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THE
BOOK OF THE FAEM :
DETAILING THE LABORS OF THE
FARMER, STEWARD, PLOWMAN, IIEDGER, CATTLE-MAN,
SHEPHERD, FIELD-WORKER, AND DAIRYMAID.
BY HENRY STEPHENS.
WITH FOUR HUNDRED AND FIFTY ILLUSTRATIONS.
TO WHICH ARE ADDED
EXPLANATORY NOTES, REMARKS, ETC.
BY JOHN S. SKINNER,
EDITOR OF THE FARMERS' LIBRARY.
VOLUME I.
NEW YORK:
C. M. SAXTON, AGRICULTURAL BOOK PUBLISHER.
1851.
THE
BOOK OF THE FARM.
1. OF THE DIFFICULTIES WHICH THE YOUNG FARMER HAS TO
ENCOUNTER AT THE OUTSET OF LEARNING PRACTICAL HUS-
BANDRY.
" One, but painted thus.
Would be interpreted a thing perplex'd
Beyond self-explication." Cymbki-ink.
The young farmer, left to hia own guidance, when beginning to learn
his profes.sion, encounters many pei-jilexing difficulties. The difficulty
which at first most prominently obtrudes itself on his notice consists in the
distribution of the labor of the farm ; and it presents itself in this way : —
He observes the teams employed one day in one field, at one kind of vvork,
and perhaps the next day in another field, at a different sort of work. He
observes the persons employed as field-workers assisting the teams one
day, and in the next, perhaps, working by themselves in another field or
elsewhere. He observes those changes with attention, considers of their
utility, but cannot discover the reasons for making so very varied an-ange-
raents ; not because he entertains the least doubt of their propriety, but,
being as yet uninitiated in the art of farming, he cannot foresee the pur-
pose for which those labors are perfonned. The reason why he cannot at
once foresee this is, that in all cases, excepting at the finishing operations,
the end is unattained at the time of his obsei-vation.
The next difficulty the young farmer encounters is in the variety of the
labors performed. He not only sees various arrangements made to do the
same sort of work, but various kinds of work. He discovers this differ-
ence on examining more closely into the nature of the work he sees per-
f:>rming. He observes one day the hoi'ses at work in the plow in one
field, moving in a direction quite opposite, in regard to the ridfes, to
what they were in the plow in another field. On another day he observes
the horses at work with quite a different implement from the plow. The
field-workers, he perceives, have laid aside the implement with which they
were working, and are perfonning the labor engaged in with the hand.
He cannot comprehend why one sort of work should be prosecuted one
day, and quite a different sort of work the next. This difficulty is inex-
plicable for the same reason why he could not overcome the former one :
because he cannot foresee the end for which those varieties of work are
performed. No doubt he is aware that evei-y kind and variety of work
which are performed on a farm, are preparatives to the attainment of cer-
tain crops ; but what portion of any work is intended as a certain part o{
the preparation for a particular ci'op, is a knowledge which he cannot ac-
quire by intuition. Every preparatory work is thus perplexing to the
young farmer.
'" ^^"^^ , 38966
THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
Field work being thus chiefly anticipatory, is the circumstance which
renders its object so perplexing to the learner. He cannot possibly per-
ceive the connection between preparatory labors and their ultimate ends ;
and yet, until he leam to appreciate their necessary connection, he will
remain incapable of managing a farm. It is in the exercise of this faculty
of anticipation or foresight that the experienced and careful farmer is con
tradistinguished from the ignorant and careless. Indeed, let the experi
ence of farming be ever so extensive, or, in other words, let the know-
ledge of minutiae be ever so intimate, unless the farmer use his experience
by foresight, he will never be enabled to conduct a farm aright. Both
foresight and experience are acquired by observation, though the former
is matured by reflection. Observation is open to all farmers, but all do
not profit by it. Every farmer may acquire, in time, suflicient experience
to conduct a farm in a passable manner ; but many farmers never acquire
foresight, because they never reflect, and therefore cannot make their ex-
perience tell to the most advantage. Conducting a farm by foresight is
thus a higher acquirement than the most intimate knowledge of the mi-
nutiae of labor. Foresight cannot be exercised without the assistance of
experience ; though the latter may exist independently of the former. As
the elements of every art must first be acquired by observation, a know-
ledge of the minutiae of labor should be the first subject for acquii-ement
by the young farmer. By carefully tracing the connection betwixt com-
bined operations and their ultimate ends, he will acquire foresight.
The necessity of possessing foresight in an'anging the minutiae of labor,
before the young farmer can with confidence undertake the direction of a
farm, renders ^ar^wm^ more difficult of acquirement, and a longer time of
being acquired, than most other arts. This statement may appear incredi-
ble to those who have been accustomed to hear of farming being easily
and soon learned by the meanest capacity. No doubt it may be acquired
in time, to a certain degree, by all who are capable of improvement by
observation and experience ; but, nevertheless, the ultimate ends for which
the various kinds of field-work are prosecuted, are involved in obscurity to
every learnei*. In most other arts no great space usually elapses between
the commencement and completion of the piece of work, and the piece is
worked at i^ntil finished. The beginner can thus soon perceive the connec-
tion between the minutest portion of the work in which he is engaged, and
the object for which it is intended. There is in this no obscurity to per-
plex his mind. He is purposely led, by degrees, from the simplest to the
most complicated parts of his art, so that his mind is not bewildered at the
outset by paiticipating in a multiplicity of works at one time. He thus
begins to acquire true experience from the outset.
The young farmer has no such advantages in his apprenticeship. There
is no simple, easy work, or one object only to engage his attention at first.
On the contrary, many minutiae connected with the various works in pro-
gress, claim his attention at one and the same time, and if the requisite at-
tention to any one of them be neglected for the time, no other opportunity
for observing it can occur for a twelvemonth. It is a misfortune to the
young farmer, in such circumstances, to be thrown back in his progress by
a trifling neglect. He cannot make up his lee-way until after the revolu-
tion of a year. And though ever so attentive, he cannot possibly leara to
anticipate operations in a shorter time, and therefore cannot possibly un-
derstand the drift of a single operation in the first year of his apprentice-
ship. The fii'St year is generally spent almost unprofitably, and certainly
unsatisfactorily to an inquisitive mind. But attentive observation during
the first year will enable him, in the second, to anticipate the successive
(6)
MEANS OF OVERCOMING DIFFICULTIES.
operations ere they arrive, and an-ange every minutia of labor as it is re-
quired. Many of the events of the first year, which had left no adequate
impression of their importance on his memory, crowd upon his observa-
tion in the second, as essential components of recognized operations. A
familiar recognition of events tends, in a rapid degree, to enlarge the
sphere of experience and to inspire confidence in one's o^^•n judgment ;
and this quality greatly facilitates the acquisition of foresight.
Let it not be imagined by those who have never passed through the
perplexing ordeals incident to the first year of farming, that I have de-
scribed them in strong colors, in order to induce to the belief that farming
is an art more difficult of attainment than it really is. So far is this from
being the case, I may safely appeal to the experience of every person who
had attained manhood before beginning to learn farming, whether I have
not truly depicted his own condition at the outset of his professional ca-
reer. So that every young man learning farming must expect to meet
v/ith those difficulties.
2. OF THE MEANS OF OVERCOMING THOSE DIFFICULTIES.
" We can clear these ambiguities."
Romeo and Jitliet.
Experience undoubtedly dissipates doubt and removes perplexity ; but
experience, though a sure and a safe, is a slow teacher. A whole year
must revolve ere the entire labors of a farm can be exhibited in the field,
and the young farmer satisfactorily understand wliat he is about ; and a
whole year is too much time for most young men to sacrifice. Could the
young farmer find a monitor to explain to him, during the first year of his
apprenticeship, the purpose for which every operation on a farm is per-
formed,— foretell to him the results which every operation is intended to
effect, — and indicate to him the relative progress which all the operations
should make, from time to time, toward the attainment of their various
ends, he would thereby acquire a far greater quantity of professional in-
formation, and have greater confidence in its accuracy, than he could pos-
sibly obtain for himself in that anxious period of his novitiate. Such a
monitor would best be an experienced and intelligent farmer, were he duly
attentive to his pupil. Farmers, however, can scarcely bestow so much
attention as would be desired by pupils at all times ; because the lapses of
time occasioned by necessary engagements, in the fulfilment of which
farmers are sometimes obliged to leave home, produce inattention on the
part of the farmer ; and inattention and absence combined constitute sad
interruptions to tuition, and cannot always be avoided by the most pains-
taking farmer. But a hook might be made an efficient assistant-monitor.
If expressly written for the purpose, it might not only coiToborate what
the farmer inculcated, but serve as a substitute in his temporary absence.
In this way tuition might proceed uninterruptedly, and the pupil never
want a monitor upon whom he could confidently rely. Were a book, pur-
posely so aiTanged, put into the hands of young farmers so circumstanced,
the usual deprecations against recommending the acquirement of practical
farming from books alone would not here apply. I would give no such
counsel to any young farmer ; because books on farming, to be really ser-
viceable to the learner, ought not to constitute the arena on which to study
farming — the field being the best place for perceiving the fitness of laboi
8 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
to the purposes it is designed to attain — but as monitors for indicating the
best modes of management, and showing the way of learning those modes
most easily. By these, the practice of experienced farmers might be commtt-
nicated and recommended to beginners. By consulting those which had been
purposely written for their guidance, while they themselves were carefully ob-
serving the daily operations of the farm, the import of labors — which are
often intricate, always protracted over con.siderable portions of time, and
necessarily separated from each other — would be acquired in a much shortf-r
time than if left to be discovered by the sagacity of beginners.
It is requisite to explain that, by the phrase " young farjner," I mean
the young man who, having finished his scholastic and academical educa-
tion, directs his attention, for the first time, to the acquirement of practical
fanning ; or who, though bom on a farm, having spent the greater part of
his life at school, determines, at length, on following his father's profession.
For the latter class of young men, tuition in farming, and infonnation from
books, ai'e as requisite as for the former. Those who have constantly seen
farming from infancy can never be said to have been young farmers ; for,
by the time they are fit to act for themselves, they are proficients in farm-
ing. Having myself, for a time, been placed precisely in the position of
the first description of young men, I can bear sincere testimony to the
truth of the difficulties I have described as having to be encountered in
the first year of apprenticeship. I felt that a guide-book would have been
an invaluable monitor to me, but none such existed at the time. No doubt
it is quite reasonable to expect of the farmer ability to instruct the pupils
committed to his charge in a competent manner. This is certainly his
duty ; Avhich, if rightly performed, no guide-book would be required by
pupils ; but very few farmers who receive pupils undertake the onerous
task of instruction. Practical farming they leave the pupils to acquire for
themselves in the fields, by imperfect observation and slow experience, as
they themselves had pre\"iou6ly done ; theoretical knowledge, very few, if
any, are competent to impart. The pupils, being thus very much left to
their own application, can scarcely avoid being beset with difficulties, and
losing much time. At the same time it must be acknowledged that the
practice gained by slow experience is, in the end, the most valuable and
enduring. Still, a book on farming, expressly written to suit his circum-
stances, might be a valuable instructor to the young fanner ; it might
guard him against the difficulties which learners are apt to encounter ; and
it would recompense him for loss of time, by imparting sound professional
information.
Such a book, to be really a useful instructor and correct guide, should,
in my estimation, possess these necessary qualifications. Its principal
matter should consist of a clear narrative of all the labors of the fann, as
they occur in succession ; and it should give the reasons fully for which
each piece of work is undertaken. While the principal operations are
narrated in this way, the precise method of executing every species of
work, whether manual or implemental, should be minutely detailed. The
construction of the various implements by which work is performed — the
mode of using them — the accidents to which each is liable — should be cir-
cumstantially described. A seasonable narrative of the principal opei^a-
tions will show the young fanner that fanning is really a systematic bnsi-
ness, haAnng a definite object in view, and possessing the means of attain-
ing it. The reasons for doing every piece of work in one way, rather than
another, will convince him that farming is an art founded on rational and
knowTi principles. A description of the implements, and of the method of
using them, will give him a closer insight into the nature and fitness of
MEANS OF OVERCOMING DIFFICULTIES.
field-work for attaining its end, than by any other means. A pemsal of
these narratives, all having a common object, will impart a more compre-
hensive and clearer view of the management of a farm in a given time,
than he could acquire by himself from witnessing ever so many isolated
operations. The influence of the seasons on all the labors of the field is
another consideration which should be attended to in such a book. In
preparing the ground, and during the growth of the crops, the labor ap-
propriated to each kind of crop terminates for a time, and is not resumed
until a fit season an-ive. These periodical cessations from labor form nat-
ural epochs in the progress of the crops toward maturity, and afford con-
venient opportunities for performing the work peculiarly appropriate to
each epoch ; and, since every operation of the farm is made to conform
with its season, these epochs correspond exactly with the natural seasons
of the year. I say with the natural seasons, in contradistinction to the
common yearly seasons, which are entirely conventional. This necessary
and opportune agreement between labor and the natural seasons induces
a corresponding division of the labors of the farm into four great portions,
or seasons, as they are usually termed. Labor should, therefore, be de-
scribed with particular reference to its appropriate season.
[Reflecting on the preceding chapters with a view to give them practical bearing on our own
country, one is led to remark that the struggles which ensued immediately after the establishment
of our National Ind?pendcnce, and which had for their object the settlement of the gi-eat working
principles of the Constitution, produced intense political excitement throughout the country. Un-
fortunately, this rage for politics, dignified in its commencement by great national aims, settled
down into a sort of political monomania ; and hence these struggles have become perennial, but
with sad degeneracy as to motive. Anxiety about the great administrative principles of the Gov-
ernment has been superseded by an abiding and unquenchable thirst for office, for the .sake of offi-
cial emolument and power. $-25,000,000 constitute the annual premiums to be contended for and
distributed among party competitors, sufficiently numerous and active, and so widely dispersed
among the people as to draw off their minds from the practical bearing of public legislation and its
indissoluble connection with the landed interest of the country. Thus has it happened that, while
the People of the United States — landholders in very large proportion — pay annually, and, as it
would seem, willingly, so many millions to provide for military instruction and to maintain mili-
tary institutions, little or nothing is done by their Representatives for tlie diffusion of agricultural
knowledge, or for the construction of highways or conveniences to develop and improve the in-
dustrial reaonrces of the country !
If the people — the cultivators of the soil — would force their legislators to appropriate, for the
dis.=emination of agricultural knowledge through all the common schools of the country, one-tenth
of that which the landholders now pay for prolonged debates and useless legislation, and for the
pay and maintenance of the military machinery of the Government, our young men dosiineil for
farming might enter on their career in full posse.ssion of the knnwledge recommended in the pre-
ccdi.ig chapters; and such knowledge could not fail to be followed by an immcn.<e increase in all
the fruits of productive industry, as well as in that additional securitj- for the public peace and
prosperity which is the natural fruit of superior intelligence. The young men of the country would
then enter upon life with a well-founded conviction that farming, truly, " is an art, founder} on ra-
tional and known principles."
