quite  similar  to  that  of  the  autumn  Red-back,  but  in  the  Knot  each  feather 
is  margined  with  faint  line  of  lighter  colom-  giving  effect  of  a  succession  of  semicircles,  present 
in  no  other  Shore  Bird. 

Field  Marks.  In  spring — bill,  shorter  than  that  of  the  Dowitcher  which  it  otherwise 
resembles,  and  greyish  but  not  conspicuous  white  over  tail.  In  autumn — light  grey  back, 
lighter  towards  tail,  is  best  recognition  mark. 

Distribution.  A  circurnpolar  species  of  extraordinary  migration  range.  Breeding 
on  the  Arctic  circurnpolar  islands  and  ranging  in  winter  to  South  Africa,  Patagonia,  and 
New  Zealand,  etc.  Apparently  less  common  in  the  Great  Lakes  region  than  on  the  Atlantic 
coast. 

A  bird  to  be  found  on  sandy  beaches  as  well  as  on  mud  flats.     It  is 
steadily  decreasing  in  numbers  like  so  many  of  its  allies. 

235.  Purple  Sandpiper,  winter  snipe,  rock  snipe,  fr.— la  maubeche  pour- 
PREE.    Arquatella  maritima.    L,  9.    Greyish-black  on  back,  including  head  and  extending 


95 

across  front  of  neck  and  throat,  and  along  flanks.  Lighter  on  throat  and  darkest  on  back, 
white  below.  Over  darker  parts  a  faint  suffusion  of  slightly  iridescent  purple  more  or  less 
mottled  with  lighter  feather  edgings.  Autunan  plumage  similar,  but  light  feather  margins 
more  extensive.    Legs  and  feet  orange  in  spring. 

Distinctions.     The  only  Shore  Bird  with  back  so  uniformly  black. 

Field  Marks.  In  spring,  general  dark  colour  and  short  orange  legs.  In  autumn, 
season  of  appearance  is  almost  diagnostic  as  it  comes  very  late,  well  into  the  winter,  when 
other  Shore  Birds  have  left. 

Distribution.  The  Eastern  Purple  Sandpiper  probably  breeds  on  the  islands  of  the 
Arctic.  In  migration,  more  common  on  the  sea  coast  than  on  the  Great  Lakes  where  it  is 
very  rare. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Pm-ple  Sandpiper  occurs  in  both  the  New  and  the  Old  Worlds. 
The  subspecies  occurring  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Canada  is  the  Eastern  Purple  Sandpiper, 
the  type  race. 

A  very  late  autumn  migrant  coming  long  after  all  other  Shore  Birds 
have  deserted  us.  November  and  December  are  the  months  of  its  appear- 
ance. Its  apparent  rarity  may  be  largely  due  to  its  coming  after  the  shores 
are  deserted  by  the  gunner.  It  prefers  rocky  shores  to  either  sand  or 
mud. 

239.  Pectoral  Sandpiper,  grass  snipe,  fr. — la  maubeche  a  poitrine  cendree. 
Pisobia  maculata.  L,  9.  Upper  parts  dark  brown,  each  feather  edged  with  shade  of 
light  ochre;  underparts  and  throat  white;  lower  neck  and  breast  suffused  with  Mght 
brownish  buff  and  closely  streaked  with  dark  brown. 

Distinctions.  Size  and  rather  sharply  streaked  brownish  buff  front  are  distinctive. 
The  White-rumped  Sandpiper  and  Baird's  Sandpiper  may  be  somewhat  similar  in  this 
respect,  but  rmnp  of  the  former,  and  smaller  size  of  both  are  evident. 

Field  Marks.  Its  usual  grassy  marsh  habitat  makes  Wilson's  Snipe  the  bird  most 
likely  to  be  confused  with  it,  but  the  shortness  of  bill  of  the  Pectoral  Sandpiper  is  obvious. 
It  appears  as  an  even  brown  bird  without  hght  on  riunp  or  elsewhere  above,  much  like  a 
large  Least  Sandpiper. 

Distribution.  Breeds  on  the  Arctic  coast  northwest  of  Hudson  bay.  Common 
migrant  throughout  eastern  Canada. 

The  Pectoral  Sandpiper,  hke  Wilson's  Snipe,  is  to  be  found  in  wet 
grassy  meadows,  or  on  mud  flats,  rarely  if  ever  on  sandy  beaches.  In  the 
grass  it  lies  well  to  a  dog  and  sometimes  furnishes  good  sport.  On  the 
breeding  grounds  it  develops  a  neck-sac  that  can  be  blown  up  to  an  extra- 
ordinary extent  and  indulges  in  a  flight-song  that  is  unusual  among  the 
generally  songless  Shore  Birds. 

240.  White-rumped  Sandpiper.  Bonaparte's  sandpiper,  fr. — la  maubeche  A. 
CRUPiON  BLANC.  Pisobia  fuscicolHs.  L,  7-50.  Back  and  upperparts  dark  brown  broadly 
margined  with  greyish  and  ochraceous-brown,  the  former  predominating.  Rump  and  all 
lower  parts  white,  foreneck  and  upper  breast  sharply  and  finely  striped  with  dark  brown. 
In  autumn,  similar,  but  more  ruddy-ochraceous  on  back,  and  front  stripings  more  blended. 

Distinctions.  Size  and  white  rump  distinguish  it  from  comparable  species.  The 
Hudsonian  Godwit  and  Stilt  Sandpiper  have  white  upper  tail  coverts,  but  the  former  is 
much  too  large  a  bird  to  be  a  source  of  error  and  the  latter's  longer  slender  bill  or 
barred  breast  are  distinctive. 

Field  Marks.     General  size  and  colour,  and  conspicuous  large  white  rump. 

Distribution.  Breeds  on  Arctic  coast  west  to  near  Alaskan  border.  In  migration 
common  on  Atlantic  coast,  rather  scarce  in  Great  Lakes  region. 

This  species  frequents  mud  flats  and  rocky  shores  rather  than  sandy 
beaches.  It  often  accompanies  the  flocks  of  Least  and  Semipalmated 
Sandpipers. 

241.  Baird's  Sandpiper,  fr. — la  maubeche  de  baird.  Pisobia  bairdi.  L,  7-40. 
Back  to  top  of  head  dark  brown  edged  with  hght  ochraceous;  below  and  throat,  white; 
band  of  hght  buff  across  chest;  lower  foreneck  dimly  striped  with  fine  brown  lines. 


96 

Distinctions.  Resembles  White-rump,  but  with  rump  dark  and  a  more  buffy  suffusion 
across  front.    Also  considerably  like  Least  Sandpiper,  but  larger. 

Field  Marks.     Resembles  large  Least  Sandpiper,  with  buffy  breast  suffusion. 

Distribution.  Breeds  on  Arctic  coast  across  the  continent.  More  common  in  migra- 
tions in  the  prairie  provinces  than  on  the  coasts.  Not  uncommon  in  the  Great  Lakes  region, 
scarcer  farther  east. 

Sandy  margins  and  mud  flats  seem  equally  attractive  to  this  species. 
It  is  often  found  in  company  with  Least  and  Semipalmated  Sandpipers, 
though  more  independent  of  water  than  many  of  its  family. 

242.  Least  Sandpiper,  mud  peep,  green-legged  peep.  fr. — la  maub^che  de 
WILSON.  Pisobia  minutilla.  L,  6.  Upperparts  and  crown,  dark  brown  edged  more  or  less 
broadly  with  various  shades  of  ochraceous-buff  and  ruddy  tints;  white  below.  Across 
breast  and  foreneck  a  dark  suffusion  sometimes  tinged  with  buff  with  more  or  less  pro- 
nounced dark  striping  and  spotting. 

Distinctions.  Distinguished  by  its  extremely  small  size  from  all  other  species  except 
the  Semipalmated  Sandpiper,  and  from  that  by  the  absence  of  webs  between  the  toes. 

Field  Marks.  Differentiated  from  the  Semipalmated  Sandpiper  by  the  dark  greenish 
instead  of  black  colour  of  the  legs. 

Distribution.  Breeds  in  high  latitudes  across  the  continent  as  far  south,  in  the  east, 
as  the  Magdalen  islands  in  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  Common  throughout  eastern  Canada 
in  migration. 

One  of  the  most  numerous  of  Shore  Birds.  Probably  its  diminutive 
size  has  protected  it  from  the  sportsman,  though  from  its  dense  flocks 
numbers  can  be  obtained  at  a  single  shot.  It  frequents  sandy  beaches  and 
open  mud  flats  and  is  a  tame  and  confiding  bird.  It  associates  largely  with 
flocks  of  other  species,  though  when  disturbed  separates  from  them  to 
rejoin  the  company  later.  It  arrives  and  leaves  earlier  in  the  autumn  than 
the  Semipalmated. 

243.  Dunlin,  red-backed  sandpiper,  black-heart  plover,  red-back.  Ameri- 
can dunlin.  PR. — LA  maubeche  A  DOS  Roux.  Pelidna  alpina.  L,  8.  Spring  bird  is 
too  strongly  marked  to  be  mistaken  for  anything  else.  Back  is  dark  brown  so  broadly 
edged  with  red-ochre  as  to  be  mostly  red.  A  large  more  or  less  diffused,  almost  black 
spot  occupies  the  abdominal  surface.  Bill  slightly  decurved  (Figure  22,  p.  21).  Autumn 
bird  is  without  these  striking  characteristics.  Upper  surface  is  almost  uniform,  light 
brownish-grey  suffusing  across  breast  and  lower  neck.     Below,  and  throat,  white. 

Distinctions.  Colour  in  autumn  similar  to  Autumn  Knot,  but  smaller  size  and  lack  of 
light  semicircles  of  feather  edges  will  always  differentiate  it  even  if  occasional  traces  of 
spring  plumage  are  not  present.  It  may  also  suggest  the  Curlew  Sandpiper,  but  the 
upper  tail  coverts  are  dark  instead  of  greyish. 

Field  Marks.  In  spring — red  back,  and  black  spot  below  are  evident.  In  autumn — 
even  grey  back  and,  when  flyiug,  a  line  of  white  on  the  wing.  Shght  but  distinct  down- 
ward bend  of  bill  also  helps  identification. 

Distribution.  Including  the  European  form  the  species  is  circumpolar.  The  American 
Dunlin,  the  Red-backed  Sandpiper,  nests  on  the  Arctic  coast  locally  across  the  continent. 
It  is  a  common  migrant  throughout  eastern  Canada. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  New  World  representative  of  the  Dunlin  is  a  subspecific  race, 
the  Red-backed  Sandpiper  or  American  Dunlin  P.  a.  sakhalina,  which  is  distinguished  from 
the  Old  World  form  only  by  its  slightly  larger  size. 

This  bird  frequents  sand-bars,  mud  flats,  or  salt  meadows.  It  is 
among  the  latest  of  the  Shore  Birds  to  arrive  both  spring  and  autumn. 

244.  Curlew  Sandpiper.  Eroliaferruginea.  L,  8.  Small  red-breasted  Sandpiper. 
Autumn  birds  greyish-brown  above  and  white  below. 

Distinctions.  Resembles  the  Knot  or  Dowitcher  in  having  red  breast,  but  much 
smaller  and  of  more  slender  build. 


97 

Distribution.  Breeds  in  Arctic  Siberia.  Of  only  casual  occurrence  in  eastern  Canada. 
More  records  from  the  Atlantic  coast  than  inland,  though  there  is  one  from  lake  Ontario. 

An  Old  World  form  occasionally  seen  in  the  New  World.  Said  to 
resemble  the  Red-back  in  habit,  but  too  scarce  in  eastern  Canada  to  be 
looked  for  as  a  regular  visitor.  Any  record  of  this  species  should  be  founded 
on  definite  specimens  and  subjected  to  a  rigid  scrutiny. 

246.  Setnipaltnated  Sandpiper,  black-legged  peep.  fr. — la  maubeche  semi- 
PALMEE.  Ereimetes  pusillus.  L,  6-30.  Upper  parts,  including  crown,  dark  brown 
edged  with  light  ochraceous  or  buf fy ;  all  white  below,  with  vague  band  of  slightly  darker 
across  the  chest  with  obscure  streakings  and  spots. 

Distinctions.  Very  similar  in  size  and  coloration  to  the  Least  Sandpiper,  from  which 
it  cannot  always  be  distinguished  except  by  close  examination.  The  toes,  however,  have 
small  webs  between  their  bases,  giving  the  bird  the  name  Semipalmated. 

Field  Marks.  Differentiated  from  the  Least  Sandpiper  by  its  shghtly  larger  size, 
purer  grey  back,  and  whiter,  more  clearly  lined  breast.  Legs  and  feet  are  black  instead 
of  dark  olive  green. 

Distribution.  Breeds  along  the  eastern  Arctic  coast  south  to  southern  Labrador. 
Common  in  migration  throughout  eastern  Canada. 

Verj''  similar  in  habit  as  well  as  appearance  to  the  Least  Sandpiper, 
page  96.  The  Western  Sandpiper  Ereimetes  mauri  is  a  closely  allied  form 
that  may  be  only  a  subspecies  of  the  Semipalmated  Sandpiper.  It  is 
distinguished  by  a  slightly  longer  bill  and  a  larger  amount  of  red  on  the 
back,  especially  on  the  hindhead.  Its  occurrence  in  the  Great  Lakes  region 
is  very  doubtful. 

248.  Sanderling.  fr. — la  sanderling.  Calidris  leucophcea.  L,  8.  In  spring — 
upperparts,  including  crown,  dark  brown  variegated  with  much  light  rusty  ochre  or  white, 
or  both.  Below,  white.  Throat,  neck,  and  upper  breast  overwashed  with  more  or  less 
reddish-ochre  and  spotted  with  brown.  The  details  of  these  colourings  are  exceedingly 
variable.  The  back  may  show  enough  of  the  various  colours  to  make  it  either  generally 
greyish,  ochraceous,  or  rusty,  and  the  coloured  and  spotted  throat  may  be  nearly  immacu- 
lately white.  The  autumn  bird  is  similar  without  much  buffy  or  any  reddish  or  ochra- 
ceous tint,  it  is  pure  white  below  and  in  front,  and  often  predominantly  grey  to  light 
ashy  above. 

Distinctions.  From  traces  to  strong  washes  of  rusty  on  neck  and  around  head  in  the 
spring  and  the  general  whiteness  in  autumn.  The  Sanderling  can  be  told  from  aU  other 
Sandpipers  by  having  three  toes  instead  of  four. 

Field  Marks.  Rufous  suffusion  about  the  head  in  some  spring  birds,  general  con- 
trasting black  and  white  appearance  on  the  wing,  and  line  of  white  along  the  bases  of 
flight  feathers  in  all  plumages.     The  pure  white  breast  in  autumn  is  also  characteristic. 

Distribution.  Breeds  on  the  islands  of  the  Arctic  west  to  Alaska.  A  common  migrant 
on  sandy  shores  throughout  eastern  Canada. 

A  bird  of  sandy  shores,  seldom  frequenting  mud  flats.  One  of  the  most 
beautiful  and  interesting  of  the  small  Shore  Birds.  It  haunts  the  edge  of 
the  water,  following  each  retreating  wave,  and  rapidly  running  back  again 
before  the  wave's  return,  threatened  every  moment  to  be  engulfed  in  the 
surf  but  always  just  escaping.  As  the  birds  fly  out  over  the  blue  water,  the 
sun  shining  on  their  glistening  plumage,  they  are  a  beautiful  sight;  at  one 
moment  turning  their  daintily  coloured  black  and  white  backs  and  the  next, 
as  though  moved  by  a  single  impulse,  banking  on  a  wide  wheel  and  showing 
the  pure  glistening  white  of  their  underparts. 

249.  Marbled  Godwit.  fr. — la  barge  marbree.  Limosa  fedoa.  L,  18.  A  very 
large  Shore  Bird;  a  general  hght  buff,  faintly  pinkish  shade  all  over,  except  throat  which 
may  be  white.  Back,  hind-neck  to  crown,  variegated  with  dark  brown  and  hght  tints  and 
the  breast  and  flanks  more  or  less  barred  with  fme  lines  of  the  same  dark  colour. 


98 

Distinctions.  Similar  to  the  Curlews  in  general  appearance  but  bill  slightly  turned 
up  instead  of  decisively  turned  down.  Distinguished  from  the  Hudsonian  Godwit  by  fine, 
dark  marbhng  on  the  pinkish  buff  of  the  primaries. 

Field  Marks.  The  Godwits  are  among  the  largest  of  our  Shore  Birds,  practically 
equal  to  the  Curlews  in  size.  The  bill  not  turned  down  will  distinguish  them  from  the 
Curlews. 

Distribution.  Breeds  in  the  prairie  provinces  including  some  cultivated  regions, 
migrates  to  both  oceans,  occurring  casually  in  the  eastern  parts  of  the  Maritime 
Provinces. 

Never  abundant  in  eastern  Canada,  this  species  is  being  sadly  reduced 
in  numbers  like  other  large  birds.  Doubtless  its  habit  of  nesting  within 
cultivated  areas  has  had  considerable  to  do  with  its  disappearance. 

251.  Hudsonian  Godwit.  fr. — la  baege  de  la  baie  d'hudson.  Limosa  hoemas- 
tica.  L,  15.  In  spring — upperparts,  dark-brown  to  crown,  marked  with  more  or  less 
greyish  or  buffy  and  touches  of  rusty;  underparts,  reddish-brown,  more  or  less  barred 
with  dark  and  suffusing  up  foreneck.  Autumn — upperparts  unmarked  brownish-grey; 
underparts,  buffy-white  or  dingy  white,  breast  greyer. 

Distinctions.  Distinguished  from  the  Curlews  by  the  shghtly  turned  up  instead  of 
distinctly  turned  down  bill;  from  the  Marbled  Godwit  by  the  red  underparts  in  spring, 
and  at  all  seasons  by  the  all  dark,  white  shafted  primaries  without  marbling.  This  species 
shows  almost  endless  variations  between  the  above  plumages,  but  suggestions  of  the  spring 
coloration  are  usually  recognizable  in  aU  except  young  birds. 

Field  Marks.  Large  size,  straight  or  shghtly  turned  up  bill,  and  white  rvunp  at  base 
of  black  tail,  will  separate  this  from  either  the  Curlews  or  the  Marbled  Godwit  which  are 
the  only  species  that  are  hkely  to  be  confused  with  it. 

Distribution.  Breeds  in  the  northwest  beyond  civihzation.  Most  common  eastward 
from  the  prairies  to  the  Maritime  Provinces  in  autumn,  and  in  the  interior  in  spring. 

The  Hudsonian  Godwit  is  a  fine  bird  on  the  verge  of  extinction. 
As  frequently  happens,  it  seemed  to  disappear  suddenly  and  before  its 
growing  scarcity  was  realized.  It  is  doubtful  whether  shooting  is  altogether 
responsible  for  this  condition.  When  a  species  is  greatly  reduced  in  numbers 
by  any  cause,  an  otherwise  comparatively  unimportant  adverse  influence 
may  suffice  to  snuff  it  out  unexpectedly.  Protection  is  ineffective  when 
delayed  so  long  that  the  breeding  stock  is  too  greatly  reduced  for  recovery. 

254.  Greater  Yellow-legs,  greater  tell-tale.  fr. — la  grand  chevaller  a 
pieds  jattnes.  chevalier  ou  pattes  jatjnes.  Totanus  melanoleuciis.  L,  14.  A 
rather  large  Shore  Bird.  Upperparts  to  crown  dark  brown  to  black  with  small  white  or 
grey  markings  and  intrusive  greyish  feathers,  giving  a  grey  effect;  without  trace  of  buff 
or  rufous.  Underparts  white,  streaked  on  foreneck,  breast,  and  flanks  with  distinct 
streaks  or  bars  of  the  same  dark  colour  as  on  the  back;   legs  very  long  and  yellow. 

Distinctions.  Size,  yellow  legs,  and  lack  of  any  indication  of  buffy  or  rusty  anywhere 
are  marks  of  the  two  Yellow-legs.  In  young  autumn  birds  the  breast  and  neck  marks 
may  be  veiled  and  indistinct.     This  and  the  next  species  distinguished  only  by  size. 

Field  Marks.  Long,  slender  yellow  legs,  entire  lack  of  ochraceous  colour,  size,  and 
the  lal"ge  amount  of  white  or  whitish  on  tail  and  rump.  When  once  acquainted  with  it, 
its  flight  is  quite  recognizable. 

Distribution.  Breeds  in  high  latitudes  across  the  continent.  In  the  east,  south 
to  Anticosti  island  and  the  north  shore  of  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence;  conunon  in  migrations 
throughout  eastern  Canada. 

The  Greater  Yellow-legs  is  one  of  the  best  known  Shore  Birds.  Owing 
to  its  size  and  comparative  numbers  it  is  much  sought  after  by  sportsmen 
and  it  seems  to  have  withstood  their  attacks  better  than  many  other 
apparently  equally  well-adapted  species.  It  prefers  marshy  shores  and 
mud  to  open  sand  and  may  be  seen  far  out  on  the  flats  wading  about, 
thigh  deep,  in  water  too  deep  for  smaller  waders.  Its  clear  flute-Hke 
tremolo  whistle  in  a  descending  scale  is  a  sound  to  accelerate  the  pulse 


99 

of  any  true  sportsman  or  bird  student.  This  species  does  not  seem  as 
numerous  and  is  certainly  more  wary  than  the  Lesser  Yellow-legs;  other- 
wise this  description  will  do  for  both. 

255.  Lesser  Yellow-legs,  little  tell-tale.  fr. — le  petit  chevalier  a  pieds 
jAUNEs.     Totanus  flavipes.     L,  10-75.     Smaller  edition  of  the  last  species. 

Distribution.  Breeds  across  the  continent,  in  high  latitudes.  A  common  migrant 
throughout  eastern  Canada  but  not  breeding  there  within  cultivated  areas. 

256.  Solitary  Sandpiper,  fr. — le  chevalier  solitaire.  Helodromas  solifarius. 
L,  8-40.  Upperparts  dark,  almost  black,  with  a  shght  greenish  lustre  accented  by  com- 
paratively few  small  white  spots;  underparts  and  throat,  white;  lower  neck,  breast-band, 
and  sides  of  flanks  barred  and  striped  with  hghter  shades  of  back  colour;  no  tinge  of 
buff  or  other  shades. 

Distinctions.  Size  and  general  coloration;  the  white,  dark-barred,  axillars  are  con- 
clusive. 

Field  Marks.  Resembles  both  the  Spotted  Sandpiper  and  the  Lesser  Yellow-legs. 
Distinguished  from  the  former  by  the  lack  of  a  white  hne  on  the  spread  wing  and  the 
conspicuously  white  barring  on  the  tail;  and  from  the  latter  by  size,  and  black  instead 
of  white  rump. 

Nesting.  For  a  long  time  the  breedmg  habits  of  this  species  were  unknown  and  the 
problem  of  its  nesting  was  not  solved  imtil  it  was  discovered  that  it  used  the  deserted 
nests  of  perching  birds  in  trees  and  bushes.  The  closely  aUied  Green  Sandpiper  of  Europe 
has  the  same  habit. 

Distribution.  Breeds  northward  from  well  within  the  hmits  of  cultivation;  fairly 
common  throughout  eastern  Canada  as  migrant  or  breeder. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Sohtary  Sandpiper  is  represented  by  two  subspecies  in  Canada, 
only  one  of  which,  the  Eastern  Sohtary,  the  type  form,  occurs  in  the  east. 

As  implied  by  the  name,  this  species  is  a  rather  solitary  bird,  being 
found  as  single  individuals  and  pairs  rather  than  in  flocks  even  in  migration 
time.  It  is  a  mud  haunter  and  with  the  Spotted  Sandpiper  is  the  only 
wader  that  is  commonly  seen  about  such  small  waters  as  drainage  ditches 
or  along  the  edges  of  flooded  woods. 

258.  Willet.  Catoptrophorus  semipalmatus.  L,  15.  A  large  Shore  Bird;  upperparts 
buffy-grey  marked  with  darker;  imderparts,  white  suffused  with  hght  greyish  buff; 
barred  and  striped  with  darker  on  flanks,  breast,  and  foreneck;    rump  white. 

Distinctions.  Size,  general  hghtness  and  greyness  of  coloration,  conspicuous  white 
wing-spot  on  primaries,  white  rump,  and  black  axillars.  The  characteristic  Sandpiper 
bill  will  distinguish  the  Willet  from  the  Black-billed  Plover  which  has  also  these  rump 
and  axillar  details. 

Field  Marks.  In  size  it  resembles  the  Godwits  more  than  anything  else,  but  ashy 
greyness  and  the  conspicuous  white  wing-spots  are  distinctive. 

"  Distribution.  Breeds  to  the  south  of  us,  originally  from  Virginia  to  Nova  Scotia 
in  the  east,  and  locally  westward  to  the  central  parts  of  the  prairie  provinces.  Now  very 
rare  on  the  coast,  irregular  but  shghtly  more  common  in  the  Great  Lakes  region,  and 
fairly  common  to  the  west  in  parts  of  the  prairie  provinces. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  species  is  divided  into  an  eastern  and  a  western  subspecies, 
the  latter  based  upon  slightly  larger  size  and  greyer  colour.  The  exact  subspecific  status 
of  the  Great  Lakes  bird  is  not  quite  satisfactorily  established.  In  all  probability  the 
few  that  remaiQ  in  the  Maritime  Provinces  are  Eastern  Willets,  whereas  those  of  the 
Great  Lakes  may  be  the  Western  Willet,  C.  s.  inornatus,  or  intermediates.  Material 
on  hand  is  too  scanty  to  make  definite  pronouncements  and  unless  the  species  recovers 
at  least  some  of  its  original  numbers  we  may  never  be  able  to  satisfactorily  locate  the 
range  boundaries  of  the  two  forms. 

The  Willet  is  another  large  and  important  species  rapidly  diminishing 
in  numbers,  a  reduction  due  perhaps  largely  to  its  southern  breeding  range 
and  inadequate  protection. 


100 

261.  Upland  Plover,  bartramian  sandpiper,  bartram's  plover,  field  plover. 
FR. — LA  MAUBECHE  A  LONGUE  QUEUE.  Bartramia  longicauda.  L,  11-50.  Upperparts, 
dark;  feathers  deeply  edged  with  buff  which  colour  suffusea  rather  strongly  over  head, 
breast,  and  neck.  Dark  V-shaped  markings  on  breast  turning  to  bars  on  flanks  and 
stripes  on  neck;    underparts,  dull,  creamy-white. 

Distinctions.  Bearing  in  mind  that  this  species  is  a  Sandpiper  and  not  a  real  Plover, 
the  size  and  general  suffusion  of  buff  is  characteristic.  The  inner  web  of  the  first  primary, 
sharply  marked  with  acute,  dark,  saw-teeth  against  a  white  ground  for  most  of  its  length, 
is  a  character  that  occurs  in  no  other  comparable  Canadian  Shore  Bird.  The  Hudsonian 
Curlew  has  a  similar  design  but  on  a  buff  ground. 

Field  Marks.  The  Upland  Plover  on  the  ground  is  scarcely  recognizable  as  a  wader 
by  those  unfamihar  with  it,  resembling  a  long-legged  grouse  chick  rather  than  a 
Sandpiper.  In  flight,  however,  it  exhibits  its  true  relationship.  Size,  general  buflfiness, 
and  upland  habitat  are  distinctions.  Its  beautiful  long  drawn  whistle  once  heard  can 
never  be  mistaken. 

Distribution.  Properly  a  bird  of  the  prairie  regions  but  probably  spreading  to  the 
east  when  the  forests  were  cleared  away.  It  breeds  in  the  more  southern  parts  of  eastern 
Canada  and  in  the  prairie  provinces,  appearing  occasionally  on  the  Atlantic  coast  as  a 
migrant. 

Though  called  a  Plover  in  its  accepted  name,  this  species  is  a  true 
Sandpiper.  The  term  Bartramian  Sandpiper  is  a  more  satisfactory  name 
and  the  one  that  should  be  in  general  use  instead  of  Upland  Plover.  Once 
considerably  more  common  that  at  present  in  the  Great  Lakes  region,  it  is 
now  scarce  or  rare.  The  species  nested  in  the  cultivated  sections  and  was 
exposed  to  the  accompanying  dangers  of  such  localities:  agricultural  dis- 
turbances to  nesting,  the  ever  present  small  boy  with  his  cheap  shot  gun, 
the  pot-hunter,  and  the  sportsman.  Size  and  ease  of  approach  have 
evidently  been  the  cause  of  its  disappearance,  where  the  smaller  and  warier 
Killdeer  has  been  able  to  survive  under  the  same  conditions.  As  indicated 
by  its  name  this  species  has  deserted  the  ancestral  wet  habitat  of  its  family 
and  taken  to  upland  meadows  and  dry  pastures.  It  is,  however,  rarely 
found  at  any  great  distance  from  some  small  body  of  water.  It  alights 
readily  on  fences,  fence-posts,  buildings,  or  trees  on  occasion. 

Economic  Status.  Frequenting  cultivated  land,  this  species  feeds 
largely  on  insects,  grasshoppers,  cut-worms,  and  other  enemies  to  grass 
crops.  It  has  been  known  to  be  of  marked  importance  in  reducing  locust 
plagues,  hence  it  must  be  classed  among  our  most  beneficial  species  and  its 
presence  should  be  encouraged. 

262.  Buff-breasted  Sandpiper,  fr. — la  maub^che  a  poitrine  jaunatre.  Tryn- 
gites  subruficollis.  L,  8-50.  Back  and  crown  dark,  feathers  of  lower  back  finely  edged 
with  cream;  underparts  white;  throat,  neck,  breast,  and  flanks  strongly  suffused  with 
buff,  which  colour  tinges  much  of  the  upperparts. 

Distinctions.  Small  size,  and  general  buffy  colour,  underside  of  the  inner  webs 
of  the  primaries  finely  speckled  with  dark  on  white.  The  under-wing  surface  is  beau- 
tifully marbled  in  a  manner  that  is  assumed  by  no  other  eastern  species. 

Field  Marks.  Small  size  and  general  buffy  colour.  It  may  appear  on  uplands  like 
the  Upland  Plover,  but  the  latter  is  much  larger. 

Distribution.  Breeds  on  the  Arctic  shores  of  the  extrer^e  northwest,  migrating 
down  the  Mississippi  valley;  hence  it  is  very  rare  in  the  Maritime  Provinces,  scarce  in 
the  Great  Lakes  region,  and  more  common  westward. 

Economic  Status.  What  has  been  said  of  the  Upland  Plover  is  probably 
true  of  this  species. 

263.  Spotted  Sandpiper,  pewit,  teeter,  tip-up.  fr. — la  maubeche  tache- 
TEE.     l'alouette  A  braule  queue.     Actitis  nmctdavia.    L,  7-50.    Plate  VIIIB. 


101 

Distinctions.  Adults  have  decidedly  round  breast  spots  and  a  slight  greenish  lustre 
on  the  back.  Young  autumn  birds  resemble  the  Solitary  but  are  distinguished  by  white 
instead  of  barred  axillars. 

Field  Marks.  Size  and  distinct  round  spots  on  breast.  When  flying  it  may  be 
distinguished  from  the  Sohtary  Sandpiper,  which  it  most  resembles,  by  the  white  line 
along  the  edges  of  the  secondaries  and  the  much  smaller  amount  of  black  and  white 
barring  on  the  tail.  The  flight,  when  the  observer  becomes  famihar  with  it,  is  also  quite 
characteristic. 

Nesting.  Slight  hollow  in  ground  at  no  great  distance  fro  i  water,  in  the  shelter 
of  a  bit  of  shrub  or  grass. 

Distribution.  Breeds  over  the  whole  of  eastern  Canada  to  the  northernmost  parts 
of  Ungava.     Common  throughout  its  range. 

This  is  the  commonest  summer  Sandpiper  in  Canada;  occasional  pairs 
are  to  be  found  along  the  smallest  streams.  It  frequents  all  kinds  of  ground ; 
sandy  beaches,  gravelly  reaches,  mud  flats,  or  rocky  shores.  Almost  any 
Sandpiper  seen  in  summer  near  our  waters  may  be  put  down  as  this  species 
unless  there  are  good  grounds  for  other  identification.  Its  habit  of  bobbing 
its  body  up  and  down  occasionally,  even  when  apparently  at  rest,  or  more 
rapidly  when  excited,  has  given  it  the  common  name  "Tip-up".  Its 
white-barred  wings,  pecuhar  flight,  with  a  few  quick  beats  followed  by  a 
short  sail  on  decurved  wings,  and  its  loud  triumphant  "  pewit-pewit-pewW 
as  it  alights  on  the  stream  margin  well  ahead  of  the  intruder  are  famiUar 
to  all  observers.  One  can  chase  it  from  point  to  point  for  some  distance 
from  its  home  ground,  when,  joined  by  its  mate,  it  will  circle  well  around 
the  disturber  and  return  again  to  the  place  from  which  it  started. 

Ecoyiomic  Status.  Though  normally  frequenting  water  edges  it  is  often 
seen  in  the  adjacent  fields,  running  between  the  furrows  of  newly  turned 
earth  or  rows  of  growing  plants.  Its  food  is  mainly,  if  not  entirely,  insec- 
tivorous, hence  it  is  beneficial  to  the  farmer.  The  species  has  not  suffered 
severely  from  shooting  and  seems  to  hold  its  own  in  the  most  cultivated 
sections. 

Genus — Numenius.     Curlews.     Fr. — Le    Courlis,    Le   Corbigeau. 

General  Description.  Large  Shore  Birds  between  13  •  50  and  24  inches  long.  Coloured 
in  various  shades  from  cream  to  weak  brown,  mottled  above,  lighter  and  clear  below,  neck 
and  breast  finety  striped  and  with  more  or  less  suffusion  or  suggestion  of  buff  over  all. 
The  bills  are  long  and  curved  decidedly  downward. 

Distinctions.  Large  size,  decurved  bill,  and  general  buffy  colour.  Distinguished 
from  the  Godwits  by  down-curved  instead  of  slightly  up-turned  bill. 

Field  Marks.     Large  size,  and  decurved  bill,  general  buff  colour. 

Large  size  among  birds  is  a  distinct  menace  to  their  existence.  The 
Curlews  are  a  good  example  of  this  and  unless  intelligent  measures  to  pro- 
tect them  are  taken  in  the  near  future  there  will  soon  be  none  left.  In  the 
east  the  Curlews  have  almost  disappeared,  but  in  the  west  there  is  still 
a  fair  number  left.  The  vegetable  part  of  their  food  is  largely  wild  fruit  and 
in  the  ]Maritime  Provinces  they  frequent  barrens  and  upland  bogs  for 
bake-apple  berries  and  cranberries.  In  cultivated  fields,  insects  are  their 
chief  food  and  as  many  noxious  species,  including  grasshoppers,  are  con- 
sumed their  presence  is  decidedly  beneficial  to  the  farmer. 

264.  Long-billed  Curlew,  sickle-bill  curlew,  fr. — le  courlis  a  long  bec. 
Numenius  americanus.  L,  24.  The  largest  of  the  genus.  The  coloration  of  all  the 
Curlews  is  quite  similar,  but  the  Long-bill  is  distinctly  buff  below  instead  of  creamy- 
white  (see  previous  heading). 


102 

Distinctions.  In  well  grown  specimens  the  extreme  length  of  bill  (6  inches)  of  this 
species  is  diagnostic,  but,  as  in  numerous  other  species  showing  great  specialization  or 
size,  growth  continues  for  some  time  after  apparent  maturity  and  this  feature  is  unreliable 
as  sole  guide.  The  crown,  axillars,  and  primary  characters,  however,  make  good  criteria 
for  the  Curlews.  In  this  species  the  crown  is  dark,  evenly  spotted  with  light  without 
aggregation  into  a  median  line,  and  the  inner  vanes  of  the  primaries  are  marked  with 
saw-tooth  figures  of  dark  on  a  light  buff  ground.  The  axillars  are  solidly  coloured  without 
bars. 

Field  Marks.  For  recognition  as  a  Curlew  see  previous  page-  The  Curlews  cannot 
be  separated  in  hfe  with  absolute  certainty. 

Distribution.  Breeds  in  the  prairie  provinces  and  well  to  the  south.  It  is  recorded 
originally  as  a  more  or  less  common  migrant  on  the  Atlantic  coast  north  to  the  Maritime 
Provinces,  but  does  not  occur  there  now;  also  recorded  from  the  Great  Lakes  region 
but  without  supporting  evidence.  The  general  confusion  of  this  with  the  Hudsonian 
Curlew  is  responsible  for  many  known  misidentifications  and  the  species  should  in  future 
only  be  recorded  in  eastern  Canada  upon  the  conclusive  evidence  of  specimens. 

265.  Hudsonian  Curlew,  fr. — le  courlis  de  la  baie  d'hudson.  Numenius  hud- 
sonicus.  L,  17.  A  smaller  Ciu"lew  than  the  last,  but  larger  than  the  next.  Of  same 
general  coloration,  but  the  Hudsonian  less  buffy  than  the  Long-billed,  the  underparts 
being  dull  creamy;    see  Curlew  heading,  previous  page. 

Distinctions.  Often  diagnosed  as  the  Long-billed,  but  can  be  easily  distinguished 
from  the  other  Curlews  by  the  pronounced  median  stripe  on  the  crown,  instead  of  uni- 
formly distributed  spots,  combined  with  the  saw-tooth  marks  on  the  inner  webs  of  the 
primaries,  and  the  barred  axillars. 

Field  Marks.  For  recognition  as  Curlews  see  Curlew,  previous  page.  Curlews 
cannot  be  easily  separated  in  life  with  certainty,  but  size  and  length  of  bill  may  help. 
This  is  the  only  species  hkely  to  be  met  with  in  eastern  Canada. 

Distribution.  Breeds  in  the  northwestern  Arctic.  Migrates  down  the  Pacific  coast, 
and  across  the  continent  to  the  Atlantic  where  it  is  more  common  than  in  the  interior. 
A  regular  though  not  abundant  migrant  in  the  Great  Lakes  region. 

This  is  the  only  Curlew  of  which  we  have  any  satisfactory  evidence  on 
the  lower  Great  Lakes.  It  has  learned  from  experience  to  be  a  wild  and 
wary  bird,  and  as  it  now  occurs  in  numbers  only  in  the  extreme  east  not 
very  many  are  taken. 

266.  Eskimo  Curlew,  fr. — le  courlis  du  nord.  corbigeau  des  Esquimaux, 
Numenius  borealis.  L,  13-50.  The  smallest  of  the  Curlews.  Of  same  general  coloration 
as  the  Hudsonian. 

Distinctions.  Easily  separated  from  either  of  the  other  Curlews  by  its  smaller  size 
and  plain  immarked  primaries,  though  the  axillars  are  barred  as  in  the  Hudsonian,  and 
the  crown  evenly  spotted,  without  median  stripe,  as  in  the  Long-billed. 

Field  Marks.  See  preceding  species.  This  bird  is,  however,  too  rare  nowadays  for 
eyesight  record. 

Distribution.  Breeds  on  the  barren  grounds  of  the  Mackenzie  district.  Migrates  in 
autumn  across  to  Labrador  and  then  down  the  coast.  In  spring  it  ascends  the  Mississippi 
valley. 

Very  close  to  extinction.  Whether  or  not  ill-regulated  shooting  was 
the  chief  cause  of  its  great  reduction  in  numbers,  for  old  accounts  speak  of 
immense  flocks,  it  was  certainly  contributory.  This  is  another  case  of 
disappearance  coming  before  realization  of  the  necessity  of  protection  and 
the  apparent  or  threatened  loss  of  a  species  that  can  never  be  replaced. 

FAMILY — CHARADRIIDiE.    PLOVER. 

General  Description.  Plover  are  rather  more  stoutly  and  compactly  built  than  the 
Snipe-like  birds.  Their  bills  are  shorter,  soft  at  the  base,  but  ending  in  a  hard,  horny  tip, 
(Figure  24,  p.  22).  Hind  toe  lacking  in  all  species  except  Black-beUied  (p.  103)  in  which  it 
is  very  small  and  almost  rudimentary. 


103 

Distinctions.  With  the  above  description  the  Plover  are  not  likely  to  be  confused 
with  anything  else. 

Nesiiyig.  On  ground  in  a  slight  depression  usually  lined  with  scanty  grass,  moss, 
other  waste  vegetation,  or  pebbles. 

Distribution.  In  closely  related  or  nearly  identical  forms  the  family  is  circumpolar 
in  distribution,  breeding  mostly  north  of  present  settlement. 

The  Plover  are  well  known  to  the  sportsman.  They  average  larger 
in  size  than  the  Snipes  and  some  of  them  which  feed  in  upland  fields  offer 
considerable  sport. 

Economic  Status.  As  a  family  they  frequent  cultivated  land  more  than 
other  Shore  Birds  and  hence  are  of  somewhat  greater  economic  interest. 
They  are  actively  helpful  to  man. 

270.  Black-bellied  Plover,  bull-head.  fr. — le  plutier  a  ventre  noir,  van- 
NEAtj  ORIS.  Squatarola  squatarola.  L,  11.  Spring  plumage — back,  almost  black  with 
many  broad  white  feather-tips  aggregated  on  wings;  crown  and  hindneck,  almost  white; 
cheeks,  throat,  foreparts  and  breast  to  abdomen,  pure  black,  often  showing  white  feathers 
remaining  from  immaturity.  Autumn  plumage — -back,  weak  brown  with  cream  or  yellow- 
ish feather  ends  to  top  of  head;  throat,  foreneck,  and  underparts  dull  whitish  with  indis- 
tinct breast-band  of  veiled  stripes.  All  intermediate  plumages  are  taken  within  our  bound- 
aries. 

Distinctions.  Plover-like  characters;  will  be  mistaken  only  for  the  Golden  Plover 
which  it  closely  resembles.  The  presence  of  a  small  though  well-formed  hind  toe  is  peculiar 
to  this  bird  as  it  is  our  only  Plover  with  a  fourth  toe. 

Field  Marks.  Requiring  separation  only  from  the  Golden  Plover.  Rather  incon- 
spicuous white  band  on  the  spread  wing,  axillars  black,  in  strong  contrast  to  background 
of  underwing  surface  when  flying,  and  wliite  rump  to  be  seen  under  favourable  conditions. 

Distribution.  A  circumpolar  species  breeding  in  America  along  the  Arctic  coast 
northwest  of  Hudson  bay.  More  or  less  common  in  migration  in  suitable  habitats  through- 
out eastern  Canada. 

272.  American  Golden  Plover,  fr. — pluvier  dore  d'amerique.  Charadrius 
dorninicus.  L,  10-50.  Spring  plumage — back  almost  black  to  top  of  head,  with  numerous 
yellow  feather-tips,  more  scanty  on  crown;  forehead  and  line  over  eye,  descending  to 
sides  of  breast,  white;  throat,  foreneck,  and  all  underparts  solid  black.  Autumn  plumage 
— above,  dull  brown  with  many  cream  to  yellow  feather-edge  spots,  aggregating  on 
rump  and  crown;  throat  and  face,  white  or  whitish  slightly  spotted;  breast  and  all  below, 
faintly  barred  with  duH  white  and  light  tints  of  the  brown  of  the  back.  All  intermediate 
plumages  may  be  seen. 

Distinctions.  A  slightly  smaller  bird  than  the  foregoing  but  easily  confused  with  it. 
The  large  amount  of  yellow  on  the  back  of  spring  plmnage  and  the  faint  barrings  of  the 
breast  and  underparts  in  the  autumn  are  characteristic.  The  absence  of  any  trace  of 
hind  toe  is  diagnostic  in  any  plumage. 

Field  Marks.  Only  needing  separation  from  the  previous  species.  Extended  wing 
without  any  indication  of  white  band;  axillars  smoke-grey  instead  of  conspicuous  black; 
rump  not  white. 

Distribution.  Breeds  in  the  barren  grounds  from  Hudson  bay  westward.  It  is  said 
to  have  extraordinary  migration  routes.  In  the  autumn  it  moves  eastward  to  Labrador, 
then  southward  across  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  to  Nova  Scotia,  where  it  takes  an  over-sea 
route  to  Brazil  without  touching  intermediate  land  unless  storm-tlriven.  From  thence 
it  works  down  to  the  Argentine  pampas.  In  the  spring  it  strikes  western  South  America 
about  Equador,  crosses  the  isthmus  of  Panama  and  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  and  follows  up  the 
Mississippi  valley  to  its  breeding  grounds.  That  it  takes  this  immense  flight  over  the 
broad  Atlantic  without  resting  seems  too  remarkable  to  be  true,  but  as  it  is  not  a  pro- 
ficient swimmer  able  to  rest  on  the  water  at  will,  the  evidence  points  towards  this  conclu- 
sion. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  American  Golden  Plover  is  divided  into  two  subspecies;  only 
the  Eastern  Golden  Plover,  the  type  form,  occurs  in  eastern  Canada. 

Once  far  more  common  than  now.  Within  the  memory  of  living 
sportsmen  large  flocks  were  regularly  seen;  now  only  occasional  birds  are 
met  with.     It  is  very  closely  related  to  the  Golden  Plover  of  Europe. 


104 

273.  Killdeer  Plover,  fr. — le  plxjvier  kildir.  Oxyechus  vociferiis.  L,  10-50. 
Plate  IX  A. 

Distinctions.  As  the  Killdeer  is  the  largest  of  the  Ringuecked  Plovers  it  can  hardly 
be  confused  vsrith  its  smaller  relatives.  The  double  instead  of  single  breast  band  also  dis- 
tinguishes it  from  them. 

Field  Marks.  Size,  two  breast  bands  instead  of  one,  striking  ochraceous  tail  and 
rump,  and  distinctive  call  of  "killdee-killdee-killdee." 

Nesting.     A  mere  hollow  in  the  ground  scantily  lined  with  vegetable  fragments. 

Distribution.  A  species  of  remarkably  wide  range,  breeding  from  the  northern  limits 
of  cultivation  in  Canada  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico.  Rare  or  absent  from  vicinity  of  either 
coast. 

A  common  summer  bird  over  all  Canada  except  in  the  sea  coast  districts. 
Its  loud  voice  is  familiar  to  all  country  residents  and  visitors.  A  true  Shore 
Bird,  it  frequents  the  high  dry  uplands  and  cultivated  fields,  often  nesting 
in  the  ploughed  furrows  amidst  the  crops.  When  its  young  are  hatched, 
however,  it  usually  leads  them  to  water,  some  quiet  nearby  pool  as 
a  rule,  and  as  soon  as  they  are  able  to  take  care  of  themselves  they  unite  in 
small  scattered  flocks.  That  this  species  has  been  able  to  survive  and 
thrive  in  the  midst  of  cultivation  and  civilization  while  other  species 
apparently  as  well  able  to  take  care  of  themselves  have  succumbed,  is 
probably  due  to  its  comparatively  solitary  habits  and  to  its  not  general'p 
gathering  in  dense  flocks,  the  pursuit  of  which  is  profitable. 

Economic  Status.  Its  food  is  largely  insectivorous  and  through  spring 
and  early  summer  it  frequents  ground  where  it  can  do  much  good. 

274.  Semipalmated  Plover,  ring-neck  plover,  fr. — le  pluvier  semipalme- 
Mgialitis  semipalmata.  L,  6-75.  A  small  Plover  of  general  resemblance  to  the  Killdeer, 
but  with  one  instead  of  two  dark  breast-bands  and  without  the  ochraceous  rump 
and  tail  of  that  species.    Autumn  birds  are  similar,  but  the  colours  are  washed  out  and 

with  no  clear  black  anywhere. 

Distinctions.  With  size  and  the  above  description,  can  be  mistaken  only  for  the 
Piping  Plover,  but  the  back  coloration  is  decidedly  brownish  in  all  plumages  instead  of 
smoke-grey  or  dry  sand  colour,  the  breast  band  is  always  broad,  continuous,  and  well- 
marked  even  in  autumn,  and  the  ear  coverts  behind  and  below  the  eye  are  always  decidedly 
dark  instead  of  pure  white.  Feet  with  small  webs  explain  the  accepted  common  name; 
the  only  Plover  in  Canada  which  is  so  provided. 

Field  Marks.  Size  and  a  single  instead  of  double  breast-band  distinguish  this  from 
the  Killdeer  Plover,  and  the  back,  dark-coloured  Uke  wet  sand,  from  the  Piping  Plover 
which  is  lighter  and  grey  like  dry  sand. 

Nesting.     Slight  hollow  in  the  ground  or  shore  refuse. 

Distribution.  Breeds  in  the  high  north  across  the  continent;  south,  in  the  east,  to 
the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.    Common  in  migration  in  suitable  locahties  in  eastern  Canada. 

A  pretty  little  Plover  frequenting  mud  flats  or  sandy  beaches  indiffer- 
ently. Closely  related  to  the  European  Ring  Plover  and  distinguished 
only  by  slightly  smaller  size  and  a  few  minor  details. 

277.  Piping  Plover,  ring-neck.  fr. — le  plxjvier  criard.  ^gialitis  meloda.  L, 
7-10.  Spring  plumage — same  markings  as  the  Semipalmated  previously  described,  but 
back  in  hghter  colours.  Back  and  crown  light  smoke-grey,  a  black  bar  across  fore-crown, 
remainder,  collar  around  neck,  and  forehead  white;  a  black  ring  about  neck,  just  below 
the  white  one,  sometimes  broken  on  the  breast.  Autumn  birds — similar  but  without  black 
neck  ring  and  generally  weaker  in  coloration. 

Distinctions.  Can  be  mistaken  only  for  the  Semipalmated  but  easily  distinguished 
by  the  characters  given  under  that  heading. 

Field  Marks.  Distinguished  from  the  Semipalmated  Plover  by  its  lighter  coloration, 
like  dry  instead  of  wet  sand.    Its  melodious  whistle  is  easily  remembered  when  once  heard. 

Nesting.  Depression  in  the  sand  made  by  the  bird  and  containing  only  a  few  small 
pebbles,  coarse  grains  of  sand,  or  fragments  of  shell  upon  which  the  eggs  rest. 

Distribution.  Breeds  on  sandy  shores  locally  from  the  prairie  provinces  to  the  gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence  and  Sable  island. 


105 

A  small  Plover  well  called  meloda.  It  is  a  sand-beach  bird  and  never 
seen  in  grassy  or  marshy  stituations.  Some  individuals  have  broken  and 
others  complete  black  breast-bands.  The  latter  were  for  some  time  re- 
garded as  a  subspecies  but  now  all  are  included  under  the  one  form.  The 
Snowy  Flover, ^gialitis  nivosa,  has  been  taken  on  lake  Ontario,  but  is  probably 
not  to  be  expected  again.  It  is  slightly  smaller  than  the  Piping,  of  same 
general  coloration  but  with  a  dark  aural  or  cheek  patch,  and  only  a  spot 
of  dark  at  the  sides  of  the  breast  instead  of  a  complete  bar  across  it.  A  more 
southern  and  western  bird  and  can  only  occur  as  a  straggler. 

FAMILY — APHRIZID^.    TURNSTONES. 

General  Description.  Medium-sized  Shore  Birds  with  bill  (Figure  27,  p.  22)  moder- 
ately short,  homy  for  the  terminal  half,  tip  slightly  flattened  (in  a  horizontal  plane)  but 
not  distinctly  enlarged  as  in  the  Plover. 

A  small  famil}'  of  world-wide  distribution.  Only  one  species  of  this 
family  in  eastern  Canada. 

283a.  Turnstone,     ruddy  Turnstone.    American  Turnstone,    carriquet  plo"uer 

CALICO    PLOVER.       FR. — LA    TOURNE-PIERRE    A    POITRINE    NOIRE.      TOURNE    PIERRE.      Arcn- 

aria  interpres.    L,  9-50. 

Distinctions.  A  strikingly  coloured  bird.  Back  in  rather  broad  masses  of  dull  red, 
black,  and  white  more  or  less  intermixed.  Rump  and  head  white,  the  crown  striped  with 
brown  or  black.  Underparts  pure  white,  with  black  breast-band,  extending  up  side  of  neck 
to  face  where  it  makes  a  circle  through  the  eye  and  around  a  white  loral  spot.  Autumn 
birds  have  the  colours  subdued  and  the  back  coloration  lost  or  only  faintly  represented, 
but  enough  of  the  face  and  breast  markings  always  remain  to  suggest  the  above  diagnosis. 

Field  Marks.  The  pecuhar  pied  coloration  In  red,  black,  and  white  of  the  spring 
plumage.  In  the  autumn  the  white  lower  back  and  upper  tail  coverts  separated  by  a  dark 
bar. 

Nesting.     Depression  in  the  ground  lined  with  a  few  dead  leaves  or  vegetable  fibres. 

Distribution.  The  Turnstone  as  a  species  has  one  of  the  widest  distributions  of  any 
bird,  there  being  few  countries  where  it  has  not  occurred.  The  American  subspecies 
representative  of  the  species,  the  Ruddy  Turnstone,  breeds  from  the  Arctic  coast  west  of 
Hudson  Bay  northward,  and  is  more  common  on  the  Atlantic  than  the  Pacific  coast; 
locally  common,  in  migration,  in  the  Great  Lakes  region. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Turnstone  is  represented  in  America  by  a  subspecies,  the 
Ruddy  Turnstone  A.  i.  morinella,  though  the  typical  form  is  said  to  occur  in  western 
Alaska. 

A  bird  of  sandy,  muddy,  or  rocky  shores,  but  preferring  the  first. 
It  is  named  from  its  habit  of  turning  over  small  stones  and  pebbles  on  the 
beach  searching  for  food  beneath  them,  and  it  is  astonishing  what  com- 
paratively large  stones  it  can  move.  It  inserts  its  bill  under  the  edge, 
gives  a  little  fillip,  and  away  goes  the  stone  rolling  or  skidding  over  the 
beach  to  a  considerable  distance.  It  is  a  comparatively  good  swimmer. 
It  differs  from  the  Old  World  Turnstone  only  in  slightly  smaller  size,  less 
black  on  the  upperparts,  and  the  stronger  coloration  of  the  legs. 

FAMILY — HiEMATOPODIDiE.       OYSTER   CATCHERS. 

General  Description.  Large  Shore  Bird  more  heavily  built  than  is  usual  in  the  order; 
bill  stout  and  horny,  flattened  laterally  (sideways)  at  tip.  There  is  only  one  species  that 
may  perhaps  occur  in  eastern  Canada. 

286.  American  Oyster-catcher,  h^matopus  palliatus.  L,  19.  Head,  neck, 
and  upper  breast,  black;  back,  olive-brown  with  contrasting  white  wing-patch  and  rump. 
All  underparts,  pure  white;  bill,  large,  bright  red. 

Distribution.  Atlantic  coast  north  to  Virginia.  Formerly  to  New  Jersey  and  acci- 
dental to  New  Brimswick.    Probably  bred  throughout  its  range. 


100 

The  northern  range  of  this  striking  bird  was  once  on  our  southern 
sea  coasts.  It  has  long  been  exterminated  (?)  in  Canada  and  there  is  httle 
chance  of  its  occurring  again. 

Order — Gallinae.     Scratching  Birds. 

As  the  name  impUes,  these  birds  are  adapted  for  securing  their  food 
by  scratching  in  the  ground.  The  best  popular  representatives  are  the 
common  barnyard  poultry,  but  the  order  glides  almost  imperceptibly 
into  the  Pigeons  on  one  hand  and  the  Shore  Birds  on  the  other.  They  are 
well  distributed  over  the  world,  being  found  in  almost  every  country  on 
the  globe.  In  Canada  we  have  only  one  suborder  of  the  group,  Phasiani, 
the  true  fowls. 

SUBORDER— PHASIANI.   TRUE  FOWLS.    GROUSE,  QUAIL,  AND  PTARMIGAN. 

General  Description.  This  suborder  is  composed  of  birds  with  strong,  compact  feet, 
four  toes,  and  blunt  claws  adapted  for  scratching  in  the  ground  (Figure  28,  p.  22) .  Though 
best  adapted  for  terrestrial  Ufe  they  perch  readily  in  trees  and  often  feed  and  roost  there. 
Bills  short,  horny,  and  with  strongly  arched  culmen  (Figure  29,  p.  23);  nostrils  set  in  a 
soft  intrusion  into  the  base  of  the  bill;  wings  short  and  round.  These  birds  rarely  take 
wing  except  for  short  fhghts  or  to  avoid  immediate  danger. 

Nesting.     On  ground,  eggs  laid  on  the  dead  grass  or  leaves  with  little  or  no  preparation. 

Distribution.  Species  of  this  suborder  are  foimd  in  all  parts  of  Canada.  The  Ruffed 
and  Spruce  Grouse  and  the  Turkey  are  birds  of  the  woodlands;  the  Bob-white,  Prairie 
Chicken,  and  Sharp-tail  inhabit  open  or  prairie  country;  and  the  Ptarmigan,  the  barren 
lands  of  the  extreme  north. 

Three  families  of  this  order  are  represented  in  Canada.  Odontopho- 
ridoe  the  American  Quail,  Tetraonidoe  the  Grouse,  and  Meleagjidce  the  Turkeys. 

Economic  Status.  Their  food  is  both  insectivorous  and  vegetable — 
grains,  buds,  leaves,  fruit,  and  insects  being  equally  acceptable  to  them. 
As  several  species  frequent  cultivated  fields  their  economic  status  is  of 
interest  to  the  husbandman  and  has  been  the  subject  of  considerable  in- 
vestigation, the  results  of  which  show  that  some  of  them  are  among  the 
most  useful  birds  on  the  farm.  The  insect  portion  of  the  food  of  some 
species  is  decidedly  important  and  very  little  complaint  can  be  made 
against  the  other  items  as  they  are  mostly  waste  or  wild  material  of  little 
or  no  consequence  to  the  agriculturist. 

Like  most  of  our  larger  birds  they  have  been  greatly  reduced  in  number, 
and  should  be  strictly  protected  and  their  kiUing  limited  to  the  natural 
annual  surplus,  leaving  an  ample  permanent  breeding  stock  untouched. 
The  Canadian  representatives  of  this  suborder  are  divided  into  three 
families:  Odontophoridoe,  the  American  Quails;  Tetraonidoe,  the  Grouse; 
and  Meleagridce,  the  Turkeys. 

FAMILY — ODONTOPHORID^.      AMERICAN    QUAILS. 

General  Description.  The  smallest  representatives  of  the  suborder  in  Canada.  The 
nostril  is  partly  covered  with  a  fleshy  scale  and  not  as  well  hidden  in  the  feathering  as  it  is 
in  the  feathering  of  the  Grouse.     There  is  only  one  species  of  the  family  in  eastern  Canada. 

The  term  "Quail"  for  our  American  birds  is  a  misnomer.  They  are 
not  Quails  in  the  European  sense  but  true  Partridges.  In  their  turn  our 
"Partridges"  are  Grouse.     These  are  examples  of  a  common  misapplication 


107 

of  Old  World  names  to  New  World  forms.  There  are  many  such  cases, 
confusing  to  the  beginner  but  too  well  established  in  vernacular  usage  to 
be  corrected  at  this  late  date. 

This  family  is  of  rather  southern  distribution  reaching  its  maximum 
in  number  of  both  species  and  individuals  in  the  southwestern  states 
and  Mexico. 

289.  Bob-white.     American  quail.     Colinus  virginianus.     L,  10.  Plate  IX  B. 

Distinctions.  Can  be  mistaken  for  no  other  bird  in  Canada.  Size  and  coloration 
combined  with  evident  fowl-like  character  are  distinctive. 

Field  Marks.  Small,  partridge-hke  bird  which  rises  suddenly  from  the  groimd  and 
flies  with  rapid  beats  and  loud  reverberating  wing-strokes. 

Distribution.  The  Bob-white  and  its  allied  subspecies  are  distributed  over  eastern 
North  America,  north  to  and  including  southern  Ontario. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  subspecies  of  Bob-white  native  to  eastern  Canada  is  the  type 
form — the  Virginia  Bob-white. 

The  Bob-white  occurs  in  Canada  only  in  southern  Ontario  where 
it  is  known  to  every  country  dweller.  In  the  autumn  the  sportsman  hunts 
it  with  dogs,  in  spring  the  ploughman  and  small  boy  find  its  nest  in  the 
course  of  their  farm  work,  and  all  are  familiar  with  its  clear  whistle-hke 
call  of  "Bob-white,"  or  as  otherwise  interpreted  "More-wet."  It  is  not 
a  retiring  species  which  withdraws  into  the  deepest  woodland  recesses  on 
the  advent  of  cultivation;  but  it  keeps  to  the  clearings,  hanging  about 
woodland  edges,  shrubby  fence-lines,  or  overgrown  wastes  in  close  prox- 
imity to  the  fields.  When  food  is  scarce  it  will  often  come  into  the  barn- 
yard and  feed  with  the  poultry.  Open  land  is  its  feeding  ground,  the  brush 
its  refuge  from  danger.  Before  the  country  was  cleared,  the  Bob-white 
was  probably  rare  in  Canada,  but  advancing  settlement  opened  up  new 
ground  for  the  species.  Even  in  the  most  southern  parts  of  the  country 
to-day  the  Bob-white  remains  precariously,  fluctuating  greatly  in  numbers, 
and  it  is  evidently  hardly  suited  for  this  northern  limit  of  its  range.  It  is 
prolific,  however,  and  favourable  winters  and  a  few  years  of  abstention 
from  shooting  increase  its  numbers  many  times;  but  coverts  are  almost 
invariably  overshot  and  hard  winters  periodically  reduce  its  numbers. 
The  hardest  natural  conditions  it  has  to  combat  are  deep  snow  covering 
the  food  supply,  and  wet  sleety  weather  which  not  only  chills  it  but  seals 
it  under  an  icy  crust  when  it  seeks  refuge  in  the  snow  at  night.  The  Ring- 
necked  Pheasant,  rather  extensively  introduced  as  a  sporting  bird,  is  said 
with  some  supporting  evidence  to  be  inimical  to  it.  In  addition  to  the 
sporting  value  of  the  species  it  is  deserving  of  every  encouragement  by 
agriculturists  from  a  purely  economic  standpoint  and  for  this  reason 
might  perhaps  with  advantage  be  withdrawn  from  our  list  of  game  birds. 

It  has  been  a  common  practice  to  repopulate  depleted  covers  with 
birds  imported  from  the  southern  states.  Whether  this  introduction  of 
stock,  unacclimatized  to  northern  conditions,  has  weakened  the  constitu- 
tion of  native  birds  is  still  undetermined.  Several  subspecies  of  the  Bob- 
white  occur  in  the  south  and  importation  has  left  doubtful  the  real  char- 
acters of  our  own  original  form,  which  to-day  can  only  be  judged  from 
specimens  antedating  such  introductions. 

Economic  Status.     The  bulk  of  the  Bob-white's  food  is  weed  seed. 
The  grain  it  eats  is  waste,  gleaned  from  the  ground.    The  insect  content, 
57172—8 


108 

though  not  especially  large,  includes  some  species  not  ordinarilj^  eaten 
by  other  birds  and  for  that  reason  is  specially  important.  It  is  one  of  the 
few  birds  that  will  eat  the  potato  beetle. 

FAMILY TETRAONID^.      GROUSE. 

The  Grouse  have  their  nostrils  hidden  in  feathers  that  occupy  an 
intrusive  space  in  the  base  of  the  bill  at  the  sides  (Figure  29,  p.  23).  The 
tarsus  is  either  completely  or  partly  feathered,  in  the  Ptarmigan  the 
feathering  includes  the  toes.  The  toes  when  unfeatheied,  are  bordered 
on  each  side  by  a  small  fringe  composed  of  individual  horny  scales  or 
pectinations  (Figure  28,  p.  22),  which  are  shed  in  midsummer.  The 
Grouse  comprise  the  bulk  of  our  upland  game  birds  and  are  great 
favourites  of  sportsmen.  The  sexes  are  alike  or  nearly  so,  and  except  in 
the  Ptarmigans  show  slight  seasonal  variation  in  plumage  and  do  not 
usually  migrate.  The  Ptarmigan, which  directly  reverse  each  of  these 
statements,  are  so  well  characterized  otherwise  that  no  confusion  is  prob- 
able. All  species  nest  on  the  ground,  making  little  preparation  for  the 
eggs.  They  lay  unusually  large  sets  of  eggs,  six  to  eighteen,  and  the 
young,  chicken-like,  follow  the  parent  as  soon  as  out  of  the  shell. 

298.  Spruce  Grouse,  canada  gkouse,  spruce  partridge,  fool  hen.  fr. — le  tetras 
DTj  CANADA.     CanachUes  canadensis.     L,  15.     Plate  X  A. 

Distinctions.  Easily  distinguished  by  colour,  etc.,  from  the  Ruffed  Grouse  which 
is  about  the  only  species  in  eastern  Canada  that  can  possibly  be  mistaken  for  it.  In  tlie 
extreme  west  there  are  forms  that  closely  resemble  it. 

Field  Marks.  General  bluish  colour  of  the  male.  Absence  of  ruff  or  specialized  neck 
feathers  and  the  presence  of  the  striking  red  comb  over  the  eye,  present  in  both  sexes  but 
more  conspicuous  in  the  male. 

Distribution.  Through  the  northern  coniferous  wooded  regions  of  Canada,  resident 
wherever  found. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Spruce  Partridge  is  divided  into  several  geographical  races,  two 
of  which,  the  Hudsonian  Spruce  Partridge  Canachites  canadensis  canadensis,  the  type  form, 
and  the  Canada  Spruce  Grouse  C.  c.  canace,  occur  in  eastern  Canada.  The  former  occupies 
the  Labrador  peninsula  and  the  more  northern  ranges  and  the  latter  New  Brimswick, 
southern  Ontario,  etc.  They  are  too  similar,  however,  to  be  differentiated  in  a  popular 
work. 

A  northern  bird  of  the  spruce  woods.  Its  super-confiding  nature  has 
given  it  the  popular  name  of  ''Fool-hen"  as,  where  not  much  disturbed, 
it  can  often  be  killed  with  a  stick  or  with  stones.  Owing  to  its  feeding 
largely  upon  spruce  or  evergreen  buds  its  flesh  is  too  strong  for  the  ordinary 
civilized  palate. 

Economic  Status.  Being  of  northern  distribution  and  living  in  the 
evergreen  forests,  it  has  no  economic  influence. 

300.  Ruffed  Grouse,  partridge,  birch  partridge,  fr. — la  gelinotte  a  fraise. 
Bonasa  umbellus.     L,  17.     Plate  X  B  (Feet  and  bill.  Figures  27,  28,  p.  22). 

Distinctions.  The  Ruffed  Grouse,  with  its  prominent  soft,  black  ruff  at  the  sides  of 
the  neck,  large  fan-shaped  tail,  and  eye-hke  spots  on  the  rump  and  lower  back  cannot 
well  be  mistaken  for  any  other  species. 

Field  Marks.     Large  size  and  fan-shaped  tail. 

Distributio7i.  The  Ruffed  Grouse  is  distributed  throughout  the  wooded  areas  of  Canada 
north  to  the  tree  limits. 

SUBSPECIES.  Several  geographic  races  of  the  Ruffed  Grouse  are  recognized. 
The  tjrpe  form  is  of  southern  distribution  and  is  replaced  in  eastern  Canada  by  the  Canada 
Ruffed  Grouse  Bonasa  umbellus  togata,  characterized  by  a  greyer  or  less  red  coloration. 


109 

This  is  the  "Partridge"  of  most  Canadian  sportsmen  Dwelling  in 
the  deep  woods  amidst  the  underbrush,  lying  close,  rising  at  the  feet  like 
a  miniature  explosion,  and  flying  with  great  speed  through  the  dim  forest 
it  tests  the  alertness  and  marksmanship  of  any  sportsman.  The  Ruffed 
Grouse  to-day  is  found  only  in  the  forest  patches  where  cover  and  a  con- 
siderable area  give  it  protection  and  along  the  fringes  of  settlement  where 
it  still  exists  precariously. 

Sudden  weather  changes  are  a  serious  menace  to  the  Ruffed  Grouse. 
Wet,  cold  springs  are  deadly  to  the  young  and  sleet  destroys  much  potential 
breeding  stock  in  winter.  In  severe  weather  the  Ruffed  Grouse  seeks 
shelter  beneath  the  snow  or  allows  the  latter  to  drift  over  it.  Should  soft 
weather  come  followed  by  cold,  as  often  happens,  it  is  frozen  under  a  crust 
which  it  cannot  break  and  so  succumbs. 

The  dmmming  of  the  Partridge  is  a  familiar  sound  to  all  frequenters 
of  the  woods.  It  is  a  series  of  dull  reverberating  throbs  made  by  the  rapidly 
beating  wings  and  has  a  peculiar  all-pervading  intensity  which  makes  the 
direction  of  its  origin  difficult  of  location.  The  beats  begin  slowly,  gradu- 
ally increasing  in  speed  until  at  the  end  of  perhaps  five  seconds  they  run 
into  each  other  and  die  away  in  a  confused  whir.  The  bird  is  usually 
strutting  along  a  prostrate  log  when  he  pauses  to  drum.  During  the  drum- 
ming the  bird  displays  all  its  ornaments — tail,  crest,  and  ruffs — and  though 
standing  upright  and  still,  the  wings  are  lost  in  a  haze  of  speed.  Two 
sources  for  this  drumming  noise  are  suggested,  one  that  the  wings  are 
struck  together  over  the  back  and  the  other  that  they  are  brought  against 
the  sides  to  produce  the  beat.  Either  or  neither  may  contribute  to  the 
effect.  The  sound  from  the  wings  beating  on  the  air  as  the  bird  rises  to 
wing  is  quite  similar  in  quality  if  not  in  intensity  or  meter,  and  the  mere 
beating  of  the  air  seems  suflficient  to  produce  the  effect.  The  action,  of 
course,  is  the  call  of  the  male  to  the  female,  as  is  the  display  of  the  Peacock 
or  the  Turkey  Gobler.  Spring  is  the  proper  season  for  drumming,  but  it 
IS  indulged  in  more  or  less  throughout  the  summer  and  with  increased 
frequency  again  in  the  autumn.  In  the  Canada  Ruffed  Grouse  Bonasa 
umbellus  togata,  two  well-defined  colour  phases  appear  which  are  not 
governed  by  sex,  season,  or  locality.  In  one  form  there  is  considerable 
red;  in  an  extreme  example  the  ruffs  are  copper-coloured  rather  than  black, 
the  tail  is  strikingly  red,  and  there  is  more  or  less  of  the  same  colour  else- 
where. In  the  grey  form,  which  is  perhaps  the  most  typical,  the  tail  is 
decidedly  grey,  there  is  less  red  elsewhere,  and  the  ruffs  are  black  with  a 
slight  greenish  sheen.     All  intermediate  forms  are  met  with. 

Economic  Status.  As  the  species  lives  in  woods  nothing  can  be  said 
against  it  even  if,  apart  from  its  sentimental  and  sporting  importance, 
little  economic  value  can  be  claimed  for  it. 

Genus — Lagopus.     Ptarmigan. 

General  Description.  The  Ptarmigan  are  more  northern  Grouse,  and  notable  for  their 
remarkable  seasonal  change  in  plumage.  In  winter,  they  are  pure  white;  in  summer,  barred 
with  various  shades  of  red,  brown,  and  ochre,  with  the  reddish  usually  prevailing.  Their  feet 
are  feathered  to  the  ends  of  the  toes  and  they  perform  definite  and  long  migrations,  walking 
most  of  the  way  but  occasionally  taking  flights  from  point  to  point  or  across  such  wide 
waters  as  Hudson  strait.  As,  even  in  midsummer,  irregular  patches  of  white  remain  in 
their  plumage,  and,  as  their  feet  are  always  feathered  to  the  toes,  there  is  no  chance  of 

57172—8* 


no 

mistaking  them.  They  are  circumpolar  in  distribution  and  are  found  in  both  the  Old 
and  New  Worlds.  Like  many  other  Arctic  forms  they  extend  well  southward  along  moimt- 
ain  ranges  where  elevation  carries  northern  conditions  to  lower  latitudes.  The  Red  Grouse 
of  Scotland  is  an  interesting  Ptarmigan  that  has  lost  its  abihty  to  change  to  white  in  winter 
and  retains  its  summer  coloration  throughout  the  year.  There  are  two  species  in  eastern 
Canada.  Owing  to  the  remarkable  variabihty  of  the  species,  American  Ptarmigan  have 
been  split  up  into  a  great  niunber  of  subspecies  only  to  be  distinguished  by  a  speciahst 
with  abundant  material  for  comparison.  Economically  the  Ptarmigan  are  of  little  import- 
ance except  as  a  source  of  food  supply  to  trappers,  hunters,  and  prospectors  in  the  far 
north. 

301.  Willow  Grouse,  willow  ptarmigan,  fr. — lagopede  des  saules.  Lagopus 
lagopus.  L,  15.  In  winter,  all  white  except  the  tail  which  is  pure  black.  In  summer, 
nearly  evenly  barred  all  over  in  black  and  various  shades  of  browTi,  ochre,  and  rusty.  Either 
rust  or  ochre  may  predominate. 

Distinctions.  In  winter  the  all  white  head  and  absence  of  black  line  through  eye 
distinguishes  this  from  the  Rock  Ptarmigan.  In  summer,  its  superior  size,  especially  well 
shown  by  a  comparison  of  the  bills,  is  the  most  easily  recognized  point  of  identification. 

Distribution.  The  Arctic,  across  the  continent,  migrates  south  in  winter  to  the  frontier 
of  civihzation. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  subspecies  occurring  over  most  of  Canada  is  the  type  form, 
the  Willow  Ptarmigan.     Another,  AUen's  Ptarmigan  L.  i.  alleni,  occurs  in  Newfoundland. 

302.  Rock  Ptarmigan,  fr. — la  lagopede  des  rochers.  Lagopus  rupestris. 
L,  13.  In  winter,  all  white  except  a  black  tail  and  line  through  eye  to  base  of  bill.  In 
summer,  very  similar  to  preceding  species. 

Distinctions.  In  winter,  black  eye  line.  In  summer,  size,  especially  of  bill,  when 
compared  with  Willow  Grouse  is  diagnostic. 

Distribution.  The  Arctic,  across  the  continent,  in  winter  shghtly  more  northern  than 
the  previous  species. 

SUBSPECIES.  Tliree  subspecies  of  Rock  Ptarmigan  are  recognized  in  eastern 
Canada:  Reinhardts  Ptarmigan  L.  r.  reinhardti  in  the  northern  extremity  of  Ungava, 
Welsh's  Ptarmigan  L.  r.  welchz  in  Newfoimdland,  and  the  type  form,  the  Arctic  Ptarmigan, 
in  the  remaining  areas. 

305.  Prairie  Chicken,  prairie  hen.  pinnated  grouse.  Tympanuchus  ameri- 
canu^.  L,  18.  A  Grouae  of  the  same  size  as  the  Ruffed,  coloured  in  shades  of 
brown,  hght  ochre,  and  white,  but  without  the  long  fan-shaped  tail  and  with 
the  soft  ruff  replaced  by  a  few  long,  straight,  stiff  feathers  pointed  downward  over  the 
shoulders.  The  barring  on  the  underparts  and  breast  is  clear  and  sharp  and  is  continued 
across  the  back  and  upper  parts  as  well  as  below. 

Distinctions.  The  above  points  easily  distinguish  this  species  from  the  Ruffed 
Grouse.  From  the  next  species,  the  Sharp-tailed  Grouse,  it  can  be  as  certainly  distin- 
guished by  its  breast  barred  instead  of  covered  with  V-shaped  markings.  Other  distinc- 
tions are  the  presence  of  long  stiff  feathers  on  the  sides  of  the  neck  and  the  stiff  tail  not 
ending  in  a  point  when  closed. 

SUBSPECIES.  Two  subspecies  of  Prairie  Chicken  are  recognized.  The  form 
which  occurs  in  Canada  is  the  type  race,  the  Northern  Prairie  Chicken. 

This  is  the  true  Prairie  Chicken  of  the  western  prairies,  though  in 
western  Canada  the  name  is  popularly  and  incorrectly  given  to  the  next 
species  described.  It  is  included  here  only  because  an  occasional  bird 
has  been  taken  in  the  southern  parts  of  Ontario,  to  which  it  seems  to  have 
spread  from  the  Michigan  side  of  Detroit  river  where,  once  common, 
it  is  now  rare  and  restricted  to  a  few  localities.  Within  the  memory  of  the 
present  generation  in  parts  of  the  west  it  has  gradually  encroached  upon 
and  displaced  the  next  species. 

Economic  Status.  Too  rare  in  eastern  Canada  to  require  much  dis- 
cussion here.  In  the  west  where  it  occurs  in  numbers  it  is  of  considerable 
economic  importance,  but  no  damage  can  be  charged  against  it. 


Ill 

308.  Sharp-tailed  Grouse,  pin-tailed  grouse,  fr. — la  gelinotte  a  queue 
AiGUE.  Pedioecetes  phasianellus.  L,  17-50.  Coloured  in  fine  indefinite  patterns 
of  browns  and  white,  or  cream,  on  the  upper  parts,  tending  towards  bars  only  across  the 
shoulders;  underparts  pure  white.  Across  breast  each  feather  is  bordered  with  a  dark 
V-shaped  figure  which  changes  to  a  short  bar  as  it  ascends  the  neck  and  to  fine  spots  on 
the  creamy  throat. 

Distinctions.  The  V  marks  of  the  breast  and  the  soft,  sharp  point  of  the  closed  tail 
are  conclusive  and  easily  recognized  identification  marks. 

Distribution.  A  more  northern  species  and  less  distinctly  an  open  praixie  form  than 
the  Prairie  Chicken.  Distributed  across  the  continent  north  of  present  cultivated  areas 
in  the  east,  but  is  very  local  as  there  are  large  stretches  of  country  where  it  is  absent  or 
rare.  It  comes  south  irregularly  in  autumn  to  the  edges  of  settlement.  In  the  prairie 
provinces  it  extends  south  to  and  across  the  United  States  border. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  species  is  divided  into  several  geographic  races.  Along  the 
Manitoba  boundary  the  Prairie  Sharp-tail  Pedioecetes  phasianellus  campestris  is  likely 
to  be  found;    elsewhere  in  eastern  Canada  the  typical  or  Northern  Sharp-tail. 

In  the  west  this  is  a  prairie  bird  but  it  is  locally  being  replaced  by  the 
previous  species. 

FAMILY — MELEAGRID.^.       TURKEYS. 

The  largest  of  our  scratching  birds  and  so  familiar  from  its  domesti- 
cated form  that  it  requires  no  detailed  description.  We  have  had  only  one 
species  in  Canada. 

310.  Wild  Turkey.  Meleagris  gallopavo.  L,  48-50.  So  nearly  Uke  our  domestic 
Bronze  Turkey  as  to  require  no  special  description. 

Distinctians.  The  only  bird  from  which  it  is  necessary  to  separate  the  Wild  Turkey 
is  the  tame  or  domestic  variety.  The  latter  originated  from  Mexican  stock  and  in  con- 
sequence always  shows  a  little  white  on  the  end  of  the  tail.  The  tail  of  the  Wild  Turkey 
ends  in  wood-brown. 

Distribution.  Originally  distributed  over  the  whole  of  eastern  North  America  to 
Maine  and  southern  Ontario. 

SUBSPECIES.  Several  subspecies  of  Wild  Turkey  are  recognized.  The  type 
form  is  found  in  Mexico.  The  Canadian  bird  is  the  Northern  Wild  Turkey  Meleagris 
gallopavo  silvestns. 

The  Turkey  as  a  wild  form  occurred  in  Canada  only  in  southern  Ontario 
and  has  been  extinct  for  a  number  of  years.  At  present  the  Wild  Turkey 
remains  only  in  the  most  out-of-the-way  wooded  localities  of  the  wilder 
southern  states  and  even  there  it  promises  to  vanish  soon.  There  is 
probably  considerable  native  wild  blood  in  the  domesticated  turkey  flocks 
along  lake  Erie  and  a  number  of  specimens  of  so-called  Wild  Turkeys  are 
obviously  at  least  half-bred  with  domestic  blood. 

Order — Columbae.     Pigeons  and  Doves. 

This  order,  of  world-wide  distribution,  is  variously  divided  by  different 
authors.  According  to  the  system  of  classification  of  the  American  Or- 
nithologists' Union  all  our  American  species  are  included  in  the  one  family, 
Columhidce.  They  are  the  most  typically  pigeon-like  in  form  and,  therefore, 
may  be  called  the  True  Pigeons. 

FAMILY — COLUMBID^.       TRUE    PIGEONS    AND    DOVES. 

Pigeons  and  Doves  can  in  a  general  way  be  said  to  resemble  the  outline 
and  actions  of  our  familiar  domestic  stock.  Characters  more  easily 
recognized  than  described.  Systematically  they  can  be  recognized  by  their 
bills.     These  are  hard  and  horny  at  the  tip,  which  is  very  slightly  enlarged 


112 

and  with  the  basal  half  furnished  with  a  soft,  slightly  swollen  membrane  in 
which  nostrils  open  (Figure  35,  p.  24).  The  legs  and  feet  are  weak,  fitted 
only  for  walking  on  small  level  areas  or  for  simple  perching.  Our  common 
domestic  Pigeons,  descended  from  the  Rock  Dove  of  Europe,  show  all  the 
niost  distinctive  characters  of  the  family.  There  are  no  recognizable  or 
taxonomic  differences  between  the  so-called  Pigeons  and  Doves. 

315.  Passenger  Pigeon,  wild  pigeon,  fr. — le  pigeon  voyageur.  Edopistes  mi- 
gi-atorius.     L,  16-29.     Plate  XIA. 

Distinctions.  The  Mourning  Dove  is  so  often  taken  for  this  species  that  the  two 
should  be  diagnosed  with  care.  The  Pigeon  is  a  considerably  larger  bird;  the  breast  is 
distinctly  ruddy  and  the  head  and  upper  parts  are  slate-blue  in  the  male.  The  female 
is  without  the  strong  blue  on  the  back,  but  the  head  retains  a  bluish  shade  that  is  never 
present  in  the  Mourning  Dove,  which  is  more  evenly  fawn  coloiu"ed  and  has  a  small  black 
spot  on  the  side  of  the  neck  just  below  the  ear. 

Field  Marks.     As  this  species  is  now  e.xtinct,  field  marks  are  unnecessary.  ' 

Nesting.  The  Passenger  Pigeon  built  a  rough  nest  of  sticks  in  trees,  in  large  com* 
munities. 

Distribution.  Bred  in  the  wooded  sections  of  most  of  Canada  east  of  the  moim tains 
and  south  to  the  middle  states,  wintered  in  the  southern  states  and  beyond. 

The  immense  flocks  of  Passenger  Pigeons  that  once  darkened  the  air 
were  one  of  the  wonders  of  America.  The  descriptions  of  their  numl^er,  if 
they  were  not  circumstantial  and  well  vouched  for  by  men  of  undoubted 
veracity,  would  sound  like  wild  stretches  of  the  imagination:  flocks,  so 
dense  that  haphazard  shots  into  them  would  bring  down  numbers,  travelled 
rapidly  with  a  front  miles  in  width  and  so  long  that  it  took  hours  to  pass  a 
given  point.  Audubon  estimates  one  such  flock  as  containing  over  a 
billion  birds,  basing  his  figures  upon  the  density  and  area  of  the  congre- 
gation and  not  by  mere  guess.  They  bred  in  dense  rookeries  where  their 
weight  often  broke  the  branches  from  forest  trees.  Trees  containing 
their  nests  were  cut  down  and  though  each  nest  contained  only  one  squab 
there  were  so  many  that  the  pigs  were  turned  in  to  feed  upon  them.  Later, 
the  netting  of  pigeons  was  the  occupation  of  professional  fowlers  who 
shipped  their  proceeds  by  the  car  load  to  the  centres  of  population.  Of 
course,  not  even  the  immense  numbers  of  the  Passenger  Pigeons  could 
stand  such  attacks  without  diminution  and  gradually  they  decreased.  To 
suggest  a  halt  in  the  proceedings  at  that  time,  however,  aroused  nothing 
but  amusement.  Their  numbers  were  held  to  be  inexhaustible,  but  to-day 
the  species  is  extinct  and  the  last  one,  a  captive  bird,  died  in  Cincinnati  a 
short  time  ago.  The  last  great  rookery  was  near  Petoskey,  Mich.  In  the 
autumn  of  1878  the  birds  left,  but  failed  to  return  in  any  commercial 
number  the  following  spring.  For  a  few  years  afterwards  occasional  small 
flocks  were  seen  and  isolated  rookeries  were  reported,  but  as  the  fowlers 
investigated  each  case  it  became  apparent  that  the  netting  of  pigeons  as  an 
occupation  was  a  thing  of  the  past.  Thereafter,  the  birds  became  fewer 
and  fewer  each  year  until  records  of  them  disappeared  altogether.  There 
are  occasional  rumors  even  yet  of  flocks  occurring  in  out  of  the  way 
places,  in  the  western  mountains  in  Mexico  or  South  America  and  else- 
where, but  in  each  case,  investigation  has  proved  that  the  reports  are  based 
on  other  species  or  on  misinformation.  For  several  years  a  large  reward 
was  offered  for  news  of  a  single  nesting  pair.  Of  course,  the  person  who 
offered  the  reward  was  flooded  with  reports  but  not  a  single  case  stood 
examination,  the  reward  was  never  earned,  and  was  finally  withdrawn.  In 
the  east,  the  Mourning  Dove  was  the  usual  basis  of  report,  in  the  west  the 


113 

Band-tailed  Pigeon.  Even  yet  circumstantial  accounts  appear  from  time 
to  time,  vouched  for  by  those  who  remember  the  bird  in  their  childhood, 
but  there  is  little  doubt  that  the  species  is  extinct. 

316.  Mourning  Dove.  Carolina  dove.  fr. — la  tourterelle  de  la  c.^ROLiPfE. 
Zenaidura  macroura.     L,   11-85.     Plate  XI  A. 

Distinctions.  Smaller  size  and  of  a  browner  fawn  colour  than  the  Passenger  Pigeon, 
without  marked  red  on  breast  or  blue  on  back  and  with  small  black  spot  on  side  of  neck 
below  ear.     Can   only  be  mistaken  for  the  previous  species. 

Nesting.  The  Mourning  Dove  builds  a  loose  open  platform  of  sticks  in  the  lower 
branches  of  trees  or  the  upper  parts  of  bushes.     Nests  alone  and  not  in  communities. 

Distribution.  Breeds  along  our  southern  borders  in  eastern  Canada,  wintering 
locally  in  the  most  southerly  parts  and  in  the  states  just  south  of  us  to  the  tropics. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Mourning  Dove  inhabiting  the  most  of  North  America  is 
the  Carolina,  Mourning  Dove  Z.7n.  carolinen sis,  which  is  the  only  subspecies  generally 
recognized  as  occurring  in  Canada.     The  type  form  is  entirely  extralimital. 

Though  the  Passenger  Pigeon  has  disappeared  entirely,  the  smaller 
Mourning  Dove  still  exists  and  probably  has  greatly  increased  with  the 
clearing  of  the  country.  The  general  food  habits  of  the  two  birds  were 
much  alike  except  in  the  proportion  of  the  various  food  elements.  The 
Mourning  Dove  eats  mast  readily,  but  it  formed  the  principal  food  of  the 
Pigeon  which  was,  therefore,  more  of  a  woodland  bird.  The  Mourning 
Dove  is  of  more  solitary  habits  and  rarely  goes  in  flocks  of  any  size.  It 
nests  entirely  alone.  This  may  be  a  large  factor  in  its  continued  existence 
where  its  larger  and  originally  more  numerous  relative  has  failed.  Disease 
could  not  spread  through  the  ranks  as  thoroughly  and  any  other  calamity 
that  might  affect  individuals  or  small  bodies,  would  not  involve  the  species 
as  a  whole.  In  many  sections  the  Dove  is  regarded  as  a  game  bird,  but  such 
status  is  not  usually  recognized  by  law.  Great  numbers  are  killed,  however, 
incidental  to  other  sport,  in  spite  of  legal  protection,  and  the  life  of  the 
species  is  not  an  undisturbed  one.  It,  is,  however,  a  strong  and  thriving 
race  and  is  in  little  immediate  danger. 

Its  long  mournful  note  of  "  Oh-woe-woe-woe "  is  well  known  and  has 
given  the  name  to  the  species.  It  has  a  peculiar  quality  like  that  produced 
by  blowing  softly  into  the  neck  of  an  empty  bottle. 

Economic  Status.  Though  feeding  largely  upon  mast  (acorns,  beech- 
nuts, and  such  soft-shelled  tree-fruit)  it  eats  grain  readily  and  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  insect  food.  Most  of  the  grain  it  takes  is  waste,  and 
seed  properly  planted  and  covered  is  absolutely  safe  from  it  for  it  never 
scratches.  No  serious  unpreventable  harm  can  be  substantiated  against 
it  and  the  good  it  does  is  positive. 

Order — Raptores.     Birds  of  Prey. 

General  Description.  Flesh-eating  birds  with  four  well-developed  toes  (Figures  31 
and  32,  p.  23).  each  armed  with  strong  sharp  claws  or  talons  for  seizing  and  holding  prey. 
Bill  is  hooked  (Figures  30,  33  a  and  b,  and  34,  pp.  23  and  24),  and  the  base  covered  with 
a  soft  skin  or  cere  in  which  the  nostrils  are  situated.  The  Birds  of  Prey  differ  from  the 
generahty  of  birds  in  that  the  females  are  considerably  larger  than  the  males.  This  is 
probably  due  to  the  greater  strain  placed  upon  the  female  in  feeding  her  young,  which, 
demanding  strength,  weight,  and  endurance  rather  than  fineness  and  technic,  necessitates 
a  greater  degree  of  these  quahties  in  the  female  than  in  the  male  who,  while  he  may  assist 
his  mate,  has  not  the  final  responsibility  for  the  growing  family. 

Distribution.  Raptorial  birds  are  distributed  over  all  the  world  except  the  Antarctic 
continent,  where  their  place  is  taken  by  Skua,  Gulls,  and  other  rapacious  sea-birds. 


114 

Though  th6  classification  of  this  order  is  far  from  satisfactory  and 
probably  will  eventually  have  to  be  revised,  American  practice  divides  our 
species  into  three  suborders:  Sarcorhmnphi,  the  American  Vultures,  distinct 
from  those  of  the  Old  World;  Falcones,  the  Diurnal  Birds  of  Prey;  and 
Striges,  the  Nocturnal  Birds  of  Prey  or  Owls. 

Economic  Status.  Perhaps  no  birds  are  better  known  and  at  the  same 
time  so  gene/ally  misunderstood  in  their  economic  relations  as  these. 
All  know  of  the  Hawks,  Owls,  and  Eagles  and  their  flesh-eating  propensities, 
but  few  realize  that  amongst  them  are  some  of  man's  best  friends  and  that 
the  popular  policy  of  killing  them  on  sight  is  a  mistaken  one.  Some  do 
considerable  damage,  but  to  include  all  in  the  condemnation  merited  by 
the  few  is  a  grave  economic  error.  The  first  family,  the  Vultures,  are 
repulsive  birds,  but  as  scavengers  entirely  useful,  and  no  valid  complaint 
can  be  lodged  against  them.  Of  the  other  two  divisions,  the  diurnal  and 
nocturnal  rapaces,  their  varying  status  is  the  cause  of  much  misconception. 
Fortunately  in  regard  to  these  birds  we  can  speak  with  authority  based 
upon  actual  data  and  not  mere  speculation.  The  United  States  Biological 
Survey  made  a  thorough  study  of  the  food  habits  of  American  Hawks  and 
Owls,  basing  its  conclusions  upon  the  examination  of  some  2,700  stomachs 
taken  in  all  seasons  of  the  year  in  various  parts  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  The  whole  is  embodied,  with  the  data  for  its  substantiation, 
in  a  report,  ''The  Hawks  and  Owls  of  the  United  States"  by  Dr.  A.  K. 
Fisher/  though  compiled  in  and  for  an  adjoining  country  all  Canadian 
species  are  treated  and  the  results  are  as  applicable  to  Canada  as  to  the 
United  States.  As  some  of  the  less  harmful  species  do  not  occur  in  Canada 
the  percentages  below  will  have  to  be  slightly  corrected  for  our  use,  but  not 
seriously  enough  to  perceptibly  modify  the  general  conclusions.  Only 
six  of  the  seventy-three  species  studied  are  injurious.  Of  these,  three  are 
extremely  rare  in  Canada  and  one  is  altogether  a  fish-eater.  Of  the  re- 
mainder, 56  per  cent  of  the  stomachs  examined  contained  mice  and  other 
small  mammals,  27  per  cent  insects,  and  only  3|  per  cent  poultry  or  game 
birds.  Dividing  the  raptorial  birds  of  eastern  Canada  into  groups  ac- 
cording to  their  economic  status  we  find  that  three  species  are  wholly 
beneficial  and  absolutely  harmless;  sixteen  are  mainly  beneficial,  doing 
decidedly  more  good  than  harm;  four  are  about  balanced  in  their  effect; 
and  six  are  positively  harmful.  Only  three  of  these  latter  are  common 
enough  to  warrant  consideration  and  only  two,  the  Sharp-shinned  and 
Cooper's  Hawks,  numerous  enough  in  the  thickly  settled  communities  to 
be  noticed.  The  Goshawk  is  a  more  northern  species  whose  distribution 
overlaps  the  edges  of  settlement  on  the  north.  What  can  be  regarded 
as  a  just  balance  between  good  and  evil  is  difficult  to  decide;  the  loss 
of  a  chicken  is  definite,  easily  estimated  in  value;  the  absence  of  the 
mice  and  insects  taken  by  a  predaceous  bird  is  a  vague  benefit  that  is 
difficult  of  realization  or  appreciation. 

SUBORDER— SARCORHAMPHI.     AMERICAN   VULTURES. 

This  suborder  is  composed  of  the  American  Vultures  which  are  sys- 
tematically quite  distinct  from  those  of  the  Old  World.  One  family  only 
is  represented   in   Canada,    Cathartidce  the   Turkey   Vultures.     Vultures 

iSee  also  "The  Hawks  of  the  Canadian  prairie  provinces  in  their  relation  to  agriculture," 
Geol.  8urv.,  Can.,  Mus.  Bull.  28,  1918. 


115 

are  carrion  feeders,  relying  upon  dead  meat  and  not  capturing  living  prey 
unless  it  is  in  the  last  stages  of  exhaustion.  Ordinarily,  they  touch  nothing 
but  decaying  flesh.  This  is  usually  regarded  as  a  matter  of  choice,  but 
may  be  a  necessity,  as  their  feet  are  not  formed  for  grasping  and  the  bill 
is  comparatively  weak.  They  may,  therefore,  be  unable  to  break  into 
large  sound  carcasses  and  are  forced  to  await  the  decay  which  renders 
the  subject  less  refractory. 

FAMILY— CATHARTID^.   TURKEY  VULTURES. 

General  Description.  Large  birds,  uniformly  nearly  black  in  coloration.  Bill  is 
comparatively  long  and  less  strongly  hooked  than  in  remainder  of  the  Raptores  (Figure 
30,  p.  23) .  Head  and  upper  neck  are  bare  of  feathers  and  have  a  superficial  general 
resemblance  to  those  of  the  turkey,  but  are  without  wattles  or  warty  excrescences.  Feet 
resemble  those  of  a  chicken  rather  than  a  hawk.  Claws  are  blunt  and  the  whole  foot  is 
poorly  adapted  for  seizing  or  holding  prey. 

Distribution.  Vultiu-es  are  essentially  birds  of  the  warmer  regions.  They  enter 
eastern  Canada  only  along  the  most  southern  boundaries. 

Vultures  cannot  be  observed  to  advantage  in  Canada.  In  the  southern 
states  they  are  more  common  and  can  be  seen  every  hour  of  the  day  floating 
on  motionless  wings  high  in  the  air,  searching  the  country  below  with 
telescopic  eye  for  carrion.  When  an  animal  dies  (or  even  before)  it  is 
sighted  and  a  black  form  drops  from  the  sky  beside  it;  shortly  it  is  joined 
by  another,  and  another,  and  soon  where  not  a  bird  was  previously  to 
be  seen  many  are  struggling  about  the  unclean  feast.  Though  dissection 
shows  very  highly  developed  nostrils,  scent  does  not  seem  to  guide  them 
to  any  appreciable  extent.  Experiment  indicates  that  the  eyesight  alone 
is  relied  upon  for  locating  food.  The  flight  of  the  Vultures  is  one  of  the 
wonders  of  the  physicist.  The  Vultures  hang  suspended  in  the  air  or 
even  rise  until  beyond  the  bounds  of  human  vision, without  visible  effort. 
On  motionless  outspread  pinions  they  glide  in  great  ascending  spirals, 
mounting  higher  and  higher,  and  then,  always  circling,  maintain  their 
positions  for  hours  at  a  time,  apparently  without  a  single  wing  stroke. 
Many  explanations  of  the  phenomenon  have  been  offered  but  all  so  far 
advanced  fall  just  short  of  conviction.  In  Canada  we  have  only  one 
species  of  regular  though  limited  distribution.  Another  is  of  casual 
occurrence  only. 

Economic  Status.  The  Vultures  are  not  birds  of  prey  in  the  usual 
acceptation  of  the  term,  for  they  do  not  kill  what  they  eat  but  feed  entirely 
on  carrion.  They  have  been  accused,  and  perhaps  justly,  of  accelerating 
death  at  times,  but  they  never  attack  an  animal  that  is  not  in  the  last 
stages  of  dissolution.  In  Canada  the  species  is  of  little  economic  im- 
portance, but  in  the  south  their  scavenging  is  an  important  safeguard 
to  the  health  of  the  more  careless  communities  and  in  many  typical  places 
they  are  rigorously  protected  by  law  for  sanitary  reasons. 

325.  Turkey  Vulture,  turkey  buzzard.  Cathartes  aura.  L,  30.  An  all  dark 
bird,  nearly  black,  with  head  and  neck  naked  or  ia  juveniles  covered  with  greyish  brown, 
fur-like  down. 

Distinctions.  This  species  can  only  be  confused  with  the  next,  but  as  the  ranges 
of  the  two  in  Canada  do  not  overlap  there  is  little  likehhood  of  misidentification.  The 
base  of  the  bill  is  bright  red  in  the  adult  and  the  head  and  neck  dull  red.  The  under  surface 
of  the  wings  is  without  silvery  sheen. 


116 

Field  Marks.  The  naked  head  and  neck  make  the  best  field  mark  of  the  Vultures. 
The  red  colour  of  these  parts  identifies  this  species. 

Nesting.     On  ground,  usually  in  a  hollow  log. 

Distribution.  Over  most  of  North  America  north  to  the  Canadian  line  which,  in  the 
east,  it  only  crosses  in  southern  Ontario.  A  few  may  come  in  from  Manitoba  more  or 
less  regularly. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  species  occupying  most  of  North  and  South  America  is  sub- 
epecifically  divided.  The  form  occurring  north  of  Mexico  is  the  Northern  Turkey  Vulture 
Calhartes  aura  septentrionalis. 

Economic  Status.  Being  a  carrion  feeder  no  harm  can  be  charged 
against  the  species. 

326.  Black  Vulture,  fr. — le  vautour  noir.  Catharista  uriibii.  L,  24.  Very 
like  the  Turkey  Vultiu-e,  but  slightly  smaller. 

Distinctions.  Distinguished  from  the  preceding  by  the  neck,  head,  and  base  of  the 
bill  being  black  instead  of  red  or  pink. 

Field  Marks.  The  general  blackness  of  the  bare  head  parts  and  a  silvery  sheen  to 
the  under-wing  surface  are  diagnostic  in  life.  The  tail  is  shorter  and  the  bird  looks  blacker 
than  in  the  Turkey  Buzzard. 

Distribution.  A  bird  of  more  eastern  distribution  than  the  Tiu-key  Vulture.  Regular 
from  Virginia  south,  stragghng  across  our  borders  occasionally  in  the  Maritime  Provinces. 

Of  too  infrequent  occurrence  in  Canada  for  more  than  passing  men- 
tion.    It  is  to  be  expected  occasionally  only  in  the  Maritime  Provinces. 

SUBORDER— FALCONES.     DIURNAL   BIRDS   OF   PREY. 

General  Description.  BiU  strongly  hooked  from  the  base  (Figure  33,  p.  23),  where 
it  is  covered  with  a  swollen  cere  or  mass  of  yellow  waxy-looking  tissue  in  which  the  nostrils 
appear.  This  tissue  is  distinctly  softer  than  the  bill  proper  and  usually  yellow  in  colour. 
The  feet  are  powerful  and  fiu-nished  with  strong  claws  or  talons  for  capturing  and  holding 
living  prey  (Figm-e  31,  p.  23). 

Distinctions.  The  members  of  this  suborder  differ  from  the  Vultures  in  having  the 
bill  shorter  and  more  strongly  hooked  and  the  head  feathered  instead  of  bare  (compare 
Figures  30,  33,  p.  23);  and  from  the  next  suborder,  the  Owls,  in  lacking  distinct  facial 
disks  (Figure  34,  p.  24)  about  the  eyes  which  are  so  set  in  the  Owls  as  to  look  directly 
forwards  instead  of  from  the  sides  of  the  head  as  in  most  birds. 

These  are  the  birds  generally  recognized  as  the  Hawks  and  the  Eagles. 
They  are  represented  in  Canada  by  three  families:  Buteonidoe,  the  common 
Buzzard  Hawks  and  the  Eagles;  Falconidce,  the  true  Falcons  and  Cara- 
caras;    and  Pandionidce,  the  Ospreys  or  Fish  Hawks. 

FAMILY — BUTEONIDiE.       BUZZARD    HAWKS,    KITES,  HARRIERS,  BUZZARDS, 

AND    EAGLES. 

General  Description.  Hawks  of  various  sizes,  most  easily  described  as  being  neither 
Falcons  nor  Ospreys. 

Distinctions.  Wings  are  short,  round,  and  concave  except  in  the  Kites  and  Harriers, 
and  their  flight  is  comparatively  heavy.  Bill  (Figure  33b,  p.  23)  is  without  notches  which 
make,  as  in  the  Falcons,  distinct  tooth-like  (Figure  33a,  p.  23)  projections  to  the  cutting 
edge.  The  feet  (especially  under-surface)  have  no  distinct,  sharp,  hard  corrugations  for 
holding  slippery  prey,  as  in  the  Ospreys  or  Fish  Hawks. 

This  family  is  composed  of  a  number  of  well-marked  genera,  each 
comparatively  easy  of  recognition.  These  comprise  the  bulk  of  our 
common  birds  of  prey.  Though  truly  raptorial  in  character  they  have 
not  the  bold  spirit,  the  address  in  attack,  or  the  iron  endurance  of  the 
true  Falcons  and  hence  were  called  'Tgnoble  Hawks"  by  the  old  falconers. 


117 
Genera — Elanoides  and  Circus.     Kites  and  Harriers. 

The  Kites  are  birds  of  southern  distribution  and  onlj'-  one  species 
has  ever  been  taken  in  Canada. 

327.  Swallow- tailed  Kite.  fr. — le  milan  a  queue  d'aronde.  Elanoides  for- 
ficatus.  L,  24.  (Projection  of  outer  tail  feathers  beyond  middle  ones  8  inches).  A  rather 
small  Hawk  which  measures  large  because  of  the  great  elongation  of  its  outer  tail  feathers 
which  extend  8  inches  beyond  the  middle  ones.  Wings  and  tail  piu-e  black;  all  remainder, 
including  head,  shoulders,  and  upper  back,  white.  A  bird  strikingly  coloured  in  intense 
black  and  white,  with  the  deeply  forked  tail  and  long  pointed  wings  of  a  Barn  Swallow. 
It  is  hardly  possible  to  mistake  this  for  any  other  species. 

Distribution.  Tropical  and  semi  tropical  America,  appearing  very  rarely  along  our 
southern  border. 

A  most  beautiful  species,  but  too  rare  in  Canada  to  receive  more 
than  passing'  reference  here. 

Economic  Status.  Its  principal  food  is  insects,  snails,  and  reptiles; 
it  never  touches  mammals  or  birds. 

331.  Marsh  Hawk,  marsh  harrier,  fr. — le  busard  des  marais.  Circus  hud- 
sonius.    L,  19.     Plate  XI  B. 

Distinctions.  A  partial  and  incompletely  feathered  eye-ring  merely  suggestive  of 
those  of  the  Owls,  is  distinctive  of  the  species.  The  general  gull-hke  colours  of  the  adult 
male  and  the  warm  reds  of  the  juveniles  are  characteristic. 

Field  Marks.  General  coloration  and  the  white  rump  which  shows  conspicuously 
in  flight  are  the  best  field  marks.  Its  long  pointed  wings  and  long  narrow  tail  give  it  a 
falcon-hke  outhne  in  flight,  but  its  action  is  entirely  different. 

Nesting.     On  ground  in  a  dry  spot  of  the  marshes,  or  in  a  haj'  field. 

Distribution.  The  whole  of  the  United  States  and  Canada  north  to  near  the  Arctics. 
Breeds  throughout  Canada. 

One  of  our  commonest  Hawks,  found  almost  anywhere  in  eastern 
Canada.  It  haunts  the  open  marshes,  meadows,  and  fields  and  is  to  be 
seen  beating  up  and  down,  quartering  and  covering  the  ground  like  a 
well-trained  bird-dog.  For  an  instant  it  hovers  over  its  intended  prey  and 
then  drops  upon  it,  rising  a  moment  later  to  alight  on  a  fence-post  or 
other  similar  slight  elevation  to  devour  its  captive.  The  young  birds  are 
unsuspicious,  but  the  blue  adults  are  amongst  the  wariest  of  birds  and 
fall  to  the  gun  comparatively  seldom. 

Economic  Status.  Of  116  stomachs  examined,  7  contained  poultry 
or  game  birds,  34,  other  birds;  57,  mice;  22,  other  mammals;  7,  reptiles; 
2,  frogs;  14,  insects;  and  1,  indeterminate  matter.  Thus  of  144  food 
contents  41  were  harmful,  93  useful,  and  10  neutral.  Of  the  41  harnaful 
items,  only  3  were  domestic  fowl  and  the  remainder  wild  stock,  consisting 
of  46  individuals  of  considerably  less  value  than  the  domestic  varieties. 
The  99  mice  and  other  mammals  included  about  117  individuals.  The 
insects  were  mostly  locusts,  grasshoppers,  and  beetles.  The  balance  is 
evidently  in  favour  of  this  species  which  is  incapable  of  taking  any  fowl 
but  small  ones  and  then  only  when  they  wander  away  into  its  habitat. 
Keeping  spring  chickens  close  about  the  premises  is  an  almost  perfect 
protection  against  this  bird.  Haunting  marshes,  grassy  meadows,  and 
tangled  fence-rows  as  it  does  it  is  the  nautral  enemy  of  field  mice  and 
probably  does  more  to  keep  their  numbers  within  bounds  than  any  other 
single  natural  influence. 


118 

Genera — Accipiter  and  Astur.     Accipiters.     Short-Wingbd  Hawks. 

General  Description.     Hawks  with  short  rounded  wings  and  long  tail. 

The  Accipitrine  Hawks  are  woodland  birds  which  beat  about  the  tree 
tops  or  along  the  edges  of  the  woods;  they  do  not  habitually  soar  high  in  the 
open.  They  take  their  prey  by  surprise  and  quick  attack  rather  than  by 
open  pursuit.  Their  short  wings  and  long  tail,  giving  rapid  bursts  of  speed 
and  quite  flexible  evolution,  are  well  adapted  for  such  manoeuvres  but  not 
suited  to  sustained  effort. 

Economic  Status.  These  are  the  only  common  species  of  Canadian 
Hawks  for  which  little  good  can  be  claimed.  They  are  active  and  spirited 
and  though  without  the  f.  reat  strength  and  endurance  of  the  true  Falcons 
do  far  more  real  dama.^  than  their  larger  and  heavier  relatives.  The 
term  "Chicken  Hawk"  popularly  applied  to  any  small  liawk  receives  its 
meaning  from  these  bird^.  They  never  eat  carrion  but  always  make  fresh 
kills,  rarely  if  ever  returning  to  partly  devoured  prey.  Fortunately  the 
two  commonest  species  are  the  smaller  and  their  capacity  for  damage  is 
reduced  in  consequence.  The  one  large  and  powerful  member  of  the  group, 
the  Goshawk,  is  of  more  limited  distribution  and  except  in  occasional 
winters  is  rarely  seen  in  the  more  settled  parts  of  southern  Canada. 

332.  Sharp-shinned  Hawk,  chicken  hawk.  fr. — l'epervier  brun.  Accipiter 
velox.    L,  11-25.    Plate  XII  A. 

Distribution.  As  a  rule,  size  will  distinguish  the  Sharp-shinned  Hawk  from  all  except 
the  Sparrow  Hawk,  but  its  evident  non-falcon  characters  will  prevent  confusion.  A  large 
female  will  measure  closely  to  a  small  male  Cooper's  Hawk  of  which  it  is  a  perfect  minia- 
ture in  coloration.  It  differs  from  that  species  in  having  a  square  instead  of  a  rounded 
tail,  when  closed  the  outer  feathers  being  quite  as  long  as  the  inner  ones  instead  of  obviously 
shorter.  The  tarsus  is  also  comparatively  thinner  and  more  slender,  a  difference  that  is 
quite  perceptible  on  comparison  of  specimens. 

Field  Marks.  The  short,  roimd  wings,  long  tail,  and  flight  by  a  series  of  alternating 
quick  even  strokes  and  short  sails  will  mark  this  species  as  an  Accipiter.  Its  tail  being 
square  instead  of  round  is  a  guide  to  identification  from  the  Cooper's  Hawk,  but  size  is 
the  most  rehable  difference. 

Nesting.     In  trees,  usually  conifers  from  10  to  40  feet  up. 

Distribution.  Over  nearly  the  whole  of  North  America,  north,  probably,  to  the  tree 
imits.  It  breeds  in  eastern  Canada  everywhere  except  in  the  most  southern  parts  of  the 
lower  Great  Lakes  region. 

This  is  the  second  smallest  Hawk  we  have.  It  has  not  the  sustained 
strength  or  persistency  of  the  "Noble  Falcons",  but  it  is  active  and  agile. 
It  makes  bold  dashes  at  its  prey,  but  on  missing  the  stroke  seldom  follows  it 
up  by  pursuit  and  almost  never  strikes  on  the  wing,  as  the  "Noble  Falcons' ' 
do. 

Economic  Status.  This  is  the  species  that  should  have  been  called 
"American  Sparrow  Hawk"  instead  of  the  little  Falcon  which  has  been 
so-named.  It  is  a  close  relative,  and  the  American  representative  of  the 
European  Sparrow  Hawk  which  is  also  an  Accipiter.  The  name  would 
suit  this  bird  excellently  as  the  smaller  sparrows  and  other  birds  are  its 
favourite  food. 

Of  107  stomachs  examined,  6  contained  poultry  or  game  birds;  99, 
other  birds;  6,  mice;  and  5,  insects.  This  gives  105  harmful  food  contents 
against  11  good  ones.  The  mice  consisted  of  no  more  than  9  individuals, 
but  the  small  birds  numbered  11.5,  from  Kinglets  to  a  Mourning  Dove  in 
size.    This  makes  a  strong  case  against  this  otherwise  rather  interesting 


119 

species.  One  good  word  can  be  said  for  this  little  hawk,  it  is  fond  of  the 
English  Sparrows  and  takes  toll  of  their  flocks  about  the  smaller  towns  and 
cities.  Pelee  point  on  lake  Erie  is  a  famous  Sharp-shinned  resort  in  the 
autumn,  and  great  numbers  of  Thrushes,  Vireos,  Sparrows,  and  other 
small  birds  annually  fall  victims  to  these  active  little  freebooters. 

333.  Cooper's  Hawk,  chicken  hawk.  fr. — l'^perviek  de  cooper.  Accipiter 
cooperi.     L,  15-50.     Similar  to  the  Sharp-shinned  Hawk,  but  larger. 

Distinctions.  A  small,  male  Cooper's  Hawk  may  come  very  close  in  measurement  to 
a  large  female  Sharp-shinned,  and  a  large  female  to  a  small  male  Goshawk.  Cooper's 
Hawk  can  be  distinguished  from  the  sharp-shinned  by  its  rounded  instead  of  square  tail  and 
its  comparatively  shorter  and  heavier  tarsus.  At  no  age  is  it  hke  the  adult  Goshawk  in 
coloration,  but  juvenile  plumages  are  very  similar.  The  best  guide  to  separation  other  than 
size  is  the  feathering  of  the  tarsus;  about  one-third  is  covered  in  Cooper's  Hawk  and  about 
one-half  in  the  Goshawk.  It  may  also  resemble  young  plumages  of  the  Red-shouldered 
Hawk,  which  see.  It  may  also  be  easily  confused  with  the  juvenile  Broad-winged  Hawk, 
but  has  the  first  four  instead  of  the  three  outer  primaries  abruptly  narrowed  or  emarginated. 

Field  Marks.  Accipiter  outline  and  size  are  the  best  field  guides.  The  roimd  instead 
of  square  tail  will  help  distinguish  this  from  the  Sharp-shinned.  Coloration  of  the  adulta 
is  the  only  field  mark  besides  size  to  differentiate  from  the  Goshawk. 

Nesting.     In  trees,  much  like  the  Sharp-shinned  Hawk,  but  seldom  in  conifers. 

Distribution.  From  the.  northern  borders  of  settlement  south  throughout  the  United 
States. 

An  even  worse  species  than  the  Sharp-shinned  as  its  larger  size  gives 
it  greater  power  and  capacity  for  damage.  Showing  an  almost  equal  spirit 
it  seeks  larger  prey  and  even  a  fairly  well-grown  chicken  is  not  safe  from  it. 
Adult  fowls  are  rarely  attacked  unless  feeble. 

Economic  Status.  Of  94  stomachs  examined,  34  contained  poultry  or 
game  birds;  52,  other  birds;  11,  mammals;  1  frog;  3,  lizards;  and  2, 
insects.  The  mammals  consisted  of  rodents,  mostly  harmful,  but  one  a 
Grey  Squirrel;  making  a  total  of  87  food  contents  against  the  species,  12 
in  its  favour,  and  4  neutral.  As  it  is  a  comparatively  common  Hawk 
throughout  much  of  the  settled  parts  of  the  country  it  is  certainly  a  menace 
and  is  responsible  for  much  of  the  popular  ill-repute  of  the  order  as  a  whole. 

334.  American  Goshawk,  blue  partridge  hawk,  hen  hawk.  fr. — l'autotjr 
A  t^te  noire.     Astur  atricapillus.     L,  22.     Plate  XII  B. 

Distinctions.  Adults,  with  their  characteristic  slate-blue  coloration  and  fine  vermi- 
culation,  are  not  to  be  mistaken  for  any  other  American  bird.  The  juveniles,  however, 
are  very  similar  to  other  young  Accipiters  and  a  small  male  will  sometimes  approach  in 
size  to  a  large  female  Cooper's  Hawk.  In  such  case,  the  tarsus  feathered  for  one-half  in- 
stead of  one-third  its  length  and  the  slight  tinge  of  buff  to  the  white  of  the  imderparts  of 
this  species  will  distinguish  the  forms. 

Field  Marks.  Adults  are  distinguishable  by  coloration.  Juveniles  can  be  recognized 
by  their  size  and  Accipiter  outline  of  long  tail  and  short,  roimd  wings. 

Nesting.     In  trees. 

Distribution.  Breeds  across  the  continent  within  the  borders  of  settlement.  Its 
winter  migratory  movements  are  usually  of  small  extent,  though  it  occasionally  visits  oiu" 
southern  borders  in  considerable  numbers.  Paralleling  the  case  of  the  Snowy  Owl  such 
flights  are  likely  to  contain  mostly  adults,  though,  normally,  juveniles  are  much  the  com- 
moner south  of  the  breeding  distribution.  It  is  probable  that  these  occasional  flights  are 
caused  by  the  periodic  failure  of  rabbit  food  in  their  usual  habitats. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  American  Goshawk  is  divided  into  two  subspeci^,  but  only 
the  typical  form,  the  Eastern  Groshawk,  occurs  in  eastern  Canada. 

The  American  representative  of  the  Old  World  Goshawk  or  "Goose 
Hawk",  which  seems  to  be  the  original  name.  It  was  the  only  short- 
winged  Hawk  regularly  used  in  ancient  falconry.     It  was  flown  at  hares, 


120 

partridges,  and  such  ground  game,  which  its  long  tail  and  short  wings 
allowed  it  to  follow  through  rapid  turnings  and  twistings,  whereas  its  size 
allowed  it  to  kill  quite  large  game.  It  was  not,  however,  regarded  as  a 
thoroughly  sportmanlike  bird  as  it  lacked  the  spirit  and  energy  of  the  long- 
winged  Falcons  and  its  use  lacked  the  excitement  and  interest  of  the  "Noble 
Hawks". 

Economic  Status.  Fortunately  this  bird  is  only  an  irregular  winter 
visitor  into  our  least  settled  sections.  Otherwise  it  would  be  a  serious 
menace  to  the  poultryman.  Of  20  stomachs  examined,  9  contained  poultry 
or  game;  2,  other  birds;  10,  mammals;  3,  insects;  and  1,  a  centipede.  Of 
the  10  mammals,  3  were  rabbits  and  1  a  grey  squirrel,  both  of  which  can  be 
regarded  as  useful.  This  gives  a  total  of  15  harmful  food  items  against  9 
useful  and  1  neutral.  There  can  be  no  question  as  to  the  harmful  status  of 
this  species.  Its  size  gives  it  ample  power  to  take  pullets  and  even  well- 
grown  hens,  and  such  large  game  as  Ruffed  Grouse  is  its  favourite  food. 
Though  the  real  home  of  the  Goshawks  is  in  the  more  northern  forests  along 
the  edge  of  the  cultivated  sections,  when  they  once  establish  themselves 
near  a  farmyard  they  are  likely  to  visit  it  daily.  They  dash  suddenly  over 
or  around  a  building  into  the  middle  of  the  poultry  flock,  seize  their  victim, 
and  are  off  with  it  before  the  owner  can  protect  his  property. 

Genera — Buteo  axd  Archibuteo.     True  Buzzards. 

General  Description.  Heavily  built  Hawks  of  metliimi  vr  large  size,  the  bill  without 
notches  or  teeth  (Figure  33  b,  p.  23).  The  wings  are  rather  short  and  round  and  the  tail 
long  and  ample,  spreading  out  in  a  broad  semicircle.  Genus  Buteo  has  clean  tarsi,  but 
those  of  Archibuteo  are  feathered  to  the  base  of  the  toes. 

Field  Marks.  Roimd  wings,  and  broad,  ample  tail  make  the  best  field  marks  of  the 
"Buzzards. 

These  are  the  true  Buzzards.  The  Turkey  Vulture  is  called  Buzzard 
in  the  south,  but  incorrectly  so.  The  Buzzards  lack  the  dash,  speed,  and 
spirit  of  either  the  Falcons  or  the  Accipiters  and  confine  themselves  to 
humbler  game  and  slower,  heavier  methods  of  hunting.  They  are  the 
common  high-flying  Hawks  of  summer,  can  be  seen  circling  for  hours  high 
in  the  air,  and  are  little  given  to  dashing  about  the  thickets  like  the  agile 
Accipiters.  With  the  exception  of  the  Broad-winged,  their  characteristic 
habitat  is  the  wide  open,  though  they  usually  nest  in  the  forest. 

Economic  Status.  On  the  whole  their  mousing  and  insectivorous 
habits  more  than  compensate  for  some  undeniable  damage  done  by  indi- 
viduals of  a  few  species.  Though  the  Buzzards  include  some  of  our  largest 
Hawks,  the  harm  they  do  does  not  begin  to  compare  with  that  done  by  the 
smaller  Accipiters.  Indeed  the  very  largest  species  of  the  group,  the 
Rough-legs,  are  the  most  harmless.  Their  principal  food  is  mice,  other 
small  mammals,  reptiles,  and  insects  and  the  size  of  many  of  these  guarantee 
that  the  good  they  do  is  on  a  large  and  important  scale. 

337.  Red-tailed  Hawk,  hen  hawk.  fr. — l.\  buse  a  queue  rousse.  Butee 
borealis.     L,  20.     Plate  XIII  A. 

Distinctions.  Our  largest  common  Hawk;  usually  to  be  distinguished  from  all  others 
by  size.  The  Rough-legged,  which  is  its  equal  or  superior  in  this  respect,  can  be  easily 
distinguished  by  its  feathered  tarsus.  Broad  red  tail  is  distinctive  of  the  adult.  Juveniles 
vary  only  slightly  from  the  Red-shouldered  Hawk  of  equal  age  but  are  larger.   Except  for 


121 

this  the  best  distinction  between  them  is  the  lack  of  any  indication  in  this  species  of  reddisli 
on  the  shoulders  or  upper  wing  coverts  and  the  presence  of  a  roughly  circular,  unspotted, 
area  on  the  breast. 

Field  Marks.  Adults  can  be  recognized  specifically  in  hfe  by  the  red  tail,  and  all 
ages  generically  by  their  characteristic  Buzzard  outline  of  short  wings  and  broad,  ample, 
round  tail.  Juveniles  are  only  likely  to  be  mistaken  for  the  Red-shouldered;  from  these 
the  white  breast  and  the  voice  are  probably  the  most  rehable  guides.  The  call  of  th(> 
Red-shouldered  is  identical  with  some  of  the  Blue  Jay  calls.  The  notes  of  the  Red- 
tailed  are  similar,  but  different  enough  in  quality  and  execution  to  be  recognizable  after 
liaving  once  been  heard.  . 

Distribution.  Eastern  North  America  north  to  near  the  tree  limit.  Breeds  in  Canada 
wherever  found. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Red-tailed  Hawk  is  represented  in  Canada  by  several  subspecies, 
but  only  the  typical  form,  the  Eastern  Red-tail,  is  to  be  looked  for  in  the  east. 

Nesting.     High  up  in  trees  in  the  larger  woodland  patches. 

The  Red-tailed  is  a  shy  and  a  cautious  Hawk.  It  is  more  often  seen 
saiUns  in  great  circles  high  overhead  than  close  by.  It  requires  larger  and 
wilder  woodland  patches  than  the  Red-shouldered  for  its  headquarters  in 
summer,  though  like  that  species  it  hunts  in  the  surrounding  open. 

Ecommic  Status.  This  large,  fine  bird  occupies  a  debatable  position  of 
usefulness  and  so  much  depends  upon  local  conditions  and  the  personal 
characteristics  of  individuals  that  no  hard  and  fast  conclusion  respecting 
it  can  be  laid  down.  Of  473  stomach  examinations,  54  contained  poultry 
or  game  birds;  51,  other  birds;  278,  mice;  131,  other  mammals;  37, 
batrachians  or  reptiles;  47,  insects;  8,  crayfish;  1,  centipede;  and  13  offal. 
Of  the  "other  mammals"  16  were  rabbits  or  grey  squirrels.  This  gives  us 
about  121  food  items  against  and  464 /or  the  species,  and  there  are  48  that 
can  be  regarded  as  neutral  besides  the  13  of  offal  that  can  only  be  livSted 
as  favourable.  It  should  also  be  borne  in  mind  in  studying  these  food 
contents  that  those  birds  coming  closest  to  the  farmyard  are  the  most  likely 
to  be  shot  and  have  their  stomachs  examined.  Hence  there  is  a  certain 
amount  of  unfavourable  selection  against  the  species  as  a  whole  in  the 
choice  of  evidence,  that  should  be  allowed  for. 

The  species  is,  on  the  whole,  exceedingly  useful  and  does  considerably 
more  good  than  harm.  Individuals,  however,  frequently  get  into  the  habit 
of  regularly  visiting  the  poultry  yard.  These  are  nearly  always  young 
birds  of  the  year  in  search  of  easy  prey.  The  old  birds  are  usually  too 
cautious  for  this.  There  can  be  no  question  that  such  individuals  should  be 
eliminated  as  quickly  as  possible,  but  it  certainly  cannot  be  maintained  that 
a  generally  useful  species  should  be  systematically  persecuted  for  the  bad 
habits  of  a  few.  In  economic  ornithology  it  is  a  good  rule,  when  the 
evidence  is  delicately  balanced,  to  give  the  bird  the  benefit  of  the  doubt. 

339.  Red-shouldered  Hawk,  chicken  hawk.  fr. — la  buse  .1  manteatj  roux. 
Buteo  lineatus.     L,  18-30.     Plate  XIII  B. 

Distinctions.  The  reddish  underparts  of  the  adults.  Juvenile  plumage  may  be 
similar  to  the  young  Red-tailed,  but  its  inferior  size  and  the  presence  of  at  least  an  indica- 
tion of  rufous  on  the  shoulders  or  wing-coverts  and  the  spotting  of  centre  of  breast  will 
distinguish  it. 

Field  Marks.  With  its  characteristic  Buteo  outhne  and  habits  it  is  not  likely  to  be 
confused  with  any  other  species  than  the  Red-tailed.  The  lack  of  red  tail  and  the  ruddy 
underparts  will  distinguish  adults.  For  juveniles  the  voice  and  size  are  probably  the  most 
rehable  guides.  The  notes  of  this  species  are  so  hke  certain  calls  of  the  Blue  Jay  that  they 
can  be  differentiated  with  difficulty.  The  Red-tail's  screams  are  of  similar  nature,  but  quite 
distinguishable. 


122 

Nesting.     In  trees,  35  to  75  feet  from  the  ground. 

Distribution.  Over  eastern  North  America  north  to  the  limits  of  settlement.  Breeds 
in  Canada  wherever  found. 

SUBSPECIES.  Several  subspecies  of  the  Red-shouldered  Hawk  are  recognized, 
but  only  one,  the  Eastern  Red-shouldered,  the  typical  form,  occurs  in  eastern  Canada. 

This  is  probably  the  most  common  Hawk  in  eastern  Canada.  It  is 
similar  in  habit  to  the  Red-tailed  except  that  it  does  not  insist  upon  deep 
woods  for  its  nesting  habitat  but  will  build  in  almost  any  little  patch  of 
woodland,  sometimes  in  surprising  proximity  to  settlement. 

Economic  Status.  This  species  is,  fundamentally,  very  similar  in 
its  food  habits  to  the  Red-tailed,  but  being  a  much  smaller  and  lighter 
bird  the  damage  it  can  do  is  proportionately  less,  whereas  its  good  offices 
are  scarcely  if  at  all  impaired.  Of  206  stomachs  examined,  3  contained 
poultry;  12  other  birds;  102,  mice;  40,  other  mammals;  20,  reptiles;  30, 
batrachians  (frogs,  etc.);  92,  insects;  16,  spiders;  7,  crawfish;  1,  earth- 
worm; 2,  offal;  and  3,  fish.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  its  diet  is  varied. 
Whether  the  shrews,  frogs,  reptiles,  and  spiders  are  to  be  counted  for  or 
against  the  species  is  open  to  some  doubt,  but  the  large  number  of  mice 
and  insects  against  3  of  poultry  and  12  birds  obviously  acquits  the  species 
of  the  charge  of  doing  much  damage. 

342.  Swainson's  Hawk,  fr.— la  buse  de  swainson.  Buteo  swainsoni.  L,  20. 
Of  about  the  same  size  as  the  Red-shouldered.  It  may  occur  either  in  a  nearly  black 
phase,  a  light  one,  or  any  intermediate  stage  between.  The  characteristic  light  plumage 
shows  an  evenly  brown  back,  head,  and  upperparts,  white  underparts  with  a  band  of 
vinaceous  across  the  chest,  and  slight  indications  of  bars  of  same  colour  on  flanks. 

Distinctions.  Many  birds  have  the  ends  of  their  primaries  suddenly  reduced  in  width 
as  if  a  shaving  had  been  taken  from  the  edge  with  a  pocket-knife.  In  this  species  the  three 
outer  primaries  are  thus  attenuated  or  emarginated.  In  the  Red-shouldered  Hawk,  for 
which  certain  plumages  might  be  mistaken,  foiu"  of  the  primaries  are  emarginated. 

Distribution.  The  prairie  provinces  and  westward.  North  to  the  Ai'ctics,  wandering 
casually  to  the  lower  Great  Lakes. 

This  species  occurs  in  eastern  Canada  only  as  a  rare  straggler  from 
the  west  and  should  be  identified  with  the  greatest  care.  Though  a 
prairie  bird,  its  habits  are  too  similar  to  the  last  species  and  it  is  too  rare 
to  require  detailed  mention. 

343.  Broad-winged  Hawk.  fr. — la  buse  de  penstlvanie.  Buteo  platypterus. 
L,  15-89.  The  smallest  of  our  Buteos.  Adult — brown  above,  underparts  all  barred  with 
reddish  brown  and  white  in  rather  coarse  pattern.  Juveniles — brown  above  with  more 
or  less  white  irregularly  scattered  through;  below,  white  with  brown  stripes  on  breast 
to  throat  and  bars  on  flanks  and  legs. 

Distinctions.  Size  will  distinguish  this  species  from  the  young  Red-shouldered  Hawk 
which  juveniles  may  resemble.  Thi-ee  attenuated  or  emarginated  primaries  instead  of 
four  will  differentiate  it  from  both  that  species  and  the  Cooper's  Hawk  with  which  it  also 
might  be  confused. 

Field  Marks.  Size,  general  coloration  of  adults,  and  its  long,  fine,  sharp  call  Kke  the 
drawn-out  squeak  of  a  rusty  barn-door  hinge  are  good  field  characters. 

Nesting.     In  trees  25  to  70  feet  from  ground. 

Distribution.  Eastern  North  America  northward  to  the  bounds  of  settlement.  Breeds 
locally  in  eastern  Canada  in  all  except  the  most  southern  parts  of  Ontario  and  far  south 
in  the  Mississippi  valley. 

Local  in  distribution  and  prefers  the  wilder  sections. 
Economic  Status.     Of  57  stomachs  examined,  2  contained  small  birds; 
15,  mice;  13,  other  mammals;  11,  reptiles;  13,  batrachians  (frogs,  etc.); 


123 

30,  insects;  2,  earthworms;  4,  crawfish.     Without  further  analysis  this 
evidence  is  sufficient  to  free  this  species  from  any  stigma  of  being  harmful. 

347a.  Rough-legged  Hawk.  pr. — la  buse  pattue  d'amerique.  Archibuteo  lago- 
jms  sancti-johannis.  L,  22.  The  largest  of  our  true  Hawks.  It  occurs  in  two  phases: 
one  all  dark,  aknost  black;  and  the  other  light,  of  almost  infinite  variety  of  colour  tone 
and  pattern.  AH  intermediate  stages  occur.  The  most  common  form  is  brown  above 
more  or  less  mixed  with  ochre,  especially  about  head,  and  ochre  below  with  dark  abdominal 
band  and  stripes  on  breast  and  throat.  The  tarsus,  being  feathered  to  the  toes,  is  the 
basis  of  the  common  name  and  is  characteristic  of  the  genus. 

Distinctions.  Large  size  and  the  feathering  of  the  tarsus  to  the  base  of  the  toes  is 
diagnostic. 

Field  Marks.  Large  size,  broad  masses  of  black  below,  tail  white  at  base  (not  a  white 
rimip),  and  prominent  black  wrist  marks  on  the  under  siirface  of  the  wing  are  all  good 
field  marks. 

Nesting.     In  the  far  north  on  ground,  on  rocky  ledges,  or  in  trees. 

Distribution.  As  a  species,  inhabiting  the  northern  portions  of  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere. The  American  form  is  found  from  Mexico  to  the  Arctic.  Breeds  on  or  near  the 
barren  grounds. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Rough-legged  Hawk  is  represented  in  the  New  and  Old  Worlds 
by  two  subspecies.  The  one  peculiar  to  America  is  the  American  Rough-legged  A.  I. 
sancti-johannis,  and  is  only  distinguished  from  the  Exiropean  and  Asiatic  bird  by  its 
slightly  lighter  colour  and  the  greater  rarity  of  the  black  pihase. 

This  large  Hawk  is  only  a  migrant  in  settled  Canada  to  or  from  the 
barren  grounds  of  the  north.  It  is  a  bird  of  large  marsh  expanses  and  can 
be  seen  beating  over  the  grass  until  late  in  the  evening  something  after  the 
style  of  the  Marsh  Hawk.  Usually,  however,  it  is  observed  high  in  the 
air  working  its  way  gradually,  with  many  pauses  and  circlings,  to  or  from 
its  breeding  grounds.  Owing  to  the  dichromatism  of  the  species  an  almost 
infinite  variety  of  plumages  may  be  found. 

Economic  Status.  Though  our  largest  Hawk,  it  is  the  least  harmful 
one.  Of  45  stomachs  examined,  40  contained  mice;  5,  other  mammals; 
1,  lizard;  1,  empty.  A  record  like  this  is  enough  to  condemn  the  indis- 
criminate killing  of  Hawks.  The  feet  of  the  Rough-leg  are  weak  and 
incapable  of  holding  large  prey;  it  is,  therefore,  a  mouse-hawk  par  excel- 
lence. It  also  feeds  on  grasshoppers  and  has  been  known  at  times  to  do 
most  excellent  work  controlling  plagues  of  these  destructive  insects. 

Genera — Aquila  and  Hali^etus.     Eagles. 

The  Eagles  are  our  largest  Birds  of  Prey.  Size  alone  will  differentiate 
them  from  the  Hawks.  Any  Bird  of  Prey  over  30  inches  long  or  6  feet  in 
extent  is  an  Eagle.  Contrary  to  usual  conception,  the  Eagle  is  not  the 
noble  bird  of  prey  usually  pictured.  It  is  typically  an  overgrown  Buzzard. 
Much  of  its  quarry  is  of  large  size,  but  it  is  rarely  dangerous  to  human 
interests.  In  some  sections  young  lambs  are  occasionally  threatened, 
but  in  eastern  Canada  Eagles  can  be  looked  upon  more  as  scavengers 
than  anything  else,  taking  little  of  economic  value  and  subsisting  mostly 
on  oftal. 

349.  Golden  Eagle,  fr. — l'aigle  dore.  Aquila  chrysaetos.  L,  30.  A  large,  dark- 
brown  Eagle,  the  head  suffused  with  faint  ochraceous  suggesting  the  name  golden  and  the 
basal  half  of  tail  with  broken  greyish  bars  against  dull  white.  Tarsus  feathered  to  the 
toes. 

57172—9 


124 

Distinctions.  The  Golden  Eagle  is  altogether  different  from  the  adult  Bald  Eagle, 
but  very  similar  to  the  juvenile.  It  can,  however,  in  all  plumages  be  identified  by  its 
feathered  tarsus,  the  latter  species  having  at  all  times  bare,  bright  yellow  legs. 

Nesting.     On  chflfs,  rock  ledges,  or  in  trees. 

Distribution.  Over  the  temperate  region  of  both  hemispheres.  In  America,  it  ranges 
over  all  the  north  coimtry  excepting  the  northern  extreme,  extending  south  into  Mexico 
in  the  western  plains  and  mountains  and  down  along  the  high  lands  of  the  east.  Practically 
only  a  straggler  in  the  Great  Lakes  region. 

The  Golden  Eagle  is  too  rare  in  eastern  Canada  to  receive  more  than 
passing  mention  here.  It  is  a  magnificent  bird  and  having  less  of  the 
scavenger  and  robber  in  its  nature  it  fits  the  popular  conception  of  the 
king  of  birds  better  than  does  its  close  relative  the  Bald  Eagle. 

Economic  Status.  The  economic  view  of  this  bird  must  be  largely 
affected  by  local  conditions.  It  feeds  principally  on  mammals  and  its 
large  size  allows  it  to  take  those  of  considerable  weight.  Most  of  its  food 
is  naturally  wild  stock — ground-hogs,  rabbits,  and  rodent  pests — but 
newly-born  animals  are  taken  on  opportunity.  In  the  western  sheep 
country  the  depredations  of  numbers  of  Golden  Eagles  may  be  serious, 
but  are  never  so  in  the  east.  Fortunately  the  species  is  too  rare  in  eastern 
Canada  to  cause  strong  objection  to  it;  in  fact  to  see  an  average  of  a  single 
bird  a  year  would  be  rather  remarkable.  Therefore,  the  occasional  presence 
of  one  of  these  magnificent  birds  in  the  east  can  be  looked  for  with  pleasure 
rather  than  alarm.  On  occasion  the  species  devours  carrion,  but  does  not 
seem  to  depend  upon  it  as  its  relative  the  next  species  does. 

352.  Bald  Eagle.  American  eagle,  white-headed  eagle,  fr. — l'aigle  a  t^te 
BLANCHE.  Haliceetus  leucocephahcs .  L,  32-85.  The  adult  is  dark  brown  with  white  head, 
neck,  and  tail.  The  juvenile  is  all  brown  with  more  or  less  suggestion  of  the  coming  white, 
depending  upon  age. 

Distinctions.  Though  very  similar  in  juvenile  plumage  to  the  Golden  Eagle,  the 
unfeathered  yeUow  legs  will  always  identify  it. 

Field  Marks.  The  Eagle  outline  and  great  size  are  quite  characteristic  when  one  is 
familiar  with  them.  The  great  hooked  bill,  the  cuknen  which  projects  in  a  straight  Une 
with  the  crown  and  fills  the  whole  of  the  forehead  are  plainly  visible  and  quite  recogniz- 
able. The  white  of  the  head  and  tail  are  unmistakable  recognition  marks  for  the  adult 
and  on  account  of  the  large  scale  of  the  details  the  juvenile  can  be  told  from  the  Golden 
with  greater  ease  than  would  natvu-aUy  be  expected.  The  golden-tawny  of  the  upper  neck 
of  the  Golden  is  often  quite  conspicuous  though  absent  on  the  Bald.  The  somewhat 
whitish  or  mottled  tail  of  the  Golden  shows  from  below  a  dark  terminal  tip,  in  perceptible 
contrast  with  the  base,  from  2  to  4  inches  deep  depending  on  age;  whereas  the  tail  of  the 
juvenile  Bald  is  all  dirty  white  with  Httle  or  no  distinct  terminal  band  but  presenting  an 
aspect  of  even  mottling  at  all  stages.  Any  Eagle  observed  in  eastern  Canada  should  be 
tentatively  identified  as  of  this  species  unless  there  are  definite  and  positive  reasons  for 
declaring  it  as  Golden. 

Distribution.  Over  the  whole  of  the  United  States  and  Canada  except  the  extreme 
Arctic  coasts. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Bald  Eagle  is  divided  into  two  subspecies,  only  one  of  which, 
the  Northern  Bald  Eagle  H.  I.  alascanus,  is  known  to  occur  in  Canada.  The  tj^jical  race 
is  of  more  southern  distribution. 

Though  the  Golden  Eagle  is  typically  an  inhabitant  of  the  mountains 
and  high  lands,  the  Bald  Eagle  is  a  bird  of  the  water  side  and  is  seldom 
found  far  from  that  element.  Though  once  a  typical  species  of  the  eastern 
landscape  it  is  yearly  growing  rarer,  until  now  in  most  localities  the  sight 
of  one  is  an  event  of  some  importance.  The  Bald  Eagle  is  a  harmless 
species.  The  damage  it  does  is  very  small  and  as  a  characteristic  wild 
feature  of  our  lake  landscape  this  picturesque  bird  should  be  preserved. 


125 

Econoynic  Status.  Of  15  stomachs  examined,  1  contained  game;  5, 
mammals;  9,  fish;  and  2,  carrion.  In  examining  these  data  it  is  observ- 
able that  the  6  stomachs  containing  mammals  and  game  are  winter 
specimens  and,  except  one,  were  taken  at  a  distance  from  water.  Had  the 
natural  breeding  and  summer  grounds  of  the  Bald  Eagle  been  the  source 
of  the  specimens  here  studied,  the  mammals  and  game  would  probably 
have  been  replaced  by  fish,  for  this  forms  the  great  bulk  of  its  food.  The 
food  is  taken  in  various  ways.  The  bird  dives  for  fish  in  true  Osprey 
manner  when  necessary,  but  it  usually  picks  them  up  dead  from  the  shore 
or,  where  Ospreys  are  common,  takes  the  fish  from  them  by  force.  To  do 
this  it  pursues  and  badgers  the  successful  fisher  until  the  prize  is  dropped, 
which  by  a  lightning-like  swoop  is  caught  in  the  air  and  carried  away  in 
triumph.  It  is,  as  a  rule,  hardly  equal  to  the  capture  of  the  ciuicker  birds, 
but  wounded  or  hurt  ducks  or  game  are  eagerly  picked  up  from  the  marshes. 
When  opportunity  offers  the  Bald  Eagle  eats  offal  without  compunction. 

It  will  be  seen  that  Bald  Eagles  in  reasonable  numbers  cannot  be  any 
great  menace  to  mankind.  Poultry  is  rarely  touched.  The  fish  they  take 
is  only  a  bagatelle,  being  mostly  waste  or  surplus  from  a  great  abundance. 
Their  scavenging  is  actively  beneficial  and  they  should  be  encouraged  rather 
than  repressed. 

FAMILY — FALCONID^.       FALCONS    AND    CARACARAS. 

The  Family  Falconidce  consists  of  tw^o  subfamilies,  the  True  Falcons 
Falconince  and  the  Caracaras  Polyhorincje.  The  last  named  subfamily  is 
of  southern  distribution  and  only  one  Caracara  has  been  taken  in  Canada. 

Subfamily — Falconince.     True  Falcons. 

The  Falcons  were  known  to  the  old  falconers  as  the  Noble  or  Long- 
winged  Birds  of  Prey  and,  on  account  of  their  great  spirit,  strength,  and 
address,  were  the  chosen  birds  for  use  in  hunting.  Their  long  wings  give 
them  great  speed  and  their  endurance  permits  them  to  maintain  it.  They 
are  bold  and  strong  and  capture  their  prey  by  sudden  swoops  when  possible, 
but  unlike  the  Accipiters  are  not  discouraged  when  their  stroke  misses. 
Their  first  object  is  to  rise  above  the  prey,  which  they  do  by  means  of  a 
long  spiral  climb.  Once  above  their  prey  they  drop  like  a  bullet  upon  it 
striking  with  their  pow^erful  talons  as  they  do  so. 

The  flight  of  the  Falcons  is  quite  recognizable,  quick  strokes  with 
pointed  wings  and  with  very  little  sailing.  Seen  in  the  hand,  the  upper 
mandible  furnished  with  a  tooth  (Figure  33a,  p.  23)  will  always  separate 
the  Falcons  from  other  Hawks.  Fortunately,  none  but  the  smallest  and 
most  harmless  of  the  subfamily  is  common  within  cultivated  areas  and 
those  that  size  makes  important  are  either  very  rare  or  are  confined  to  the 
far  north  where  their  depredations  can  do  the  husbandman  no  harm. 
Even  those  that  do  occur  occasionally  about  cultivation  are  generally  wild 
and  wary  enough  to  keep  away  from  the  immediate  vicinity  of  habitation. 

Gyrfalcons. 

General  Description.     Large  falcons  20  to  22  inches  in  length,  usually  of  very  white 
coloration.    Their  large  size  distinguishes  these  birds  from  all  others  of  the  subfamily. 
57172—91 


126 

The  Gyrfalcons  were  most  highly  regarded  for  hunting  by  the  falconers 
of  old  and  by  the  exacting  laws  of  the  times  their  use  was  restricted  to 
persons  of  the  highest  rank.  They  combine  all  the  spirit  and  hardihood 
of  the  smaller  species  with  greater  size  and  strength  and  hence  were 
adapted  for  the  largest  game  to  be  taken  with  birds.  The  Gyrfalcons  are 
of  far  northern  distribution  in  Canada  and  are  very  rare  within  the  limits 
of  settlement,  rarely  troubling  poultry  yards  or  game  coverts;  otherwise 
a  war  of  extermination  would  probably  have  to  be  waged  against  them  as 
they  are  undoubtedly  very  destructive. 

In  Canada  there  are  two  species.  They  are  circumpolar  in  distribu- 
tion, occurring  in  the  northern  parts  of  both  the  Old  and  New  Worlds. 

353.  White  Gyrfalcon.  fr. — le  paucon  blanc.  Falco  islandus.  L,  22.  A  very 
large  falcon,  mostly  pure  white  with  small  but  sharp  markings  of  light  brown. 

Distinctions.  The  general  whiteness  and  the  lack  of  markmgs  on  the  under  tail 
coverts  wiU  differentiate  this  from  the  next  species.  Its  large  size  and  obviously  falcon-like 
characters  will  identify  it  as  a  Gyrfalcon. 

Nesting.     On  rocky  cliffs. 

Distribution.  The  Arctic  regions.  Breeds  in  Greenland  and  the  adjacent  parts  of 
America.    Only  a  casual  visitor  in  the  settled  parts  of  Canada. 

None  of  the  Gyrfalcons  are  common  in  the  settled  parts  of  Canada 
and,  therefore,  will  not  be  discussed  in  detail. 

354a.  Gyrfalcon.  fr. — (in  part)  le  faucon  noir.  Falco  rusticolus.  L,  20.  Similar 
in  size  to  the  White  Gyrfalcon  and  of  much  darker  coloration.  Slaty-brown  above,  more 
or  less  margined  or  barred  with  cream  or  white.  Head  and  underparts  white  or  creamy- 
white,  striped  with  coloiu*  of  back. 

Distinctions.  In  the  White  Gyrfalcon  white  greatly  predominates,  whereas  in  the 
hghtest  of  this  species  white  and  slaty-brown  are  about  equal  in  mass  and  in  the  darkest  the 
brown  greatly  preponderates.    The  under  tail  coverts  are  always  somewhat  streaked. 

Nesting.     On  cliffs  or  in  trees. 

Distribution.  The  Arctic  regions  of  the  northern  hemisphere;  only  an  accidental 
straggler  within  settled  districts. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  American  representative  of  this  species  has  been  divided  into 
three  subspecies  or  geographical  races,  based  upon  the  degree  of  dark  coloration;  the 
Grey  Gyrfalcon  F.  r. rusticolus,  the  type  form,  the  Gyrfalcon  F.  r.  gyrfalco,  and  the  Black 
Gyrfalcon  F.  r.  obsoletus.  Some  of  these  subdivisions  are  perhaps  based  upon  age  plumages 
or  individual  variation  and  may  be  found  to  be  unnecessary.  The  names  suggest  the 
difference  in  colour  of  the  forms.  The  first  has  the  head  broadly  streaked  with  dark 
against  an  ahnost  white  ground,  the  second  has  an  almost  solidly  dark  head  and  the  dark 
of  the  back  heavily  margined  with  lighter,  and  the  third  hap  an  almost  black  back  and  the 
underparts  so  heavily  streaked  as  to  be  almost  black. 

356.  Peregrine  Falcon,  duck  hawk,  bullet  hawk.  fr. — le  faucon  perlerin. 
Falco  per egrinus.     L,  16-50.     Plate  XIV  A. 

Distinctions.  The  colouring  shown  in  Plate  XIV  A,  the  comparative  size,  and  the 
true  falcon-like  character  of  the  bill  and  wing  should  serve  for  the  recognition  of  this  bird. 

Field  Marks.  The  long,  sharp  falcon  wings,  coloration,  and  size  are  distinctive. 
The  flight  also  is  easily  recognized — a  quick  flapping  of  the  wings  with  Uttle  sailing. 

Nesting.  Usually  on  the  ledges  of  rocky  chffs,  occasionally  in  hollow  branches  of 
tall  trees. 

Distribution.  It  ranges  over  most  of  the  Arctic,  temperate,  and  subtemperate  regions 
of  the  northern  hemisphere,  nowhere  common  but  living  in  scattered  pairs  and  returning 
to  the  same  locality  year  after  year. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  New  World  form  under  the  name  of  Duck  Hawk  F.p.  anatum, 
is  the  only  representative  of  the  species  occurring  in  America. 

The  American  representative  of  this  species  is  a  subspecies  of  the 
famous  Peregrine  Falcon  of  the  Old  World,  which  next  to  the  Gyrfalcon 
was  the  most  desirable  hunting  hawk  of  the  falconers,  and  our  Duck 


127 

Hawk  is  almost  if  not  quire  indistinguishable  from  the  European  bird. 
Although  distributed  over  most  of  the  northern  hemisphere  it  is  every- 
where a  rare  and  more  or  less  casual  visitor  or  breeder. 

Economic  Status.  The  size  of  the  prey  which  this  bird  can  take  is 
remarkable.  Even  the  Mallard  Duck,  weighing  perhaps  three  times  as 
much  as  the  falcon,  is  often  struck  down.  Around  a  nest  found  by  the 
writer  in  the  Muskoka  district,  were  the  remains  of  several  full  grown 
Ruffed  Grouse  that  must  have  been  carried  bodily  to  it.  An  examination 
of  the  stomach  contents  of  16  specimens,  gave  the  following  result:  7, 
contained  poultry  or  game  birds;  9,  other  birds;  1,  mice;  and  2,  insects. 
Fortunately  it  is  as  wary  as  it  is  spirited.  Adults  usually  confine  them- 
selves to  the  fields  and  marshes  where  they  can  do  little  direct  damage. 

357.  Pigeon  Hawk.  fr. — la  faucon  des  pigeons.  Falco  columbarius.  L,  10. 
A  small  falcon.  Adult  male:  dark  slate-blue  above,  bluest  on  lower  back  and  rump. 
Below,  streaked  with  brown  on  an  ochraceous  ground,  the  stripes  aggregating  slightly 
on  lower  breast.  Juveniles:  similar  but  back  brown  instead  of  slate.  Adult  females: 
intermediate. 

Distinctions.  True  falcon  characters;  the  generally  dark  coloration  and  the  small 
size  of  this  hawk  are  characteristic. 

Field  Marks.  The  falcon  flight  and  outline,  in  conjimction  with  small  size  and  dark 
coloration,  are  distinctive. 

Nesting.     In  hollow  Umbs  of  trees  or  on  cliff  ledges. 

Distribution.  All  of  North  America  and  to  northern  South  America.  Breeds  south- 
ward to  the  borders  of  cultivated  land  in  eastern  Canada. 

SUBSPECIES.  There  are  several  subspecies  of  the  Pigeon  Hawk  in  Canada,  but 
in  the  east  there  is  only  the  type  form,  the  Eastern  Pigeon  Hawk. 

In  spirit  and  action  this  is  a  miniature  of  the  Duck  Hawk,  but  is  a  far 
commoner  bird  than  nay  of  the  Falcons  previously  mentioned.  This 
species  also  was  used  in  court  falconry. 

Economic  Status.  As  indicated  by  its  name  the  Pigeon  Hawk  pro 
bably  preyed  largely  upon  Wild  Pigeons.  Nowadays,  however,  it  follows 
smaller  game  as  a  rule.  Of  51  stomachs  examined,  2  contained  young 
chickens;  41,  small  birds;  2,  mice;  and  16,  insects.  It  will  be  seen  from 
this  record  that  the  Pigeon  Hawk  is  destructive  to  small  wild  bird  life 
but  is  not  large  enough  to  seriously  aff.ct  the  poultryman.  It  often 
follows  Shore  Birds  and  seems  particularly  fond  of  the  Black-bellied 
Plover.  Though  more  numerous  than  the  Duck  Hawk  it  is  still  nowhere 
a  common  bird. 

360.  American  Sparrow  Hawk.  fr. — le  faucon  epervier.  Falco  sparverius. 
L,  10.     Plate  XIV  B. 

Distinctions.     The  coloration  of  this  bird  renders  it  immistakable  for  any  other  species. 

Field  Marks.  With  its  falcon-like  outUne  and  small  size  it  can  not  be  mistaken  for 
any  bird  except  perhaps  the  Pigeon  Hawk.  Its  more  slender  shape  and  longer  tail  will 
separate  it  readily  when  the  striking  colours  are  not  distinguishable. 

Nesting.     In  deserted  Woodpecker's  holes  or  natural  cavities  in  dead  stub. 

Distribution.  Most  of  North  America,  from  beyond  the  settled  areas  to  the  gulf  of 
Mexico.     Breeds  wherever  found  in  Canada. 

SUBSPECIES.  Two  subspecies  of  the  American  Sparrow  Hawk  are  recognized  in 
Canada,  but  only  the  type  form,  the  Eastern  Sparrow  Hawk,  occurs  in  the  east. 

This  is  the  only  falcon  that  is  common  in  Canada.  It  is  a  beautiful 
bird — the  brightest  coloured  of  any  of  our  Birds  of  Prey.  The  open 
fields  are  its  hunting  ground  and  the  topmost  dead  branches  of  solitary 


128 

trees  in  fields  or  along  fence  rows  are  its  chosen  observation  points.  It 
beats  about  over  the  meadows  and  on  sighting  its  prey  hovers  for  a  moment 
on  quickly  beating  wings,  like  a  Kingfisher,  and  then  drops  upon  its  quarry. 
The  name  Sparrow  Hawk  should  properly  belong  to  the  Sharp- 
shinned  ;  this  is  recognized  in  the  Old  World  where  the  name  Sparrow 
Hawk  is  applied  to  a  small  Accipiter  closely  resembling  that  species.  Grass- 
hopper Hawk  would  be  a  far  better  descriptive  name  for  this  little 
falcon  as  grasshoppers  form  a  large  part  of  its  food.  When  taken  young 
from  the  nest  this  little  falcon  is  easily  tamed. 

Economic  Status.  Although  a  hawk,  this  bird  is  one  of  the  most 
efficient  and  valuable  protectors  of  the  farm.  Of  291  stomachs  examined, 
1  contained  a  game  bird  (Quail);  53,  other  birds;  89,  mice;  13,  other 
mammals;  12,  reptiles  or  batrachians  (frogs,  etc);  215,  insects;  and 
29,  spiders.  Of  the  birds  examined,  43  were  taken  in  the  winter  months, 
from  December  to  April.  Of  specimens  taken  in  seasons  when  insects 
are  available  only  10  stomachs  contained  birds.  This  record  shows  that 
birds  are  killed  by  the  falcon  from  necessity  rather  than  choice.  The 
"other  mammals"  are  mostly  harmful  rodents,  with  a  very  few  shrews. 
The  insects  are  usually  grasshoppers  which  do  great  damage  and  are 
difficult  to  control.  From  the  above  evidence  it  is  obvious  that  the 
Sparrow  Hawk  is  beneficial  and  should  be  protected. 

FAMILY — PANDIONID^.       FISH-HAWKS.       OSPREYS. 

The  Fish-hawks  or  Ospreys  are  a  family  of  raptorial  birds  subsisting 
entirely  upon  fish,  which  they  capture  in  shallow  water  by  diving.  Other 
members  of  the  order  eat  fish,  but  usually  only  as  scavengers  or  by  stealing 
from  fish-catching  birds.  As  there  is  only  one  species  of  Fish-hawk  in 
America,  no  general  discussion  of  the  family  is  necessary  here. 

364.  Osprey.  American  ospret.  fish-hawk.  fr. — le  balbusard  d'amerique. 
Pandion  halioetus  carolinensis.     L,  23  ■  10.  Plate  XV  A. 

Distinctions.  The  coloration  of  the  Osprey  is  quite  distinctive.  Its  pale  blue  legs, 
and  feet  much  roughened  with  sharp  horny  processes,  especially  on  the  soles  and  grasping 
surfaces,  are  decidedly  characteristic. 

Field  Marks.  The  large  wing-expanse  of  this  bird  is  responsible  for  the  common 
mistake  of  calUng  it  an  eagle.  It  is,  however,  much  smaller  than  either  of  the  eagles  and 
its  white  underparts  will  distinguish  it  from  them. 

Nesting.  A  great  mass  of  sticks  in  trees  or  on  the  ground,  which,  as  it  is  added  to  year 
after  year,  finally  becomes  almost  as  large  as  a  small  haycock. 

Distribution.  The  Osprey  occurs  in  most  of  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  in  America  south 
to  northern  South  America.  The  American  Osprey  breeds  in  Canada  locally  in  all  except 
the  southern  sections. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Osprey,  inhabiting  both  the  New  and  Old  Worlds,  is  divided 
into  subspecific  races,  of  which  the  American  Osprey  P.  h.  carolinensis  is  the  American 
representative.  Its  separation  from  the  European  form  is  based  upon  characters  too 
slight  for  discussion  here. 

The  Osprey  is  a  most  picturesque  bird.  Sailing  at  a  height  over  the 
water  it  pauses  a  moment  and  then  drops  suddenly,  not  straight  down 
like  a  plummet,  as  the  Gannet  does,  but  in  a  long  spiral,  striking  the 
water  feet  first  with  wings  raised  high  over  its  back.  There  is  a  splash 
of  white  spray  and  it  rises  in  the  air,  a  fish  clasped  in  its  rough  talons, 
and  is  away  to  its  aerie.  The  Ospreys  frequent  broad  shallows,  tidal 
flats,  and  shallow  bays  where  water  is  not  too  deep  for  shallow  diving, 


129 

rather  than  deeper  water  where  they  would  have  to  depend  upon  chance 
aurface-frequenting  fish.  In  the  Great  Lakes  region  the  species  is  growing 
rarer.  Its  great  bulky  nest  is  added  to  year  after  year  until  it  assumes 
such  proportions  that  it  becomes  a  landmark  for  the  country  around  and 
invites  constant  attack  from  human  nest-robbers,  so  that  it  is  now  only 
in  the  more  retired  localities  that  it  can  breed  undisturbed.  It  is  still 
numerous  along  the  Atlantic  coast  and  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  but  inland 
it  is  rare. 