With the.se views it was that Wadsworth and "Van Rensselaer, of New-York, exerted their in-
fluence for the establishment of Common Schools, in all of which the Sciences connected with Ag-
ricvlfiire ought now to have preference and prominence over all others. The spontaneous and
unassisted growth of agricultural schools, which may now be seen springing up in various sections
of the country, clearly indicates that public sentiment is, fortunately, beginning to gather force and
to take a right direction on this great subject of popular agricultural education — giving reason to
hope that, eventually, even those who deny that the Government possesses any constitutional con-
trol over it, will at lea.st agree that if public treasure is to be collected and appropriated to the dif-
fusion of any sort of knowledge, or the construction of any sort of road, or survej' or map, or the
publication of any sort of book, it were far better for the interests of the people of the Uc ited States,
and of humanity, that such expenditures should be applied to the dissemination of that sort of
(9)
10 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
knowledge, and to the construction of that sort of road, or map, or book, which shall have & tend
ency to increase the "staff of life" — to make bread abundant — and provide, in a word, the materi-
als of manufactures — the elements of commerce — and the basis, not so much of military glory, as
of 7iational prosperity.
There seems, in truth — and every Christian will hail all such omens with delight — to be a grow-
ing conviction that, as the field of Science enlarges, the practical man cannot fulfil his calling,
wliatever that calling may be, without some acquaintance with those branches of Science which
hear upon it. The Divine, the Lawyer, the Physician, the Merchant — and he, still honored and
rewarded above the best, whose art it is to destroy his fellov/-raan — are all of them acting upon
this principle. The advance of Science in all other pursuits, except farming, is making empiri-
cism in them degrading and unprofitable. Yet the follower of each of them was once an empiric.
The Farmer alone is so still. Does not, then, the advance of Science — may we not say, his own
character and self respect — require him, too, to be a man of certainty — independent on, or rather
a controller of, circumstances ? Ed. Farm. Lib.]
3. OF THE KIND OP INFORMATION TO BE FOUND IN EXISTENT
WORKS ON AGRICULTURE.
" Tire the hearer with a book of words."
Much Ado about Nothing.
Unless the business of a farm he treated in books somewhat in the
manner thus described, I consider it impossible for a young farmer to de-
rive from them the requisite information for conducting a farm, even
though he should be constantly resident upon it. By even the most care-
ful perusal of books, w^hich relate methods of cultivating crops and treat-
ing live stock in the most general terms and in detached sections having
no relative connection with each other, the young farmer will never, in
my opinion, understand how to apportion labor and modify its application
to the raising of crops and rearing of live-stock, in accordance with the
nature of the season. He will never learn to know by perusing a narra-
tive couched in the most general terms, when an operation is really well
performed ; because, to be able to judge of the quality of work, all its
minutiae ought previously to have been fully and carefully detailed to him.
NaiTatives couched in general terms, to the exclusion of essential minutiae,
will never impart that pi-ecision of ideas which the mind should possess
in conducting any piece of field work ; and without precision of ideas in
regard to labor, no man will ever be able to conduct a farm aright. But
to be told how to conduct a farm aright, is the chief motive of the young
farmer for consulting a book at all.
Now, on examining works of any pretensions which have, for years
past, been written on practical Agriculture, none will be found to have
been written and arranged on the principles I have recommended, and
much less for the special benefit of beginners in farming. All are so ar-
ranged as to constitute books of reference for experienced, rather than as
guides for young farmers. Yet, how few of the former will condescend
to consult agricultural works ! The aversion of experienced farmers to
to consult books on Agriculture has long been proverbial.* No doubt this
^"Tlli.s aversion uonbil<;s8 arises in a great measure from the neglect of parents to have Agricul-
ture and studies nearly nkin to it made a part oj the, rAiication of their sons. Amusements fol-
lowed, courses of reading indulged in, and habits contracted when wo are young, conilnno to
tiave their influence over ns in after life, and to possess attraction, if only by force of early asso-
ciation, while he who grows to man's estate in ignorance of that great perennial source of enjoy-
EXISTENT WORKS ON AGRICULTURE. H
aversion may be explained ; but whether the explanation is to be found
in a general indifference to book-farming, or in the quality of the books
themselves, or in both ciixumstances combined, it is not easy to deter-
mine. The aversion, however, appears to be felt more toward systematic
than periodical works on Agriculture. The latter class receives favor
because, possibly, they may contain something that is not generally known,
and their information bears the character of freshness. As to younor
farmers, if they cannot find books suited to their particular state of know-
ledge, they have no alternative but to peruse those that are extant.
For the sake of the young fanner, the usual contents of agricultural
books require farther consideration. Let any systematic work on prac-
tical Agriculture be examined, and it will be found to contain an aixange-
ment of the various particulars of farming, somewhat in this order. The
soil and the various methods of working it are first described. The im-
plements are then most probably particularized, or their description de-
fended to a later portion of the work. The methods of raising and secur-
ing the different kinds of crops are then detailed ; and the treatment of
live-stock is delayed to the last. We suppose that no satisfactory reasons
can be given for adopting this particular arrangement of subjects. It is,
perhaps, considered a simple arrangement, because it proceeds from what
is considered the elementary process of preparing the soil, to the more
complicated process of cultivating the plants for which the soil has been
prepared. But the simplicity of the arrangement, I apprehend, is to be
found rather in what is assumed than what is apparent ; for plowing land
is not a more simple process, or more elementary than sowing seed. In-
deed, some sorts of plowing require far greater dexterity and ingenuity in
the performance than any process connected with the production of crops.
Perhaps it is considered a natural arrangement, because the ground is
first prepared, and the crop is then sown. The ground, it is true, must
be partially, if not wholly, prepared before the crop be put into it ; but,
in the cultivation of the summer crops, much of the labor bestowed on
the land is performed while the crops are in a rapid progi'ess toward ma-
turity.
Although the seasons \nsibly influence the operations and products of
the farm, systematic works on Agriculture scarcely disclose the subdivi-
sion of the year into seasons, much less the very different operations per-
formed in different seasons, and still less the difference of character of the
same season in different years. For all that is given in them by way of
advice, every operation may as well be performed in one season as in an-
other. No doubt, reference is made, and cannot altogether be avoided
being made, to the season in which the piece of work described should be
performed ; but the reference seems to allude to the season more as an
accidental concomitant, than as constituting the sole influential power that
ment. the love of books, verj- rarely contracts a fondness for them in after life. To put them in his
\va3', when his habits are already fixed, and expect to force them on his attention, is like attempt-
ing to espalierise trees already half grown: hence the force of the maxim that you should " bring
up the child in the way he should go." The boy should be led, while yet a boy, to take plea-
sure in books, and especially in such books as are best calculated to store his mind with the
practice, and to embellish it with the literature o{his particular calling. All that can enlighten
Agriculture and instruct in the natural historj' and properties of whatever belongs to the country,
should, at country schools, take the place of the antiquated trash which continues to form the
bulk of Common School education, with the exception, in a great and honorable measure, of the
schools in New- York, Massachusetts, and some other Northern States, where the subject has at-
tracted the earnest regards of able, benevolent and conscientious men, who so well deserve and
80 rarely receive the tribute due to the real benefactors of mankind. Ed. Farm. Lib.]
(11;
12 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
regulates the order of time in which the work should be performed. The
allusion to the season, in short, only forms an isolated hint, which, being
singly repeated in a number of places, it is impossible for the reader to
keep in mind the particular operation that should be performed in its own
season. This apparent neglect of the great influential power which regu-
lates all farm business, constitutes an insuperable objection to describing,
in an uninterrupted narrative, a piece of work which is performed at in-
tervals. Such a dissertation might bewilder the reader on its perusal, but
could not satisfy the mind of the young inquiring farmer.
But the minuter an-angements in the books I am remarking on, are fully
more objectionable than the general. The entire process usually adopted
for workino- the land for a particular crop, is described in an uninterrupted
narrative, before a description of the nature of the crop is given for which
the soil is preparing ; and, in consequence, before the connection between
the preparation and the crop can be understood by the young farmer.
This is not the usual procedure on farms, and cannot therefore be account-
ed natural ; and it certainly tends to mislead the beginner. The usual
practice is, that the laud destined for any particular crop is prepared to a
certain degree, at stated times, in accordance with the natural seasons, and
between those times many operations intervene which bear no relation to
that particular crop. Every operation thus occupies a portion of time, in-
termittent in its season, and cannot truly be described in a continued dis-
sertation. The finishing operation of every crop is always deferred until
the appropriate season.
The descriptions of implements are very unsatisfactory, and their con-
struction, for the most part, is very imperfectly represented. None trace
their action from the first start to the entire completion of the work. Im-
plements of husbandry having, only a few years ago, been made in the
nidest manner, their actions were necessarily imperfect, and their abso-
lute weight a serious drag on the draught. They are now constructed on
ti-ue principles of mechanical science — are light in motion, perfect in ac-
tion, and elegant in foi'ra. It is remarkable that a correct description of
improved implements has not ere this been undertaken by some skillful
machinist.*
Some works treat first of the science of Agriculture, and then of the
practice, as if the science of the art had been ascertained by studying
abundance of facts derived from practice ; or, as if its science already pos-
sesses such a superiority as to be allowed the precedence of practice. Oth-
ers make science follow practice, as if the science had been derived from
the practice described ; whereas what is offered as science is generally pre-
sented in isolated speculations, volunteered chiefly by theorists unacquaint-
ed with the practice of Agi'iculture. Some authors theorize on agricul-
tural subjects from as slight a foundation of facts as in the experimental
sciences, although they profess to give no preference to science over prac-
tice. Theorizing writers, however, sometimes throw out hints which,
when improved by more practical experimenters, really lead to useful
results ; but whatever may be the origin of the hints of theorists, the
ability to give a convincing and philosophical reason for every operation
in husbandry, is an accomplishment which every young fanner should en-
deavor to attain. Efforts to discover reasons for practice derived from
[• It is to be presumed that when this was written, the author had not seen " Raksome's Book or
THE Implements of Agriculture." It contains drawings and descriptions of all the imple-
ments of Agriculture employed in England. Such of them as are adapted to our countiy will
be given in the Farmers' Library and Monthly Journal or Agriculture, as two of the
harrows were in Vol. 1. pp. 591-2. Ed. Farm. Lib.]
(12)
EXISTENT WORKS ON AGRICULTURE. 13
principles applicable alike to science and good husbandry, is a healthfiil
exercise of the mind, and tend to rendei' it capable of accommodating
practice to existing circumstances. Conformity of practice with the sea-
son exhibits in the farmer superior ability for conducting fanning opera-
tions : like the expeinenced mariner, who renders every change in the gale
Bubsei-vient to the safety of his ship, navigation itself not being more de-
pendent on weather than is farming. By pursuing a course of observa-
tion and investigation such as this, the mind of the young farmer will soon
become scientifically enlightened ; but books on farming usually afford no
assistance in pursuing such a course of study.
The treatment of live-stock is usually deferi'ed to the conclusion in
works on Agiiculture, as if it were either the most important, or the most
complicated, occupation of the farm. Breeding for the improvement of a
particular race of animals, and judicious ci'ossing betwixt two fixed races,
are indeed occupations which tax the judgment severely ; but the ordinary
treatment of live-stock is as easily managed as most of the operations of
the field. The complete separation, moreover, made in books betwixt
live-stock and field-operations, is apt to impress the mind of the inexpe-
rienced reader that no necessary connection subsists betwixt stock and
crop, whereas neither can be treated with advantage either to the farm-
er or themselves, unless both are attended to simultaneously.
From what I have stated i-egarding the airangement of the subjects in
systematic works on Agriculture, it will be obsened that they are better
adapted for reference than tuition. Tliey form a sort of dictionary or
cyclopedia, in which the different subjects are treated independently of
each other, under different heads, though they may not be placed in al-
phabetical order. Being strictly works of reference, they may be con-
sulted at any time ; and ai-e only valuable as such, in pi-oportion to the
accuracy of the information they contain ; and being such, they are unfit-
ted to impart agiicultural knowledge suited to beginners ; because, 1st,
operations are not described in the order in which they occur on the farm ;
2d, the descriptions omit many of the minutiae of management, and yet
constant attention to these constitutes an essential characteristic of a good
farmer ; 3d, they contain no precautionary warnings against the proba-
bility of failure in operations from various incidental causes, which ought
to be anticipated, and attempted to be shunned ; and, 4th, they afford no
idea of the mode of carrying on various opei-ations simultaneously in the
different departments of management. Such works, therefore, impart no
notion of horo to set about to conduct a farm ; and yet, without this essen-
tial infonnation, to obtain which the earnest young farmer toils inces-
santly, they can render him no assistance as guides. Indeed, the authors
of such works do not profess to be teachers of young fanners.
Experience has made me well acquainted with the nature of the diffi-
culties tyros in Agriculture have to contend with ; and I clearly see that
the books on farming extant are incompetent to assist them in overcom-
ing those difficulties. I consider it, therefore, very desirable that a work
should be written for the express purpose of presenting facilities to young
farmei-s in the acquirement of their profession. This opinion I have en-
tertained for many years, and see no cause to change it for all the works
on Agriculture that have been published of late years. To me it is mat-
ter of sui-prise that such a work has never been written by any of the
prominent writers on Agiiculture in this prolific age of books, when as-
sistance in the acquirement of learning is proffered in so many shapes to
the youths of all classes. In most other branches of art, there is no want
of facilities in books for acquiring their elementary principles and practice.
14 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
On the kindred art of gardening, in particular, every possible variety of
publication exists, from the pondei-ous folio to the tiny duodecimo, con-
taining all the minutiae of practice and the elucidation of principles. It is
difficult to account for the want of solicitude sho%vn by agricultural wiiters,
for the early advancement of the young farmer. Perhaps many of them
have never experienced the irksome difficulties of acquiring a practical
knovi^ledge of Agriculture, and therefore cannot extend their sympathies
to those who have ; perhaps the exhibition of an intimate acquaintance
with the minutiae of farming appears too trivial an accomplishment to ar-
rest the attention of general writers ; perhaps they think when a young
man begins to farm, it is sufficient for him to have a steward in whose
skill he can confide ; perhaps the tuition of young farmers is beneath their
dignity, and they would rather aspire to the higher object of instructing
experienced men ; or perhaps they have never condescended to trouble
themselves with practical farming, which, to judge of their lucubrations
by the sterlingness of their practical worth, many of them, I dare say,
never have.
4. OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF "THE BOOK OF THE FARM.*'
" A book ? O rare one I
Be not as is our fangled world, a garment
Nobler than that it covers : let thy effects
So follow, to be most unlike our courtiers,
As good as promise."
Cymbeline.