Economic  Status.  Though  the  food  of  the  Osprey  is  entirely  fish 
the  antipathy  that  fishermen  have  for  it  is  rather  exaggerated.  Feeding 
as  it  does  in  shallow  waters  it  takes  few  fish  of  economic  importance. 
On  the  coast,  flounders,  torn  cod,  and  other  small  species  form  the  bulk 
of  its  food.  On  the  freshwater  lakes,  sun-fish,  perch,  and  suckers  seem 
to  be  its  staples.  The  number  of  game  or  marketable  fish  it  catches  is 
undoubtedly  small.  In  eleven  stomach  examinations  there  were  none. 
Trout  streams  are  not  attractive  to  the  species  and  most  of  the  valuable 
fish  like  bass  and  pickerel  usually  lie  too  deep  for  it  to  catch. 

SUBORDER— STRIGES.     NOCTURNAL  BIRDS  OF  PREY.     OWLS. 

The  Owls  are  easily  recognized.  The  cere  hidden  in  the  feathers  of 
the  face,  and  the  striking  facial  disks  or  feather  rings  about  the  eyes  (Figure 
34,  p.  24)  are  distinctive  to  the  most  casual  observer.  They  are  mostly 
nocturnal,  the  Hawk  Owl  and  the  Snowy  Owl  being  the  only  eastern 
Canadian  species  that  habitually  hunt  in  daytime.  Even  the  nocturnal 
owls,  however,  see  quite  well  by  day.  They  may  be  momentarily  dazed 
when  brought  suddenly  from  dark  to  bright  light  and  some  species  repose 
such  confidence  in  immobility  to  escape  detection  as  to  allow  themselves 
almost  to  be  caught  in  the  hand.  The  feathers  are  a  most  interesting 
character  in  owls.  They  are  peculiarly  soft  and  cling  together  in  a  way 
that  keeps  the  air  from  passing  through  the  small  interstices  and  ensures 
the  silent  flight  characteristic  of  the  suborder.  An  Owl  can  pass  so  closely 
as  to  fan  the  face  with  its  wing  and  yet  be  inaudible. 

Two  families  are  represented  in  Canada:  AluconidcB  the  Barn  Owls, 
represented  by  one  species  which  is  an  accidental  visitor  from  the  south; 
and  StrigidcB  known  as  the  Eared  or  Horned  Owls,  though  many  of  them 
are  without  these  ornaments,  including  all  the  other  Canadian  species. 

FAMILY — ALUCONID^.       BARN    OWLS. 

The  Barn  Owls,  sometimes  called  the  Monkey-faced  Owls  from  the 
heart-shaped  character  of  the  united  facial  disks,  are  represented  in  Canada 
by  only  one  species  and  that  species  is  rare.  The  middle  claw  is  pectinated, 
having  comb-like  teeth  on  its  inner  edge  like  the  Herons  (Figure  19,  p.  21) 
and  the  inner  toe  is  as  long  as  the  middle  instead  of  being  slightly  shorter 
as  in  the  Horned  Owls. 

365.  American  Barn  Owl,  monkfy-faced  owl.  Altico  pratincola.  L,  18. 
General  ground  colour  a  reddish  ochre,  lighter  below,  facial  disk  dull  white  with  an 
outer  edging  of  darker  ochre  to  brown.  Back  to  top  of  head  frosted  over  with  ash-grey 
with  numerous  small  eye  spots  outlined  m  black.  Underparts,  throat,  and  around  face 
sprinkled  with  scattered  round  dark  spots. 


130 

Distincti(ms.  The  strongly  and  well  outlined  heart-shaped  facial  disk,  soft  yellow 
coloration  with  a  suggestion  of  pink,  and  the  tarsi  almost  bare  of  feathers  are  distinctive. 

Nesting.     In  towers,  steeples,  or  holes  in  barns,  banks,  or  trees. 

Distribution.  From  the  gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  middle  Atlantic  states  across  the  con- 
tinent.    It  occrn-s  in  Canada  only  as  a  straggler  along  the  southern  border. 

This  is  the  American  representative  of  the  ruin-haunting  European 
owl  so  familiar  in  song  and  story.  It  is  a  wonderfully  efficient  mouser 
and  a  most  valuable  bird,  but  is  rare  in  Canada. 

FAMILY — STRIGID.2E.       HORNED    OR    EARED    OWLS. 

The  family  is  known  as  "Horned"  from  the  tufts  of  feathers  pro- 
jecting from  the  forehead  in  some  of  the  species,  though  not  in  all.  The 
feet  are  feathered  to  the  ends  of  the  toes  (Figure  32,  p.  23).  The  family 
includes  all  the  Canadian  owls  except  the  Barn  Owl  previously  described. 

366.  American  Long-eared  Owl.  fr. — le  hibou  a  oreilles  longues.  Asio 
wilso7iianus.  L,  14-80.  A  medium  sized  owl  rather  similar  in  coloration  to  the  Great 
Horned  Owl  (p.  133),  but  much  smaller  and  of  more  slender  build. 

Distinctions.  Although  the  colouring  is  suggestive  of  the  Great  Horned  Owl,  the  differ- 
ence in  size  serves  to  distinguish  the  two.  From  the  Short-eared  Owl,  which  is  of  abont 
equal  size,  it  may  be  distinguished  by  the  prominent  horns  or  ear  tufts  which  spring  close 
together  from  the  forehead,  by  the  general  lack  of  stripes  in  its  coloration,  and  by  the 
conspicuous  amount  of  black  and  white  suffused  over  the  body  colour. 

Field  Marks.  The  prominent  horns  standing  nearly  straight  up  from  the  middle  of  the 
forehead  and  the  rusty  brown  facial  disk  differentiate  this  species  from  the  next,  the  only 
species  for  which  it  might  be  mistaken. 

Nesting.  In  trees,  usually  in  deserted  crows'  nests  or  hawks'  nests  20  to  40  feet  from 
the  ground. 

Distribution.  Throughout  temperate  North  America,  north  to  about  the  limit  of 
cultivation. 

Evergreen  or  alder  thickets  on  the  edges  of  marshes  or  ash  swamps  are 
the  preferred  habitat  of  the  species.  During  migration  it  is  sometimes 
found  in  companies,  resting  by  day  in  the  dark  recesses  of  wet  woods. 

Economic.  Status.  Of  92  stomachs  examined,  1  contained  a  game 
bird  (Quail);  15,  other  birds;  84,  mice;  5,  other  mammals;  and  1,  insects. 
From  this  record  it  is  evident  that  the  species  is  not  seriously  destructive. 
Its  mousing  proclivities  are  sufficient  to  give  it  a  claim  to  protection  and 
its  small  size  and  nocturnal  habits  prevent  its  interference  with  young 
poultry. 

367.  American  Short-eared  Owl.  marsh  owl.  fr. — le  hibou  a  oreilles 
couRTES.  Asio  fiammeus.  L,  15-50.  A  medium  sized  owl  with  short,  hardly  visible  ear- 
tufts.  General  colour  ochraceous  with  considerable  white  hning  on  face,  with  sharply 
defined  stripes  of  brown  over  all,  narrower  below  and  broader  and  more  diffused  above. 

Distinctions.  The  general  light  buff  colour  and  the  stripes  of  this  bird  are  distinctive. 
The  horns  may  be  inconspicuous;  when  visible  they  rise,  as  do  those  of  the  last  species, 
from  between  the  eyes  and  stand  upright.  The  lack  of  any  black  and  white  pattern  in 
the  coloration  serves  to  distinguish  this  species  from  the  Long-eared. 

Field  Marks.     The  buff  colom-  is  the  best  field  mark. 

Distribution.  Nearly  cosmopolitan.  Occurs  everywhere  in  Canada,  breeding  locally 
wherever  foimd. 

This  bird  is  a  true  marsh  owl  and  is  slightly  more  diurnal  in  its  habits 
than  many  of  its  relatives.  It  is  often  seen  in  the  dusk  of  the  evening 
beating  over  the  marshes  in  strong  and  hawk-like  flight.     As  it  lives  in  the 


131 

marshes  or  along  their  brushy  edges,  a  great  number  annually  fall  under 
the  guns  of  sportsmen. 

Economic  Status.  Of  97  stomachs  examined,  11  contained  small 
birds;  77,  mice;  7,  other  mammals;  and  7,  insects.  From  this  record 
and  from  the  fact  that  the  marsh  edges,  waste  patches,  and  fence  rows 
which  this  species  haunts,  are  the  reservoirs  from  which  small  rodent  pests 
spread  over  cleanly  cultivated  land,  it  is  evident  that  this  is  a  most 
useful  species  and  that  killing  it  is  reducing  one  of  the  most  efficient  checks 
upon  innumerable  pests. 

368.  Barred  Owl.  fr. — la  chouette  du  Canada.  Strix  varia.  L,  20.  Plate 
XV  B. 

Distinctions.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  mistake  this  owl.  The  only  other  hornless 
owl  at  all  resembling  it  is  the  Great  Grey  Owl.  The  Barred  Owl  can  be  differentiated  by 
its  smaller  size,  black  instead  of  yellow  eyes,  and  by  the  well-defined  striping  and  barring 
below.    This  and  the  Barn  Owl  are  the  only  owls  with  black  eyes. 

Field  Marks.  Size,  absence  of  ear  tufts,  and  general  grey-brown  colom-  with  bars 
on  the  breast. 

Nesting.     In  hollow  trees  or  in  deserted  crows'  nests  or  hawks'  nests. 

Distribution.  Eastern  North  America  from  the  edge  of  settlement  south  to  Kansas 
and  Georgia. 

SUBSPECIES.  There  are  several  subspecies  of  the  Barred  Owl,  two  of  which  occur 
in  Canada.  The  form  found  throughout  eastern  Canada  is  the  tvpe,  the  Eastern  Barred 
Owl. 

Though  apparently  a  fairly  large  bird  the  Barred  Owl  when  stripped  of 
its  feathers  is  comparatively  small.  Added  to  this  it  is  a  bird  of  gentle 
nature  and  lacks  the  keen  aggressiveness  of  some  of  its  relatives.  Its  notes 
are  loud,  the  wierd  hooting  carrying  far  in  the  still  night  air. 

Economic  Status.  Though  fowls  have  been  known  to  roost  repeatedly 
without  harm  in  trees  from  which  Barred  Owls  hooted  every  night,  it  is 
usually  regarded  as  an  enemy  and  killed  indiscriminately.  Of  189  sto- 
machs examined,  5  contained  poultry  or  game;  13,  other  birds;  46,  mice; 
18,  other  mammals;  4,  frogs;  1,  a  lizard;  2,  fish;  14,  insects;  2,  spiders; 
and  9,  crawfish.  The  fowls,  only  two  cases,  can  be  regarded  as  accidental 
as  they  were  both  taken  in  January,  when  they  would  ordinarily  be  full 
grown  and  beyond  the  powers  of  this  weak  owl  to  kill.  The  status  of  this 
bird  is  most  satisfactory. 

370.  Cinereous  Owl.  great  grey  owl.  fr. — la  chouette  cendree.  Scotiaptex 
nebulosa.  L,  27.  Of  much  the  same  general  grey  tone  as  the  Barred  Owl,  but  considerably 
larger  than  that  bird. 

Distinctions.  By  measurement  and  m  appearance  the  largest  of  our  owLs,  but  when 
stripped  of  its  great  abundance  of  soft  feathers  a  surprisingly  small  bird.  Like  the  Barred 
Owl  in  general  coloration  and  lack  of  horns;  but  with  yeUow  instead  of  black  eyes  and 
having  the  coloration  of  the  breast  and  imderparts  diffused  and  without  a  defined  pattern 
of  stripes  and  bars. 

Field  Marks.     Size,  grey  coloration,  and  lack  of  breast  bars. 

Nesting.     In  trees. 

Distribution.  The  forest  of  the  north  across  the  continent;  an  occasional  winter 
migrant  within  the  bounds  of  cultivation. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Cinereous  Owl  occurs  in  the  northern  parts  of  both  the  New 
and  Old  Worlds,  but  is  represented  in  each  by  distinct  subspecies.  The  European  form  is 
the  Lapp  Owl  S.  n.  lapponica,  and  the  American  is  the  Great  Grey  Owl,  the  type  race. 

This  owl  is  only  an  occasional  visitor  in  the  settled  parts  of  Canada. 


132 

Economic  Status.  The  economic  effect  of  this  bird  as  far  as  it  goes  is  a 
beneficial  one.  Data  on  its  foods  are  rather  scanty.  Of  9  stomachs 
examined,  1  contained  a  small  bird;  7,  mice;  and  4^  other  mammals.  It  is 
evidently  an  efficient  mouser. 

371.  Arctic  Saw-whet  Owl.  Richardson's  owl.  fr. — la  nyctale  de  Richard- 
son. Cryptoglaux  funerea.  L,  10.  A  small,  hornless,  grey  owl.  Ashy-brown  above  with 
round  white  spots,  whitish  below  vaguely  striped.  The  colour  pattern  is  soft  and  the 
design  vague  and  diffused. 

Distinctions.  This  species  resembles  the  Screech  Owl  in  size  and  general  grey  colour- 
ing, but  in  nothing  else;  it  has  not  the  horns  of  that  species  and  the  colour  pattern  shows 
no  sharpness  anywhere.  The  coloiu*  scheme  shows  too  httle  distinction  from  that  of  the 
Saw-whet  to  be  clearly  differentiated  here.  Its  decidedly  larger  size,  however,  wiU  char- 
acterize it. 

Field  Marks.     It  is  too  rare  to  identify  by  such  slight  field  marks  as  could  be  suggested. 

Nesting.     Usually  in  holes  in  trees. 

Distribution.  The  northern  woods  to  the  limit  of  trees  from  the  Mackenzie  River 
valley  eastwards. 

SUBSPECIES.  This  is  a  European  as  weU  as  an  American  species,  but  the  form 
inhabiting  the  New  World  is  subspecifically  separated  from  that  of  the  Old  World  under 
the  name  of  Richardson's  Owl  C.  f.  richardsoni. 

This  species  is  perhaps  the  rarest  of  the  Canadian  Owls,  and  within  the 
boundaries  covered  by  this  work  is  only  an  occasional  and  irregular  winter 
visitor. 

Economic  Status.  Though  too  rare  to  have  any  noticeable  economic 
influence  it  must  be  regarded  as  a  beneficial  species.  Of  9  stomachs 
examined,  1  contained  a  small  bird;  7,  mice;  and  4,  other  mammals. 

372.  Saw-whet  Owl.  acadian  owl.  fr. — la  nyctale  d'acadie.  Cryptoglaux 
acadic.  L,  8.  A  very  small  owl.  Above,  colour  is  warm  ashy-brown  vaguely  marked  with 
inconspicuous  white  spots  especially  about  the  back  of  the  neck,  changing  on  the  head  to 
fine  sharp  stripes  which  join  in  a  hne  over  the  facial  disk.  Below,  white,  with  light  brown 
streaks  and  a  vague  tendency  to  form  a  solid  breast-bar.  A  rare  plumage  of  this  owl  was 
long  thought  to  indicate  a  distinct  species  which  was  given  the  name  Kirtland's  Owl, 
It  is  now,  however,  understood  to  be  but  an  evanescent  juvenile  plumage  of  the  above, 
though  the  cause  of  its  rarity  is  not  known.  Above,  it  is  solid  brown,  rather  redder  than 
the  adult,  and  extending  across  breast  in  a  rufescent  band;  below,  even  ochre.  The 
facial  disk  on  outside  of  the  eyes  is  almost  black,  in  striking  contrast  to  the  white  over 
and  between  eyes. 

Distinctions.  In  ordinary  plumage  so  nearly  like  Richardson's  Owl  in  colour  as  to  be 
separated  from  it  only  by  size.  Being  without  horns  or  any  sharply  marked  colour  pattern 
it  can  be  easily  distinguished  from  the  Screech  Owl. 

Field  Marks.     Very  small  size  and  lack  of  horns  are  the  best  field  marks. 

Nesting.  In  holes  in  trees,  sometimes  natural,  at  other  times  those  made  by  wood- 
peckers or  squirrels. 

Distribution.  Most  of  temperate  North  America.  Its  breeding  is  irregular  and 
usually  in  the  northern  parts  of  its  range  or  at  high  elevations  farther  south. 

SUBSPECIES.  There  are  two  subspecies  of  the  Saw- whet  Owl  occurring  in  Canada; 
but  only  one,  the  Acadian  Owl,  the  type  form,  is  ever  found  in  the  east. 

This  diminutive  owl  is  the  smallest  of  the  Birds  of  Prey  in  eastern 
Canada.  It  haunts  the  dark  tangle  of  cedar  and  tamarack  swamps, 
passing  the  day  close  against  the  trunk  of  a  tree  where  its  plumage  blends 
indistinguishably  into  the  bark.  It  has  such  great  reliance  in  its  protective 
coloration  that  it  will  allow  close  approach  and  can  at  times  be  almost  taken 
in  the  hand.  It  takes  its  vernacular  name  from  its  call  notes  which  are  said 
to  resemble  the  sound  made  by  filing  or  whetting  a  saw. 


133 

Economic  Status.  Of  19  stomachs  examined,  1  contained  a  sparrow; 
17,  mice;  and  1,  a  moth.  With  this  record  the  species  should  be  given  pro- 
tection. 

373.  Screech  Owl.    fr. — le  hibou  macule.    Otus  asio.    L,  9-40.    Plate  XVI  A. 

Distinctions.  The  species  is  dichromatic,  that  is,  it  occurs  in  two  well  marked  colour 
forms  irrespective  of  sex,  age,  or  season.  One  form  is  rich  brown  with  shades  of  grey  and 
white,  and  the  other  has  the  grey  replaced  by  bright  rufous.  The  plumage  pattern  of 
each  is  the  same.  Many  intermediate  stages  occur.  In  apparent  size  it  comes  between 
Richardson's  and  the  Saw-whet  Owls,  but  the  presence  of  well-defined  horns  from  the 
sides  of  the  crown  and  the  sharply  defined  figures  of  its  colour  pattern  are  characteristic. 

Field  Marks.     Size,  and  the  distinct  horns  are  the  best  field  guides. 

Nesting.     In  hollow  trees. 

Distribution.     All  temperate  North  America.    Breeds  in  Canada  wherever  foimd. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Screech  Owl  is  divided  into  a  great  number  of  subspecies,  some 
nine  geographical  races  being  recognized  in  North  America  by  the  American  Ornitholo- 
gists' Union  check-list.  The  only  one  found  in  eastern  Canada,  however,  is  the  type  form 
— the  Eastern  Screech  Owl. 

Although  called  the  "Screech  Owl",  the  notes  of  this  bird  are  melo- 
dious and  soothing  with  a  tinge  of  melancholy,  and  contain  nothing  harsh 
or  grating.  The  most  common  call  is  a  long,  soft,  tremolo  whistle  on  a 
descending  or  even  scale.  Occasionally  it  consists  of  low  croons,  gurgles, 
and  other  quiet  and  conversational  notes.  Although  inoffensive,  these 
small  birds  show  surprising  courage  in  defence  of  their  young.  At  night 
they  will  sweep  down  on  the  head  of  an  intruder  with  a  startling,  hollow- 
sounding  "whoo-whoo"  and  snapping  of  the  bill.  Just  before  striking, 
however,  they  wheel  away  to  gather  momentum  for  a  return.  Such 
attacks  while  disconcerting  are  far  from  dangerous.  The  habit  of  nesting 
in  old  hollow  apple  trees  on  the  farm  where  its  mousing  is  of  the  most 
immediate  importance  makes  this  bird  most  valuable  to  the  husbandman. 

Economic  Status.  The  official  finding  on  the  food  of  the  Screech  Owl 
is  warrant  for  its  protection.  Of  212  stomachs  examined,  1  contained 
poultry;  38,  other  birds;  91,  mice;  1 1 ,  other  mammals ;  2,  lizards;  4,  frogs 
and  toads;  1,  fish;  100,  insects;  5,  spiders;  9,  crawfish;  7,  miscellaneous; 
2,  scorpions;  and  2,  earth  worms.  The  poultry  item  must  be  regarded  as  an 
accidental  occurrence,  as  the  bird  represented,  a  pigeon,  would  be  ex- 
ceedingly large  prey  for  this  bird. 

375.  Great  Horned  Owl.  pr. — le  duo  de  virginie.  Bubo  virginianus.  L,  22. 
Plate  XVI  B. 

Distinctions.  Our  only  owl  over  15  inches  in  length  wearing  horns.  Its  ochraceous, 
and  black  and  white  coloration  is  distinctive. 

Field  Marks.     Large  size,  ochraceous  colour,  and  prominent  ear  tufts. 

Nesting.     Usually  in  abandoned  hawks'  nests  or  in  hollow  trees. 

Distribution.  In  various  subspecies  the  Great  Horned  Owl  ranges  over  all  of 
North  America.  The  ranges  of  the  subspecies  in  Canada  are  sufficiently  indicated  by 
their  names. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Great  Horned  Owls  of  North  America  are  split  up  into  a 
great  number  of  geographical  races  or  subspecies,  some  of  which  occur  as  migrants  in 
eastern  Canada.  The  Arctic  form  B.  v.  subarcticus  is  nearly  white  in  colour  with  the 
ochre  and  rufous  of  the  common  variety  almost  absent  and  the  black  pattern  much  reduced. 
The  Western  Horned  Owl  B.  v.  pallescens  is  about  intermediate  between  the  Arctic  and 
the  Eastern  Horned  Owl,  the  type  form  shown  in  the  illustration.  The  Labrador  Horned 
Owl  B.  V.  heterocnemis  is  a  very  dark  form.  As  these  intergrade  with  each  other  indis- 
tinguishably  and  overlap  in  range  in  migration,  exact  subspecies  designations  should  only 
be  made  with  great  care  and,  except  in  extreme  plumages,  only  after  comparison  with 
duly  authenticated  specimens. 


134 

The  Great  Horned  Owl  is  the  evil  genius  of  the  woods.  Winding 
silently  in  and  out  through  the  shadowy  foliage,  it  is  master  of  all  except 
the  larger  animals.  The  animosity  the  crows  show  the  Great  Horned  Owl 
must  be  based  upon  bitter  experience. 

Economic  Status.  The  economic  status  of  this  bird  depends  upon 
where  it  lives.  In  the  deep  woods  away  from  settlement  it  is,  of  course, 
harmless  and  only  the  wild  creatures  it  preys  upon  are  affected  by  it.  In 
settled  districts  this  bird  is  to  be  guarded  against  in  every  possible  way. 
Of  110  stomachs  examined,  31  contained  poultry  or  game  birds;  8,  other 
birds;  13,  mice;  65,  other  mammals;  1,  a  scorpion;  1,  fish;  and  10,  insects. 
The  evidence  is,  therefore,  decidedly  against  this  owl.  There  is  no  danger 
that  restriction  will  result  in  its  extermination  since  it  is  perfectly  able  to 
take  care  of  itself  and  there  are  large  sections  where  the  species  can  hold 
sway  over  the  wilderness  without  molestation. 

376.  Snowy  Owl.  pr. — le  harfang.  Nyctea  nyctea.  L,  25.  A  large,  white  owl 
with  short,  sharp,  dark-brown  barring  practically  all  over  and  without  perceptible  ear 
tufts.    Adult  birds  which  have  reached  maturity  may  be  almost  immaculate. 

Distinctions.  The  only  owl  that  is  markedly  white,  except  the  Arctic  Horned  Owl 
which  sometimes  approaches  it.    The  lack  of  horns  or  ears,  however,  is  diagnostic. 

Field  Marks.     Nearly  white  bird  without  ear  tufts. 

Nesting.     On  ground. 

Distribution.  Arctic  regions  of  North  America,  migrating  south  in  winter  to  the 
latitude  of  the  Great  Lakes  across  the  continent. 

This  is  a  winter  visitor  in  the  settled  parts  of  Canada.  It  frequents 
frozen  marshes  and  lake  shores  and  is  typically  a  bird  of  the  open.  Usually 
the  birds  that  come  from  the  north  are  heavily  marked  juveniles,  but 
occasionally  flights  occur  in  which  the  very  white  and  almost  unspotted 
adults  are  in  the  majority.  Probably  the  juveniles  are  naturally  greater 
wanderers  than  the  adults  which  migrate  far  from  their  home  grounds 
only  when  driven  out  by  a  scarcity  of  food  or  attracted  south  by  a  great 
abundance  of  rabbits. 

377.  Hawk  Owl.  fr. — la  chouettb  eperviere  d'amerique.  Surnia  vlula' 
L,  15.  A  medium-sized  owl  of  somewhat  hawk-like  build  and  habits.  Above,  rich, 
warm  brown  variously  spotted  with  white.  All  underparts  and  breast,  sharply  and  regu- 
larly barred  with  brown  and  white.  A  rich  seal  brown  line  bordering  the  outer  sides  of 
the  facial  disks  and  meeting  in  the  throat.    Facial  disk  not  as  perfect  as  in  most  owls. 

Distinctions.  The  less  flattened  and  less  typically  owl-like  face,  long  tail,  and  sharp 
and  regular  barring  of  the  underparts  are  distinctive. 

Field,  Marks.  Diurnal  habits,  general  coloration,  and  long  tail  are  good  field  marks. 
Any  owl  seen  himting  in  the  daytime  or  perched  in  commanding  position  in  full  daylight 
is  probably  this  species,  though  the  Long  and  Short-eared  both  do  so  occasionally. 

Nesting.     In  evergreen  trees  or  in  holes  in  dry  trunks. 

Distribution.  The  northern  wooded  parts  of  the  continent,  occurring  within  the 
settled  regions  only  rarely  in  winter. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Hawk  Owl  occurs  in  both  the  New  and  Old  Worlds  as  aUied 
subspecies,  the  type  being  European.  The  American  Hawk  Owl  S.  u.  caparoch  is  the 
only  form  found  in  Canada. 

This  is  the  most  strictly  diurnal  of  Canadian  owls.  It  is  very  hawk- 
like in  action  and  form,  being  of  more  slender  and  lighter  build  than  other 
members  of  its  family.  It  may  often  be  seen  perched  on  the  tip  of  a  dry 
tree  trunk,  reminding  one  very  much  of  the  Sparrow  Hawk  both  in  outline 
and  in  the  distinctive  way  in  which  it  jerks  its  tail. 


135 

Economic  Status.  This  is  a  northern  bird  which  occurs  within  the 
bounds  of  cultivation  only  in  winter  and  rarely.  Few  data  are  available 
upon  its  food,  but  without  doubt  it  is  a  mouser  as  it  is  too  small  to  prey  upon 
larger  animals. 

Order — Coccyges.     Cuckoos  and  Kingfishers. 

Systematic  zoologists  are  not  agreed  on  the  classification  of  these 
birds.  The  present  American  Ornithologists'  Union  check-list  (1910 
edition)  recognizes  these  as  composing  a  full  order  and  divides  the  Canadian 
representatives  into  two  suborders:  Cuculi,  including  the  American  Cuckoos 
and  extralimital  families,  and  Alcyones,  the  Kingfishers.  Distinctive 
characters  are  most  easily  described  under  the  subfamily  and  specific 
headings. 

SUBORDER— CUCULI.     CUCKOOS,  ETC. 

This  suborder  is  represented  in  North  America  by  only  one  family, 
Cuculidce,  comprising  the  Anis  and  two  groups  of  Cuckoos. 

FAMILY CUCULID^.      AMERICAN    CUCKOOS. 

A  family  represented  in  North  America  by  three  subfamilies,  only 
one  of  which  occurs  in  Canada — Coccyzincs,  the  American  Tree  Cuckoos. 

Subfamily — Coccyzince.     American  Tree  Cuckoos. 

General  Description.  Birds  with  weak  feet  and  yoke  toes,  two  toes  directed  forward 
and  two  backwards  (Figure  37,  p.  24).  The  bills  are  rather  long,  gently  curved,  and  sharp 
pointed.  The  plumage  is  soft  and  thin,  lacking  in  cohesion,  and  has  the  soft  silky  feeling 
associated  with  many  tropical  species.     The  tail  is  long,  soft,  and  graduated. 

Distinctions.  May  be  distinguished  from  the  Woodpeckers,  which  also  have  yoke 
toes,  directed  two  and  two,  by  the  difference  in  the  bills  and  tails.  In  the  Woodpecker 
the  bills  are  straight,  stout,  the  tip  chisel-pointed,  and  the  tail  is  rather  short,  very  stiff, 
and  bristle-hke  at  the  tip. 

The  Cuckoos  are  largely  tropical  in  distribution.  The  two  Canadian 
cuckoos  are  outliers  from  the  main  body  of  species  in  warmer  latitudes. 
They  are  possessed  of  a  sensuous  tropical  grace  and  air  that  are  out  of  keeping 
with  northern  climes.  This  is  exhibited  in  their  lithe,  sinuous  carriage, 
full  round  deep  throat,  long  graceful  tail,  and  thin  but  soft  and  silky  plumage. 
They  haunt  hot  and  humid  jungles  of  shrubbery,  and  flit  across  the  open 
spaces  with  a  silent  undulating  flight  that  seems  in  harmony  with  their 
exotic  nature.  English  literature  is  rich  in  reference  to  the  Cuckoo,  but 
little  that  is  said  is  applicable  to  the  Canadian  Cuckoo.  The  latter  is  not 
an  early  arriving  species  and  comes  in  spring  with  a  quietness  and  a  silence 
that  hides  its  presence  for  some  time  after  arrival.  Its  notes,  too,  are 
entirely  different  from  those  with  which  European  writers  have  made  us 
familiar.  The  calls  of  our  birds  are  less  musical  but  have  a  charm  of  their 
own  and  a  wildness  and  unusual  quality  in  keeping  with  their  natures. 
The  two  Canadian  species  are  very  much  alike  in  their  calls;  a  loud 
startling  "  Kaow-kaow-kaow "  is  one  of  the  most  characteristic  and  one 
that,  on  the  still  summer  air,  can  be  heard  for  a  quarter  of  a  mile  or  more. 
Again  they  have  a  "  Kuck-kuck-kuck  "  note  like  a  big  clock  beating  seconds, 
that  has  not  the  range  of  the  above  but  has  considerable  carrying  power. 


136 

In  regard  to  their  parental  duties,  our  birds  show  considerable  more  reali- 
zation of  responsibility  than  the  European.  They  are  slightly  parasitic 
in  their  habits,  that  is,  they  occasionally  drop  their  eggs  in  the  nests  of 
other  birds  and  shelve  upon  them  the  cares  of  raising  their  young,  but  the 
practice  is  not  common.  The  old  English  word  "Cuckold"  refers  to  and 
is  based  upon  this  habit  of  the  European  bird.  This  is  not  a  common 
practice  with  the  American,  as  it  is  with  the  Old  World  species,  and  is 
perhaps  only  accidental. 

Economic  Status.  Cuckoos  are  almost  entirely  insectivorous,  but 
occasionally  take  small  amounts  of  wild  fruit.  Their  great  value  lies  in 
the  fact  that  they  show  special  fondness  for  certain  insects  that  other 
species  rarely  touch.  Hairy  caterpillars  which,  on  account  of  their  bristly 
coatings,  are  safe  from  most  fastidious  birds  are  regularly  eaten  by  Cuckoos. 
The  interior  of  a  Cuckoo's  stomach  will  be  found  to  be  lined  with  a  coating 
of  spiny  caterpillar  bristles  set  in  the  walls  and  projecting  from  them 
like  fur. 

387.  Yellow- billed  Cuckoo,  fr. — le  coucou  a  bec  jaune.  Coccyzus  americanus. 
L,  12-20.     Plate  XVII  A. 

Distinctions.  The  Yellow-billed  Cuckoo  may  be  mistaken  only  for  its  relative  the 
Black-billed.  The  yellow  on  the  biU,  from  which  it  gets  its  name,  is  the  easiest  means  of 
identification.  Additional  distinguishing  marks  are  a  broad  area  of  suffused  cinnamon  on 
the  wings,  that  is  conspicuous  in  flight,  and  considerably  more  white  on  the  ends  of  the  tail 
feathers. 

Field  Marks.  The  long  flexible  outline  in  flight  and  the  general  coloration  make  this 
bird  recognizable  as  a  Cuckoo.  The  yellow  lower  mandible,  cinnamon  wing  marks,  and 
the  large  amount  of  white  on  the  tail  fix  the  species. 

Nesting.     Loose  structm-e  of  sticks  not  far  from  ground. 

Distribution.  This  species  is  of  rather  more  southern  distribution  than  the  next, 
but  the  data  seem  to  point  to  its  increase  in  nmnbers  and  range  within  the  past  thirty 
years.  Its  range  just  overlaps  the  southern  borders  of  Ontario,  Quebec,  and  New  Bruns- 
wick. 

SUBSPECIES.  There  are  two  races  of  this  species  recognized  in  Canada.  The 
Eastern  Cuckoo,  the  typical  form,  extends  west  to  the  plains. 

388.  Black-billed  Cuckoo,  fr. — le  coucou  a  bec  noire.  Coccyzus  erythrophthal- 
mus.     L,  11-85.     Plate  XVII  A. 

Distinctions.  Can  be  distinguished  from  the  Yellow-biUed  by  its  all-black  biU,  lack 
of  cinnamon  on  the  wings,  and  the  smaller  amoimt  of  white  tips  on  the  tail. 

Field  Marks.  The  above  make  the  best  field  marks  available  for  the  species.  The 
characteristic  Cuckoo  flight  and  outline  are  easily  recognized. 

Nesting.     Loose  structiu*e  of  sticks  not  far  from  ground. 

Distribution.  A  bird  of  wider  and  more  northerly  distribution  than  the  yellow-'^illed 
Cuckoo;  irregularly  in  the  more  settled  parts  of  the  covmtry  south  of  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence 
and  west  to  the  Manitoba  line. 

^^ 

SUBORDER— ALCYONES.     KINGFISHERS. 

The  Kingfishers  form  a  well-marked  group  represented  in  nearly  all 
parts  of  the  world.  Though  evidently  adapted  to  catching  fish  some  have 
given  up  their  ancestral  habits  and  watery  habitats  to  live  in  the  woods 
on  insects  and  earthworms.  However,  all  these  departures  from  type  are 
extralimital  and  mostly  tropical;  the  well  known  Laughing  Jackass  of 
Australia  is  a  large  aberrant  Kingfisher.  The  North  American  Kingfishers 
are  all  included  under  one  family,  Alcedinidce. 


137 


FAMILY — ALCEDINID^.       KINGFISHERS. 


As  there  is  only  one  species  of  the  familj'  in  Canada  the  description 
given  under  the  species  will  serve  for  the  family. 

390.  Belted  Kingfisher,  fr. — le  martin  p^cheur.  Ceryle  alcyon.  L,  13-02. 
Plate  XVII  B. 

Distinctions.  The  great  ragged  crest  and  slaty-blue  back  of  the  Kingfisher  cannot  be 
very  well  confused  with  any  other  American  bird.  The  weak  feet,  three  toes  in  front, 
the  two  outer  (Figure  36,  p.  24)  joined  for  haK  their  length,  and  the  peculiar  clumsy 
grasping  surfaces  are  diagnostic  of  the  Kingfishers. 

Field  Marks.  The  ragged  crest  and  large  head,  general  coloration,  and  habit  of  sitting 
motionless  on  a  perch  overhangmg  the  water  or  diving  into  it  with  a  splash  make  the 
Kingfisher  easily  recognizable  in  hfe. 

Nesting.  Usually  on  ground  at  end  of  a  tunnel  driven  in  the  face  of  an  exposed  earth 
bank. 

Distribution.     All  of  North  America,  breeding  wherever  found  in  Canada. 

All  frequenters  of  Canadian  waters  know  the  Kingfisher.  It  sits 
motionless  on  a  commanding  perch  over  the  water  watching  for  the  fish 
below.  Suddenly  it  dashes  off,  hangs  suspended  a  moment  in  the  air,  and 
then  drops  with  a  resounding  splash  into  the  water,  rising  a  moment  later 
with  a  luckless  fish  in  its  capacious  bill,  and  is  off  around  the  bend  of  the 
stream.  Within  its  daily  range  the  Kingfisher  knows  every  perch  and 
branch  from  which  it  can  get  a  comprehensive  view  of  its  fishing  grounds 
and  returns  to  them  again  and  again.  Streams  are  not  its  only  habitat; 
it  frequents  lakes  and  ponds  and  even  the  seashore.  The  Kingfishers 
fish  sometimes  at  considerable  distances  from  their  nests  as  they  are  often 
seen  in  country  where  earth  banks  such  as  they  require  for  nesting  are 
few.  However,  they  are  adaptable  and  sometimes  use  the  most  unexpected 
substitutes,  such  as  the  earth  clinging  to  the  roots  of  an  overturned  tree, 
or  the  sides  of  a  drainage  ditch. 

Economic  Status.  The  Belted  Kingfisher  lives  upon  small  fish,  and 
whether  or  not  this  constitutes  a  grave  economic  offence  is  a  question 
that  cannot  be  answered  offhand.  The  minnows  caught  by  this  bird  along 
our  larger  streams,  ponds,  or  lakes  are  certainly  not  of  importance,  but 
when  Kingfishers  frequent  small  preserved  trout  streams  they  may  possibly 
commit  rather  serious  depredations.  Their  effect  on  the  larger  salmon 
waters  is  less  clear.  Ordinarily  the  fish  they  take  are  small  perch,  shiners, 
chub,  and  other  minnows  that  frequent  the  surface  or  shallow  warm  water. 
The  number  of  young  game  fish  that  are  taken  cannot  be  great.  On  waters 
given  to  the  culture  of  trout  the  question  is  different.  The  fish  taken 
there  are  comparatively  well  grown  and  even  if  they  are  not  very  numerous 
the  Kingfisher  cannot  be  looked  upon  with  friendly  eyes  by  the  angler. 

On  the  salmon  streams  the  Kingfishers  are  regarded  with  strong 
disfavour  and  the  guardians  are  usually  busy  reducing  their  number  with 
gun  and  trap  on  every  possible  occasion,  and  even  offer  bounties  upon  their 
heads  and  nests.  How  far  this  is  justified  is  questionable.  In  many  of 
these  streams  the  fish  have  little  other  food  than  the  smaller  of  their  own 
species.  The  large  fish,  except  the  spring  run  of  breeders,  are  all  busy 
eating  the  small  ones.  The  fry  evidently  live  on  micro-organisms  and 
plankton,  the  fingerlings  upon  the  fry,  the  parr  upon  the  fingerlings,  and 
so  on.  The  fingerlings  are  those  taken  by  the  Kingfishers.  Now  if  the 
final  number  of  adult  salmon  depends  on  the  fingerling,  if  the  fingerUng 


138 

is  the  critical  stage  in  the  salmon's  Ufe  beyond  which  its  chances  for 
survival  are  greatly  increased,  the  Kingfisher  can  possibly  commit  appre- 
ciable depredation;  but  if  on  the  other  hand  this  critical  point  occurs  later, 
during  the  sea  life  of  the  fish  for  instance,  the  effect  of  the  taking  of  even 
a  considerable  number  of  fingerlings  will  be  negligible.  At  any  rate  it 
will  take  several  Kingfishers  to  equal  the  damage  done  by  one  comparatively 
small  fish  in  the  waters  frequented  by  the  salmon.  It  would  seem,  therefore, 
that  the  good  and  e\dl  in  the  case  of  the  Kingfisher  nearly  balances. 

Order — Pici.    Woodpeckers. 

The  world  wide  order  Pici  is  a  rather  heterogeneous  division  including 
numerous  subdivisions  and  there  is  little  uniformity  of  opinion  as  to  their 
exact  relations.  In  Canada  there  is  only  one  family  of  the  order — Picidoe, 
the  Woodpeckers. 

FAMILY — PICID^.       WOODPECKERS. 

General  Description.  The  Woodpeckers  are  aji  easily  recognized  family.  They  have 
either  three  or  four  toes,  as  in  the  Cuckoos,  two  permanently  directed  forward,  ending  in 
well  hooked  claws  for  clinging  to  the  rough  bark  of  trees.  In  one  group,  the  Three-toed 
Woodpeckers,  one  of  the  hind  toes  is  absent.  The  bill  is  straight,  stout,  and  chisel-shaped 
at  the  tip  (Figure  41,  p.  25).  The  tail  is  well  developed;  not  remarkably  long  but  stout 
and  ending  in  stiif  bristles  that  are  worn  and  frayed  by  pressure  against  rough  bark. 

Distinctions.     Feet,  bill,  and  tail  characters  make  reliable  distinctions. 

Field  Marks.  Tree  cUmbing  habits;  and  flight  by  series  of  quick  wing  strokes  with 
slight  pauses  between,  causing  a  waved  coiirse  like  a  succession  of  festoons. 

Nesting.     In  holes  excavated  in  trees  or  stubs. 

The  Woodpeckers  are  well  known  for  their  ability  to  cling  to  per- 
pendicular or  overhanging  surfaces.  The  stout  chisel-shaped  bill  is 
admirably  adapted  to  drilling  into  wood  whence  the  larvse  of  borers  or  other 
insects  are  extracted.  The  tongue  is  modified  into  a  long,  extensible 
spear  furnished  with  a  sharp  point  and  armed  with  minute  barbs  to  assist 
in  holding  the  impaled  prey  and  withdraw  it  from  the  wood.  The  hyoid 
or  tongue  bones  are  so  long  that  in  the  normal  position  of  rest  they  wind  up 
over  the  base  of  the  skull  along  the  crown  and  in  some  species  penetrate  the 
nostrils  beneath  the  bill-sheath  and  finally  rest  their  ends  near  the  tip  of 
the  bill.  As  a  further  aid,  large  salivary  glands  secrete  a  sticky  fluid  for 
the  tongue  to  which  small  insects  stick  and  are  caught  as  with  bird  lime. 
A  few  species,  for  example  the  Sapsuckers,  have  the  tip  of  the  tongue  frayed 
out  into  a  sort  of  brush  that  is  evidently  used  in  gathering  up  the  sap. 

Economic  Status.  Of  the  general  usefulness  of  the  Woodpeckers, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Sapsuckers,  there  can  be  little  doubt.  They 
are  almost  entirely  insectivorous.  They  pursue  wood-boring  grubs  by 
drilling  holes  even  in  apparently  healthy  trees  and  hence  they  are  bene- 
ficial not  harmful. 

393.  Hairy  Woodpecker,  fr. — le  pic  chevelu.  Dryobates  villosus.  L,  9-40. 
Almost  exactly  hke  the  next  species,  but  larger.    Plate  XVIII  A. 

Distinctions.  The  Downy  Woodpecker  is  the  only  species  with  which  this  is  likely  to 
be  confused.  Size  is  the  best  point  for  differentiation,  but  the  white  of  the  outer  tail  feathers 
being  solid  instead  of  barred  with  black,  is  diagnostic. 

Field  Marks.  The  spotted  black  and  white  coloration  to  mark  the  genus  and  the  size 
to  separate  it  from  the  Downy. 


139 

Nesting.     In  holes  drilled  in  dead  stubs  or  living  trees. 

Distribution.  The  Hairy  Woodpecker  in  its  various  subspecies  is  found  over  all  the 
wooded  parts  of  Canada,  breeding  everj^where  except  perhaps  in  the  most  southern  portions 
of  Ontario. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  species  in  eastern  Canada  is  divided  into  two  geographical 
races,  the  Eastern  Hairy,  the  t>T3e  form,  and  the  Northern  Hairy,  D.  v.  leucomelas.  The 
latter  is  the  one  usually  but  incorrectly  given  as  the  bird  of  southern  Canada.  It  is  of 
shghtly  larger  size  and  of  more  northern  distribution,  only  occasionally  coming  down  into 
settled  districts  in  winter  and  perhaps  never  appearing  in  the  Lower  Great  Lakes  region. 

The  Hairy  Woodpecker  gets  its  name  from  the  white  feathers  of  the 
back,  which  fall  over  the  black  borders  in  a  loose  disconnected  way  faintly 
suggestive  of  hairs.  It  is  one  of  the  common  woodpeckers  and  quite 
typical  of  the  family  in  its  habits.  It  is  not  as  familiar  about  houses  or 
orchards  as  the  Downy  Woodpecker,  preferring  the  woods  to  orchard  or 
shade  trees. 

Economic  Status.  Insects  constitute  77  per  cent  of  the  food  of  this 
species;  they  are  mostly  beetles,  but  include  ants,  scales,  and  sawflies; 
22  per  cent  is  vegetable,  almost  entirely  wild  fruit. 

394.  Downy  Woodpecker,  fr. — le  pic  minule.  Dryobates  pubescens.  L,  6-83. 
Plate  XVIII  A. 

Distinctions.  The  Downy  can  be  separated  from  the  Hairy  Woodpecker  by  its  smaller 
size  and  the  black  barring  on  the  white  outer  tail  feathers. 

Field  Marks.     Size  is  the  best  field  mark. 

Nesting.     In  holes  drilled  in  dead  trees  and  stubs. 

Distribution.  The  Downy  Woodpecker  with  its  various  subspecies  occupies  all  of 
temperate  America,  breeding  in  Canada  wherever  found. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  species  is  divided  into  several  geographical  races.  The  form 
of  eastern  Canada,  the  Northern  Downy  D.  p.  medianus,  is  separated  from  the  type  form 
only  by  a  slight  difference  in  size. 

The  Downy  Woodpecker  is  our  commonest  woodpecker.  It  comes 
close  about  the  house  and  is  quite  at  home  in  the  orchard  and  among  the 
shade  trees  of  towns  and  parks.  As  it  is  resident  in  Canada  throughout 
the  year  it  is  of  particular  value  to  the  husbandman. 

Economic  Status.  Being  the  most  fearless  of  the  woodpeckers  and 
coming  close  about  the  fields  and  houses  where  it  is  most  needed,  it  is  an 
invaluable  bird.  Peering  into  every  crack  and  crevice  of  shade  and  fruit 
trees  and  drilling  for  deeper  lying  insects  it  well  complements  the  work  of 
the  little  Chickadee  and  Nuthatch.  In  fact,  these  three  species  often  travel 
in  company  in  the  winter  and  there  is  little  in  the  food  line  that  is  overlooked 
when  the  three  species  work  together.  The  food  of  the  Downy  Woodpecker 
is  similar  to  that  of  the  Hairy  Woodpecker,  but,  as  would  be  expected 
from  its  smaller  size  and  its  more  common  presence  in  summer,  includes 
more  of  the  smaller  insects.  The  various  scale  insects  make  a  larger  item 
in  its  food  and  it  takes  more  moth  caterpillars,  including  the  Tent  Cater- 
pillar and  those  of  the  Codling  Moth. 

400.  Arctic  Three-toed  Woodpecker,  black-backed  woodpecker,  fr. — le  pic 
ARCTiQUE.     Picoides  ardicus.     L,  9-50.      Plate  XVIII  B. 

Distinctions.     A  woodpecker  with  three  instead  of  four  toes  and  a  solidly  black  back. 

Field  Marks.  Except  the  Red-headed,  the  only  solidly  black-backed  woodpecker  in 
eastern  Canada.  The  all  black  back  for  specific,  and  the  yeUow  crown  patch  of  the  male 
for  generic  recognition.      Plate  XVIII  B . 

Distribution.     The  northern  coniferous  forests,  west  to  the  prairie  provinces. 

57172—10 


140 

A  bird  of  the  northern  coniferous  forest,  seldom  coming  under  the 
notice  of  the  ordinary  observer,  except  towards  the  verge  of  present  settle- 
ment where  it  is  of  regular  occurrence. 

Economic  Status.  This  woodpecker  is  of  growing  importance  for  the 
protection  of  the  coniferous  forest  from  introduced  and  other  insect  pests 
which  have  greatly  increased  in  recent  years. 

401.  American  Three-toed  Woodpecker,  ladder-backed  woodpecker,  fr. — le 
PIC  d'am^irique.  Picaides  americanus.  L,  8-75.  Almost  exactly  similar  to  the  Arctic 
Three-toed,  but  with  the  middle  of  the  back  barred  with  white. 

Distinctions,  The  yellow  crown  of  the  male  is  distinctive  of  the  Three-toed  Wood- 
peckers. This  species  can  be  distinguished  from  the  Arctic  by  the  white-barred  instead 
of  solid  black  back.  Except  the  Red-belUed,  the  only  woodpecker  in  eastern  Canada  with 
a  barred  back. 

Field  Marks.  Yellow  crown  of  male  and  the  black  and  white  barring  in  the  middle 
of  the  back. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  form  occurring  in  eastern  Canada  is  the  Eastern  Three-toed 
Woodpecker,  the  type  race  of  the  species.     In  the  west,  other  forms  occur. 

A  much  rarer  bird  than  the  preceding,  but  of  similar  habits,  status, 
and  distribution,  and  extending  into  the  western  mountains  in  subspecific 
form. 

402.  Yellow-bellied  Sapsucker.  fr. — le  pic  macui-:^.  Sphyrapicus  varixis.  L, 
8-56.     Plate  XIX  A. 

Distinctions.  The  well-defined  red  cap  just  covering  the  top  of  the  head  will  usually 
distinguish  this  species.  Some  females  have  a  black  crown,  but  the  general  coloration 
is  always  recognizable  even  in  young  birds,  although  in  them  it  is  veiled  and  indicated 
rather  than  expressed. 

Field  Marks.  The  red  cap  of  both  sexes  and  red  throat  of  the  male  are  the  most  cons- 
picuous field  marks.  In  other  plumages  the  broad  white  bar  that  shows  along  the  wing 
and  the  black  gorget  below  the  throat  are  distinctive. 

Nesting.     In  holes  in  dead  trees. 

Distribution.  Eastern  North  America  from  well  north  of  cultivation,  southward. 
Breeds  everywhere  in  eastern  Canada  excepting  in  the  most  southerly  portions. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  eastern  form  of  the  Yellow-beUied  Sapsucker  is  the  type 
race — the  Eastern  Sapsucker.     In  the  extreme  west  another  subspecies  occurs. 

The  Sapsuckers  have  departed  somewhat  from  their  ancestral  wood- 
pecking  habits.  Although  numerous  during  migration  through  southern 
Canada,  they  are  scarce  breeders  in  the  lower  Great  Lakes  region  though 
common  elsewhere. 

Economic  Status.  This  is  the  only  bird  of  the  family  that  seems 
to  be  harmful.  The  harm  is  done  in  quest  of  sap,  by  girdling  the  trunks 
and  branches  of  orchards  and  other  smooth  barked  trees  with  rows  of  small 
squarish  pits  regularly  spaced  in  horizontal  lines  penetrating  both  outer 
and  inner  barks  to  the  sap-wood  beneath.  Several  trees  may  be  so  tapped 
and  visited  in  turn  as  the  sap  exudes.  Though  it  is  primarily  the  sap 
which  is  sought,  the  insects  attracted  are  also  eaten,  for  though  sap  is 
a  large  item  in  the  Sapsucker's  diet,  animal  food  is  also  necessary. 

Although  the  damage  to  trees  so  girdled  is  not  nearly  as  great  as 
might  be  expected,  they  are  sometimes  permanently  injured  and  even 
killed.  All  are  weakened  and  a  lodgment  prepared  for  fungoid  growth 
and  insects.  Unless  severely  and  repeatedly  attacked,  however,  most 
survive  and  completely  recover.  Even  forest  growth  suffers  considerable 
damage;  valuable  timber  trees  are   attacked   and   the   consequent  burr 


141 

growths  and  wood  stains  in  the  manufactured  lumber,  marking  the  old, 
healed  attacks  of  the  Sapsucker,  reduce  the  marketable  value  of  the  lumber 
products.  The  whole  question  of  the  damage  done  by  Sapsuckers  has  been 
exhaustively  discussed  in  a  United  States  Biological  Survey  Bulletin,  No. 
39,  "Woodpeckers  in  relation  to  trees  and  wood  products,"  by  W.  L. 
McAtee.  Under  the  heading  of  defensive  measures  against  Sapsuckers 
the  author  advises  a  limited  use  of  the  gun  where  the  species  is  doing 
appreciable  harm,  or  the  use  of  poison.  If  the  gun  is  used  care  should  be 
taken  that  only  Sapsuckers  are  killed  and  it  must  be  remembered  that 
with  poison,  Hummingbirds  and  other  small  birds,  especially  warblers, 
are  likely  to  suffer  also. 

405.  Pileated  Woodpecker,  cock-of-the-wood.  fk. — le  pic  a  huppe  ^cahlate. 
Phloeotomus  pileatus.     L,  17.     Plate  XIX  B. 

Distinctions.  The  size  of  this  woodpecker  makes  identification  easy.  It  can  be 
confused  with  no  other   Canadian  Woodpecker. 

Field  Marks.     Large  size,  striking,  red  crest,  and  the  white  on  the  outspread  wings. 

Distribution.  Once  ranging  over  aU  of  eastern  Canada  it  is  now  practically  con- 
fined to  the  wilder  parts  and  the  wilderness  of  the  north. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Pileated  Woodpecker  is  divided  into  two  subspecies,  of  which 
only  the  Northern  Pileated  P.  p.  abieticola  occurs  in  Canada. 

On  account  of  the  wanton  destruction  of  this  beautiful  bird  which 
was  once  of  wide  distribution,  it  is  now  to  be  found  only  in  the  quiet  of  the 
north  woods.  The  colloquial  name  "Cock-of-the-woods"  has  been  locally 
corrupted  into  "Woodcock",  and  its  use  for  this  species  is  a  source  of 
confusion  and  misunderstanding.  The  Pileated  Woodpecker  is  not  a 
legitimate  object  of  sport;  it  will  not  "lie  to  a  dog",  cannot  be  hunted 
by  sportsman-like  methods,  and  is  too  small  for  use  as  food,  but  has  great 
value  as  a  forest  preserver.  It  should,  therefore,  be  rigidly  protected 
for  economic  as  well  as  sentimental  reasons. 

Economic  Status.  The  Pileated  Woodpecker  is  now  restricted  to  the 
wildest  sections.  It  is  mainly  beneficial  in  the  protection  of  forest  trees 
and,  therefore,  its  greatest  value  is  to  the  lumberman.  Its  food  is  much 
the  same  as  that  of  the  other  woodpeckers,  but  its  superior  strength  enables 
it  to  dig  deeply  and  exhume  larvae  and  insects  that  are  safe  from  a  less 
powerful  bird. 

406.  Red-headed  Woodpecker,  fr. — le  pic  a  t^te  rouge.  Melanerpes  erythro- 
cephalus.     L,  9-75.     Plate  XX  A. 

Distinctions.  The  bright  red  head  and  contrasting  broad  masses  of  black  and  white 
body-plumage  are  easily  recognized. 

Field  Marks.     The  striking  coloration  of  this  species  makes  it  easily  recognizable. 

Nesting.  Generally  in  holes  in  dead  stubs  and  occasionally  in  telegraph  and  other 
such  poles. 

Distribution.  A  bird  of  rather  southern  distribution,  only  regularly  and  commonly 
entering  Canada  on  the  southern  border  along  the  lower  Great  Lakes. 

The  Red-headed  Woodpecker  is  one  of  the  familiar  species  about 
orchards  and  wood  lots.  It  is,  therefore,  well  known  wherever  it 
occurs.  The  Red-headed  has  rather  less  of  woodpecker  habits  than 
the  forms  hitherto  considered,  or  it  has  evolved  other  flycatcher-like 
traits  in  addition  to  its  ancestral  ones. 

Economic  Status.     The  Red-headed  eats  fewer  larvse  and  grubs  than 
other  species,   and   more  useful,    predaceous  ground-beetles.      However, 
57172—10* 


142 

the  balance  between  good  and  evil  is  in  its  favour,  for  although  it  eats 
some  fruit,  May  beetles  or  June  bugs  and  weevils  form  a  large  part  of  its 
food.  It  has  been  accused  of  eating  fruit  and  without  doubt  the  charges 
have  some  foundation,  but  careful  study  has  shown  that  these  cases  are 
local  and  confined  to  limited  areas  and  perhaps  to  certain  individuals. 

409.  Red-bellied  Woodpecker,  fr. — le  pic  Dfc  la  Caroline.  Centurus  carolinus. 
L,  9-50.  Entire  back  and  upperparts  sharply  and  regularly  barred  with  black  and  white. 
Whole  back  of  neck  to  shoulder  and,  in  the  male,  the  top  of  head,  bright  red.  All  re- 
mainder and  below  ashy  white  with  slight  olive  tinge.     Abdomen  shghtly  tinged  with  red. 

Distinctions.  The  even  barring  of  the  whole  back  and  the  red  colour  of  the  crown 
and  rear  neck  are  eisily  distinguished. 

Distribution.  From  the  gulf  coast  to  northern  United  States,  occurring  as  a  straggler 
to  the  north  of  the  boundary  in  southern  Ontario. 

This  Woodpecker  is  of  rare  and  local  occurrence  in  Canada.  Its 
economic  status  is  good  although  it  is  fond  of  wild  fruit  and  occasionally 
turns  its  attention  to  cultivated  varieties. 

412.  Flicker,  golden-winged  woodpecker,  highhole,  highholder,  yellow- 
hammer.     FR. — le  pic  dore.     Colaptes  auratus.     L,  12.     Plate  XX  B. 

Distinction.  A  large  Woodpecker  with  the  under  surface  of  the  wings  and  tail  bright 
yellow. 

Field  Marks.  General  Woodpecker-Uke  actions;  size;  yellow  underwing  surfaces 
and  white  rump  conspicuous  in  flight. 

Nesting.  Nests  in  holes  excavated  in  dead  stubs,  usually  in  the  open,  rarely  if  ever 
in  dense  woods.  The  pecuUar  inter-relation  of  distinct  species  is  well  illustrated  by  this 
bird.  Its  deserted  nesting-holes  are  made  use  of  by  many  other  species  which  are  incap- 
able of  excavating  their  own.  Sparrow  Hawks,  Tree  Swallows,  Crested  Flycatchers, 
and  some  other  useful  species  are  thus  directly  dependent  upon  Woodpeckers,  especially 
Flickers,  for  nesting  sites.  There  are  many  other  such  cases  in  nature  of  interdepen- 
dence; some  are  obvious  and  well  known,  some  we  surmise,  and  others  may  be  that  we 
do  not  and  cannot  at  present  even  suspect.  This  is  a  cogent  reason  for  caution  in  disturb- 
ing the  established  order  of  nature. 

Distribution.  The  FUcker  in  its  various  subspecies  is  distributed  all  over  eastern 
North  America,  north  to  the  tree  limits.     It  breeds  wherever  found  in  Canada. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Flicker  is  divided  into  several  subspecies,  the  eastern  Canadian 
variety  being  known  as  the  Northern  Fhcker  C.  a.  luteus. 

The  most  familiar  of  the  Woodpeckers  to  the  general  public,  as  is 
indicated  by  the  great  number  of  vernacular  names  that  have  been  appplied 
to  it;  only  the  principal  ones  are  given  above.  The  loud  ^^ Flicker,  flicker, 
flicker" ,  of  the  male  and  the  piercing  ^'Peiu-u"  of  both  sexes  are  well 
known  and  easily  recognized  sounds.  Though  a  true  Woodpecker  the 
Flicker  is  a  pronounced  ground  feeder  and  is  especially  fond  of  ants,  of 
which  its  food  is  often  largely  composed.  It  delights  to  cling  to  a  hollow 
reverberating  tree  trunk  and  beat  out  rattling  tattoos  that  can  be  heard 
for  great  distances.  This  noise  seems  to  be  made  as  a  call  to  its  mate 
or  may  sometimes  be  from  pure  exuberance  of  spirits.  The  reproductive 
powers  of  the  Flicker  are  phenomenal.  By  taking  away  the  eggs  as  they 
are  laid  it  has  been  known  to  lay  thirty  or  more  in  a  season.  It  seems 
to  be  able  to  keep  up  the  deposition  until  the  set  is  completed. 

Economic  Stahis.  Ants  constitute  nearly  half  the  food  of  the  Flicker. 
The  remainder  of  its  insect  food  consists  of  both  beneficial  and  harmful 
species,  but  the  latter  noticeably  predominate.  It  takes  some  fruit, 
grain,  and  mast;  but  on  the  whole  must  be  considered  to  be  beneficial 
rather  than  harmful.     Perhaps  the  worst  charge  that  can  be  made  against 


143 

the  species  is  its  scattering  of  the  seeds  of  the  poison  oak  and  ivy  and  so 
aiding  in  the  spread  of  these  harmful  plants. 

Order — Macrochires.     Goatsuckers,  Swifts,  and  Hummingbirds. 

In  this  order  are  grouped  a  number  of  birds  that  after  further  inves- 
tigation may  be  rearranged.  The  present  classification  of  the  American 
Ornithologists'  Union  is  avowedly  tentative  and  adhered  to  only  until 
a  permanent  sj^stem  can  be  agreed  upon.  The  various  suborders  of 
the  division  are  more  easily  recognized  by  their  differences  than  by  their 
agreements,  and  those  points  in  which  they  differ  will  be  emphasized  in 
the  following  descriptions. 

SUBORDER— CAPRIMULGI.     GOATSUCKERS. 

This  is  a  widely  distributed  suborder  divided  into  a  number  of  families. 
A  description  of  the  one  family  represented  in  North  America  will  serve 
for  the  recognition  of  the  native  species. 

FAMILY CAPRIMULGIDiE.       GOATSUCKERS. 

General  Desaiption.  The  Goatsuckers  have  flattened  heads,  very  small  biEs,  and 
enormous  mouths,  with  gape  extending  to  behind  the  eye  (Figure  38,  p.  24).  The 
feet  are  smaU  and  very  weak  and  the  middle  claw  pectinated  or  furnished  with  comb- 
like serrations  as  in  the  Herons  (Figure  19,  p.  21).  The  plumage  is  very  soft  in  texture 
and  coloured  in  wood  browns,  neutral  buffs,  and  grey. 

Distinctions.  The  above  characters  should  be  sufficient  to  characterize  this  family 
as  they  are  dissimilar  to  those  of  any  other  Canadian  birds. 

The  Goatsuckers  were  given  their  name  from  an  old  but  mistaken 
belief  that  they  sucked  the  milk  from  the  goats  in  the  pastures  over  which 
they  were  seen  to  wheel  and  circle,  and  their  immense  mouths  and  pink 
throats  gave  support  to  the  popular  impression.  In  truth  the  birds  that 
frequented  the  pastures  were  hawking  for  flying  insects  that  had  been 
attracted  by  the  animals.  The  birds  of  this  family  are  nocturnal  or  cre- 
puscular. They  feed  entirely  upon  insects  caught  on  the  wing  and  seldom 
come  to  ground  except  to  nest  or  for  repose.  Their  feet  are  too  small 
and  weak  to  clasp  a  branch  securely  and  in  perching  they  normally  sit 
on  large  branches,  lengthwise  of  them  instead  of  crosswise,  as  do  most 
birds. 

416.  Chuck-will's  Widow,  fr. — engotjlevent  de  la  Caroline.  Antrosiomus 
carolinensis.     L,  12.     A  large  WTiip-poor-will.     See  next  species. 

Distinctions.  Size;  it  is  a  considerably  larger  bird  than  the  \Vhip-poor-wiU;  the 
long  bristles  about  the  mouth  with  hair-Uke  branches  at  their  base  instead  of  being  clean 
and  bare  throughout  their  length. 

Distribution.     The  southern  states.     Of  accidental  occurrence  within  our  borders. 

The  basis  for  the  inclusion  of  this  bird  here  is  the  taking  of  a  specimen 
at  Pelee  point  on  lake  Erie  and  another  at  Pictou,  Nova  Scotia.  It  is 
rare  and  is  similar  to  the  Whip-poor-will  in  appearance,  habits,  and  notes. 

417.  Whip-poor-will.  fr. — l'engoulevent  criard.  Antrostomus  vociferus.  L, 
9-75.  Coloured  in  soft  indefinite  patterns  of  wood-browns  and  greys  with  suggestions 
of  rufous  and  ochre.  There  is  little  broad  pattern  in  the  colouring,  but  much  fine  detail. 
On  the  underparts  there  is  only  a  faint  suggestion  of  barring,  and  the  coloration  of  the 
whole  bird  is  hke  that  of  a  great  brown  moth. 


144 

Distinctions.  Only  to  be  mistaken  for  the  Nighthawk  or  the  very  rare  Chuck-will'e 
Widow.  It  is  easily  distinguished  from  the  Nighthawk  by  the  following  points:  th; 
throat  is  dark  instead  of  white;  there  is  a  narrow  white  collar  across  the  base  of  the  throats 
the  final  half  of  the  tail  feathers,  except  the  middle  pair,  is  white  in  the  male  and  tipped 
with  buffy  white  in  the  female.     The  spread  wing  shows  no  white  spot. 

Nesting.     Eggs  are  laid  directly  upon  the  ground  or  on  dead  leaves. 

Distribution.  Common  throughout  most  of  the  settled  parts  of  eastern  Canada, 
scarcer  in  the  extreme  east,  and  more  common  in  undisturbed  than  in  highly  cultivated 
sections. 

SUBSPECIES.  Two  subspecies  of  Whip-poor-wiU  are  recognized  in  North  America, 
of  which  the  Eastern  Whip-poor-will,  the  type  form,  is  the  only  one  occurring  in  Canada. 

There  is  no  other  sound  in  the  Canadian  woods  as  poetically  mournful 
as  the  reiterated  call  of  the  Whip-poor-will.  The  translation  of  bird 
notes  into  words  usually  requires  a  stretch  of  the  imagination,  but  this 
bird  says  "Whip-poor-will,  whip-poor-will"  with  unusual  distinctness. 
For  a  calling  station  it  selects  a  perch  on  a  fallen  tree-trunk,  a  bare  branch, 
the  roof  of  a  building,  or  even  a  tent  pole.  It  returns  to  its  various  stations 
regularly  on  successive  nights  and  seems  to  visit  each  in  turn.  Between 
periods  of  calling  the  bird  hawks  and  wheels  through  the  tree  tops  in 
large  interlacing  circles,  sometimes  swooping  towards  the  ground  in  a  long 
pendulum-like  swing.  In  the  daytime  it  seeks  the  ground  in  some  quiet 
patch  of  underbrush  where  it  passes  the  time  at  rest.  When  disturbed 
by  an  intruder  it  rises  with  a  loose,  poorly  controlled  flight  that  gives  no 
indication  of  its  wonderful  command  of  the  air  at  other  times,  flutters 
a  short  distance  over  the  tangle,  and  drops  again  to  earth. 

The  Whip-poor-will  is  often  regarded  as  identical  with  the  Nighthawk. 
This  is  a  not  unnatural  mistake  when  they  are  not  seen  side  by  side  as 
they  are  quite  similar  enough  to  be  confused. 

Economic  Status.  The  Whip-poor-will  feeds  largely  upon  night- 
flying  beetles,  especially  May  beetles  or  June  bugs. 

420.  Nighthawk.  mosquito  hawk,  bull-bat.  night-jar.  fr. — l'engoulevent 
d'amer.ique.     Chordeiles  virginianns.     L,  10.     Plate  XXI  A. 

D  htindions.  The  Nighthawk  and  the  Whip-poor-will  are  often  mistaken  for  one 
another.  This  species,  however,  can  be  distinguished  from  the  Whip-poor-will  by  the 
following  characters:  the  throat  is  white  instead  of  dark,  there  is  no  white  collar  below 
the  throat,  and  the  long  mouth-bristles  are  lacking.  The  tail  is  slightly  forked  instead 
of  round  and  has  little  or  no  white  except  a  narrow  subterminal  bar.  The  underparts 
are  distinctly  barred  and  the  wings  have  a  white  spot  at  the  base  of  the  primaries  instead 
of  being  all  black. 

Field  Marks.  The  Nighthawk  flies  about  in  daylight  and  in  the  early  evening, 
whereas  the  Whip-poor-will  never  hawks  about  in  the  open  mitil  evening.  A  white  spot 
in  the  wing  shows  in  flight  very  plainly,  resembling  from  a  little  distance  a  clear  cut  shot 
hole.  The  sudden  and  perpendicular  dive  in  the  air  with  hollow  booming  accompaniment 
is  also  distmctive  of  the  species. 

Nesting.  A  clear  spot  on  the  ground — usually  the  bald  tops  of  flat  rocks  in  the  open. 
Eggs  laid  directly  on  ground  with  httle  or  no  preparation.  Often  utihzes  the  flat  gravel 
roofs  of  buildings. 

Distribution.  North  and  South  America,  north  to  the  tree  hmits,  breeding  in  Canada 
wherever  found. 

SUBSPECIES.  Several  subspecies  of  Nighthawks  are  recognized  in  Canada,  but 
the  only  form  occurring  in  the  east  is  the  Eastern  Nighthawk,  the  type  form. 

Though  called  Nighthawk  this  bird  has  no  relation  to  the  Raptores 
in  habit,  structure,  or  outward  appearance.  Its  large  eyes  directed  slightly 
forward  sometimes  causes  it  to  be  mistaken  for  an  owl  by  casual  observers. 
This  species  nests  to  some  extent  on  the  flat  gravel  roofs  of  buildings. 


145 

These  graceful  aeronauts  may  be  seen  over  almost  any  city  or  town  as 
evening  draws  on,  beating  about  on  long,  strong  wings  with  slow,  powerful, 
but  slightly  erratically  timed  beats.  At  intervals  one  will  mount  in  steep 
spirals  higher  and  higher,  and  then  face  earthwards  and  come  nearly 
perpendicularly  down  like  a  falling  stone.  As  it  falls  a  hollow  dull  tremolo 
buzz  is  heard.  Just  before  the  observer  thinks  the  bird  must  dash  to 
the  ground  it  catches  itself  and  glides  off  safely  to  repeat  the  operation. 
Its  notes  are  not  musical,  though  from  the  high  upper  air  its  hoarse 
squawking  voice  comes  down  softened  and  harmonized  by  distance. 

Economic  Status.  Of  few  birds  can  more  good  or  less  harm  be  told 
than  of  the  Nighthawk.  Its  food  is  wholly  of  insects  and  it  takes  most 
of  it  on  the  wing,  high  in  the  air  where  many  of  the  insects  are  mating 
and  at  a  time  when  their  destruction  does  the  most  good.  It  is  a  surpris- 
ingly small  bird  when  stripped  of  its  thick  coat  of  soft  feathers,  but  requires 
a  great  amount  of  food.  A  list  of  the  species  taken  by  it  includes  great 
numbers  of  ants,  June  bugs,  squash  beetles,  chinch  bugs,  leaf-hoppers, 
and  other  obnoxious  species.  The  habit,  common  in  some  places,  of  using 
this  bird  as  a  live  target  by  gunners  when  practicing  is  inexcusable  and 
those  guilty  of  it  should  be  rigorously  prosecuted.  It  should  be  realized 
that  every  offence  against  the  laws  protecting  insectivorous  birds  is 
something  more  than  a  technical  offence  against  an  impersonal  state; 
it  is  a  direct  blow  at  the  welfare  of  the  whole  community. 

SUBORDER— CYPSELI.     SWIFTS  AND  ALLIES. 

A  widely  spread  suborder  consisting  of  one  family  of  which  in  eastern 
Canada  we  have  only  a  single  species. 

FAMILY — MICROPODIDiE.       SWIFTS. 

The  North  American  Swifts  are  divided  into  two  Subfamilies,  only 
one  of  which,  the  Spine-tailed  Swift  Chceturince,  is  represented  in  eastern 
Canada. 

Subfamily — Chceturince.     Spine-tailed  Swifts. 

The  Swifts  are  a  group  of  birds  superficially  resembling  swallows,  but 
structurally  very  different  from  them,  the  similarity  being  brought  about 
by  common  requirements  and  not  by  relationship.  A  description  that  is 
applicable  to  the  whole  subfamily  is  given  under  the  specific  heading 
following. 

423.  Chimney  Swift,  fr. — le  maktinet  des  chemines.  Choetura  pelatica.  L, 
5-43.     Plate  XXI  B. 

Distinctions.  The  even,  sooty-brown  colour  lightening  on  the  throat  and  becoming 
darker  towards  the  vent,  is  almost  sufficient  for  recognition.  The  projection  of  the  shafts 
of  the  tail  feathers  (Figure  39,  p.  25)  beyond  the  webs  as  sharp  stiff  spines  is  a  posi  tive 
identification  mark. 

Field  Marks.  The  peculiar,  long,  narrow,  and  rather  club-shaped  wings,  well  shown 
in  the  illustration;  the  nearly  continuous  quick  beating;  the  dense  dark  coloration;  and 
the  habit  of  entering  chimneys,  are  distinctive  and  characteristic. 

Nesting.  Originally  in  hollow  trees  or  clefts  in  rocks,  now  over  most  of  the  range  of 
the  Chimney  Swift,  in  unused  chimneys.  The  nest  is  a  firm  structure  of  twigs  cemented 
together  with  a  natural  glue  furnished  by  the  salivary  glands.  The  edible  nests  so  much 
in  demand  by  Chinese  epicures,  are  composed  of  the  cement  from  a  closely  allied  Swift. 

Distribution.  Eastern  North  America,  north  to  the  limit  of  cultivation.  Breeds  in 
Canada  wherever  found. 


146 

This  is  an  interesting  species,  swallow-like  in  outward  appearance  and 
food-hunting  habits  yet  structurally  distinct  from  the  Swallows.  It  is  an 
odd  example  of  parallel  development  of  widely  separated  characters  induced 
by  similarity  of  requirement.  Its  habits  have  entirely  changed  since  the 
advent  of  the  white  man  and,  forsaking  hollow  trees,  it  is  now  practically 
dependent  upon  chimneys  for  sites  in  which  to  build  its  nest.  The  winter 
home  of  the  Chimney  Swift  is  unknown.  The  mystery,  however,  should 
not  be  exaggerated,  as  there  are  numbers  of  Swifts  in  the  western  hemisphere 
looking  very  like  this  one  and  the  bird  has  probably  been  overlooked  in  its 
winter  quarters  or  confused  with  closely  allied  forms.  The  Swift  spends 
much  time  on  the  wing  and  seldom  comes  to  rest  except  in  a  chimney  or 
hollow  tree.  In  the  autumn,  before  migration,  great  numbers  gather  to- 
together  and  at  evening  seek  the  shelter  of  some  ample  chimney  where 
they  pass  the  night.  They  may  be  seen  just  before  dusk  flying  about  in 
complicated  patterns  near  the  chosen  chimney,  and  as  the  sun  sets,  circling, 
until  as  they  throw  the  wings  straight  up  over  the  back  and  drop  fluttering 
into  the  stack,  one  rapidly  following  another,  they  appear  to  pour  in  like  a 
miniature  maelstrom.  The  birds  cling  to  the  perpendicular  walls  of  the 
chimney  by  hundreds,  in  masses  like  lumps  of  soot.  Occasionally  one  with 
insecure  hold  drops  a  few  feet,  loosening  as  it  does  so,  others  below;  there 
is  a  momentary  flutter  of  wings  and  a  small  chorus  of  fine  sharp  chippings 
until  they  find  new  holdings  and  settle  for  the  night. 

SUBORDER— TROCHILI.    HUMMINGBIRDS. 

These  tiny,  insect-like  birds  with  brilliant  flower-like  coloration, 
unbird-like  flight,  and  wonderfully  varied  form,  are  a  typically  American 
order.  In  a  way,  they  occupy  much  the  same  position  in  the  New  World 
as  the  Sun  Birds  do  in  the  Old  World,  but  the  similarity  between  the  two  is 
superficial  and  not  one  of  relationship.  Many  species  are  highly  specialized 
and  exhibit  some  of  the  strangest  forms  in  the  bird  world,  including  crests, 
ruffs,  fans,  and  muffs,  exaggerated  tails,  long  plumes,  and  enormous  sword- 
like and  fine  awl-shaped  bills,  but  their  most  striking  feature  is  the  brilliant 
metallic  colorations  on  various  parts  of  the  body,  that  gleam  in  the  sun.  They 
feed  largely  upon  the  nectar  of  fiowers.  The  tongue  is  very  long  and 
protrusive  as  in  the  Woodpeckers,  with  its  sides  curled  over  towards  the 
middle  to  form  a  double  tube  frayed  into  a  brush-like  tip  which  makes  a 
most  efficient  organ  for  sucking  liquids.  Numbers  of  small  insects,  however, 
are  taken  with  the  nectar  and,  from  feeding  experiments  on  captives,  they 
seem  to  be  necessary  to  the  bird's  welfare.  They  are  usually  minute  forms 
taken  from  the  flowers  from  which  the  nectar  is  obtained. 

Hummingbirds  as  a  group  are  tropical  and  subtropical  species  and 
increase  greatly  in  number  to  the  south,  though  one  species  in  the  east 
ranges  well  to  the  north. 

FAMILY TROCHILIDiE.       HUMMINGBIRDS. 

As  there  is  only  one  family  of  Hummingbirds,  represented  in  eastern 
Canada  by  a  single  species,  see  preceding  and  succeeding  headings  for  des- 
cription. 

428.  Ruby-throated  Hummingbird,  pr. — le  colibri  a  georges  rubis.    Archilo- 
chus  colubris.    L,  3-74.    Plate  XXII  A. 


147 

Distinctions.  Size;  slender  bill  (Figure  40,  p.  25);  and  metallic  coloration  are 
distinctive. 

Nesting.  In  a  beautiful  structure  covered  with  bits  of  lichens  and  cobwebs,  saddled 
on  the  top  of  a  branch. 

Distribution.     Eastern  North  America  north  to  the  Umits  of  present  cultivation. 

Hummingbirds  fly  forwards,  backwards,  sideways,  or  remain  per- 
fectly stationary  in  the  air  with  equal  ease — another  instance  of  parallel 
development — a  bird  flying  like  an  insect  yet  in  structure  strictly  bird-like. 
The  wings  vibrate  with  a  rapidity  that  can  only  be  measured  by  the  tuning 
fork  method  used  with  insects.  This  system  of  flight  is  fundamentally 
different  in  method  from  that  of  other  birds  and  consequently  the  wings 
differ  from  the  usual  type.  They  are  long,  narrow,  non-flexible,  and  the 
keel  of  the  sternum  is  immensely  deepened  to  give  support  to  the  great 
muscles  that  move  them.  In  proportion  to  its  wing  spread  a  Humming- 
bird has  a  breast  keel  nearly  three  times  larger  than  that  of  a  pigeon,  a  bird 
of  average  flight,  or  forty  times  larger  than  that  of  an  albatross. 

Economic  Status.  When  it  is  remembered  that  some  of  the  smallest 
insect  pests  are  the  most  destructive,  we  can  realize  that  possibly  the 
economic  importance  of  the  Hummingbird  may  be  greater  than  suspected. 
Besides  nectar,  its  food  seems  to  be  composed  of  small  flies,  gnats,  minute 
bees,  wasps,  and  other  flower-haunting  and  pollen-eating  forms.  Appa- 
rently no  harm  can  be  charged  against  the  species  and  it  may  do  good  out 
of  all  proportion  to  its  size. 

Order — Passeres.    Perching  Birds. 

The  order  Passeres,  Passerine  or  Perching  Birds,  is  the  largest  and 
most  important  division  of  modern  birds.  The  lower  and  more  generalized 
types  of  birds  have  in  the  past  been  in  the  ascendant;  but  to-day  the 
highly  specialized  Passeres  are  dominant;  they  constitute  nearly  if  not 
quite  half  of  our  present  living  forms  and  are  put  at  the  head  of  the  classi- 
fication by  systematists.  They  have  a  greater  number  than  any  other 
order,of  characters  that  are  common  to  themselves  but  special  in  relation 
to  other  orders,  for  instance,  the  highly  developed  larynx  or  singing  organ, 
with  complicated  muscular  control  and  many  other  special  characters. 
Generally,  a  bird  may  be  referred  to  this  order  by  a  process  of  ehmination, 
as  not  belonging  to  any  of  the  previous  orders.  The  feet  (Figure  42,  p.  25) 
are  not  webbed,  the  hind  toe  is  as  long  as  the  middle  one,  and  the  whole  foot 
is  well  adapted  for  perching.  The  bill  is  hard  and  horny,  withoutcere  or 
soft  base,  and  the  nostrils  do  not  communicate  with  each  other  as  in  some 
of  the  other  orders.  Two  suborders  are  represented  in  Canada :  Calmatores, 
the  Songless  Perchers;  and  Oscines,  the  Song  Birds. 

SUBORDER— CLAMATORES.    SONGLESS  PERCHERS. 

This  suborder  is  constituted  upon  a  basis  of  anatomical  structure. 
The  name  Songless  Percher  is  not  intended  to  indicate  that  the  birds  are 
silent,  but  that  they  are  less  tuneful  than  the  Oscines,  with  a  larynx  less 
highly  specialized.  Only  one  family  of  this  suborder  occurs  in  Canada,  the 
Tyrannidoe  or  Tyrant  Flycatchers. 


148 

FAMILY — TYRANNIDiE.       TYRANT    FLYCATCHERS. 

General  Description.  The  Tyrant  Flycatchers  are  most  easily  recognized  among 
Canadian  birds  by  their  bills  (Figure  43,  p.  25)  which  are  comparatively  long,  somewhat 
flattened  and  broadened  at  the  base,  wider  than  high,  and  slightly  hooked  at  the  extreme 
tip. 

Field  Marks.  Easily  recognized  in  life  by  their  characteristic  habits  and  attitudes 
which  soon  become  familiar  to  the  discerning  observer.  When  perching  they  usually  sit 
in  an  upright  attitude,  quite  stiU  except  for  an  occasional  spasmodic  jerking  of  the  tail. 
On  observing  a  passing  insect  they  dash  out  and  capture  it  in  the  air  with  a  nimble  evolu- 
tion and  quick  snap  of  the  bill. 

The  Flycatchers  are  one  of  the  most  difficult  families  to  identify 
specifically.  Some  of  them  are  strongly  characterized,  but  of  the  com- 
monest ones,  several  species  are  so  nearly  alike  as  to  puzzle  the  experienced 
ornithologist  when  they  are  silent  or  not  in  normal  habitats.  In  identifying 
them  in  life,  attention  should  be  paid  to  their  notes.  These  and  the  type 
of  habitat  in  which  they  are  observed  are  good  guides  to  differentiation  in 
the  case  of  the  more  puzzHng  species. 

Economic  Status.  Their  food  consists  almost  entirely  of  insects, 
caught  on  the  wing,  for  which  the  broad  bill  is  well  adapted.  As  they  take 
most  of  their  food  in  the  air  near  the  ground  they  catch  varieties  of  insects 
not  taken  by  other  birds.  The  species  found  in  their  stomachs  include 
beetles,  flies,  wasps,  crane  flies,  ants,  grasshoppers,  tent  caterpillars,  and 
moths.  Indeed,  nearly  all  the  harmful  species  of  insects  are  found  in  their 
crops  and  they  must  be  classed  as  highly  beneficial. 

443.  Scissor-tailed  Flycatcher.  Muscivora  forficala.  L,  13  (about).  (Tail,  9.) 
This  Flycatcher  is  an  occasional  wanderer  within  the  borders  of  Canada,  from  sub- 
tropical America.  It  is  unmistakable — a  hght,  ash-coloured  bird  about  the  size  of  a 
Kingbird,  with  darker  wings,  scarlet  or  orange  cap  and  the  same  colour  under  the  wings, 
and  with  a  great  tail  8  to  9  inches  long,  split  to  a  depth  of  6  inches  or  more,  which, 
when  the  bird  is  at  rest,  opens  and  closes  like  a  pair  of  scissors.  Strangely  enough  one 
of  our  best  authenticated  records  comes  from  York  Factory  on  Hudson  bay.  With 
this  record  before  us,  it  is  difficult  to  state  positively  what  species  may  or  may  not  be 
found  anywhere  in  Canada. 

444.  Kingbird,  bee  martin,  fr. — le  moucherolle  de  la  Caroline.  Tyrannus 
tyrannus.    L,  8-51.    Plate  XXII  B. 

Distinctions.  The  black  and  white  coloration,  orange  crown  patch  showing  in 
moments  of  excitement,  and  the  black  tail  conspicuously  tipped  with  white  as  if  dipped 
in  white  paint. 

Field  Marks.  Easily  recognized  in  life  by  the  above  marks.  The  orange  crown, 
however,  is  rarely  seen.  In  life,  the  head  and  tail  appear  to  be  dead  black  in  colour  in 
strong  contrast  to  the  pure  white  below. 

Nesting.  In  trees,  5  to  40  feet  above  the  ground;  the  nest  a  well  built  structure  of 
weed  stalks,  grasses,  and  waste  vegetation  lined  with  plant-down,  rootlets,  and  fine  grasses. 
The  fact  that  the  bird  not  uncommonly  nests  in  orchards  and  near  cultivated  fields  is 
much  in  its  favour. 

Distribution.  North  America  north  to  near  tree  limits.  Breeds  in  Canada  wherever 
found. 

The  Kingbird  is  a  familiar  species,  coming  close  around  houses  and 
orchards,  and  the  presence  of  a  pair  nesting  close  by  is  one  of  the  best 
preventives  of  the  depredations  of  hawks  or  crows.  None  come  anywhere 
near  the  Kingbird's  home,  without  being  vigorously  challenged.  The 
Kingbird  flies  at  the  intruders  with  an  energy  that  is  surprising  in  so 
small  and  weak  a  bird.  It  cannot  do  them  any  real  harm,  but  drives  them 
away  and  its  outcries  give  wide  notice  of  the  impending  danger.    Owing  to 


149 

its  small  size  and  agility  in  the  air,  it  can  attack  a  large  enemy  from  any 
quarter  and  is  practically  safe  from  counter  attacks  from  anything  heavier 
and  less  agile. 

Economic  Status.  The  name  Kingbird  is  of  obvious  application,  but 
the  other  term  applied  to  it,  "Bee  Martin,"  naturally  raises  suspicion  as 
to  its  feeding  habits.  It  is  accused  of  catching  honey  bees,  and  most 
circumstantial  accounts  of  its  doing  so  are  given  credence.  The  record 
given  below  shows  that  the  charge  of  taking  bees  is  to  some  extent  true, 
but  it  shows  also  that  the  bees  caught  are  mainly  drones  that  can  well  be 
spared.  The  old  story  of  the  Kingbird  opening  its  brilliant  crest  to  decoy 
the  bee  within  reach  under  the  impression  that  it  is  a  flower  may  be  dis- 
missed as  groundless  folk-lore,  though  it  has  received  wide  circulation  and 
acceptation.  Of  624  Kingbirds'  stomachs  examined  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  in  1911,22  contained  a  total  of  61  bees:  51  of 
which  were  drones;  8,  workers;  and  2  were  indeterminate.  The  remainder 
of  the  food  consists  of  other  insects,  including  many  noxious  forms  and  a 
little  wild  fruit  and  berries. 

452.  Crested  Flycatcher,  great  crested  flycatcher,  fr. — le  moucherolle 
A  HUPPE.  Myiarchus  crinitus.  L,  9-01.  Olive-brovm  above,  turning  to  rufous  on  the 
inner  webs  of  the  tail.    Throat  and  upper  breast,  ash-grey.    Underparts,  sulphur-yellow. 

Distinctions.  The  above  coloration  is  distinctive.  No  other  Flycatcher  in  eastern 
Canada  is  similarly  coloiu"ed. 

Field  Marks. "  The  bright  yellow  colour  below  and  the  long  rufous  tail  are  the  most 
striking  recognition  marks.  The  loud,  hoarse  cry,  a  long  dravsTi  "wheeeeep"  and  a  lower 
"  ivhip-whip-whip,"  are  very  characteristic  though  sometimes  mistakable  for  the  notes  of 
the  Olive-sided  Flycatcher. 

Nesting.  In  holes  abandoned  by  woodpeckers.  The  bird  shows  a  remarkable  pre- 
ference for  cast  snake  skins  as  nesting  material.  Scarcely  a  nest  of  the  species  but  con- 
tains one  or  more. 

Distribution.  Eastern  North  America.  In  Canada  all  along  the  southern  border, 
breeding  wherever  found. 

A  Flycatcher  of  the  woodland  tree  tops.  Its  voice  is  constantly  heard 
in  the  summer,  but  rarely  at  any  distance  from  dense  forest. 

Economic  Status.  Beetles,  locusts,  ants,  crickets,  flies,  and  moths 
constitute  the  bulk  of  its  food.  It  takes  more  parasitic  wasps  and  beetles 
than  most  birds  but  not  enough  to  counterbalance  the  pests  it  destroys. 

456.  Phoebe,  bridge  pewee.  fr. — le  moucherolle  brun.  Sayomis  phoebe. 
L,  6-99.     Plate  XXIII  A. 

Distribution.  The  small,  greenish  Flycatchers  are  perhaps  the  most  difficult  of 
American  birds  to  separate.  Fortunately  each  has  a  typical  habitat  and  characteristic 
note  which  form  good  guides  to  differentiation.  The  Phoebe  is  the  largest  of  these  puzzling 
little  birds  and  the  most  easily  recognized.  It  is  most  likely  to  be  confused  with  the  Wood 
Pewee,  but  examined  in  the  hand,  the  larger  and  stouter  legs  and  feet  of  this  species 
are  easily  recognizable. 

Field  Marks.  The  head  of  the  Phoebe  seems  a  little  darker  and  in  stronger  contrast 
to  the  body  than  in  the  other  Flycatchers.  The  sideways  sweep  of  the  tail  is  character- 
istic and  in  adults  the  lack  of  wing  bars.  The  note,  however,  a  quickly  uttered  Phoe-be 
with  a  strong  accent  on  the  first  syllable,  is  the  most  easily  recognized  field  mark.  The 
Wood  Pewee's  note  is  long-drawn  and  that  of  the  Least  is  short  and  explosive. 

Nesting.  A  large  structure  of  mud,  moss,  and  grasses  under  bridges,  the  overhang 
of  bmldings,  or  ledges  of  rock. 

Distribution.  Eastern  America,  north  to  near  tree  limit.  Breeds  in  Canada  wherever 
found. 

No  place  suits  the  Phoebe  so  well  for  nesting  as  the  flat  timber  or 
projecting  ledges  of  an   old  bridge  over  some  little  stream  where  the  air 


150 

over  the  water  abounds  in  insect  food.  In  many  parts  of  the  country 
scarcely  a  bridge  but  has  its  pair  of  Phoebes  in  the  summer.  However, 
the  mud  nests  are  not  restricted  to  bridges  but  are  plastered  on  the  slightest 
projection  under  the  eaves  of  an  outbuilding  or  even  under  the  family 
porch.  It  is  a  friendly,  familiar  bird  and  comes  close  to  man  wherever  it 
finds  a  welcome.  Unfortunately  its  great  nests  are  occasionally  the  dwelling 
place  of  innumerable  parasites,  in  other  words  bird-lice.  The  usual  course 
when  they  appear  is  to  knock  the  nest  down  with  a  stick  and  apply  boiling 
water.  The  application  of  common  insect  powder  to  the  nest  is  better. 
This  will  kill  the  parasites  and  help  to  retain  about  the  house  this  easily 
domesticated  and  attractive  bird. 

459.  Olive-sided  Flycatcher,  fr. — le  moucheroll-e  aux  cotes  olive.  Nut- 
tallornis  borealis.  L,  7-39.  Much  like  a  large  Phoebe,  but  with  less  ohve  and  vi^ith  exten- 
sive masses  of  dark  colour  on  either  side  of  the  chest. 

Distinctions.  In  the  hand  the  conspicuous  dark  patches  at  the  sides  of  the  chest, 
and  the  dark  under-tail  coverts  with  light  tips  will  separate  this  species  from  the  Phoebe 
which  it  resembles.  At  the  sides  of  the  back,  usually  concealed  under  the  closed  wings, 
though  occasionally  displayed  over  them,  are  patches  of  fine  silk-like  plumage  of  pure 
white  or  cream  colour.    These  will  distinguish  the  Olive-sided  from  any  other  species. 

Field  Marks.  In  life  the  01ivt-:=;ided  looks  more  hke  a  dark  breasted  Kingbird  than 
a  Phoebe  or  other  Flycatcher.  The  dark  chest  areas  separated  by  a  line  of  white,  however, 
distinguish  them  with  compai-ative  pass.  When  the  white  silky  feathers  show  over  the 
wings  at  the  sides  of  the  lower  back,  as  sometimes  occurs,  the  species  cannot  be  mis- 
identified.  The  call  notes  are  somewhat  similar  in  tone  and  execution  to  those  of  the 
Crested  Flycatcher,  but  a  little  attention  and  experience  wiU  enable  the  hearer  to  dis- 
tinguish between  the  two. 

Distribution.  North  America.  Breeds  in  Canada  from  the  tree  limits  to  the  bound- 
aries of  regular  cultivation. 

This  is  typically  a  bird  of  the  burnt  ridges  of  the  north.  Its  favourite 
perch  is  the  top  of  a  tall  lone  stub  in  the  open,  from  which  its  loud,  pene- 
trating voice  is  heard  far  and  wide.  In  migration  it  is  rather  scarce  and 
local  in  distribution  and  though  great  numbers  pass  through  the  populous 
southern  counties  it  is  usually  regarded  as  a  scarce  migrant. 

Economic  Status.  It  is  too  rare  in  settled  districts  to  have  great 
economic  value,  but  it  is  distinctly  beneficial. 

461.  Wood  Pevj^ee.  fr. — -le  moucherolle  verdatre.  Myiochanes  virens.  L,  6-53. 
Very  similar  in  coloration  to  the  Phoebe  but  smaller. 

Distinctions.  The  Wood  Pewee  can  be  separated  from  the  Phoebe  and  other  Fly- 
catchers of  comparable  size  by  its  short  tarsus  and  long  wings,  these  being  decidedly 
longer  than  the  tail. 

Field  Marks.  The  Pewee  never  flirts  its  tail  as  does  the  Phoebe.  The  sides  of  the 
breast  are  also  shghtly  darker,  giving  a  better  defined  and  narrower  light  median  fine. 
Its  best  identification  mark,  however,  is  its  call-note  which  is  much  like  that  of  the  Phoebe 
but  drawn  out  into  a  long  pee-e-weee  without  appreciable  accent  but  with  a  rising  inflection 
at  the  end.    The  female  varies  the  call  by  dropping  the  last  note,  making  it  pee-e-e-e. 

Nesting.  A  well  made  but  slight  structure  of  fine  fibres  and  rootlets  covered  with 
lichens  and  saddled  on  a  branch,  20  to  40  feet  from  the  ground. 

Distribution.  It  is  distributed  over  nearly  all  of  eastern  North  America  west  to 
the  prairies,  breeding  in  Canada  wherever  found. 

The  long-drawn  plaintive  pee-e-we  of  this  bird  is  a  characteristic  sound 
of  the  open  woodlands  in  the  spring,  and  after  other  birds  have  relapsed 
into  mid-summer  silence  one  still  occasionally  hears  the  mournful  note. 


151 

Economic  Status.  The  food  of  the  Wood  Pewee  is  quite  similar  to 
that  of  the  other  Flycatchers,  but  modified,  of  course,  by  its  woodland 
habitat.  As  it  is  not  retiring  and  frequents  open  groves  and  orchards 
freely,  it  is  of  direct  benefit  to  the  agriculturist. 

463.  Yellow-bellied  Flycatcher,  fr. — le  moucherolle  a  ventre  jaune.  Em- 
pidonax  flaviventris.  L,  5-63.  Similar  to  the  Wood  Pewee  and  the  Phoebe  in  colour, 
but  smaller  than  either  and  with  the  browns  and  olives  of  those  species  replaced  by  dis- 
tinct ohve-green  and  the  whites  by  dull  sulphur-yellow. 

Distinctions.  The  distinctly  yellow  colour  of  .'^  whole  bird  makes  this  the  most 
easily  recognized  of  the  small  Flycatchers. 

Field  Marks.  The  yellow  colour,  especially  on  the  throat,  is  the  best  sight  mark. 
The  notes  te-pee-a  are  distinctive — three  syllables,  ^"ith  accent  on  the  middle  one.  Its 
pe-wick  is  something  like  the  name  call  of  the  Phoebe,  but  the  first  syllable  is  not  accented. 

Nesting.     On  groimd;    nest  built  of  moss  and  lined  with  grasses. 

Distrihidion.  From  the  Great  Plains  east  and  north  to  the  edges  of  cultivation. 
Breeds  in  Canada  along  the  northern  boimdary  of  its  range,  not  in  the  lower  Great  Lakes 
region. 

Another  woodland  Flycatcher;  but  one  that  is  less  confined  to  large 
timber.     Thickets  bordering  heavier  woods  seem  to  be  its  favourite  locality. 

Economic  Status.  Food  habits  very  similar  to  those  of  the  other 
small  Flycatchers.  Its  normal  station  on  the  edges  of  woods  bordering 
cultivated  land  makes  it  of  value  to  the  agriculturist. 

465.  Acadian  Flycatcher,  little  green-crested  flycatcher.  Empidonax  vires- 
cens.  L,  5-63.  A  small  Flycatcher  of  about  the  same  size  as  the  Yellow-bellied,  Traill's, 
and  Least  Fly  catchers ;  smaller  than  the  Wood  Pewee;  and  much  smaller  than  the  Phoebe. 
In  colour,  like  the  Phoebe  but  distinctly  olive-green  above  and  more  yellowish  below. 
Wing-bars  rather  prominent. 

Distinctions.  This  species  agrees  so  closely  in  size  and  coloration  with  Traill's  and 
the  Least  Flycatchers  as  to  make  identification  most  difficult.  It  is  not  so  yellow  in 
colour  as  the  Yellow-beUied,  there  bemg  no  piu-e  yellow  on  it  anywhere,  but  it  is  the  yellow- 
est and  greenest  of  the  other  small  Flycatchers.  It  is  very  rare  in  Canada  and  new  records 
should  be  accepted  only  on  the  authority  of  experts. 

Distribution.  Eastern  North  America  north  to  the  borders  of  Canada  along  the 
western  end  of  lake  Erie. 

466.  Traill's  Flycatcher,  fr. — le  moucherolle  des  aulnes.  Empidonax  trailli. 
L,  6-09.  A  small  Flycatcher,  slightly  larger  than  the  Yellow-bellied  or  the  Least  and 
of  almost  identical  coloration  to  the  latter  and  the  Acadian. 

Distinctions.  The  back  is  browner  than  in  the  Acadian  and  without  its  decided 
suggestion  of  green.     From  the  Least,  size  is  sometimes  the  only  means  of  differentiation. 

Field  Marks.  Colour  or  size  details  are  of  little  use  in  the  field  determination  of 
this  or  the  next  species.  Habitat  and  call  notes  are,  however,  reliable.  TraiU's  Fly- 
catcher is  a  bird  of  the  alder,  willow,  or  raspberry  tliickets,  and  overgrown  marsh  edges; 
the  Least  Flycatcher  is  a  woodland  bird;  and  though  either  may  be  occasionally  foimd 
in  other  habitats  the  surroimdings  are  usually  a  good  guide  to  identification.  The  caU 
notes,  however,  make  recognition  easy.  Traill's  are  ee-zee-e-up  with  stress  on  the  second 
syllable  and  the  Least  utters  quicklj-  an  explosive  che-bec  that  is  sometimes  repeated 
several  times. 

Nesting.  In  a  crotch  of  small  growth  near  the  groimd;  in  nest  of  coarse  grasses,  plant- 
down,  and  fibres  lined  with  grasses. 

Distribution.  Traill's  Flycatcher  as  a  species  inhabits  nearly  aU  of  North  America. 
The  eastern  subspecies,  the  Alder  Flycatcher,  is  found  from  the  east  coast  of  Canada 
west  across  the  mountains. 

SUBSPECIES.  Two  subspecies  of  Traill's  Flycatcher  occur  in  Canada.  The 
eastern  form,  the  Alder  Flycatcher  E.  t.  alnorum,  is  the  only  one  that  occurs  within  the 
area  under  consideration.  The  Western  Alder  Flycatcher  E.  t.  trailli  is  a  more  southern 
and  western  form. 


152 

Economic  Status.  Similar  to  that  of  the  other  Flycatchers.  Its 
food  is  almost  entirely  insects,  the  species  destroyed  being  mostly  those 
frequenting  waste  land. 

467.  Least  Flycatcher,  chebec.  fr. — le  petit  moucherolle.  Empidonax 
minimus.  L,  5-41.  The  smallest  of  our  Flycatchers.  In  general  coloration  of  the 
Phoebe-like  flycatcher  type  and  almost  indistinguishable  from  the  Acadian  and  Traill's. 

Distinctions.  Browner  on  back  and  without  the  distinct  green  suggestion  of  the 
Acadian,  but  almost  identical  with  Traill's  in  colour,  from  which  it  can  sometimes  only 
be  separated  by  size.  Its  habitat  in  woodland  localities  instead  of  shrubby  wastes  offers 
a  suggestion  as  to  its  identity  and  its  call  note  is  different  from  that  of  any  other  species. 
This  call  is  a  quick  explosive  che-bec,  sometimes  repeated  several  times,  with  a  not  distant 
resemblance  to  a  series  of  hacking  coughs. 

Nesting.  Usually  in  a  crotch  15  to  30  feet  from  the  ground;  in  nest  of  plant-down, 
fine  wood  fibres,  rootlets,  and  long  hairs. 

Distribution.  Throughout  Canada  west  to  the  mountains  and  north  beyond  cul- 
tivation.    Breeds  in  Canada  wherever  found. 

This  is  a  bird  of  the  orchard  and  the  trees  about  the  house,  overgrown 
fence-lines,  and  other  familiar  localities  where  close  proximity  to  cultiva- 
tion makes  its  services  of  noteworthy  benefit. 

Economic  Status.  The  food  of  the  Least  Flycatcher  does  not  differ 
materially  from  that  of  the  other  members  of  the  family,  but  its  familiarity 
and  confidence  bring  it  close  to  man  where  its  useful  qualities  have  the 
maximum  influence. 

SUBORDER— OSCINES.     SONG  BIRDS. 

The  suborder  Oscines  is  a  large  division  of  birds,  placed  at  the  head  of 
the  list  as  exhibiting  the  highest  development  of  the  class  Aves.  It  includes 
a  great  number  of  families  and  species,  the  exact  relationships  of  many 
of  which  have  never  been  satisfactorily  defined.  According  to  present 
American  usage  the  suborder  begins  with  the  Larks  and  ends  with  the 
Thrushes  which  are  regarded  as  constituting  the  most  highly  developed 
family.  The  characters  differentiating  the  Oscines  from  the  Clamatores 
are  technical  and  anatomical  and  beyond  the  scope  of  a  popular  consider- 
ation of  the  subject.  As  might  be  gathered  by  the  name  the  high  develop- 
ment of  the  vocal  organs  and  muscles  attached  are  important  points  in 
the  classification.  The  members  are  more  easily  recognized  from  family 
descriptions  than  under  this  more  general  heading. 

FAMILY — ALAUDIDiE.       LARKS. 

The  Larks  comprise  a  large  family  of  wide  distribution.  The  sys- 
tematic distinctions  that  characterize  the  family  are  rather  technical, 
and  as  there  is  only  one  species  in  Canada  to  consider,  they  will  be 
described  under  the  species  on  the  next  pages. 

474.  Horned  Lark,  shore  lark.  fr. — l'alouette  ordinaire.  Otocoris  alpestris. 
L,  7-75.     Plate  XXIII  B. 

Distinctions.  The  long  hind  toe  nail  (Figm-e  44b,  p.  25),  is  one  of  the  distinctive 
marks  of  the  Larks.  However,  this  is  shared  with  the  Titlark  (Figure  60,  p.  27),  and 
the  Longspur  ;  the  latter,  however,  is  a  sparrow  having  the  typical  conical  sparrow  bill, 
very  different  from  that  of  the  Larks.  The  yellow  throat,  with  black  gorget  below,  and 
the  erect-hke  horns  or  crest  tufts,  are  distinctive  of  the  Horned  Lark  (Figure  44a,  p.  25). 

Field  Marks.  The  colour  marks  above  and  the  horns  make  easily  recognizable  field 
marks. 


153 

Nesting.     On  ground,  in  nest  of  grass  often  amidst  snow  drifts  in  early  spring. 
Distribution.     The  Horned  Lark  in  its  various  forms  ranges  over  all  of  North  America. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Horned  Lark  is  divided  into  many  geographical  races  or 
subspecies.  It  has  a  very  wide  range  in  North  America  and  living  under  many  and  varied 
conditions  has  developed  in  different  parts  of  the  country  along  different  lines.  Thus 
the  desert  form  is  small  and  pallid  or  bleached,  whereas  the  northeastern,  which  is  the 
type  form,  is  large  and  strongly  coloured.  The  commonest  form  in  eastern  Canada  is 
the  Prairie  Horned  Lark  0.  a.  praticola.  Originally  when  the  country  was  well  wooded 
this  was  probably  the  prairie  form,  and  did  not  occur  in  eastern  Canada.  The  making 
of  clearings,  artificial  prairies,  has  permitted  it  to  come  east,  where  it  is  to-day  the  breeding 
form.  In  the  north,  east  of  Hudson  bay,  occurs  the  typical  or  originally  described  form 
O.  a.  alpestris  at  present  without  a  recognized  common  name  and  here  called  the  Eastern 
Horned  Lark.  This  is  a  large  bird  with  a  strong  suffusion  of  yellow  over  the  face  and 
eyebrow  line.  As  the  average  difference  is  only  about  half  an  inch  in  total  length  and 
as  all  intermediate  sizes  occur  it  can  be  seen  that  the  differentiation  between  the  forms 
may  be  somewhat  difficult.  An  attempt  to  show  the  difference  in  coloration  is  made  in  the 
illustration.  The  Eastern  Horned  Lark  occurs  within  the  settled  districts  of  eastern 
Canada  only  as  a  winter  migrant  and  is  rare  except  in  the  Maritime  Provinces  where  it  is 
probably  the  common  winter  form.  Another  race,  Hoyt's  Horned  Lark  0.  a.  hoyti,  is 
a  northern  form,  breeding  west  and  northwest  of  Hudson  bay.  It  is  about  as  large  as 
the  Eastern  and  has  the  general  coloration  of  the  prairie  form.  The  brownish  instead 
of  greyish  ear  coverts  should  identify  it,  but  the  difference  is  not  great.  This  form  occurs 
occasionally  in  the  lower  Great  Lakes  region  as  a  winter  migrant. 

The  distribution  of  the  various  races  and  their  migrations  in  Canada  have  not  been 
completely  worked  out  and  the  difficulty  of  exact  determination  is  so  great  that  no  sub- 
specific  determination  should  be  made  without  expert  assistance  and  a  good  series  of 
authenticated  specimens  for  comparison. 

The  Horned  Lark  is  a  bird  of  the  open,  frequenting  bare  fields,  beaches, 
or  roadways.  In  the  winter  the  seeds  of  weeds  left  projecting  from  the 
snow  are  its  main  food  supply,  and  numbers  frequent  travelled  roads  for 
the  weeds  that  grow  at  their  sides  and  for  the  partly  digested  grain  dropped 
by  the  horses.  Occasionally  large  winter  flocks  appear.  It  is  in  such 
cases  that  the  rarer  migrant  forms  should  be  looked  for. 

FAMILY — CORVID^.       JAYS    AND    CROWS. 

The  Crow  family  is  very  large  and  diverse,  including  many  beautiful 
and  highly  coloured  birds;  indeed  the  famous  Bird  of  Paradise  is  closely 
related  to  this  family.  The  bill  (Figure  45,  p.  26)  is  the  most  easily 
distinguished  character.  It  is  moderately  long  and  stout  with  a  well 
arched  culmen.  At  the  base  are  tufts  of  dense,  stiff,  bristle-like  feathers 
pressed  close  to  it  and  covering  the  nostrils.  The  Woodpeckers  and  the 
Titmice  have  a  suggestion  of  this,  but  the  latter  are  all  small  and  the 
former  well  characterized  otherwise.  They  are  not  songsters  in  any 
sense  of  the  term;  their  voice  is  hoarse  and  raucous,  but  the  complexity 
of  their  vocal  organs  is  very  great  and  some  of  them  can  be  taught  to 
articulate  words.  They  are  amongst  our  most  intelligent  species  and 
by  some  authors  have  been  put  at  the  head  of  the  whole  avian  list. 

Subfamily — GarrulincB.     Magpies  and  Jays. 

Medium-sized  birds,  many  of  them  brilHantly  coloured  and  with 
ornamental  crests  and  flowing  tails.  They  can  be  most  easily  recognized 
under  their  specific  headings. 

475.  Magpie.     American  magpie,     fr. — pie  d'amerique,     Pica  Pica.     L,   15-20. 
(Tail  10 . )     Only  slightly  larger  in  body  than  a  Blue  Jay  but  much  longer  owing  to  the 


154 

great  tail  some  10  inches  long.  Strikingly  coloured  in  sharply  contrasted  masses  of  black 
and  white.  Head,  neck  to  upper  breast,  back,  tail,  and  much  of  wings,  black,  glossed 
with  green  on  wings  and  tail.  A  conspicuous  wliite  bar  on  shoulders  over  wings.  Inner 
webs  of  primaries,  lower  breast,  and  below,  all  white. 

Distinctions.  Easily  recognized  by  the  very  long  tail  and  the  strong  black  and  white 
contrasts  in  colouring. 

Distribution.  As  a  species  the  Magpie  occiu-s  in  the  north  temperate  regions  of 
both  the  New  and  Old  Worlds.  The  American  form  is  properly  a  bird  of  the  west, 
regularly  coming  to  the  central  prairie  provinces  and  occurring  occasionally  farther  east. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  American  Mapgie  is  a  subspecies,  under  the  trinomial  P.  p. 
hudsonia,  of  a  species  common  to  both  New  and  Old  Worlds,  and  differs  from  the  European 
form  in  slight  details  only.     This  is  a  matter  for  experts. 

The  Magpie  is  with  some  doubt  included  among  the  native  birds  of 
eastern  Canada.  The  species  is  common  in  the  far  west  and  we  have  a 
number  of  records  in  the  Maritime  Provinces  and  lower  Great  Lakes 
region  as  well  substantiated  as  is  possible  without  specimens.  In  1879 
a  number  of  Magpies  imported  from  England  were  liberated  at  Levis 
opposite  Quebec.  Some  of  the  records  may  refer  to  descendants  of  these 
introduced  birds  and  not  to  natives.  Specimens  for  the  determination 
of  these  eastern  birds  are  greatly  desired.  The  species  is  too  rare  to 
require  economic  discussion. 

477.  Blue  Jay.  fr. — le  geai  huppe.  Cyanociita  cristata.  L,  11-74.  Plate 
XXIV  A. 

Distinctions.   Well  characterized  by  crest  and  colour. 

Field  Marks.  The  predominance  of  blue  in  the  general  coloration,  the  white  tail 
borders,  and  the  crest.  The  flight  of  the  Blue  Jay  is  easily  recognizable.  Its  niunerous 
calls  are  distinctive,  ranging  from  the  loud  raucous  jay-jay,  through  its  barn  door  squeak, 
to  many  quiet  conversational  chuckles. 

Nesting.     Nest  of  twigs  and  rootlets  10  to  20  feet  from  the  ground. 

Distribution.  Eastern  America  from  the  borders  of  settlement  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico. 
Breeds  wherever  found  in  Canada. 

The  Blue  Jay  is  alert,  incjuisitive,  and  mischievous.  A  strange  noise 
in  the  woods  or  a  moving  figure  attracts  him  and  he  steals  quietly  up 
to  it;  on  discovering  an  enemy  he  flees  shrieking  away  in  exaggerated 
fright.  In  this  way  Jays  have  spoiled  many  careful  stalks  and  caused 
great  annoyance  to  hunters.  In  the  autumn  he  is  provident,  and  gathers 
acorns  which  he  carefully  stows  away  in  bark  crannies  and  like  places. 
Whether  he  ever  returns  to  his  stores  may  be  open  to  some  doubt. 

Economic  Status.  Economically  the  Blue  Jay  occupies  a  doubtful 
place;  in  food  habits  it  is  omnivorous,  eating  in  turn,  insects,  fruit,  acorns, 
grain,  eggs,  or  young  birds.  Undoubtedly  acorns  in  their  season  form 
its  staple  food.  It  is  a  bird  that  should  be  discouraged  about  the  orchard 
when  other  more  useful  birds  are  nesting. 

484.  Canada  Jay.  whiskey  jack,  moose  bird,  meat  bird,  camp  robber. 
FR. — LE  GEAI  DTj  CANADA.     Perisoreus  canadensis.     L,  13.     Plate  XXIV  B. 

Distinctions.  Size;  soft,  neutral-grey  coloration  with  black  cap  and  white  forehead 
are  distinctive.  The  juvenile,  rather  rarely  seen  in  early  plumage,  has  an  evenly  dark 
head  and  neck.     All  have  loose,  fluffy,  ragged  plumage. 

Field  Marks.     Size,  even  grey  coloration,  and  white  forehead  and  face. 

Nesting.  Nests  of  twigs  and  fibres,  closely  felted  with  fur  and  feathers  into  a  com- 
pact deeply-cupped  structure  which  serves  as  a  protection  to  the  eggs  which  are  some- 
times incubated  at  a  temperature  of  30  below  zero  Fahrenheit. 

Distribution.     The  northern  coniferous  woods  across  the  continent. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Canada  Jay  is  divided  into  a  number  of  very  slightly  differ- 
entiated subspecies.  In  eastern  Canada,  the  Eastern  Canada  Jay,  the  type  form,  is  the 
generally  distributed  one,  with  Labrador  Jay  P.  c.  riigricapillus  inhabiting  Newfoimdland 
and  the  Ungava  peninsula. 


155 

The  Canada  Jay  has  most  of  the  characteristics  of  the  Blue  Jay  in  an 
exaggerated  form.  Every  camper  in  the  northern  woods  knows  Whiskey 
Jack.  No  sooner  is  a  new  camp  fire  Hghted  than  it  appears,  looking 
expectantly  for  waste  scraps.  The  offal  from  dressed  game  is  eagerly 
sought  and  hardly  has  the  sound  of  the  rifle  shot  died  away  before  the 
Whiskey  Jack  is  on  hand  and  expectant.  Vocally  the  bird  has  all  sorts 
of  surprises  for  the  uninitiated.  In  fact,  in  its  proper  habitat  any  bird 
sound  that  cannot  be  referred  to  any  other  possible  species  may  be  ten- 
tatively attributed  to  the  Canada  Jay. 

Economic  Status.  A  bird  of  the  unbroken  forests,  and  only  rarely 
seen  in  populated  areas.  Its  status  is  probably  very  similar  to  that  of 
the  Blue  Jay,  but  its  retired  habitat  removes  it  from  any  conflict  with 
the  agriculturist. 

Subfamily — Corvinoe.     Crows. 

The  Crows  form  a  well  marked  subfamily  of  remarkably  similar 
appearance.  They  are  common  almost  everywhere  and  a  reference  to 
Plate  XXVA  is  sufficient  description.  The  European  Rook  belongs 
to  this  division. 

486.  Raven,  fr. — le  corbeau.  Cormis  corax.  L.  22.  Like  the  Crow  (Plate 
XXV  A)  but  larger. 

Distinctions.  The  Raven  is  in  general  appearance  a  very  large  Crow.  The  most 
obvious  distinction  is  the  long  pointed  shape  of  the  feathers  on  the  throat,  each  lying 
distinct  on  the  other  and  not  softly  blended  together  as  in  the  Crow. 

Field  Marks.  In  addition  to  size,  which  is  always  an  uncertain  criterion  in  wide  open 
spaces,  the  voice  is  the  most  certain  guide.  The  croak  of  the  Raven  is  hoarse  and  rattling, 
not  clear  and  distinct  like  the  caw  of  the  Crow.  However,  young  Crows  have  notes  almost 
indistinguishable  from  those  of  the  Raven  and  where  both  species  occm-,  vocal  characters 
are  not  always  reliable  guides.  When  one  sees  a  Raven  one  can  easily  imagine  marked 
characteristics  of  form  and  flight,  but  it  must  be  confessed  that  they  seldom  become 
obvious  to  the  ordinary'  observer  until  after  the  identity  has  been  determined. 

Nesting.     Usually  on  cliff  ledges,  sometimes  in  trees;  in  nest  of  sticks. 

Distribution.  The  species  is  found  in  both  the  Old  and  the  New  World  far  into  the 
polar  regions,  where  its  black  coat  against  the  general  whiteness  sounds  a  warning  against 
too  ready  tendency  to  stretch  the  protective  coloration  theory  to  cover  the  whole  of  animated 
creation.  It  once  occupied  all  of  Canada,  but  now  is  restricted  to  the  most  unsettled  parts 
in  the  north  and  southward  along  the  mountain  ranges  of  both  coasts  to  well  into  the 
United  States. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Raven  is  divided  into  several  geographical  races.  The  Euro- 
pean is  the  type  form.  In  Canada,  we  have  the  Northern  Raven  C.  c.  principalis. 
The  differences  between  them  are  slight. 

The  Raven  is  traditionally  a  bird  of  ill-omen.  Sombre  of  colour, 
dismal  in  voice,  solitary  and  wild  of  habit,  it  fills  in  the  north  the  place 
of  the  Vulture  in  the  south.  The  Raven  holds  aloof  from  the  haunts  of 
men.  As  civilization  has  advanced  into  the  primeval  vastnesses,  the 
Raven,  unlike  its  close  relative  the  Crow,  has  retired  and  is  to-day  what 
it  was  in  the  beginning,  a  bird  of  the  wilderness.  Knowing  only  the 
physical  requirements  and  food  habits  of  the  two  species,  one  would 
naturally  think  that  the  Raven  could  thrive  as  well  under  civilization 
as  the  Crow.  It  is  omnivorous  and  can  adjust  itself  to  almost  any  food 
supply.  It  is  hardy  and  can  five  in  chmates  and  under  conditions  where 
its  weaker  congener  can  not  exist,  yet  for  some  unexplained  cause,  the 
Crow  increases  and  the  Raven  disappears  when  settlement  advances. 
57172—11 


156 

Economic  Status.  The  Raven  eats  both  animal  and  vegetable  food, 
but  has  a  strong  partiality  for  the  former.  It  seeks  the  offal  from  the 
hunter's  dressed  game,  or  the  game  itself  if  it  is  available.  It  lurks  about 
the  outskirts  of  bird  rookeries  and  makes  dashes  for  eggs  and  young. 
By  the  sea  it  searches  the  shores  at  low  water  for  crabs  and  other  sea 
life  and  for  anything  edible  that  may  be  washed  up.  Avoiding  cultivation 
as  it  does  it  has  little  direct  influence  on  the  crops. 

488.  American  Crow.  fr. — la  corneille  d'amerique.  Corvus  brachyrhynchos 
L.  19-30.     Plate  XXV  A. 

Distinctions.  May  be  mistaken  for  Raven  but  distinguished  from  it  by  size  and  the 
absence  of  the  long,  pointed,  lanceolate  feathers  on  the  throat. 

Field  Marks.     General  appearance,  with  which  one  soon  becomes  very  familiar. 

Nesting.     In  trees;  in  nest  of  sticks. 

Distribution.     All  of  temperate  North  America. 

SUBSPECIES.  Two  subspecies  of  American  Crows  occur  in  Canada,  but  in  the 
east  we  have  only  the  type  form,  the  Eastern  Crow. 

Whereas  the  Raven  retreats  before  the  advance  of  civilization,  the 
Crow  increases.  It  is  omnivorous,  feeding  readily  on  anything  from 
carrion  to  freshly  sprouting  corn.  Without  doubt  the  Crow  has  increased 
enormously  in  the  country  since  the  removal  of  the  forests,  and  probably  its 
advent  in  eastern  Canacla  was  coincident  with  the  arrival  of  the  white 
man.  The  Crow  is  a  partial  migrant.  Most  of  the  birds  go  south  in 
winter,  but  slaughter-houses  and  garbage  dumps  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
cities  and  towns  have  induced  numbers  to  become  permanent  residents. 

Economic  Status.  The  economic  status  of  the  Crow  cannot  be  summed 
up  in  a  few  words.  It  undoubtedly  does  much  good  but  it  also  does  much 
harm.  Moreover  the  harm  is  concentrated  and  easily  measured  whilst 
the  good  is  scattered  and  not  easily  estimated.  The  detailed  results  of 
nearly  a  thousand  stomach  examinations  and  testimonies  from  all  over 
North  America  are  published  in  Bulletin  No.  6  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  by  W.  A.  Barrows  and  E.  A.  Schwarz.  The 
greatest  complaint  against  the  Crow  arises  from  its  fondness  for  sprouting 
grain,  especially  corn.  Corn  was  found  to  constitute  29  per  cent  of  its 
annual  food  and  strangely  enough,  from  May  to  August,  constituted  only 
from  8-4  to  17-7  per  cent  and  was  greatest  in  December,  48-2  per  cent, 
when  the  grain  must  have  represented  gleanings  from  the  bare  fields. 
Insects  form  a  large  part  of  the  Crow's  food  and  balancing  the  useful  with 
the  harmful  species,  the  result  is  obviously  in  the  bird's  favour.  Mice  and 
other  rodents  and  reptiles  are  also  eaten  very  extensively  and  are  preferred 
to  all  other  food.  In  the  autumn,  mast  (acorns,  beech-nuts,  etc.)  is  eagerly 
sought.  Judged  by  food  habits  alone,  therefore,  the  Crow  is  a  valuable 
bird.  However,  this  is  not  all  the  tale,  for  the  Crow  does  harm  that  cannot 
be  overlooked.  It  matters  little  to  a  farmer  that  the  Crows  destroy  all 
the  cut  worms  in  a  field  if  they  also  pull  all  the  grain.  On  the  whole,  there 
seems  to  be  no  very  good  reason  for  extending  any  greater  measure  of 
protection  to  the  Crow;  it  is  in  no  danger  of  extinction  and  probably  needs 
to  be  controlled. 

FAMILY ICTERID^.       AMERICAN    STARLINGS. 

This  family  includes  the  Blackbirds,  Orioles,  and  Meadowlarks,  which 
are  the  American  representatives  of  the  European  Starlings.  They  are 
closely  related  to  the  Sparrows  and  clear  differentiation  cannot  be  made 


157 

between  them  in  a  popular  description.  Most  of  them  have  rather  long, 
pointed,  tapering  bills  (Figures  46,  47,  48,  49,  p.  26)  and  some  have 
the  middle  of  the  culmen  running  up  in  a  short  keel  on  the  forehead.  The 
Bobolink  and  the  Cowbird  have  quite  sparrow-like  bills,  but  they  are 
shortened  Icterine  rather  than  Passerine  bills.  These  species  can  also 
be  easil}'  separated  by  their  marked  colour  patterns. 

494.  Bobolink,  skunk  blackbird,  ricebird.  fr. — le  goglu.  Dolichonyx 
oryzivorus.     L.  7-25.     Plate  XXV  B. 

Distinctions.  The  spring  male  in  its  striking  piebald  plumage  is  unmistakable.  The 
female  and  the  autumn  birds  of  either  sex  show  no  colour  relation  to  the  spring  male  and 
are  easily  confused  with  some  of  the  sparrows  (bill,  Figure  46,  p.  26).  The  newly 
plumaged  autumn  birds  are  yellowish-buff  in  colour,  unstriped  below  and  heavily  striped 
above.  The  spring  female,  more  worn  and  faded  and  shghtly  ohvaceous,  looks  much 
like  a  female  House  or  Enghsh  Sparrow,  but  the  decidedly  streaked  back  and  crown 
and  the  buffy  line  over  the  eye  are  distinctive. 

Field  Marks.  The  male  in  spring  needs  no  special  mention  of  field  marks  for  recog- 
nition; the  streaks  and  yellowness  of  other  plumages  and  the  buffy  eye  and  crown  stripes 
are  good  recognition  marks.  These  with  habitat  and  general  actions  should  prevent 
confusion. 

Nesting.     On  ground;  nest  built  of  grasses. 

Distribution.  North  America,  wintering  in  South  America;  in  eastern  Canada,  along 
the  southern  border  breeding  wherever  found. 

The  Bobolink  in  spring  and  summer  is  a  bird  frequenting  the  hay  and 
clover  fields.  It  can  be  seen  any  summer's  day  perched  on  the  surrounding 
fences  or  launching  into  the  air  on  quivering  wings,  pouring  forth  its  song 
of  ecstasy.  Later  in  the  season  the  rollicking  male  doffs  his  parti-coloured 
gayness  for  the  duller  ochre  and  brown  stripes  of  the  female.  His  song  is 
replaced  b}^  metallic  clinks,  and  with  hundreds  of  others  of  this  species 
joined  together  in  flocks  he  seeks  the  marshes  until  autumn.  On  leaving 
Canada  for  his  winter  home  in  South  America  he  stops  for  a  time  in  the  rice 
fields  of  the  Carolinas  and  here  he  is  hailed  not  as  Bobolink,  the  merry 
songster,  beloved  for  both  practical  and  sentimental  reasons,  but  as  the 
plaguy  "Rice  Bird"  that  settles  upon  the  crops  in  thousands  and  causes 
decided  damage.     In  the  south  he  is  shot  and  sold  for  food  in  great  numbers . 

Economic  Status.  The  Bobolink  in  Canada  is  an  irreproachable  bird  who 
charms  us  with  his  song  and  whose  bad  habits  have  yet  to  be  discovered. 
In  May  and  June,  90  per  cent  of  its  food  consists  of  injurious  insects,  and 
10  per  cent  of  weed  seeds  with  a  few  useful  insects.  In  July  and  August 
a  very  little  grain  is  added.  Yet  this  bird  is  regarded  as  a  pest  in  the 
southern  States. 

495.  Cowbird.  cow  blackbird,  fr. — l'etourneau  ordinaire.  Molothrus  ater. 
L,  7-92.     Plate  XXVI  A. 

Distinctions.  A  small  Blackbird  with  a  seal  black  head  and  neck.  The  female  is 
ashy-brown,  lighter  on  throat,  and  can  be  distinguished  from  any  of  the  sparrows,  which 
she  resembles  in  having  a  conical  bill,  by  the  even,  unmarked  coloration. 

Field  Marks.  Small  Blackbird  with  short  conical  bill,  a  harsh  rattling  note,  and 
grating  squeak. 

Nesting.  Eggs  laid  in  the  nest  of  other,  usually  smaller  species,  on  the  ground  or  in 
low  situations. 

Distribution.  Over  most  of  North  America.  In  Canada  north  to  the  limits  of  culti- 
vation.    Common  except  in  the  extreme  coastal  provinces  of  the  east. 

The  Cowbird  is  our  only  habitually  parasitic  bird.     It  never  builds  a 
nest  or  incubates  or  cares  for  its  young.     In  the  absence  of  nesting  birds  it 
takes  the  opportunity  of  depositing  one  of  its  ow-n  eggs  in  the  unguarded 
67172—114 


158 

nest.  Uusally  the  birds  so  imposed  upon  accept  the  foreign  egg  without 
protest,  at  other  times  there  is  strong  objection  and  final  resignation. 
In  a  few  cases,  the  nest  is  deserted  or  a  new  nest  is  built  over  the 
offending  egg,  as  is  sometimes  done  by  the  Yellow  Warbler.  On  incubation 
an  interesting  case  of  adaptation  is  shown.  The  Cowbird's  egg  usually 
hatches  a  few  hours  before  those  of  the  original  occupant  of  the  nest  and 
consequently  the  changeling  is  strong  and  well  grown  when  the  proper 
occupants  of  the  nest  break  their  shell.  It  can  monopolize  the  food,  thus 
increasing  the  difference  in  strength,  and  is  able  finally  to  hoist  its  compe- 
titors from  the  nest  to  perish  on  the  ground  while  it  receives  the  attention 
that  should  have  been  given  to  the  whole  brood.  Thus  practically  every 
Cowbird  means  the  destruction  of  at  least  one  brood  of  another  species  and 
probably  the  Cowbird  must  be  considered  one  of  the  greatest  enemies  of 
the  species  imposed  upon.  Once  the  foster  parents  accept  the  intruding 
egg  they  do  not  make  any  distinction  between  it  and  their  own.  The 
Cowbird  receives  its  name  from  its  habit  of  following  cattle,  evidently 
attracted  by  the  flies  and  insects  which  gather  about  those  animals. 

Economic  Status.  From  a  study  of  their  food,  Cowbirds  would  seem 
to  be  purely  useful  birds.  They  consume  large  amounts  of  weed  seeds  and 
harmful  insects  and  only  small  quantities  of  grain  or  fruit,  the  former 
largely  waste  and  the  latter  wild.  Their  effect  upon  other  equally  useful 
birds,  however,  puts  a  different  complexion  on  their  activities.  Practically 
every  Cowbird  raised  to  the  fledgling  stage  means  the  elimination  of  a  nest 
full  of  other  species.  Perhaps  the  economic  effects  of  the  changelings  equal 
those  of  the  individuals  they  displace,  but  the  substitution  cannot  be  looked 
upon  with  equanimity. 

497.    Yellow-headed    Blackbird,     pr. — l'etourneau   a   tIite    jatjne.      Xantho 
cephalus  tanthocephalus .   L,  10.     A  Blackbird  with  white  wing  patches  on  the  primaries, 
and  yellow  head,  neck,  and  breast.      Female  similar,   but  brownish  rather  than  black; 
brightness  of  yellow  reduced,  and  white  lacking  on  the  wings. 

Distinctions.     Above  characterization  mimistakable. 

Distribution.  Western  North  America  to  northern  parts  of  prairie  provinces. 
Only  of  accidental  occurrence  in  eastern  Canada. 

A  marsh  or  swamp  bird  rare  in  eastern  Canada. 

498.  Red-winged  Blackbird,  soldier  blackbird,  fr. — l'etourneau  a  ailes 
ROUGES.     Agelaius  phocniceus.     L,  9-51.     Plate  XXVI  B. 

Distinctions.  All  male  pkunages  have  at  least  suggestions  of  the  red  shoulders,  though 
sometimes  they  are  reduced  to  scattered  spots  of  orange.  The  female  is  always  dis- 
tinguishable from  any  other  Blackbird  by  her  sharply  streaked  coloration. 

Field  Marks.  The  male  is  plainly  characterized  by  its  red  shoulders,  and  the  bird  can 
be  recognized  in  all  plumages  by  its  characteristic  notes,  the  most  common  one,  only 
uttered  by  the  male,  being  well  rendered  into  "  0-ke~lee  "  or  "  0-ke-ree  "  with  a  rising 
inflection  at  the  end. 

Nesting.  In  well  made  structure  of  rushes  and  grass  tied  2  or  3  feet  above  the  water 
to  reeds,  cat-tails,  or  low  bushes  m  swampy  places. 

Distribution.  As  a  species,  the  Red-wing  is  distributed  over  all  of  North  America 
north  to  the  limit  of  trees. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Red-wings  are  divided  into  a  number  of  subspecies.  The 
common  one  in  eastern  Canada  is  the  type  form,  the  Eastern  Red-wmg.  In  the  western 
end  of  Ontario  we  probably  get  the  Northern  Red-wing  A.  p.  arciolegus  from  the  central 
northern  regions.  It  is  characterized  by  somewhat  larger  size,  but  correct  differentiation 
can  only  be  made  by  the  expert. 

No  marsh  in  eastern  Canada  is  typical  without  one  or  more  pairs  of 
Red-wings  chasing    each  other    or    clinging  to  the  cat-tails,  themal  es 


159 

spreading  their  wings  and  tail  and  screwing  themselves  into  constrained 
attitudes  as  they  squeeze  out  their  clear  '^ 0-ke-ree"  with  a  roll  on  the  last 
syllable,  in  sight  and  hearing  of  the  females.  In  the  spring  the  Blackbirds 
usually  arrive  in  large  flocks  of  mixed  species  which  keep  together  a  few 
days  and  then  separate.  The  Red-wings  repair  to  the  marshes  and  before 
the  reeds  begin  to  grow  they  settle  down  to  their  domestic  arrangements. 
When  the  family  cares  are  over  for  the  season  all  Blackbird  species  unite 
again  in  flocks  that  darken  the  sky,  roosting  together  in  the  marshes  when 
possible  and  scattering  through  the  day  in  groups  of  various  sizes  which 
frequent  the  harvest  fields. 

Economic  Status.  The  character  of  its  food  makes  the  Red-wing 
decidedly  beneficial.  Weed  seeds  and  injurious  insects  form  80  per  cent 
of  its  food  and  grain  about  15  per  cent.  In  July  and  August  more  grain 
is  eaten,  and  in  the  early  days  of  settlement  when  the  acreage  under  cul- 
tivation was  small  and  Blackbirds  many  they  were  a  serious  menace  to  the 
crops. 

501.  Meadowlark.  fr. — l'etourneau  des  pres.  Sturnella.  magna.  L,  10-75. 
Plate  XXVII  A. 

Distinctions.  Unmistakable  for  any  other  species  in  eastern  Canada.  (Bill,  Figure 
47,  p.  26). 

Field  Marks.  The  striking,  yellow  breast  with  sharp  black  necklace  is  unmistakable. 
Flying,  the  white  outer  tail  feathers  and  pecuhar  manner  of  flight  are  good  recognition 
marks.     The  famihar  clear,  long  whistle  of  the  Meadowlark  is  characteristic. 

Nesting.     On  ground,  nest  of  grasses,  usually  arched  over  hke  an  oven. 

Distribution.     Eastern  North  America  north  to  the  limits  of  cultivation. 

The  clear  call  of  the  Meadowlark  is  often  the  first  indication  of  the 
coming  of  spring.  Coming  with  or  sometimes  even  before  the  Robin  and 
the  Bluebird,  it  haunts  upland  pastures  and  from  the  top  of  an  isolated 
tree  or  fence-post,  pours  out  its  rich,  clear,  far-carrying  calls. 

Economic  Status.  The  Meadowlark  is  one  of  the  farmer's  most 
valuable  assistants.  Living  close  to  the  ground  it  attacks  most  of  the 
worst  crop  foes.  Its  food  is  made  up  of  75  per  cent  insects,  12  per  cent 
weed  seeds,  and  13  per  cent  grain  nearly  all  taken  in  the  late  autumn  and 
early  spring  months  and  obviously  owing  to  the  scarcity  of  insects.  This 
bird  should  receive  absolute  protection. 

506.  Orchard  Oriole.  Icterus  spurius.  L.  7-32.  A  small  Oriole,  hke  the  Balti- 
more (Plate  XXVII  B)  with  the  orange  of  that  bird  replaced  by  seal  brown  and 
with  a  black  tail.  The  female  is  an  even  duU  green.  The  young  male  is  hke  the  female, 
but  has  a  black  throat. 

Distinctions.  The  seal  brown  and  black  coloration  of  the  male  is  unmistakable.  The 
female  has  a  certain  resemblance  to  the  female  Tanager,  but  is  smaller  and  of  more  delicate 
shape  and  has  a  fine  pointed,  unnotched  bill.     (Compare  Figures  48  and  53,  p.  26.) 

Field  Marks.  Colour,  size,  and  voice  somewhat  hke  that  of  the  Baltimore  Oriole,  but 
richer  and  with  characteristics  of  its  own. 

Nesting.  Nest  woven  of  gi-een  grass  h  anging  from  a  crotch.  A  beautiful  structure, 
not  as  elaborate  nor  as  deeply  bagged  as  that  of  the  Baltimore. 

Distribidion.  A  more  southern  species  than  the  Baltimore  Oriole,  occurring  in  Canada 
regularly  along  the  lake  Erie  shore  and  occasionally  north  to  the  southern  end  of  lake 
Huron. 

The  Orchard  Oriole  is  commonly  met  with  only  along  the  southern 
borders  of  Ontario  and  in  habits  is  quite  similar  to  the  Baltimore 


160 

507.  Baltimore  Oriole,     hang-nest,  golden  robin,     fr. — l'oriole  de  Baltimore 
Icterus  galbula.     L,  7-53.     Plate  XXVII  B. 

Distinctions.     Coloration. 

Field  Marks.  The  striking  flashes  of  golden  orange  and  the  rich  contralto  voice  are 
absolute  identification  marks.       The  species  can  only  be  confused  with  extralimital  forms. 

Nesting.  The  nest  of  the  Baltimore  Oriole  is  one  of  the  avian  curiosities.  It  is  in  the 
form  of  a  bag  woven  of  fibres,  plant  down,  hairs,  and  string  and  hangs  from  the  end  of  long 
drooping  branches.  With  her  sharp,  awl-like  bill  the  female  Oriole  thrusts  a  fibre  into  the 
side  of  the  nest,  then  reaching  over  to  the  inside  pulls  it  through,  tugging  to  make  all  tight 
and  solid,  another  fibre  is  thrust  in  and  the  process  repeated  until  when  complete  the  nest 
is  so  knitted,  woven,  and  felted  together  that  though  tossed  at  the  end  of  long  flexible 
whip-like  branch  tips  through  summer  and  winter  storms,  it  remains  intact  for  several 
years. 

Distribution.     Eastern  North  America  north  to  the  bounds  of  dense  settlement. 

Open  country  with  scattered  groves  and  occasional  large  isolated  elms 
is  the  ideal  habitat  of  the  Baltimore  Oriole.  It  obtains  its  name  from  its 
brilliant  orange  and  black  livery,  the  colours  of  Lord  Baltimore,  under 
whose  patronage  the  state  of  Maryland  was  first  settled  and  in  Avhose 
honour  the  bird  was  named  by  the  early  settlers. 

Economic  Status.  The  food  of  the  Oriole  consists  mostly  of  insects, 
including,  in  order  of  numbers,  caterpillars,  click  beetles,  of  which  the 
pestilent  wire  worms  are  the  larvae,  May  beetles,  and  grasshoppers.  Very 
few  predaceous  beetles  are  taken.  The  amount  of  vegetable  matter  is 
small.  This  species,  therefore,  ranks  very  high  as  an  insect  destroyer. 
Complaints  are  sometimes  made  that  the  Oriole  spoils  fruit  and  it  has  been 
accused  of  puncturing  grapes  for  the  juice.  It  is  not  the  amount  which 
it  takes  that  is  objected  to  but  the  quantity  of  fruit  that  is  spoiled,  for  it 
goes  from  bunch  to  bunch  puncturing  many  and  consuming  little.  This, 
however,  seems  to  be  a  very  local  and  perhaps  an  individual  habit  and 
except  in  vine  country  is  of  comparatively  small  importance.  In  Canada, 
the  Baltimore  Oriole  leaves  shortly  after  mid-August  and  before  the  autumn 
fruit  season  is  well  advanced,  so  that  grapes  are  usually  too  green  to  be 
attractive  to  it.  Hence,  though  it  cannot  be  wholly  exonerated  from  the 
charges  which  have  been  made  against  it,  the  damage  done  by  the  Oriole 
in  Canada  has  certainly  been  greatly  exaggerated.  The  good  the  bird 
does  is  constant  and  important,  the  harm  is  occasional  and  slight. 

509.  Rusty  Blackbird,  rusty  grackle.  fr. — le  mainate  couletjr  de  rouille. 
Euphagus  carolinus.  L,  9-55.  About  the  size  of  a  Red-wing,  but  all  black  with  green 
reflections  and  with  straw-coloured  eyes.  In  the  autumn  the  feathers  are  broadly  edged 
with  rusty,  lighter  on  the  crown  and  head.  The  female  is  a  nearly  evenly  dark  grey  bird 
with  traces  of  rusty  marks  in  spring,  much  more  extensive  in  both  sexes  in  autumn  when 
they  form  a  well-defined,  reddish  cap  and  a  light  eyebrow  line. 

Distinctions.  Small  size  compared  with  the  Crow  Blackbird,  the  only  other  comparable 
species  with  light  coloured  eyes;  even  blackness  or  rusty  overwash  tending  towards  a  light 
line  over  the  eye,  and  straw-coloured  eye. 

Field  Marks.     Size,  coloration,  and  straw-coloured  eyes. 

Nesting.     In  coniferous  trees  or  on  ground,  in  nest  of  grasses  or  moss. 

Distribution.  Eastern  and  northern  North  America;  usually  breeding  just  north  of 
the  cultivated  areas  in  Canada. 

The  Rusty  Blackbird  visits  us  in  great  numbers  spring  and  autumn, 
joining  and  forming  a  considerable  part  of  the  large  flocks  of  mixed  Black- 
birds that  are  seen  about  the  fields  and  marshes.  The  name  Grackle  which 
is  commonly  applied  to  the  two  yellow  (nearly  white)  eyed  Blackbirds 
is  doubtless  derived  from  the  sound  of  their  harsh,  crackling  notes. 


161 

511.  Crow  Blackbird,  bronzed  grackle.  fr. — le  mainate  bronz6.  Quisculus 
quiscula.     L,  12.     Plate  XXVIII  A. 

Distinctions.     Large  size,  complete  iridescent  blackness,  and  straw-coloured  eyes. 

Field  Marks.  The  all  black  body,  straw-yellow  eyes,  and  size  are  good  field  marks. 
When  flying  the  long  tail  is  "boated",  that  is  spread  and  turned  up  at  the  sides  so  that  a 
cross  section  through  it  would  be  U-shaped.  This  is  a  most  characteristic  feature  and 
easily  seen  in  outline  against  the  sky. 

Nesting.  Usually  in  communities  in  coniferous  trees;  nest  a  large  bulky  mass  of  grass 
and  mud. 

Distribution.  All  of  temperate  North  America  east  of  the  Rockies.  The  Bronzed 
Grackle  occupies  the  Canadian  section  of  the  range  overlapping  that  of  the  Purple  south  of 
our  borders. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  species  is  divided  into  three  subspecies.  The  Canadian  bird  is 
the  Bronzed  Grackle  Q.  q.  aeneus.  The  type  form,  the  Purple  Grackle,  is  a  more  southern 
bird  that  so  far  has  not  been  taken  in  Canada,  though  it  should  be  watched  for  along  our 
southern  borders.  It  can  be  recognized  by  the  feathers  of  the  back  showing  semicircular 
purple  iridescence  instead  of  being  an  evenly  metallic  brass.  The  third  form  is  foimd  in 
Florida. 

The  Crow  Blackbird  is  a  gregarious  bird  and  likes  to  nest  in  company 
with  its  own  kind.  Evergreens  are  its  favourite  nesting  trees  and  it  often 
takes  possession  of  ornamental  rows  edging  gardens.  With  its  metallic 
colours  and  yellow  eyes  it  is  a  brilliant  and  striking  bird.  It  walks  with 
comical  pomposity  over  the  lawn,  or  uncouthly  gesticulates  while  it  emits 
unusually  discordant  noises. 

Economic  Status.  Through  the  months  the  bird  is  in  Canada,  insects 
constitute  29-7  per  cent  of  its  food  and  vegetable  matter  70-3  per  cent. 
The  insects  include  useful  predaceous  species,  but  not  in  large  numbers. 
The  vegetable  matter  contains  about  48  per  cent  of  grain  and  domestic 
fruit,  the  remainder  being  wild  fruit,  mast,  and  weed  seeds.  Much  of  the 
grain  is  waste,  and  the  total  cultivated  fruit  is  only  2-9  per  cent.  On  the 
whole  the  work  of  the  Bronzed  Grackle  is  beneficial  but  its  numbers  should 
not  be  allowed  to  greatly  increase.  As  it  is  an  inveterate  nest  robber  it  is 
a  poor  bird  to  have  about  the  house  if  other  more  attractive  species  are 
desired. 

FAMILY — FRINGILLIDiE.       SPARROWS,    LINNETS,    FINCHES,    OR    BUNTINGS. 

General  Description.  As  represented  in  Canada  this  is  generally  an  easily  recognized 
family.  It  is  composed  of  small  birds,  no  Canadian  species  being  over  85  inches  in  length — 
with  unnotched  conical  biU  adapted  for  cracking  seeds,  and  the  gape  of  the  mouth  usually 
decidedly  turned  down  (Figures  50,  51,  52,  p.  26).  This  latter  feature  is  not  equally  well 
developed  in  all  species  and  some  of  the  American  Starhngs,  as  previously  described  (p.  156), 
exhibit  it  strongly;  but  having  other  marked  characters  they  can  be  easily  distinguished 
from  the  Sparrows. 

Distinctions.  The  bill  is  the  best  point  of  recognition;  that  of  the  ordinary  domesti- 
cated Canary  is  of  the  characteristic  sparrow  type.  The  birds  most  likely  to  be  mis_taken 
for  members  of  this  family  are  the  Bobolink  (Figure  46,  p.  26)  and  Cowbird  (p.  157)  of 
the  previous  family  and  the  Tanagers,  of  the  next  one.  These  are  all  easily  separated  by 
their  striking  colours  (see  under  specific  headings.)  The  Tanagers  show  notches  in  the 
cutting  edges  and  tip  of  the  mandibles  which  make  them  easy  to  recognize  (Figure  53, 
p.  26).  In  one  group  of  Sparrows,  the  Crossbills,  the  tips  of  the  bill  cross  each  other 
(Figure  52,  p.  26);  in  another,  the  Grosbeaks,  the  bill  is  very  large  and  heavy  (Figure 
50,  p.  26). 

The  sparrows  form  the  largest  and  most  important  family  of  the 
Perchers,  and  are  probably  the  most  important  family  of  birds  in  the  world. 
They  are  found  everywhere  except  in  Australia  and  are  represented  in  all 


162 

habitats  from  wet  swamps,  grassy  uplands,  and  brushy  thickets  to  dry 
plains  and  sand  dunes.  The  terms  Sparrow,  Linnet,  Finch,  and  Bunting 
are  almost  synonymous  and  are  applied  to  various  species  irrespective  of 
their  relationship.  The  name  Sparrow  is,  therefore,  a  very  broad  one  and 
can  be  applied  to  many  species  of  very  different  rank  and  value.  It  is 
to  be  regretted  that  one  objectionable  introduced  form  should  have 
cast  discredit  upon  a  large  family  which  includes  many  beautiful  as  well  as 
useful  birds  and  some  of  great  sweetness  of  song.  The  most  typical  feature 
of  the  Sparrows  in  popular  estimation  is  a  plain  earthern  coloration,  but 
some  of  the  brightest  of  plumages  are  found  amongst  them  and  in  place  of 
the  commonly  expected  Sparrow  chirp  are  some  remarkable  vocal  achieve- 
ments. The  Sparrow  can  be  divided  roughly  into  ground  species,  tree 
species,  winter  wanderers,  and  Grosbeaks.  Superficially  observed,  the 
first  are  dull  in  appearance,  but,  on  close  examination,  often  show  beautiful 
colour  harmonies.  The  tree  species  are  often  very  brightly  coloured.  The 
winter  wanderers  usually  exhibit  a  large  amount  of  dull  reds.  The  Gros- 
beaks, recognized  by  their  great,  heavy  bills  (Figure  50,  p.  26)  are  highly 
coloured.  This  is  not  a  scientific  subdivision  but  as  the  recognition  of 
Sparrows  is  difficult  to  the  amateur  any  classification  that  will  help  is  of 
use. 

514.  Evening  Grosbeak,  fr. — le  gros-bec  a  couronne  noire.  Hesperiphona 
vespertina.  L,  8.  One  of  the  largest  Sparrows  with  the  very  large  powerful  bill  which  is 
typical  of  the  Grosbeaks  (Figure  50,  p.  26).  It  is  coloured  in  broad  masses  of  strong 
yellow  with  black  wings,  tail,  and  crown  and  a  white  band  over  the  wing.  The  female  is 
similar,  but  duller  in  colour  with  an  ashy  wash  over  all. 

Distinctions.  Size,  biU,  and  large  amoimt  of  yellow.  The  female  retains  enough 
yellowish  showing  through  the  ashy  to  be  easily  recognized.  The  yellow  or  yellow-green 
colour  of  the  bill  is  diagnostic  of  all  plumages.  For  a  comparison  of  the  female  with  the 
Pine  Grosbeak,  see  that  species. 

Field  Marks.  Size  and  yellow  coloration.  As  it  is  a  winter  visitant  only,  it  cannot 
be  confused  with  other  birds. 

Nesting.  In  trees;  nest  of  small  twigs  lined  with  bark,  hair,  and  rootlets.  The  nest 
has  been  seldom  seen. 

Distribution.  Central  and  western  North  America,  south  along  the  mountains. 
Migrating  east  irregularly  in  winter. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Evening  Grosbeak  is  divided  into  an  Eastern  and  Western 
subspecies;  only  the  former,  the  type  form,  occurring  in  eastern  Canada.  The  breeding 
grounds  of  the  eastern  bird  are  still  to  be  accurately  determined. 

This  is  only  an  irregular  winter  wanderer  in  eastern  Canada.  Some- 
times years  will  pass  without  the  bird  being  seen  and  then  suddenly  it 
appears  everywhere.  The  causes  of  these  irregular  appearances  have 
not  been  definitely  determined.  Whether  the  birds  are  driven  from 
their  usual  winter  ranges  by  lack  of  food  or  are  attracted  to  others  by  an 
unusual  abundance  cannot  be  stated.  Food  is  probably  the  determining 
factor. 

Economic  Status.  The  Evening  Grosbeak,  coming  only  in  winter, 
can  do  very  little  harm.  Its  favourite  food  is  the  seed  of  the  Manitoba 
Maple  left  hanging  on  the  trees,  or  the  fruit  of  the  Mountain  Ash  or 
Rowan  trees.  The  fact  that  the  Manitoba  Maple  has  in  recent  years 
been  planted  extensively  in  all  parts  of  Canada  may  affect  the  migration 
habits  of  this  bird.  Almost  any  dried  winter  fruit  is  taken  and  it  delights 
to  remove  the  seeds  from  old  rotten  apples  left  hanging  through  the  winter 


163 

The  charge  that  it  damages  trees  by  picking  off  the  buds  may  contain 
an  element  of  truth,  but  cannot  be  seriously  considered  as  a  source  of 
appreciable  damage. 

515.  Pine  Grosbeak,  fr. — le  gros-bec  des  pins.  Pinicola  enucleator.  L,  9-08. 
Plate  XXVIII  B. 

Distinctions.  From  descriptions,  the  females  of  the  Pine  and  Evening  Grosbeaks 
might  possibly  be  confused  as  they  are  both  grey  overwashed  with  yellow;  but  the  yellow 
in  the  Pine  Grosbeak  is  stronger,  especially  on  head  and  rump,  rather  rusty  instead  of 
clear  lemon,  and  is  superimposed  on  the  body  colour  instead  of  seeming  to  show  vaguely 
through.    The  dark  bill  of  the  species  is  also  diagnostic. 

Field  Marks.  Size,  dark  grosbeak  bill,  and  general  red  of  adult  males.  The  majority 
of  the  birds  which  visit  Canada  are  in  the  dull  female  plumage,  hence  the  general  effect 
is  that  of  a  flock  of  large,  dull  slate-coloured  birds  warming  to  yellow  on  head  and  rump 
in  favourite  lights,  accompanied  by  an  occasional  red  individual.  The  ordinary  notes 
are  ridiculously  small  and  fine  for  so  large  a  bird,  though  it  also  has  a  clear,  loud  whistle. 

Nesting.     In  coniferous  trees;  in  nest  of  twigs  and  rootlets. 

Distribution.  As  a  species,  confined  to  the  northern  parts  of  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere. The  Canadian  Pine  Grosbeak  breeds  in  the  coniferous  forest  of  the  north,  west 
to  the  Mackenzie  river,  migrating  to  settled  sections  only  in  winter. 

SUBSPECIES.  There  are  several  subspecies  in  Canada,  the  eastern  form,  the 
Canadian  Pine  Grosbeak  P.  e.  leucura,  being  the  only  one  which  comes  within  the  scope 
of  this  work. 

These  are  irregular  winter  visitors  from  the  north.  Their  presence 
with  us  can  rarely  be  anticipated,  though  they  may  occur  any  winter 
almost  anywhere  in  eastern  Canada.  They  are  frequenters  of  coniferous 
trees,  but  are  fond  of  Mountain  Ash  or  Rowan  berries  and  the  fruit  of 
the  sumach. 

Economic  Status.  As  the  Pine  Grosbeak  spends  the  summer  in  the 
northern  woods  and  only  visits  settled  sections  in  winter,  the  damage 
it  can  do  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  It  eats  wild  and  waste  fruit  left 
hanging  on  the  trees  so  that  its  economic  effect  is  too  slight  to  be  appre- 
ciable. It  has  been  accused  of  destroying  fruit  buds,  but  the  damage  it 
thus  does,  if  any,  is  very  slight.  There  is  every  humanitarian  reason  for 
protecting  the  species  and  no  serious  charge  can  be  brought  against  it. 

517.  Purple  Finch,  hefling.  fr. — le  pinson  poupre.  Carpodacus  purpureus 
L,  6-22.     Plate  XXIX  A. 

Distinctions.  Size  and  general  coloration  of  male  are  distinctive.  Female  is  streaked 
in  olive-browns,  but  the  general  evenness  of  the  olive  cast  to  the  coloration,  and  abundance 
of  streaks  below  are  quite  characteristic.  The  bill  is  rather  larger  for  the  size  of  the  bird 
than  in  other  species  except  the  Grosbeaks. 

Field  Marks.  Size,  general  coloration,  sometimes  resembhng  a  small  Pine  Grosbeak, 
and  striking  song  are  the  best  field  marks. 

Nesting.     In  coniferous  trees;  in  nest  of  twigs,  grass,  and  rootlets. 

Distribution.  As  a  species  it  occupies  all  America  between  Mexico  and  Canada. 
In  eastern  Canada  it  extends  north  to  the  extreme  hmit  of  regular  settlement.  Along 
the  southern  borders  it  is  a  regular  winter  visitor  breeding  less  commonly  than  farther 
north. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Purple  Finch  is  represented  by  two  subspecies;  the  eastern 
Canadian  form.  Eastern  Purple  Finch,  is  the  type  of  the  species. 

The  Purple  Finch,  though  so-called,  is  not  purple;  "magenta"  would 
better  describe  its  coloration.  It  is  one  of  our  finest  songsters  and  is 
occasionally  caged  for  that  purpose.  Like  its  allies,  the  Pine  Grosbeak 
and  the  Crossbills,  when  kept  in  captivity  it  loses  the  bright  redness  of 
its  plumage  and  assumes  a  ruddy  yellow,  so  peculiar  and  characteristic 
that  escaped  caged  birds  can  be  recognized  on  sight.     The  song  is  a  con- 


164 

tinued  and  clear  warble  like  that  of  a  glorified  Warbling  Vireo,  but  more 
rapidly  delivered.  The  young  male  in  the  autumn  sings  almost  as  well 
as  the  adult. 

Economic  Status.  The  Purple  Finch  eats  largely  of  buds  and  fruit. 
The  fruit  eaten  in  eastern  Canada  is  trifling,  as  the  species  is  not  numerous 
in  summer-time  in  fruit-growing  sections.  The  bird  retires  from  the 
southern  borders  to  less  cultivated  sections  in  the  breeding  season.  The 
fruits  it  takes  are  mostly  waste  winter  left-overs  and  wild  forms  as  it  is 
specially  fond  of  Mountain  Ash  or  Rowan  berries.  The  charge  that  it 
eats  buds  is  more  serious,  but  so  far  has  been  based  upon  general  asser- 
tions not  substantiated  in  the  east  by  results  of  stomach  examinations. 
It  is  possible  that  at  times  the  Purple  Finch  can  do  considerable  local 
harm  picking  off  the  fruit  buds  of  the  coming  year.  That  it  does  so  to 
an  extent  to  cause  uneasiness  to  the  fruit  grower  has  yet  to  be  proved. 

House  Sparrow.  English  spahrow.  fr. — le  moineau  domestique.  Passer 
domesticus.    L,  6-50.    Plate  XXIX  B. 

Distinctions.  Black  bib  of  the  male  is  distinctive.  Females  have  a  slight  oUve  sugges- 
tion and  might  be  confused  with  the  female  Purple  Finch  were  it  not  that  they  are  unstreaked 
below.  The  female  or  autumn  plumages  of  the  BoboUnk  are  somewhat  suggestive  of  this 
plumage,  but  the  pronounced  streakiness  above  and  the  general  yellowness  are  quite 
distinctive  of  the  Bobolink.  With  a  little  observation  of  the  species  in  our  streets  or 
barnyards,  no  one  need  ever  confuse  this  species  with  anything  else. 

Field  Marks.  The  characteristic  notes  and  chirrups  of  the  House  Sparrow  make  the 
best  recognition  mark  in  the  field. 

Distribution.  Originally  distributed  over  all  of  Europe  and  most  of  Asia.  Now  found 
through  North  America  to  the  limits  of  settlement. 

This  bird  is  not  native  to  America,  but  is  one  of  our  most  undesirable 
importations  from  Europe.  In  spite  of  its  obvious  seed-eating  habits 
and  structure,  it  was  originally  introduced  as  a  caterpillar  destroyer. 
It  does,  of  course,  like  nearly  all  birds,  sometimes  eat  caterpillars,  but 
does  not  approximate  in  this  direction  the  capacity  of  the  birds  it  has 
displaced.  Being  a  bird  of  cities  and  barnyards  most  of  its  activities 
are  in  localities  where  there  is  plenty  of  food  of  non-insectivorous 
character,  garbage,  waste  grain,  etc.  In  the  autumn,  it  makes  excur- 
sions into  the  country  and  visits  fields  in  large  flocks,  mostly  after  harvest 
when  waste  grain  is  abundant,  but  occasionally  before,  and  then  causes 
considerable  loss.  Its  food  habits  thus  are  harmful  or  not  according  to 
circumstances  and  perhaps  the  balance  on  the  whole  lies  well  in  its 
favour.  The  principal  other  objections  to  the  House  Sparrow  are  three 
in  number.  It  drives  more  useful  species  away,  it  is  very  dirty  about 
buildings,  and  it  is  suspected  of  spreading  poultry  diseases. 