A BOOK for the special purpose of instructing young farmers, such as it
should be, and such as they are entitled to expect from the hands of ex-
perienced agriculturists, is yet a desideratum in the agricultural literature
of this country. I am disposed to question the ability of any one man to
write such a work, as its accomplishment would require a rare combina-
tion of qualities. The writer would require, as a primary qualification, to
be a highly experienced agriculturist, able to indite lucid instructions for
conducting a fann. He should also be a clear-headed mechanician, to de-
scribe with minute distinctness the principles and constmction of agricul-
tural implements. He should, moreover, be an accomplished man of sci-
ence, to explain to con\dction the rationale of every operation. Onerous
as the task thus appears, I shall, nevertheless, attempt to write such a
book. With adequate assistance, I trust I shall be able to overcome, at
least, the practical difficulties of the undertaking; and, as to the scientific
part, men of science have not yet brought Science to bear upon Agricul-
ture in so satisfactory a manner as to justify them in contemning the ra-
tional explanations given of the various operations by practical men. —
Could I but succeed in arranging the various operations as they success-
ively and actually occur on a farm, in so lucid a manner as that any young
farmer might comprehend the exact purport of each piece of work, as it
developed itself in the field, I should certainly do him essential service. —
In accomplishing this, it is scarcely possible to invest with sufficiently at-
tractive interest the descriptions of the minute details of the various oper-
ations, so that their aptitude to the purpose intended may be appreciated.
Careful attention to these details — in themselves, I own, irksome — vnll
the sooner enable the young farmer to understand thoroughly the connec-
tion of successive operations ; and by the understanding of which he wil\
be forewarned of the approach, and be able to ascertain the import, of the
(14)
THE CONSTRUCTION OF 15
uarticular end for which they are preparatory. Besides showing by anti
cipalion the successive operations as they arrive, could I also give clear
descriptions of the labor performed for each crop, as it is can-ied on siviul
ianeously on a farm, I should achieve a still greater service "for the young
i'armer. He would then clearly comprehend a difficult department of his
art.
To accomplish these ends, I purpose to arrange the matter in the fol
»ving manner, and for the following reasons. The entire business of a
arm necessarily occupies a year ; but that year embraces in some years
more, and in others less, than twelve months. The agricultural year,
moreover, both in its commencement and termination, does not correspond
with that of the calendar ; and those periods are determined in this way.
The beginning and ending of every agricultural year are entirely depend-
ent on the duration of the life of cultivated vegetables, which constitute
the chief product of the farm. In the temperate regions of the globe,
vegetable life becomes dormant, or extinct, according as the vegetable is
perennial or annual, at the beginning of winter. The beginning of winter
is therefore chosen, in the temperate zones, to commence the agricultural
year, and, of course, the labors of the farm ; and, when winter again ap-
proaches, the labors of the field have performed their annual revolution.
The same sort of work is performed year after year. To understand
those labors throughout the year is the chief aim of the young farmer;
and to describe them to him satisfactorily is the principal object of this
book.
Two modes of describing farm-business may be adopted. One is to ar-
range it under different heads, and describe all similar operations under
the same head, as has hitherto been done in systematic works on Agricul-
ture. The other mode is to describe the operations as they actually occur,
singly, in succession, as is to be done in this work. Both methods describe
the general farm business, and both may be consulted for any particular
pait of the business. But how the relative position of any particular part
of the business stands in regard to, and influences any other, can only be
shown by the latter method, and it does so at a glance of the eye. More-
over, as some parts of farm business commence, and others terminate, at
one or other period of the year, the latter method can clearly indicate,
what the other cannot so well do, in which period any particular operation
is commenced, continued, or terminated ; and it gives the details of each
operation much more minutely than the other method.
The agricultural year, like the common year, is distinctly and conveni-
ently divided into seasons, which regulate all farm work. I have given
the seasons as full an influence over the arrangements of the matter in this
book as they really possess over the business-matter of the farm. The
whole business-matter is divided into four parts, each bearing the name
of the season that influences the operations that are performed in it. By
this arrangement every operation, whether requiring longer or shorter
time for completion, is described as it takes its turn in the fields. The
work that occupies only a short time to begin and complete, in any one
season, is described in a single narrative. Very few of the operations of a
farm, however, are begun and completed in one of the seasons ; some ex-
tending over the whole four, and most into two or three. Any piece of
work that extends over almost all the seasons can, nevertheless, be de-
scribed with great accuracy ; for although, in its progress toward comple-
tion, it may altogether occupy an extended range of time, each season im-
poses a peculiar kind of operation toward the advancement of the work ;
which peculiar operation ceases, and a different kind is entered upon, at
(15)
16 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
the season which concludes the work. These cessations of labor, cottnect"
ed with the same work which extends over several seasons, are thus n^t
mere conveniences, but necessary and temporary finishings of work, whicr
it would be improper to resume but at a subsequent and appropriate sea^
son. In this way all the more extensive pieces of work are giadually ad-
vanced, in progressive steps, season after season, until their completion ;
while the smaller are concunently brought onward and completed, each
in its proper season.
Before proceeding farther, let me guard the young farmer against im-
bibing a misconception regarding the length of the seasons. In the year
of the calendar, each season extends over a period of three calendar
months ; and the same three months every year compose the same season,
whatsoever may be the nature of the weather. Every season of the calen-
dar is thus of the same length. The seasons of the agricultural year,
though bearing the same names as those of the calendar, are, on the other
hand, not of the same length every year, but their duration is regulated by
the state of the weather. The agricultural seasons have characteristic
signs to distinguish them. The spring revives the dormant powers of veg-
etables ; the summer enlarges their growth ; the autumn develops the
means of reproduction ; and the winter puts a stop to vegetable energy.
In the year of the calendar these characteristics are assumed to last just
three months in each season ; but in the agricultural year, notwithstand-
ing that the characteristics of one season extend over or are contracted
within three months, still that season bears its proper name, whether it
encroaches on or is encroached upon by another season. The spring, for
example, may be enci-oached on by the protraction of winter on the one
hand, and the earliness of summer on the other ; a case in which results
both a late and short spring — a state of spring which creates very bustling
work to the farmer. So with the rest of the seasons. This elastic prop-
erty in the agricultural seasons contradistinguishes them from the seasons
of the calendar which possess no elasticity. The commencement, contin-
uance, and termination of field work being, therefore, entirely dependent
on the seasons of the agricultural year — and those seasons, in their turn,
being as dependent on the weather — it follows that field operations arie
entirely dependent on the state of the weather, and not on the conven-
tional seasons of the calendar. Whether an agricultural season be long or
short, the work that properly belongs to it must be finished in it while it
lasts. If it be of sufficient length, the work to be performed, admitting
of a considerable latitude of time, may be well finished ; and, if not so fin-
ished, the crop nins the risk of failure. Should any season happen to be
shortened by the weather, by the preceding season encroaching upon it,
the work should be so far advanced during the preceding prolonged sea-
son that, when the proper season for its completion amves — as anive it
will — the finishing may be accomplished before its expiring. Should any
season be curtailed by the earliness of the succeeding one, and the weather
improve, as in the case of summer appearing before its time, no apprehen-
sion need be entertained of accomplishing the finishing work in a satisfac-
tory manner; but should the weather prove worse, as in the premature
approach of winter upon autumn, then extraordinary exertions are re-
quired to avert the disastrous consequences £>f winter weather upon the
crops. The unusual protraction of any of the seasons in which a work
should be completed is attended with no risk, except that too fi-equently,
from the consciousness of having plenty of time to complete the work, un-
necessary delay is permitted, until the succeeding season unexpectedly
makes its appearance. In such cases, procrastination is truly the thief of
(16)
THE CONSTRUCTION OF 17
thne. During the protraction of a season, much time is often wasted in
waiting for the arrival of the succeeding one, in which a particular work
is most properly finished; but, in a contracted season, a gi-eat part of the
work is hun-iedly gone through, and of course slovenly performed. The
most perfect field-work is perfoiTned when the agricultural and conven-
tional seasons happen to coincide in duration.*
The greatest difficulty which the farmer experiences, when first assum-
ing the management of a farm, is in distributing and adjusting labor. To
accomplish this distribution and adjustment correctly, in reference to the
work, and with ease as regards the laborer, a thorough knowledge is re-
quisite of the quantity of work that can be performed in a given time by
all the instruments of labor, animal and mechanical, usually employed. It
is the duty of the young farmer to acquire this knowledge %vith all dili-
gence and dispatch ; for a correct distribution of the instruments of labor
enables the work to be performed in the most perfect manner in regard
to the soil — with the smallest exertion as regards physical force — and
with the greatest celerity in regard to time ; and, in the adjustment of
those instniments, every one should just perform its own share of work.
These essential particulars I shall point out, in their connection with the
■work in hand. In descanting on the distribution of labor, I shall incur
the hazard of being prolix rather than superficial. The general reader
may dislike the perusal of minute details ; but the ardent student will re-
cieve with thankfulness the minutest portion of instruction, especially as
he can only otherwise acquire this kind of instruction by long experience.
The distribution and adjustment of labor is a branch of farm management
that has been entirely overlooked by every writer on systematic Agricul-
ture.
Constant attention on the part of the young farmer to the minutiae of
labor evinces in him that sort of acuteness which perceives the quickest
mode of acquiring his profession. The distribution of the larger pieces
of work may proceed satisfactorily enough under the skill of ordinary
work-people ; but the minuter can best be adjusted by the master or stev/-
ard. The larger operations would always be left in a coarse state, were
the smaller not to follow, and finish them off neatly. There are many mi-
nor operations, unconnected with gi-eater, which should be skillfully per-
formed for the sake of their own results ; and they should be so arranged
as to be pei^formed with neatness and dispatch. Many of them are fre-
quently performed concurrently Avith the larger operations ; and, to avoid
confusion, both their concun-ent labors should harmonize. Many of the
minuter operations are confined to the tending of live-stock, and the vari-
ous works performed about the farmstead. Attention to minutife consti-
tuting the chief difference betwixt the neat and careless fanner, I have be-
[* Every young farmer may lay it down as a good rule to endeavor in all his work to be a lit-
tle before the best manager in his neighborhood, " Drive your work or your work will drive
you," eays Dr. Franklin, and "Time enough always proves little enough." The best way. as a
general rule, and which is a cardinal one with all successful farmers, is to begin early — get yonr
land in the most perfect tilth — plant and sow as early as the season will admit, but let nothing
tempt j-on to plow stiff or clay land when wet enough to bake into clods — endeavor to be the first
to harvest and house your crops, and then prepare and send them at once to market, and sell them
for the best price you can get. By that means you keep your work before you, avoid much mor-
tification, and save your crop from waste and depredation by rats that gnaw, and thieves that
" break in and steal."
N. B. — It is doubtful if any farmer ever yet lost anything by catting his tekeat too early and too
green — not that it could not be done, but probably never is done — while millions have been lost
by leaving it too long in the field Ed. Farm. Lib.]
(17) a
18 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
Btowed due consideration on them. They form another particular which
has been too much overlooked by systematic writers on Agriculture,
Implements of husbandry may be considered the right hand of the
farmer; because, without their aid, he could not display the skill of his
art. Modem mechanical skill has effected much by the improvement of
old, and the invention of new implements. Modifications of constniction
and unusual combinations of parts are frequently attempted by mechanics ;
and, though many such attempts issue in failure, they nevertheless tend to
divulge new combinations of mechanical action. It is desirable that all
mechanists of implements should understand practical Agriculture, and all
farmers study the principles of mechanics and the construction of machines,
so that their conjoined judgment and skill might be exercised in testing
the practical utiUty of implements. When unacquainted with farming,
mechanists are apt to construct implements that are obviously unsuited to
the work they are intended to execute ; but having been put together after
repeated alterations, and, probably, at considerable expense, the makers
endeavor to induce those farmers who are no adepts at mechanics to give
them a trial. After some unsatisfactory trials they are thrown aside, —
Were farmers acquainted with the principles of mechanics, the discrimi-
nation which such knowledge would impart would, through them, form a
barrier against the spread of implements of questionable utility, and only
those find circulation which had been proved to be simple, strong, and ef-
ficient,* It may be no easy matter to contrive implements possessing all
those desirable quahties ; but, as they are much exposed to the weather,
and the gi-ound upon which they have to act being ponderous and uncouth,
it is necessary they should be of simple construction. Simplicity of con-
struction, however, has its useful limits. Most farm operations being of
themselves simple, should be performed with simple implements ; and all
the primary operations, which are simple, requiring considerable power,
the implements executing them should also be strong ; but operations that
are comphcated, though stationary, require to be performed with compar-
atively complicated machinery, which, being stationary, maybe used with-
out derangement. Operations that are both complicated and locomotive
should be performed with implements producing complicated action by
simple means, in order to avoid derangement of their constituent parts. —
This last is a difficult, if not impossible problem, to solve in practical me-
chanics. The common plow approaches more nearly to its practical so-
lution than any other implement ; yet that truly wonderful implement, ex-
ecuting difficult work by simple means, should yet be so modified in con-
struction as to permit the plowman to wield it with gi-eater ease. These
considerations tend to show that the form and construction of implements
of husbandry, and the circumstances in which they may be used, are still
subjects affording ample scope upon which mechanical skill can exercise
itself
Implements have not received in works on Agriculture that considera-
tion which their importance demands. The figures of them have been
made by draftsmen who have evidently had no accurate conception of the
[* Who can deny that the principles of Mechanics, as far as all agricultural machinery is con-
cerned, ought to take the place of some other things on which so much time is bestowed in all our
country schools ? Should any boy, who is to be a farmer, come to the possession of his estate
without having been made to understand the principles of action — for example, of the wedge, the
screw, the inclined plane, and the lever 1 How plainly such principles are illustrated by men of
science, and how easily they may be comprehended by the commonest capacity, may be seen in
the December and January (1845-6) Numbers of the Monthly Journal of Agriculture.
Ed. Farm. Lib.]
(18)
THE CONSTRUCTION OF 19
functions of their constituent parts. The descriptions given of those con-
stituent parts are generally meager, and not unfrequently eiToneous ; and
as to the best mode of using implements, and the accidents to which they
are liable, one would never discover that there was any peculiarity in the
one, or liability to the other. In order to avoid both these classes of
errors, much care has been bestowed in this work in delineating the fig-
ures, and giving descriptions of all the implements requisite for conduct-
ing a farm.
To ensure accuracy in these respects, I consider myself fortunate in
having acquired the assistance of 5lr. James Slight, Curator of the Ma-
chines and Models in the Museum of the Highland and Agricultural Soci-
ety of Scotland, whose high qualifications as a describer and maker of
machines are duly appreciated in Scotland. His son George, yet a very
young man, is a beautiful delineator of them, as the drawings of the cuts
and engravings in the work amply testify. And having myself paid close
attention to the applicability of most of the implements used in farm oper-
ations, I have undertaken to describe the mode of using them — to state
the quantity of work which each should perfomi, the accidents to which
each is liable, and the precautions which should be used to avoid accidents.
With our united efforts, I have confidence of giving such an expose of farm
implements as will surpass every other work of the kind. We have the
advantage of having the field to ourselves. To assist the right understand-
ing of the implements, they are represented by figures.
So much for the practical, and now for the scientific portion of the work.
Agriculture may, perhaps, ti-uly be considered one of the experimental
sciences, as its principles are, no doubt, demonstrable by the test of ex-
periment, although farmers have not yet been able to deduce principles
from practice. It is remarkable that very few scientific men have, as yet,
been induced to subject agricultural practice to scientific research ; and
those of them who have devoted a portion of their time to the investiga-
tion of its principles have impaited little or no satisfactory information on
the subject. This unfortunate result may probably have arisen from the
circumstance that Agiiculture has so intimate a relation to every physical
science that, until all those relations are first investigated, no sufficient
data can be offered for a satisfactoiy scientific explanation of its practice.