The  House  Sparrows  drive  other  birds  away  by  three  methods :  monopo- 
lizing the  food  supply;  occupying  their  nesting  places;  and  by  pugna- 
cious and  bulldozing  habits.  During  the  nesting  season  while  the  young 
are  being  fed  they  come  into  direct  competition  with  other  species  depending 
for  the  support  of  their  young  on  the  same  insect  forms  (the  young  of 
all  Passerine  birds  require  insects,  though  those  of  this  species  are  not 
long  dependent  upon  them).  Thus  far  perhaps  they  may  be  nearly  as 
useful  as  the  forms  they  displace,  but  most  of  the  displaced  birds  are 
continuous  insect  hunters  and  the  House  Sparrow  only  a  seasonal  one. 
After  nesting  duties  are  over  they  again  turn  their  attention  to  waste  mate- 
rial  and   become  of  smaller  importance,   whereas  the  superseded   birds 


165 

continue  to  be  useful  through  the  season.  The  House  Sparrows  are  with 
us  through  the  winter,  showing  no  tendency  to  migrate,  hence  they  are 
on  the  ground  in  the  early  spring,  and  when  our  native  summer  residents, 
which  are  with  only  one  or  two  exceptions  more  or  less  migratory  either 
as  species  or  individuals,  arrive,  they  find  the  most  attractive  nesting  sites 
already  occupied.  The  difficulty  of  keeping  Sparrows  out  of  nesting  boxes 
is  proof  enough  of  this  situation.  They  are  quarrelsome,  also,  and  though, 
when  once  established,  most  native  species  are  quite  able  to  hold  their 
own  against  aggression,  they  do  not  like  the  constant  turmoil  in  which 
they  must  engage  when  in  the  vicinity  of  the  House  Sparrow.  It  is  far 
easier  to  avoid  than  combat  them.  Hence  few  other  birds  care  to  live  in 
their  immediate  neighbourhood. 

The  nests  are  great,  bulky,  untidy  masses  of  straw  and  grasses  and 
the  tendency  of  these  birds  to  fill  down-spouts  and  load  every  projecting 
architectural  feature  of  buildings  with  litter  makes  them  objectionable. 
Added  to  the  nesting  habits  of  the  House  Sparrows,  their  congregation 
in  numbers  throughout  the  whole  year  in  sheltered  corners  under  cornices 
and  porches  causes  accumulations  of  filth  that  is  exasperating  to  the 
householder.  To-day  one  of  the  important  problems  in  architectural 
offices  is  to  design  satisfactory  detail  that  will  not  harbour  sparrows, 
whose  dirt  disfigures  the  most  careful  design  and  disintegrates  the  mate- 
rial of  which  the  building  is  composed.  The  last  charge,  that  of  carrying 
disease,  is  not  the  least  of  the  charges  against  the  species.  Feeding 
familiarly  with  the  hens  and  freely  flying  about  from  one  poultry  j^ard 
to  another  they  have  every  opportunity  to  be  effective  disease  carriers. 
That  they  carry  disease  has  not  been  definitely  proved,  but  its  possi- 
bility and  likelihood  are  obvious.  The  fact  that  turkeys  are  to-day  so 
subject  to  the  ravages  of  the  blackhead  which  has  spread  rapidly  over  the 
country,  whereas  on  some  of  the  coastal  islands  of  Massachusetts  from  which 
the  House  Sparrow  is  absent  they  can  be  raised  with  old  time  ease,  is 
more  than  suggestive. 

Without  doubt  the  introduction  of  the  House  Sparrow  into  America 
was  a  mistake.  It  was  known  in  its  original  home  as  a  rather  undesirable 
species  and  unfitted  for  the  work  it  was  brought  over  to  perform.  In  this 
country,  removed  from  the  natural  checks  that  kept  it  under  control,  it 
has  multiplied  beyond  all  reason  and  though  its  objectionable  features 
have  increased,  its  commendable  ones  have  not.  However,  the  House 
Sparrow  is  here  to  stay.  It  has  been  legislated  against,  and  large  sums 
have  been  spent  in  the  endeavour  to  control  it,  but  without  avail.  Local 
endeavour  has  reduced  the  numbers  from  time  to  time,  but  only  to  have 
new  hordes  pour  in  from  the  surrounding  country  when  the  effort  has 
spent  itself.  Constant  effort  will  keep  the  numbers  reduced  but  only 
continent-wide  persistent  effort  will  destroy  them  altogether.  Traps, 
poison,  and  systematic  destruction  of  the  nests  are  the  most  satisfactory 
means  of  control.  Poison  is  effective,  but  care  must  be  taken  that  it  is 
used  only  in  the  seasons  and  places  where  no  other  species  have  access  to  it. 
Wire  fabric  traps  that  are  always  set  and  will  catch  numbers  at  a  time 
are  the  most  satisfactory.  A  good  type  of  such  trap  has  been  described 
by  the  United  States  Biological  Survey  in  Farmers  Bulletin  493. 

521.  Crossbill,     fr. — le  bec-crois^  d'amerique.     Loxia  curvirostra.     L,  6  19.     A 
medium-sized  Sparrow  with  the  bill  tips  prolonged  and  crossing  each  other  when  closed 


166 

(Figure  52,  p.  26).  The  male  is  dull  red,  brighter  on  rump;  females  and  juveniles  similar 
with  the  red  replaced  by  greenish  or  yellow.    No  wing  bars. 

Distinctions.  The  crossed  bill  is  distinctive  of  the  Crossbills;  the  lack  of  white  wing 
bar  designates  this  species. 

Field  Marks.  Small  winter  bird  often  in  large  flocks.  Notes  somewhat  similar  to 
those  of  Goldfinches,  but  individuals  show  red  coloration.  Climbing,  almost  parrot-like, 
habits. 

Nesting.  Usually  in  coniferous  trees;  in  nest  of  twigs  and  grasses  lined  with  moss 
and  rootlets. 

Distribution.  The  coniferous  forests  of  both  hemispheres.  The  American  Crossbill 
breeds  north  of  dense  settlement  and  southward  along  the  movmtain  ranges  east  and 
west.      Irregularly  common  in  winter  in  southern  Canada. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  American  CrossbiU  is  a  subspecies  of  the  Crossbill,  an  Old  a"^ 
well  as  New  World  species,  and  bears  the  trinomial  name  L.  c.  minor. 

The  Crossbills  are  also  birds  that  irregularly  come  out  of  the  north  to 
southern  Canada  in  the  winter,  reoccur  commonly  for  successive  seasons, 
and  then  vanish  perhaps  for  years. 

Economic  Status.  This  species  feeds  almost  entirely  upon  coniferous 
seeds — pine,  hemlock,  and  cedar;  berries  of  the  climbing  bittersweet  and 
seeds  of  rotten  apples  on  the  trees  are  also  taken.  The  speed  and  skill  with 
which  the  seed  is  removed  from  pine  cones  makes  one  think  that  the  crossed 
bill  is  necessary  for  this  work  until  one  finds  normally  billed  species  doing 
the  same  thing  with  equal  ease. 

522.  White-winged  Crossbill,  fe. — le  bec-croise  a  ailes  blanches.  Loxia 
leucoptera.    L,  6  05.    Similar  to  preceding  species,  but  with  white  bars  on  wings. 

Distinctions.  Perhaps  a  little  brighter  in  coloration  than  the  American,  but  showing 
considerable  variation  in  tint  and  shade.  The  white  wing  bars  and  crossed  bill  are  always 
diagnostic. 

So  similar  to  the  preceding  in  habits  and  occurrence  that  no  special 
discussion    is    necessary. 

Genus — Acanthis.    Redpolls.     L,  5-5-50. 

General  Description.  Small  sparrows  with  short,  sharp  biUs;  crown  with  a  dull  crimson 
cap;  a  suffused  black  chin  spot;  back  and  flanks  streaked  with  browns,  ashy,  and  white. 
Adult  males  have  rosy  breasts  and  the  rump  more  or  less  tinged  with  pink;  suggestions 
of  this  tint  show  in  other  plumages. 

Distinctions.     The  small  crimson  cap  is  always  distinctive. 

Nesting.  In  low  shrubs;  nest  of  grasses  lined  with  hair,  often  white  rabbit  or  fox 
fur,  feathers,  or  plant-dowm. 

Distribution.  Circumpolar  and  Arctic  in  breeding  range,  migrating  south  irregularly 
in  winter. 

There  are  two  species  of  Redpolls  in  eastern  Canada,  divided  into  five 
subspecies,  all  so  nearly  alike  that  it  requires  special  experience  to  differ- 
entiate them  accurately.  The  dividing  line  between  species  is  very  fine,  the 
subspecies  intergrade  and,  as  considerable  individual  and  age  variation 
exists,  it  is  only  by  attention  to  small  details  that  they  can  be  separated. 

The  distinctive  characters  are  given  more  as  suggestions  than  as  final 
differentiations. 

Economic  Status.     See  Redpoll  Linnet. 

527.  Hornemann's  Redpoll.  Acanthis  hornemanni.  L,  5.  Light-coloured  Redpolls 
with  white  or  rosy  unspotted  rump.  Adults  with  feather  edgings  light  so  that  a  typical 
bird  looks  hke  a  Common  Redpoll  seen  through  a  white  veil. 


167 

Distinctions.  The  unspotted  rump  is  the  most  constant  and  easily  recognized  specific 
haracter. 

Distribution.  Arctic  and  subarctic  parts  of  the  northern  hemisphere.  The  Greenland 
Redpoll  breeds  in  Arctic  Europe,  Greenland,  and  perhaps  adjoining  America.  The  Hoary 
breeds  in  Arctic  America  east  to  Ungava  and  in  adjacent  Asia. 

SUBSPECIES.  Hornemann's  Redpoll  is  divided  in  America  into  two  subspecies; 
a  large  form,  the  Greenland  Redpoll,  the  type  form;  and  the  Hoary  RedpoU  A.  h.  exilipes. 
They  are  most  easily  separated  by  size,  the  former  having  a  wing  measurement  of  3-37 
and  the  latter  of  3. 

In  general  habits  so  nearly  like  the  next  species,  which  is  much  more 
common,  that  separate  discussion  is  unnecessary.  This  species  is  generally 
so  rare  in  settled  districts  that  its  identification  must  be  made  with  great 
caution.  During  occasional  winters  this  species  occurs  in  greater  or  less 
numbers  with  large  flocks  of  the  Common  Redpolls,  but  there  is  no  regular- 
ity in  their  visits. 

528.  Redpoll  Linnet,  fr. — sizerin  a  t^te  rouge.  Acanthis  linaria.  L,  5-5-5. 
A  rather  dark  Redpoll  with  rump  more  or  less  heavily  streaked  and  not  noticeably  frosted 
with  white. 

Distinctions.     The  streaked  rump  is  the  most  easily  recognizable  character. 

Distribution.  Northern  part  of  northern  hemisphere.  The  Common  Redpoll  breeds 
across  the  northern  parts  of  the  American  continent,  south  in  the  east  to  the  gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence.  Holboll's  breeds  in  America  on  the  west  Arctic  islands  and  the  Greater  in 
Greenland. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  species  is  divided  into  three  subspecies :  the  Common  Redpoll 
A.  I.  linaria,  which  is  commonest  in  fact  as  well  as  name;  Holboll's  Redpoll  A.  I.  holbcdli, 
a  slightly  larger  form;  and  the  Greater  Redpoll  A.  I.  rostrata,  the  largest  of  the  species. 
There  are  small  differences  visible  to  the  eye  of  the  e.xpert  in  the  bills  and  details  of 
coloration,  but  size  is,  on  the  whole,  the  best  criterion,  though  it  should  not  be  entirely 
relied  upon  as  intergrades  occur.  The  wing  of  the  Common  Redpoll  should  be  2  •  9  inches, 
Holboll's  3  •  0  with  slightly  longer  bill,  and  the  Greater  3  •  5  with  biU  shorter  and  stouter, 
However,  in  identifying  RedpoUs  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  Common  is  the  only 
one  likely  to  be  met  with  and  no  other  determination  should  be  made  unless  confirmed 
by  e.xpert  opinion. 

With  more  or  less  regularity  our  winter  fields  and  waste  lands  are  taken 
possession  of  by  immense  flocks  of  tiny  sparrows,  feeding  on  the  weed  tops 
which  project  from  the  snow  or  perching  in  the  low  trees  and  bushes  nearby. 
From  the  throng  comes  a  subdued  but  constant  twitter  from  many  little 
throats,  no  one  of  the  birds  producing  a  song  in  the  usual  sense  of  the  word, 
but  collectively  making  an  undercurrent  of  low  music  that  is  distinctly 
agreeable.  The  round,  fluffy,  heavily  plumaged  bodies,  the  little,  rich 
crimson  cap,  and  the  occasional  flash  of  rosy  breast  and  pink  rump  declare 
them  Redpolls.  They  are  tame  and  unsuspecting  little  fellows  and  if  the 
observer  conducts  himself  discreetly  they  may  at  times  alight  all  about  him 
or  even  upon  his  person  with  as  much  indifference  as  if  he  were  a  stump  or 
some  other  inanimate  feature  of  the  landscape.  They  remain  until  just  as 
the  spring  breakup  is  due  when  they  vanish  until  another  winter.  Their 
winter  wanderings  are  irregular  and  erratic. 

Economic  Status.  Coming  in  flocks  of  large  numbers  and  searching 
weed  tops  diligently  the  Redpolls  should  be  hailed  by  the  farmer  with 
pleasure,  not  only  for  their  pretty  ways  but  also  for  the  evident  good  they 
do  in  destroying  weed  seed.     One  cannot  go  over  the  ground  where  they 


168 

have  fed  and  examine  it  closely  without  being  impressed  with  the  amount 
of  good  work  they  have  done.  Their  tracks  are  seen  everywhere  in  the 
snow  and  every  little  weed-top  seems  to  have  been  scrutinized  with  micro- 
scopic eye.  Considering  their  numbers  and  that  they  come  in  the  coldest 
weather,  it  is  evident  that  their  presence  must  have  a  marked  deterrent 
effect  upon  the  following  season's  weed  crop. 

529.  American  Goldfinch,  thistlebird,  wild  canary,  fr. — le  chardonneret 
JATJNE.     Astragalinus  tristis.     L,  5-10.     Plate  XXX  A. 

Distinctions.  In  summer,  male  with  its  strongly  contrasting  yellow  body  aiid  black 
wings,  tail,  and  cap  is  most  characteristic.  In  winter,  the  colours  are  less  distinctive 
but  there  is  always  a  suggestion  of  yellow  about  the  throat,  head,  and  back,  if  not  else- 
where, and  the  wings  and  tail  remain  a  decided  black  though  with  more  or  less  buffy  or 
white  edgings  on  wing  bars. 

Field  Marks.  In  habit,  disposition,  and  the  general  quaUty  of  their  notes,  winter  Gold- 
finches resemble  Pine  Siskins  or  the  Crossbills.  They  can  be  distinguished  from  the 
former  by  their  lack  of  streakiness  and  from  the  Crossbills  by  the  absence  of  red,  hghter 
coloration,  and  white  rump. 

Nesting.     Nest  of  grasses  and  plant  down  Uned  with  the  latter. 

Distribution.  As  a  species,  tliroughout  the  United  States  and  southern  Canada 
north  to  the  Umits  of  settlement.  The  Eastern  Goldfinch  extends  west  to,  and  inclu- 
ding, Manitoba. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  American  Goldfinch  is  divided  into  three  recognized  subspecies, 
only  one  of  which,  the  Eastern  Goldfinch,  the  type  form,  occurs  in  eastern  Canada. 

One  of  the  merriest  of  summer  birds,  sometimes  remaining  through 
the  winter  in  the  more  southern  parts  of  Canada.  It  is  a  great  lover  of 
fluffy  white  thistle  and  dandelion  seed-heads  and  can  often  be  seen  plucking 
the  down,  cutting  off  the  fruiting  end,  and  letting  the  airy  tops  float  away  on 
the  wind.  Its  song  is  as  pleasant  as  its  bright  appearance  as  it  sits  on  some 
lone  elevation  and  sings  "  sioeet-sweet-cheivit-chewit-chewit  "  or  goes  speeding 
off  through  the  air  with  a  merry  flock  with  their  cheerfully  repeated  per-chic- 
o-pee.  The  American  Goldfinch,  though  a  relative  of  the  Old  World  bird 
of  the  same  name,  is  an  entirely  different  species,  named,  as  the  original 
settlers  named  many  birds,  from  various  fancied  or  real  resemblances  to  the 
familiar  forms  known  at  home. 

Economic  Status.  A  bird  of  no  bad  habits  and  many  good  ones. 
Weed  seeds  are  its  staple  food,  but  grain  is  rarely  touched.  If  the  House 
or  English  Sparrows  do  not  exhaust  the  supply  prematurely,  sunflower 
seed  heads  are  a  neverfailing  attraction  to  Goldfinches  and  a  supply  of 
these  along  the  back  fence  will  ensure  their  constant  attendance  through  the 
autumn  and  winter.  Insects  are  taken  more  or  less  and  some  fruit,  usually 
wild  species,  as  no  complaint  is  made  of  any  damage  done  to  cultivated 
varieties. 

633.  Pine  Siskin,  fr  . —  le  chardonneert  des  pins.  Spinus  pinus.  L,  5 
Small,  goldfinch-hke  birds  striped  with  ohve-brown  on  a  duU  white  ground  sometimes. 
sUghtly  tinged  with  yellowish;  hghter  below  and  with  a  lemon-yellow  spot  and 
suflfusion  on  the  wings. 

Distinctions.     General  streakiness  and  suffused  yellow  wing  spot. 

Field  Marks.     Goldfinch-hke  habits  and  voice  and  general  streakiness. 

Nesting.     In  coniferous  trees;    nest  of  twigs  and  rootlets  lined  with  plant  down. 

Distribution.  The  north  coniferous  woods  across  the  continent,  migrating  to  settled 
districts  in  winter  and  locally  breeding  there. 

A  winter  visitor  to  the  more  southern  sections  of  Canada.  Very  fond 
of  coniferous  evergreen  trees. 


169 

Economic  Status.  As  it  is  only  a  winter  visitor  to  settled  Canada  and 
shows  strong  partiality  for  the  fruit  of  coniferous  trees,  it  is  a  neutral  species, 
doing  perhaps  no  great  good  but  certainly  no  harm. 

534.  Snow  Bunting,  snowflake.  fr. — le  plectrophane  de  neige.  Plectrophe- 
nax  nivalis.     L,  6-88.     Plate  XXX  B. 

Distinctions.  Sharply  contrasting  black  and  white  colouring  with  most  of  the  feathers 
heavily  bordered  with  rusty,  especially  on  the  head,  back,  and  breast-band.  Through 
the  winter  the  rusty  borders  gradually  wear  off  and  the  breeding  plumage  of  black  and 
white  results  without  moult.  The  general  scheme  of  colouring  of  the  Snow  Bunting  is 
found  in  no  other  Canadian  bird. 

Field  Marks.  Gregarious  ground  sparrows  showing  large  amounts  of  white  on  black 
wings  when  flying. 

Nesting.  On  ground  in  moss,  nest  of  grass,  rootlets,  and  moss  lined  with  feathers 
and  fur. 

Distribution.  Circumpolar  Arctics.  In  Canada,  breeding  from  the  edge  of  barren 
groimds  northward  across  the  continent. 

SUBSPECIES.  Though  the  Snow  Bunting  is  divided  into  several  subspecies,  in 
eastern  Canada  only  the  type  form,  the  Common  Snow  Bunting,  occurs. 

Winter  visitors  in  .southern  Canada,  feeding  on  the  weed-tops  that 
project  from  the  snow  in  open  fields  and  rarely  perching  in  trees.  A  flock 
alights  in  the  weed-spotted  snow  and  gradually  works  across  it,  the  rear 
of  the  flock  rising  up  from  time  to  time  like  a  flurry  of  snow  and  pitching 
ahead,  the  process  being  repeated  until  the  whole  field  is  covered. 

536.  Lapland  Longspur.  fr. — le  plectrophane  de  laponie.  Calcarius  lap- 
ponicus.  L,  6-25.  A  gregarious,  winter  sparrow  frequenting  open  fields.  Males — dark 
brown  above  sharply  streaked  with  buff  to  crown  of  head,  with  a  rufous  collar  across 
back  of  neck,  cheeks,  throat,  and  bib  black.  Flanks  streaked  with  black,  brown,  and 
buff.  White,  below.  Females  and  juveniles  are  similar,  but  with  the  black  on  the  face 
and  throat  replaced  by  suffusions  of  brown  and  buff  or  showing  only  vaguely  in  scattered 
irregular  feathers.  The  nail  of  the  hind  toe  is  greatly  elongated  as  in  the  Horned  Lark 
(Figure  44,  p.  25). 

Distinctions.  In  habits  the  Longspur  may  be  mistaken  for  Snow  Bunting,  but  the 
sharply  streaked  back,  lack  of  white  on  the  wing,  and  the  elongated  hind  claw  are  dis- 
tinctive. The  lack  of  ear  tufts,  the  absence  of  yellow  on  the  throat,  and  the  sparrow- 
Like  bill  will  separate  it  from  the  Horned  Lark.  Large  size,  ground  habit,  and  occurrence 
in  winter  in  flocks  will  distinguish  the  Longspur  from  any  other  sparrow  of  similar 
coloration. 

Field  Marks.  The  lack  of  white  masses  on  the  wings  will  distinguish  the  Laplnd 
Longspur  from  the  snow  Bunting,  and  the  lack  of  ear  tufts  and  yeUow  throat  from  ahe 
Horned  Lark,  the  birds  with  which  it  is  most  likely  to  be  confused  in  life. 

Distribution.  A  circumpolar  species  coming  down  into  settled  districts  only  in  winter' 
In  America  it  breeds  in  high  latitudes  across  the  continent. 

SUBSPECIES.  In  the  east,  only  one  subspecies  of  Lapland  Longspur,  the  Eastern 
Longspur,  the  type  form,  ever  occurs. 

Similar  in  habits  to  the  Snowflake  and  often  accompanying  flocks  of 
Snowflakes  and  Horned  Larks. 

540.  Vesper  Sparrow,  grass  finch,  bay-winged  sparrow,  fr. — le  pinson  a 
ailes  baies.  Pooecetes  gramineus.  L,  5-75.  Plate  XXXI  A.  A  dull  coloured  ground 
sparrow  softly  streaked  with  shades  of  brown,  above;  below,  white,  with  suffused  streaks 
on  the  flanks,  across  the  breast,  and  on  the  sides  of  throat.     Shoulders,  brownish  rufous. 

Distinctions.  The  Vesper  can  be  separated  from  other  earth-coloured  sparrows  by 
its  red-brown  upper  wing'  coverts  or  shoulders,  and  the  white  on  the  outer  tail  feathers. 

Field  Marks.  The  Vesper  Sparrow  is  easily  mistaken  for  the  Song  Sparrow  in  hfe, 
but  the  lack  of  the  central  breast  spot  caused  by  the  aggregation  of  the  streaks  and  the 
presence  of  the  white  outer  tail  feathers  visible  in  flight  are  distinctive.  The  Junco, 
an  evenly  dark  grey  bird,  is  the  only  other  comparable  species  having  such  a  tail  mark. 


170 

Nesting.  In  grass  on  ground  in  nest  of  grasses,  rootlets,  and  hairs,  finer  grasses 
within. 

Distribution.  Distributed,  as  a  species,  over  all  of  temperate  North  America.  Breed- 
ing wherever  found  in  Canada. 

SUBSPECIES.  Though  eastern  and  western  subspecies  of  the  Vesper  Sparrow 
are  recognized,  onlj-  the  Eastern  Vesper  Sparrow,  the  type  form,  occurs  in  eastern  Canada. 

The  Vesper  Sparrow  is  comparable  with  the  Song  Sparrow  in  its 
habits,  song,  and  general  appearance.  It  is  less  a  bird  of  the  brush,  however, 
and  usually  frequents  the  edges  of  fields,  or  where  there  is  slight  cover  as 
in  the  vicinity  of  ditches  or  roads.  Its  song  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Song 
Sparrow,  but  can  be  readily  distinguished  from  it  by  the  educated  ear. 

Economic  Status  This  is  one  of  the  most  beneficial  of  the  Sparrows. 
It  feeds  farther  afield  than  most  of  the  common  summer  Sparrows  and 
takes  a  greater  percentage  of  insects  than  they,  and  large  quantities  of 
weed  seeds.  Some  grain  is  found  in  its  stomach,  but  under  circumstances 
that  point  to  its  being  waste  from  the  stubble  or  roadways.  The  Vesper 
Sparrow,  therefore,  should  receive  every  possible  protection. 

541.  Ipswich  Sparrow.  Passercultis  princeps.  L,  6-25.  Like  a  large  and  very 
pale  Savannah  Sparrow  (see  next  species). 

Distinctions.  Distinguished  from  the  Savannah  Sparrow  by  larger  size,  and  light 
coloration;  in  autumn  also,  by  an  almost  complete  lack  of  yellow  on  the  bend  of  the  wing 
and  in  front  of  the  eye.  Distinguished  from  the  Vesper  Sparrow  by  hght  coloration, 
lack  of  red  on  shoulders,  and,  in  sprmg,  by  yellow  on  the  bend  of  the  wing  and  in  front 
of  the  eye.  Distinguished  from  the  Song  Sparrow  by  its  lighter  colour  and,  in  spring, 
by  the  yellow  as  above. 

Field  Marks.     A  very  pale  sparrow  about  the  size  of  a  Vesper  Sparrow. 

This  bird  has  a  limited  and  isolated  distribution.  Its  only  known 
breeding  place  is  Sable  island,  about  60  miles  south  of  Cape  Breton.  In 
winter  it  migrates  down  the  Atlantic  coast  never  wandering  far  inland. 
It  is  of  small  economic  importance. 

542.  Savannah  Sparrow,  fr. — le  pinson  des  pres.  Passercuhis  sandivichensis. 
L.  5-68.  A  rather  small  sparrow  striped  above  with  brown,  ashy,  and  intermediate  shades. 
Below,  white  with  sharp  brown  streaks  on  the  breast,  flanks,  and  in  some  cases  on  the 
throat.  Yellow  on  the  bend  of  the  wing  and  a  spot  in  front  of  the  eye.  Autumn  birds 
are  generally  overwashed  with  buffy  and  the  markings  are  softer  and  more  diffused. 

Distinctions.  The  Savannah  Sparrow  can  be  distinguished  from  the  Song  Sparrow  by 
the  yeUow  spots  in  front  of  the  eye  and  on  the  bend  of  the  wing  and  by  the  lack  of  the 
aggregated  streaks  which  form  a  spot  in  the  middle  of  the  breast  of  the  Song  Sparrow.  From 
other  allied  sparrows  of  the  Grasshopper  and  Passerherbulus  groups  it  can  be  told  by  the 
sharply  defined  streaks  on  white  ground  beneath. 

Field  Marks.  The  Savannah  Sparrow  can  be  recognized  in  the  field  by  the  yellow  line 
over  the  eye  and  by  its  notes.  Its  song  is  a  fine,  insect-Uke  tsip-tsip-you-re-e-e-e-e-e-you,  the 
first  notes  often  too  faint  to  be  heard  and  the  whole  with  a  peculiar  far-carrying  intensity 
and  high  pitch  that  leaves  one  in  doubt  whether  it  is  close  at  hand  or  very  far  away.  It 
resembles  a  similar  song  of  the  Grasshopper  Sparrow,  but  the  latter  omits  the  final  note. 

Nesting.     On  ground,  in  nest  of  grasses  lined  with  finer  material. 

Distribution.  America,  north  to  the  Arctic  coast.  The  Eastern  Savannah  Sparrow 
P.  s.  savanna  occupies  eastern  North  America  west  to  the  prairies,  when  it  is  displaced  by  a 
western  form. 

SUBSPECIES.  Our  form,  the  Eastern  Savannah  Sparrow,  P.  s.  savanna,  is  a 
subspecies  of  which  the  type  form  occurs  in  the  Aleutian  islands.  There  are  several  other 
geographical  races  but  the  differences  between  them  are  too  slight  for  popular  recognition. 

A  bird  of  damp  meadows  and  waste  land,  where  the  grass  grows  in 
rank  and  coarse  bunches  and  water  lies  close  to  the  surface;  or  of  sandy 


171 

barrens  where  the  grass  and  weeds  grow  in  scattered  clumps.  It  runs  in 
the  grass  Hke  a  mouse  and  rises  with  a  low  quick  flight,  often  before  a  good 
view  of  it  can  be  obtained.  It  is  an  interesting  little  bird,  but  is  so  incon- 
spicuous as  to  readily  pass  unnoticed  by  the  casual  observer. 

Economic  Status.  Besides  great  quantities  of  weed  seeds  the  Savannah 
Sparrow  consumes  more  insects  than  most  sparrows  and  more  beetles  than 
any  other  sparrow.  The  insects  taken  include  a  great  number  of  weevils 
and  other  harmful  forms.  Although  usuall}^  inhabiting  waste  places  it 
also  frequents  cultivated  land  often  enough  to  make  it  a  most  efficient 
helper  to  the  agriculturist. 

546.  Grasshopper  Sparrow,  yellow-winged  sparrow.  Ammodrarnus  savanna- 
rum.  L,  .5-38.  A  small,  grass-haunting  sparrow.  Back  marked  with  fine,  short  streaks 
of  brown,  ashy,  and  light  buff  in  indefinite  pattern ;  dull  white  below,  with  a  light  buffy 
wash  across  the  breast  fading  away  on  the  sides  of  the  throat.  A  yellow  spot  in  front  of 
the  eye;  upper  wing  coverts  and  the  bend  of  the  wing  yellow  or  yellowish. 

Distinctions.  The  yellowish  upper  wing  coverts  are  distinctive  of  the  species.  The 
unstriped  and  unspotted  breast  will  separate  it  from  most  of  the  other  small  grass  sparrows . 

Field  Marks.  This  species  can  be  distinguished  from  most  of  the  other  small  sparrows 
by  its  unstreaked,  faintly  buff-coloured  breast.  Its  song  is  like  the  last  part  of  the  song  of 
the  Savannah  Sparrow,  without  the  final  syllable,  and  dies  gradually  away  hke  bz-bz-bz- 
z-z-z-z. 

Nesting.     On  ground,  in  nest  of  grasses,  arched  over. 

Distribution.  United  States  to  South  America;  regularly  crosses  the  Canadian 
border  only  in  the  vicinity  of  lake  Erie. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Eastern  Grasshopper  Sparrow  is  a  subspecies  A.s.  australis. 
The  type  form  is  extralimital.     Another  subspecies  occurs  in  the  west. 

This  sparrow  is  to  be  looked  for  in  grassy  fields  along  with  the  Bobo- 
link and  Meadowlark,  but  is  very  local  in  its  distribution. 

Economic  Status.  A  rare  sparrow  of  little  economic  importance,  but, 
at  least,  harmless. 

547.  Henslow's  Sparrow.  Passer herbulus  henslowi.  L,  5.  A  very  small  grass 
sparrow.  Back  of  head  and  lower  neck  yellowish-ohve,  and  back  vinaceous;  both 
colours  streaked  with  short  strokes  of  brown.  Below,  white,  finely  streaked  across 
breast  and  on  flanks  with  dark  brown.  Bill  large  for  the  size  of  the  bird  and  tail  feathers 
pointed. 

Distinctions.  OUve  and  vinaceous  ground  coloiu:  of  upper  parts  and  fine  streaking  of 
breast. 

Field  Marks.  A  small  bird  that  runs  in  the  grass  and  is  very  difficult  to  flush.  Rises  with 
a  quick,  low  zig-zag  flight  and  drops  back  into  the  grass  with  unexpected  suddenness.  The 
best  identification  character  in  life  is  its  note,  a  fine  penetrating  se-slick  of  such  light  volimie 
as  to  be  almost  inaudible  close  at  hand,  yet  decided  enough  to  have  considerable  carrying 
power. 

Nesting.     On  ground,  in  nest  of  grass  exceptionally  well  hidden. 

Distribution.  The  Eastern  Henslow's  Sparrow  occm-s  in  eastern  Canada  only  in 
southern  Ontario.     Another  subspecies  is  found  in  the  west. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  eastern  form  of  Henslow's  Sparrow  is  the  Eastern  Henslow's 
Sparrow,  the  type  subspecies  of  the  race. 

One  may  be  in  the  midst  of  quite  a  colony  of  Henslow's  Sparrows 
without  knowing  it,  as  they  are  rarely  seen  unless  attention  is  directed  to 
them  by  their  notes.  Waste  grass-grown  meadows  are  their  favourite 
habitats. 

548.  Leconte's  Sparrow.  Passerherbulus  lecontei.  L,  5.  A  very  smaU  and  elusive 
grass  sparrow.  Above,  crown  dark  brown  with  light  buff  median  stripe,  nape  vinaceous 
with  buff-grey  stripes,  back  dark  brown  with  sharp  light  buff  stripes.  Below,  white  suffused 
with  ochre  on  breast,  throat,  and  cheeks. 

57172—12 


172 

Distinctions.  The  contrasting  light  buff  median  stripe,  vinaceous  nape,  and  dark 
brown  back. 

Nesting.     On  ground,  in  nest  of  fine  grass. 

Distribution.  Central  North  America.  A  prairie  form  of  only  accidental  occurrence 
within  the  limits  covered  by  this  work. 

The  species  has  been  recorded  only  once  in  eastern  Canada,  at  Toronto. 
Owing  to  its  mouse-Hke  habits  it  is  most  difficult  to  find  or  to  recognize 
when  seen,  and,  therefore,  may  be  more  common  that  it  is  thought  to  be. 

549.  1.  Nelson's  Sharp-tail.  fr. — le  pinson  a  queue  aigue.  Passerherbulus 
nelsoni.  L,  5  •  9.  A  small  grass  sparrow.  Above,  median  line  of  crown  slaty-blue  bordered 
with  dark  brown,  with  an  ochre  line  over  eye.  A  faint  slaty  and  olive  band  across  nape 
and  shoulders.  Back  sharply  striped  with  rich  brown  and  hght  buff  with  a  light  slaty 
overwash.  Below,  white  with  ochre  breast  extending  more  or  less  to  the  cheeks  and 
flanks  and  lightening  on  the  throat.  Breast  sometimes,  and  flanks  always  marked  with 
indistinct    darker    stripes. 

Distinctions.     Slaty  median  crown  stripe  and  long,  strong  stripes  on  back. 

Field  Marks.  The  general  strong  buff  or  yellow  coloration  below,  the  yellow  line  above 
the  eye,  and  the  faint  streaking  of  breast. 

Nesting.     On  ground;  in  nest  of  fine  grass. 

Distribution.  Eastern  America,  mostly  in  northern  United  States  and  southern 
Canada.     The  type  form  is  confined  to  the  prairies  and  the  other  to  the  Atlantic  coast. 

SUBSPECIES.  Nelson's  Sparrow  is  divided  into  two  subspecies,  the  type  form, 
Nelson's  Sharp-tailed  Sparrow,  a  prairie  race;  and  the  Acadian  Sharp-tailed  Sparrow  P.n. 
subvirgatus,  an  extreme  eastern  race.  The  Acadian  Sharp-tail  is  confined  to  the  salt  marshes 
of  the  east  coast  of  Prince  Edward  Island  and  below  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  Its  breast 
and  throat  are  lighter,  buff  rather  than  ochre  coloured,  and  distinctly  though  faintly 
streaked  on  breast.  The  colouring  of  the  back  is  fainter  and  more  diffused  and  the  slaty 
median  hne  wider  and  in  less  contrast  to  the  brown.  There  is  little  chance  of  confusion 
between  them  for  the  races  can  be  divided  geographically  with  considerable  certainty. 
Nelson's  Sharp-tail  is  only  of  casual  and  accidental  occiurence  in  the  Great  Lakes  region, 
whereas  the  Acadian  is  practically  confined  to  the  vicmity  of  salt  water. 

The  Sharp-tailed  Sparrows  are  marsh-haunting  birds,  running  and 
hiding  in  the  grass  and  refusing  to  take  wing  until  absolutely  forced. 

552.  Lark  Sparrow.  Chondestes  grammacus.  L,  6-25.  A  very  striking  and 
conspicuously  marked  sparrow.  Above,  striped  with  brown  and  buffy  brown;  below, 
white  with  buffy  flanks.  Crown,  chestnut-brown  with  conspicuous  light  median  line; 
ear  coverts  chestnut-brown  in  strong  contrast  to  the  white  face ;  and  three  sharp  black 
lines,  one  through  eye,  one  from  lower  mandible  to  ear  coverts,  and  one  down  sides 
of  throat.      Outer  tail  feathers  and  ends  of  all  except  the  middle  ones,  white. 

Distinctions.  The  bright  reddish  brown  ear  coverts  contrasting  with  black  and  white 
face  are  certain  distinguishing  characters  of  the  species. 

Field  Marks.  The  strongly  marked  head  and  face  and  the  large  amount  of  white  in 
the  tail  make  easily  recognized  field  marks. 

Nesting.  In  low  trees  or  bushes,  in  nest  of  grasses  hned  with  fine  grass,  rootlets,  and 
hairs. 

Distribution.  The  Mississippi  valley  westward.  The  Eastern  Lark  Sparrow,  the 
type  form,  extends  from  the  Great  Plains  east  and  north  into  southern  Ontario.  Another 
subspecies  occurs  in  the  west. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  eastern  subspecies  of  this  bird  is  the  Eastern  Lark  Sparrow, 
the  type  form  of  the  species. 

The  Lark  Sparrow  is  rare  in  eastern  Canada.  It  is  to  be  looked  for  in 
open  brushy  wastes  and  along  the  wooded  edges  of  fields. 

553.  Harris'  Sparrow.  Zonotrichia  querula.  L,  7-50.  A  large  sparrow,  streaked 
with  brown  and  ashy  brown,  above;  white,  below.  Crown,  face,  throat,  and  front  neck 
solid  black  fading  into  stripes  on  flanks. 

Distinctions.  In  adults,  the  black  face  as  if  dipped  in  ink  which  had  spread  over 
crown  and  throat. 


173 

Nesting.     On  ground  under  dwarf  birch,  in  nest  of  grass.     Nest  rarely  discovered. 
Distribution.     The  prairie  regions  of  America,  north  to  the  edges  of  the  Barren  lands. 

This  bird  may  be  more  common  in  western  Ontario  near  the  Manitoba 
line  than  is  supposed,  but  that  is  the  only  section  in  which  the  species 
may  be  looked  for.  One  has  been  recorded  from  London,  Ont.,  but  this 
was,  of  course,  accidental. 

554.  White-crowned  Sparrow,  fr. — le  pinson  a  couronne  blanche.  Zono- 
trickia  leucophrys.     L,  6-88.     Plate  XXXI  B. 

Distinctions.  Only  hkely  to  be  mistaken  for  the  White-throated  Sparrow,  the  next 
species,  and  can  be  distinguished  from  it  in  any  plumage  by  the  absence  of  the  yellow  spot 
in  front  of  the  eye  and,  in  the  adult  form,  by  its  nearly  even  grey  throat  instead  of  the 
strongly  white  throat  of  that  species. 

Field  Marks.  The  white  crown  and  lack  of  white  throat  or  yellow  spot  in  front  of  the 
eye.     In  hfe,  the  back  has  a  grey  rather  than  a  reddish  cast. 

Nesting.  On  ground  or  in  low  bushes,  in  nest  of  grass  and  fine  vegetable  fibres, 
rootlets,  etc. 

Distribution.  North  America  from  tree  limit  south.  Our  Eastern  White-crowned, 
the  type  of  the  species,  extends  to  the  western  prairie  province,  where  its  place  is  taken  by  a 
subspecies,  Gambel's  Sparrow  Z.i.  gambeli. 

SUBSPECIES.  Though  three  subspecies  of  this  species  are  recognized  in  Canada, 
only  one,  the  Eastern  White-crown,  the  type  form,  occurs  in  the  east. 

One  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  sparrows.  Though  it  lacks  gaudy 
colours,  its  sharply  contrasting  black  and  white  crown  and  grey  throat 
and  neck  give  it  distinction.  Its  song  too  is  sweet,  having  much  of  the 
clear  quality  of  that  of  its  near  relative,  the  White-throat,  but  unhappily 
it  is  usually  heard  at  its  best  only  in  its  northern  breeding  grounds. 

Economic  Status.  Though  only  within  the  bounds  of  cultivation  for 
about  two  weeks  in  the  spring  and  autumn  it  does  good  work  while  there. 
Weed  seeds  form  a  large  part  of  its  food,  ragweed  and  grass  seed  being  in 
large  proportion.    Insects  form  only  a  small  part  of  its  food. 

558.  White- throated  Sparrow,  canada  white-throat,  peabody-bird.  fr. — 
LE  PINSON  a  gorge  BLANCHE.     ZoHotrichiu  olbicollis.     L,  6-74.     Plate  XXXII  A. 

Distinctions.  In  adult  plumage  it  is  most  hkely  to  be  taken  for  the  White-crown 
previously  mentioned,  but  its  distinctly  white  throat  and  the  yellow  spot  in  front  ofthe 
eye  are  distinctive.  Young  birds  are  apt  to  be  mistaken  for  the  Swamp  Sparrow,  but  the 
yellow  spot  and  redder  coloration  of  the  back  will  always  separate  them. 

Field  Marks.  The  White  throat,  yellow  lores,  and  reddish  instead  of  greyish  back  will 
readily  distinguish  adults  from  White-crowns.  Juveniles  are  rather  more  difficult  to  identify 
from  several  other  species,  but  if  neither  the  yellow  loral  spot  nor  the  vague  white  throat 
sometimes  suggested  by  the  Swamp  Sparrow  are  recognizable,  the  greater  redness  of  the 
back  wiU  usually  suffice  for  identification. 

Nesting.  On  ground  or  in  low  bushes;  in  nest  of  coarse  grasses,  rootlets,  and  moss 
lined  with  finer  grass. 

Distribution.  Eastern  North  America  to  near  the  tree  hmits  on  the  north.  Breeds 
everywhere  it  is  found  in  Canada  except  in  the  most  southern  portions. 

This  is  the  most  famous  songster  of  the  northern  woods.  At  its  best 
the  song  is  a  clear,  flute-like,  slowly  measured  whistle  which  has  been  very 
well  put  into  words.  Hard-times-can-a-da-can-a-da-can-ada  or  Poor-Bill- 
Pea-ho-dy-Pea-bo-dy-Pea-bo-dy.  The  White-throat  is  a  brush-wood  bird; 
tangled  thickets  or  brush  piles  in  the  vicinity  of  open  ground  are  its 
favourite  haunts.  Throughout  most  of  the  cultivated  sections  of  Canada 
the  bird  is  a  migrant  only  and  its  best  song  is  rarely  heard.  In  the 
autumn  when  the  young  birds  fly  south  the  notes  are  heard  in  a  softened, 
shortened  version. 
57172—124 


174 

Economic  Status.  The  White-throat  is  a  valuable  bird.  It  is  important 
as  a  destroyer  of  weed  seeds,  especially  of  ragweed,  and  consumes  a  con- 
siderable number  of  insects  and  a  little  wild  fruit.  As  the  species  comes 
down  in  great  numbers  to  the  thickly  cultivated  sections  in  early  autumn, 
its  effect  on  the  succeeding  season's  weed  crop  must  be  pronounced. 

559.  Tree  Sparrow,  fk. — le  pinson  de  montagne.  Spizella  monticola.  L,  6-36. 
Plate  XXXII  B. 

Distinctions.  Much  like  the  Chipping  and  Field  Sparrows,  but  larger  and  the  bill 
yellow  with  dark  tip  instead  of  black  as  in  the  former,  or  cinnamon  as  in  the  latter  and  with 
a  semi-concealed  dark  spot  in  the  middle  of  the  breast. 

Field  Marks.  Red-brown  cap,  prominent  white  wing-bars,  ashy-grey  throat,  and 
dark  spot  in  middle  of  the  evenly  coloured  unspotted  breast. 

Nesting.     On  or  near  ground,  in  nest  of  grasses,  rootlets,  and  hair. 

Distribution.  Eastern  North  America.  Breeds  in  the  far  north  beyond  the  limits  of 
civiUzation;  winters  in  northern  United  States. 

SUBSPECIES.  Eastern  and  western  subspecies  of  the  Tree  Sparrow  occur  in  Canada. 
The  former  is  the  type  form  and  the  only  one  that  occurs  within  the  region  covered  by  this 
work. 

Among  the  hosts  of  sparrows  that  congregate  in  the  shrubbery  in  the 
autumn  or  return  early  in  the  spring,  is  the  Tree  Sparrow.  In  the 
southern  parts  of  the  Dominion  it  sometimes  remains  all  winter,  but  is  a 
migrant  elsewhere.  It  is  a  natty  little  bird  and  its  modest  song  in  the 
early  spring  is  most  welcome  after  the  long  silent  winter. 

Economic  Status.  The  Tree  Sparrow  is  valuable  for  its  destruction  of 
weed  seeds  and  seems  to  have  no  bad  habits. 

560.  Chipping  Sparrow,  chippie,  hair  bird.  fr. — le  petit  pinson  a  couronne 
ROUSSE.     Spizella  passerina.     L,  5-37.     Plate  XXXIII  A. 

Distinctions.  A  familiar  bird,  separable  from  the  Swamp  and  Tree  Sparrows  which, 
like  it,  have  red  caps,  by  size;  and  from  them  and  the  Field  Sparrow  by  its  black  bill  and 
the  black  stripe  through  the  eye.  Juveniles  have  streaked  heads  and  closely  resemble 
the  Clay-coloured  Sparrow,  a  western  bird  that  occasionally  may  be  confused  with  them 
in  far  western  Ontario.  The  Chipping  Sparrow,  however,  has  a  slaty  instead  of  an 
olive-buff  rump. 

Field  Marks.  A  small,  slim  sparrow  with  red  cap,  imstreaked  breast,  and  a  black 
line  through  the  eye.  Its  long  drawn  out  song,  a  series  of  unaccented  chirps  running  into 
each  other  in  a  single  sustained  triU.  is  very  characteristic. 

Nesting.  In  trees  or  bushes,  m  nest  of  grasses,  rootlets,  and  fibres  plentifully  inter- 
mixed with  long  hairs.  The  amount  of  horse  hair  used  in  the  nest  is  the  origin  of  one  of  this 
bird's  popular  names. 

Distribution.  Eastern  North  America  to  well  north  of  civilization.  Breeds  in  Canada 
wherever  found. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  form  of  the  Chipping  Sparrow  occurring  in  eastern  Canada 
is  the  Eastern  Chipping  Sparrow,  the  type  form.     Aiiother  subspecies  occurs  in  the  west. 

The  Chipping  Sparrow  is  rarely  absent  from  the  vicinity  of  suburban 
or  village  homes,  coming  close  to  houses  and  frequenting  the  orchard  and 
shade  trees,  the  front  yard,  and  even  the  door  step.  It  does  not  fear  man, 
but  though  not  avoiding  him  it  escapes  notice  through  its  quiet  and  un- 
obtrusive habits. 

Economic  Status.  The  Chipping  Sparrow  is  a  greater  insect  eater 
than  most  of  the  family.  In  fact,  through  June,  93  per  cent  of  its  food  is 
composed  of  insects,  only  1  per  cent  of  which  are  beneficial  species  such  as 
predacious  beetles  and  parasitic  wasps.  The  average  for  the  year  is  38 
per  cent  of  insects,  and  for  the  months  spent  by  the  bird  in  Canada,  the 


175 

average  must  be  considerably  higher.  The  vegetable  matter  consumed 
consists  of  small  weed  seeds  in  which  those  of  crab  grass,  lambs  quarters, 
and  ragweed  predominate.  It  will  be  seen  that  a  bird  having  these  desirable 
qualities  and  coming  into  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  garden  is  most 
useful  and  one  to  be  encouraged  in  every  manner  possible. 

561.  Clay-coloured  Sparrow.  Spizella  pallida.  L,  5-20.  A  small  sparrow  with 
upper  parts  streaked  in  light  buff  and  dark  brown  to  crown,  where  a  whitish  median  stripe 
is  indicated.  A  faint  collar  of  slaty  suffusion  about  the  back  of  the  neck.  White  below, 
slightly  tinged  with  buff  on  flanks. 

Distinctions.  On  account  of  size  and  habits  only  hkely  to  be  mistaken  for  the  Chipping 
Sparrow;  but  the  back  is  hghter  than  in  that  bird  and  more  clay-coloured,  and  the  rump 
instead  of  being  faintly  slaty  is  shghtly  ohve-buff. 

Nesting.     On  ground  or  in  bushes,  in  nest  of  grasses  hned  with  hairs. 

Distribution.  The  interior  of  America.  It  is  a  prairie  form  extending  north  to  the 
hmits  of  the  prairie  provinces,  and  only  of  accidental  occurrence  in  eastern  Canada,  except 
perhaps  in  the  coimtry  adjoining  the  Manitoba  boundary. 

A  bird  of  the  west;  of  rare  occurrence  in  the  western  limits  of  the 
region  treated  of  in  this  work. 

563.  Field  Sparrow,  fr. — le  pinson  des  champs.  Spizella  pusilla.  L,  6-68. 
A  small  sparrow  of  the  same  general  colour  as  the  Chipping,  but  with  the  colours  subdued, 
suffused,  and  blended.  The  red  crown  is  darker  and  inconspicuous  and  there  is  no  line  of 
black  through  the  eye.     The  bill  is  cinnamon  coloured  insteaxi  of  black. 

Distinctions.     The  above  distinctions  are  sufficient  to  distinguish  this  bird. 

Field  Marks.  Dull  reddish  crown,  lack  of  facial  marks  other  than  a  touch  of  red  on 
ends  of  ear  coverts,  and  cinnamon-coloured  bill.  The  song  is  its  most  easily  recognized 
characteristic  and  when  learned  is  the  best  means  of  identification. 

Nesting.  On  ground  or  in  low  bushes,  in  nest  of  rather  coarse  grasses,  weed  stalks, 
and  rootlets,  lined  with  fine  grasses  and  hair. 

Distribution.  Eastern  America;  in  Canada  including  most  of  the  settled  sections, 
but  rather  local  in  distribution  and  unaccountably  absent  from  some  locahties  weU  within 
its  range. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Field  Sparrow  is  divided  into  an  eastern  and  western  subspecies; 
the  former,  the  type  form,  is  the  only  one  occurring  in  eastern  Canada. 

The  Field  Sparrow  is  an  inconspicuous  bird  and  though  often  very 
common  is  so  like  a  Chipping  Sparrow  with  worn  plumage  that  it  may  be 
mistaken  for  it.  It  is  a  bird  of  the  open  fields  and  fence  rows  and  though 
not  shy  or  unusually  retiring,  must  be  looked  for  and  listened  for  to  be 
found. 

Economic  Status.  Very  much  like  the  Chipping  Sparrow  in  food 
habits,  taking  a  few  more  useful  insects  though  not  enough  to  perceptibly 
affect  its  usefulness. 

567.  Junco.  graybird.  black  snowbird,  fr. — pinson  niverolle.  Junco 
hyemalis.     L,  6-27.     Plate  XXXIII  B. 

Distinctions.  Sohd  dark  slate-grey  above  and  on  breast,  cutting  sharply  against  the 
white  underparts. 

Field  Marks.  Sharp  line  of  the  dark  breast  against  the  white  below,  and  white  outer 
tail  feathers  which  show  in  flight. 

Nesting.  On  or  near  the  ground  in  nest  of  grasses,  moss,  and  rootlets  lined  with  finer 
grasses  and  long  hairs. 

Distribution.  As  a  species,  all  of  America  to  the  tree  hmits.  The  Slate-coloured 
Junco  extends  west  to  Alberta. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Juncos  are  divided  into  a  number  of  subspecies,  only  one  of 
which,  the  Slate-coloured  Junco,  the  type  form,  occurs  in  eastern  Canada. 


176 

The  Junco  with  its  black  breast,  Hght  coloured  bill,  and  white  bordered 
tail  is  conspicuous  amongst  the  large  flocks  of  sparrows  passing  through  or 
tarrying  in  the  spring  and  autumn. 

Economic  Status.     The  effect  of  the  Junco  on  agriculture  is  almost 
wholly  beneficial.     During  its  stay  in  the  more  settled  sections  it  consumes 
large  quantities  of  weed  seeds.     The  insects  it  takes  are  mostly  harmful 
Little  or  no  exception  can  be  taken  to  it  as  it  does  no  perceptible  damage, 
to  crops  or  fruit. 

581.  Song  Sparrow,  fe. — le  pinson  chanteur.  Melospiza  melodia.  L,  6-30. 
Plate  XXXIV  A. 

Distinctions.  Rather  like  the  Vesper  Sparrow  in  size  and  general  coloration,  but 
darker  and  more  decided  in  tone;  lacks  the  white  outer  tail  feathers.  The  breast  streaks 
are  also  sharper  and  darker  brown  and  aggregated  in  the  middle  into  a  well-defined  spot. 
The  lack  of  the  yellow  stripe  over  the  eye  separates  the  Song  from  the  Savannah  Sparrow 
and  the  sharply  streaked  breast  from  any  of  the  other  sparrows  of  comparable  size  and  habit. 

Field  Marks.  Sharply  striped  breast  and  central  spot.  The  absence  of  the  white 
outer  tail  feathers  will  guard  against  confusion  with  the  Vesper  Sparrow,  and  longer  tail, 
lack  of  -yeUow  lores,  voice,  and  general  attitude  distinguish  the  Song  Sparrow  from  the 
Savannab. 

Nesting.  On  ground,  more  rarely  in  bushes,  in  nest  of  coarse  grasses,  rootlets,  dead 
leaves,  strips  of  bark,  etc.,  lined  with  finer  grasses  and  sometimes  long  hairs. 

Distribution.  As  a  species,  the  Song  Sparrow  inhabits  all  of  America  to  the  tree  limits. 
Our  eastern  form  extends  west  to  the  central  prairie  provinces. 

*S  UBSPECIES.  The  Song  Sparrow  is  a  wide  ranging  species  and  has  been  divided  into 
many  subspecies,  twenty  being  recognized  in  North  America  and  a  number  more  proposed. 
Most  of  these  are  western  forms  originating  in  the  broken  land  of  the  Pacific  coast  where 
isolated  colonies  and  varied  conditions  have  favoured  numerous  departures  from  type. 
In  eastern  Canada  the  form  recognized  is  the  Eastern  Song  Sparrow  M.  m.  melodia,  the 
type  race. 

It  is  difficult  to  form  a  just  and  unprejudiced  estimate  of  the  standing 
of  the  Song  Sparrow  in  the  avian  chorus.  Its  little  medley  of  chirps  and 
trills  makes  a  sustained  song  of  some  duration  and  to  those  who  listen 
to  it  sympathetically  it  has  a  gladness,  brightness,  and  sweetness  of  tone 
that  is  difficult  to  surpass.  The  bird  is  almost  omnipresent.  It  lives  in 
the  shrubbery  close  about  the  house  and  is  one  of  the  familiar  bi  rds  of  the 
garden.  It  haunts  the  thickets  on  the  edge  of  the  wood-lot  or  bordering 
little  streams  or  rivulets.  The  deep  woods  and  the  clean  open  fields  are 
the  only  places  where  it  is  generally  absent  and  even  there  it  sometimes 
surprises  us  with  a  burst  of  Uquid  song. 

Economic  Status.  The  great  numbers  of  the  Song  Sparrow  render  it 
most  important  to  the  agriculturist.  An  analysis  of  its  food  shows  that 
only  2  per  cent  is  composed  of  useful  insects  and  18  per  cent  of  harmful 
insects.  Waste  grain  constitutes  4  per  cent  and  weed  seeds  50  per  cent. 
The  remainder  is  composed  of  wild  fruit  and  other  unimportant  material. 
It  is  seen  from  this  that  the  Song  Sparrow  is  of  considerable  economic 
importance.  Investigation  has  shown  that  one-quarter  of  an  ounce  of 
weed  seed  a  day  is  a  fair  estimate  of  the  amount  consumed  by  a  seed- 
eating  sparrow.  For  the  nine  months  the  Song  Sparrow  is  with  us  in  the 
average  eastern  Canadian  locahty  the  consumption  amounts  to  four 
and  a  quarter  pounds  per  individual  per  year.  Allowing  seventy-five 
Song  Sparrows  per  square  mile  as  a  very  conservative  estimate  of  population 
we  get  a  total  for  the  southern  cultivated  parts  of  Ontario  of  over  eleven 
thousand  tons  of  weed  seed  destroyed  annually  by  this  one  species. 


177 

583.  Lincoln's  Sparrow,  fr. — le  pinson  db  Lincoln.  MelospizaUncolni.  L,  5'75. 
Like  the  Song  Sparrow  but  with  a  belt  of  buffy  across  the  breast  which  is  marked  also 
with  small,  fine  spots. 

Distinctions.  The  above  distinctions  will  separate  Lincoln's  from  all  other  sparrows 
it  may  be  confused  with. 

Field  Marks.  A  good  view  will  show  the  faint  buff  breast  and  fine  spotting.  Other- 
wise it  is  with  difficulty  separated  in  life  from  the  Song  Sparrow.  The  back  is  rather 
greyer  than  the  Song  Sparrow  and  this  often  arouses  a  suspicion  of  the  presence  of 
Lincoln's  Sparrow  that  may  be  confirmed  by  other  characters. 

Nesting.     Similar  to  that  of  the  Song  Sparrow,  on  ground. 

Distribution.  The  species  is  distributed  all  over  America,  breeding  in  the  northern 
coniferous  woods. 

SUBSPECIES.  Eastern  and  extreme  western  Lincohi's  Sparrows  can  be  differen- 
tiated into  two  subspecies.  The  form  occupying  the  territory  here  treated  is  the  Eastern 
Lincoln's  Sparrow  M.  I.  lincolni,  the  tjqjical  race. 

Though  a  rare  sparrow  it  is  an  interesting  one.  It  has  reduced  hiding 
in  brush  to  as  fine  an  art  as  any  bird.  When  first  disturbed  it  hops  to  a 
branch,  where  it  obtains  a  good  view,  regards  the  intruder  for  an  instant, 
and  then  dives  into  the  tangle  and  is  gone.  The  most  diligent  search 
thereafter  gives  no  more  than  a  fleeting  ghmpse  of  a  brown  shadow  dis- 
appearing into  the  nearest  brush  pile.  The  species  is  a  passing  migrant 
through  the  settled  sections  of  Canada  and  is  rare. 

584.  Swamp  Sparrow,  fr. — le  pinson  des  marais.  Melospizageorgiana.  L,5"89. 
Much  like  the  Song  Sparrow,  but  of  stronger  and  less  blended  coloration  and  without 
any  distinct  breast  streaks  or  markings. 

Dis*',tctions.  The  Swamp  Sparrow  is  difficult  to  separate  from  several  other  forma 
comparable  in  both  colour  and  size.  It  may  be  distinguished  from  the  Song  Sparrow, 
most  likely  to  be  confused  with  it,  by  the  unstreaked  breast,  and,  in  adult  birds,  by  the 
red  crown.  Young  autumn  birds  strongly  resemble  juvenile  White-throats  but  lack  the 
faint  yellow  loral  spot,  are  not  as  evenly  ruddy  on  the  back,  and  usually  have  a  suggestion 
of  an  ashy  bar  across  the  shoulders  at  the  base  of  the  neck,  an  ashy  cast  to  the  crown,  and 
eyebrow  lines  that  are  absent  in  that  species.  It  can  be  told  from  the  Tree  Sparrow  by 
the  Uck  of  the  dark  middle  breast  spot  or  of  the  white  wing-bars. 

Field  Marks.  Its  resemblance  to  a  Song  Sparrow  without  breast  streaks,  the  lack 
of  the  yellow  loral  spot  of  the  White-throat  or  the  wing-bars  of  the  Tree  Sparrow.  In 
summer  when  the  Tree  Sparrow  is  not  present  the  red  cap  is  distinctive. 

Nesting.  Nest  similar  to  that  of  the  Song  Sparrow,  on  ground,  sometimes  in  the 
grass. 

Distribution.  North  America  east  of  the  prairies,  breeding  in  most  of  the  inhabited 
parts  of  Canada. 

As  its  name  implies  this  is  a  bird  of  the  swamps  and  marshes.  The 
long  grass  and  shrubby  edges  of  marshes  are  its  typical  haunts.  Late  in  the 
autumn  it  joins  the  large  mixed  flocks  of  sparrows  in  the  brush  heaps  and 
tangled  fence  rows  and  then  comes  into  closer  contact  with  man. 

Economic  Status.  The  food  habits  of  the  Swamp  Sparrow  are  not  very 
different  from  those  of  other  comparable  sparrows.  Owing  to  its  living 
in  waste  places  it  is  not  important. 

585.  Fox  Sparrow,  fr. — le  pinson  fauve.  Passerella  iliaca.  L,  7  26.  A  rather 
large  sparrow.  Above,  bright  reddish-brown,  solid  on  tail  and  rump  but  with  dull  slaty 
showing  through  the  red  on  hind  neck  and  crown.  Below,  white  heavily  spotted  and 
streaked  with  red  like  back,  on  sides  of  throat,  across  breast,  and  on  flanks.  The  throat 
is  almost  free  from  markings  and  the  spots  tend  to  aggregate  on  the  breast  in  a  centre 
spot. 

Distinctions.     Rather  large  size  and  gene  ral  bright  foxj^  red  coloration  are  distinctive. 

Field  Marks.  Rich  red  coloration,  especially  on  rump  and  tail.  The  Hermit  Thrush 
has  a  similar  appearance  as  it  flies,  but  the  upper  back  is  more  olivaceous. 

Nesting.  On  ground  or  in  low  trees  and  bushes,  in  nest  of  coarse  grasses  lined  with 
finer  grass,  hair,  moss,  and  feathers. 


178 

Distribution.  As  a  species  the  Fox  Sparrow  ranges  over  all  of  North  America  north 
to  the  tree  limits.  The  Canadian  form,  the  Eastern  Fox  Sparrow,  the  type,  extends  west 
to  the  foot  of  the  Rockies,  where  its  place  is  taken  by  a  number  of  other  subspecies. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Fox  Sparrow  is  a  highly  variable  and  plastic  species  and 
numerous  well  marked  subspecific  forms  can  be  distinguished.  The  one  occupying  eastern 
Canada  is  the  Eastern  Fox  Sparrow  P.  i.  iliaca,  the  typical  race. 

This  sparrow  remains  within  the  limits  of  civilization  only  for  a  few 
days  spring  and  autumn.  Occasionally  in  spring  it  greets  us  with  a  song 
of  full  clear  tone  that  is  equalled  by  few  other  birds  and  hardly  surpassed 
by  any. 

Economic  Status.  It  is  with  us  hardly  long  enough  or  in  sufficient 
numbers  to  be  of  great  importance  to  the  agriculturist.  It  eats  a  little  more 
fruit  than  the  majority  of  the  sparrows,  but  at  the  seasons  of  its  visits 
little  cultivated  fruit  is  available  and  the  insect  and  weed  seed  portions 
of  its  food  are  such  that  it  need  cause  no  anxiety. 

587.  Towhee.  fr. — le  pinson  aux  yeux  rouges.  Pipilo  erythrophthalmus.  L,  8'35. 
Male,  all  above  pure  black  including  tail,  head,  throat,  and  breast  where  it  cuts  in  a 
sharp  line  against  the  clear  white  of  the  underparts .  Broad  reddish  or  bay  flanks.  A 
few  white  feather  edges  on  the  flight  feathers  and  considerable  white  in  tail  margins. 
Female,  similar  but  with  the  black  replaced  by  reddish  brown . 

Distinctions.  Owing  to  its  large  size,  long  tail,  and  striking  coloration  the  Towhee 
can  hardly  be  mistaken  for  any  other  bird.  Young  birds  do  not  have  much  indication  of 
these  distinctive  coloui"s,  being  a  vague,  generally  rusty  colour,  faintly  and  brokenly 
striped;  but  the  long  tail,  size,  and  general  outline  are  usually  sufficient  for  recognition. 

Field  Marks.  With  a  good  view  of  the  black  or  brown  head  and  back, and  the  red 
flanks,  the  species  can  hardly  be  mistaken.  As  it  dashes  away  into  the  underbrush  the 
strongly  accentuated  black  and  white  of  the  wings  and  tail  of  the  male,  or  the  reddish 
brown  and  white  on  the  tail  of  the  female  are  easily  recognizable. 

Nesting.  On  or  near  ground,  in  nest  of  dead  leaves  and  strips  of  bark,  lined 
with  fine  grasses. 

Distribution.  Eastern  North  America,  from  southern  Canada  to  the  gulf.  Occurs  in 
Canada  only  along  the  southern  border  and  is  common  only  in  the  lower  Great  Lakes 
region. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Towhee  of  eastern  Canada,  P.  e.  erythrophthalmus,  is  the 
Eastern  Towhee,  the  type  race  of  the  species. 

The  Towhee  is  a  bird  of  brushy  wastes  or  wood  edges,  where  its  dis- 
tinctive note  "Chewee"  or  " Te-wee"  is  a  familiar  sound.  It  delights  to 
perch  on  the  top  of  a  sapling  standing  alone  in  the  underbrush  and  sing  its 
clear  "dick-yoo,  chiddU-chiddle-chiddle" .  On  being  disturbed  it  drops 
straight  down  into  the  underbrush,  its  black  and  white  uniform  flashing  an 
instant,  then  vanishes  in  the  tangle,  whence  it  peers  about  uttering  its 
usual  ^'chi-tvee^'  in  inquisitive  accents.  In  feeding  it  scratches  over  the 
surface  like  a  hen,  making  the  dead  leaves  fly  in  all  directions. 

593.  Cardinal,  red-bird,  cardinal  grosbeak.  Cardinalis  cardinalis.  L,  8  25. 
A  large  sparrow  and  a  typical  Grosbeak.  The  male  is  bright  cardinal  red  with  a  black 
splash  about  the  base  of  the  bill  and  throat.  Both  sexes  have  a  decided  crest  as  promi- 
nent as  that  of  the  Blue  Jay.  The  female  is  warm  buff  in  colour,  almost  white  below 
and  olive-buff  on  the  back,  the  wings,  tail,  and  crest  approaching  the  rosy  colour  of  the 
male.    The  black  face  and  throat  of  the  male  are  faintly  indicated. 

Distinctions.  Absolutely  unmistakable  for  anything  else.  The  Pine  Grosbeak  may 
suggest  the  Cardinal,  but  the  red  is  never  as  solid  and  brilliant  and  it  is  without  the  crest 
or  the  striking  black  face  mark.  The  Scarlet  Tanager  is  as  brilliantly  red,  but  is  without 
crest  or  face  mark  and  the  wings  and  tail  are  black. 

Field  Marks.  The  brilliant  all  red  coloration  of  the  male,  the  flash  of  warm  reddish 
on  the  wings  and  tail  of  the  female,  and  the  prominent  crest  and  large  red  bill  in  both 
sexes. 

Nesting.  In  bushes,  in  nest  of  twigs,  rootlets,  and  strips  of  bark,  lined  with  grasses 
and  rootlets. 


179 

Distribution.  The  Cardinal  in  its  various  subspecies  has  a  wide  distribution  in  the 
United  States  and  the  type  form  crosses  the  Canadian  border  commonly  along  the  western 
end  of  lake  Erie,  occurring  as  scattered  individuals  and  in  isolated  communities  there  and 
in  adjoinging  localities.  The  Eastern  Cardinal,  the  one  here  considered,  is  the  type  form 
of  the  species. 

The  Cardinal  Grosbeak  is  not  generally  distributed  in  Canada,  but  is  a 
permanent  resident  wherever  it  is  found  and  its  gorgeous  colouring  and 
brilliant  whistling  give  an  added  interest  to  nature.  It  may  surprise  many 
that  this  southern  bird  ever  occurs  in  Canada,  but  in  some  sections  along 
the  lake  Erie  shore  it  is  not  only  regular  but  common.  It  should  be 
rigorously  protected  for  its  beauty  as  well  as  for  more  material  reasons. 

Economic  Status.  The  Cardinal  feeds  largely  upon  locusts,  cicadas, 
potato  bugs,  rose  chafers,  plum  and  cherry  scales,  cutworms,  weevils,  and 
other  destructive  pests.  In  addition,  it  takes  weed  seeds  in  considerable 
amount  and  some  wild  fruit.  There  is  no  evidence  that  it  damages  cul- 
tivated varieties. 

.595.  Rose-breasted  Grosbeak,  fr. — gros  bec  a  poitrine  rose.  Zamelodia 
ludoviciana.    L,  812.    Plate  XXXIV  B. 

Distinctions.  The  male  with  his  black  back  and  rose-coloured  bib  is  unmistakable. 
The  female  is  the  only  sharply  streaked  Grosbeak  in  eastern  Canada.  Young  autumn 
males  are  much  like  the  female,  but  have  a  slight  rosy  suffusion  showing  through  the  buff 
colom-  of  the  breast.  They  vary  considerably,  but  indications  of  the  more  pronounced 
spring  plumages  can  usually  be  seen. 

Field  Marks.  A  full  view  of  either  sex  with  their  characteristic  colorations  and 
large  bills  is  distinctive  enough.  The  black-backed  male  with  contrasting  white  rump  and 
wing-bars  can  be  recognized  at  a  glance  even  as  it  vanishes  in  the  brush.  The  female, 
if  not  clearly  seen,  may  be  mistaken  for  the  much  smaller  female  Purple  Finch;  but  the 
unstriped  underparts,  more  heavily  marked  head  with  conspicuous  line  over  the  eye, 
and  more  prominent  white  wing-bars  usually  serve  for  its  identification. 

Nesting.  In  bushes  or  trees  5  to  20  feet  above  ground,  in  nest  of  fine  twigs,  weed 
stalks,  and  rootlets. 

Distribution.  Eastern  America,  north  to  well  beyond  settlement.  Breeds  in  Canada 
wherever  found. 

The  Rose-breasted  Grosbeak  is  one  of  our  most  beautiful  birds  and 
best  songsters.  It  prefers  tangled  thickets  interspersed  with  open  spaces 
and  large  tree  clumps.  It  frequents  thickets  along  rivers,  edges  of  wood- 
land abutting  on  clearings,  overgrown  fence  lines,  and  sometimes  orchards. 

Economic  Status.  If  the  number  of  Rose-breasted  Grosbeaks  could 
be  greatly  increased  on  the  farms  the  potato  bug  scourge  would  soon 
disappear.  This  bird  is  one  of  the  few  that  eats  the  potato  beetle  and  it 
takes  them  in  both  adult  and  larval  stages.  One-tenth  of  the  contents 
of  the  stomachs  examined  consisted  of  potato  bugs  and  this  species  is 
equally  efficient  against  other  insect  pests.  To  increase  the  numbers  of 
Rose-breasted  Grosbeaks  may  be  difficult,  but  the  next  best  thing  is  to 
conserve  what  we  have,  protect  them  from  preventable  destruction,  and 
see  that  suitable  nesting  corners  are  left  in  waste  corners  of  the  farm  and 
woodlot.  In  carrying  out  plans  for  clean  cultivation  and  the  elimination 
of  waste  places,  care  should  be  taken  that  bits  of  shrubbery  are  left  to 
afford  shelter  for  birds  which  without  these  sanctuaries  must  disappear. 
The  preservation  of  the  birds  will  more  than  compensate  for  the  small 
losses  entailed. 

597.  Blue  Grosbeak,  fr. — le  gros-bec  bleu.  Guiraca  ccerulea.  L,  7.  A  small 
Grosbeak,  coloured  like  a  large  Indigo  Bunting,  but  not  quite  as  bright  and  with 
chestnut-rufous  bars  on  wing  and  shoulder. 


180 

Distinctions.  The  plumages  in  seasonal  and  sex  variation  closely  follow  those  of  the 
Indigo  Bunting,  from  which  it  can  be  told  by  size  and  its  Grosbeak  bill.  In  mixed  plumage 
it  may  resemble  the  Bluebird  even  to  the  reddish  breast,  but  the  bill  is  entirely  unlike  the 
bill  of  that  bird.     (See  Figure  50,  p.  26). 

Field  Marks.  The  above  will  suggest  field  marks,  but  the  Blue  Grosbeak  is  too  rare 
in  Canada  to  safely  rely  on  sight  identification. 

Distribution.  Eastern  North  America,  in  the  north  stopping  normally  considerably 
short  of  the  Canadian  border. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  subspecies  of  the  Blue  Grosbeak  to  be  expected  in  Canada  ia 
the  eastern  form,  the  Eastern  Blue  Grosbeak,  the  type  race  of  the  species. 

The  records  of  this  bird's  occurrence  in  Canada  are  too  fragmentary 
for  the  species  to  be  expected  otherwise  than  as  a  rare  and  accidental 
straggler.  It  can  only  be  hoped  for  in  the  southern  parts  and  perhaps 
the  southern  coast. 

598.  Indigo  Bunting,  pr. — le  pinson  indigo.  Passerina  cyanea.  L,  5 '59.  A 
rather  small  sparrow;  the  male,  brilliant  blue  all  over,  the  female  nearly  uniformly 
buffy  rust  colour  with  occasional  faint  suggestions  of  the  blue  of  the  male,  slightly  whitish 
below  with  faint  and  indistinct  stripes.  Autumn  birds  show  intermediate  stages  between 
the  above  coloration  or  with  stronger  reddish  rust. 

Distinctions.  The  Indigo  Bunting  is  our  only  all  blue  bird;  the  Bluebird,  the  only 
comparable  bird,  has  a  reddish  breast.  The  even,  almost  unvaried  dull  rusty  colour  of  the 
female  and  juvenile  distinguishes  them  from  other  species. 

Field  Marks.  The  all  blue  colour  of  the  male  and  the  even  reddish  of  the  females 
and  juveniles. 

Nesting.  Generally  in  the  crotch  of  a  bush  2  to  3  feet  above  ground,  in  nest  of  grasses, 
dead  leaves,  and  strips  of  bark,  lined  with  fine  grasses,  rootlets,  and  long  hairs. 

Distribution.     North  America  east  of  the  plains  and  north  well  into  Canada. 

The  Indigo  Bunting  commonly  frequents  brushy  overgrown  wastes, 
burnt  land,  or  slashes.     It  has  a  pleasing  song. 

Economic  Status.  Our  knowledge  of  the  food  of  the  Indigo  Bunting 
is  not  complete.  There  is  little  doubt  that  it  has  the  usual  food  habits 
of  its  family;  and  it  is  credited  with  doing  good  work  against  the  Brown- 
tailed  Moth.  It  is  undoubtedly  as  worthy  of  protection  as  the  others 
of  its  kind. 

604.  Dickcissel.  Spiza  americana.  L,  6.  Back  striped  with  dark  brown  and 
ruddy  buff  changing  to  solid  dull  red  on  wing  coverts;  hind  neck  slate-grey  to  crown 
where  it  is  strongly  tinged  with  yellow;  cheeks  grey  with  pure  yellow  eyebrow  line. 
White  below;  breast  pure  yellow  and  throat  with  a  sharply  defined  black  throat-patch 
or  bib. 

Distinctions.  The  yellow  breast  and  black  throat,  slightly  suggesting  a  small  Meadow- 
lark,  are  distinctive. 

Distribution.  Eastern  America,  mostly  in  the  interior  and  central  portions.  In 
eastern  Canada,  irregularly  across  our  borders  in  southwestern  Ontario. 

This  beautiful  open  field  species  is  rare  in  Canada.  A  few  have 
appeared  for  a  short  series  of  years  in  the  region  at  the  west  end  of  lake 
Erie  and  then  vanished  to  reappear  some  years  later. 

FAMILY — TANGARIDiE.       TANAGERS.       L,    7  •  25-7  •  50. 

General  Description.  Brilliantly  coloured  birds  with  bills  resembling  those  of  spar- 
rows but  slightly  elongated,  with  an  evenly  curved  culmen,  a  slight  notch  in  the  upper 
mandible  opposite  the  tip  of  the  lower  one  and  a  tooth  and  notch  in  the  middle  of  the 
upper  cutting  edge  (Figure  53,  p.  26).  In  some  species  the  notch  is  too  slight  to  be 
seen  without  careful  examination. 

Distinctions.  Besides  the  bill  features  above,  the  eastern  Canadian  species  can  be 
easily  recognized  by  colour.  The  spring  males  are  birds  of  brilliant  red  coloration,  the 
females  and  autumn  birds  are  dull  warm  yellows  or  greens  with  no  sharp,  detailed  mark- 


181 

ings  and  little  variety  in  colour  except  in  the  even  masses  of  the  wings  find  tail.  Spring 
males  can  only  be  compared  with  the  Cardinal  in  colour,  the  autumn  birds  and  females 
only  with  the  female  Orioles,  but  the  lack  of  crest  of  the  Tanagers  will  easily  separate 
them  from  the  Cardinals  and  the  bill  characters  from  either  the  Cardinals  or  Orioles. 

The  Tanagers  are  a  typically  American  family  that  reaches  its  highest 
development  in  the  Tropics  and  is  only  regularly  represented  in  eastern 
Canada  by  one  species.  As  a  family  the  Tanagers  are  so  closely  related 
to  the  Sparrows  that  the  status  of  some  extralimital  species  is  still  un- 
determined. 

608.  Scarlet  Tanager.  red  bird,  fire  bird,  war  bird.  fr. — le  tangara 
ECARLATE.     Pirauga  erythromelas.     L,  7-25.     Plate  XXXV  A. 

Distinctions.  Excepting  the  next  species,  the  Summer  Tanager,  the  Scarlet  Tanager 
is  only  comparable  with  the  Cardinal,  but  it  is  easily  recognized  by  its  lack  of  crest,  slighter 
and  longer  bill,  and  black  wings  and  tail.  The  even  green  of  the  female  is  distinctive, 
being  approached  only  by  a  few  much  smaller  Warblers  and  the  Orioles.  The  autumn 
male  is  like  the  female,  but  with  black  wings  and  tail. 

Field  Marks.  Brilliant  scarlet  colour,  with  black  wings  and  tail  in  the  male  and 
the  even  green  coloration  and  size  in  other  plumages. 

Nesting.  Usually  near  the  extremity  of  a  branch,  about  20  feet  above  the  ground, 
in  nest  of  leaves,  strips  of  bark,  etc. 

Distribution.     Eastern  America  north  to  near  the  limit  of  settlements. 

The  Scarlet  Tanager  shows  remarkable  seasonal  and  sexual  plumage 
changes.  In  the  spring  the  sexes  are  so  entirely  different  that  one  wonders 
at  their  specific  relationship,  and  in  the  summer  the  brilliant  scarlet  male 
gradually  assumes  the  dull  green  of  his  mate. 

The  Scarlet  Tanager  is  a  bird  of  light  woodlands,  where  large  timber 
grows  with  a  sprinkling  of  small  underbrush  below,  but  in  spring  it 
occasionally  visits  the  orchard.  On  arrival  in  spring  the  Scarlet  Tanager 
is  a  most  conspicuous  object,  but  as  the  trees  put  on  their  leaves  it  becomes 
cautious  in  exposing  itself  and  if  it  were  not  for  its  distinctive  note  "c/itp- 
c/iwr"  that  directs  attention  to  it,  it  would  be  most  difficult  to  find.  The 
song  is  cheerful,  rythmical,  and  fairly  sustained,  something  like  a  robin's 
but  more  connected  and  not  quite  so  clear. 

Economic  Status.  The  food  of  the  Scarlet  Tanager  consists  mostly 
of  insects  and  fruit.  The  insects  are  usually  woodland  species  and  their 
destruction  is  of  importance  to  the  forester  and  fruit  grower.  The  fruit 
eaten  is  mostly  wild,  in  fact  most  birds  prefer  wild  to  domestic  fruit  and 
given  an  abundance  of  the  former  seldom  eat  the  latter.  The  Scarlet 
Tanager  does  no  serious  damage. 

610.  Summer  Tanager.  summer  red-bird.  fr. — tangara  vermillon.  Piranga 
rubra.  L,  7-50.  Much  like  the  Scarlet  Tanager,  but  with  red  instead  of  black  tail  and 
dull  brownish  wings  edged  and  tinged  with  red;  the  females  bear  the  same  relation  to  the 
male  as  do  those  of  the  Scarlet  Tanager. 

Distinctions.  The  wings  and  tail  are  different  from  those  of  the  Scarlet  Tanager  and 
the  red  is  more  rose-coloured,  less  brilliant  and  lighter  below  than  on  the  back.  The 
female  is  a  warm  orange-green  of  quite  a  different  shade  to  the  cold  greenish  of  the  allied 
female.  She  bears  a  fairly  close  resemblance  to  the  female  Baltimore  Oriole,  but  the 
evenly  coloured,  unmarked  back  and  wings  and  the  Tanager  bill  make  separation  easy. 

Distribution.  Southeastern  United  States  and  north  to  the  latitude  of  southern 
Ohio.  Has  been  recorded  in  Canada  near  the  southern  boundary  along  the  lower  Great 
Lakes  and  in  New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia. 

The  Summer  Tanager  is  an  accidental  straggler  in  Canada,  from 
the  south,  along  the  lower  Great  Lakes  and  in  Nova  Scotia  and  New 
Brunswick. 


182 

FAMILY — HIRUNDINID^.       SWALLOWS. 

General  Description.  Mostly  small  birds,  wings  very  long  and  pointed;  feet  small 
and  weak,  unsuited  to  walking;  head  flattened  and  bill  very  short  with  deep  gape  (Figure 
54,  p.  27). 

Distinctions.  Superficially  resembling  the  Goatsuckers,  but  much  smaller  and  of 
different  type  of  coloration.  More  apt  to  be  confused  with  the  Chimney  Swift  than  with 
any  other  species,  but  without  the  spines  at  the  end  of  the  tail  feathers. 

A  world-wide  family,  of  aerial  habits,  seldom  coming  to  the  ground 
except  for  nesting  material.  Their  feet  are  weak  and  suitable  for  alighting 
only  on  small  twigs,  telegraph  wires,  and  similar  perches.  They  take 
their  food  on  the  wing  and  can  often  be  seen  sweeping  over  ponds,  slightly 
furrowing  the  still  surface  as  they  drink.  They  are  skilful  nestraakers 
and  build  a  remarkable  variety  of  forms  from  bottle-necked  structures 
of  kneaded  mud  to  holes  tunnelled  in  earth  banks. 

Economic  Status.  Flying  insects  constitute  almost  the  entire  food 
of  the  Swallows.  Sailing  high  or  low  in  the  air  as  food  results  justify, 
the  Swallows  attack  many  winged  insects  which  are  otherwise  almost 
unmolested.  Over  grain  fields  and  about  barnyards  where  insect  eating 
birds  are  few  the  Swallows  congregate  and  give  efficient  assistance  to  the 
agriculturist.  They  are  sometimes  dirty  when  they  nest  in  numbers 
under  eaves  and  in  similar  situations,  but  instead  of  merely  knocking 
down  the  nests,  suitable  nesting  sites  should  be  provided  about  the  farm 
buildings  where  they  can  congregate  without  offence.  A  large  flock  of 
Swallows  about  the  barnyard  is  of  very  great  advantage  to  the  farmer. 

611.  Purple  Martin,  fr. — l'hirondellb  pourpr^e.  Progne  suhis.  L,  8. 
Plate  XXXV  B. 

Distinctions.  The  largest  of  our  swallows.  Size  and  iridescent  blue  black  coloration 
of  the  male  Martin  should  be  sufficient  for  the  separation  of  the  species. 

Field  Marks.  Size,  colour,  almost  falcon-like  manner  of  flight,  and  the  voice  make 
good  field  marks. 

Nesting.  Under  primeval  conditions  in  hollow  trees.  In  civilization  in  artificial 
bird  houses,  cavities  in  cornices  of  buildings,  etc .  They  are  sociable  nesters  and  prefer 
to  build  in  communities  of  their  own  kind. 

Distribution.  North  America.  A  western  subspecies  occupies  the  Pacific  coast. 
The  eastern  form,  which  is  the  type  race,  frequents  the  most  of  the  settled  sections  of 
eastern  Canada. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  subspecies  of  the  Purple  Martin  that  occurs  in  eastern  Canada 
is  the  Eastern  Martin  P.  s.  subis,  the  type  form. 

Through  the  day  the  birds  scatter  over  the  country,  returning  at 
frequent  intervals  with  food  for  their  young.  At  evening  all  return  to 
the  house  they  occupy  and  retire  within  its  shelter  for  the  night.  The 
young  remain  for  a  considerable  time  in  the  nest  and  even  after  their 
first  flight  old  and  young  return  to  the  nest  at  night.  Martins  are  domestic 
and  sociable  birds  and  greet  each  other  with  welcoming  gurgles  and  chat- 
terings.  Each  is  interested  in  the  other's  family  affairs  and  there  is  a 
constant  interchange  of  visits  between  neighbours.  They  rarely  quarrel 
among  themselves  but  show  a  united  front  to  common  enemies,  especially 
the  English  Sparrow.  A  colony  can  hold  its  own  against  that  pest 
very  well  indeed,  after  it  has  established  itself.  A  Martin  house  should 
contain  several  rooms  about  8  by  8  inches,  weather  and  draft  proof  at 
all  points  except  the  door  which  should  be  about  2  inches  in  diameter 
and  1|  inches  from  the  floor.  The  house  should  stand  15  to  20  feet  above 
the  ground,  up  well  in  the  open,  and  in  such  a  manner  that  it  can  be  lowered 
for  cleaning. 


183 

There  are  indications  that  the  Purple  Martin  is  growing  fewer  in 
numbers.  Old  colonies  from  time  to  time  are  broken  up  and  few  new 
ones  take  their  places.  The  Martins  return  to  their  summer  quarters 
very  early  in  the  spring  and  at  times  suffer  severely  from  late  frosts  and 
cold  rains  which  stop  the  flight  of  insects  and  deprive  them  of  the  necessary 
large  and  constant  amount  of  food. 

Economic  Status.  The  Martin  like  the  other  Swallows  is  a  bird  with 
no  bad  habits,  and  with  so  many  good  ones  that  every  effort  should  be 
made  to  aid  its  increase. 

612.  Clifif  Swallow,  eave  swallow.  mud  swallow.  pr. — l'hirondelle  a 
FRONT  BLANC.  Petrochelidon  lunifrons.  L,  6  01.  Similar  in  general  coloration  to  the 
Barn  Swallow  (Plate  XXXVI  A),  but  different  in  detail  and  without  the  long, 
deeply  forked  tail. 

Distinctions.  Throat,  richer  in  colour  and  more  reddish  brown  than  that  of  the 
Barn  Swallow;  the  brown  colour  extending  in  a  narrow  band  across  the  back  of  the  neck 
and  with  a  black  spot  in  the  middle  of  lower  throat  instead  of  a  broken  black  bar 
across  breast.  Forehead  sharply  contrasting  creamy  white  instead  of  reddish.  Rump 
light  reddish.     Below,  dull  white.     Tail,  almost  square. 

Field  Marks.  The  white  forehead  and  reddish  rump  make  the  best  field  marks. 
The  square  tail  will  separate  it  from  all  Barn  Swallows  except  juveniles  which  have  not 
yet  grown  the  fork. 

Nesting.  A  typical  nest  is  built  entirely  of  mud  carried  in  little  pellets  in  the  bill  and 
on  the  feet.  The  mud  is  mixed  with  saliva  and  plastered  pellet  by  pellet  on  the  wall 
under  the  eaves  of  some  building.  The  nest  is  first  a  shelf  built  out  from  the  wall,  then 
saucer-shaped  and  then  cup-shaped,  in  any  of  which  states  it  may  be  left  as  finished. 
In  the  best  examples  the  sides  are  continued  until  the  nest  assumes  the  shape  of  a  round 
flask  with  the  neck  drawn  over  and  pointing  outwards. 

Distribution.     America.     In  eastern  Canada  to  well  north  of  civilization. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  subspecies  of  the  Cliff  Swallow  occupying  most  of  North  America 
and  all  of  Canada  is  the  Eastern  Cliff  Swallow  P.  I.  lunifrons,  the  type  form  of  the  species. 

Originally  a  cliff  dweller  as  the  name  implies,  within  the  confines  of 
civilization  this  Swallow  now  nests  almost  entirely  on  barns  and  other 
buildings.  It  is  often  of  rather  local  distribution,  different  colonies 
nesting  in  many  cases  in  widely  separated  groups  of  farm  buildings. 

613.  Barn  Swallow,  fr. — l'hirondelle  des  granges.  Hirundo  ervthroaastra. 
L,  6-95.     Plate  XXXVI  A. 

Distinctions.  Broken  black  bar  across  the  chest  beneath  the  reddish  throat,  black 
rump,  and,  in  adult,  long  forked  tail  are  distinctive  of  the  species. 

Field  Marks.  Rufous  tints  beneath  and  black  rump  ai-e  good  field  marks;  also, 
in  the  adult  the  long  forked  tail  and  in  juveniles  the  white  in  the  tail. 

Nesting.  The  nest  is  far  from  being  the  beautiful  structure  the  Cliff  Swallow  builds. 
It  is  largely  made  of  mud  mixed  with  grasses,  lined  with  grass  and  feathers,  and  set  on  a 
support  such  as  a  rafter  or  beam;  but  often  the  slightest  projection  will  be  utilized  as  a 
foundation  upon  which  to  build.  Some  farmers  ensure  the  presence  of  the  birds  about 
the  place  and  induce  them  to  nest  where  they  will  be  unobjectionable  by  furnishing  small 
supports  for  their  nests  close  under  the  eaves  of  their  barns  or  inside  where  they  will  be 
sheltered  but  can  do  no  damage. 

Distribution.     America.     Probably  not  quite  as  northern  as  the  preceding  species. 

This  is  the  Swallow  commonly  nesting  in  barns  and  outbuildings. 
It  not  only  builds  under  the  eaves  but  enters  the  building  and  occupies 
the  interior.  Its  long  "swallow  tail"  assists  in  making  it  perhaps  the 
most  graceful  of  all  the  Canadian  swallows. 

614.  Tree  Swallow,  white-bellied  swallow,  fr. — le  hirondelle  bicolore. 
Iridoprocne  bicoloi:     L,  5-90.     Plate  XXXVI  B. 


184 

Distinctions.  The  even  blackness  with  pronounced  steely  reflections  of  the  opper 
parts  and  pure  whiteness  below  are  distinctive. 

Field  Marks.  The  pure  unmarked  whiteness  of  the  underparts  make  an  easily  re- 
cognized field  mark.  Young  birds  have  the  black  above  replaced  with  dull  brown  and 
a  suggestion  of  suffused  brown  on  the  sides  of  the  breast,  but  this  never  forms  a  con- 
tinuous band  across  the  breast  as  in  the  Bank  Swallow. 

Nesting.  In  old  woodpecker's  holes  in  dead  stubs,  hollow  trees,  or  bird  boxes.  Lined 
with  grasses  and  feathers. 

Distribution.    America  north  to  near  the  limit  of  trees. 

Though  normally  using  woodpecker's  holes  in  dead  stubs  over  the 
water  the  Tree  Swallow  is  easily  induced  to  nest  in  boxes  in  the  garden. 
The  beauty  of  its  bright  iridescence  and  the  grace  of  its  flight  make  ample 
payment  for  the  work  of  preparation,  even  if  its  presence  were  not  an 
important  safeguard  against  insects  in  the  garden.  The  continued  existence 
of  the  species  is  threatened  through  the  growing  scarcity  of  natural  nesting 
sites  unless  an  effort  is  made  to  supply  the  nests  artificially. 

616.  Bank  Swallow,  sand  martin,  pr. — l'hirondelle  de  rivage.  Riparia 
npana.     L,  5-20.     Plate  XXXVII  A. 

Distinctions.  Dull  brown  instead  of  iridescent  coloration  of  back,  and  white  under- 
parts with  distinct  dark  breast-band  are  distinctive.  The  band  is  always  full  and  com- 
plete and  the  white  pure.  The  complete  breast-band  will  separate  the  Bank  from  the 
young  Tree  Swallow;  and  from  the  Rough- winged  in  which  the  white  is  not  pure  and 
the  breast  and  throat  are  evenly  suffused  with  ashy  brown. 

Field  Marks.  The  white  underparts  crossed  by  a  conspicuous  dark  bar  makes  the 
best  field  mark. 

Nesting.  Nearly  every  one  has  seen  how  quickly  the  exposed  sides  of  a  sand  or 
gravel  pit  excavation  become  pitted  with  the  small  nesting  holes  of  these  swallows. 
Too  often  the  heedless  small  boy  digs  them  out.  Not  only  is  this  dangerous  to  the  boy 
from  the  possibility  of  the  bank  caving,  but  it  is  striking  a  direct  blow  at  the  existence  of 
one  of  the  farmer's  best  friends. 

617.  Rough-winged  Swallow.  Stelgidopteryx  serripennis.  L,  5-75.  Much  like  the 
Bank  Swallow  in  general  coloration,  but  with  the  breast  and  throat  suffused  with 
light  ashy-brown  instead  of  being  crossed  with  a  sharp  brown  band. 

Distinctions.  The  above  difference,  together  with  the  absence  of  much  pure  white 
below  and  any  white  on  throat  are  diagnostic.  Grown  birds  have  the  small  outer  web  of 
the  outer  primaries  converted  into  a  series  of  fine  recurved  hooks  almost  too  small  to 
see  with  the  naked  eye,  but  obvious  to  the  touch  as  the  finger  is  drawn  along  the  edge 
towards  the  tip.  Young  birds  do  not  show  this  well,  sometimes  not  at  all,  and  various 
stages  of  its  development  appear.     It  is  present  in  some  degree  in  all  spring  specimens. 

Field  Marks.  The  best  field  mark  by  which  to  separate  the  Rough-winged  from 
the  Bank  Swallow  is  the  evenly  suffused  breast  instead  of  the  white  one  with  broad  dark 
bar.  In  watching  a  mixed  flock  the  Rough-wings  can  usually  be  picked  out  by  the  slightly 
redder  or  rusty-coloured  back  which  seems  more  conspicuous  in  life  than  in  the  hand. 

Nesting.  Similar  to  the  Bank  Swallow,  but  more  solitary  and  perhaps  more  given  to 
nesting  in  crevices  in  rock  piles,  cliffs,  or  masonry. 

Distribution.  America.  North  to  across  the  Canadian  border  in  the  lower  Great 
Lakes  region. 

The  Rough-wings  belong  to  a  genus  widely  scattered  over  the  world, 
all  exhibiting  the  peculiar  modification  of  the  wing  which  cannot  be 
accounted  for  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge. 

FAMILY — BOMBYCILLIDiB.       WAXWINGS. 

The  Waxwings  are  striking  birds,  distributed  over  the  northern  parts  of 
both  the  New  and  Old  Worlds.  They  are  represented  in  America  by  two 
species  so  well  characterized  in  form  and  colour  and  so  nearly  alike  that 


185 

description  here  is  unnecessary.  There  is  remarkably  Httle  seasonal  or  sex 
variation  and  Plate  XXXVII  B  and  Figure  55,  page  27,  designate  them 
plainly.  The  shafts  of  the  secondaries  and  sometimes  those  of  the  tail  are 
enlarged  at  the  tips  into  brilliantly-coloured  appendages  having  a  close 
resemblance  to  bits  of  sealing  wax. 

618.  Bohemian  Waxwing.  wandering  chatterer,  fr. — le  jaseur  de  boheme. 
Bombycilla  garrula.  L,  8.  Almost  exactly  similar  in  form  and  colour  to  the  Cedar  Wax- 
wing,  but  larger;  the  secondaries  are  tipped  with  white  and  most  of  the  primaries  with 
white  or  yellow  or  both ;  there  is  likewise  a  small  white  wing  bar.  The  under  tail  coverts  are 
chestnut  and  the  abdomen  greyish  without  the  yellow  suffusion. 

Distinctions.  No  further  distinctions  are  necessary;  the  Cedar  Waxwing  is  the  only 
species  with  which  it  can  be  confused. 

Field  Marks.  Their  trim  figures  and  conspicuous  crests  easily  identify  the  Wax  wings. 
The  white  or  yellow  on  the  wings  and  the  chestnut  under  tail  coverts  are  the  best  specific 
field  marks. 

Nesting.     In  trees,  in  nest  of  twigs,  roots,  moss,  etc. 

Distribution.  Northern  sections  of  the  northern  hemisphere.  In  America,  breeding 
in  the  far  north,  northwest  of  Hudson  bay,  visiting  settled  districts  irregularly  in  winter. 

Their  irregular  wandering  habits  in  winter  have  given  these  birds  the 
name  "  Bohemian  "  which  in  this  sense  is  synonymous  with  "  wandering." 
They  are  northwestern  birds,  but  come  into  cultivated  sections  of  eastern 
Canada  occasionally  in  winter,  as  does  the  Evening  Grosbeak.  They  are 
too  rare  to  have  any  great  economic  influence.  Their  favourite  food  is  the 
dried  waste  fruit  that  hangs  through  the  winter. 

619.  Cedar  Waxwing.  cedar  bird,  Carolina  waxwing,  cherry  bird,  fr.— 
LB  JASEUR  DU  CEDRE      Bombycilla  cedroruni.     L,  7-19.     Plate  XXXVII  B. 

Distinctions.  With  the  illustration  the  Cedar  Waxwing  can  hardly  be  mistaken  for 
any  other  species  except  the  Bohemian.  For  distinctions  see  that  species.  This  is  the  only 
Waxwing  to  be  seen  in  eastei-n  Canada  in  summer  and  the  most  probable  one,  in  the 
southern  sections,  in  winter. 

Field  Marks.  The  natty  shape  and  bearing  and  the  conspicuous  upstanding  crest  are 
easily  recognizable  field  marks.  The  note,  a  fine  sharp  wheeze,  is  distinctive  and  soon 
learned.     See    previous    species. 

Nesting.  Often  in  fruit  or  shade  trees,  in  a  bulky  structure  of  strips  of  bark,  leaves, 
grasses,  twigs,  rootlets,  moss,  etc.,  lined  with  finer  materials  of  the  same  nature. 

Distribution.  America,  north  in  Canada  to  and  somewhat  beyond  the  limits  of 
regular  cultivation. 

The  Cedar  Waxing  is  one  of  the  famihar  birds  of  the  orchard.  It 
builds  in  the  fruit  trees  in  the  summer  and  is  rather  too  well  known  in  the 
vicinity  of  early  ripening  cherries.  In  the  winter  it  seeks  the  various  kinds 
of  old  dried  fruit  left  hanging  on  the  branches.  The  coloration  is  soft  and 
harmonious  with  just  enough  accent  of  contrasting  colour  to  give  character. 
The  peculiar  smooth,  silky  texture  of  the  plumage  seems  to  cause  the 
feathers  to  cling  together  so  that  they  always  lie  smoothly  and  never  seem 
awry.  The  red-sealing-wax-hke  processes  in  which  the  shafts  of  the 
secondaries  and  sometimes  the  tail  feather  end,  common  to  this  and  the 
Bohemian  Waxwing,  are  unique  amongst  American  birds  and  give  an  added 
touch    of    individuality. 

Economic  Status.  About  13  per  cent  of  the  Waxwing's  food  is  noxious 
insects,  the  remainder  largely  fruit.  The  greater  part  of  the  fruit  is  wild 
and  of  no  economic  importance,  in  fact,  as  with  most  birds,  wild  fruits  are 
evidently    much    preferred    to    cultivated    ones.     However,    when    early 


186 

cherries  ripen  before  wild  forms  the  damage  Waxwings  can  do  is  con- 
siderable. The  same  amount  of  fruit  distributed  over  many  later  trees 
might  pass  unnoticed,  but  when  the  damage  is  concentrated  upon  the  earliest 
and  most  valuable  part  of  the  crop  the  loss  is  keenly  felt.  The  protection 
of  early  fruit  from  the  depredations  of  this  and  a  few  other  species  of  like 
habit  is  a  subject  that  has  received  considerable  attention.  To  shoot  all 
birds  visiting  the  orchard  is  one  solution,  but  a  very  poor  one.  It  gives  only 
partial  protection  and  has  to  be  repeated  each  season;  for  as  long  as  any 
rema  n  in  the  vicinity  the  annual  increase  will  undo  the  results  of  previous 
efforts.  Besides,  the  entire  community  is  deprived  of  the  valuable 
assistance  of  a  number  of  species  in  order  that  a  certain  amount  of  early 
fruit  may  be  protected.  A  cover  of  netting  is  generally  cheaper  than 
shooting.  As  the  birds  prefer  wild  to  cultivated  fruit  early  ripening  wild 
fruit  trees  in  waste  corners  and  along  fences  provide  inexpensive  protection. 
The  Russian  Mulberry  and  Service-berry  and  later,  the  Black-currant, 
Mountain  ash.  Raspberries,  and  Blackberries,  Sumach,  Alder,  Wild  grape. 
Bittersweet,  Nightshade,  Snowberry,  and  Elders  will  serve  the  purpose. 

FAMILY — LANIIDiE.       L.    9-10-32.       SHRIKES.       BUTCHER-BIRDS. 

General  Description.  The  Shrikes  are  medium-sized  passerine  birds  of  raptorial 
nature.  They  are  easily  recognized  by  their  bills  which  are  plainly  hooked  at  the  tip  and 
furnished  with  a  notch  and  tooth  near  the  end  of  the  upper  mandible  (Figure  56,  page  27). 
The  two  species  which  occur  in  Canada  are  very  similar  in  coloration  and  differ  in  minor 
characters  only  (Plate  XXXVIII  A). 

The  Shrikes  are  interesting  examples  of  passerine  or  seed  and  insect- 
eating  birds  adapted  for  a  predatory  life.  The  true  raptores,  the  Hawks, 
etc.,  which  also  prey  upon  the  higher  living  forms,  have  powerful  feet  with 
which  to  secure  their  food  and  hold  it  while  they  tear  it  with  their  bills. 
The  Shrikes  are  without  these  efficient  grasping  and  holding  limbs,  having 
in  fact  feet  no  stronger  than  those  of  a  sparrow  or  blackbird  of  equal  size. 
They,  therefore,  seize  prey  with  their  bill  and,  to  hold  it  while  feeding, 
have  evolved  the  habit  of  impaling  it  upon  strong  thorns,  etc.;  this  habit 
gives  them  the  popular  title  of  Butcher-bird.  Shrikes  are  bold,  spirited 
birds  and  quite  as  daring  and  capable  in  proportion  to  their  size  as  any  of 
the  true  birds  of  prey.  The  family  is  large  and  widely  distributed.  Only 
one  genus  is  represented  in  America  and  two  species  in  North  America. 

621.  Northern  Shrike,  butcher-bird.  fr. — la  pie-greiche  boreale.  Lanius 
borealis.  L,  10-32.  Similar  to  the  Loggerhead  Shrike,  (Plate  XXXVIII  A)  but 
larger  and  with  a  series  of  fine  wavy  lines  or  vermiculations  faintly  showing  across  most  of 
the  underparts. 

Distinctions.  General  coloration  and  notched  bill  will  distinguish  this  as  a  Shrike. 
Size  and  the  distinct  vermiculations  below  will  characterize  it  as  the  Northern  Shrike. 

Field  Marks.  The  sharply  contrasted  amount  of  black  and  white  on  the  wings  and 
tail,  the  grey  upperparts,  and  the  black  band  through  eye.  Any  Shrike  seen  in  eastern 
Canada  in  winter  between  October  and  March  will  be  of  this  species. 

Nesting.     In  low  trees  or  bushes  in  nest  of  twigs,  grasses,  etc. 

Distribution.  Northern  America,  breeding  beyond  regular  settlement  across  the 
continent,  south  in  winter. 

The  Northern  Shrike  is  the  bolder  and  more  energetic  of  our  two  species. 
It  is  a  northern  breeder  and  is  only  seen  in  cultivated  sections  in  the  winter 
where  it  follows  the  flocks  of  Snow  Buntings,  Redpolls,  etc.    It  has  shown 


187 

some  tendency  to  come  into  cities  and  villages  in  pursuit  of  the  House  or 
English  Sparrow,  in  which  work  it  is  to  be  encouraged  in  every  way.  Dry, 
mummied  mice  and  birds  occasionally  found  pinned  to  thorns  and 
barbs  of  wire  fences  or  hanging  from  the  close  forks  of  twigs  are  usually 
the  work  of  this  species. 

Economic  Status.  Though  thoroughly  raptorial  in  habit  the  Northern 
Shrike  cannot  be  said  to  do  a  great  amount  of  damage.  It  is  not  common 
enough  within  settlement  to  be  a  serious  factor  in  the  small  bird  life  of  the 
fields.  It  catches  numbers  of  mice  and  probably  its  attacks  on  them  and 
on  the  House  or  English  Sparrow  compensate  for  the  seed-eating  birds  it 
takes. 

622.  Loggerhead  Shrike,  migrant  shrike,  butcher-bird.  fr. — Lanius  Ivdo- 
vicianus.     L,  9.     Plate  XXXVIII  A. 

Distinctions.  This  species  can  hardly  be  mistaken  for  any  thing  but  the  Northern 
and  it  is  considerably  smaller  than  that  species.  The  adult  is  without  the  fine  vermi- 
culations  of  the  breast  and  in  the  juvenile  they  are  only  faintly  suggested.  A  summer  and 
not  a  winter  bird  in  Canada. 

Field  Marks.  The  clear  white  and  light  grey  of  the  body  plumage,  black  wings,  and  tail 
strongly  accentuated  with  white  ,  and  the  black  band  through  the  face  are  distinctive  of  the 
Shrikes.     Any  summer  Shrike  within  the  cultivated  sections  will  be  of  this  species. 

Nesting.  Nest  of  strips  of  bark,  small  twigs,  and  vegetable  fibres  lined  with  fitted 
wool  and  feathers. 

Distribution.  As  a  species,  North  America  north  to  the  limit  of  cultivation.  The 
migrant  Shrike  occupies  eastern  North  America  north  of  the  gulf  states  and  west  to  the 
prairie  provinces. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Loggerhead  Shrike,  like  many  other  wide  ranging  species, 
develops  various  local  characteristics  in  different  parts  of  its  diversified  range,  each  forming 
a  recognized  subspecies.  The  form  occupying  eastern  Canada  is  the  Migrant  Shrike,  L.l. 
migrans  separable  from  the  type  subspecies  in  the  southern  states  or  the  White-rumped  of 
the  west  by  only  slight  differences  of  colour  and  proportions. 

The  Loggerhead  is  a  bird  of  open,  brushy  pastures  and  hillsides. 
Thorn-apple  trees,  cropped  and  trimmed  by  cattle  until  dense  and  repellent 
are  its  favourite  nesting  sites  and  in  such  neighbourhoods  it  can  usually 
be  seen  on  some  commanding  perch,  such  as  the  tip  of  a  dead  sapling  or 
a  telegraph  wire,  keenly  regarding  the  surrounding  country.  The  impaling 
of  prey  is  not  quite  as  strongly  developed  a  habit  in  this  species  as  in  the 
previous  one,  probably  because  it  is  more  insectivorous  and  can  handle 
much  of  its  smaller  prey  without  so  doing.  At  any  rate  evidence  in  the 
shape  of  remains  stuck  on  thorns  is  decidedly  rare  in  haunts  where  the 
species  is  common  and  where  it  would  be  expected  to  be  numerous. 
The  song  of  the  Loggerhead  Shrike  is  quite  musical  and  pleasing,  but  the 
call  notes  are  harsh  and  discordant. 

Economic  Status.  The  food  habits  of  the  Loggerhead  are  similar 
to  those  of  the  Northern  Shrike,  differing  only  as  would  be  expected  in  a 
smaller  and  weaker  bird  and  a  summer  rather  than  a  winter  resident. 
Thus  we  find  fewer  birds  and  mammals  and  more  insects  are  taken,  indeed 
during  the  height  of  the  insect  season  the  latter  seem  to  constitute  the 
greater  part  of  its  food.  Early  in  the  season  great  numbers  of  beetles  are 
eaten,  useful  and  harmful  forms  being  about  equally  divided  in  numbers. 
Later,  grasshoppers  and  crickets  form  a  large  proportion  of  the  food,  but 
numbers  of  caterpillars,   many  of  them  hairy,   cutworms,   some  wasps, 

57172—13 


188 

spiders,  and  other  insect  forms  are  also  taken.  The  food  of  the  species 
throughout  the  year  is  regarded  by  the  United  States  Biological  Survey 
as  being  beneficial  in  the  ratio  of  4  to  1. 

FAMILY — VIREONID^.       VIREOS    OR    GREENLETS.       L,  4- 75-6 -23. 

General  Description.  Small,  warbler-like  birds  generally  coloured  in  greens  and  white 
with  more  or  less  yellow  in  softly  suffused  masses  and  without  much  definite  marking. 
The  bill  is  perceptibly  notched  and  hooked  at  the  tip  much  like  that  of  the  Shrike  (Figure 
56,  page  56\  but  is  on  a  much  smaller  and  much  lighter  scale. 

Distinctions.  The  Vireos  are  most  apt  to  be  mistaken  for  warblers  which  in  habit, 
size,  and  general  coloration  they  resemble.  The  bills,  however,  are  stouter,  more  strongly 
arched  on  the  culmen,  higher  for  the  width,  and  more  evidently  hooked  and  notched 
at  the  tip.  The  Yellow-breasted  Chat  has  a  bill  that  might  answer  this  description 
in  outline,  but  it  is  not  hooked  nor  has  it  any  indication  of  notch  at  tip. 

Field  Marks.  In  addition  to  specific  markings,  which  form  the  best  guide  to 
species,  the  Vireos  can  be  recognized  by  their  warbler-like  habits  but  slower  and  more 
sluggish  movements,  peering  under  leaves  and  gleaning  from  the  branches  and  twigs  with 
less  activity. 

The  Vireos  constitute  a  small  family  peculiar  to  America.  Three 
genera  occur  in  Canada,  represented  by  six  species. 

Economic  Status.  Economically  the  Vireos  can  be  treated  together 
as  they  are  similar  in  their  food  habits.  Their  food  consists  of  91  per  cent 
of  insects  and  the  remainder  of  fruits.  The  latter  are  almost  without 
exception  wild  varieties.  The  insects  taken  are  among  the  most  harmful, 
including  scales  and  other  close  lying  species  that  no  birds  but  the  careful, 
close-peering  Vireos  ordinarily  seek.  They  are  among  our  more  useful 
birds. 

624.  Red-eyed  Vireo.  preacher-bird,  teacher,  fr. — le  vireo  aux  tetjx 
ROUGES.     Vireosylva  olivacea.     L,  6-23.     Plate  XXXVIII  B. 

Distinctions.  The  Red-eyed  can  be  distinguished  from  other  Vireos  by  its  superior 
size,  the  lack  of  yellow,  the  grey  confined  to  the  crown,  and  the  white  eyebrow  line  bordered 
with  dark  both  above  and  below.  The  iris  is  red,  but  this  can  only  be  seen  on  very  close 
examination. 

Field  Marks.  The  markings  of  the  face  of  the  Red-eyed  makes  the  best  field  mark. 
The  white  eyebrow  bordered  with  darker  colour  and  the  lower  line  through  the  eye  can 
usually  be  seen  as  the  bird  peers  through  the  leaves  at  the  intruder. 

Nesting.  Suspended  from  between  the  forks  of  a  small  branch  5  to  15  feet  above  the 
ground  in  pensile  nest  or  hanging-cup,  woven  of  strips  of  bark,  dead  wood  fibres,  paper, 
plant  down,  or  birch  bark  lined  with  fine  materials. 

Distribution.     North  America  to  near  the  limit  of  trees. 

The  Red-eyed  Vireo  is  one  of  the  commonest  frequenters  of  our 
groves  and  woods.  Its  song,  a  leisurely  repetition  of  slight  variants  of  the 
same  phrase  with  pauses  between,  and  continued  ad  libitum,  can  be  heard 
in  the  tree  tops  almost  anywhere  in  Canada  and  has  given  the  species  the 
name  of  Preacher-bird. 

626.  Philadelphia  Vireo.  fr. — le  vireo  de  philadelphie.  Vireosylva  phil- 
adelphica.  L,  4-75.  Ahnost  exactly  similar  in  coloration  to  the  Warbling  Vireo  (Plate 
XXXIX  A)  but  more  generally  suffused  with  yellow  on  breast,  flanks,  and  below. 

Distinctions.  The  Philadelphia  can  always  be  separated  from  the  Warbling  Vireo  by 
the  length  of  the  first  primary  feather.  In  this  species  it  is  nearly  as  long  as  the  second, 
whereas  in  the  Warbling  it  "is  reduced  to  a  rudimentary  condition  and  is  barely  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  in  length. 

Field  Marks.  In  life  it  looks  like  a  Warbling  Vireo  with  unusually  yellow  breast  and 
underparts. 


189 

Nesting.  Suspended  from  a  branch  about  8  feet  from  the  ground  in  pensile  nest  of 
fibres  and  birch  bark. 

Distribution.  Eastern  America.  More  northern  in  breeding  range  than  the  Warbling 
and  only  a  migrant  in  most  of  the  settled  sections  of  Canada. 

Usually  a  rather  rare  little  Vireo  and  too  inconspicuous  to  be  often 
seen  or  recognized  by  the  ordinary  observer. 

627.  Warbling  Vireo.  fr. — lb  vireo  gris-olive.  Vireosylva  gilva.  L,  5-80. 
Plate  XXXIX  A. 

Distinctions.  The  even  unmarked  coloration  and  small  size  will  distinguish  the 
Warbling  from  any  other  Vireo  except  the  Philadelphia.  The  lack  of  yellow  overwash  in 
front  and  below  will  usually  be  diagnostic.  The  final  test  of  the  species,  however,  is  the 
email  rudimentary  condition  of  the  first  primary  which  is  hardly  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
long  instead  of  one  and  three-quarters. 

Field  Marks.  The  almost  piu"e  white  underparts  instead  of  the  yellow  suffusion  of 
the  Philadelphia  makes  the  best  recognition  mark  from  that  species  and  the  small  size  and 
dull  even  coloration  from  other  Vireos. 

Nesting.  Suspended  between  the  forks  of  a  small  branch  15  to  50  feet  above  the  ground 
in  pensile  nest  of  fine  bark  strips  and  plant  fibres,  smoothly  and  firmly  interwoven  and 
lined  with  pine  needles  and  hairs. 

Distribution.  As  a  species,  occupies  all  of  temperate  America;  the  Eastern  Warbling 
Vireo  extends  west  to  the  prairie  provinces. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Warbling  Vireo  is  divided  into  an  eastern  and  a  western  sub- 
epecies.  The  Eastern  Warbling  Vireo  V.  g.  gilva,  the  type  of  the  species,  is  the  only  one 
met  with  in  eastern  Canada. 

The  Warbling  Vireo,  hidden  in  leafy  tree  tops,  is  more  often  heard 
than  seen.  Its  song  is  very  different  from  that  of  the  Red-eyed,  being 
continuous  and  not  composed  of  disconnected  phrases. 

628.  Yellow- throated  Vireo.  fr. — le  vireo  X  front  jatjne.  Lanivireo  flavifrons. 
L,  5  95.  Head,  cheeks,  and  back  greenish;  rump  and  tail  slaty;  breast  and  thi'oat  bright 
yellow;  below  white;  wings  with  two  distinct  white  bars. 

Distindions.  The  bright  yellow  breast  and  throat  of  this  species  is  distinctive.  The 
Solitary  and  the  White-eyed  are  the  only  other  Vireos  with  wing  bars.  In  the  former  the 
bars  are  white  as  in  the  breast,  in  the  latter  the  bars  are  yellowish.  In  coloration  the  Yellow- 
throated  Vireo  is  very  similar  to  the  Pine  Warbler,  but  there  is  much  less  white  on  the  under- 
parts of  the  latter  species,  the  yellow  suffusing  and  covering  most  of  it  instead  of  stopping 
almost  sharply  at  the  breast  line. 

Field  Marks.  The  bright  yellow  throat  and  breast  are  distinctly  recognizable  and 
prevent  confusion  with  any  other  native  Vireo.  The  voice,  similar  to  that  of  the  Red- 
eyed  but  with  the  phrases  following  each  other  less  rapidly  2  to  3  seconds  apart  instead  of 
about  one  per  second,  will  distinguish  it  from  others  of  its  family  or  from  the  Warblers. 

Nesting.  Suspended  from  a  forked  branch  10  to  80  feet  above  the  ground,  in  pensile 
nest  of  strips  of  bark,  plant  fibres,  etc.,  lined  with  fine  grasses  and  covered  externally  with 
lichens,  spider  webs,  etc. 

Distribution.  Eastern  North  America.  Common  in  eastern  Canada  only  in  the 
southern  parts  of  the  lower  Great  Lakes  region. 

A  woodland  and  orchard  bird.  Besides  its  characteristic  song  it  is  a 
maker  of  many  queer  noises  and  has  an  extensive  vocabulary. 

629.  Solitary  Vireo.  blue-headed  vireo.  fr.  —  le  vireo  a  tIitb  bleue. 
Lanivireo  solitariiis.  L,  5  61.  Back  greenish  shading  into  bluish  ash  on  head  and  adjacent 
parts  of  cheeks;  white  loral  spot  and  white  ring  about  eye;  all  underparts  white  with  suffu- 
sion of  yellow  on  flanks;  wings  with  two  whitish  bars. 

Distinctions.  The  ashy  blue  head  with  conspicuous  white  lores  and  eye-ring  are 
distinctive. 

Field  Marks.  The  bluish  head  with  conspicuous  white  eye-ring  and  lores  and  pure 
white  throat  make  conspicuous  field  marks. 

Nesting.  Suspended  from  between  the  forks  of  a  small  branch  5  to  10  feet  above  the 
giound,  in  pensile  nest  of  wood  fibres,  bark  strips,  and  pine  needles,  plant  down,  etc. 

57172—13* 


190 

Distribution.  As  a  species  the  Solitary  Vireo  extends  over  all  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada  north  to  the  extreme  limits  of  settlements.  The  Blue-headed,  the  eastern  repre- 
sentative of  the  species,  ranges  west  to  central  Alberta. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Solitary  Vireo  is  divided  into  several  subspecies,  only  one  of 
which,  the  Blue-headed  Vireo  L.  s.  solilarius,  the  type  form,  occurs  in  eastern  Canada. 

A  pretty  little  Vireo  and  a  common  inhabitant  of  woodland  and 
orchard  during  migrations.  The  song  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Red-eyed, 
but  an  attentive  ear  can  easily  distinguish  between  them. 

631.  White-eyed  Vireo.  Vireo  griseus.  L,  5  27.  A  small  Vireo  like  the  Warbling 
but  of  much  richer  gieen  colour  on  back  and  with  yellow  loral  mark  and  eye-ring;  iris 
white.  Throat  and  underparts  almost  pure  white;  strongly  yellow  on  flanks;  wings  have 
two  yellowish  bars. 

Distinctions.  Wliite  iris,  yellow  eye-ring  and  loral  mark,  strong  yellow  on  flanks,  and 
white  breast  and  abdomen. 

Field  Marks.  This  species  is  too  rare  in  Canada  and  too  similar  to  other  species  to 
be  recorded  on  eyesight  observation  alone. 

Nesting.     Nest  usually  similar  to  that  of  the  Red-eyed. 

Distribution.  All  forms  of  the  species  are  southern.  The  eastern  White-eyed  occurs 
in  the  eastern  United  States  north  to  New  York  and  Massachusetts  and  is  only  accidental 
in  Canada. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  White-eyed  Vireo  is  represented  by  several  subspecies,  the 
t3T)e  form,  the  Northern  White-eye  V.  g.  griseus  being  the  only  one  which  occurs  in  Canada. 

A  bird  of  the  south  noted  for  its  remarkable  voice.  This  species  is 
included  here  on  the  basis  of  a  few  records  scattered  along  the  southern 
borders  of  Canada. 

FAMILY MNIOTILTIDiE.       WOOD  WARBLERS.   L,    4  •  25-7  •  44. 

General  Description.  Small  birds,  only  one  Canadian  species  being  over  6-28  inches 
long  and  very  few  over  5.75.  They  are  usually  bright  coloured  woodland  and  treetop 
birds  though  a  few  inhabit  the  ground  and  the  grass.  They  are,  as  a  family,  difficult 
of  diagnosis  and  the  genera  can  be  most  easily  recognized  by  the  bills  (Figures  57,  58,  59, 
p.  27)  though  considerable  famiharity  with  the  species  is  necessary  to  recognize  the 
generic  characteristics. 

Field  Marks.  No  reliable  field  marks  which  cover  the  whole  family  can  be  given. 
However,  after  a  little  experience  with  them  their  small  size,  bright  colours,  and  sprightly 
actions  are  easily  recognized.     They  are  most  likely  to  be  confused  with  the  Vireos. 

Nesting.  The  nesting  habits  of  the  family  are  various,  some  build  in  trees,  from  down 
near  the  ground  to  well  up  towards  the  tops  of  the  taller  trees,  others  on  the  ground  or  in 
grass,  and  some  in  holes  in  dead  stubs,  etc. 

Distribution.  Most  of  the  warblers  breed  in  the  northern  spruce  woods  beyond  the 
limits  of  general  settlement.  A  few  nest  in  the  more  cultivated  sections  and  some  just 
cross  the  International  Boundary.  All  are  migratory  and  spend  the  winter,  according  to 
species,  from  northern  United  States  south  to  the  Amazon  country  of  South  America. 

The  American  Wood  Warblers  constitute  a  large  family  peculiar  to 
the  Americas.  In  fact  they  divide  the  honours  in  point  of  numbers  with 
the  sparrows.  The  Warblers  are  the  delight  of  the  amateur  bird  observer. 
So  small  that  few  but  the  enthusiast  ever  see  them,  but  so  numerous  and 
brilliantly-coloured  that  their  discovery  opens  up  a  new  world  of  interest 
to  the  beginner.  The  sexes  are  usually  dissimilar  and  there  is  considerable 
seasonal  change  in  plumage.  This,  multiplied  by  the  large  number  of 
species  makes  the  task  of  identifying  all  of  them  seem  almost  hopeless  to 
the  beginner.  It  is  not,  however,  as  difficult  as  it  seems  at  first.  The 
spring  males  are  usually  distinctly  marked  and  as  many  of  them  are  fur- 
nished with  descriptive  names  their  differentiation  is  comparatively  simple. 


191 

As  the  females  and  autumn  birds  almost  invariably  retain  suggestions  of 
the  characteristic  spring  markings  of  the  males  the  difficulty  is  really  less 
than  is  generally  anticipated.  Of  course,  puzzling  specimens  occur  which 
give  even  the  experts  some  difficulty,  but  it  is  usually  an  alternative  between 
two  species,  which  can  be  settled  by  giving  attention  to  one  or  more 
small  details.  In  studying  the  warblers  the  observer  is  advised  to  first 
become  familiar  with  the  spring  males.  When  the  males  of  the  common 
species  are  known,  a  comparatively  easy  matter  with  such  strongly  char- 
acterized forms,  most  of  the  females  are  recognized  without  much  difficulty 
as  they  usually  carry  a  subdued  reflection  of  their  mate's  brighter  colour 
pattern.  In  the  autumn,  most  juveniles  resemble  the  females  closely 
enough  to  make  recognition  not  so  very  difficult.  There  are  thus  compara- 
tively few  plumages  besides  the  spring  males  that  have  to  be  learned 
individually.  The  Canadian  Warblers  represent  twelve  genera,  seven  of 
which  are  represented  by  single  species  only.  Dendroica  has  sixteen  species, 
Vermivora  five,  and  three  others  are  represented  by  three  species  each. 
The  generic  details  of  the  most  important  will  be  discussed  under  their 
proper  headings. 

Though  called  "Warblers"  their  song  should  as  a  rule  hardly  be 
dignified  by  such  a  term.  With  few  exceptions  the  songs  are  only  insig- 
nificant little  notes  without  much  prolonged  continuity,  but  as  they  are 
often  specifically  distinctive  the  student  is  advised  to  pay  close  attention 
to  them,  for  when  the  great  warbler  migrations  are  on,  the  presence  of  a 
new  or  rare  species  is  often  first  made  known  by  a  single  unfamiliar  sound 
directing  attention  from  the  many  to  the  one  that  would  otherwise  escape 
notice. 

Economic  Status.  The  Warblers  are  highly  insectivorous.  A  few- 
take  more  or  less  seed  and  a  little  fruit,  the  latter  almost  invariably  wild, 
and  no  complaints  have  been  made  against  any  of  the  family.  Their 
effect,  therefore,  is  wholly  beneficial.  Being  active  they  reach  all  kinds  of 
insect  habitats  from  the  axils  of  highest  flung  leaves  to  between  blades  of 
grass  on  the  ground,  and  as  they  are  small  they  are  satisfied  to  take  insects 
and  insect  eggs  that  are  too  insignificant  or  too  well  hidden  to  receive  the 
attention  of  larger  birds. 

636.  Black  and  White  Warbler,  black  and  white  creeper,  fr. — la  fauvette 
NOIRE  ET  BLANCHE.  MniotUto  varia.  L,  5-30.  Plate  XXXIX  B.  There  is  little 
plumage  variation. 

Distinctions.  A  small  black  and  white  warbler  which  creeps  about  holes  and  branches 
hke  a  woodpecker.  In  the  autumn  the  colours  of  the  young  bird  are  similar  to  those  of 
the  adult  but  slightly  veiled  and  have  small  washes  of  buff  and  less  black  on  the  throat. 
It  is  only  to  be  mistaken  in  spring  for  the  Black-poll  but  the  white  median  stripe  on  the 
crown  instead  of  all  black  can  distinguish  it  from  that  species. 

Field  Marks.  Its  creeping  habits,  strong  black  and  white  coloration  with  median 
crown  stripe.  In  the  autumn  it  is  the  only  all  black  and  white  warbler  to  be  seen  in  eastern 
Canada. 

Nesting.  On  ground  at  the  base  of  a  stump,  log,  or  rock,  in  nest  of  strips  of  bark, 
grasses,  etc.,  hned  with  rootlets  and  long  hair. 

Distribution.  Eastern  North  America;  breeds  in  most  of  Canada  north  to  well  beyond 
the  settlements. 

This  is  one  of  the  earliest  warblers  to  arrive  in  the  spring  and  one  of 
the  easiest  to  identify  at  any  time  as  it  is  always  well  marked  and  there  is 
little  difference  in  seasonal  or  sexual  coloration. 


192 

637.  Prothonotary  Warbler.  Protonotaria  citrea.  L,  5-50.  A  golden  yellow  war- 
bler, bright  rich  chrome  or  golden  on  head  and  most  of  underparts  and  with  greyish 
wings,  tail,  and  rump.    There  is  little  plumage  variation. 

Distinctions.  The  only  warbler  with  an  intense  even  golden  head,  neck  and  breast 
without  wing-bars.  The  Pine  and  Wilson's  Warbler  have  green  or  black  crowns;  the 
Yellow  Warbler  is  without  the  grey  wings  and  tail  and  is  lemon  yellow  rather  than 
orange  or  golden. 

Field  Marks.  The  Prothonotary  is  too  rare  a  species  in  Canada  to  record  from 
living  specimens. 

Nesting.  In  a  hole  in  a  stub  or  stump  in  nest  of  rootlets,  fine  twigs  and  moss,  plant 
down,  or  feathers. 

Distribution.  Mississippi  valley  north  barely  to  Canadian  boundary  which  it  only 
crosses  accidentally  in  the  lower  Great  Lakes  region. 

This  is  only  included  in  the  Canadian  list  on  the  basis  of  a  few  accidental 
occurrences  in  the  lower  Great  Lakes  region.  It  is  a  bird  of  drowned  lands, 
and  of  bushes  standing  in  dead  water. 

Genus — Vermivora,     Worm-eating  Warblers. 

The  genus  Vermivora  is  a  group  of  small  slightly  built  warblers  in 
which  the  following  characters  are  most  easily  recognized.  The  bill  is 
small,  sharply  pointed,  almost  spine-like,  and  the  culmen  line  is  straight  or 
almost  concave  rather  than  convex  or  slightly  arched  (Figure  57,  p.  27). 
The  tails  are  solidly  coloured  and  without  white  spots. 

639.  Worm-eating  Warbler.  Helmitheros  vermivorus.  L,  5-51.  Dull  olive  above; 
head  buffy  with  conspicuously  contrasting  dark  brown  lines  through  the  eye  and  bor- 
dering crown.    There  is  little  plumage  variation. 

Distinctions.  The  only  warbler  with  this  distinctive  dark  and  buffy  head  marking. 
The  bill  is  rather  heavy  for  a  warbler  of  tliis  genus. 

Field  Marks.     Too  rare  in  Canada  to  trust  to  sight  record  for  identification. 

Nesting.     On  ground;  nest  of  rootlets,  leaves,  and  bark. 

Distribution.    Eastern  United  States;  only  one  record  in  Canada,  in  southern  Ontario. 

A  bird  of  wooded  banks  or  swampy  thickets,  feeding  near  the  ground. 

641.  Blue- winged  Warbler.  Vermivora  pinus.  L,  4-80.  A  green  warbler  with 
yellow  forehead,  throat,  breast,  and  underparts;  a  fine  black  line  through  eye  and  blue- 
grey  wings  and  tail.  Two  white  wing-bars.  Female  similar  but  duller.  Little  plumage 
variation. 

Distinctions.  The  bright  yellow  face  and  underparts  with  black  eye  stripe  and  blue- 
grey  wings  with  white  bars  are  distinctive. 

Field  Marks.    Too  rare  in  Canada  to  rely  on  field  marks  for  identification. 

Nesting.  On  ground  generally  in  or  at  the  border  of  second  growth  in  nest  of  bark 
and  leaves  lined  with  fine  strips  of  bark  and  tendrils,  firmly  wrapped  with  leaves. 

Distribution.  Eastern  North  America;  regularly  stopping  south  of  the  Canadian 
border  and  only  accidentally  crossing  it  in  southern  Ontario. 

Though  taken  only  once  in  Canada  this  is  a  most  interesting  species  as 
it  hybridizes  with  the  next  species,  the  Golden-Winged,  forming  puzzling 
hybrids  that  were  long  regarded  as  separate  species  under  the  names  of 
Lawrence's  and  Brewster's  Warblers. 

642.  Golden-winged  Warbler.  Vermivora  chrysoptera.  L,  5-10.  A  blue-grey 
warbler;  male,  white  or  very  light  grey  below  darkening  on  the  flanks,  with  yellow  cap 
and  wing-patch  and  black  cheeks  and  throat.  Female  Similar  to  male  but  somewhat 
reduced  in  brightness  and  the  blacks  represented  by  dark  grey.  There  is  little  age  or 
seasonal  plumage  variation. 

Distinctions.  The  blue-grey  body,  yellow  wing  patch,  and  black  throat  and  eye- 
patches  are  distinctive. 


193 

Field  Marks.  The  above  marks  are  easily  recognizable  in  life.  The  black  throat 
somewhat  suggests  the  Chickadee  but  the  other  marLs  make  it  easy  to  separate  them. 

Nesting.  On  ground  or  in  bushy  fields  or  second  growth  in  nest  much  hke  that  of 
Blue-winged  Warbler. 

Distribution.  Eastern  United  States;  regularly  crossing  our  borders  only  in  southern 
Ontario  along  lake  Erie  and  the  lower  corner  of  lake  Huron. 

Usually  found  in  shrubby  wastes  or  the  bushy  edges  of  woodland. 
To  be  expected  only  in  southern  Ontario. 

645.  Nashville  Warbler.  fr. — la  fauvette  de  nashville.  Vermivora  rub- 
ricapilla.  L,  4-77.  A  yellow  and  green  warbler  with  a  greyish  head  and  a  more  or  less 
concealed  chestnut  crown  patch.  Sex,  season,  and  age  plumages  varying  only  in  intensity 
of  yellow  and  the  amount  of  chestnut  in  cap.  In  females  the  cap  may  be  entirely  concealed 
by  the  grey  edgings  of  the  feathers  and  occasionally  it  may  be  altogether  absent. 

Distinctions.  The  unmarked  green  above  and  yellow  all  below  to  tail,  but  brightest 
on  throat  and  breast;  and  the  grey  or  greyish  head  and  cheeks  are  distinctive.  This  greyish 
head  and  hind  neck  may  not  be  marked  but  is  always  present  as  a  slight  differentiation 
from  the  green  back.  When  present  the  chestnut  crown  (not  orange-rufous  as  in  the 
Orange-crowned  Warbler)   is  an  unmistakable  specific  character. 

Field  Marks.     Bright  yellow,  unstreaked  underparts  and  grey  head  and  cheeks. 

Nesting.  On  ground  in  partial  clearings  or  tree  grown  pastures  in  nest  of  grasses  and 
moss  lined  with  finer  grasses  and  fine  rootlets. 

Distribution.  Eastern  North  America.  In  Canada  north  to  beyond  the  settlements. 
The  Eastern  Nashville  Warbler  extends  west  to  near  the  mountains. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Nashville  Warbler  is  divided  into  the  Eastern  Nashville,  the 
type  form,  V.  r.  rubicapilla,  and  an  extreme  western  one  the  Calaveras  Warbler. 

This  warbler  is  most  likely  to  be  found  in   open  shrubbery  and  the 
small  growth  that  lines  country  roads. 

646.  Orange-crowned  Warbler,  fr. — la  fauvette  a  couronne  orangee.  Ver- 
mivora celata.  L,  5.  A  dull  yellowish,  grey-green  warbler  with  a  concealed  orange-rufous 
crown-patch.  Very  little  sexual  difference.  Immatures  are  without  the  crown  spot  and 
the  brightness  of  the  yellow  below  is  reduced  to  almost  the  colour  of  the  back. 

Distinctions.  Similar  to  the  Nashville  but  without  the  grey  or  greyish  on  the  head. 
The  crown  spot  when  present  is  still  more  concealed  than  that  of  the  Nashville  and  often 
entirely  hidden  until  the  feathers  are  separated  to  show  their  coloured  bases.  The  yellow 
throat  is  duller  than  in  the  Nashville.  The  juvenile  bird  is  an  almost  evenly  greyish  green 
bird  with  faint  suggestions  of  ashy  to  it  and  rather  similar  to  the  immature  Tennessee  but 
without  the  faint  light  eyebrow  line  ;  it  is  more  evenly  coloured,  and  without  any  suggestion 
of  white  below. 

Field  Marks.  Like  a  very  dull  coloured  Nashville  Warbler  or  a  juvenile  Tennessee 
without  the  faint  eyebrow  line. 

Nesting.     On  or  near  the  ground  in  nest  of  leaves  and  fine  grasses. 

Distribution.  Central  and  western  America.  The  Interior  Orange-crown  breeds  from 
Alaska  to  Manitoba  and  is  only  a  migrant  through  eastern  Canada. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  species  is  divided  into  three  subspecies.  The  Interior  Orange- 
crown  V.  c.  celata,  the  type  form,  ranges  west  to  the  mountains. 

One  of  the  rarest  of  the  regular  Eastern  Canadian  Warblers.    Eyesight 
alone  is  hardly  reliable  for  records  in  eastern  Canada. 

647.  Tennessee  Warbler,  fr. — la  fauvette  du  Tennessee.  Vermivora  peregrina, 
L,  5.  Back  of  male  green,  underparts  nearly  pure  white.  Head  and  hind  neck  ash-grey, 
suffusing  on  cheeks.  White  eyebrow  line  and  suggestion  of  dark  line  through  eye.  Females 
and  juveniles  have  the  grey  head  and  hind  neck  replaced  by  the  green  of  the  back  which 
suffuses  more  or  less  as  dull  yellow  or  greenish  yellow  over  breast  and  underparts.  The 
eyebrow  line  is  always  visible  as  a  lighter  coloration  of  the  green. 

Distinctions.  The  general  green  and  white  coloration  and  light  eyebrow  line  are  the 
best  distinctions  in  any  plumage. 

Field  Marks.  General  coloration  as  above,  with  light  eyebrow  line  and  without  wing- 
bars,  tail  patches,  or  the  whitish  spot  at  base  of  primaries  of  the  Black-throated  Blue 
Warbler. 


194 

Nesting.  In  moss  on  ground  in  small,  dense,  coniferous  growth  in  nest  of  fine  grass 
rootlets,  and  long  hairs. 

Distribution.  Eastern  America,  probably  to  the  northern  tree  limits.  Usually  a 
rare  migrant  through  our  settled  sections  but  locally  common. 

A  rather  rare  warbler  in  most  sections  of  eastern  Canada.  In  migra- 
tion usually  found  well  up  in  the  trees. 

648.  Parula  Warbler,  blue  yellow-backed  warbler,  fr. — la  fauvette  d'a- 
MERiQUE.  Compsothlypis  americana.  L,  473.  Above  and  sides  of  face  and  neck  blue, 
almost  bright  blue,  \vith  yellow  suffusion  over  middle  of  back.  Below  white,  throat  and 
breast  clear  yellow  with  a  vaguely  defined  black  (or  bluish-black),  and  rufous  band  across 
breast.  Females  and  juveniles  are  duller,  without  the  breast  band,  and  with  the  yellow 
more  or  less  suffused  over  all  upperparts  but  strongest  in  middle  of  back.  White  wing- 
bars  in  all  plumages. 

Distinctions.  The  blue  back,  either  pure  or  overwashed  with  yellow,  wing-bars,  and 
yellow  breast  and  throat  are  always  distinctive. 

Field  Marks.     See  just  above. 

Nesting.     In  hanging  bunches  of  Usnea  (the  old  man's  beard)  or  other  hanging  lichens. 

Distribution.  Mostly  eastern  America.  The  Northern  Parula  occupies  the  northern 
part  of  the  specific  range  to  the  limits  of  present  settlement;  not  breeding  in  the  lower 
Great  Lakes  region. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Parula  Warbler  is  divided  into  a  northern  and  a  southern 
subspecies.  The  Canadian  form,  the  Northern  Parula  C.  a.  usnece,  is  named  from  the  lichen 
in  which  it  builds  its  nest. 

Genus — Dendroica.     Woodland  Warblers. 

The  genus  Dendroica  is  composed  of  Avarblers  of  shghtly  sturdier 
build  than  Vermivora.  The  bill  is  longer  and  the  culmen  more  decidedly 
arched  (Figure  58,  p.  27).  The  tail,  except  that  of  the  Yellow  Warbler, 
has  a  considerable  amount  of  white. 

650.  Gape  May  Warbler,  fr. — la  fauvette  du  cap  may.  Dendroica  Tigrina. 
L,  5.  Male:  throat,  breast  and  most  of  underparts  bright  yellow  finely  and  sharply 
striped  with  black  on  lower  throat,  breast,  and  flanks.  A  chestnut  patch  in  the  middle  of 
the  cheek  cuts  sharply  against  the  yeUow.  Top  of  head  black  continuing  as  elongated 
spots  on  the  yellow-green  of  back.  The  rump  is  yeUow  and  the  wing  has  a  large  white 
patch.  Female:  Olive-grey  above,  dirty  white  below  warmed  with  yeUow  suffusion 
across  breast  which  is  faintly  striped  with  dark.  Rump  yellowish  and  white  wing-patch 
replaced  with  vague  bars.  Juvenile:  similar  to  spring  birds  but  less  bright ;  male  without 
chestnut  cheeks.  Females:  even  dull  olive-grey,  slightly  yellow  on  rump;  dull  white  slightly 
olive  below,  faintly  streaked  with  soft  dark  hues,  and  with  faint  washes  of  yellowish  olive 
on  breast  and  flanks. 

Distinctions.  Males  are  distinctive  with  their  tiger-like  colours  of  yellow  with  black 
striptngs.  Adult  females  show  enough  of  the  male's  pattern  to  be  recognizable.  Juvenile 
females  are  more  difficult  to  recognize.  However,  all  show  at  least  an  appreciable  yellow- 
ness on  the  inner  parts  of  the  feathers  on  the  sides  of  the  neck  just  behind  the  ears.  This 
sHght  tinge  sometimes  shows  in  Ufe  when  the  bird  turns  its  head  but  with  the  bird  in  the 
hand  the  feathers  must  be  separated  to  show  it. 

Field  Marks.  Adults  and  juvenile  males  are  distinctive.  Juvenile  females  can 
be  recognized  by  the  pecuhar  fine,  dim  striping  of  breast  against  a  sUghtly  buffy,  fight 
ohve-grey  ground  or  by  the  concealed  yeUow  spot  on  sides  of  the  neck  as  described  above. 

Nestijig.  On  low  branches  in  smaU  trees  in  pastures  or  woodlands  in  partly  pensile 
nest  of  twigs  and  grasses  fastened  together  with  spider  web  and  fined  with  horse  hair. 

Distribution.     Eastern  America  west  to  the  prairies  and  north  to  beyond  settlements. 

One  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  warblers;  usually  regarded  as  rare 
but  locally  growing  commoner.  It  is  a  woodland  treetop  species  but  often 
seen  in  orchard  and  shade  trees. 

652.  Yellow  Warbler,  summer  yellow  bird.  fr. — la  fauvette  juane.  Den- 
droica cestiva.     L,  5-10.     Plate  XL  A. 


195 

Distinctions.  The  Yellow  Warbler  is  apt  to  be  confused  with  few  other  species. 
Its  tail,  with  yellow  on  the  inner  vanes  of  the  feathers,  will  distinguish  it  from  all  other 
evenly  yeUow  or  green  species. 

Field  Marks.  The  even  and  uniform  bright  yellow  of  spring  birds  is  unmistakable. 
Some  dull  females  are  more  green  than  yellow  but  the  green-edged  ivings  and  yellow 
tail,  lack  of  coloiu-  contrasts,  size,  and  actions  of  the  bird  are  easily  recognized. 

Nesting.  In  an  upright  crotch  in  bushes  and  small  trees  in  nest  of  fine  fibres  and  a 
large  amoimt  of  plant  down,  lined  with  plant  down  and  sometimes  long  hairs. 

The  Yellow  Warbler  is  one  of  the  few  species  that  sometimes  refuses  to  incubate 
Cowbird's  eggs.  Instead  of  tlu-owing  out  the  intruding  egg,  however,  it  builds  a  new 
nest  over  the  old  one,  burying  it  and  its  entire  contents,  including  often  some  of  its  own 
eggs,  in  the  foundation  of  the  new  structure,  in  which  another  set  of  eggs  is  deposited. 

Distribution.  Nearly  all  of  North  America.  The  Eastern  Yellow  Warbler  inhabits 
all  of  Canada  except  the  Pacific  slope. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Yellow  Warbler  is  divided  into  four  subspecies;  the  Eastern 
Yellow  Warbler  D.  aestiva  which  occupies  most  of  Canada,  is  the  type  of  the  species. 

This  is  the  commonest  breeding  warbler  in  southern  Canada.  It  shares 
with  the  Goldfinch  the  popular  name  of  Wild  Canary,  but  the  lack  of  black 
will  determine  it  at  a  glance.  It  is  found  in  shrubby  localities  in  open 
country  or  along  stream  or  marsh  edges.  It  is  a  common  visitor  to  the 
garden  and  its  cheery  little  song  is  very  pleasing.  In  the  autumn  the 
Yellow  Warbler  is  one  of  the  first  species  to  leave.  Shortly  after  July 
it  disappears  and  by  mid-August  only  a  few  stragglers  are  left.  It  goes 
before  many  observers  begin  to  think  of  autumn  migrations  and  thus 
details  of  its  autumn  movements  are  difficult  to  get. 

654.  Black-throated  Blue  Warbler,  fr. — fauvette  bleue  a  gorge  noir.  Dcn- 
droica  ccerulescens.     L,  5-28.     Plate  XL  B. 

Distinctions.  The  male,  so  descriptively  named  and  strongly  marked,  is  very  dis- 
tinctive. The  female,  however,  especially  in  autumn,  is  more  difficult  to  distinguish, 
it  may  resemble  either  the  juvenile  of  the  Tennessee,  the  autumn  Black-poll,  or  the 
Bay-breast.  The  streaked  back  and  wing-bars,  however,  of  the  latter  two  are  absent. 
They  are  darker  and  more  greyish-green  than  the  Tennessee  above  and  more  buffy  below. 
An  indistinct  and  partly  concealed  white  or  light  spot  at  the  base  of  the  primaries  is 
always  diagnostic  of  females  of  this  species. 

Field  Marks.  The  male  is  distinctive.  The  female  in  any  plumage  can  usually 
be  recognized  from  all  other  evenly  coloured  dull  green  warblers  by  the  sometimes  very 
faint  fight  spot  at  the  base  of  the  primaries,  which  shows  far  more  conspicuously  in  fife 
than  would  be  expected. 

Distribution.  Eastern  North  America,  breeding  in  the  north,  south  to  the  borders 
of  civiUzation. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  black-throated  Blue  Warbler  is  divided  into  two  subspecies 
of  which  we  have  only  one  in  Canada,  the  type  form  D.  c.  ccerulescens,  the  Northern 
Black-throated,  though  occasionally  specimens  closely  approach  the  southern  variety, 
Cairn's  Warbler  D.  c.  cairnsi,  in  having  a  suggestion  of  black  spots  on  the  back. 

655.  Myrtle  Warbler,  yellow-rumped  warbler,  fr. — la  fauvette  a  croupion 
JAUNE.     Deiidroica  coronata.     L,  5-65.     Plate  XLIA. 

Distinctions.  A  very  easily  recognized  species.  All  plumages  have  at  least  sugges- 
tions of  the  yellow  crown,  rump,  and  side  marks.  The  juveniles  are  largely  rusty  brown 
above  and  have  more  or  less  of  a  wash  of  same  colour  across  breast  with  the  streaks  only 
sUghtly  indicated. 

Field  Marks.  The  yellow  rump  is  always  distinct  and  bright  and  makes  the  most 
conspicuous  field  mark.  Its  presence  and  the  side  and  crown  marks  of  the  same  colour, 
sometimes  indistinct  in  autumn  but  always  present,  make  reliable  identification  guides 
in  life. 

Nesting.  In  coniferous  trees  5  to  10  feet  above  the  ground  in  nest  of  vegetable  fibre 
lined  with  grasses. 

Distribution.  Nearly  all  of  North  America  north  to  tree  limits.  Breeding  just  beyond 
the  dense  settlements. 


196 

An  early  warbler  to  arrive  in  spring  and  the  last  one  to  depart  in 
autumn.  At  times  in  the  latter  season  the  brushy  wastes,  roadsides,  and 
the  overgrown  fence  lines  are  filled  with  Myrtle  Warblers  each  showing,  as 
it  darts  away,  its  distinct  yellow  rump  as  proof  of  its  identity. 

657.  Magnolia  Warbler,  black  and  yellow  warbler,  fr. — la  fauvette  a 
T^iTE  CENDREE.     Dendroica  magnolia.     L,  5-12.     Plate  XLI  B. 

Distinctions.  The  bright  yellow  breast  and  underparts  sharply  striped  with  black, 
black  cheeks,  and  greyish  upperparts  are  perfectly  distinctive  in  the  spring.  Autumn 
birds  have  recognizable  reflections  of  the  adult  plumage  but  the  breast  markings  are  absent 
and  those  of  flanks  reduced.  The  head  and  cheeks  are  evenly  greyish  and  the  back  greyish 
shaded  with  green  to  the  rump  which  is  suffused  with  yellow. 

Field  Marks.  The  yellow  below  and  on  rump  will  separate  the  Magnolia  from  all 
warblers  but  the  Cape  May.  The  latter's  yellow  breast  is  sharply  and  more  evenly 
striped  with  black  and  it  has  the  chestnut  ear  patch.  Close  examination  of  the  Magnolia 
in  autumn  plumage  always  shows  a  vague,  light  ashy  bar  across  the  upper  breast. 
The  tail  is  also  a  good  identification  mark.  The  characteristic  white  marking  of  the 
tails  is  well  back  from  the  tip  and  rather  extensive,  giving,  when  seen  from  below,  the 
appearance  of  a  white  tail  broadly  banded  with  black. 

Nesting.  In  coniferous  trees  3  to  6  feet  from  the  ground  in  nest  of  fine  twigs  and 
leaf  stems  lined  with  hair  like  rootlets. 

Distribution.  Eastern  North  America  north  to  tree  limits;  breeds  mostly  north  of 
general  cultivation. 

One  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  warblers,  on  migration  coming  into 
shade  trees  and  orchards  where  its  rich  coloration  makes  a  pleasing  com- 
bination with  the  blossoms. 

658.  Cerulean  Warbler.  Dendroica  cerulea.  L,  4-50.  Male:  sky-blue  and  white. 
Above,  all  blue  with  fine  black  markings  on  back  and  sides  of  crown.  Below,  pure  white 
with  blue  breast-band  and  flank  stripes; wing-bars  white.  Female:  even  dull  greenish- 
blue  above,  white  below,  more  or  less  stained  with  greenish  and  yellow  suggestions. 
Juvenile  similar  but  yellower  all  over. 

Distinctions.  The  male  is  unmistakable.  Other  plumages  have  a  pecuUar  bluish, 
instead  of  olive  or  yellowish,  green  above  that  is  quite  characteristic.  The  Juvenile  with 
its  yellowish-greenish  underparts  is  somewhat  similar  to  the  young  Tennessee,  having 
a  similar  eyebrow  stripe,  but  its  white  wing-bars  and  tail  patches  will  separate  it. 

Field  Marks.  The  blue  of  the  adult  and  the  bluish  sheen  of  other  plumages.  Other- 
wise like  a  juvenile  Tennessee  but  with  wing-bars  and  white  in  tail. 

Nesting.  In  a  tree  20  to  60  feet  above  the  groimd  in  nest  of  fine  fibres  boimd  with 
spider's  web,  lined  with  strips  of  bark  fibres  and  with  a  few  lichens  on  the  outer  surface. 

Distribution.  Eastern  United  States  except  the  coast;  north  along  lake  Erie  to 
just  within  Canadian  territory. 

Too  rare  in  Canada  to  be  expected  regularly  except  in  a  limited  area 
in  southern  Ontario. 

659.  Chestnut-sided  Warbler.  fr. — la  fauvette  de  pensylvanie.  Dendroica 
pe7isylvanica.  L,  5-14.  Male:  Crown  yellow;  back  black  and  grey  in  stripes,  over- 
washed  with  yellowish  green;  below  white  with  chestnut  bands  along  flanks;  two  white 
or  yellowish  wing-bars.  Juvenile:  an  abnost  even  yellowish-green  above,  white  below, 
cheeks  grey;   usually  with  suggestions  of  the  chestnut  sides  of  the  male. 

Distinctions.  Superficial  attention  to  the  above  description  might  confuse  this 
species  with  the  Bay-breasted  but  the  white  throat  is  distinctive.  Spring  birds  with 
their  yellow  cap,  chestnut  sides,  and  white  underparts;  and  autumn  birds  white  below, 
yellowish  green  above,  and  yellowish  wing-bars  are  easily  recognized. 

Field  Marks.  The  white  underparts  and  pecuUar  lemon  yellowness  of  the  green  above 
are  good  recognition  marks  even  in  plumages  where  the  characteristic  markings  do  not 
show. 

Nesting.  In  bushes  some  3  feet  from  the  ground  in  neat  of  strips  of  bark,  leaf  sterna, 
etc.,  lined  with  tendrils  and  rootlets. 


197 

Distribution.  Eastern  North  America  west  to  well  into  the  prairie  country  and 
north  to  beyond  settlement.  Nests  locally  almost  wherever  found  in  eastern  Canada 
except  in  the  •extreme  southern  portion. 

The  Chestnut-sided  is  usually  found  in  dry  brushy  clearings,  second 
growth,  and  raspberry  tangles. 

660.  Bay-breasted  Warbler,  fr. — la  fauvette  a  poitrine  baie.  Dendroica 
castanea.  L,  5-63.  Male:  finely  striped  with  duU  olive-ochre  and  black  above;  under- 
parts  white;  top  of  head,  throat,  foreneck,  and  flanks  bay  colour  (reddish  chestnut) ;  fore- 
head and  cheeks  black;  a  light  ochre  spot  on  side  of  neck.  Female  has  all  these  charac- 
teristic marks  obvious  enough  for  recognition  but  veiled  and  dimly  indicated.  The 
autumn  birds,  however,  are  entirely  different;  above,  yellowish-green  faintly  striped  with 
dark,  below,  white,  more  or  less  tinged  with  yellowish  or  buffy  greenish;  the  bay  of  the 
sides  is  often  indicated  by  a  shght  ruddy  warmth  or  by  individual,  fully  coloured  feathers. 

Distiyictions.  Spring  birds  are  distinctive  enough.  Autumn  specimens  resemble 
the  juvenile  Black-poll  so  closely  that  often  they  can  be  separated  only  with  difficulty  even 
when  in  the  hand.  The  Bay-breast  almost  invariably  has  a  certain  amount  of  warm 
ochre  on  the  flanks  which  is  lacking  in  the  Black-poll  and  the  under  tail  coverts  are  cream 
instead  of  pure  white.  The  presence  of  wing-bars  will  distinguish  these  two  species  from 
any  other  plain  greenish  warbler. 

Field  Marks.  The  adult  male  is  distinctive  in  colour.  The  sprmg  female  always 
shows  enough  of  the  bay  breast  for  recognition.  Adult  autumn  birds  also  usually  have 
a  trace  of  the  bay  on  the  flanks  and  the  warm  ochreish  of  these  parts  can  usually  be  seen 
in  juveniles.  When  these  characters  fail  to  distinguish  the  species,  however,  close  at- 
tention will  show  that  the  breast  colour  is  perfectly  even  and  sharp  eyes  or  good  glasses 
will  usually  reveal  very  faint  dark  stripings  showing  on  the  sides  of  the  breast  of  the  Black- 
poll.  None  of  these  marks,  however,  can  be  seen  except  under  the  most  favoiu-able  cir- 
cumstances, but  in  mixed  flocks  one  can  usually  tell  the  proportion  of  each  species  with 
fair  accuracy. 

Nesting.  In  coniferous  trees  5  to  20  feet  above  the  ground  in  nest  of  grasses  and 
plant  fiijres  lined  with  plant  down  and  long  hairs. 

Distribution.  Eastern  North  America  west  to  across  the  prairies  and  north  to  the 
tree  limits.     Breeds  beyond  regular  cultivation. 

The  Bay-breast  in  spring  migration  prefers  brushy  growth  in  sandy 
wastes,  roadsides,  etc.,  but  often  comes  close  about  the  house  in  shade 
trees  and  the  orchard.  The  similarity  of  the  autumn  Bay-breast  and  the 
autumn  Black-poll,  a  bird  in  full  plumage  totally  different,  is  one  of  the 
interesting  phenomena  of  bird  coloration.  The  autumn  plumages  of  these 
two  birds  were  at  one  time  confused  with  each  other  under  the  name 
of  Autumnal  Warbler. 

661.  Black-poll  Warbler,  fr. — la  fauvette  rayee.  Dendroica  striata.  L,  5' 56. 
Male:  black  and  white  stripes  with  a  solidly  black  crown;  finely  Imed  with  black  and  grey 
on  back;  below  all  white  with  black  from  base  of  bill  down  sides  of  neck  breaking  into 
stripes  on  flanks;  cheeks  white.  Female :  greenish  above;  white  below  washed  with  green- 
ish on  throat  and  breast  but  with  enough  of  the  black  striping  showing  more  or  less 
vaguely  to  make  the  bird  recognizable  as  the  female  of  the  above.  Autumn  birds  are 
almost  indistinguishable  from  the  preceding  Bay-breast  (see  above). 

Distinctions.  The  spring  males  with  their  clear  black  and  white  markings  can  be 
mistaken  for  nothing  except  the  Black-and-White  Creeper,  but  their  non-creeping  habits 
and  the  crowns  sohdly  black,  instead  of  with  a  broad  white  median  stripe,  easily  separate 
them.  The  striping  of  the  female  is  distinctive.  The  autumn  birds  can  be  told  from  the 
Bay-breast  by  their  lack  of  ochre,  bay,  or  buffy  on  flanks  and  their  pure  white  undertail 
coverts. 

Field  Marks.  The  Black-poll  is  seen  in  three  plumages:  the  male  black  and  white; 
the  female  greenish,  white  below  and  more  or  less  streaked  with  black;  and  autumn  birds 
like  Bay-breasts  with  faint  stripes,  visible  only  to  sharp  eyes  or  with  good  glasses,  showing 
through  the  yellowish  flanks. 

Nesting.  Generally  in  spruce  trees  about  6  feet  above  the  ground  in  nest  of  twigs, 
mosses,  rootlets,  etc.,  lined  v/ith  fine  grasses  and  tendrils. 

Distribution.     Nearly  similar  to  that  of  the  preceding  species. 


198 

The  Black-poll  Warbler  is  one  of  the  latest  warblers  to  arrive  in  the 
spring,  usually  after  most  of  the  other  migrant  hordes  have  gone  north. 

662.  Blackburnian  Warbler,  fr. — la  fauvette  de  blackburn.  Dendroicafusca. 
L,  5-25.  Plate  XLII  A.  The  black  upperparts  and  flaming  orange  throat  are  distinctive 
in  the  case  of  the  adult  male.  In  the  female  the  orange  colour  of  the  throat  though  faint  is 
easily  recognizable.  The  young  in  the  autumn  are  like  the  adult  female  although  the  young 
females  are  duller  in  colour,  the  throat  and  breast  only  retaining  a  faint  yellow  colouring. 

Distinctions.  Adult  and  autumn  males  are  unmistakable.  Autumn  females  may  be 
confused  with  autumn  Black-polls  and  Bay-breasts  but  the  clearer  yellow  on  the  throat, 
the  absence  of  a  greenish  tinge  below,  and  the  dark  ear  coverts  with  conspicuous  buff  eye- 
brow line  are  diagnostic  characters. 

Field  Marks.  The  bright  orange  or  warm  yellow  confined  to  throat  and  breast  and 
orange-yellow  or  buff  eyebrow  stripe,  in  contrast  to  the  dark  cheeks  and  crown,  make  the 
best  field  marks. 

Nesting.  In  coniferous  trees  10  to  14  feet  or  more  above  the  ground  in  nest  of  fine 
twigs  and  grasses  lined  with  grasses  and  tendrils. 

Distribution.  Eastern  North  America  west  to  the  prairie  provinces;  breeding  mostly 
north  of  dense  settlement. 

The  male  Blackburnian  has  the  bright  plumage  commonly  associated 
with  the  tropics  rather  than  with  our  colder  climates.  The  species  asso- 
ciates with  many  other  warblers  in  the  treetops  of  the  open  woods  or  orchard. 