The difficulty of the investigation is, no doubt, much enhanced by hus-
bandry being usually jDursued as a purely practical art, because the facil-
ity of thus pursuing it successfully renders practical men indifferent to Sci-
ence. They consider it unnecessary to burden their minds with scientific
research, while practice is sufficient for their pui-pose. Could the man of
practice, however, supply the man of science with a series of accurate ob-
servations on the leading operations of the farm, the principles of those
operations might be much elucidated ; but I conceive the greatest obsta-
cle to the advancement of scientific Agi-iculture is to be sought for in the
unacquaintance of men of science with practical Agriculture. Would the
man of science become acquainted with practice, much greater advance-
ment in scientific Agriculture might be expected than if the practical man
were to become a man of science, because men of science are best capa-
ble of conducting scientific research, and, being so qualified, could best
understand the relation which their investigations bore to practice ; and,
until the relation betwixt principles and practice is well understood, sci-
entific researches, though perhaps important in themselves, and interest-
ing in their results, tend to no practical utility in Agriculture. In short,
until the facts of husbandry be acquired by practice, men of science will
^ THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
in vain endeavor to construct a satisfactory theory of Agriculture on the
principles of the inductive philosophy.
If this view of the present position of the science of Agriculture be
correct, it may be expected to remain in a state of quiescence until men
of science become practical agriculturists, or, what would still prolong its
state of dormancy, until farmers acquire scientific knowledge. It is a
pity to damp the ardor of scientific pursuit where it is found to exist ; but,
from what I have observed of the scanty services science has hitherto con-
feiTed on Agiiculture, and knowing the almost helpless dependency of
farming on the seasons, I am reluctantly impelled to the belief that it is
less in the power of science to benefit Agriculture, than the sanguine ex-
pectations of many of its true friends would lead farmers to beheve. It
is -^Tono^ to doubt the power of science to assist Agiiculture materially ;
and it is possible, in this age of successful art, that an unexpected dis-
covery in science may yet throw a flood of light on the path of the hus-
bandman ; but I am pretty sure, unless the man of science become also
the practical husbandman, it will be difficult, if not impossible, for him to
discover which department of the complicated ait of husbandry is most
accessible to the research of science.
Hitherto, as it appears to me. Agriculture has derived little benefit from
the sciences, notwithstanding its obvious connection with many of them.
A short review of the relation which the physical sciences bear to Agi-i-
culture will render this opinion more reasonable. In the first place, the
action of the electric agency in the atmosphere and on vegetation is yet
as little understood in a practical sense as in the days of Franklin and of
Ellis. No doubt, the magnetic and electric influences are now nearly
identified ; but the mode of action of either, or of both, in producing and
regulating atmospherical phenomena, is still ill understood ; and, so long
as obscurity exists in regard to the influence of their elementary princi-
ples, the history of atmospherical phenomena cannot advance, and the an-
ticipations of atmospherical changes cannot be trusted.
Geologists, at first engaged in ascertaining the relative positions of the
harder rocks composing the crust of the earth, have only of late years di-
rected their attention to the investigation of the more recent deposits ; but,
even with these, they have afforded no assistance in the classification of
■natural soils and subsoils. They have never yet explained the origin of a
surface-soil, almost always thin, though differing in thickness, over sub-
soils composed of different kinds of deposits. They have never yet ascer-
tained the position and structure of subsoil deposits, so as to inform the
farmer whether land would be most effectually drained with drains nin-
Tiing parallel with, or at right angles to, the courses of valleys and rivers.
Systematic botany can only be useful to Agriculture in describing the
natural plants which are indigenous to different soils. Botanists have suc-
cessfully shown the intimate relation subsisting betwixt plants and the
soils on which they grow ; but much yet remains to be ascertained of the
relation betwixt different soils and trees, and the effects of different sub-
soils on the same kind of tree. Planting cannot be pursued on fixed prin-
ciples, if planters are unacquainted with this knowledge ; and, until a
fixed and generally received classification of soils and subsoils is deter-
mined on, it is impossible to comprehend, by description, what particular
soil or soils the plants referred to affect.
Botanical physiology has developed many remarkable phenomena, and
explained most of the important functions of plants — investigations which
tend to give a clearer insight into the growth of crops. In this depart-
ment of science, too much discussion to be of benefit to Agriculture has,
(20)
THE CONSTRUCTION. OP 21
as I conceive, been expended on what really constitutes the food of plants.
Whether the food is taken up by the plant in a gaseous, a solid, or a
liquid state, may in itself be a very interesting inquiry, but it tends to no
utility in Agriculture so long as no manures are supplied to crops in a
gaseous or liquid state. All that can practically be done in supplying
food to plants, is to observe the increased quantity of their secretions in a
given condition from an increased given quantity of manure. Thus may
the increased quantities of mucilage, farina, gluten, in the various culti-
vated plants, be observed. It is of little moment to the farmer whether
the manure administered is taken up by the crops in a gaseous, liquid, or
solid state, since all these secretions are elaborated fi-om the same ma-
nure. The anatomical structure of plants, the situations, soils, and ma-
nures which crops affect, the secretions which they elaborate, and the
prolificacy and value of their products, are the results that most interest
the farmer; and, if botanical physiologists desii-e to benefit Agi-iculture
they must direct their attention to the emendation and increase of products.
Again, the results from the cross impregnation of plants of the same kind,
so as to produce valuable permanent varieties, may confer as valuable a;
boon on Agriculture as the successful crossings of different breeds of live-
stock have already conferred by increasing their value. Many varieties
of plants having their origin in this way have been brought into notice,
and some are now established and extensively cultivated ; but most of the
varieties in use have been obtained fi-om casual impregnations effected by
Nature herself, and not by the efforts of man to obtain varieties possess-
ing superior properties, as in the case of the domesticated animals. Thus
botanical physiology might confer great benefit on Agriculture, if its
views were directed to increasing the prolificacy of valuable plants al-
ready in cultivation, and inti-oducing others that would withstand the
modes of culture and changes of climate incidental to this country.
But there is one view in which botanical physiology may be of use to
Agriculture, and that is, in ascertaining correctly the nature, properties,
and relative values of plants. To show the importance of such an inves-
tigation, a case may here be specified. A variety of rye-gi-ass, called
Italian, has been lately introduced into this country. It is found to be a
very free grower in this climate ; and it is highly acceptable to all kinds
of live-stock, whether in a gieen or dried state. Could this grass be ren-
dered certainly perennial, it would be an invaluable acquisition to the pas-
tures of this country. Its character, however, is rather capricious, for in
some places it disappears after two years' cultivation, while in others it
displays undiminished vigor of gi'owth for four or five years, and may per-
haps continue so to do for an indefinite period of time. Judging by these
various results, it is probable that there is more than one variety of the
plant, and distinguishing varieties seem to be known to foreigners. Keep-
ing in view the existence of varieties, if different varieties were affected
differently by the same locality, there would be nothing in the phenome-
non to excite surprise ; but when the same variety, derived from the same
stock, and placed in similar circumstances, exhibits different instances of
longevity, there must be characteristics of the plant still unknown to culti-
vators. In this dilemma, the assistance of the botanical physiologist
would be desirable to discover those latent characteristics. It would
be desirable to know the conditions that regulate the existence of
plants into permanent and temporary varieties — a property of plants
at present involved in mystery. Hitherto, no practical explanation
of the subject has been proffered to the farmer; and so long as he
shall be permitted to discover the true properties of plants for himself,
22 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
botanical physiology cannot be regarded by him as of much use to
Agriculture.
The Italian rye-gprass exhibits in its nature en anomaly that no other
variety of rye-grass does. The annual rye-grass, as it is commonly called,
is seldom seen in the ground, even to the extent of a few plants, in any
kind of soil, and under any treatment, after the second year ; and the
perennial is as seldom observed to fail in any circumstances, except when
it may have been too closely cropped by sheep to the gi'ound too late in
autumn, when it generally dies off in the following spi'ing. But the Ital-
ian may be annual or perennial in the same circumstances. Farmers can-
not account for such an anomaly. High condition of good soil may tend
to prolong, while the opposite state of poor soil may tend to shorten, its
existence. But 2vhy those circumstances should not produce the same
effects on all varieties of rye-grass, it is for science to explain.
Entomology might be made to sei-ve Agiiculture more than it has yet
done. In this department of science farmers might greatly assist the en-
tomologist, by observing the minute, but varied and interesting, habits of
insects. The difficulty of comprehending the true impulses of insects, as
well as of identifying species in the different states of transformation,
render the obsei-vations of farmers less exact than those of entomologists
who have successfully studied the technicalities of the science. The field
of observation in the insect creation being very wide, and there being
comparatively but few explorers in it, a large portion of a man's life would
be occupied in merely observing species and their habits, and a much
larger in forming general deductions from repeated observ'ation. The re-
sult would be, were farmers to study entomology, that a long period must
elapse ere the habits of even the most common destructive insects, and the
marks of their identity, would become familiarized to them. In conse-
quence of this obstacle to the study of the farmer, the obligation ought to
be the greater to those entomologists who daily obser\'e the habits of in-
sects in the fields and woods, and simplify their individual characteristics;
and at the same time devise plans to evade their extensive ravages, and
recommend simple and effective means for their destniction. The Eng-
lish farmer, living in a climate congenial to the development of insect life,
painfully experiences their destructiAO powers on crops and woods ; and,
although in England entomologists are ever vigilant and active, yet their
efforts easily to overcome the tenacity of insect life, with a regard to the
safety of the plant, have hitherto proved unavailing.*
Chemistiy is somehow imagined to be the science that can confer the
["Writers on Entomology, though they have described the structure and habits of insects, have
probably done little to prevent their ravages. The mischief done by the Hessian Fly has been
mitigated by the labors of those vi'hose studies have enabled them to indicate the period of their
nidification, or egg-laying ; and thus teaching the farmer to delay bis time of sowing — whereby,
however, his crop is necessarily diminished. But it does not follow that because a knowledge
of the physiology and habits of insects may lead to no practical remedy against their ravages, that
their natura' history should not be studied. All such studies form a part, and an elegant part too,
of agricultural literature, and deserve, therefore to be cultivated by every country gentleman.
KoLLAR on the Insects injurious to Farmers and Gardeners, and Harris on the Insects injuri-
ous to Vegetation in Massachusetts, ought assuredly to form a part of every farmer's library.
There are books enough of the most entertaining character, closely allied to his own profession,
sufficient to beguile and improve every leisure hour the country gentleman can command, and
it behooves every farmer to supply them to his sons. The time is coming, may we not hope,
when to be a good farmer will carry with it the presumption of being a man of various and ele-
gant, as well as of practical knowledge — when the agriculturist, ceasing to be a mere empiric,
will know as well the why and the wherefore as the how and the when. The foundation fof
all this, it cannot be too often repeated, must be laid in our schools. Ed, Farm. Lib.\
(22)
THE CONSTRUCTION OF 23
greatest benefits on Agriculture. This opinion seems confirmed in the
minds of most writers and agriculturists, and especially the English, most
probably from the circumstance of an eminent chemist having been the
first to undertake the explanation of agricultural practice on strictly sci-
entific principles. Sir Humphry Davy has, no doubt, been the cause of
bestowing on that science the character, whose influence was imagined to
be more capable of benefiting Agriculture than its eulogists have since
been able to establish. He endeavored to explain Avith great acuteness
many of the most familiar phenomena of Agriculture, when in possession
of very limited acquaintance with practical facts ; and the result has been,
that while his own chemical researches have confeiTed no practical bene-
fit on Agriculture — his conclusions being in collision with practice — the
field of observation and experiment which he explored and traversed has
since been carefully avoided by succeeding chemists, in the conviction, no
doubt, that wherein he failed they were not likely to succeed. The idea
seemed never to have struck them that Sir Humphry had attempted to
enforce a connection betwixt Chemistry and Agi-iculture which both were
incapable of maintaining. Viewing the relation betwixt them merely in
a practical point of view, I can see no veiy obvious connection betwixt
tilling the soil and forcing crops by manure for the support of man and
beast — which is the chief end of Agriculture — and ascertaininfj the con-
stituent parts of material bodies, organic and inorganic — which is the
principal business of Chemistry. A knowledge of the constituent parts
of soils, or plants, or manures, now forms a necessary branch of general
chemical education, but liow that knowledge can improve agricultural
practice, has never yet been practically demonstrated. No doubt, Chem-
istiy informs us that plants will not vegetate in pure earths, and that those
earths constitute the principal basis of all soils ; but as pure earths are
never found in soils in their ordinary state, farmers can have no chance
of raising crops on them. It maybe true, as Chemistry intimates, that
plants imbibe their food only when in a state of solution ; but what avails
this fact to Agi-iculture, if fact it be, when manures are only applied in a
solid state ] It may be quite ti'ue, as Chemistry declares, that plants can-
not supply, from their composition, any substance they have not previ-
ously derived fi-om the air, earth, or decomposed organic matter ; but of
what practical use to Agriculture is this declaration, as long as farmers
successfully raise every variety of crop from the same manure? Chemis-
try may be quite coiTect in its views with regard to all these particulars,
but so is practice, and yet both are very far from agi'eeing ; and as long
as this Constitutes the only sort of information that Chemistry affords, it
is unimportant to the farmer. He wishes to be shown hotv to render the
soil more fertile, manures more effective, and crops more prolific, by the
practical application of chemical principles.
There are many writers, I am convinced, who recommend the study of
Chemistry to farmers little acquainted with the true objects of chemical
research, and not much more with practical Agriculture. At all events,
they expatiate, only in vague generalities, on the advantages of analyzing
soils, manures, &c. but do not attempt to demonstrate liow any practice
of husbandry may certainly be improved by the suggestions of Chemistry.
The truth is, until chemists become thoroughly acquainted Avith agricul-
tural facts, they cannot see the bearings of chemical principles on agricul-
tural practice, any more than the most uncouth farmer ; and until they
prove the farmer's practice in any one instance wrong, and are certatn of
its being put right by their suggestions, there is no use of lauding Chem-
istry as a paramount science for Agriculture.
24 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
In this view of the science, I would rather underrate the ability of
Chemistry to benefit Agriculture than excite the fallacious hopes of the
farmer by extolling it with undue praise. At the same time, were a
chemist to recommend suggestions promising a favorable issue, that might
tend to excite a well-grounded hope in chemical assistance, and I am sure
the suggestions would even be fairly tried by farmers who entertain pretty
strong suspicions against science. If, for example, on carefully analyzing
a plant in common culture, it was found to contain an ingredient which it
could not obviously have derived from the manure or the soil, were a sug-
gestion made to mix a quantity of that particular ingiedient with the soil
or manure, it would at once be cheerfully put to the test of experiment
by farmers. If, on the other hand, were the same chemist to suggest
making heavy clay land friable by the mechanical admixture of sand, the
physical impracticability of the proposal would at once convince the
farmer that the chemist had no adequate notion of farm work. And yet
propositions as absurd as this have frequently been suggested to farmers
by writers who are continually maintaining the ability of Chemistiy to
benefit Agriculture. But let me appeal to facts — to ordinary experience.