667.  Black-throated  Green  Warbler,  fr. — la  fauvette  a  poitrine  noibE' 
Dendroica  virens.     L,  5-10.     Plate  XLII  B. 

Distinctions.  A  green  warbler  with  bright  yellow  cheeks  and  sharply  contrasting  black 
throat  and  breast.  In  females  and  juvenile  males  the  black  is  almost  wanting  or  indicated 
only  by  vague  interrupted  black  suffusions  which  are  stronger  on  the  breast.  In  young 
females  the  black  is  reduced  to  dull  cloudings  at  the  sides  of  the  breast  and  flanks.  In  all 
plumages  the  underparts  are  white  and  the  back  and  crown  clear,  even  green.  Bright 
yellow  predominates  on  the  cheeks. 

Field  Marks.  For  juveniles,  the  green  back,  yellow  cheeks,  and  white  below.  For 
adults,  the  black  throat  and  breast  contrasting  with  yellow  face  and  white  below. 

Nesting.  In  coniferous  trees  5  to  30  feet  above  the  ground  in  nest  of  small  twigs  and 
moss  lined  with  rootlets,  fine  grasses,  and  tendrils. 

Distribution.  North  America,  west  to  the  mountains.  Breeding  in  eastern  Canada 
wherever  cedar  or  evergreen  thickets  are  found  except  in  extreme  southern  portions. 

A  striking  bird,  fond  of  scrubby  evergreen  when  available  but  is  also 
found  in  the  orchard  and  in  hardwood  tree-tops. 

670.  Kirtland's  Warbler.  Dendroica  kirtlandi.  L,  5-75.  Blue-grey  above  heavily 
striped  with  black  on  back,  and  finely  striped  on  crown.  All  below,  except  under  tail, 
pale  yellow  with  black  stripes  on  sides  of  breast  and  flanks.  Females  and  juveniles 
similar  but  duller,  and  breast  stripes  broken  and  forming  spots. 

Distinctions.  Kirtland's  Warbler  resembles  the  Canadian  Warbler,  but  is  larger; 
the  yellow  is  paler  and  the  black  stripes  are  on  the  flanks  and  do  not  tend  to  make 
necklace  suspended  from  the  ears  as  in  that  species;  and  the  back  is  marked  with  black 
instead  of  being  clear  grey.  The  only  other  warbler  that  might  be  mistaken  for  it  is  the 
Magnolia  but  the  black  does  not  cross  the  breast  as  it  does  in  adult  Magnolias,  and  there  is 
no  yeUow  or  greenish  on  the  back  or  rump. 

Field  Marks.     The  species  is  too  rare  to  be  accepted  on  eye  identification  alone. 

Nesting.  On  ground  at  foot  of  pme  or  oak  trees  in  nest  of  soft  bark,  strips  of  vegetable 
fibre,  and  grass  lined  with  fine  grass,  pine  needles,  and  hair. 

Distribution.  Winters  in  the  Bahama  islands.  The  only  known  breeding  station  is  a 
limited  section  of  the  jack-pine  plains  in  the  northern  part  of  the  lower  peninsula  of 
Michigan.  The  species  has  only  been  taken  twice  in  Canada,  both  specimens  being  taken 
in  the  lower  Great  Lakes  region.  Its  nest  should  be  looked  for  in  the  Bruce  peninsula  of 
Ontario  and  around  the  Great  Lakes  west  to  the  lake  Superior  country. 


199 

In  the  winter  this  species  is  confined  within  a  Hmited  oceanic  island 
habitat  and  is  an  instance  of  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  abnormally 
increasing  the  numbers  of  native  species.  It  is  evident  that  we  can  never 
have  in  the  north  a  greater  number  of  Kirtland's  Warblers  than  can  live 
through  the  winter  on  the  Bahama  islands, 

671.  Pine  Warbler,  fr.— la  fauvette  des  pins.  Dendroica  vigorsi.  L,  5-52. 
A  dull  green  warbler,  the  green  changing  to  dull  yellow  on  throat  and  breast  with  greyish 
or  brownish  wings  and  tail  and  faint  wing-bars;  in  high  plumage  rarely  becoming  fairly 
bright  yellow  on  throat  and  breast.     There  is  httle  sexual  or  seasonal  change. 

Distinctions.  Very  similar  to  the  Yellow-throated  Vireo  but  greener  in  colour  and 
with  the  yeUow  below  stronger  and  more  extensive.  The  white  abdomen  is  inconspicuous. 
The  bill  is  lighter  and  warbler-Uke  instead  of  being  stout,  hooked,  and  of  Vireo  type.  From 
the  Yellow  Warbler  it  can  be  separated  by  its  duUer  colour  and  the  contrast  between  its 
wings  and  tail  and  body.     Its  preference  for  pine  trees  is  at  least  suggestive  of  its  identity. 

Field  Marks.  A  dull  green  warbler,  yeUow  on  breast  with  greyish  brown  wings,  white 
wing-bars.  Canadian  specimens  are  usually  somewhat  soiled  and  bedraggled  in  appear- 
ance.    Almost  invariably  found  in  pine  trees. 

Nesting.  In  pine  trees  10  to  80  feet  above  the  ground,  in  nest  of  strips  of  bark,  leaves, 
plant  fibres,  etc. 

Distribution.  Eastern  North  America,  west  to  the  prairies  and  north  to  the  limits  of 
the  pine  woods;  breeding  in  Canada  mostly  beyond  settlement. 

The  preference  for  pines,  which  this  bird  shows,  is  striking.  It  is 
rarely,  if  ever,  found  away  from  them.  In  consequence,  it  is  likely  to  have 
its  plumage  more  or  less  soiled  with  pitch  which  gives  it  a  dull  and  worn 
appearance.     Bright,  clean  birds  of  this  species  are  rare  with  us. 

672.  Palm  Warbler,  fr. — la  fauvette  a  couronnerottsse.  Dendroica  palmarum. 
L,  5-25.  A  dull  or  greenish  warbler.  Male:  all  underparts  bright  or  suffused  yellow;  cap 
reddish-chestnut.  The  breast  and  flanks  are  streaked  more  or  less  with  rufous  and  a  yellow 
eyebrow  hne  contrasts  with  dark  cheeks  and  red  cap.  Females  similar  but  colour 
subdued.  Juveniles  and  autumn  birds  are  greyish  brown  above;  buff  below  with  faint 
streaks,  almost  white  on  throat  and  suffused  with  distinct  yellow  increasing  to  pure 
yellow  on  undertail  coverts.     There  is  a  blended  yellowish  rump  patch  in  all  plumages. 

Distinctions.  The  yellow  underparts  and  red  cap  are  unmistakable  in  all  spring  birds. 
In  autumn  the  vaguely  striped  underparts,  brown  back,  and  yellow  undertail  coverts  are 
distinctive. 

Field  Marks.  The  habitual,  sandpiper-like  upward  jerk  of  the  tail  wiU  distinguish  this 
from  aU  other  warblers  with  yellow  underparts  except  the  Prairie  Warbler.  The  bright 
yeUow  confined  to  the  undertail  coverts,  light  throat,  and  vaguely  striped  buff  breast  of  the 
juveniles  will  assist  in  separation  of  the  species  from  comparable  forms. 

Nesting.  On  or  near  the  ground  in  boggy  ground  or  sphagnum  barrens  in  nest  of 
coarse  grass,  lined  with  fitted  feathers. 

Distribution.  Eastern  North  America  west  to  the  prairies  and  north  to  near  tree 
limits;  breeding  mostly  beyond  the  bounds  of  civilization.  The  Yellow  Pahn  Warbler  is  of 
eastern  distribution  west  to  the  eastern  Ontario  bovmdary.  The  Interior  Palm  Warbler 
occupies  the  remainder  of  eastern  Canada. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Palm  Warbler  is  divided  into  two  subspecies,  the  type  form,  the 
Interior  Pakn  Warbler  D.p.  -palmarum,  distinguished  in  adult  spring  plumage  from  the 
Yellow  Pahn  Warbler  D.p.  hypochrysea  by  the  smaller  amount  of  yeUow  and  the  reduced 
brilhancy  of  the  underparts  which  are  shghtly  tinged  with  greyish.  The  two  forms,  how^- 
ever,  are  too  similar  to  separate  without  specimens  of  both  for  comparison. 

A  ground-haunting  bird.  On  migration  to  be  looked  for  in  low, 
scrubby,  and  sandy  wastes.     In  breeding  season  in  mossy  bogs. 

673.  Prairie  Warbler.  Dendroica  discolor.  L,  4-75.  A  green  and  yellow  warbler. 
Throat,  cheeks,  and  all  underparts  of  male  bright  yellow;  a  black  line  through  the  eye,  a 
black  wedge  below  the  ear  coverts,  and  a  succession  of  black  lines  along  the  sides  of  the 
breast  and  flanks.  Middle  of  back  has  a  saddle  of  reddish  spots.  Female  similar  but 
occasionally  almost  or  quite  without  the  reddish  on  back.     Juveniles  similar  but  colours 


200 

reduced  and  veiled,  the  underparts  yellow,  brightest  on  breast,  and  the  black  lines  on  the 
face,  side  of  breast,  and  flanks  only  indicated. 

Distinctions.  The  fine  black,  facial  marks  against  bright  yellow,  their  sharp  con- 
tinuation along  flanks,  and  the  reddish  back  spots  are  the  best  distinguishing  features  of 
adults.  In  juveniles  the  underparts  brightest  on  breast  rather  than  throat  or  elsewhere  and 
the  indications  of  stripes  on  the  sides  instead  of  in  the  middle  of  breast  make  the  easiest 
recognition  characters. 

Field  Marks.  Too  rare  in  Canada  to  be  recorded  by  sight  unless  the  observer  has  had 
considerable  experience. 

Nesting.  In  briery  bushes,  in  nest  of  plant  fibres  and  plant  down  lined  with  rootlets 
and  long  hairs. 

Distribution.  Eastern  United  States,  north  rarely,  though  perhaps  locally  regular 
across  the  Canadian  border  in  the  lower  Great  Lakes  region. 

The  Prairie  Warbler  prefers  dry,  sandy,  or  open  second  growth  wastes. 
From  the  data  on  its  occurrence  in  Canada  it  should  be  looked  for  nesting 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  lower  end  of  lake  Huron, 

Genus — Seiurus.     Wagtail  Warblers.     L,  6-04 — 6-17. 

Birds  of  the  genus  Seiurus  look  more  like  Thrushes  than  Warblers  as  is 
indicated  by  the  popular  names  of  Golden-crowned  and  Water  Thrushes 
that  are  sometimes  given  them.  They  are,  however,  true  warblers  of 
woodland  habits;  ground  birds,  walking  instead  of  hopping;  of  large  size 
for  warblers;  brown  or  dark  olive  coloration  above,  white  below  with  the 
breast  heavily  streaked.  They  can  be  mistaken  for  thrushes  either  in  life 
or  in  the  hand  but  by  attention  to  specific  characters  they  can  be  easily 
distinguished. 

674.  Ovenbird.  golden-crowned  thrush,  fr. — la  griate  couronn^e.  Seiurus 
aurocaipillus.    L,  6-17.     Plate  XLIII  A. 

Distinctions.  The  partly  concealed  dull  golden  crown  patch  bordered  with  brown  wiU 
always  determine  this  species. 

Field  Marks.  Though  very  thrush-Uke,  there  is  generally  httle  probability  of  actual 
confusion  between  this  species  and  the  thrushes.  Its  pure  white  throat,  foreneck,  and 
imderparts  with  little  or  no  suffusion  of  other  colour  and  the  sharply  contrasting  stripes 
rather  than  spots  of  the  breast  are  easily  distinctive. 

Nesting.  On  ground,  in  a  bulky  structure  of  coarse  grasses,  weed  stalks,  leaves,  and 
rootlets;  covered  over  with  leaves  and  with  the  entrance  at  the  side,  like  an  oven,  from 
whence  the  specific  name  is  derived. 

Distribution.  Wooded  sections  of  North  America  east  of  the  Rockies,  north  to  beyond 
settlements;  breeds  in  Canada  wherever  found. 

It    is  a  woodland    bird,    usually  common  wherever  open  timber   is 

interspersed  in  the  heavier  woods.     Its  common  song  Teacher — teacher 

teacher— teacher,  beginning  low  and  ending  very  loud  is  a  familiar  woodland 
sound  and  once  heard  will  be  remembered. 

675.  Northern  Water-thrush,  water-thrush,  fr. — la  grive  des  ruisseaux. 
Seiurus  noveboracensis .  L,  6-04.  Dark  oUve  brown  above,  yellowish  white  finely  and 
sharply  streaked  with  dark  below,  disconnected  lines  on  throat,  breast,  and  flanks.  A 
buffy  blended  line  over  the  eye  and  a  fine,  sharp,  dark  one  through  it. 

Distinctions.  Easily  distinguished  from  the  Oven-bird  by  the  finer,  more  evenly 
distributed  striping,  darker  coloration,  yellowish  underparts,  and  the  lack  of  crown 
patch.  From  the  Louisiana  Water-thrush  it  may  be  told  by  the  buffy  instead  of  white 
Une  over  the  eye,  the  yellowish  instead  of  buffy  or  creamy  underparts,  and  the  presence 
of  spots  on  the  throat. 

Field  Marks.  The  Water-thrushes  can  be  told  in  hfe  by  their  habitual  upward  jerking 
of  the  tail  as  they  walk  or  stand,  much  similar  to  the  actions  of  the  common  Spotted 
Sandpiper.  The  two  Water-thrushes  can  be  told  apart  by  the  difference  in  the  colour 
details  given  above. 


201 

Nesting.  In  a  mossy  bank  or  in  the  roots  of  a  turned-up  tree,  usually  near  or  over 
water,  in  nest  of  moss  lined  with  tendrils  and  fine  rootlets. 

Distribution.  North  America  north  to  the  Mmits  of  settlement.  Breeds  in  Canada 
wherever  found  except  in  the  extreme  southern  parts. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Water-thrush  is  divided  into  an  eastern  and  a  western  sub- 
species, the  Eastern  Water-thrush  C.  n.  noveboracensis,  the  type  form,  ranges  westward  to 
southern  Ontario  where  it  intergrades  with  Grinnell's  Water-thrush  S.  n.  notabilis  which 
occupies  the  coimtry  to  the  west. 

The  favourite  home  of  the  Water-thrush  is  in  wet  cedar  swamps. 

676.  Louisiana  Water-thrush.  Seiurus  motacilla.  L,  6-28.  Dark  olive  brown 
above,  buffy-white  below  finely  streaked  with  sharp  dark  disconnected  lines  from  upper 
neck  to  breast  and  flanks.  A  sharp,  white  line  over  the  eye  and  a  fine  blended  dark  line 
through  it. 

Distinctions.  Easily  separatedfrom  the  Ovenbird  by  lack  of  coloured  crown  streak; 
very  similar  to  the  Northern  Water-thrush  but  separable  by  shghtly  larger  size,  buffy 
rather  than  yellowish  underparts,  and  by  the  whiteness  of  the  face  markings. 

Field  Marks.  The  Louisiana  Water-thrush  has  the  jerking  tail  habit  of  the  Northern 
Waterthrush  and  can  only  be  distinguished  from  it  in  life  by  attention  to  the  differences 
given  above. 

Nesting.     Similar  to  that  of  the  Water-thrush. 

Distribution.  Eastern  United  States,  only  appearing  in  Canada  in  southwestern 
Ontario. 

Very  similar  to  the  Northern  Water-thrush  in  habits  as  well  as  in 
colour  and  form.  It  is,  however,  a  bird  of  more  southern  distribution  than 
it  and  is  of  only  rare  occurrence  in  Canada. 

Genera — Oporornis  and  Geothlypis.     Ground  Warblers. 

L,  5 -40-5 -56. 

The  Ground  Warblers  are  rather  larger  than  the  Woodland  Warblers 
but  considerably  smaller  than  the  Wagtail  Warblers  and  have  compara- 
tively stout  legs  and  short  wings.  Their  colours  are  largely  green  and 
bright  yellow.  They  inhabit  low  shrubbery  and  are  seldom  seen  far  above 
the  ground. 

677.  Kentucky  Warbler,  fr. — la  fauvette  du  Kentucky.  Oporornis  formosus 
L,  5-40.  Greenish  above;  all  underparts  clear  yellow;  forehead  black,  shading  off  on  mid 
crown;  bright  yellow  eyebrow  line  hooking  around  eye.  A  sharp  black  patch  extends 
from  base  of  bill,  including  lores  and  most  of  ear  coverts,  to  side  of  neck.  Female  and 
autumn  birds  similar  but  duller,  the  black  face  mark  being  more  or  less  veiled  though  still 
visible. 

Distinctions.  Colom-ed  much  like  the  Prairie  Warbler  but  with  the  black  leaving 
only  a  narrow  eyebrow  line  in  front  of  the  eye  instead  of  a  largely  yellow  cheek  and  without 
flank  stripes.  Somewhat  similar  to  the  Canadian  Warbler  but  with  back  greenish  instead 
of  grey  and  without  breast  markings  of  any  kind. 

Field  Marks.     Too  rare  in  Canada  to  be  identified  in  life  by  sight. 

Nesting.  On  or  near  groimd  in  bulky  nest  of  twigs  and  rootlets  firmly  wrapped  with 
several  thicknesses  of  leaves  and  lined  with  fine  rootlets. 

Distribution.  Eastern  United  States,  not  reaching  the  Canadian  border  except  as 
an  accidental  straggler. 

This  species  has  been  taken  in  Canada  on  only  a  few  occasions.  It 
can  be  reasonably  looked  for  only  in  the  most  southern  sections  in  the 
region  of  the  lower  Great  Lakes. 

678.  Connecticut  Warbler.  Opororms  a^ihs.  L,  5-40.  A  greenish  warbler.  Male: 
clear  lemon  yellow  below;  face  and  throat  to  upper  breast  even  bluish-grey  with  a  fine 
white  eye-ring.  The  female  is  similar  but  grey  paler.  Juveniles  have  the  grey  replaced 
by  a  hghter  buffy  shade  of  the  back  coloration. 


202 

Distinctions.  Thia  species  is  so  like  the  Mourning  Warbler  that  at  times  they  can 
be  separated  only  with  difficulty.  Adult  males,  having  a  conspicuous  eye-ring  and  per- 
fectly even  grey  throat  and  br.east,  are  distinctive  enough.  Females  can  be  told  by  the 
eye-ring  and  by  having  the  top  of  the  head  strongly  suffused  with  the  olive  of  the  back 
and  not  showing  clear  grey.  Juveniles  when  they  show  the  eye-ring  are  usually  quite 
distinctive,  though  Mourning  Warblers  of  similar  age  have  an  indication  of  it.  When  the 
eye-ring  is  not  conclusive  evidence  the  difference  in  the  colour  of  the  throat  and  breast, 
a  buffy  olive  instead  of  an  even  lightening  and  greying  of  the  pure  yellow  below,  is  a  good 
guide. 

Field  Marks.  The  evenly  grey  throat  and  white  eye-ring  of  adults  and  the  buffy 
ohve  throat  and  buff  eye-ring  of  the  juveniles.  Both  this  bird  and  the  Mourning  Warbler 
walk  instead  of  hop. 

Nesting.     On  ground  in  nest  of  dry  grass. 

Distribution.  Eastern  North  America  west  of  the  Alleghanies.  It  appears  to  breed 
along  the  edge  of  settlement  in  Canada  but  data  is  lacking.  It  is  regular  in  migrations 
only  locally  along  the  shores  of  lake  Erie  and  lake  Ontario. 

The  Connecticut  is  one  of  the  rarest  of  our  regular  warblers.  It  is 
a  late  arrival  in  the  spring  and  is  so  retiring  that  it  is  seldom  seen  in  the 
autumn.  There  is  not  sufficient  data  to  determine  whether  it  is  very  local 
in  its  migratory  range  or  has  been  overlooked.  It  is  to  be  looked  for  near 
the  ground  in  waste  brush. 

679.  Mourning  Warbler.  fr. — la  fauvette  de  philadelphie.  Oporornis  Phil- 
adelphia. L,  5-63.  A  greenish  warbler.  Male:  clear  lemon-yeUow  below;  whole  head, 
neck,  and  breast  bluish-grey  with  semi-concealed  black  spots  on  breast  and  throat  giving 
a  fancied  resemblance  to  crape  which  suggests  the  common  name.  The  female  is  similar 
but  the  grey  lighter  and  without  the  crape  markings  on  breast,  thus  resembling  the  male  of 
the  Connecticut.  Juveniles  have  the  grey  of  the  crown,  etc.,  replaced  with  the  body 
green  and  the  yellow  of  the  underparts  extends  up  neck  to  throat  shghtly  modified  by 
lighter  and  greyish  tinges. 

Distinctions.  The  Mourning  Warbler  can  usually  be  distinguished  by  the  crape  on 
the  breast  or  by  suggestions  of  it,  the  greyness  of  the  crown,  and  the  lack  of  eye-ring, 
though  juveniles  sometimes  have  faint  eye-rings.    See  previous  species. 

Field  Marks.  The  black  crape  of  the  breast  and  lack  of  eye-ring  for  adults  and  the 
lack  of  sharp  distinction  between  the  breast,  throat,  and  imderbody  yellows  for  juveniles. 

Nesting.  On  or  near  ground  in  nest  of  strips  of  bark  and  other  fibrous  materials  lined 
with  hair. 

Distribution.  Eastern  North  America  mostly  west  of  the  Alleghanies.  Breeds  along 
the  northern  bounds  of  settlement  west  through  the  wooded  sections  of  the  prairie  provinces. 

One  of  the  late  spring  warblers  and  one  of  the  earliest  to  return  in  the 
autumn,  going  through  before  many  observers  are  on  the  watch  for  migrant 
warblers  and  thus  usually  slipping  by  unobserved.  The  latter  half  of  August 
is  the  time  to  watch  for  the  Mourning  Warblers.  By  the  first  of  September 
most  of  them  have  gone. 

681.  Maryland  Yellow-throat,  fr. — la  fauvette  trichas.  Geothlypis  trichas. 
L,  5-33.    Plate  XLIIIB. 

Distinctions.  The  adult  male  with  its  black  mask  is  easily  recognized  and  needs  no 
special  characterization.  Juvenile  males  have  sufficient  indications  of  the  mask  to  be 
ea.sily  recognizable.  Adult  females  and  juveniles  are  very  much  alike.  They  can 
be  recognized  by  their  even  coloration  above,  warm  yellow  throat,  buffy  white 
underparts  washed  with  darker  on  flanks,  and  undertail  coverts  yellowish.  They  are 
most  likely  to  be  mistaken  for  the  Mourning  or  Connecticut  juveniles  but  the  sharp  division 
between  throat  and  cheek  colours,  the  brightness  of  the  throat,  and  the  general  warmer 
yellow  tint  wiU  separate  them.  They  have  been  confused  with  the  NashviUe  and  the 
Tennessee  but  the  grey  rather  than  buffy  or  ruddy-olive  head  and  crown  of  the  former 
and  the  nearly  white  breast  instead  of  distinct  yellow  of  the  latter  should  make  separation 
easy. 


203 

Field  Marks.  In  addition  to  coloration,  the  marshy  habitat,  hiding  habits,  and 
characteristic  actions  of  the  Maryland  Yellow-throat  soon  become  familiar  to  the  observer. 
Its  scolding  wTen-Uke  note  is  easily  recognized. 

Nesting.  On  or  near  groimd  in  bulky  nest  of  strips  of  bark,  coarse  grasses,  and  dead 
leaves  lined  with  fine  grasses,  tendrils,  and  rootlets. 

Distribution.  North  America  north  to  the  limit  of  settlement.  The  Northern  Yellow- 
throat,  our  eastern  Canadian  subspecies  and  the  type  form,  breeds  west  to  the  prairies 
and  south  to  Virginia,  being  replaced  in  both  directions  by  other  subspecies. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Yollow-throat  is  divided  into  a  number  of  subspecies  only  one 
of  which,  the  Northern  Yellow-throat  G.  t.  trichas,  the  type  form,  is  found  in  eastern 
Canada. 

The  particular  haunts  of  the  Maryland  Yellow-throat  are  damp 
marshes  where  the  wire  grass  grows  long  and  clumpy.  It  regards  its 
immediate  neighbourhood  as  its  own  particular  property  and  resents 
human  intrusion  vigorously.  The  usual  song  of  the  Yellow-throat  is  one 
of  the  characteristic  sounds  of  the  damp  meadows.  It  has  been  poetically 
translated  as  witchery — witchery — witchery,  which  gives  a  close  approxima- 
tion to  it. 

683.  Yellow-breasted  Ghat.  Icteria  virens.  L,  7-44.  The  largest  and  least 
warbler-like  of  its  family.  AU  upperparts  and  cheeks  green;  lores  black  bordered  above 
and  below  with  white;  throat  to  breast  bright  clear  yellow;  underparts  white;  bill 
comparatively  shorter  and  stouter  than  that  of  any  other  warbler. 

Distinctions.  Size  is  sufficient  to  distinguish  the  Chat  at  all  time?  but  its  colours 
are  equally  characteristic. 

Field  Marks.  Large  size,  bright  yeUow  foreparts,  and  black  lores  bordered  above 
and  below  with  white  make  striking  field  marks. 

Nesting.  In  a  crotch  near  the  ground  in  rather  bulky  nest  of  coarse  grasses,  leaves, 
and  strips  of  bark  lined  with  finer  grasses. 

Distribution.  Eastern  United  States  and  just  across  the  Canadian  boundary  in 
southern  Ontario  along  lake  Erie. 

The  Chat  frequents  tangled  thickets  and  brushy  wastes,  coming  and 
going  unseen  but  not  unheard.  It  is  a  rare  bird  in  Canada  and  is  found 
regularly  only  in  Essex  county,  Ontario,  along  the  border  of  lake  Erie. 


GENUS — WILSONIA.       FLYCATCHING    WARBLERS. 

L,  5-0— 5-67. 

Small  warblers  largely  coloured  yellow.  Bill  slightly  flattened  or 
widened  at  base  suggesting  that  of  the  flycatchers  and  with  well  developed 
bristles  about  the  mouth.  In  these  respects  like  the  Redstart  but  not  as 
extreme.  The  Redstart,  however,  being  without  much  or  any  clear  yellow, 
can  be  easily  distinguished. 

684.  Hooded  Warbler.  Wilsonia  citrina.  L,  5-67.  Male:  green  above  and  bright 
yellow  below;  entire  head  and  neck  black  with  a  bright  yeUow  mask  similar  in  shape  to 
the  black  one  of  the  Maryland  Yellow-throat.  The  female  is  without  the  black  except  for 
an  indistinct  patch  on  rear  head  and  the  yellow  mask  blends  softly  into  the  yellow  of 
throat  and  underparts. 

Distinctions.  The  adult  male  of  this  species  is  too  distinctive  for  confusion.  The 
yellow  face  with  dark  hind  crown  of  the  female  is  also  easily  recognized. 

The  Hooded  Warbler  is  included  here  on  the  basis  of  a  few  Canadian 
records  in  the  lake  Erie  region  of  southern  Ontario. 

57172—14 


204 

685.  Black-capped  Warbler,  wilson's  warbler.  Wilson's  black-capped  war- 
bler. FR. — la  faxjvette  de  WILSON.  WUsonia  pusilla.  L,  5.  A  small  green  warbler. 
Male  is  aU  bright  yellow  below  with  a  sharply  defined  black  cap  on  crown.  The  sexes 
are  similar  but  some  juvenile  females  are  entirely  without  the  cap,  and  in  others  it  is 
present  but  less  perfect  than  in  adults. 

Distinctions.  The  black  cap  and  all  green  and  yellow  coloration  are  distinctive  of 
the  adults  and  young  males.  When  without  the  cap  the  vague  yellow  eyebrow  stripe  is 
characteristic. 

Field  Marks.  The  small  size,  all  bright  yellow  and  green  with  black  cap  or 
traces  of  it,  or  having  yellow  eyebrow  line  when  the  cap  is  absent. 

Nesting.  On  groimd  in  nest  made  almost  wholly  of  fine  grass  lined  with  a  few  hairs; 
nest  deeply  cupped  and  quite  substantial  for  a  warbler. 

Distribution.  North  America.  The  subspecies  Wilson's  Warbler  occurs  in  Canada, 
extends  west  to  the  central  prairie  region,  and  breeds  from  the  northern  settlements  to 
the  tree  limits. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  black-capped  Warbler  is  divided  into  three  subspecies  all  of 
which  occur  in  Canada  though  only  one,  Wilson's  Warbler  W.  p.  pusilla,  the  type  form 
occurs  in  the  east. 

A  very  pretty  little  warbler  usually  found  in  willows  or  in  similar 
trees  and  bushes  near  the  water. 

686.  Canada  Warbler.  Canadian  flycatcher,  fr. — la  fauvettb  du  Canada. 
WUsonia  canadensis.  L,  5-61.  Male:  even  grey  above  slightly  marked  with  black 
on  crown;  all  below  bright  yellow  except  xmdertail  coverts  which  are  white,  yellow  pre- 
loral  line  and  eye-ring;  black  lores  extending  down  sides  of  neck  and  forming  a  necklace 
of  short  stripes  across  upper  breast  leaving  throat  clear  yellow.  Female  is  similar  but 
necklace  and  black  reduced,  though  usually  remaining  strong  enough  to  retain  the  easily 
recognized  specific  character.  Juveniles  are  like  the  female  but  the  necklace  almost 
obliterated  only  showing  in  vague,  suffused,  and  interrupted  cloudings. 

Distinctions.  The  even  grey  above  without  markings  and  yellow  below  with  the 
black  necklace  marks  either  sharp,  dim,  or  suggested. 

Field  Marks.     See  distinctions. 

Nesting.  In  mossy  banks  or  under  roots  in  nest  of  strips  of  bark  and  bits  of  dead 
wood  wrapped  m  leaves  and  lined  with  fine  rootlets. 

Distribution.  Eastern  North  America  west  to  near  the  foothills  and  north  to  the 
limit  of  large  trees;  breeding  occasionally  and  locally  in  southern  Canada  except  in  the 
most  southern  parts  and  regularly  north  from  the  edge  of  settlement. 

A  bright  active  warbler  with  some  flycatching  habits.  Its  typical 
habitat  is  similar  to  that  of  Wilson's  Warbler,  but  it  is  more  often  found 
higher  in  the  trees. 

687.  American  Redstart,  fr. — la  fauvette  a  queue  rousse.  Setophaga  ru- 
ticilla.     L,  5-41.     Plate  XLIV  A. 

Distinctions.  A  perfectly  characteristic  bird  in  all  plumages.  No  other  warbler  has 
anything  like  this  combination  of  orange-red  and  black,  the  former  replaced  in  female 
by  similar  yellow  or  white  patches  on  tail  and  wings.  Juveniles  have  a  slight  yellow 
suffusion  over  breast  and  are  without  the  wing  blotch  but  that  of  the  tail  is  always  present. 
Some  young  males  in  the  spring  look  like  females  but  with  irregular  patches  of  the 
perfect  male  plumage  showing  on  throat. 

Field  Marks.  Colour  is  the  most  easily  noted  distinction  but  even  in  black  silhouette 
the  manner  in  which  the  long  tail  is  thrashed  about  soon  becomes  familiar  and  distinc- 
tive. 

Nesting.  In  the  crotch  of  a  sapling  in  nest  of  fine  strips  of  bark,  fibres,  and  plant 
down  lined  with  tendrils  and  fine  rootlets  and  nearly  always  covered  outside  with  silvery 
bark  strips. 

Distribution.  North  America  north  to  the  limit  of  large  trees.  Breeding  in  Canada 
wherever  found. 

The  brilliancy  of  a  high  plumaged  Redstart  against  the  dark  green  of 
the  trees  is  a  constant  source  of  pleasure  to  even  the  most  blas6  observer 


205 

and  is  a  sight  that  never  loses  its  charm.  Its  sprightly  movements,  constant 
fluttering,  and  spreading  of  wings  and  tail  give  it  a  vivacity  that  few  other 
species  exhibit.  Like  many  other  American  birds  the  term  Redstart  was 
given  it  by  early  settlers  who  bestowed  upon  it  the  name  of  a  familiar 
Old  World  form  though  the  resemblance  is  far  from  close. 

FAMILY — MOTACILLID^.       WAGTAILS    OR    PIPITS. 

There  is  only  one  species  of  this  family  in  eastern  Canada  and  for  the 
family  characters  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  specific  description  following, 

697.  American  Pipit,  titlark,  fr. — lafarlouse  d'amerique.  Anthus  ruhescens. 
L,  6-38.  A  ground-coloured  and  ground-haunting  bird;  bill  very  warbler-like;  hind  claw 
elongated  like  that  of  the  Longspur  and  the  Homed  Lark  (Figure  60,  p.  27,  compare  with 
Figure  44,  p.  25).  Adult  spring  male:  greyish  above,  purest  on  head  and  growing  sUghtly 
ohve  on  rump;  back  faintly  mottled  with  dark  feather  centres;  pinkish  buff  below,  with 
sparse  fine  breast  stripes  of  brownish  grey,  tending  to  form  a  necklace  across  breast  and 
extending  along  sides;  wings  brown  with  faded  feather  edges.  Autumn  birds  and  females 
in  spring:  even  dull  oUve  slightly  mottled  above;  buffy  white  below  with  diffuse  and 
more  or  less  aggregated  spots  descending  sides  of  throat  and  extending  across  breast  and 
along  flanks. 

Distinctions.  The  fine  warbler-Uke  bill  together  with  the  long  hind  claw  are  dis- 
tinctive. The  only  other  birds  with  such  a  claw  are  the  Homed  Larks  and  the  Lapland 
Longspur,  but  the  horns  of  the  one  and  the  sparrow-hke  bill  (Figure  51,  p.  26)  of  the 
other  make  differentiation  simple. 

Field  Marks.  A  ground-coloured  bird  seen  in  the  open  in  settled  parts  of  Canada 
in  the  spring  and  autumn,  often  in  large  scattered  flocks  like  the  Snow  Bunting  and  Horned 
Lark.  Its  even  coloration,  constant  habit  of  tail  dipping,  and  the  conspicuous  white 
outer  tail  feathers  are  good  field  marks. 

Nesting.     On  ground  in  nest  of  grasses. 

Distribution.     North  America;    breeding  in  high  latitudes  beyond  the  tree  Umits. 

A  spring  and  late  autumn  migrant,  occurring  sometimes  in  large 
flocks  and  feeding  in  open  meadows,  ploughed  fields,  or  on  dry  sandy 
uplands  and  shores.  On  its  breeding  grounds  it  has  the  Skylark-like  habit 
of  mounting  and  singing  high  in  the  air  and  descending  in  a  perpendicular 
dive  like  a  falling  stone. 

Economic  Status.  Coming  as  it  does  while  the  fields  are  bare  and 
returning  after  the  harvest,  its  food  is  necessarily  confined  to  weed  seeds 
and  early  or  belated  insects.    Its  effect  must  be  beneficial. 

FAMILY — MIMID^.       MOCKERS    AND    THRASHERS. 

L.  8-94— 11-42. 

The  imitative  faculty  of  the  Mockingbird  that  has  given  the  family 
its  name  is  well  developed  in  Canadian  representatives.  The  family  is 
peculiarly  American  and  like  many  of  the  subdivisions  of  the  order  Passeres 
is  difficult  to  diagnose  in  non-technical  language.  The  birds  are  rather 
large,  as  shown  by  the  above  measurements.  The  Catbird  and  Mocking- 
bird are  of  even  shades  of  stone-grey  and  the  Thrasher  bright  rufous 
brown  above  with  heavily  spotted  whitish  or  creamy  underparts  and  an 
unusually  long  full  tail.  They  are  all  good  mockers  and  diversify  their 
song  with  imitations  of  all  the  common  sounds  around  them,  including  the 
songs  of  other  birds,  and  are  capable  of  effects  that  are  rarely  equalled  by 
the  most  famous  songsters  of  either  the  New  or  Old  World.  Any  one  of 
57172—141 


206 

these  species  is  a  sufficient  and  crushing  answer  to  the  charge  that  there 
are  no  song  birds  in  America. 

703.  Mockingbird,  fr. — la  grive  polygotte.  Mimus  polyglottos.  L,  10-50. 
A  large  Catbird  in  appearance  without  black  cap  or  red  under  the  tail;  almost  white  below 
and  with  large  amounts  of  white  in  wing  and  tail. 

Distinctions.  The  above  characters  will  separate  the  Mockingbird  from  the  Catbird. 
It  closely  resembles  the  Shrikes  in  coloration  but  is  without  the  conspicuous  black  patch 
across  the  eyes. 

Field  Marks.  General  greyness  and  white  patches  on  wing  and  tail  with  absence  of 
black  face  mask. 

Nesting.  In  thickets  of  coarse  twigs  and  weed  stalks  in  nests  lined  with  rootlets  and 
shreds  of  cotton. 

Distribution.  Southern  United  States  north  into  Canada  at  the  western  end  of 
lake  Erie.  This  is  the  only  locality  where  the  species  has  obtained  what  approaches  an 
estabUshed  foothold  in  Canada.  A  few  pairs  have  been  known  to  summer  there  for  the 
last  decade. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Mockingbird  is  divided  into  southeastern  and  southwestern 
forms — the  former,  the  common  Mockingbird,  the  type  race  of  the  species,  being  the 
only  subspecies  to  be  expected  in  Canada. 

The  species  is  rare  in  Canada.  It  is  very  similar  to  the  Catbird  and 
most  of  what  is  said  of  that  species  applies  with  even  greater  force  to  the 
Mockingbird,  for  it  is  in  many  ways  only  a  glorified  Catbird  and  is  prob- 
ably the  finest  native  singer  in  America. 

704  Catbird,  fr. — la  grive  de  la  Caroline.  Dmnetella  carolinensis.  L,  8-94. 
Plate  XLIV  B.  ■ 

Distinctions.  This  evenly  grey  bird  can  be  confused  only  with  the  Mockingbird 
and  the  black  cap,  red  undertail  coverts,  and  lack  of  white  on  wing,  tail,  or  below  are 
distinctive. 

Field  Marks.  Even  grey  colour;  black  cap  and  call-notes,  especially  the  cat-like 
"meouw"  from  which  the  bird  derives  its  name. 

Nestiyig.  In  thickets  or  densely  fohaged  shrubs  in  nest  of  twigs,  grasses,  and  leaves 
ined  with  rootlets. 

Distribution.  Eastern  North  America;  in  Canada  including  most  of  the  more  densely 
settled  sections. 

Though  inferior  to  the  Mockingbird  the  Catbird  at  its  best  takes  a 
high  position  as  a  songster,  though  there  is  much  individual  variation  in  the 
excellence  of  its  efforts.  Its  usual  call-note  like  a  cat's  meouw,  which  it 
utters  in  the  brush  while  it  curiously  investigates  the  human  intruder,  is 
well  known  to  most  country  frequenters  and  by  some  queer  twist  of 
psychology  has  aroused  a  prejudice  against  it. 

It  is  a  frequenter  of  thickets  and,  like  many  other  species  frequenting 
such  habitats  where  close  observation  can  be  made  of  dangerous  objects 
with  a  minimum  of  danger  to  the  concealed  observer,  its  curiosity  is  well 
developed.  On  some  tall  spray  rising  out  of  the  tangle  it  sits  in  the  bright 
sun  with  its  tail  depressed  and  body  held  low  to  the  perch,  and  pours  out  a 
medley  of  song.  Phrase  follows  phrase  in  rapid  succession  and  snatches  of 
all  the  bird  songs  of  the  neighbourhood  are  intermixed  with  occasional 
harsher,  mechanical  sounds  which  are  given  with  as  much  gusto  as  the 
more  melodious  ones.     The  Catbird  is  a  most  desirable  neighbour. 

Economic  Status.  The  Catbird  lives  largely  upon  fruit  in  season,  of 
which  perhaps  a  third  can  be  regarded  as  cultivated,  but  many  insects  are 
also  taken.  The  fruits  are  small,  soft  varieties  and  it  is  very  seldom  if  ever 
that  perceptible  damage  is  done. 


207 

705.  Brown  Thrasher,  fr. — la  grive  rousse.  Toxostoma  rufum.  L,  11-42 
Plate  XLV  A. 

Distinctions.  The  Brown  Thrasher  with  its  red-brown  back  and  sharply  streaked 
breast  has  the  general  outward  appearance  of  a  thrush,  but  its  large  size,  ruddiness  of  the 
brown,  and  long  tail  are  distinctive. 

Field  Marks.  The  bright  red-brown  back,  sharply  striped  breast,  long  tail,  and 
general  carriage  and  habits. 

Nesting.  In  thickets  or  on  ground  in  nests  of  twigs,  coarse  rootlets,  and  leaves  lined 
with  finer  rootlets. 

Distribution.  Eastern  United  States  and  southern  Canada,  except  Atlantic  coast, 
•north  including  the  sections  of  thickest  settlements. 

The  Brown  Thrasher  is  probably  the  best  common  Canadian  songster. 

Its  song  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  Song  Thrush  of  Europe.  It  is  a 
succession  of  phrases  like  that  of  the  Catbird  but  without  its  occasional 
discordance  and  more  liquid  and  mellow  in  tone.  The  notes  are  uttered 
close  together  and  continue  for  several  minutes,  sometimes  in  great 
variety.  Thoreau  has  translated  some  of  them  as  "  Drop  it  —  drop  it  — 
cover  it  up  cover  it  up — pull  it  up  pull  it  up.''  The  repetition  of  each 
variation  is  one  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  song  of  the  Brown  Thrasher, 
by  which  it  can  be  distinguished  from  the  Catbird. 

This  is  also  a  bird  of  the  thickets,  inhabitating  open  tangles,  clumps  of 
bushes  in  meadows,  and  the  edges  of  woods  and  fence-rows.  The  Thrasher 
is  rather  more  retiring  than  the  Catbird  and  is  less  easily  induced  to  come 
into  the  home  grounds. 

Economic  Status.  A  decidedly  useful  bird,  over  one-half  of  its  food 
being  injurious  insects,  beetles,  caterpillars,  grasshoppers,  etc.  The 
remainder  is  largely  fruit,  a  small  part  of  which  is  probably  cultivated  and 
is  mostly  raspberries.     On  the  whole  it  does  little  damage  and  much  good. 

FAMILY — TROGLODYTID^.       W^RENS. 

The  Wrens  are  small  brown  birds  living  close  to  the  ground.  Though 
diminutive  in  size  they  are  very  energetic  and  except  when  brooding  or 
asleep  are  rarely  still.  They  can  be  recognized  by  their  small  size,  brown 
coloration,  small  stubby  tail  often  thrown  up  over  the  back,  and  their 
restless  habits,  winding  in  and  out  amongst  the  densest  brush  piles  more 
like  mice  than  birds.  The  Wrens  are  a  large  family  well  distributed  over 
the  world  but  better  represented  in  species  in  the  New  than  in  the  Old  World. 
Their  habitat  varies  from  watery  swamps  to  dry  uplands  and  from  open 
thickets  to  deep  dense  woods.  The  family  name  Troglodytidce,  cave- 
dwellers,  is  derived  from  their  habit  of  nesting  in  holes. 

718.  Carolina  Wren.  Thryothorus  ludovicianus .  L,  5-50.  The  largest  of  our 
Wrens  and  the  reddest,  the  back  approximating  the  red  of  the  Brown  Thrasher,  of  a 
lighter  yet  distinctly  warm  tint  below. 

Distinctions.  Size,  comparative  redness  of  back,  and  the  distmct  Hght  eyebrow 
line  are  distinctive  of  this  species. 

Field  Marks.  The  above  distinctions  make  the  best  field  marks.  The  Long-billed 
Marsh  Wren  has  a  similar  eyebrow  line  but  size,  general  colour,  and  habitat  will  prevent 
confusion  with  it. 

Nesting.  In  holes  in  trees  or  stumps  or  in  nooks  and  crevices  about  buildings,  in 
bulky  nest  of  grasses,  feathers,  leaves,  etc.,  lined  with  finer  grasses,  long  hairs,  etc. 

Distribution.  Eastern  United  States,  north  mtermittently  into  Canada  in  the  western 
lake  Erie  section.  For  a  number  of  years  the  species  was  quite  common  on  Pelee  point 
and  on  Pelee  island,  but  since  1913  it  seems  to  be  becoming  rarer. 

SUBSPECIES.  Of  the  three  subspecies  of  CaroUna  Wren  only  one,  the  Northern 
Cj^rohna  Wren,  the  typical  race,  is  to  be  expected  in  Canada. 


208 

The  Carolina  Wren  is  the  finest  singer  of  the  family.  The  song  is  not 
continuous  or  long  but  it  has  a  peculiar  flute-like,  liquid  quality  and  is  of 
striking  beauty.  The  species  is  rare  in  Canada  and  its  song  is  heard  either 
regularly  or  occasionally  only  in  a  few  localities. 

Economic  Status.  Too  rare  in  Canada  to  have  any  perceptible 
economic  influence. 

719.  Bewick's  Wren.  Thryomanes  hewicki.  L,  5.  Similar  to  the  House  Wren  but 
whiter  below  and  tail  longer,  larger,  and  distinctly  greyish.  It  has  a  light  eyebrow  line. 

Distinctions.     Characters  given  above  will  serve  for  the  identification  of  the  species. 

Field  Marks.     A  House  Wren  with  long  tail  and  loud,  sparrowlike  song. 

Nesting.     Nest  similar  to  that  of  the  House  Wren. 

Distribution.  Eastern  United  States  not  reaching  the  Canadian  border  except  as  a 
straggler  in  southern  Ontario. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  eastern  Canada  form  is  the  Eastern  Bewick's  Wren,  the  type 
race  of  the  species. 

This  Wren  is  only  a  rare  visitor  from  the  south  and  has  seldom  been 
recorded  from  eastern  Canada.  It  should  only  be  recorded  on  the  most 
trustworthy  evidence. 

Economic  Status.  Too  rare  a  species  in  eastern  Canada  to  be  of 
economic  interest. 

721.  House  Wren.  fr. — le  troglodyte  .s:don.  Troglodyte  aedon.  L,  5. 
Plate  XLV  B. 

Distinctions.  This  is  the  commonest  Wren  of  eastern  Canada.  The  even  wood- 
brown  back,  throat  and  breast  tinged  with  hghter  brown;  the  almost  white  underparts; 
and  the  barring  confined  to  the  flanks  will  separate  it  from  other  native  wrens. 

Field  Marks.  The  light  underparts  and  longer  tail  will  separate  the  House  from  the 
Winter  Wren,  and  the  even  brown  colour  of  the  back  and  its  habitat,  from  either  of  the 
Marsh  Wrens. 

Nesting.  In  a  hole  in  a  tree,  bird-box,  or  similar  places,  in  a  nest  of  twigs,  lined  with 
grasses,  feathers,  etc.  The  House  Wren  wiU  occupy  any  kind  of  a  bird-house  that  is  suitably 
placed.  The  English  Sparrow  can  be  kept  away  by  making  the  entrance  hole  small,  a  one- 
inch  auger  hole  is  sufficient  for  a  wren  and  wiU  bar  the  sparrows  entirely. 

Distribution.  As  a  species,  all  United  States  and  Canada  north  to  the  edges  of  settle- 
ment. The  eastern  or  type  form,  the  Eastern  House  Wren,  inhabits  from  the  Great  Lakes 
eastward. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  House  Wren  is  divided  into  eastern  and  western  subspecies  of 
which  the  former,  the  Eastern  House  Wren,  is  the  type. 

The  House  Wren  is  a  most  attractive  bird  about  a  garden;  it  steals 
around,  under,  and  over  everything;  not  a  crack  nor  a  crevice  in  the  fence 
escapes  its  fine  investigative  bill  and  hardly  a  leaf  stalk  but  at  one  time 
or  another  is  carefully  examined  for  insects.  It  has  been  charged  with 
piercing  and  destroying  the  eggs  of  other  species  nesting  in  its  immediate 
vicinity  and  undoubtedly  sometimes  does  so,  but  the  damage  done  in  this 
way  is  probably  an  individual  habit  and  perhaps  not  sufficient  to  warrant 
the  taking  of  any  very  drastic  preventive  measures  against  the  species  as 
a  whole. 

Economic  Status.  As  the  food  of  the  House  Wren  consists  almost  if  not 
entirely  of  insects  nothing  can  be  said  against  it  in  that  direction.  Its  small 
size  causes  it  to  deal  with  minute  insects  that  are  beneath  the  notice  of 
larger  birds  and  so  it  often  controls  pests  before  they  are  large  enough  to  do 
damage  or  be  attractive  to  other  birds. 


209 

722.  Winter  Wren.  fr. — le  troglodyte  d'hiver.  Nannus  hiemalis.  L,  4-06. 
Of  typical  wren-like  build  and  coloration.  Much  like  the  House  Wren  but  smaller  and 
darker  below  and  more  or  less  finely  barred  across  the  abdomen. 

Distinctions.     The  complete  barring  below  is  distinctive  of  this  species. 

Field  Marks.     A  small,  very  dark  Wren  with  a  short  tail;  foimd  in  dense  woods. 

Nesting.  In  roots  of  a  tree  or  a  brush  heap  or  in  side  of  mossy  log  in  nest  of  small  twigs 
and  moss  lined  with  feathers. 

Distribution.  As  a  species,  all  of  North  America  to  tree  limits;  breeding  throughout 
Canada  in  the  coniferous  woods  except  in  the  more  southern  sections. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Winter  Wren,  distributed  over  most  of  the  continent,  is 
divided  into  a  number  of  geographical  races  or  subspecies  of  which  the  type  form,  the 
Eastern  Winter  Wren,  is  the  only  one  that  comes  within  our  geographical  limits. 

Only  a  migrant  within  most  of  the  more  southern  sections  of  Canada 
this  bird  breeds  commonly  in  the  cool  deep  forest.  Its  song  is  nearly  enough 
in  spirit  and  character  like  that  of  the  House  Wren  for  the  recognition  of  its 
relationship  but  has  a  fuller  and  richer  quality  and  purer  tone.  Heard 
in  the  quietness  of  the  still  forest  it  has  a  wild  woodland  beauty  possessed 
by  no  other  native  species. 

Economic  Status.  Being  a  frequenter  of  the  woodlands  this  bird 
does  not  come  into  close  contact  with  man  but  its  effects  so  far  as  they  go 
are  entirely  beneficial. 

724.  Short-billed  Marsh  Wren.  Cistothorus  stellaris.  L,  4.  Much  like  the  long- 
billed  Marsh  Wren  but  smaller  and  more  finely  streaked. 

Distinctions.  The  two  Marsh  Wrens  are  the  only  wrens  native  to  eastern  Canada  which 
have  sharply  striped  upperparts.    The  Short-billed  is  the  only  one  with  a  streaked  crown. 

Field  Marks.  A  small  Marsh  Wren  with  little  or  no  redidsh  tinge  in  the  brown  colour- 
mg  and  with  a  streaked  head.  Its  notes  are  quite  different  from  those  of  the  Long-bill  with 
which  it  is  most  likely  to  be  confused  . 

Nesting.  On  wet  ground,  in  nest,  a  ball  of  green  grass  woven  near  the  top  of  grass 
dumps  with  a  small  circular  entrance  hole  in  the  side. 

Distribution.  Eastern  United  States  crossing  into  Canada  in  the  east  along  lake  Erie 
and  adjacent  country  but  more  common  in  the  prairie  provinces. 

The  Short-billed  Marsh  Wren  is  local  and  irregular  in  its  distribution; 
it  may  be  present  one  year  in  a  locality  and  absent  the  next,  and  little  is 
really  known  of  its  distribution  in  Canada.  It  frequents  damp,  grassy 
marshes  rather  than  wet  swamps  and  is  usually  found  in  little  colonies. 

725.  Long-billed  Marsh  Wren.  fr. — le  troglodyte  des  marais.  Telmato- 
dytes  palustris.  L,  5-2.  A  richly  coloured  wren  with  an  almost  black  mantle  falling  from 
hind  neck  over  shoulders  where  it  is  streaked  with  white;  all  remainder,  reddish  brown 
above,  creamy  white  below  with  flanks  washed  with  the  same  colour  as  the  back. 

Distinctions.  The  variation  and  colours  of  back  will  distinguish  the  two  Marsh  Wrens 
from  all  others;  the  crown  evenly  coloured  or  with  only  a  diffuse  brown  median  stripe 
instead  of  numerous  short,  fine  stripes  will  separate  it  from  the  Short-billed. 

Field  Marks.  The  locality  which  it  frequents — wet,  reedy,  or  cat-tail  marshes — is 
usually  sufficient  for  identification  but  the  dark  crown  contrasting  with  the  light  eyebrow 
line  is  always  specifically  diagnostic. 

Nesting.  Near  the  top  of  the  reeds  or  rushes  in  wide  wet  marshes,  nest  a  ball  of 
dead  cat-tail  leaves,  grass,  or  reeds.  Unlike  many  other  marsh-haunters  this  species  is  not 
attracted  by  marshes  of  small  size.  A  swampy  pool  a  few  yards  across  attracts  the  Red- 
wing and  perhaps  a  Rail  or  two  but  the  Long-billed  Marsh  Wren  demands  a  considerable 
area.  An  interesting  trait  of  the  Marsh  Wren  is  the  habit  of  building  numerous  mock  nests 
near  the  one  really  occupied.  The  use  made  of  these  nests  is  not  known  but  as  many  as 
eight  or  nine  nests  that  can  be  reasonably  attributed  to  the  efforts  of  one  pair  may  at  times 
be  found. 

Distribution.  As  a  species  the  United  States  and  southern  Canada.  Our  Eastern 
Mars'h  Wren,  the  type  subspecies,  occurs  west  to  the  Great  Lakes  region. 


210 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Long-billed  Marsh  Wren  is  divided  into  several  subspecies;  the 
Eastern  Marsh  Wren,  the  only  form  in  which  we  are  directly  interested  in  eastern  Canada, 
is  the  type  form  of  the  species. 

Wide  wet  swamps  and  quaking  bogs  grown  with  cat-tails  or  reeds  are 
the  places  frequented  by  this  wren. 

FAMILY — CERTHIIDiE.       CREEPERS. 

The  name  of  the  only  eastern  Canadian  Creeper,  the  Brown  Creeper, 
describes  the  bird  very  well.  It  is  a  small  brown  bird  that  creeps  or 
climbs  woodpecker-fashion  on  the  trunks  and  larger  branches  of  forest 
trees.  It  is  smaller  than  any  Canadian  Woodpecker  and  the  bill  is  com- 
paratively long,  light,  delicately  tapered,  and  sickle-shaped  (Figure  64, 
p.  28),  adapted  for  extracting  small  insects  and  insects'  eggs  from  narrow 
cavities  but  not  for  chiselling  in  even  the  softest  wood  or  bark  to  reach 
them.  The  tail  is  rather  long  and  stiff  and  the  claws  are  quite  long  and 
much  curved. 

726.  Brown  Creeper.  American  brown  creeper,  fr. — le  grimpereau  d'am^ ri- 
QUE.     Certhia  familiaris.     L,  5-66.     Plate  XLVI  A. 

Distinctions.  The  brown  and  white  stripings,  lacking  in  decided  design;  the  fine, 
delicate,  sickle-shaped  bill  and  long  stiff  tail  feathers,  worn  on  the  tips,  are  easily  recognized 
distinctions  of  the  species. 

Field  Marks.     Our  only  small  brown  bird  with  pronounced  tree-creeping  habits. 

Nesting.  Behind  the  loose  bark  of  trees  in  nest  of  twigs,  strips  of  bark,  bits  of  dead 
wood,  moss,  etc. 

Distribution.  As  a  species,  occupying  most  of  the  northern  hemisphere.  In  eastern 
North  America  the  Eastern  Creeper  is  the  native  subspecies,  in  Canada  extending  west  as 
far  as  the  prairie  provinces  and  north  to  beyond  settlement. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Brown  Creeper  occurs  in  the  Old  as  well  as  the  New  World. 
The  species  is  divided  into  several  subspecies  in  America,  only  one  of  which,  the  Eastern 
Brown  Creeper  C.f.  americania,  occurs  in  eastern  Canada. 

Pressed  tightly  to  the  trunk  of  forest  trees  the  Brown  Creeper  may 
be  seen  spiralling  up  the  perpendicular  trunk  and  industriously  gleaning 
from  every  crack  and  crevice  in  the  bark.  Reaching  the  section  where 
the  branches  begin  to  grow  smaller  and  the  bark  smooth  it  drops  down 
to  the  base  of  an  adjoining  tree  and  works  upward  again,  never  hurrying, 
never  pausing,  filling  its  stomach  with  small  beetles,  larvae,  and  insect 
eggs.  The  skill  with  which  this  bird  can  cling  to  smooth  surfaces  is  remark- 
able. The  writer  once  knew  a  Brown  Creeper  to  climb  the  polished 
corner  of  a  black  walnut  bookcase  wi4}h  as  much  unconcern  as  if  it  had 
been  the  roughest  barked  oak  in  the  woods. 

Economic  Status.  The  Brown  Creeper  is  purely  insectivorous  in  its 
habits  and  its  constant  microscopic  attention  to  every  little  crevice  in 
the  rough  bark  must  account  for  innumerable  insect  pests.  Most  of 
its  work  is  done  in  the  woods  but  as  the  bird  frequently  appears  in  the 
orchard  and  on  shade  and  ornamental  trees  about  the  town  and  house 
the  species  has  a  powerful  beneficial  influence. 

FAMILY — SITTID^.       NUTHATCHES. 

The  JNuthatches  are  small,  woodpecker-like  birds  in  general  habit 
but  their  toes  are  of  the  usual  passerine  type  with  three  toes  in  front  and 


211 

one  behind  instead  of  the  characteristic  two  and  two  of  the  Woodpeckers. 
The  bills  are  somewhat  like  those  of  the  Woodpecker  in  outline  but  without 
their  chisel-shaped  point  and  are  set  on  a  slightly  up-tilted  angle  with  the 
head  giving  a  turned-up  or  retrousse  appearance  (Figure  65,  p.  28, 
compare  with  Figure  41,  p.  25).  The  colours  of  our  species  are  char- 
acteristic. The  name  Nuthatch  is  derived  from  their  habit  of  wedging 
nuts  and  other  hard  food  into  crevices  and  "hatching"  or  hacking 
them  until  an  entrance  is  made.  Though  capable  of  considerable  ex- 
cavating in  wood  or  bark  they  do  not  use  their  powers  to  delve  deeply 
into  trees  but  as  a  rule  content  themselves  with  flaking  off  the  loose  bark 
scales  and  searching  the  open  cavities  and  seams. 

727.  Carolina  Nuthatch,  white-breasted  nuthatch,  big  quank.  fr. — la 
siTELLE  DE  LA  CAROLINE.     Sitta  carolmensis.     L,  6-07.     Plate  XLVI  B. 

Distinctions.  With  the  illustration  and  famih'  description  this  species  can  be  mistaken 
only  for  the  Red-breasted  Nuthatch.  It  is,  however,  a  larger  bird  and  while  there  are 
traces  of  chestnut  on  the  lower  belly  and  undertail  coverts  and  sometimes  a  slight  wash  on 
the  flank,  the  breast  and  most  of  the  underparts  are  pure  white  instead  of  being  evenly 
washed  with  rufous  or  rusty.  The  sides  of  the  face  are  solid  white  instead  of  having  black 
ear  coverts  and  distinct  white  eyebrow  stripes. 

Field  Marks.  The  even  blue-grey  back  and  black  crown  are  characteristic  of  the  Nut- 
hatches; the  purity  of  the  white  below  and  lack  of  white  eyebrow  line  separate  the  White 
from  the  Red-breasted. 

Nesting.     In  a  hole  in  a  tree  or  usually  a  natural  cavity,  in  nest  of  feathers,  leaves,  etc. 

Distribution.  As  a  species  the  Carolina  Nuthatch  inhabits  all  of  temperate  North 
America.  Our  eastern  subspecies,  the  White-breasted  Nuthatch,  the  type  of  the  species, 
extends  west  to  the  prairie  provinces  in  Canada  and  north  to  the  limits  of  heavy  forests. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Carolina  Nuthatch  is  divided  into  several  geographic  races,  only 
one  of  which,  the  White-breasted  Nuthatch,  the  type  form,  occurs  in  eastern  Canada. 

The  climbing  and  trunk  creeping  of  the  Nuthatches  is  a  wonderful 
accomplishment.  They  travel  upwards  or  downwards,  forwards  or 
backwards,  perpendicularly  or  horizontally,  or  even  clinging  to  the  under- 
side of  branches  like  flies  on  the  ceiling,  apparently  with  equal  ease.  Their 
usual  call  note  is  a  hoarse  Quank  Quank  and  they  often  travel  in  pairs 
and  little  groups  along  with  Chickadees  and  Creepers. 

Economic  Status.  One  of  the  most  useful  birds.  Although  it  pays 
much  attention  to  forest  trees  it  often  comes  to  orchard  and  shade  trees 
and  as  a  member  of  the  above-mentioned  company  which  examines  every 
part  of  the  winter  tree  trunks  for  insects  with  microscopic  eyes,  it  con- 
sumes great  quantities  of  pests  in  adult,  egg,  or  larval  stages. 

728.  Red-breasted  Nuthatch,  little  quank.  fr. — la  sitelle  du  Canada. 
Sitta  canadensis.  L,  4-62.  Like  the  White-breasted  Nuthatch  (Plate  XLVI  B)  but 
smaller  and  with  the  underparts  washed  with  rufous;  black  ear  coverts,  and  with  a  white 
eyebrow  stripe. 

Distinctions.  Size  and  above  colour  differences  will  separate  this  species  from  any  other 
bird. 

Field  Marks.  An  evident  Nuthatch,  smaller  than  the  previous  species,  and  with  a 
conspicuous  white  eyebrow  line,  all  underparts  obviously  reddish. 

Nesting.     In  hole  in  tree  or  stump,  in  nest  of  grasses. 

Distribution.  Rather  more  northern  in  breeding  range  than  the  preceding  and  a 
migrant  in  most  of  the  cultivated  sections  of  Canada.  It  ranges  over  most  of  North 
America  north  to  near  the  tree  limits. 

A  slightly  more  active  bird  than  the  preceding  and  more  prone  to 
forage  about  the  tips  of  branches.     Otherwise  its  habits  are  very  similar. 


212 

FAMILY — PARIDiB.      TITMICE. 

The  Titmice  are  birds  of  wide  distribution  in  the  northern  hemisphere 
and  are  as  familiar  to  European  residents  as  to  us.  They  are  small  birds 
with  rather  short  but  comparatively  strongly  arched  bills  (Figure  66, 
p.  28).     Their  plumage  characters  are  usually  easily  recognized. 

731.  Tufted  Titmouse.  Bceolophua  bicolor.  L,  6.  The  largest  of  our  Titmice  and 
without  the  characteristic  Chickadee  colouring.  All  above,  an  almost  even  stone-grey; 
white  below  shghtly  washed  on  flanks  with  rufous.  A  distinct  almost  Blue  Jay-like 
crest. 

Distinctions.  The  plain  grey  and  immarked  coloration  with  striking  crest  are 
unmistakable  distinctions  and  field  marks.  Its  common  note  a  loud  clear  Peetle-peetle — 
peetle  is  most  characteristic  but  is  very  like  one  of  the  phrases  of  the  Orchard  Oriole. 

Nesting.  In  old  woodpecker's  holes,  stumps,  etc.,  in  nest  of  leaves,  moss,  strips  of 
bark,  feathers,  etc. 

Distribution.  Southern  and  eastern  United  States  north  to  and  just  touching 
Canadian  boundaries  in  the  lower  Great  Lakes  region. 

The  only  Canadian  records  for  the  Tufted  Titmouse  are  two  noted 
on  Pelee  point  in  southern  Ontario  in  the  western  Lake  Erie  country. 
It  is  rather  common  on  the  Michigan  side  of  Detroit  river  and  even 
on  Grosse  isle  in  midstream  and  should  eventually  be  found  on  the  Cana- 
dian side  of  the  river  though  as  yet  we  have  no  record  of  its  occurrence  there. 

735.  Black-capped  Chickadee,  chickadee,  fr. — la  mesange  a  tIite  noir. 
Penthestes  atricapillus.     L,  5-27.     PlateXLVIIA. 

Distinctions.  This  species  can  be  mistaken  in  eastern  Canada  only  for  the  Brown- 
headed  Chicadee  but  is  a  far  commoner  and  more  generally  distributed  species. 

Field  Marks.  The  Chickadee  is  all  field  mark.  Its  shape,  a  roimd  bundle  of  feathers 
with  tail  and  hardly  any  neck,  its  sprightly  habit,  its  penchant  for  hanging  upside  down 
while  investigating  the  very  tips  of  twigs,  its  colours,  a  black  cap  and  throat,  white  cheeks, 
and  soft  grey  back,  and  its  note  Chick-a  dee-dee  in  which  its  name  is  so  plainly  pronounced, 
all  proclaim  its  species  on  the  instant. 

Nesting.  In  old  stumps,  holes  in  trees,  etc.,  in  nest  of  moss,  grasses,  feathers,  and 
plant-down. 

Distribution.  As  a  species,  from  about  the  centre  of  the  United  States  north  to  the 
tree  limits;  the  Black-capped  Chickadee  occurs  from  a  little  south  of  the  Canadian  line 
north,  extending  west  to  the  prairie  provinces  where  its  place  is  taken  by  aUied  subspecies. 

SUBSPECIES.  Like  other  dominant  and  wide  ranging  species  the  Black-capped 
Chickadee  under  the  various  conditions  of  the  continent  divides  in  North  America  into 
several  recognizable  geographic  races  or  subspecies.  In  eastern  Canada  there  is  only  one 
form,  the  type  of  the  species,  the  Eastern  Chickadee.  To  the  south  occurs  the  Carolina 
Chickadee  P.  carolinensis,  a  closely  allied  but  distinct  species  that  may  be  looked  for  as 
accidental  in  the  lower  Great  Lakes  region,  as  it  has  been  taken  in  Michigan  immediately 
over  the  bomidary.  The  specific  distinctions,  however,  are  too  slight  to  be  accurately 
defined  here  and  records  can  only  be  based  on  specimens. 

Of  all  the  birds  of  field  or  woods  the  Chickadee  is  the  cheeriest  and 
merriest.  The  Chickadee  is  often  the  centre  of  a  little  host  of  mixed 
species  of  Warblers,  Vireos,  Kinglets,  Nuthatches,  and  an  occasional 
Downy  Woodpecker  and  Brown  Creeper.  After  the  migrants  have  left 
for  the  winter  the  hardier  ones  remain  casually  together  off  and  on 
until  the  spring  breeding  scatters  the  good-natured  little  com- 
pany. The  Chickadee  has  another  song  composed  of  only  two  notes  of 
rather  high  register  clear  and  whistle-like.  The  first  is  prolonged  and 
the  second  shorter  about  two  tones  lower  and  has  been  translated  as 
"Spring's  here". 


213 

Economic  Status.  Few  birds  are  more  useful  to  mankind  than  the 
Chickadee.  Though  small,  it  is  constantly  at  work,  and  being  with  us 
all  winter  its  good  work  is  continued  throughout  the  year.  All  insects 
are  very  small  in  their  early  stages  and  the  little  bird  that  devours  a  whole 
cluster  of  eggs  at  a  gulp  may  benefit  agriculture  as  greatly  as  a  larger 
one  that  makes  a  meal  from  one  or  two  large  caterpillars  or  adult  insects 
but  scorns  the  minute  ones.  The  prying  habits  of  the  Chickadee  and 
its  companions  the  Nuthatch,  Creeper,  etc.,  and  their  close  examination 
of  the  small  crevices  where  many  insects  hide  or  hibernate  render  their 
services  of  great  value  to  the  husbandman,  especially  in  winter  when 
insect  enemies  are  scarce,  and  the  total  taken  through  the  year  by  these 
allied  species  must  be  very  great.  These  active  little  birds  demand  com- 
paratively large  quantities  of  food  to  resist  the  intense  cold  and  the  small- 
ness  of  their  game  necessitates  the  consumption  of  innumerable  indi- 
viduals. 

The  Chickadee's  food  is  68  per  cent  insect  and  32  per  cent  vegetable. 
The  former  comprises  eggs,  larvae,  chrysalids,  and  small  insects,  largely 
weevils,  and  includes  some  of  the  worst  orchard  and  crop  pests.  The 
vegetable  matter  is  largely  small  seed  and  wild  fruit.  No  charges  of 
damage  to  cultivated  varieties  have  been  advanced.  Chickadees  can 
easily  be  induced  to  come  about  the  home  grounds  in  winter  and  with  a 
little  coaxing  become  tame  enough  even  to  alight  on  the  person  and  feed 
from  the  hand.  A  lump  of  suet  fastened  to  a  tree  trunk  is  a  never  failing 
attraction  to  them  and  ensures  their  constant  visits. 

740.  Brown-headed  Chickadee,  htjdsonian  chickadee,  fr. — la  miesange  du 
CANADA.  Penthestes  hudsonicus.  L,  5-12.  Similar  to  the  Black-capped  Chickadee  but 
duller  and  darker  in  general  tone;  cap  greyish  brown  of  nearly  the  same  colour  as  the  back; 
throat  patch  present  but  veiled;  flanks  rufous  tinted. 

Distinctions.  The  brownish  cap  and  back  and  general  duller  and  less  contrasted 
coloration. 

Field  Marks.  A  very  dark  Chickadee  with  coloration  diffused  and  pattern  lacking 
distinctness.  Its  characteristic  Chickadee  note  is  hoarse  but  otherwise  similar  to  that  of  the 
common  Chickadee. 

Nesting.     In  holes  in  trees  and  stubs  in  nest  of  moss  and  felted  fur. 

Distribution.     Northern  America  from  beyond  settlement  to  the  tree  limits. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Brown-headed  Chickadee  is  represented  by  two  subspecies  in 
eastern  Canada.  The  type  form,  the  Husdonian  Chickadee,  extends  to  central  Ontario, 
east  of  which  it  is  replaced  by  the  Acadian  Chickadee  P.h.  littoralis  which  differs  from  it 
slightly  in  size  and  colour. 

The  Brown-headed  Chickadee  is  so  similar  in  habits  to  the  Black- 
capped  that  further  description  would  be  little  more  than  repetition. 


FAMILY — SYLVIID^.       OLD-WORLD    WARBLERS,    KINGLETS,    AND 
GNATCATCHERS. 

An  old  world  family  represented  in  America  by  only  a  few  species. 
Of  these,  the  Old  World  Warblers,  not  to  be  confused  with  our  Wood 
Warblers,  do  not  occur  in  eastern  Canada,  the  Kinglets  are  represented 
by  two  species,  and  the  Gnatcatcher  by  one  species. 


214 

Subfamily — ReguUnce.     Kinglets.     L,  4 '07-4- 4^- 

General  Description.  The  Kinglets  are  the  smallest  of  Canadian  birds  except  the 
Hummingbird.  They  are  wren-like  in  their  short  round  body  but  more  like  Chickadees  in 
habits  and  actions.  Their  colours  are  dull  olive-green,  lighter  below,  and  they  have  s  lall, 
briUiantly  coloiu-ed  crown  spots  of  red,  orange,  or  yellow.  The  bill  is  small  and 
straight,  similar  to  but  not  as  stout  as  that  of  the  Chickadee  (see  Figure  67,  page  29). 

Distinctions.  The  Kinglets  might  be  mistaken  for  some  of  the  dull,  evenly  coloured 
warblers,  but  as  all  plumages  except  the  female  and  juvenile  Ruby-crowned  have  brilliant 
crown  patches,   this  will  usually  preveat  confusion  and  size  should  do  so  in  any  event. 

Field  Marks.  Dall  greenish  coloration,  chickaiee-like  restlessness,  and  custom  of 
hanging  head  downward  from  pendant  sprays  are  characteristic.  Their  fine,  sharp  con- 
versational tsee-tsee-tsec' s  soon  become  familiar  and  are  easily  recognized. 

748.  Golden-crowned  Kinglet,  golden-crowned  wren.  fr. — le  roitelet 
Huppfi.     Regulus  satrapa.     L,  4-07.     Plate  XLVIl  B. 

Distinctions.  Kinglets,  so  nearly  ahke  in  general  coloration,  can  be  easily  separated 
by  their  crowns.  The  Golden-crowned  has  a  black  line  over  the  eye  that  is  absent  in  the 
Ruby-crowned  and  the  crown  spot  is  orange  and  yellow  in  the  male  or  plain  yellow  in  the 
female  instead  of  ruby-red  or  even  olive  as  in  the  Ruby-crowned. 

Field  Marks.  The  crown  coloration  and  light  eyebrow  make  the  best  field  marks 
but,  owing  to  the  small  size  of  the  bird,  considerable  patience  is  sometimes  necessary  to 
distinguish  these  marks  when  the  birds  are  constantly  moving  about  high  overhead  in  con- 
iferous trees. 

Nesting.  Generally  in  coniferous  trees.  Pensile  nest  of  green  mosses  lined  with  fine 
strips  of  soft  inner  bark,  fine  black  rootlets,  and  feathers. 

Distribution.  As  a  species,  northern  North  America.  The  Eastern  Golden-crown 
ranges  west  to  near  the  mountains,  breeding  in  the  coniferous  belt  north  beyond  settlement. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Golden-crowned  Kinglet  is  divided  into  an  eastern  and  western 
subspecies.  The  Eastern  Golden-crown^  the  type  form,  is  the  only  one  that  occurs  in 
eastern  Canada. 

One  often  finds  himself  surrounded  by  a  large  flock  of  these  little 
birds  flitting  in  and  out  of  dense  foliage,  darting  hither  and  thither,  utterly 
indifferent  to  the  intruder's  presence,  and  coming  and  going  so  quickly 
that  it  is  difficult  to  note  the  specific  characters.  Some  hang  head  down- 
ward from  a  swaying  bunch  of  twigs  and  others  work  in  and  out  on 
the  branches  and  twigs,  keeping  up  a  continual  interchange  of  fine  sharp 
tsee  tsee  tsee. 

The  Golden-crown  remains  in  southern  Canada  most  if  not  all  the 
winter.  It  is  partial  to  evergreen  trees  and  often  frequents  the  ornamental 
conifers  about  the  house  and  in  towns.  It  is  fearless  and  trusting  but 
unlike  the  Chickadee  seldom  becomes  familiar. 

Economic  Status.  The  Kinglets  are  so  largely  insectivorous  that 
they,  can  be  looked  upon  as  most  beneficial.  They  are  small  but  their 
numbers,  when  they  occur,  more  than  make  up  for  their  small  size  and 
what  is  said  of  the  Chickadee  in  this  respect  applies  equally  well  to 
them. 

749.  Ruby-crowned  Kinglet,  ruby-crowned  wren.  fr. — le  roitelet  X 
couronne  rubis.     Regulus  calendula.     L,  4-41.     Plate  XLVII  B. 

Distinctions.  The  Ruby-crowned  is  likely  to  be  mistaken  only  for  the  previous  species 
but  the  lack  of  black  stripes  on  the  head  is  always  diagnostic. 

Field  Marks.  In  the  quick  movement  of  the  lively  flocks  and  the  deep  shadows  of 
dense  conifers  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  catch  the  distinctive  head  marks  of  the  Kinglets. 
It  will  be  noted,  however,  that  the  Ruby-crowned  has  a  habit  of  fluttering  its  wings  occa- 
sionally, in  a  few  short  quick  vibrations,  during  momentary  pauses  while  hopping  about 
without  flying.  This  will  often  suggest  the  species  though  it  cannot  be  regarded  as  a 
certain  proof  of  identity. 


215 

Nesting.  In  coniferous  trees,  nest  of  moss  and  fine  strips  of  bark  neatly  interwoven 
and  lined  with  feathers,  usually  semi-pensile. 

Distrihulion.  Northern  North  America.  In  eastern  Canada  breeding  north  above 
settlement  and  slightly  farther  north  than  the  Golden-crown. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Ruby-crowned  Kinglet  is  divided  into  three  subspecific  races 
only  one  of  which,  the  Eastern  Ruby-crown,  the  typical  form,  occurs  in  eastern  Canada. 

This  species  is  so  nearly  like  the  Golden-crowned  Kinglet  that  little 
further  discussion  is  necessary  either  of  habits  or  economic  status.  The 
song  of  the  Ruby-crowned,  however,  is  one  of  nature's  surprises.  It 
is  loud,  clear,  and  full  throated  and  is  audible  for  a  surprising  distance, 
equalling  in  carrying  power  the  song  of  the  Purple  Finch.  When  first 
heard  it  is  almost  invariably  ascribed  to  some  of  the  better  singing 
sparrows  rather  than  to  this  diminutive  little  bird. 

Subfamily — Polioptilince.     Gnatcatchers.     L,  4 '05. 

A  small  family  composed  of  only  one  genus  and  peculiar  to  America. 
The  colour  is  in  soft  bluish-ash  and  white.  The  bill  is  superficially  warbler- 
like but  the  first  primary  feather  of  the  wing  is  small  and  almost 
aborted,  being  considerably  less  than  half  as  long  as  the  next,  as  is  the 
case  with  the  Warbling  Vireo.     Only  one  species  occurs  in  Canada. 

751.  Blue-grey  Gnatcatcher.  Polioptila  ccerulea.  L,  4-05.  All  even  bluish-grey 
above,  wings  dark,  and  tail  black,  the  outer  tail  feathers  white;  below  and  face  all  white. 
Male  has  black  line  across  forehead  and  over  eye. 

Distinctions.  The  small  size,  even  blue  and  white  coloration,  and  the  short  first  wing 
quill  are  diagnostic. 

Field  Marks.  Inhabiting  treetops  so  high  up  that  the  colours  are  usually  difficult  to 
make  out,  the  outline,  with  long  narrow  tail  switched  about  much  in  the  manner  of  the 
Red-start,  and  the  characteristic  rather  hoarse  call  notes  make  the  best  recognition  marks. 

Nesting.  Nest  of  tendrils,  fine  strips  of  bark,  and  fine  grasses  fu-mly  interwoven  and 
covered  outside  with  spiderweb  and  lichens.  It  is  chimney-like  in  shape,  high  with  straight 
sides,  and  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  American  bird  nests. 

Distribution.  Southeastern  United  States  north  to  the  Canadian  border  along  lake 
Erie  and  the  Detroit  river. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  eastern  subspecies,  the  Eastern  Gnatcatcher,  is  the  typical 
form.     A  western  subspecies  occurs  in  the  southwestern  states. 

This  is  a  bird  of  the  large  tree  forests  where  it  usually  lives  and  builds 
high  up  among  the  tree  tops.  As  it  is  only  regularly  found  in  southern 
Ontario  along  western  lake  Erie  and  has  been  taken  elsewhere  in  Canada 
only  occasionally,  it  must  be  regarded  as  a  rare  bird  in  Canada. 

Economic  Status.     Too  rare  in  Canada  to  be  economically  considered. 

FAMILY — TURDID^.      THRUSHES   AND    ALLIES. 