I am not aware of a single agricultural practice that has been adopted
from the suggestions of Chemistry. I am not speaking unadvisedly while
making this unquaUfied statement. In truth, I do not know a single
operation of the farm that has not originated in sheer practice. But is it
not somewhat unreasonable to expect improvement in agricultural prac-
tice, and still more, an entirely improved system of Agriculture, from the
suggestions of Chemistry % Some chemical results may appear to bear
analogy to certain operations of the farm, such as the preparation of ma-
nures ; but such analogies, being chiefly accidental, are of themselves in-
sufiicient grounds upon which to recommend chemical affinity as the prin-
ciple which ought to regulate a system of practically mechanical opera-
tions. How can the most familiar acquaintance with the chemical con-
stituents of all the substances found on a farm, suggest a difi'erent mode
of making them into manure, inasmuch as practice must first pronounce
the treatment to be an improvement, before it can really be an improve-
ment, whatever Chemistry may suggest ] Besides, Chemistry, with all its
knowledge of the constituent parts of substances, cannot foretell, more
confidently than practice, the results of the combinations \\nth the soil, of
the substances analyzed among themselves, and the combined effects of
these and the soil upon cultivated plants. I am aware that hints may be
suggested by science which may prove beneficial to practice ; but unless
they accord with the nature of the practice to which they are proposed to
be applied, they are certain of proving unserviceable. Many hints thrown
out at random have frequently been put to the test of experiment ; but to
experimtntize on hints is quite a different thing in farming from that sort
of farming which is proposed to be entirely based on theoretical sugges-
tions, whether of Chemistry or of any other science.
For these reasons, I conceive. Chemists would be more usefiilly em-
ployed in following than in attempting to lead practical Agriculture. If
it were practicable, it would certainly be very desirable for the farmer to
be assured" that his practice was in accordance with chemical principles ;
if, for example, it could be explained on chemical principles why a certain
class of soils is better suited to a certain kind of crop than other classes,
and why animal manure is better suited than vegetable to a certain kind
of crop ; when Chemistry shall explain why certain results are obtained
by practice, it will accomplish much, it will elucidate that which was be-
fore obscure in principle. Were chemists to confine the first stage of
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Library
N. C. S^a e College
THE CONSTRUCllON OF 25
their investigations of agricultural matters to this extent, farmers would
be much gratified with the assurance of their practice being in unison with
the principles of chemical science ; and this would tend more than any
other circumstance to inspire them with confidence in the utility of that
science. This is the position which Chemistry, in my opinion, should oc-
cupy in relation to Agriculture ; for how successful soever it may be in
assisting other arts, such as dyeing, soap-making, and ink-making, it as-
sists them both by synthesis and analysis ; whereas it can only investigate
agricultural subjects by analysis, because every substance employed in
Agriculture, especially a manure, is used by farmers in the state it is found
in the markets, without reference to its chemical constituent parts ; and,
when used, should an analytical or synthetical process go on among those
parts, or with the soil, with which they are intimately brought into con-
tact, the process going on in the soil would charge the chemical compo-
sition of the whole, and place them beyond the reach of chemical research.
The investigation of the soil after the removal of the crop might then be
curious, but nothing more.* In this investigation the farmer,, the vegeta-
ble physiologist, and the chemist, would all disagree as to the extent of
the influence exercised by the favorite substance of each in producing the
[* In all these views we cannot agree, bat the author would seem to be supported in them by
David Law, Esq. Professor of Agriculture in the University of Edinburgh, who says in refer-
ence to the use of chemistry in analyzing soils, " The chemist may draw useful conclu.sions from
a careful analysis of the matter of the soil, and may from time to time be able to communicate re-
sults that may be serviceable to the practical farmer ; but it is not necessary for the ends of prac-
tice that the farmer himself should be a chemist. The farmer cannot arrive at the science of
mineral analysis, without a knowledge of chemistry and the business of the laboratory, which
he can rarely acquire, and which it is in no degree necessary to his success as a farmer that he
should be pos.^^essed of"
Mr. Coi.MAN. too, whose judgment and zeal in the cause of education and science as applied
to Agriculture are so well known, seems to think the actual importance of chemistry, in its connec-
tion with that pursuit, so far, has been overrated. He says " the application of sulphuric acid
to bones seems as yet to be the only case of the application of chemical science to the improve-
ment of Agriculture upon scientific principles, and this affords strong grounds to hope for much
more."
In relation to agricultural schools, Mr. Colman's Report may be read with profit. One ought
to take for granted that it, too, will be in all our country schools. On the principle that the Fa-
ther who wished to beget in his sons a capacity for labor, told them he had buried his treasure
in the garden, without telling the spot, leaving them to dig it all over, we recommend the reader
not to adopt, in extenso, the opinions of these two distinguished authors, until he shall have read
carefully Davy and Boussingault and Liebigand Petzholdt and John.stone, and then form his own
judgment. Surely every young Farmer .should know enough of chemistry to be able, as he may
by a very simple process, to analyze his own soil that he may know in what most important
ingredients it is redundant or deficient, to the end that having learned from analysis made by pro-
fessional chemists the ingredients which make the necessary food for certain crops, he may be
able to supply such as are needful in the soil, or to avoid the expense of applying others, in
•which he finds his land to be redundant. Mr. Colman, in his personal observations on European
Agriculture, vol. 1, part 3, gives us the best accounts of the practical working and benefit of Ag-
ricultural schools in Ireland, and of the one then about to be established at Cirencester, England.
Referring to the school at Larne, he says :
" It was from this establishment that a detachment of five pupils was sent for examination to
the great meeting of the Agricultural Society of Scotland the last autumn, where their attain-
ments created a great sensation, and produced an impression, on the subject of the importance of
agricultural education, which is likely to lead to the adoption of some universal system on the
Bubject. _
" I shall transcribe the account given of the occasion : ' Five boys from the school at i,ame
■were introduced ufthe meeting, headed by their teacher. They seemed to belong to the better
class of peasantry, being clad in homely garbs ; and they appeared to be from twelve to htteen
years of age. They were examined, in the first instance, by the inspector of schools, m gram-
mar, geography, and arithmetic ; and scarcely a single question did they fail to answer correcUy.
They were then examined, by an agricultural professor, in the scientific branches, and by two
(25)
26 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
crop. In settlinor the question, however, the farmer would have the same
advantage over his rivals, in taking possession of the crop as the reward
of his 2)ractical skill, as the lawyer who, in announcing the judgment of
the court to two contending parties, gave a shell to each, and kept the oys-
ter to himself.
Of all the sciences, mechanics have proved the most useful to Agricul-
tui-e. If implements may be characterized as the right hand of Agricul-
ture, mechanical science, in impro\*ing their form and construction, may
be said to have given cunning to that right hand; for, mechanical science,
testinsT the sti-ength of materials, both relatively and absolutely, employs
no more material in implements than is sufficient to overcome the force of
resistance, and it induces to the discovery of that form which overcomes
resistance with the least power. Simplicity of consti-uction, beauty of
form of the constituent parts, mathematical adjustment, and symmetrical
proportion of the whole machine, are now the characteristics of our im-
plements ; and it is the fault of the hand that guides them, if field-work
is not now dextei'ously, neatly, and quickly performed. In sapng thus
much for the science that has improved our implements to the state they
now are, when compared with their state some years ago, I am not aver-
ring they are quite perfect. They are, however, so far perfect as to be
correct in mechanical principle, and light in operation, though not yet
simple enough in construction. No doubt many may yet be much simpli-
fied in consti-uction ; and I consider the machinist who simplifies the ac-
tion of any usefiil implement, thereby rendering it less liable to derange-
ment, does a good sen-ice to Agriculture as the inventor of a new and
useful implement.
These are the principles which determine the an-angement adopted in
this book. In applying these principles, as the seasons supremely rule the
destiny of every farming operation, so to them is given full sway over the
whole arrangement. This is accomplished by describing every operation
in the season it should be performed, and this condition necessarily implies
the subdivision of the arrangement into four seasons. Authors of Farm-
ers' Calendars divide their subject-matter into calendar or fixed months,
being apparently inattentive to the infuences of the seasons. Such an ar-
rangement cannot fail to create confusion in the minds of young farmers;
as any operation that is directed to be done in any month, may not ip ev-
ery year, be performed in the same month, on account of the fluctuating
nature of the seasons.
In adoptinor the seasons as the great dirisor of the labors of the farm,
the months which each season occupies are not specified by name, because
the same season does not occupy the same number of months, nor even
exactly the same months, in every year. The same work, however, is per-
formed in the same season every year, though not, perhaps, in the same
month or months.
In arranging the seasons themselves, the one which commences the ag-
ricultural year, which is Winter, has the precedence. The rest follow in
the natural succession of Spring, Summer, and Autumn ; in which last all
farming operations, haring finished their annual circuit, finally terminate.
A few remarks, illustrative of its nature, and the work performed in it, are
practical farmers in the practical departments of Aerriculture. Their acquaintance with these
■was alike delii-'hlful and astonishin?. They detailed the chemical constitution of the soil and the
effect of manures, the land best fitted for ereen crops, the different kinds of gr^n, the dairy, and
the Bystem of rotation of crops. Many of these answers required considerable exercise of re-
flection ; and as previous concert between themselves and the gentiemen who examined them
\raa out of the question, their acquirements seemed to take the meeting by surprise ; at the same
time they afforded the utmost satisfaction, as evincing how much couW be done by a proper sys-
tem of training.'"
(26)
THE CONSTRUCTION OF 27
given at the commencement of each season. By comparing these intro-
ductory remarks, one with the others, the nature of the principal opera-
tions throughout the year may be discovered ; and, by perusing them in
succession as they follow, an epitome of the entire farm operations for thn
year may be obtained.
Throughout the four seasons, from the commencement of winter to the
end of autumn, the operations of the farm, both great and small, are de-
scribed in a continued narrative. This narrative is printed in the larger
type (long primer). The reader will soon discover that this narrative
does not extend uninteiTuptedly through the whole pages — portions of
smaller type (brevier) intervening, and apparently inten-upting it. On
passing over the small type, it will be perceived that it is really written, and
may be perused without interruption. The object of this plan is to per-
mit the necessary descriptions of all the operations, performed in succes-
sion throughout the year, to be read in the large type, to the exclusion of
every other matter that might distract the attention of the reader from the
principal subject. A peristrephic view, so to speak, of the entire opera-
tions of the fann is thus obtained. The leading operations, forming the
principal subjects of the narrative, are distinguished by appropriate titles
in CAPITALS placed across the middle of the page. The titles are num-
bered, and constitute, in the aggregate, a continuous succession, running
through all the seasons. The leading operations thus easily attract the
eye. Wood-cut figures of implements, and other objects, requiring node-
tailed descriptions, and representing at once their form and use, are in-
serted in the paragraph which alludes to thein in the narrative.
Implements that require detailed descriptions to explain, and compli-
cated figures to represent them ; reasons for prefemng one mode to an-
other of doing the same kind of work ; and explanations of agricultural
practice on scientific principles — together constituting the subsidiary por-
tion of the work — are given in paragraphs in the medium-sized type (bre-
vier), and this matter is that which apparently interrupts the principal
narrative. Each paragraph is numbered within parentheses, the same as
in the principal narrative, and these paragi-aphs cany on the numbers
arithmetically with the paragraphs of the principal naiTative. When ref-
erences are made from the large to the small type, they are made in cor-
responding numerals. The words most expressively characteristic of the
illustration contained in the paragraph are placed in italics at or near the
beginning of it.
Marking all the parag^-aphs with numerals greatly facilitates the finding
out of any subject alluded to — saves repetition of descriptions when the
same operation is performed in different seasons — and furnishes easy ref-
erence to subjects in the index.
Wood-cut figures of the intricate implements and other objects requir-
ing detailed descriptions, are placed among the descriptions of them in
the brevier type. The portraits of the animals given are intended to illus-
trate the points required to be attended to in the breeding of the domesti-
cated animals. The portraits are taken from life by eminent artists. The
wood-cuts are enumerated as they occur in the order of succession, whether
they belong to the large or the small type, and each wood-cut is desig-
nated by its distinctive appellation — both the numeral and appellative be-
ing requisite for quick and easy reference.
The matter in the small type appears somewhat like foot-notes in ordi-
nary books ; but, in this instance, it differs in character from foot-notes, m-
asmuch as it occurs in unbroken pages at the end of the description of ev-
ery leading operation. By this plan the principal narrative is not inter-
28 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
fered with, and both it and its illustrations may be perused before the suc-
ceeding leading operation and its illustrations are taken into consideration.
This plan has the advantage of relieving the principal nairative of heavy
foot-notes — the perusal of which, when long, not only seriously interrupts
the thread of the naiTative, but causes the leaves gone over to be turned
back again ; both interferences being serious drawbacks to the pleasant
perusal of any book.
Foot-notes required either for the principal narrative or illustrations
are distinguished by the usual marks, and printed at the bottom of the
page in the smallest type used in this work.
The paragi'aphs containing the matter supplied by Mr. Slight are en-
closed within brackets (thus, [ ]), and attested by his initials, J. S.
[The additions by John S. Skinner are designated by his title of " Ed-
itar of the Farmers^ hihraryj^^
5. OF THE EXISTING METHODS OF LEARNING PRACTICAL HUS-
BANDRY.
"I have vowed to hold the plow for her sweet love three year."
Love's Labob Lost.
1 HAVE hinted that there are three states, in one of which the young
farmer will be found when beginning to learn his profession. One is when
he himself is bom and brought up on a farm, on which, of course, he may
acquire a knowledge of farming intuitively, as he would his mother tongue.
Another is when he goes to school in boyhood, and remains there until
ready to embark in the active business of farming ; the impressions of his
younger years will become much effaced, and he will require to renew his
acquaintance with farming as he would of a language that he had forgot-
ten. Young men thus early grounded generally make the best farmers,
because the gieat secret of knowing practical fanning consists in bestow-
ing particular attention on minor operations, which naturally present
themselves to the youthful mind before it can pei'ceive the use of general
principles. Farmers so brought up seldom fail to increase their capital ;
and, if their education has been superior to their rank in life, frequently
succeed in improving their status in society. It is to the skillful conduct
and economical management of fanners so situated, that Scotland owes
the high station she occupies among the agricultural nations of the world.
The third state in which the learning of fanning is requisite is when a
young man who has been educated and entirely brought up in a town, or
perhaps passed his boyhood in the country, but may have bestowed little
attention on farming, wishes to learn it as his profession. In either of
these cases, it is absolutely necessary for him to learn it practically on a
farm ; for total ignorance of his business, and entire dependence on the
skill and integiity of his servants, will soon involve him in pecuniary diffi-
culties. To meet the wishes of seekers of agricultural knowledge, there
are farmers who receive pupils as boarders, and undertake to teach them
practical husbandry.