This  is  a  nearly  cosmopolitan  group  systematically  separated  with 
difficulty  from  the  last  family,  though  the  individuals  described  in  the 
following  pages  are  strongly  enough  marked  to  be  easily  recognizable. 
In  eastern  Canada  only  one  subfamily  is  represented. 

Subfamily — Turdinm.     The  True  Thrushes.     L,  6-25-10. 

Most  of  the  Canadian  Thrushes  are  easily  recognized  as  such.  Sys- 
tematically they  are  plainly  marked  by  the  number  of  primaries  and 


216 

the  scalation  of  the  feet.  As  these  are  rather  difficult  features  for  the 
amateur  to  discern,  it  is  perhaps  easier  to  differentiate  them  by  other 
more  striking  characters  that  apply  to  the  representative  of  the  group  in 
eastern  Canada.  For  this  purpose  they  may  be  divided  into  the  Thrushes 
proper  and  the  American  Robin,  Bluebird,  and  Wheatear,  the  last  very 
rare  and  the  other  two  so  well  marked  as  to  be  recognized  with  ease. 
The  Thrushes  proper  are  medium-sized  birds,  brown  above  and  white 
below, with  the  breast  more  or  less  spotted,  except  one  species,  the  Veery, 
conspicuously  so.  Any  Canadian  bird  of  this  description  between  6-25 
and  8  •  30  inches  long,  with  the  first  primary  very  small  and  degenerate, 
belongs  to  this  group.  The  Thrushes  are  all  ground-haunting  birds  and 
usually  more  or  less  sohtary.  Their  principal  food  is  insects  and  soft 
fruit.  The  woodland  species  are  of  little  direct  economic  importance, 
although  their  influence  is  beneficial.  All  the  Thrushes  of  this  group 
are  very  sweet  singers. 

755.  Wood  Thrush,  song  thrush,  fb. — la  grive  des  bois.  Hylocichla 
mustelina.     L,  8-29.     Plate  XLVIII  A. 

Distinctions.  Easily  recognized  as  a  Thrush,  though  having  somewhat  the  general 
colour  of  the  Brown  Thrasher.  The  short  tail,  straight  bill,  and  dark  instead  of  light  eye 
make  good  separation  marks.  From  the  other  members  of  the  genus  it  can  be  told  by  its 
larger  size,  the  absolute  whiteness  of  the  breast,  the  sharper  definition  of  the  round  spots,  and 
the  yellowish  rather  than  reddish  or  olive  tinge  of  the  back,  brightest  on  head. 

Field  Marks.  The  sharp  spots  on  the  pure  white  breast  and  the  tawniness  of  the  back 
make  the  best  field  marks. 

Nesting.  In  saplings  about  8  feet  above  the  ground,  in  nest  of  leaves,  rootlets,  fine 
twigs,  and  weed  stalks  firmly  interwoven  and  lined  with  mud  and  fine  rootlets. 

Distribution.  Eastern  North  America;  north  regularly  to  southern  Ontario;  occa- 
sional or  local  in  adjoining  regions. 

The  Wood  Thrush  is  a  woodland  bird  of  rather  southern  distribution; 
common  in  Canada  only  in  the  more  southern  portions. 

756.  Wilson's  Thrush,  veery.  cathedral-bird.  fr. — la  grive  de  wilson. 
Hylocichla  ftiscescens.     L,  7-52.     Plate  XLVIII  B. 

Distinctions.  In  this  Thrush  the  brown  is  almost  as  tawny  as  in  the  Wood  Thrush  but 
the  back  is  evenly  coloured  and  no  brighter  on  head  or  tail  than  elsewhere.  The  breast 
spots  are  reduced  to  a  vague  series  of  darker  spots  down  the  sides  of  the  neck  and  on  a 
tinted  area  across  the  upper  breast. 

Field  Marks.  The  even,  light  coloration  of  the  back  and  the  hght  suffused  colour  of 
the  breast  spots. 

Nesting.  On  or  near  ground,  in  nest  of  strips  of  bark,  rootlets,  and  leaves  wrapped  with 
leaves  and  lined  with  rootlets. 

Distribution.     The  northern  part  of  north  America  north  to  the  limits  of  settlement. 

SUBSPECIES.  In  Canada  Wilson's  Thrush  is  represented  by  two  subspecies,  the 
Veery,  the  type  form,  and  the  Willow  Thrush  of  western  distribution,  coming  east  to 
Manitoba  and  only  occasionally  occurring  in  eastern  Canada. 

The  Veery  has  a  wide  distribution  within  settled  sections.  Beyond 
the  range  of  the  Wood  Thrush  and  before  the  other  thrushes  become 
numerous  this  species  is  common  and  its  cascade  of  bell-Hke  notes  poured 
forth  at  sunset  in  the  darkening  bush  are  very  pleasant  to  hear. 

757.  Alice's  Thrush,  grey-cheeked  thrush,  fr. — la  grive  d'alice.  Hylo- 
cichla alicioe.     L,  7-58.     PlateXLIXA. 

Distinctions.  Although  a  distinct  species,  this  thrush  is  so  nearly  like  the  next,  the 
Olive-backed,  as  to  be  separated  from  it  with  some  difficulty.  The  two  can  be  distinguished 
from  other  thrushes  by  their  even  dark  olive  backs  and  heavily  spotted  breasts  with  spots 
suffused  in  places  and  running  together.  In  the  Grey-cheeked  Thrush  the  sides  of  the  face 
and  spotting  of  breast  are  suffused  with  dull  cold  grey  instead  of  a  warm  buff. 


217 

Field  Marks.  Heavily  spotted  breast  and  evenly  coloured  back  and  tail  will  separate 
this  from  all  but  the  Olive-backed.  The  lack  of  buff  tones  on  the  side  of  the  face  will 
differentiate  it  from  that  species  though  in  actual  field  work  it  is  only  under  the  most  favour- 
able circumstances  that  this  character  can  be  made  out  with  certainty  and  many  specimens 
Been  in  the  dark  woods  or  the  fleeting  moments  given  for  observation  go  unidentified. 

SUBSPECIES.  Alice's  Thrush  is  divided  into  two  geographical  races:  the  Grey- 
cheeked,  the  type,  and  BickneU's  Thrush  H.a.  hicknelli.  The  latter  in  Canada  is  confined 
as  far  as  we  know  now  to  the  Maritime  Provinces  below  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  but  the 
distribution  of  the  two  forms  in  eastern  Canada  is  not  weU  worked  out. 

Distribution.  Northern  North  America;  breeding  mainly  in  Canada  from  the  edges 
of  settlement  northward. 

758a.  Olive-backed  Thrush,  fr. — la  grive  de  swainson.  Hylocichla  ustulala. 
L,  7  17.     Plate  XLIX  A. 

Distinctions.  Evenly  coloured  back  without  colour  variation  on  either  head  or  tail  and 
heavily  spotted  breast  will  separate  this  from  all  the  thrushes  but  Ahce's.  The  distinctly 
buffy  cast  of  the  cheeks  instead  of  cold  grey  will  differentiate  it  from  that  species. 

Field  Marks.  Back  and  breast  characters  as  above.  The  facial  coloration  which 
separates  it  from  Alice's  can  only  be  seen  under  the  most  favourable  conditions  and  many 
individuals  usually  go  unidentified. 

Nesting.  In  bushes  or  small  trees  about  4  feet  above  the  ground,  in  nest  of  coarse 
grasses,  moss,  rootlets,  leaves,  and  bark  lined  with  rootlets  and  grass. 

Distribution.  As  a  species,  all  of  North  America;  breeding  mostly  in  Canada  from 
the  edges  of  cultivation  northward.  Swainson 's  Thrush  extends  west  to  the  Rocky 
mountains. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Olive-backed  Thrush  is  divided  into  two  subspecies.  The  type 
race,  imder  the  name  of  Russet-backed  Thrush,  is  a  Pacific  Coast  form.  The  Eastern 
OUve-back  or  Swainson's  Thrush  H.u.  swainsoni  is  the  only  one  in  eastern  Canada. 

In  spring  and  autumn  the  open  woods  are  invaded  by  great  numbers 
of  these  evenly  coloured,  spotted-breasted  thrushes  on  their  way  to  and 
from  their  breeding  grounds.  They  are  rather  wary  and  the  numerical 
proportion  of  each  species  present  can  usually  only  be  estimated. 

759.  Hermit  Thrush,  fr. — la  grive  solitaire.  Hylocichla  guttata.  L,  7' 17. 
Plate  XLIX  B. 

Distinctions.  Very  similar  to  the  last  two  but  the  tail  reddish  brown  in  contrast  with 
the  ohve-brown  of  the  back. 

Field  Marks.  Brown  back  and  white,  spotted  breast  identifies  it  as  a  Thrush.  The 
reddish  coloration  of  the  tail  contrasting  with  the  ohve  back  serves  for  the  identification 
of  the  species. 

Nesting.  On  ground  in  nest  of  moss,  coarse  grasses,  and  leaves  lined  with  rootlets  and 
pine  needles. 

Distribution.  As  a  species,  all  of  northern  North  America.  The  Eastern  Hermit 
Thrush  extends  westward  to  near  the  mountains  and  north  to  the  tree  lunits,breeding  usually 
just  beyond  the  cultivated  districts  but  irregularly  to  or  near  om-  southern  boimdary. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Hermit  Thrush  is  a  flexible  and  adaptable  species  represented 
in  America  by  some  six  recognized  subspecies.  The  typical  form  is  an  Alaskan  race. 
Eastern  Canada  has  only  one  subspecies,  the  Eastern  Hermit  Thrush  H.g.  pallasi-. 

The  Hermit  Thrush  is  one  of  our  most  famous  singers.  Unfortunately, 
it  is  usually  silent  as  it  passes  through  southern  Canada  and  is  heard 
at  its  best  only  in  the  northern  coniferous  woods. 

761.  American  Robin,  fr. — le  merle  d'am^rique.  Planesticus  migratorius. 
L,  10.     Plate  LA. 

Distinctions.  The  robin  is  too  distinctly  marked  and  well  known  to  require  special 
description. 

Field  Marks.  The  robin  is  recognizable  by  those  acquainted  with  the  species,  at 
great  distances,  when  no  colour  is  visible,  by  its  outline,  carriage,  and  manner  of  flight. 

Nesting.  Frequently  in  fruit  or  shade  trees  or  about  buildings,  in  nest  of  coarse 
grasses,  leaves,  rootlets,  etc.,  with  an  inner  wall  of  mud  fined  with  fine  grasses. 


218 

Distribution.  As  a  species  all  of  North  America,  north  to  tree  limits.  The  Eastern 
Robin  covers  aU  of  Canada  overlapping  with  the  western  form  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  Robin  is  divided  into  three  subspecies  of  which  the  Eastern 
Robin,  the  type  form,  is  the  only  eastern  Canadian  representative. 

The  Robin  has  more  intimate  associations  with  man  than  perhaps  any- 
other  bird.  Its  cheery  voice  is  the  harbinger  of  spring.  Its  song  is  the  first 
heard  in  the  morning  and  the  last  at  night,  and  in  the  autumn  when 
it  has  stripped  the  rowan  tree  of  its  last  berry,  and  has  disappeared  we 
know  that  winter  is  upon  us.  Though  named  after  a  famous  Old  World 
bird,  it  only  very  superficially  resembles  the  Robin  Red-breast  of  England. 
The  only  points  of  resemblance  are  its  red  breast  and  confiding  habits. 

Probably  the  worst  enemy  of  the  Robin  is  the  household  cat.  Nesting 
in  readily  accessible  places  young  Robins  are  subject  to  many  disturb- 
ances, often  leave  the  nest  before  they  are  able  to  fend  for  themselves 
and  so  fall  prey  to  the  cat. 

The  spotted  breast  of  the  young  Robin  indicates  its  descent  from 
a  spotted  ancestor  and  its  relationship  to  the  thrushes  of  the  previous 
genus.  In  fact  the  young  of  most  of  the  members  of  the  family  have  spotted 
breasts. 

Economic  Status.  Though  the  Robin  is  an  efficient  aid  to  the  agri- 
culturist, its  fondness  for  fruit  occasionally  gets  it  into  trouble  with  the 
small  fruit  raiser.  Forty-two  per  cent  of  its  food  is  animal,  mostly  insects, 
the  remainder  is  composed  largely  of  berries  and  other  soft  small  fruits 
of  which  little  more  than  4  per  cent  is  cultivated  fruit. 

765.  Wheatear.  pr. — le  traquet  motteux.  Saxicola  oenanthe.  L,  7  01.  A 
Titlark-like  bird,  light  grey  above,  white  below,  warmed  with  buff  colour  on  throat;  a 
black  band  through  the  eye  and  a  white  rump.  The  female  and  juvenile  are  similar  but 
duller  and  more  evenly  buff  coloured. 

Distinctions.  The  conspicuous  and  extensive  white  rump  with  the  general  colorations 
given  above  are  distinctive. 

Field  Marks.     With  its  showy  white  rump  the  bird  looks  like  a  partly  albino  Titlark. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  subspecies  of  Wheatear  that  occurs  in  eastern  Canada  is  the 
Greenland  Wheatear  S.q.  leucorhoa. 

This  is  a  European  bird  of  regular  occurrence  in  Greenland  and 
perhaps  in  the  adjacent  parts  of  Ungava  but  of  only  casual  or  accidental 
occurrence  elsewhere  in  Canada. 

766.  Bluebird,     fr. —  le  rotjge-gorge  bleu.    Sialia  sialis.    L,  701.     Plate  LB. 
Distinctions.     The  only  solidly  blue  bird  with  a  reddish    breast  among  Canadian 

species — the  Indigo  bird  is  blue  but  lacks  the  red  breast.  Females  and  juveniles  are  duller 
in  colour  and  the  breasts  of  young  birds  are  spotted  with  brown  but  all  have  the  character- 
istic blue  backs. 

Field  Marks.  The  bright  blue  coloration  of  the  back  and  the  earthy  red  of  the 
breast. 

Nesting.     In  hollow  trees,  posts,  or  stubs  or  in  bird  houses,  in  nest  of  grasses. 

Distribution.  Eastern  North  America,  west  to  the  prairie  provinces  and  north  nearly 
to  the  bounds  of  settlement. 

SUBSPECIES.  The  subspecies  of  Bluebird  occurring  in  Canada  is  the  typical  race, 
the  Eastern  Bluebird. 

The  Bluebird  arrives  in  the  early  spring  with  the  Robin  and 
the  Meadowlark.  It  is  a  confiding  bird  building  in  the  hollows  of  old 
apple  trees,  holes  in  fence-posts,  bird  boxes,  or  nests  abandoned  by  Wood- 


219 

peckers.  It  is  characteristically  a  bird  of  the  orchard  and  with  a  little 
encouragement  will  build  in  birdhouses  in  the  garden  where  its  gentle 
ways,  pretty  murmuring  notes,  and  brilUant  coloration  make  it  quite 
an  acquisition. 

Economic  Status.  The  Bluebird  feeds  mainly  upon  insects  and  is, 
therefore,  highly  beneficial.  Weed  seeds  form  an  important  part  of 
its  food  and  it  eats  some  soft  fruit,  but  practically  no  cultivated  kinds 
are  taken.  Hence  the  Bluebird  can  be  regarded  as  a  consistently  useful 
bird. 

GLOSSARY. 

Albinism.  The  occasional  and  erratic  occurrence  of  white  specimens,  either  pure  or 
partial,  complete  or  in  irregular  spots,  in  species  that  normally  are  not  white.  It  is  nothing 
more,  than  a  freak  caused  by  a  deficiency  of  colouring  matter  in  the  plumage  (p.  7). 

Axillars  or  Axillaries.  A  fan-shaped  group  of  feathers  under  the  wing  closing  the 
space  between  the  innermost  flight  feathers  and  the  body  when  in  flight. 

Bars.  In  descriptions  of  bird  coloration,  bars  designate  lines  drawn  across  the  body 
and  not  parallel  with  the  shafts  of  the  feathers  (see  stripes). 

Cere.  A  wax-like  appearing  swelling  about  the  base  of  the  upper  mandible,  present 
in  some  species,  especially  the  Hawks.    See  Figure  33a  and  b,  page  23. 

Coverts.  The  feathers  covering  the  bases  of  the  larger  flight  and  tail  feathers.  There 
are  upper  and  under  wing  coverts  and  upper  and  under  tail  coverts.  The  upper  wing 
coverts  are  divided  into  greater  and  lesser  coverts,  the  former  being  the  largest  line  imme- 
diately next  to  the  flight  shafts  and  resembUng  them  to  some  degree  in  texture  (Figure  1 
p.  18). 

Crepuscular.     Pertaining  to  twilight. 

Crown.     The  top  of  the  head  from  the  forehead  to  near  the  base  of  the  skull. 

Culmen.  This  may  be  called  the  ridge  line  of  the  bill.  Viewed  sideways,  the  line 
forming  the  top  outUne  of  the  bill  from  the  spring  of  the  first  forehead  feathers  to  the  tip  is 
the  culmen  Une.  It  is  measured  in  a  straight  line,  as  with  dividers,  not  following  the  curves 
as  with  a  tape  line  (Figure  1,  p.  18). 

Dichromatism.  The  normal  occurrence  of  two  different  colorations  in  the  same 
species  due  to  neither  sex,  season,  nor  age  and  only  partly  hereditary.  Both  colorations 
may  occur  in  the  same  brood  though  the  tendency  is  for  Uke  to  produce  like  and  one  form 
may  predominate  in  any  given  locaUty  (see  p.  7). 

Emarginate.  When  applied  to  the  shape  of  feathers  indicates  that  more  or  less  of  one 
web  is  cut  away  as  if  a  shaving  had  been  removed  with  a  jack-knife. 

Extralimital.  In  describing  distribution  refers  to  the  subject  occurring  without 
the  geographical  bounds  of  the  area  under  discussion. 

Family.  In  zoological  classification  is  one  of  the  larger  groups  of  animals  having 
enough  mutual  resemblance  to  be  classed  together  and  apart  from  all  other  forms.  It  is 
the  next  larger  group  to  a  genus  and  next  smaller  to  an  order  or  suborder.  For  example, 
all  the  Ducks,  Geese,  and  Swans  belong  to  the  same  family,  Anatidse  (see  p.  5). 

Flanks.  The  sides  of  the  body,  below  or  under  the  closed  wing.  They  are  often 
covered  by  a  loose  group  of  feathers  that  may  be  laid  at  will  either  over  or  under  the  shafts 
of  the  closed  wing  (Figure  1,  p.  18). 

Genus  (plural,  genera).  In  zoological  classification  is  one  of  the  smaller  groups  of 
animals  having  enough  resemblance  to  be  classed  together  and  apart  from  all  other  groups 
of  like  rank.  It  is  a  subdivision  of  a  family  or  subfamily  and  next  above  a  species.  A 
genus  is,  therefore,  a  group  of  species,  and  a  group  of  genera  is  a  family  (see  p.  5). 

57172—15 


220 

Gular  Pouch.  A  pouch  of  bare  skin  depending  from  the  vmder  side  of  the  lower  bill 
between  its  Y-shaped  arms  and  joining  it  to  the  neck  below.  Some  species  have  only  the 
merest  trace  of  it,  and  others  have  it  remarkably  developed,  though  in  most  species  it  is 
entirely  absent. 

Hybrid.     The  offspring  between  parents  of  two  different  species — a  "  cross." 

Iris.  The  coloured  portion  of  the  eye.  The  pupil,  except  in  albinism,  is  always 
black  and  the  surrounding  circle  of  colour  is  the  iris. 

Lanceolate.  Lance  shaped,  i.e.,  long  and  narrow  with  parallel  edges  or  tapering 
gradually  to  a  point. 

Length.  Abbreviated  in  descriptions  by  its  initial  L  and  given  in  inches  and  tenths 
of  an  inch.  Length  is  taken  in  a  straight  line,  as  with  dividers,  from  the  tip  of  the  bill  to  the 
end  of  the  longest  tail  feather,  the  bird  being  laid  out  flat  on  its  back  and  stretched  just 
sufficiently  to  straighten  the  curves  of  the  neck. 

Lores.     A  small  spot  between  the  eye  and  the  base  of  the  bill  (Figure  1,  p.  18). 

Mandibles.  The  two  members  forming  the  bill;  thus  there  is  an  upper  and  a  lower 
mandible. 

Mantle.  A  term  covering  the  back,  shoulders,  upper  wing  coverts,  and  secondaries. 
Applied  more  especially  to  the  gulls  where  the  even  colouring  of  these  parts  suggests  a 
mantle  covering  the  whole  upper  part  of  the  body  and  closed  wings. 

Melanism.  The  opposite  of  albinism.  It  is  the  more  or  less  erratic  occurrence  of 
very  dark  or  black  individuals  in  a  normally  lighter-coloured  species.  It  usually  occurs 
less  frequently  than  albinism  though  some  species  are  more  liable  to  it  and  it  glides  im- 
perceptibly into  dichromatism  in  some  cases.  Albinism  usually  denotes  a  lack  of  virility. 
Melanism  does  not  seem  to  be  an  evidence  of  weakness  and  hence  melanistic  strains  have 
better  chances  of  surviving.     A  melanistic  animal  is  said  to  be  a  Melano  (see  page  7). 

Nape.  A  small  space  at  the  back  of  the  neck  just  below  the  base  of  the  skull  (Figure 
1,  p.  18). 

Neck.  The  space  between  the  throat  and  breast  in  front,  and  the  hind  head  and 
shoulders  behind.  It  is  divided  into  fore  neck  and  hind  neck  whose  meanings  are  obvious 
(Figure  1,  p.  18). 

Order.  In  zoological  classification  a  group  of  families  having  mutual  resemblance 
enough  to  separate  them  from  all  other  groups.  It  is  next  larger  than  the  family  and  is  the 
largest  subdivision  of  birds  that  we  have  to  deal  with  in  Canada  (see  page  7). 

Pectinate.  Furnished  with  comb-hke  teeth.  In  ornithology  usually  applied  to  the 
claws  of  some  species  that  are  so  furnished  (Figure  19,  p.  21). 

Pelagic.     Living  largely  or  almost  entirely  at  sea. 

Pensile.  Applied  to  nests  when  thfey  hang  suspended  like  a  bag  between  the  forks  of  a 
branch  or  other  such  support,  with  nothing  supporting  from  below. 

Primaries.  The  large  flight  feathers  secured  to  the  first  joint  of  the  wing  from  the 
wi-ist  to  the  tip  (see  secondaries).  (See  Figure  1,  p.  18.) 

Race.  As  used  here,  practically  synonymous  with  subspecies.  In  general,  any 
group  within  a  species  exhibiting  recognizable  common  characters  differentiating  it  from 
others  of  the  same  species. 

Rufous.     Of  a  red  or  reddish  colour. 

Rump.     The  lower  end  of  the  back  just  before  the  root  of  the  tail  (Figure  1,  p.  18). 

Secondaries.  The  large  flight  feathers  secured  to  the  second  joint  of  the  wing 
between  the  wrist  and  the  elbow  (see  primaries).  (Figure  1,  p.  18.) 

Species.     In  zoological  classification  the  smallest  constant  group.     It  is  the  scientific 


221 

term  to  denote  what  is  understood  in  common  language  as  a  "  kind  of  animal."  Thus  a 
house  cat  is  a  species,  whether  Maltese,  tortoise  shell,  or  tabby,  the  dog,  whether  grey- 
hound or  spaniel  is  another,  and  a  horse,  whether  Shetland  pony  or  draught,  is  a  third 
(see  page  5). 

Speculum.  A  somewhat  rectangular  patch  of  contrasting  colour  on  the  centre  of  the 
upper  siu^ace  of  the  wing.  It  often  shows  metallic  iridescence  and  is  a  common  feature  of 
coloration  in  some  families,  as  in  the  Ducks. 

Stripes.  In  ornithological  descriptions,  stripes  always  run  lengthways  of  the  bird ; 
lines  if  across  the  body  are  spoken  of  as  bars  (see  bars) . 

Sternum.  The  breast  bone.  In  a  bird  a  deeply  keeled  structure  to  which  the  wing 
muscles  are  attached. 

Subspecies.  In  ornithological  classification,  synonymous  with  geographical  race  or 
variety,  denoting  a  division  of  the  species  usually  correlated  with  geographic  limitations. 
It  differs  essentially  from  a  full  species  by  showing  intergradations  with  allied  races  of  equal 
rank.  Taking  the  horse  as  a  representative  species,  the  various  breeds  or  strains,  such  as 
Arab,  Clydesdale,  or  Shetland  pony  are  subspecies  (see  page  6,  for  discussion). 

Tarsus.  The  metatarsal  bones  of  the  foot  fused  together  into  a  single  bone.  This  is 
what  we  popularly  regard  as  the  bird's  leg  but  is  properly  the  foot,  extending  between  the 
juncture  of  the  toes  and  the  end  of  the  "  drum  stick."  A  comparison  with  the  joints  of  the 
human  leg  will  make  it  obvious  that  the  knee  is  between  the  "  drum  stick  "  and  the 
"  second  joint  "  of  the  fowl  and  that  the  first  external  joint  on  the  bird  corresponds  with  our 
heel,  the  "  feet  "  being  true  toes. 

Type.  In  zoological  nomenclature  the  "  type  form  "  is  that  form  first  properly 
described  and  named  and  the  specimen  from  which  the  description  was  written  is  the  type 
specimen.  It  does  not  of  necessity  mean  that  the  form  is  typical  in  the  ordinary  sense  of 
the  word,  though  for  convenience  it  is  assumed  to  be  so  (see  page  8). 

Vermiculation.  In  descriptions  of  plumage,  vermiculation  refers  to  fine,  irregularly 
wavy  lines  suggesting  the  pathways  of  innumerable  small  worms,  from  which  the  word  is 
derived. 

Vinaceous.  Wine  coloured.  A  pecuhar  purplish  pink  shown  or  suggested  in  the 
coloration  of  some  birds. 


57172—151 


223 
Plate  I. 


A.     Pied-billed  Grebe  (p.  43). 
Juvenile  Adult 


l!ol«l'««l««'/«»- 


B.     Common  Loon  ip.  44) 
Adult  Juvenile 


224 


Plate  II. 


A.     Herring  (nill  (p.  52). 
Adult  Juvenile 


f 


■'^T,^:^^- 


p^ 


B.     Common  Tern  (p.  55). 


225 
Plate  III. 


A.     Red-breasted  Merganser  (p.  64). 
Male  Female 


B.     Mallard  Duck  (p.  65). 
Male  Female 


226 


A.     Black  Duck  (p.  66). 


Plate  IV 


^^ 


"  leiieV.is 


B.     Blue-winged  Teal  (p.  67). 
Male  Female 


227 
Plate  V. 


rcH.nnr 


A.     Wood  Duck  (p.  68). 
Male  Female 


■•«^^ 


7cHf''n*:teji3 


B.     Canada  Goose  (p.  76). 


228 


Plate  VI. 


A.     American  Bittern  (p.  80). 


B.     Great  Blue  Heron  (p.  82). 
Juvenile  Adult 


229 
Plate  VII. 


^ 


A.     Sora  Rail  (p.  88). 


>- 


f.C.|'.-i^ii:sf_iY 


B.     American  \\'oodcock  (p.  93). 


230 


Plate  VIII. 


A.     Wilson's  Snipe  (p.  93). 


V 


--  -  '-/ 


■^^^ 


i^'IfP"' 


Pf^rfmtJjjr.^ 


B.     Spotted  Sandpiper  (p.  100). 
Adult  Juvenile 


A.     Killdeer  fp.  104). 


231 
Plate  IX. 


•i^i' 


B.     Bohwhite  (p.  107). 
Male  Female 


232 


A.     Spruce  Grouse  (p.  108). 
Female  Male 


Plate  X. 


B.     Ruffed  Grouse  (p.  108). 
Red  phase  Grey  phase 


233 
Plate  XI. 


;..-.. : y ""  rc.>l,..?.c<l,^,5*>_.lj 

A.     Mourning  Dove  and  Passenger  Pigeon  (pp.  112  and  113). 


B.     Marsh  Hawk  (p.  117). 
Adult  Juvenile 


234 


Plate  XII. 


^\.J^0^' 


A.     Sharp-shinned  Hawk  (p.  118). 
Juvenile  female  Adult  male 


B.      American  Goshawk  (p.  119). 
Juvenile  Adult 


J/.  ■^., 


%fc>^ 


-^- 


A.     Red-tailed  Hawk  (p.  120). 


235 
Plate  XIII. 


-1 


B.     Red-shouldered  Hawk  (p.  121) 
Adult  Juvenile 


236 


Plate  XIV 


A.     Duck  Hawk  (p.  126). 
Adult  Juvenile 


"1 


B.     American  S|)arro\v  Hawk  (p.  127). 
Female  Male 


--ftlff^"  t-nr-ptJ- 


A.     Osprey  (p.  128). 


f,M  Ml 


B.     Barred  Owl  (p.  131). 


238 


r 


Plate  XVI. 


A.       >t  leech   I  U\  1    I  1 1.    ISS  I. 

Red  phase        Grey  phase 


15.     Great  Horned  Owl  (p.  133). 


A.     Black-billed  Cuckoo  (p.  136). 
Yellow-billed  Cuckoo  (p.  136). 


239 
Plate  XVII. 


B.     Belted  Kingfisher  (p.  137). 
Female  Male 


240 


Plate  XVIII. 


^ 


A.     Downy  Woodpecker  (p.  139). 
Male  Female 


B.     Arctic  Three-toed  Woodpecker  (p.  139). 
Female  Male 


241 
Plate  XIX. 


A.     Yellow-bellied  Sapsucker  i,p.  14Uj. 
Female  Male 


B.     Pileated  Woodpecker  (p.  141). 


242 


Plate  XX. 


-'-"^  rci«->f.'fs 


A.     Red-headed  Woodpecker  (p.  141  J. 
Juvenile  Adult 


rC'iCnncJivV'S- 


B.     Flicker  (p.  142). 
Male  Female 


-*->       -i- 


243 
Plate  XXI. 


fC  t(f<M'«'\5fi4.l 


A.     Nighthawk  (p.   144). 


f  '    f  ^s  Vi 


f.t:){tj-!-tiy<l'^- 


B.     Chimney  Swift  (p.  145). 


244 


Plate  XXII. 


F/  "  .;  ''h. *.*,  —         Uiic&h, 


A.     Ruby-throated  Hummingbird  (p.  146) 
Female  Males 


B.     Kingbird  (p.  148j. 


245 
Plate  XXIII. 


A.     Phoebe  (p.  149). 


B.      Horned  Lark  (p.  152). 
Eastern  Horned  Lark  Prairie  Horned  Lark 


246 


Plate  XXIV. 


A.     Blue  Jay  (p.  154) 


B.     Canada  Jay  (]).  154). 


247 
Plate  XXV. 


A.     American  Crow  (p.  156). 


^\  ^\ 


B.     Bobolink  (p.  157). 
Male  Female 


248 


Plate  XXVI. 


A.     Cowbird  (p.  157). 
Female  Male 


B.     Red-winged  Blackbird  (p.  158). 
Jmeiiik'  Male  Female 


249 
Plate  XXVII. 


A.     Meadowlark  (p.  159). 


L 


B.     Baltimore  Oriole  (p.  160). 
Male  Female 


250 


Plate  XXVI II. 


FC.JtnntJSe^. 


A.     Bronzed  Grackle  (p.  161). 


B.     Pine  Grosbeak  (p.  163). 
Female  Male 


A.     Purple  Finch  (p.  163). 
Male  Female 


251 
Plate  XXIX. 


>«&k. 


B.     House  Sparrow  (p.  164). 
Male  Female 


-uiysy 


252 


Plate  XXX. 


f^.'---  fcn*"'"*"^*^,* 


A.     American  Goldfinch  (p.  168). 
Juvenile         Female         Male 


^ 


MS.  • 

B.     Snow  Bunting  (winter  plumage)  (p.  169). 


A.     Vesper  Sparrow  (p.  169). 


253 
Plate  XXXI. 


re  rin'il  f  Eitf 


B.     White-crowned  Sparrow  (p.  173). 
Adult  Juvenile 


.254 


Plate  XXXII. 


A.     White-throated  Sparrow  (p.  173). 
Adult  Juvenile 


*.wn0BHBRv  alclr 


B.     Tree  Sparrow  (p.  174). 


255 
Plate  XXX II  I. 


^^Is";**":}-.*- 


A.     Chipping  Sparrow  (p.  174). 

Ju\pnilc 
Adult 


B.      Jiinrn  (p.  175). 
Female  Male 


256 


Plate  XXXIV, 


mrj'i 


A.     Song  Sparrow  (p.  176). 


B.      Rose-breasted  Grosbeak  (p.  179). 
Male  Females 


257 
Plate  XXXV. 


A.     Scarlet  Tanager  (p.  181). 

Male  changing  to  autumn  plumage 
Male  Female 


-^-*ae«^'_ 


B.     Purple  Martin  (p.  182). 
Male  Juvenile 


258 


Plate  XXXVI. 


A.     Barn  Swallow  (p    183). 


\.f,C.ljennfm^' 


B.     Tree  Swallow  (p.  183). 


259 
Plate  XXX\"II. 


A.     Bank  Swallow  (p.  184). 


B.     Cedar  Waxwing  (p.  lS5j. 
Adult  Juvenile 


260 


Plate  XXXVIII. 


A.     Migrant  Loggerhead  Shrike  (p.  187). 


B.     Red-eyed  Vireo  (p.  188). 


261 
Plate  XXXIX. 


A.     Warbling  Vireo  (p.  189). 


B.     Black  and  White  Warbler  (p.  191). 
Spring  plumage        Autumn  plumage 


262 


Plate  XL. 


1 


A.     Yellow  Warbler  (p.  194). 
Male  Female 


B.     Black-throated  Blue  Warbler  (p.  195). 
Male  Female 


263 
Plate  XLI. 


A.      Myrtle  Warbler  (p.  195). 
Female  Male 


'"■^ti^Sv 


B.     Magnolia  Warbler  (p.  196) 
Female  Male 


264 


Plate  XLII. 


A.     Blackburnian  Warbler  (p.  198). 
Male  Female 


B.      Black-throated  Green  Warhler  (p.  198). 
Male  Female 


->^ 


A.     Ovenbird  (p.  200j. 


265 
Plate  XLIII. 


1 


B.      Xorthern  Vellow-throat  (p.  202). 
Male  Female 


266 


Plate  XLIV. 


f4.rjv:.r.iS^| 


A.     Redstart  (p.  204). 
Male  Female 


V^^    X 


W 

y\. 

\v 

i 

M 

^--  o- 

k 

B.     Catbird  (p.  206). 


267 
Plate  XL\'. 


s 

.1*:  \ 

>: 

<--. 

A.      Brown  Thrasher  (p.  207). 


B.     House  Wren  (p.  208). 


268 


Plate  XLVI. 


A.     Brown  Creeper  (p.  210). 


B.     Wliite-brcasted  Nuthatch  i.j).  ill. 


269 
Plate  XLVII. 


/ 


A.     Chickadee  (p.  212). 


^*S^ 


// 


A 


B.     Golden-crowned  Kinglets.  Ruby-crowned  Kinglets  (p. 214). 

Male         Female  •        Male         Female 


270 


Plate  XLVIII. 


t^Cih-.;r.. 


A.     Wood  Thrush  (p.  216). 


(,■:  Jyciinx.-"- 


B.     Wilson's  Thrush  (p.  216). 


271 
Plate  XLIX. 


rr.tjf '••■■«"  i'»^ 


A.     Gre>-cheeked  Thrush  (p.  216). 
Olive-backed  Thrush  (p.  217). 


flf^- 


B.     Hermit  Thrush  (p.  217). 


272 


Plate  L. 


A.     American  Robin  (p.  217). 
Adult  Juvenile 


B.     Bluebird  (p.  218). 
Male  Female 


273 


INDEX. 


Acanthis 166 

homemanni 166 

linaria 167 

Accipiter 118 

cooperi H^ 

velox 118 

Accipiters 118 

Actitis  macularia 100 

jEgialitis  meloda 104 

semipalmata 104 

Agelaius  phoeniceus 158 

Aigle  k  tete  blanche 124 

dore 123 

Aix  sponsa 68 

Alaudidse 152 

Albinism 7 

Alca  torda 47 

Alcedinidae 137 

Alcida 45 

Alcyones 136 

AUe  aUe 47 

Allies 145,  215 

Alouette  a  braule-queue 100 

ordinaire 152 

Aluco  pratincola 129 

Aluconidae 129 

Ammodramus  savannarum 171 

Anas  platyrhynchos 65 

rubripes 66 

Anatidae 63 

AnatinsB r 65 

Anser  albif rons 76 

Anseres 62 

Anserinae 75 

Anthus  rubescens 205 

Antrostomus  carolinehsis 143 

vocif  erus 143 

Aphrizidae 105 

Aquila 123 

chrysaetos 123 

Archibuteo 120 

lagopus  sancti-johannis 123 

Archilochus  colubris 146 

Ardea  herodias 82 

Ardeidae 80 

Ardeinae 81 

Arenaria  interpres 105 

Arquatella  maritima 94 

Asio  flammeus 130 

wilsonianus 130 

Astragalinus  tristis 168 

Astur 118 

atricapillus 119 

Auk,  Great 47 

Razor-billed 47 


274 

Auks 45M 

Austral  region 8^^ 

Autour  h  tete  noire lift* 

Avocet,  American 92 

Avocette  d'Amerique 92 

B. 

Baeolophus  bicolor 212 

Balbusard  d'Amerique 128 

Barge  de  la  bale  d'Hudson 98 

Marbree 97 

Bartramia  longicauda 100 

Bec-croise  a  ailes  blanches 166 

d'Amerique 165 

Bee  scie 64 

B^casse  d'Amerique 93 

Becassine 93 

de  Wilson 93 

Rousse 93 

Bernache  commune 77 

du  Canada  Outarde 76 

Birds  of  Prey. 113 

diiu"nal 116 

nocturnal 129 

Birds,  scr  itching 106 

Bittern,  American 80 

Least 81 

Bitterns .' 80 

Blackbird,  Cow.     See  Cowbird. 

Crow "  161 

Red-winged 158 

Rusty 160 

Skimk.    See  Bobolink. 

Soldier 158 

Yellow-headed 158 

Bluebill,  Greater  or  Lake.     See  Duck,  Greater  Scaup. 
Little  or  Marsh.    See  Duck,  Lesser  Scaup. 

Bluebird 218 

Bob-white 107 

Bobohnk 157 

BombyciUa  cedrorum 185 

garrula 185 

BombyciUidse 184 

Bonasa  lunbellus 108 

Boobies 60 

Boreal  region 9 

Bo'sn 48 

Botaurinae 80 

Botaurus  lentiginosus 80 

Brant 77 

Branta  bemicla 77 

canadensis 76 

Bride,  The.    See  Duck,  Wood. 
Broad-bUl.    See  Duck,  Greater  Scaup. 

River.    See  Duck,  Lesser  Scaup. 

Bubo  virginianus 133 

Bucephale  d'Amerique 70 

d'Islande 71 

petit 71 

Buffle-head 71 

Bull-bat.     See  Nighthawk. 
Bull-head.    See  Plover,  Black-bellied. 


• 


275 

Page. 

Bunting,  Indigo 180 

Snow 169 

»                 Snow-flake 169 

Buntings 161 

Burgomaster.    See  Gull,  Glaucous. 

Busard  des  marais 117 

Buse  a  manteau  roux 121 

Buse  a  queue  rousse 120 

de  Pensylvanie 122 

de  Swainson 122 

pattue  d'Am^rique 123 

Butcher-bird.     See  Shrike,  Loggerhead,  and  Shrike,  Northern. 

Butcher-birds 186 

Buteo  boreaUs 120 

Buteo 120 

hneatus 121 

platypterus 122 

swainsoni 122 

Buteonidse 116 

Butor  d* Amerique 80 

Butorides  virescens 84 

ButterbaU.     See  Bufile-head. 

Buzzard,  Tiu*key.     See  Vulture,  Turkey. 

Buzzards 116 

True 120 

C. 

Calcarius  lapponicus 169 

Calidris  leucophsea 97 

Camp  Robber.     See  Jay,  Canada. 

Canachites  canadensis 108 

Canada  White-throat.     See  Sparrow,  White-throated. 

Canard  a  longue  queue 72 

chipeau 66 

histrion 72 

huppe 68 

noir 66 

ordinaire 65 

pilet 67 

roux 75 

souchet 67 

Canary,  Wild.     See  Goldfinch,  American. 

Canvas-back 69 

Caprimulgi 143 

Caprimulgidse 143 

Caracaras 125 

Cardinal 178 

CardinaUs  cardinalis 178 

Carpodacus  purpureus 163 

Catbird 206 

Catharista  urubu 116 

Cathartes  aura 115 

Cathartidae 115 

Cathedral-bird.     See  Thrush,  Wilson's. 

Catoptrophorus  semipalmatus 99 

Cedar  Bird.     See  Waxwing,  Cedar. 

Cen turns  carolinus 142 

Cepphus  grylle 46 

Certhia  familiaris 210 

Certhiidse 210 

Ceryle  alcyon 137 

Chsetura  pelatica 145 

Chseturinae 145 


276 

Page* 

Chapman,  Frank 4^^ 

Charadriidae 102^ 

Charadrius  dominicus 103* 

Chardonneret  des  pins 168 

jaune 168 

Charitonnetta  albeola 71 

Chat,  Yellow-breasted 203 

Chatterer,  Wandering.     See  Waxwing,  Bohemian. 

Chaulelasmus  streperus 66 

Chen  caerulescens 76 

Chen  hjTJerboreus 75 

Cherry  Bird.     See  Waxwing,  Cedar. 

Chevaher  ou  pattes  jaunes 98 

Chevalier  a  pieds  jaunes,  gi-and 98 

petit 99 

solitaire 99 

Chickadee 212 

Black-capped 212 

Brown-headed 213 

Hudsonian 213 

Chicken,  Mother  Carey's.    See  Petrel,  Wilson's. 

Prairie 110 

Chippie.     See  Sparrow,  Chipping. 

Chondestes  grammacus 172 

Chordeiles  virginianus 144 

Chouette  cendree 131 

du  Canada 131 

eperviere  d'Amerique 134 

Chuck-will's  Widow 143 

Circus , 117 

hudsonius 117 

Cistothorus  stellaris 209 

Clamatores 147 

Clangula  Clangula 70 

islandica 71 

Classification 5 

Coccyges 135 

Coccyzinse 135 

Coccyzus  americanus 136 

erythrophthalmus 136 

Cock-of -the- Wood.     See  Woodpecker,  Pileated. 

Cockawee.     See  Old  Squaw. 

Coffin-carrier.    See  Gull,  Great  Black-backed. 

Colaptes  auratus 142 

Colibri  a  georges  rubis 146 

Colinus  virginianus 107 

Columbae Ill 

Columbidse    Ill 

Colymbidse 42 

Colymbus  auritus ■ 43 

holbcelli. 42 

Compsothiypis  americana 194 

Coot,  American 90 

Black  Sea.     See  Scoter,  American. 
ButterbiU.     See  Scoter,  Surf. 
White-winged.    See  Scoter,  White-winged. 

Coots 90 

Corbeau 155 

Corbigeau 101 

des  Esquimaux 102 

Cormoran  k  aigrettes 61 

ordinaire 61 

Cormorant,  Common 61 

Double-crested 61 


277 

Page. 

CJormorants 60 

Corneille  d'Amerique 156 

Corvidae 153 

Corvinae 155 

Corvus  brachyrhynchos 156 

corax 155 

Coturnicops  noveboracensis 88 

Coucou  a  bee  jaune 136 

noire 136 

Courlans 85 

Courlis 101 

de  la  baie  d'Hudson 102 

du  Nord 102 

a  long  bee 101 

Cowbird 157 

Coween.     See  Old  Squaw. 

Crane,  Blue.     See  Heron,  Great  Blue. 

SandhiU 85 

Cranes 85 

Creeper,  American  Brown 210 

Brown 210 

Creepers 210 

Crossbill 165 

White-winged 166 

Crow,  American 156 

Crows 153,  155 

Cryptoglaux  acadica 132 

funerea 132 

Cuckoo,  Black-billed 136 

Yellow-biUed 136 

Cuckoos 135 

American 135 

Tree 135 

Cuculi 135 

Cuculidae 135 

Curlew,  Black.    See  Ibis,  Glossy. 

Eskimo. 102 

Hudsonian 102 

Long-biUed 101 

Sickle-bill 101 

Curlews 101 

Cyanocitta  cristata 154 

Cygne  d'Amerique 78 

Cygninae 77 

Cypseli 145 

D. 

Dab-chick.     See  Grebe,  Pied-billed. 

Dafila  acuta 67 

Dendroica 194 

aestiva 194 

caerulescens 195 

castanea 197 

cerulea 196 

coronata 195 

discolor^ 199 

f  usca 198 

kirtlandi 198 

magnolia 196 

palmarum 199 

pensylvanica 196 

tigrina 194 

striata 197 


278 

Page. 

Dendroica,  vigors! 199 

virens 198 

Dichromatism 7 

Dickcissel 180 

Discussion 4 

Distinctions 3 

Distribution 4 

Diver,  Bottle-nosed.     See  Scoter,  Surf. 

Brass-Winged.     See  Scoter,  WTiite-winged.  ' 

Great  Northern.     See  Loon,  Common. 

Diving  birds 41 

Dolichonyx  oryzivorus 157 

Dove,  Carolina 113 

Mourning 113 

Sea.     See  Dovekie. 

Dovekie 47 

Doves Ill 

Dowitcher 93 

Dryobates  pubescens 139 

villosus 138 

Due  de  Virgtnie 133 

Duck,  Black 66 

Dusky 66 

Eider.    See  Eider  Duck. 

Greater  Scaup 70 

Grey.    See  Gad  wall  and  Mallard. 

Harlequin 72 

King.     See  Eider,  King. 

Lesser  Scaup 70 

Long-tailed.     See  Old -Squaw. 

Ring-billed 70 

Ring-necked 70 

Rock 72 

Ruddy 75 

Spirit.    See  BuflBe-head. 

Summer 68 

Wood 68 

Ducks 63 

Bay,  Sea,  or  Diving 68 

Fishing 63 

River  and  Pond 65 

Dumetella  carolinensis 206 

Dunhn 96 

American 96 

E. 

Eagle,  American 124 

Bald 124 

Golden 123 

White-headed 124 

Eagles 116,  123 

Economic  status 4 

Ectopistes  migratorius 1 12 

Egret,  American 83 

Egrets 81 

Egrette  blanche  d'Amerique 83 

Eider,  American 73 

d'Am6rique 73 

du  Nord 73 

Duck 73 

King 74 

remarquable 74 

Eiders 72 


279 

Page. 

Elanoides 117 

forficatus 117 

Empidonax  flaviventris 151 

minimus 152 

trailli 151 

virescens 151 

Engoulevent  criard 143 

d'Amerique 144 

de  la  Cai'oline 143 

Epervier  brun 118 

de  Cooper 119 

Ereunetes  pusillus 97 

Erismatura  jamaicensis 75 

Erolia  ferruginea 9G 

Esterlette,  grand 54 

Etourneau  a  ailes  rouges 158 

tete  jaune 158 

des  pres 159 

ordinaii'e 157 

Euphagus  carolinus 160 


Falco  columbarius 127 

islandus 126 

peregrinus 126 

rusticolus 126 

sparverius 127 

Falcon,  Peregrine 126 

Falcones 116 

Falconidse 125 

Falconinae 125 

Falcons 125 

True 125 

Farlouae  d'Amerique 205 

Faucon  blanc 126 

des  pigeons 127 

epervier 127 

noir 126 

pelerin 126 

Fauvette  k  couronne  orangee 193 

rousse 199 

195 

;;;;;;;;; 204 

poitrine  baie 197 

noire 198 

tete  cendree 196 

bleue  a  gorge  noire 195 

d'Amerique 194 

de  Blackburn 198 

NashviUe 193 

Pensylvanie 196 

Philadelphie 202 

Wilson 204 

des  pins 199 

du  Canada 204 

Cap  May 194 

Kentucky 201 

Tennessee 193 

194 


croupion  jaune. 
queue  rousse . 


jaune. 
rayee. 


197 

trichas 202 

Field  marks 3 


280 

Finch  Grass.     See  Sparrow,  Vesper.  Page. 

"     Purple 163 

Finches Igl 

Fire  Bird.     See  Tanager,  Scarlet. 
Fishduck.     See  Merganser,  Red-breasted. 

Fleming,  J.  H 4 

Flicker 142 

Florida  caeulea 83 

Flycatcher,  Acadian 151 

Canadian.    See  Warbler,  Canada. 

Chebec 152 

Crested 149 

Great  Crested 149 

Least 152 

Little  Green-crested 151 

Olive-sided 150 

Scissor-tailed 148 

Traill's 151 

Tyrant 148 

Yellow-bellied 151 

Fly-up-the-creek.     See  Heron,  Green. 

Fou  de  Bassan 60 

Foulque  d'Amerique 90 

Fowls,  True 106 

Fratercula  arctica 45 

Fringillidaj ' 161 

Fulica  americana 90 

Fulicinae 90 

Fuligulinse 68 

Fulmar 57 

Fulmars 57 

Fulmarus  glaciahs 57 

G. 

Gadwall 66 

Gallinse 106 

Gallinago  delioata 93 

GaUinula  galeata 89 

Gallinule  de  la  Floride 89 

Florida 89 

Purple 89 

Gallinules 88 

Gallinulina? 88 

Gannet 60 

Gannets 60 

Gare-fowl.     See  Auk,  Great. 

Garruhnae 153 

Gavia  immer 44 

stellata 44 

Gaviidse 44 

Geai  du  Canada 154 

Huppe 154 

Geese 63,    75 

Gelinotte  a  Fraise 108 

a  queue  aigue Ill 

Geothlypis 201 

trichas 202 

Glossary 219 

Gnatcatcher,  Blue-grey 215 

Gnatcatchers 215 

Goatsuckers 143 

Godd  or  Gudd 47 

Godwit,  Hudsonian 98 

Marbled 97 


281 

Page. 

Gotland  a  ailes  blanches 51 

manteau  glauque 51 

noir 51 

argente 52 

de  Bonaparte 53 

Delaware 53 

Goglu 157 

Golden-eye 70 

Barrow's 71 

Goldfinch,  American 168 

Groosander.     See  Merganser,  American. 

Goose,  Blue 76 

Canada 76 

Grey 76 

Laughing 75 

Solan.     See  Gannet. 

Snow 75 

Wavey 75 

White-fronted • 76 

Wild 76 

Goshawk,  American 119 

Grackle,  Bronzed.     See  Crow,  Blackbird. 

Rusty.     See  Blackbird,  Rusty. 
Graybird.     »See  Junco. 
Great  Head.     See  Golden-eye. 

Grebe  a  bee  bigarrd 43 

cou  rouge 42 

Grebe,  HolboeU's 42 

Horned 43 

Pied-biUed 43 

Red-necked 42 

Grebe  cornu 43 

Grebes 42 

Green-head.     See  Mallard. 

Greenlets 188 

Grimpereau  d'Amerique 210 

Grive  couronnee 200 

d'Ahce 216 

de  la  Caroline 206 

Swainson 217 

Wilson 216 

des  bois 216 

ruisseaux 200 

polygotte 206 

rousse 207 

solitaire 217 

Grosbeak,  Blue. 179 

Cardinal.     See  Cardinal. 

Evening 162 

Pine 163 

Rose-breasted 179 

Gros-bec  a  couronne  noire 162 

poitrine  rose 179 

bleu 179 

des  pins 163 

Gros  goeland 51 

Grouse 106, 108 

Canada 108 

Pinnated.     See  Chicken,  Prairie. 

Pin-tailed Ill 

Ruffed 108 

Sharp-tailed Ill 

Spruce 108 

Willow 110 


^  282 

^  Page. 

Grues 85 

Gruidse 85 

Grus  mexicana 85 

Guillemot,  Black 46 

de  Brunnich 46 

noir 46 

ordinaire .  46 

Thick-biUed 46 

Guiraca  carulea 179 

Gull,  Bonaparte's 53 

Glaucous 51 

Great  Black-backed 51 

Herring 52 

Iceland 51 

Ring-billed 53 

Gulls 49,  50 

Gyrfalcon 126 

White ' 126 

Gyrfalcons 125 

H. 

Hsematopodidse 105 

Hair-bird.     See  Sparrow,  Chipping. 

Haliaeetus 123 

leucocephalus 124 

Hang-nest.     See  Oriole,  Baltimore. 

Harelda  hyemalis 72 

Harfang. 134 

Harle  a  poitrine  rousse 64 

d'Amerique 64 

Harle,  petit 64 

Harriers 116, 117 

Hawk,  American  Sparrow 127 

Blue  Partridge.     See  Goshawk. 

Broad-winged 122 

Bullet.     See  Falcon,  Peregrine. 

Chicken 119,    121 

Cooper's 119 

Duck.     See  Falcon,  Peregrine. 
Fish.    See  Osprey. 
Hen.     See  Goshawk,  American. 
Hen.    See  Hawk,  Red-tailed. 

Marsh 117 

Mosquito.     See  Nighthawk. 

Pigeon 127 

Red-shouldered 121 

Red-tailed 120 

Rough-legged 123 

Sharp-shinned 118 

Swainson's 122 

Hawks,  Buzzard 116 

Fish 128 

Short-winged 118 

Hefling.     See  Finch,  Purple. 
HeU-diver.    See  Grebe,  Pied-billed. 

Helodromas  soMtarius 99 

Ha3matopus  PaUiatus 105 

Hen,  Fowl.     See  Grouse,  Spruce. 

Marsh.     See  Bittern,  American. 
Prairie.     See  Chicken,  Prairie. 

Hermessey,  Frank 4 

Herodias  egretta 83 

Herodii 80 


283 

Page. 

Heaodiones 79 

Heron,  Black-cro'mied  Night 84 

H^ron  bleu,  grand 82 

bleu,  petit 83 

Heron,  Blue 82 

H6ron  de  nuit 84 

Heron,  Great  Blue 82 

Green 84 

Little  Blue 83 

Heron  vert 84 

Herons  80 

True 81 

White 83 

Hesperiphona  vespertina 162 

Hibou  a  oreilles  courtes 130 

longues 130 

macule 133 

Highhole.     See  Flicker. 
Highholder.     See  Flicker. 

Hirondelle  bicolore 183 

a  front  blanc 183 

de  rivage 184 

des  granges 183 

pourpr^e 182 

Hirundinidse 182 

Hirundo  elythrogastra 183 

Histrionicus  histrionicus 72 

Huard 44 

Hummingbird,  Ruby-throated 146 

Hummingbirds 143, 146 

Hybrids 7 

Hydrocheledon  nigra 56 

Hylocichla  aliciae 216 

fuscescens 216 

guttata 217 

mustelina 216 

ustulata 217 

I. 

Ibides 79 

IbididsB 79 

Ibis,  Glossy 79 

Ibises 79 

Icteria  virens 203 

Icteridae 156 

Icterus  galbula 160 

Icterus  spurius 159 

Index,  systematic 29 

lonornis  martinicus 89 

Iridoprocne  bicolor 183 

J. 

Jaeger,  Long-tailed 49 

Parasitic 49 

Pomarine 48 

Jaegers 48 

Jaseur  de  Boheme 185 

du  Cedre 185 

Jay,  Blue 154 

Canada  154 

Jays 153 

J.  Cartier-Morgaud 60 


284 

Page. 

Johnson,  Claude 4 

Junco 175 

Junco  hyemalis 175 

K. 

Kingbird 148 

Kingfisher,  Belted 137 

Kingfishers 135,  136,  137 

Kinglet,  Golden-crowned 214 

Kinglet,  Ruby-crowned 214 

Kinglets 213,  214 

Kite,  SwaUow-tailed 117 

Kites 116,  117 

Knot 94 

L. 

Labbe  a  longue  queue 49 

parasite 49 

pomarin 48 

Lagopede  des  rochers 1 10 

des  g  .ules 110 

Lagopus 109 

lagopus 110 

rupestris 110 

Laniidae 186 

Lanius  borealis 186 

ludovicianus 187 

Lanivireo  flavifrons 189 

sohtarius 189 

LaridjB 49 

Larinse 50 

Lark,  Horned 152 

Shore 152 

Larks 152 

Larus  argentatus 52 

delawarensis 53 

hyperboreus 51 

leucopterus 51 

marinus 51 

Philadelphia 53 

Limicolae 90 

Limosa  fedoa 97 

hsemastica 98 

Linnet,  Redpoll 167 

Linnets 161 

Literature,  ornithological 13 

Lobipes  lobatus 91 

Longipennes •_ 48 

Longspur,  Lapland 169 

Loon,  Common 44 

Red-throated 44 

Loons 44 

Lophodytes  cucullatus 64 

Lord  and  Lady  Algy.    See  Duck,  Harlequin. 

Loxia  curvirostra 165 

Leucoptera ■ 166 

M. 

Macareux  arctique 45 

Macoun,  James  M 4 

John 4 


285  ^ 

Page. 

Macreuse  a  large  bee 74 

d'Ainerique 74 

veloutde 74 

Macrochires 143 

Macrorhamphus  griseus 93 

Magpie 153 

American 153 

Magpies 153 

Mainate  bronz6 161 

couleur  de  rouille 160 

Mallard 65 

Black,  See  Duck,  Black. 

Margot 60 

Marila  affinis 70 

americana 69 

collaris 70 

marila 70 

valisineria 69 

Marmette 46 

Marsh  Birds 85 

SmaUer 86 

Marsh  Harrier.     See  Hawk,  Marsh. 
Martin,   Bee.    See  Kingbird. 

pecheur 137 

Purple 182 

Sand.     See  Swallow,  Bank. 

Martinet  des  chemines 145 

Maubeche  a  croupion  blanc , 95 

dos  roux 96 

longs  pieds 94 

longue  queue 100 

poitrine  cendr^e 95 

poitrine  jaunatre 100 

poitrine  rousse 94 

de  Baird 95 

Wilson 96 

pourpr^e 94 

semipalmee 97 

tachetde 100 

Mauve 53 

Meadowlark 159 

Meat  Bird.     See  Jay,  Canada. 

Melanerpes  erythrocephalus 141 

Melanism 7 

Meleagridse Ill 

Meleagris  gallopavo Ill 

Melospiza  georgiana 177 

lincolni 177 

melodia 176 

Mergule  nain 47 

Merganser,  American 64 

Hooded 64 

Red-breasted 64 

Mergansers 63 

Merginae 63 

Mergus  americanus 64 

serrator 64 

Merle  d'Am^rique 217 

M^sange  ^  tete  noire 212 

du  Canada 213 

Micropalama  himantopus 94 

Micropodidse 145 

Migration 10 

57172—16 


286 

Page. 

Milan  a  queue  d'aronde 117 

Milouin  a  tete  rousse 69 

aux  yeux  rouges 69 

Mimidae 205 

Mimus  polyglottos 206 

Mniotiltidae 190 

Mockers 205 

Mockingbird 206 

Moineau  domestique 164 

Molothrus  ater 157 

Moose  Bird.     See  Jay,  Canada. 

Morillon  a  collier 70 

k  t^te  noir 70 

petit 70 

Motacillidae 205 

MoucheroUe  a  huppe 149 

a  ventre  jaune 151 

aux  cot^s  olive 150 

brun. .  .  r 149 

de  la  Caroline 148 

des  aulnes 151 

petit 152 

verdtoe 150 

Mouette  a  trois  doigts 50 

Moyak 73 

Mud-hen.     See  Gallinule,  Florida. 

Red-billed.     See  Gallinule,  Florida. 
White-billed.    See  Coot,  American. 

Mud-hens 88 

Miu-re,  Brunnich's.     See  Guillernqt,  Thick-billed. 

Common 46 

Murres 45 

Muscivora  forficata 148 

Myiarchus  crinitus 149 

Myiochanes  virens 150 

N. 

Nannus  hiemalis 209 

Nesting 4 

Nettion  carolinense 67 

Nighthawk 144 

Nightjar..     «See  Nighthawk.  ^ 

Numenius 101 

americanus 101 

borealis 102 

hudsonicus 102 

Nuthatch,  Carolina 211 

Red-breasted 211 

White-breasted 211 

Nuthatches 210 

Nuttallornis  borealis 150 

Nyctale  d'Acadie 132 

de  Richardson 132 

Nyctea  nyctea 134 

Nycticorax  nycticorax 84 

O. 

Oceanites 58 

oceanicus 59 

Oceanodroma 58 

leucorhoa 59 

Odontophoridse 106 


287 

Page. 

Oidemia 72 

americana 74 

deglandi 74 

perspicillata 74 

Oie  a  front  blanc 76 

blanche 75 

bleue 76 

Old-Squaw 72 

Old-wife.     See  Old-Squaw. 

Olor  buccinator 78 

columbianus 78 

Oporornis 201 

agilis 201 

formosus 201 

Philadelphia 202 

Oriole,   Baltimore 160 

de  Baltimore 160 

Orchard 159 

Oscines 152 

Osprey  128 

American 128 

Oepreys 128 

Otocoris  alpestris 152 

Otua  asio 133 

Ovenbird 200 

Owl,  Acadian 132 

American  Barn 129 

American  Long-eared 130 

Short-eared 130 

Arctic  Saw-whet 132 

Barred 131 

Cinereous 131 

Great  Grey 131 

Great  Horned 133 

Hawk 134 

Marsh 130 

Monkey-faced 129 

Richardson's 132 

Saw-whet 132 

Screech 133 

Snowy 134 

Owls 129 

Barn 129 

Eared 130 

Horned 130 

Oxyechus  vociferous 104 

Oyster-catcher,  American 105 

Oyster-catchers 105 

P. 

Pandion  haUaetus  carohnensis 128 

Pandionidse 128 

Paludicolae 85 

Paridae 212 

Paroquet.     See  Puffin. 
Parrot,  Sea.     See  Puffin. 
Partridge.     See  Grouse,  Ruffed. 

Birch.     See  Grouse,  Ruffed. 

Spruce.    See  Grouse,  Spruce. 

Passer  domesticus 164 

Passerculus  princeps 170 

sandwichensis 170 

57172— 16§ 


288 

Page 

Passerella  iliaca 177 

Passeres 147 

Passerherbulus  henslowi 171 

lecontei 171 

nelsoni 172 

Passerina  cyanea 180 

Peabody-bird.    See  Sparrow,  White-throated. 

Pediaecetes  phasianellus Ill 

Peep,  Black-legged.    See  Sandpiper,  Semipalmated. 
Green-legged.    See  Sandpiper,  Least.        * 
Mud.    See  Sandpiper,  Least. 

Pelecanidae 62 

Pehcans 62 

Pehdna  alpina 96 

Penthestes  atricapiUus 212 

hudsonicus 213 

Perchers,  Songless 147 

Perching  Birds 147 

Perisoreus  canadensis 154 

Perroquet 45 

Petrel  de  Leach 59 

Wilson  59 

Leach's 59 

Wilson's 59 

Petrels 57,   58 

Petrochelidon  lunifrons .^ 183 

Pewee,  Bridge.    See  Phoebe. 

Wood 150 

Pewit.      See  Sandpiper,  Sohtary. 

Phalacrocoracidse 60 

Phalacrocorax  auritus 61 

carbo 61 

Phalarope  de  Wilson 92 

Phalarope,  Grey 91 

hyperboreen 91 

Northern 91 

Red 91 

Red-necked 91 

Phalarope  roux 91 

Wilson's 92 

Phalaropes 91 

Phalaropodidse 91 

Phalaropus  fuhcarius 91 

Phasiani 106 

Philohela  minor 93 

Phloeotomus  pileatus 141 

Phoebe 149 

Pic  k  huppe  6carlate 141 

h  tete  rouge ' 141 

arctique 139 

chevelu 138 

d'Amerique 140 

de  la  Carohne 142 

dor6 142 

macule 140 

minule 139 

Pica  Pica 153 

Pici , 138 

Picida; 138 

Picoides  americattus 140 

arcticus 139 

Pie  d'Amerique 153 

Pie-greiche  boreale 186 

Pigeon.    See  Guillemot,  Black. 


289 

Page. 

Pigeon,  Passenger 112 

Sea.    See  Guillemot,  Black. 

WUd 112 

Pigeon  voyageur 112 

Pigeons Ill 

True Ill 

Pingouin  commun 47 

grand 47 

Pinicola  enucleator 163 

Pinson  a  couronne  blanche 173 

rousse,  petit 174 

ailes  baies 169 

gorge  blanche 173 

queue  aigue 172 

aux  yeux  rouges 178 

chanteiu' 176 

de  Lincoln 177 

de  montagne 174 

des  champs 175 

marais 177 

pres 170 

fauve 177 

indigo 180 

pourpre 163 

Pintail 67 

Springtail 67 

Pipilo  erythrophthalmus 178 

Pipits 205 

Piranga  erythromelas 181 

rubra 181 

Pisobia  bairdi 95 

f  uscicolhs 95 

maculata 95 

minutilla 96 

Planesticus  migratorius 217 

Plautus  impennis 47 

Plectrophane  de  Laponie 169 

neige 169 

Plectrophenax  nivalis 169 

Plegadis  autumnalis 79 

Plongeon  a  coUier 44 

gorge  rousse 44 

Plongeur 70 

Plover 90, 102 

American  Golden 103 

Bartram's 100 

Black-belhed 103 

Black-heart.    See  Dunlin. 
Calico.    See  Turnstone. 
Carriquet.     See  Turnstone. 

Field 100 

Killdeer 104 

Piping 104 

Red-breasted.    See  Knot. 

Ring-neck 104 

Semipahnated 104 

Upland 100 

Pkivier  a  ventre  noir 103 

criard 104 

dor^  d'Am^rique 103 

kildir 104 

semipalmg 104 

Posecet^s  gramineus 169 

Podilymbus  podiceps 43 


290 

Page. 

Polioptila  caerulea 215 

Polioptilinae 215 

Porzana  Carolina 88 

Preacher-bird.    See  Vireo,  Red-eyed. 

Procellariidse 57 

Progne  subis 182 

Protection 12 

Protonotaria  citrea 192 

Ptarmigan 106, 109 

Rock 110 

Willow.    See  Grouse,  Willow. 

Puffin 45 

grand 58 

Puffins 45 

Puffinus 58 

gravis 58 

griseus " 58 

Pygopodes 41 

0. 

Qua-bird.    See  Heron,  Black-crowned  Night. 

Quail 106 

American.     See  Bob-white. 

Quails,  American 106 

Quank,  Big.    See  Nuthatch,  Caroline. 

Little.    See  Nuthatch,  Red-breasted. 

Querquedula  discors 67 

Quisculus  quiscula 161 

R. 

Rail,  Carolina 88 

King 87 

Sora 88 

Virginia 87 

Rail  Yellow 88 

Railbird.     See  Rail,  Sora. 

Rail-hke  Birds 86 

Rails,  True 86 

RMe  de  la  CaroUne 88 

Virginie 87 

jaune 88 

Ralli 86 

Rallidae 86 

Rallus 86 

elegans 87 

virginianus 87 

Rap  tores 1 13 

Raven 155 

Recurvirostra  americana 92 

Recurvirostridse 92 

Red-back.     See  Dunlin. 

Red-bird.     See  Cardinal  and  Tanager,  Scarlet. 
Summer.    See  Tanager,  Scarlet. 

Redhead 69 

Redpoll,  Hornemann'a 166 

Redpolls 166 

Redstart,  American 204 

Regulinae 214 

Regulus  calendula 214 

satrapa 214 

Ricebird.     See  Bobolink. 

See  Gallinule,  Florida. 


291 


Ring-neck.     See  Plover,  Killdeer. 

Riparia  riparia 184 

Rissa  tridactyla 50 

Robin,  American 217 

Golden.     See  Oriole,  Baltimore. 

Roitelet  k  couronne  rubis 214 

huppe 214 

Rouge-gorge  bleu 218 


Saddle-back.    .See  Gull,  Great  Black-backed. 

Sanderling 97 

Sandpiper,  Baird's 95 

Bartramian.    See  Plover,  Upland. 

Bonaparte's 95 

Buff-breasted 100 

Curlew 96 

Least 96 

Pectoral 95 

Purple 94 

Red-back.     See  Dunlin. 

Semipalmated 97 

Solitary 99 

Spotted 100 

Stilt 94 

^\Tiite-rumped 95 

Sandpipers 90,    92 

Sapsucker,  Yellow-bellied 140 

Sarcelle  a  ailes  bleues 67 

vertes 67 

Sarcorhamphi 114 

Saunders,  W.  E 4 

Saw-bill.     See  Merganser,  American,  and  Merganser,  Red-breasted. 

Saw-bills 63 

Saxicola  oenanthe 218 

Sayornis  phoebe 149 

Scaup,  American.     See  Duck,  Greater  Scaup. 

Scolopacidse 92 

Scoter,  American 74 

Surf 74 

White-winged 74 

Scoters 72 

Scotiaptex  nebulosa 131 

Seim-us 200 

am-ocapillus 200 

motaciUa 201 

noveboracensis 200 

Setophaga  ruticilla 204 

Sharp-tail,  Nelson's 172 

Shearwater,  Greater 58 

Sooty 58 

Shearwaters ^ 57,    58 

SheUdrake.     See  Merganser,  American,  and  Merganser,  Red-breasted. 
SheUduck.     See  Merganser,  American,  and  Merganser,  Red-breasted. 

Shore  Birds 90 

Shoveller 67 

Shrike,  Loggerhead 187 

Migrant 187 

Northern 186 

Shi-ikes 186 

Sialia  siaUs 218 

Siskin,  Pine 168 


292 

Page. 

Sitelle  de  la  Caroline 211 

du  Canada 211 

Sitta  canadensis 211 

Carolinensis 211 

Sittidae 210 

Skuas 48 

Snipe 93 

Grass.      See  Sandpiper,  Pectoral. 

Jack 93 

Red-breasted.     See  Dovdtcher. 
Robin.     See  Dowitcher  and  Knot. 
Rock.    See  Sandpiper,  Purple. 

Wilson's 93 

Winter.     See  Sandpiper,  Purple. 

Snipe-like  Birds 92 

Snipes 90 

Sea ^  91 

Snowbird,  Black.    See  Junco. 

Somateria 72 

dresseri 73 

mollissima 73 

spectabilis 74 

Song  Birds 152 

Sora.     See  Rail,  Sora. 
South-southerly.     See  Old-Squaw. 

Sparrow,  Bay-winged 169 

Chipping 174 

Clay-coloured 175 

Enghsh 164 

Field 175 

Fox 177 

Grasshopper 171 

Harris 172 

Henslow's 171 

House 164 

Ipswich 170 

Lark 172 

Leconte's 171 

Lincoln's 177 

Savannah 170 

Song 176 

Swamp 177 

Tree 174 

Vesper 169 

White-crowned 173 

White-throated 173 

Yellow-winged 171 

Sparrows 161 

Spatula  clypeata 67 

Speckle-belly.    See  Gadwall. 

Sphyrapicus  varius 140 

Spinus  pinus 168 

Spiza  americana 180 

SpizeUa  monticola 174 

paUida 175 

passerina 174 

pusilla 175 

Spoonbill.     See  Shoveller. 

Squatarola  squatarola 103 

Squawk.    See  Heron,  Black-crowned  Night. 
Stake-driver.    See  Bittern,  American. 

Starhngs,  American 156 

Steganopodes 59 

Steganopus  tricolor 92 


293 

Page. 

StelgidopterjTC  serripennis 184 

Stercoraxiidae 48 

Stercorarius  longicaudus 49 

parasiticus 49 

pomarinus 48 

Sterna  capsia 54 

forsteri 55 

hirundo 55 

paradisaea 55 

Sterne  axctique 55 

caspienne 54 

commune 55 

noire 56 

Sterninse 54 

Striges 129 

Strigidse 130 

Strix  varia 131 

Sturnella  magna 159 

Sula  bassana 60 

Sulidse 60 

Sumia  ulula 134 

Swallow,  Bank 184 

Barn 183 

Cliff 183 

Eave 183 

Mud 183 

Rough-winged 184 

Tree 183 

White-beUied 183 

SwaUows 182 

Swan,  Trumpeter 78 

Whistling 78 

Swans 63,  77 

Swift,  Chimney 145 

Spine-tailed 145 

Swifts 143,  145 

Swimmers,  FuU-webbed 59 

Lamellirostral 62 

Lesser  Tube-nosed 57 

Long-winged 48 

Sieve-billed 62 

Totipalmate 59 

Tube-nosed 56 

Sylviidae 213 

T. 

Tanager,  Scarlet 181 

Summer ;   181 

Tanagers 180 

Tangara  ecarlate 181 

Vermilion 181 

Tangaridse 180 

Teacher.     See  Vireo,  Red-eyed. 

Teal,  Blue-Winged 67 

Green-Winged 67 

Teeter.     See  Sandpiper,  Solitary. 

Tell-tale,  Greater.    See  YeUow-legs,  Greater. 
Little.    See  Yellow-legs,  Lesser. 

Telmatodytes  palustris 209 

Tern,  Arctic 55 

Black 56 

Caspian 54 

Common 55 


294 

Page. 

Tern,  Forster's 55 

Wilson's 55 

Terns 49,  54 

Tetraonidae 108 

Tetras  du  Canada 108 

Thistlebird.     See  Goldfinch,  American. 

Thra.sher,  Brown 207 

Thrashers 205 

Thrush,  Alice's 216 

Golden-crowned.     See  Ovenbird. 

Grey-cheeked 216 

Hermit 217 

Olive-backed 217 

Song 216 

Wilson's 216 

Wood 216 

Thrushes 215 

True 215 

Thryomanes  bewicki 208 

Thryothorus  ludovicianus 207 

Thunder-pump.     See  Bittern,  American. 

Tickler,  Kittiwake 50 

Tinker.     See  Auk,  Razor-billed. 

Tip-ups.    See  Sandpiper,  Solitary 92 

Titlark,  American  Pipit 205 

Titmice 212 

Titmouse,  Tufted 212 

Totanus  flavipes 99 

melanoleucus 98 

Tourne  pierre 105 

k  poitrine  noire 105 

TourtereUe  de  la  Caroline 113 

Towhee 178 

Toxostoma  rufum 207 

Traquet  motteux 218 

Tringa  canutus 94 

Trochih 146 

Troglodyte  aedon 208 

d'hiver 209 

des  marais 209 

Troglodytid* 207 

Tropic  region 8 

Tryngites  subruf icollis 100 

Tubinares 56 

Turdidae 215 

Turdinae 215 

Tiu-key,  Wild Ill 

Tiu-keys Ill 

Turnstone 105 

American 105 

Ruddy 105 

Turnstones 105 

Tympanuchus  americanus 110 

Tyrannidae 148 

Tyrannus  tyrannus 148 


U. 

Uria  lomvia 46 

troille • 46 


295 

V. 

Page. 

Vaaneau  gris 103 

Vautour  noir 116 

Veery.     See  Thrush,  Wilson's. 

Vermivora 192 

celata 193 

chrysoptera 192 

peregrina 193 

pinus 192 

rubricapilla 193 

Vireo  a  front  jaune 189 

h  tete  bleue 189 


aux  yeux  rouges . 


188 


Blue-headed. 189 

de  Philadelphie 188 

gris-olive 189 


griseus. 


190 


Philadelphia 188 

Red-eyed 188 

Solitary 189 

WarbUng 189 

White-eyed 190 

Yellow-throated 189 

ireonidse 188 

ireos 188 

ireosylva  gilva 189 

olivacea 188 

philadelphica 188 

ulture,  Black 116 

Turkey 115 

ultures,  American 114 

Turkey 115 

W. 

Waders,  Deep  water 79 

Heron-hke 80 

Wagtails 205 

War  Bird.     See  Tanager,  Scarlet. 

Warbler,  Bay-breasted 197 

Black  and  YeUow 196 

Blackburnian 198 

Black-capped 204 

Black-poU 197 

Black-throated,  Blue 195 

Green 198 

Blue-winged 192 

Blue,  Yellow-backed 194 

Canada 204 

Cape  May 194 

Cerulean 196 

Chestnut-sided 196 

Connecticut 201 

Golden-winged 192 

Ground 201 

Hooded 203 

Kentucky 201 

Kirtland's 198 

MagnoUa 196 

Mourning 202 

Myrtle 195 

Nashville 193 


296 

Page 

Warbler,  Orange-crowned 193 

Palm 199 

Paruk 194 

Pine. 199 

Praixie 199 

Protiionotary 192 

Tennessee 193 

WUson's 204 

Wilson's  Black-capped 204 

Yellow 194 

Yellow-rumped 195 

Warblers,  Flycatching 203 

Old-world 213 

Wagtail 200 

Wood 190 

Woodland 194 

Worm-eating 192 

Water-thrush 200 

Louisiana 201 

Northern 200 

Water-witch    See  Grebe,  Pied-billed. 

Waxwing,  Bohemian 185 

Cedar 185 

Carolina 185 

Waxwings 184 

Whale  Bird.    See  Phalarope,  Red. 

Wheatear 218 

Whip-poor-will 143 

Whiskey  Jack.    See  Jay,  Canada. 
Whistle-wing.    See  Golden-eye. 
Whistler.    See  Grolden-eye. 

WiUet 99 

Wilsonia 203 

canadensis 204 

citrina 203 

pusiUa 204 

Woodcock,  American 93 

Woodpecker,  American  Three-toed 140 

Arctic  Three-toed 139 

Black-backed 139 

Downy 139 

Gold  en- winged.     See  Flicker. 

Hairy 138 

Ladder-backed 140 

Pileated 141 

Red-bellied 142 

Red-headed 141 

Woodpeckers 138 

Wren,  Bewick's 208 

Carolina 207 

Golden-crowned.    See  Kinglet. 

House 208 

Long-biUed  Marsh 209 

Ruby-crowned.    See  Kinglet,  Ruby-crowned. 

Short-billed  Marsh .■ 209 

Winter 209 

Wrens 207 


Xanthocephalus  tanthocephalus 158 


297 
Y. 

Page. 
Yellow  Bird,  Summer.    See  Warbler,  Yellow. 
Yellow-hammer.    See  Flicker. 

Yellow-legs,  Greater 98 

Lesser 99 

Yellow-throat,  Maryland 202 


Zamelodia  ludoviciana 179 

Zenaidura  macroura 113 

Zonotrichia  albicollis 173 

leucophyrs 173 

querula 172 


CANADA 

DEPARTMENT  OF  MINES 

Hon.  Martin  Burrell,  Minister;  R.  G.  McConnell,  Deputy  Minister. 

GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 

William  McInnes,  Directing  Geologist. 


MEMOIR  104 


S"^i«^ 


No.  3,  Biological  Series 


Birds  of  Eastern  Canada 


BY 

P.  A.  Tavemer 


OTTAWA 

J.  M  LABROQUERIE  TACHfi 

PRINTER  TO  THE  KING'S  MOST  EXCELLENT  MAJESTY 

1919 


Pnce,  5-G  cents. 


No.  1563 


AMNH    LIBRARY 

00115416 


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