The chief inducement, as I conceive, which at first prompts young men
who have been nurtured in towns to adopt farming as a profession, is an
undefined desire to lead a country life. The desire ofien originates in
this way. Most boys spend a few weeks in the country during the school
(28)
METHODS OF LEARNING PRACTICAL HUSBANDRY. 29
vacation in summer, on a visit to relations, friends, or school companions.
To them the period of vacation is a season of true enjoyment. Free of
the task — in the possession of unbounded liberty — untiammeled by the
restraints of time, and partaking of sports new to them and solely apper-
taining to the country, they receive impressions of a state of happiness
which are ever after identified with a country life. They regret the pe-
riod of return to school — leave the scene of those enjoyments with reluc-
tance— and conceive that their happiness would be perpetual, Avere their
hearts Avedded to the objects that captivated them. Hence the dehire to
return to those scenes.
It is conducive to the promotion of Agriculture that young birds of for-
tune are thus occasionally ensnared by the love of rural life. They bring
capital into the profession ; or, at all events, it will be forthcomino- when
the scion of his father's house has made up his mind to become a farmer.
Besides, these immigrations into farms are requisite to supply the places
of farmers who retire or die out. Various motives operate tobring farms
into the market. Sons do not always follow their father's profession, or
there may not be a son to succeed, or he may die, or choose another kind
of life, or may have experienced ill treatment at home, or been guilty of
errors which impel him to quit the paternal roof. For these drains, a sup-
ply must flow from other quarters to maintain the equilibrium of agricul-
tural industiy. This young race of men, converted into practical farmers,
being generally highly born and well educated, assume at once a superior
status in, and improve the tone of, rural society. Though they may amass
no large fortunes, they live in good style. In the succeeding generation,
another change takes place. Unless he is well provided with a patrimony,
the son seldom succeeds his father in the farm. The father finds he can-
not give the farm free of burdens to one son in justice to the rest of the
family. Rather than undertake to liquidate such a burden by means of a
farm — that is, from land that is not to be his OAvn — the son wisely relin-
quishes farming, which, in these circumstances, would be to him a life of
pecuniary thralldom.
The young man who wishes to learn farming practically on a farm,
should enter upon his task at the end of harvest, as immediately after
that the preparatory operations commence for raising the next year's
crop ; and that is the season, therefore, which begins the noAv-year of
fanning. He should provide himself Avith an ample stock of stout clothing
and shoes, capable of repelling cold and rain, and so made as to ansAver
at once for Avalking and riding. From the outset, he must make up his
mind to encounter all the difficulties I have described under the first head.
Formidable as they may seem, I encourage him Avith the assurance that
it is in his power to overcome them all. The most satisfactory way of
overcoming them is to resolve to learn his business in a truly practical
manner. Merely being domiciled on a farm is not of itself a sufficient
means of OA-ercoming them, for the advantages of residence maybe squan-
dered aAvay in idleness, by fi-equent absence, by spending the hours of
work in the house in light reading, or by casual and capricious attendance
on field operations. Such habits must be eschoAved, before there can be
a true desire to become a practical farmer. Every operation, whether
important or trifling, should be personally attended to, as there is none
but what tends to produce an anticipated result. Attention alone can ren-
der them familiar ; and, without a familiar acquaintance lyith every opera-
tion, the management of a farm need never be undertaken.
Muc\ assistance in promoting this attention should not be expected
from the farmer. No doubt it is his duty to communicate all he knows to
(29)
30 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
his pupils ; and, as I believe, most are willing to do so ; but, as efficient
tuition implies constant attendance on work, the fanner himself cannot
constantly attend to every operation, or even explain any, unless his at-
tention is directed to it ; and much less will he deliver extempore lectures
at appointed times. Reservedness in him does not necessarily imply un-
wilUng)iess to communicate his skill ; because, being himself familiar with
every operation that can arrest the attention of his pupils, any explanation
of minutiae at any other time than when the work is in the act of being
performed, and when only it could be understood by the pupils, would only
serve to render the subject more perplexing. In these circumstances the
best plan for the pupil to follow is to attend constantly, and personal! y ob-
serve every change that takes place in every piece of work. Should the
farmer happen to be present, and be appealed to, he will, as a matter of
course, immediately clear up every difficulty in the most satisfactory way ;
but should he be absent, being otherwise engaged, then the steward or
grieve, or any of the plo\\Tnen, or shepherd, as the nature of the work
may be, will, on inquiry, afflard as much information on the spot as will
serve to enlighten his mind until he associates with the farmer at the fire-
side.
To be enabled to discover that particular point in every operation which,
when explained, renders the whole intelligible, the pupil should put his
hand to every kind of work, be it easy or difficult, irksome or pleasant. —
Experiences acquired by himself, however slightly affecting his mind — de-
sirous of becoming acquainted with every professional incident — will solve
difficulties much more satisfactorily than the most elaborate explanations
given by others. The larger the stock of these personal experiences he
can accumulate, the sooner will the pupil understand the pui-port of every
thing that occurs in his sight. Daily opportunities occur on a farm for
ioining in work, and acquiring those experiences. For example, when
the plows are employed, the pupil should walk from the one to the other,
and obserse which plowman or pair of horses perform the work with the
greatest apparent difficulty or ease. He should also mark the diffisrent
styles of work executed by each plow. A considerate comparison of these
particulars will enable him to ascertain the best and worst specimens of
work. He should then endeavor to discover the cause why different styles
of work are produced by apparently very similar means, in order to ena-
ble himself to rectify the worst and practice the best. The surest way of
detecting error and discovering the best method is to take hold of each
plow successively, and he will find, in the endeavor to maintain each in a
steady position, and perform the work evenly, that all require considerable
labor — every muscle being awakened into energetic action, and the brow
most probably moistened. As these symptoms of fatigue subside with
repetitions of the exercise, he will eventually find one of the plows more
easily guided than any of the rest. The reasons for this difference he
must himself endeavor to find out by comparison, for its holder cannot in-
form him, because he professes to have — indeed, can have — no knowledge
of any other plow but his own. In prosecuting this system of trials with
the plows, he will find himself becoming a ploAvman, as the mysteries of
the art divulge themselves to his apprehension ; but the reason why the
plow of one of the men moves more easily, does better work, and op-
presses the horses less than any of the rest, is not so obvious ; for the land
is in the same state to them all — there cannot be much difference in the
strength of the J)airs of horses, as each pair are generally pretty well
matched — and, in all probability, the construction of the plows is the same,
if they have been made by the saroe plow-wright, yet one plowman evi-
(30)
METHODS OF LEARNING PRACTICAL HUSBANDRY. 31
dently exhibits a decided superiority in his work over the rest. The in-
evitable conclusion is, that plowman understands his business better than
the others. He shows this by trimming the irons of his plow to the state
of the land, and the nature of the work he is about to perform, and by
training his horses more in accordance with their natural temperament,
whereby they are guided more tractably. Having the shrewdness to ac-
quire these essential accomplishments to a superior degree, the execution
of superior work is an easier task to him than inferior work to the other
plowmen. This case, which I have selected for an example, is not alto-
gether a supposititious one ; for, however dexterous all the plowmen on a
fann may be, one will always be found to show a superiority over the rest.
Having advanced thus far in the knowledge and practice and capability
of judging of work, the pupil begins to feel the importance of his acquisi-
tion ; and this success will fan the flame of his enthusiasm, and prompt
him to greater acquirements. But even in regard to the plow, the pupil
has much to learn. Though he has picked out the best plowman, and
knows why he is so, he is himself still ignorant of how practically to trim
a plow, and to drive the horses with discretion. The plowman will be
able to afford him ocular proof Jiow he places (tempers) all the irons of
the plow in relation to the state of the land, and wJiy he yokes and drives
the horses as he does in preference to any other plan. Illiterate and un-
mechanical as he is, and his language full of technicalities, his explanations
will nevertheless give the pupil a clearer sight into the minuticB of plow-
ing than he could acquire by himself as a spectator in an indefinite lenfrth
of time. °
I have selected the plow as being the most useful implement to illus-
trate the method which the pupil should follow, in all cases, to learn a
practical knowledge of every operation in farming. In like manner, he
may become acquainted with the particular mode of managing all the
larger implements which require the combined agency of man and horse
to put into action ; as well as become accustomed to wield the simpler
implements used by the hand easily and ambidexterously, a great part of
farm-work being executed with simple but very efficient tools. Frequent
personal attendance at the farm-stead, during the winter months, to view
and conduct the threshing-machine, while threshing com, and afterward
to superintend the winnowing-machine, in cleaning it for the market, will
be amply repaid by the acquisition of essential knowledge regarding the
nature and value of the cereal and leguminous grains. There is, more-
over, no better method of acquiring an extensive knowledge of all the
minor operations of the farm, than for the pupil personally to superintend
the labors of the field- workers. Their labors are essential, methodical,
almost ahvays in requisition, and mostly consisting of minutije ; and their
general utility is shown, not only in their intrinsic worth, but in relation to
the labors of the teams.
The general introduction of sowing-machines, particularly those which
sow broadcast, has nearly superseded the beautiful art of sowing com by
hand.* Still a great deal of corn is sown by the hand, especially on small
^ * It were to be wished that this remark were more applicable to the U. S. Since the introduc-
tion of an English sowing-machine near Wilmington, Delaware, and the improvement on it, as
it is alleged, by Pennock, it may be expected that this operation, recommended as well by its
neatness as by its economy, will be extended-ghrough the country. It will be seen on refei^ng
to the June, 1846, Monthly Journal of Agriculture (which, be it always understood, is published
along with the Farmers' Library) that Mr. Jones, a very observing and diligent practical Farmer,
gives it as his opinion that the use of Pennock's drill or sowing-machine effects a saving or in-
crease of 25 per cent.
(31)
32 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
farms, on which expensive machines have not yet found their way. In
the art of hand-sowing, the pupil should endeavor to excel, for, being dif-
ficult to perform it in an easy and neat manner, the superior execution of
it is regarded as an accomplishment. It is, besides, a manly and health-
ful exercise, conducive to the establishment of a robust frame and sound
constitution.
The feeding of cattle in the farm-stead, or of sheep in the fields on
turnips, does not admit of much participation of labor with the cattle-man
or shepherd ; but nevertheless, either practice will form an interesting
subject of study to the pupil, and without strict attention to both, he will
never acquire a knowledge of fattening live-stock, and of computing their
value.
By steadily pursuing the course of observation which I have thus chalked
out, and particularly in the first year of his apprenticeship, the pupil
in a short time, will acquire a considerable knowledge of the minutiag of
labor ; and it is only in this way that the groundwork for a familiar ac-
quaintance with them can be laid. A truly familiar acquaintance with
them requires years of experience. Indeed, observant farmers are learn-
ing some new, or modifications of some old, practice eveiy day, and such
new-like occuiTences serve to keep alive in them a regard for the most
tri^^al incident that happens on a farm.
In urging on the pupil the necessity of putting his hand to every kind
of labor, I do not mean to say he should become a first-rate workman.
To become so would require a much longer time than he could spare in
a period of pupilage. His personal acquaintance with every implement
and operation should, however, enable him by that time to decide quickly
whether work is well or ill done, and whether it has been executed in a
reasonable time. No doubt this extent of knowledge may be acquired in
tittle, without the actual labor of the hands ; but, as it is the interest of
the pupil to learn his profession not only in the shoitest possible time, but
in the best manner, and as these can be acquired sooner through the joint
cooperation of the head and hands, than by either singly, it would seem
imperative on him to begin to acquire his profession by labor.
Other considerations regarding the acquisition of practical knowledge
deserve the attention of the pupil. It is most conducive to his interest to
learn his profession in youth, and before the meridian of life has set in,
when labor of every kind becomes irksome. It is also much better to
have a thorough knowledge of farming, before engaging in it on his own
account, than to acquire it in the course of a lease, during which heavy
losses may be incurred by the commission of comparatively trivial en'ors,
especially at the early period of its tenure, when farms in all cases are
most diflScult to conduct. It is an undeniable fact, that the work of a farm
never proceeds so smoothly and satisfactorily to all parties engaged in its
culture, as when the farmer is thoroughly master of his business. His or-
ders are then implicitly obeyed, not because they are pronounced more
authoritatively, but because a skillful master's plans and directions inspire
that degree of confidence in the laborers as to believe them to be the
The spread of improved agricultural implements is proverbially slow over the world, but less
so in this, probably, than in any other part of it, owing to the fi-eedom of our institutions, the fre-
K quent and extensive intercourse of our people and their aptness both at invention and imitation.
But even here the adoption of the costly machipery of improved construction in England, is
much restrained by the want of capital, which counteracts even our greater necessity for all la-
bor-saving contrivances. All associations or uses of capital, therefore, to supply means to the in-
dustrious and frugal agriculturist, on fair terms and for periods corresponding with the nature of
his pursuits, would deserve to be rewarded with honor and with profit.
(32)
METHODS OF LEARNING PRACTICAL HUSBANDRY. 33
best that could be devised in the circumstances. Shame is often acutely
felt by servants, on being detected in error, whether of the head or heart,
by so competent and discriminating a judge as a skillful master; because
rebuke from such a one implies ignorance or negligence in those against
whom it is directed. The fear of having ignorance and idleness imputed
to them, by a fanner w^ho has become acquainted with the capabilities of
work-people by dint of his own experience, and can estimate their ser-
vices as they really deserve, urges laborers to do a fair day's work in a
workmanlike style.
Let the converse of all these circumstances be imagined ; let the losses
to which the ignorant farmer is a daily prey, by many ways — by hypoc-
risy, by negligence, by idleness, and by dishonesty of servants — be calcu-
lated, and it must be admitted that it is infinitely safer for the farmer to
trust to his own skill for the fulfillment of his engagements, than entirely
to depend on that of his servants, which he will be obliged to do if they
know his business better than he himself does. No doubt a trustworthy
steward may be found to manage well enough for him — and such an as-
sistant is at all times valuable — but, in such a position, the steward him-
self is placed in a state of temptation, in which he should never be put ;
and, besides, the infeiior servants never regard him as a master, and his
orders are never so punctually obeyed, where the master himself is resi-
dent. I Avould, therefore, advise every young farmer to acquire a compe-
tent knowledge of his profession, before embarking in the complicated un-
dertaking of conducting a farm. I only say a competent knowledge ; for
the gift to excel is not imparted to all who select farming as their profes-
sion ; " it is not in man who walketh to direct his steps" aright, much less
to attune his mind to the highest attainments.
Before the pupil fixes on any particular farm for his temporary abode,
he should duly consider the objects he wishes to attain. I presume his
chief aim is to attain such an intimate knowledge of farming as to enable
him to employ his capital safely in the prosecution of the highest depart-
ment of his profession. This will, probably, be best attained by learning
that system which presents the greatest safeguards against unforeseen con-
tingencies. Now, there is little doubt that the kind of farming which cul-
tivates a variety of produce is more likely to be safe, during a lease, in
regard both to highness of price and quantity of produce, than that which
only raises one kind of produce, whether wholly of animals, or wholly of
grain. For, although one kind of produce, when it happens to be prolific
or high priced, may, in one year, return a greater profit than a variety of
produce in the same year, yet the probabilities are much against the fre-
quent recurrence of such a circumstance. The probability rather is that
one of the varieties of produce will succeed, in price or produce, every
year ; and, therefore, in every year there will be a certain degi-ee of suc-
cess in that mode of farming which raises a variety of produce. Take, as
an example, the experience of late years. All kinds of live-stock have
been reared with profit for some years past ; but the case is different in
regard to grain. Growers of grain have suffered greatly in their capital
in that time. And yet, to derive the fullest advantages from even the rear-
ing of stock, it is necessary to cultivate a certain extent of land upon which
to raise straw and green crops for them in winter. Hence, that system is
the best for the young farmer to learn, which cultivates a relative propor-
tion of stock and crop, and not either singly. This has been characterized
as the mixed system of husbandry. It avoids, on the one hand, the monot-
ony and inactivity attendant on the raising of grain, and subdues, on the
othei', the roving disposition ensrendered in the tending of live-stock m a
(33) 3 ^ ^ ^ ^ -
34 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
pastoral district; so it blends both occupations into a happy union of
cheerfulness and quiet.
Most farmers in the lowlands of Scotland practice the mixed husbandry,
but it is reduced to a perfect system nowhere so fully as in the Border
Counties of England and Scotland. There many farmei-s accept pupils,
and thither many of the latter go to prepare themselves to become farm-
ers. The usual fee for pupils, in that part of the country, is one hundred
pounds [$500] per annum for bed and board, with the use of a horse to
occasional markets and shows.* If the pupil desire to have a horse of his
own, about thirty pounds a-year more are demanded. On these moderate
terms, pupils are generally very comfortably situated.
I am very doubtful of it being good policy to allow the pupil a horse
of his own at first. Constant attention to field-labor is not unattended
with irksomeness ; and, on the other hand, exercise on horseback is a
tempting recreation to young minds. It is enough for a young man to
feel the removal of parental restraint, without also having the dangerous
incentive of an idle life placed at his disposal. They should consider that,
upon young men an'ived at the years when they become fanning pupils,
it is not in the power, and is certainly not the inclination, of farmers to
impose ungracious resti-aints. It is the duty of their parents and guardians
to impose these ; and the most effectual way that I know of, in the cir-
cumstances, to avoid temptations, is the denial of a riding-horse. Atten-
tion to business in the first year will, most probably, induce a liking for it
in the second ; and, after that, the indulgence of a horse may be granted
to the pupil with impunity, as the reward of diligence. Until then, the
horse occasionally supplied by the farmer to attend particular markets,
or pay friendly visits to neighbors, should suffice ; and, as that is the farm-
er's own property, it will be more in his power to curb in his pupils any
propensity to wander abroad too ft-equently, and thereby preserve his own
character as a tutor.
Three years of apprenticeship are, in my opinion, requisite to give a
pupil an adequate knowledge of farming — such a knowledge, I mean, as
would impress him with the confidence of being himself able to manage a
farm ; and no young man should undertake such a management until he
feels this confidence in himself. Three years may be considered by many
as too long a time to spend in learning jfarming ; but, after all, it is much
less time than that given to many other professions, whose period of ap-
prenticeship extends to fire and even seven years ; and, however highly
esteemed those professions may be, none possess a deeper interest, in a
national point of view, than that of Agriculture. There is a condition at-
tendant on the art of farming — which is common to it and gardening, but
inapplicable to most other arts — that a year must elapse before the same
work can again be performed. Whatever may be the ability of the learner
[* A gentleman of ample fortune, residing at Paterson, New-Jersey, has lately, with his son's
entire concurrence and desire, sent him to reside with a Scotch farmer, of Shields, near Ayr; to
whom he pays one hundred pounds sterling a year — say $500 — for board and education as a
farmer. Mr. Turnant (that appears to be the namp) is Vice President of the Ayrshire Agricultural
Society ; and is, withal, a gentleman, and lives as such. The young man alluded to keeps no
horse, but is fully instructed in all the departments of Agriculture. We mention this particular
case of a young gentleman, not urged by necessity, betaking himself to Agriculture as a profes-
sion, with the acquiescence of his father, to show that public sentiment is taking a right turn, and
that those who have been so assiduously laboring to elevate this pursuit in the public esteem
have not entirely lost their labor, but may hope yet to see practical Agriculture followed as an in-
tellectual occupation — one in which success may warrant the presumption of some merit besides
the mere faculties of imitation and plodding industry. Ei. Farm. Lib.]
(34) §
INSTITUTIONS OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. 35
to acquire farming, time must thus necessarily elapse before he can have
the opportunity of again witnessing a bygone operation. There is no doubt
of his natural capacity to acquire, in two years, the art to manage a farm,
but the operations necessarily occupying a year in their performance, pre-
vent that acquisition in less time than three. This circumstance, of itself,
will cause him to spend a year in merely observing passing events. This
is in his first year. As the operations of farming are all anticipatory, the
second year may be fully employed in studying the progress of work in
preparation of anticipated results. In the third year, when his mind has
been stored with all the modes of doing work, and the purposes for which
they are performed, the pupil may attempt to put his knowledge into prac-
tice ; and his first efforts at management cannot be attempted with so much
ease of mind to himself as on the farm of his tutor, under his correcting
guidance.
This is the usual progi'ess of tuition during the apprenticeship of the
pupil ; but, could he be brought to anticipate results while watching the
progi'ess of passing events, one year might thus be cut off his apprentice-
ship. Could a hook enable him to acquire the experience of the second
year in the course of the first, a year of probationary trial would be saved
him, as he would then acquire in two what requires three years to accom-
plish. This book will accomplish no small achievement — will confer no
small benefit on the agricultural pupil — if it accomplish this.
6. OF THE ESTABLISHMENT OF SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS OF
PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
" Here let us breathe, and happily institute
A course of learning and ingenious studies."
Taming of the Sheew.
Although I know of no existing plan so suited to the learning of prac-
tical farming as a protracted residence on a farm, yet I feel assured a more
efficient one might easily be proposed for the purpose. An evident and
serious objection against the present plan is the want of that solicitous su-
perintendence over the progress of the pupils, on the part of the farmer,
which is implied in his receiving them under his charge. The pupils are
left too much to their own discretion to learn farming effectually. They
are not sufficiently warned of the obstacles they have to encounter at the
outset of their career. Their minds are not sufficiently guarded against
receiving a wrong bias in the methods of performing the operations. The
advantages of performing them in one way rather than another are not
sufficiently indicated. The effects which a change of weather has in alter-
ing the aiTangements of work fixed upon, and of substituting another
more suited to the change, is not sufficiently explained. Instead of re-
ceiving explanatory infonnation on these and many more particulars, the
pupils are mostly left to find them out by their own diligence. If they
express a desire to become acquainted with these things, no doubt it will
be cheerfully gratified by the farmer ; but how can the uninitiated pupil
know the precise subject with which to express his desire to become ac-
quainted 1
In such a system of tuition, it is obvious that the diligent pupil may be
36 THE BOOK OF THE FARM. •
daily perplexed by doubtful occurrences, and the indifferent pupil permit
unexplained occun-ences to pass before him, -without notice. Reiterated
occurrences will, in time, force themselves upon the attention of every
class of pupils : but, unless their attention is purposely drawn to, and ex-
pHcations proffered of, the more hidden difficulties in the art of farming,
they will spend much time ere they be capable of discovering important
occult matters by their own discernment.
It is in this respect that farmers, who profess to be tutors, show, as 1
conceive, remissness in their duty to their pupils ; for all of them can im-
part the information alluded to, and give, besides, a common-sense expla-
nation of every occurrence that usually happens on a farm, otherwise they
should decline pupils.
It is obvious that pupils should not be placed in this disadvantageous
position. They ought to be taught their profession ; because the art of
husbandry should be acquired, like every other art, by teaching, and not
by intuition. On the other hand, pupils in this, as in every other art, ought
to endeavor to acquire the largest portion of the knowledge of external
things by their own observation ; and they should be made aware, by the
farmer, that he can at most only assist them in their studies ; so that, with-
out rnuch study on their parts, all the attention bestowed on their tuition
by the most pains-taking farmer will prove of little avail. Practical expe-
rience forms the essential portion of knowledge which farmers have to im-
part, and it is best imparted on the farm ; but they have not always the
leisure, by reason of their other avocations, to communicate even this on
the spot in its due time. More than mere practical knowledge, however,
is requisite to satisfy the mind of the diligent pupil. He wishes to be sat-
isfied that he is learning the best method of conducting a farm : he wishes
to be informed of the reasons why one mode of management is preferable
to every other : he wishes to become familiar with the explanations of all
the phenomena that are obsei'\'able on a farm.
To afford all the requisite information to the pupil in the highest per-
fection, and to assist the farmer in affording it to him in the easiest man-
ner, I propose the following plan of tuition for adoption, where circum-
stances will permit it to be established. The more minutely its details are
explained, the better will it be understood by those who may wish to form
such establishments.
Let a farmer of good natural abilities, of firm character, fair education,
and pleasant manners — leasing a farm of not less than five hundred acres,
and pursuing the mixed system of husbandry — occupy a house of such a
size as would afford accommodation to fii'om ten to twenty pupils. The
faiTn should contain different varieties and conditions of soil — be well
fenced, well Avatered, and not at an inconvenient distance from a town.
With regard to the internal arrangements of the house, double-bedded
rooms would foiTn suitable enough sleeping apartments. Besides a dining-
room and drawing-room, for daily use, there should be a large room, fitted
up with a library, containing books affording sound infoiTnation on all agii-
cultural subjects, in various languages — forming at one time a lecture-room
for the delivery of lectures on the elementary princijiles of those sciences
which have a more immediate reference to Agi-iculture, and at another a
reading or writing room or parlor for conversations on fanning subjects. —
There should be fixed, at suitable places, a barometer, a symplesometer,
thermometers (one of which should mark the lowest degree of temperature
in the night), a rain-gauge, an anemometer, and a weathercock. No very
usefiil information, in my opinion, can be derived by the farmer from a
bare register of the bights and depths of the barometer and thermometer.
(36)
INSTITUTIONS OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. 37
A more useful register for him would be that of the directions of the wind,
accompanied with remarks on the state of the weather, the heat of the air
as indicated by the feelings, and the character of the clouds as expressed
by the most approved nomenclature. The dates of the commencement and
termination of every leading operation on the farm should be noted down,
and appropriate remarks on the state of the weather during its perform-
ance recorded. A small chemical laboratory would be useful in affording
the means of analyzing substances whose component parts were not well
known. Microscopes would be useful in observing the structure of plants
and insects, for the better understanding of their respective functions.
The slaughter-house required for the preparation of the meat used by
the family should be fitted up to afford facilities for dissecting those animals
which have been affected by peculiar disease. Skeletons and preparations
for illusti-ating comparative anatomy could thus be formed with little
trouble. A roomy dairy should be fitted up for performing experiments
on the productive properties of milk in all its various states. A portion
of the farm-offices should be fitted up with apparatus for making experi-
ments on the nutritive properties of different kinds and quantities of food,
and the fattening properties of different kinds of animals. A steelyard, for
easily ascertaining the live-weight of animals, is a requisite instrument. —
The bakery, which supplies the household bread, would be a proper place
for trying the relative panary properties of diff'erent kinds of flour and
meal. Besides these, apparatus for conducting experiments on other sub-
jects, as they were suggested, could be obtained when required.
Another person besides the farmer will be required to put all this appa-
ratus into use. He should be a man of science, engaged for the express
purpose of showing the relation betwixt science and Agriculture. There
would be no difficulty of obtaining a man of science, quite competent to
explain natural phenomena on scientific principles. For that purpose, he
would require to have a familial' acquaintance with the following sciences :
With meteorology and electi-icity, in order to explain atmospherical phe-
nomena, upon the mutations of which all the opei'ations of fanning are so
dependent : with hydrostatics and hydraulics, to explain the action of
streams and of dammed-up water on embankments, to suggest plans for the
recovery of land from rivers and the sea, and to indicate the states of the
weather which increase or diminish the statical power of the sap in vege-
tables : with botany and vegetable physiology, to show the relations be-
tween the natural plants and the soils on which they grow, with a view to
establish a closer affinity between the artificial state of the soil and the per-
fect grovi^th of cultivated plants ; to exhibit the structure of the different
orders of cultivated plants ; and to explain the nature and uses of the
healthy, and the injurious effects of the diseased secretions of plants : with
geology, to explain the nature and describe the stnicture of the superficial
crust of the eaith, in reference to draining the soil ; to show the effects of
subsoils on the growth of trees ; to explain the effects of damp subsoils on
trees, and of the variations of the surface of the ground on climate : with
mechanics, to explain the principles which regulate the action of all ma-
chines, and which acquirement previously implies a pretty familiar ac-
quaintance with the mathematics : with chemistry, to explain the nature
of the composition of, and changes in, mineral, vegetable, and animal sub-
stances : with anatomy and animal physiology, to explain the structure and '
functions of the animal economy, with a view to the prevention of disease,
incidental to the usual treatment of animals, and to particular localities.—*;
AH young men, educated for what are usually termed the learned profes-'-
sioiis — theology, law, and medicine — are made acquainted with these sci- •■
(37)
38 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
ences, and a young man from either faculty would be competent to take
charge of such an establishment. Of the three I would give preference to
the medical man, as possessing professionally a more intimate knowledge
of chemistry, and animal and vegetable physiology, than the others. But
the most learned graduate of either profession will display his scientific
acquii'ements to little advantage in teaching pupils in Agriculture, unless
he has the judgment to select those parts of the various sciences whose
principles can most satisfactorily explain the operations of Agriculture. —
Ere he can do this successfully, he would, I apprehend, require to know
Agriculture practically, by a previous residence of at least two years on a
faiTn. Without such a preparation, he would never become a useful teacher
of agi'icultural pupils.
On the supposition that he is so qualified, his duty is to take the direct
charge of the pupils. His chief business should be to give demonstrations
and explanations of all the phenomena occurring during operations in the
farm field. The more popular demonstrations on botany, animal and vege-
table physiology, and geology, as also on meteorology, optics, and astron-
omy, whenever phenomena occur which would call forth the application
of the principles of any of those sciences, would be best conducted in the
fields. In the library, short lectures on the elementary principles of sci-
ence could be regularly delivered — conversations on scientific and practical
subjects conducted — and portions of the most approved authors on Agri-
culture, new and old, read. These latter subjects could be most closely
prosecuted when bad weather inteiTupted field-labor. In the laboratoiy,
slaughter-house, farmstead, and dairy, he could command the attendance
of the pupils, when any subject in those departments was to be explained.
The duty of the farmer himself, the governor or head of the establish-
ment, is to enforce pi'oper discipline among the pupils, both within and
without doors. He should teach them practically how to perform every
species of work, explain the nature and object of every operation per-
forming, and foretell the purport of every operation about to be performed.
For these important puiposes he should remain at home as much as is
practicable with his avocations abroad.
The duties of the pupils arc easily defined. They should be ready at all
times to hear instruction, whether in science or practice, within or without
doors. Those pupils who wish to study practice more than science, should
not be constrained to act against their inclinations, as science possesses little
allurement to some minds ; and it should be Ijorne in mind by the tutors,
that practical farming is what the pupils have chiefly come to learn, and
that practice may prove successful in after life without the assistance of
science, whereas science can never be applied without practice.
The duty common to all, is the mutual conducting of experiments, both
in the fields and garden ; for which purpose both should be of ample di-
mensions. All new varieties of plants might be first tried in the garden,
until their quantity waiTanted the more profuse and less exact, though
more satisfactory culture of the field. On ridges in the fallow-field, with
different kinds and (juantities of manure, and different modes of working
the soil and sowing the seeds, experiments should be continually making
with new and old kinds of grains, roots, tubers, bulbs, and herbaceous
plants. In course of time, the sorts best suited to the locality will show
themselves, and should be retained, and the worthless abandoned. In
like manner, experiments should be made in the crossing of animals,
whether with the view of maintaining the purity of blood in one, the im-
provement of the blood of another, or the institution of an entirely new
Dlood. In either class of experiments, many new and interesting facts
(38)
INSTITUTIONS OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. 39
regarding the constitutional differences of animals, could not fail to be
elicited.
Any farmer establishing such an institution, which could only be done
at considerable expense, in fitting up a house in an adequate manner, and
securing the services of a man of science, would deserve to be well re-
munerated, I before mentioned that one hundred pounds a year as board
were cheerfully given by pupils to farmers under ordinary circumstances.
In such an institution, less than one hundred and fifty pounds a yeju.-
would not sufllice to remunerate the farmer. Supposing that ten pupils
at that fee each, were accommodated on one farm, the board would
amount to fifteen hundred pounds a year. In regard to the expense of
maintaining such an establishment, with the exception of foreign produce
and domestic luxuries, all the ordinary means of good living exist on a
farm. The procuring of these necessaries and luxuries and maintaining
a retinue of grooms and domestic servants, together with the salary of an
accomplished tutor, which should not be less than three hundred pounds
a year besides board, would probably incur an annual disbursement of a
thousand pounds a year. The farmer would thus receive five hundred
pounds a year for risk of the want of the full complement of pupils, and
for interest on the outlay of capital. Such a profit may be considered a
fair, but not an extravagant remuneration for the comfortable style of liv-
ing and superior kind of tuition afforded in such an estabhshment.
Were the particulars pitched at a lower scale, a profit might be derived
from ten pupils, of not less a sum than that derived from the usual board
of one hundred pounds a year. Were two hundred a year exacted, pu-
pils of the highest class of society might be expected. Were different in-
stitutions at different rates of board established, all the classes of society
would be accommodated.
Would farmers who have accommodation for conducting such an insti-
tution, but duly consider the probable certainty of obtaining a considera-
ble increase to their income, besides the higher distinction of conducting
so useful an institution, I have no doubt many would make the attempt.
There are insuperable obstacles to some farmers making the attempt ; but
there are many who possess the requisite quahfications of accommodation
in house and farm locality, personal abilities, influence, and capital, for
instituting such an establishment. But even where all these qualifications
do not exist, most of the obstacles might be overcome. In the case of the
house, it could be enlarged at the farmer's own expense, for the landlord
cannot be expected to erect a farm-house beyond the wants of an ordinary
family ; nor, perhaps, would every small landed proprietor permit the
unusual enlargement of a farm-house, in case it should be rendered un-
suitable to the succeeding tenant. To avoid this latter difficulty, the
farmer who could afford accommodation to the fewest number, could re-
ceive the highest class of pupils, were his oAvn education and manners
competent for the highest society, while those who had more accommo-
dation could take a more numerous and less elevated rank of pupils. In
either way the profit might be equally compensatory.
In regard to other considerations, a tutor entirely competent could not
at once be found. It may safely be aven-ed, that a really scientific man,
thoroughly acquainted with the practice of Agriculture, is not to be found
in this country. But were a demand for the services of scientific men to
arise from the increase and steady prosperity of such establishments, no
doubt, men of science would qualify themselves for the express purpose.
As to pupils, the personal interest of the farmer might not avail him much
at first in influencing parents in his favor, but if he possess the reputa-
40 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
tion of being a good fanner, he would soon acquire fame for his institu-
tion. I have no doubt of an eminent farmer entirely succeeding to his
wishes, who occupies a commodious house, on a large farm, in an agricul-
tural distiict of high repute, and possessing sufficient capital, were he to
make the experiment by engaging a competent scientific tutor, and teach-
ing the practical department himself. Such a combination of alluring cir-
cumstances could not fail of attracting pupils from all parts of the country,
wjio were really desirous of learning Agi-iculture in a supeiior manner.
There might still be another, though less attractive and efficacious, mode
of accomplishing a similar end. Let a scientific tutor, after having ac-
quired a competent knowledge of practical Agiiculture, procure a com-
modious and comfoxtable house in any village in the vicinity of some large
farms, in a fine agiicultural district. Let him receive pupils into his
house, on his own account, in such numbers and at such fees as he con-
ceives would remunerate him for his trouble and risk. Every thing re-
lating to science within doors, could be conducted as well in such a house
as in any farm-house ; and as to a field for practice, let the tutor give a
douceur to each of the large farmers in his neighborhood, for liberty for
himself and pupils to come at will and inspect all the operations of the
farms. In this way a very considerable knowledge of farming might be
imparted. Having every article of consumption to purchase at market-
price, such an establishment would cost more to maintain than that on a
farm ; but, on the other hand, the salary of the tutor would in this case be
saved, and there would be no farmer and his family to support. To assist
in defraying the exti'a expenses of such an establishment, let the tutor per-
mit, for a moderate fee, the sons of those farmers whose farms he has lib-
erty to inspect, and of those who live at a distance, to attend his lectures
and readings in the house, and his prelections in the fields. A pretty ex-
tensive knowledge of and liking for the science of Agriculture might thus
be diffused throughout the country, among a class of young farmers who
might never have another opportunity of acquiring it, because they would
never become permanent inmates in any such establishment.
I have known a mode of learning farming adopted by young farmers of
limited incomes, fi-om remote and semi-cultivated parts of the countiy, of
lodging themselves in villages in cultivated districts adjacent to large
farms, occupied by eminent fanners, and procuring leave from them to
give their daily personal labor and supei'intendence in exchange for the
privilege of seeing and participating in all the operations of the farm.
There are still other modes than those described above of learning
farming, which deserve attention, and require remark. Among these the
only one in this country, apart from the general practice of boarding Avith
practical farmers, is the Class of Agriculture in the University of Edin-
burgh. This chair was endowed in 1790 by Sir William Pulteney, with a
small salary, and placed under the joint patronage of the Judges of the
Court of Session, the Senatus Academicus of the University of Edin-
burgh, and the Town Council of the City of Edinburgh. The first pro-
fessor elected by the patrons to this chair in 1791, was the late Dr. Cov-
entry, whose name, in connection with the Agi'iculture of the country,
stood pi'ominent at one time. He occupied the chair until his death in
1831. His prelections, at the earlier period of his career as a professor,
were successful, when his class numbered upward of seventy students.
When I attended it, thie number of students was upward of forty. Dr.
Coventry was a pleasing lecturer, abounding in anecdote, keeping his
hearers always in good humor, coui'ting interrogation, and personally
showing gi'eat kindness to every student. At the latter period of his in-
INSTITUTIONS OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. 41
cumbency, the class dwindled away, and for some years before his death
he delivered a course of lectures only every two years. He delivered, 1
understand, thirty-four courses in forty years.
The present Professor Low succeeded Dr. Coventry. Since his installa-
tion into the chair, he has rekindled the dying embers of the agi-icultural
class, by delivering an annual course of lectures suited to the improved
state of British Agiiculture, and by forming a museum of models of agi-i-
cultural implements, and portraits of live-stock illustrative of his lectures,
of the most extensive and valuable description. In Dr. Coventry's time
there was no museum deserving the name, and seeing this, Professor Low
had no doubt been impressed with the important truth, that without mod-
els of the most approved implements, and portraits of the domesticated
animals, serving to illustrate the principal operations and breeds of animals
to be seen on the best cultivated farms, and pastoral districts, a mere
course of lectures would prove nugatory. This museum is attached to the
University, and to show the zeal and industry by which the present Pro-
fessor has Iseen actuated in its formation, the objects in it must be Worth
more than ^£2,000. The funds which obtained those objects were derived
from the revenues under the management of the Board of Trustees for
the encouragement of Arts and Manufactures in Scotland. This Board
was instituted by the 15th Article of the Treaty of Union between Scot-
land and England. Besides forming the museum, Professor Low has,
during his yet short incumbency in the chair, already contributed much
important matter to the agricultural literature of the country, by the pub-
lication of his Elements of Practical Agriculture, which contain almost
the entire substance of his lectures, and the series of colored portraits of
animals taken from the pictures in the museum, now coming out periodic-
ally in numbers.
There has lately been appointed a lecturer on Agi-iculture in Marischal
College, Aberdeen, at a salary of <£40 a year. Being but an experiment,
the appointment, I believe, has only been made for three years.
There is no public institution in England for teaching Agriculture.*—-
Some stir is making in the establishment of an Agricultural College in
Kent, the prospectus of which I have seen; and, some time ago, I saw a
statement which said that provision exists for the endowment of a chair
of Agriculture in one of the Colleges of Oxford.
An agricultural seminary has existed at Templemoyle, in the county of
Londonderry, Ireland, for some years. It originated with the members
of the North-west of Ireland Farming Society, and the first intention was
to form it on such a scale as to teach children of the higher orders every
science and accomplishment, while those of the lower orders, the sons of
farmers and tradesmen, were to be taught Agriculture. But the latter
arrangement only has been found to be practicable. In a statement circu-
lated by a member of the committee, I find that " the formation of this
establishment has caused its founders an expenditure of above <:£ 4,000 —
of which about d£3,000 were raised at its commencement by shares of £25
each, taken by the noblemen, gentlemen, and members of the North-west
Society, The Grocers' Company of London, on whose estate it is situated,
have been most liberal in their assistance, and have earned a just reward
in the improvement of their property, by the valuable example the farm
of Templemoyle presents to their tenantry. •
" In sending a pupil to Templemoyle, it is necessary to have a nomma-
[• The one at Cirencester, mentioned by Mr. Colman, is probably now in operation.
Ed. Farm. Lib.]
(41)
42 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
tion from one of the shareholders, or from a subscriber of >£2 annually.—
The annual payment for pupils is c£10 a year, and for this trifling sum
they are found in board, lodfjing, and washing, and are educated so as to
fit them for land-stewards, directing agents, practical farmers, schoolmas-
ters, and clerks. From fifteen to seventeen is the age best suited to en-
trance at Templemoyle, as three years are quite sufficient to qualify a stu-
dent possessed of ordinary talents, and a knowledge of the rudiments of
reading and writing, to occupy any of the above situations.
*' Upward of two hundred young men, natives of sixteen different coun-
ties in Ireland, have passed or remain in the school. Of these, between
forty and fifty have been placed in different situations, such as land-stew-
ards, agents, schoolmasters, and clerks, or employed on the Ordnance Sur-
vey. Nearly one hundred are now conducting their own or their fathers'
farms, in a manner very superior to that of the olden time.*
" The school and farm of Templemoyle are situated about six miles from
Londonderry — about a mile distant from the mailcoach-road leading from
Londonderry to Newtonlimavady. The house, placed on an eminence,
commands an extensive and beautiful view over a rich and highly cultivated
country, tenninated by Lough Foyle. The base of the hill is occupied by
a kitchen and ornamental garden, cultivated by the youths of the establish-
ment, under an experienced gardener. The house and farm-offices behind
contain spacious, lofty, and well ventilated schoolrooms ; refectory ; dormi-
tories ; apartments for the masters, matron, servants, &c. Each pupil oc-
cupies a separate bed ; the house can accommodate seventy-six, and the
number of pupils is sixty. They receive an excellent education in reading,
[* It may be of practical service in the United States to give here the general regulations of the
" Larne" School, of which Mr. Colman seems to think so favorably. He says they were given
to him in printed form by the intelligent principal. Ed. Farm. Lib.
" 1. As the great object is to make the boys practical farmers, one-half of them will be at all
times on the farm, where they will be employed in manual labor, and receive from the head
farmer such instructions, reasons, and explanations, as will render the mode of proceeding, in all
the various operations performed on the farm, sufficiently intelligible to them. Every pupil is to
be made a plowman, and taught, not only how to u.se, but how to settle the plow-irons for every
soil and work, and to be instructed and made acquainted with the purpose and practical manage-
ment of every other implement generally used. And all are to be kept clo.sely to their work,
either by the head farmer or his assistant, or, in their unavoidable absence, by the monitor placed
in charije of them.
" 2. Their attention is to be drawn to stock of all kinds, and to the particular ptoints which de-
note them to be good, bad, indifferent, hardy, delicate, good feeders, good milkers, &c.
" 3. At the proper season of the year, the attention of the boys is to be directed to the making
and repairing of fences, that they may know both how to make a new one, and, what is of great
advantatre, how to repair and make permanent those of many years' standing.t
" 4. Tlie head farmer will deliver evening lectures to the pupils on the theorj' and practice of
Agriculture, explaining his reasons for adopting any crop, or any particular rotation of crops, as
well as the mo.st suitable soil and the most approved modes of cultivating fsr each ; the proper
management and treatment of working, feeding, and dairy stock ; the most approved breeds, and
their adapt.ition to different soils. He will point out the best method of reclaiming, draining, and
improving land ; and will direct attention to the most recent inventions in agricultural implements,
detailing the respective merits of each.
" 5. After the boys have been taught to look at stock on a farm with a farmer's eye, the commit-
tee propose that they should in rotation attend the head farmer to fairs and markets, in order to
learn how to buy and sell stock. At the same time, the committee expect the head farmer will
make hfS visits to fairs as few ns possible, as his attention to the pupils of the establishment is al-
ways required, and he should therefore be as seldom as po.ssible absent from Templemoyle.
" An annual examination of the school is held before the committee and subscribers, and con-
ducted by examiners totiiUy independent of the school. The examination is attended by the lead-
ing gentlemen in the neighborhood, and many of these take a part in the examination, by either
asking or suggesting questions — a practice which is deserving of recommendation, as adapted to
give additional«'alue and dignity to the examination.
"Such are some of the principal regulations of the school, which I have copied, that its man-
agement might be fully understood."]
t This, of course, applies principally to live fences, or hedges. It could at present have little pertloency
to the United States, where certainly there is very little mystery in making the fences, and as little iabor
expended ia keeping them in repair.
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INSTITUTIONS OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. 43
writing, arithmetic, book-keeping, mathematics, land-surveying, and geog-
raphy. This department is managed by an excellent head-master, and as-
sistant-master, both resident in the house. The pupils are so classed that
one-half are receiving their education in the house, while the remainder
are engaged in the cultivation of a farm of 165 Scotch acres, in the man-
agement of which they are directed by the head-farmer, an experienced
and clever man, a native of Scotland, who has a skillful plowman under
him. The pupils who are employed one part of the day on the farm are
replaced by those in the school, so that the education always advances in
and out of doors pari passu.''*
In enumerating the means of obtaining agricultural knowledge in this
country, I cannot omit mentioning those coassistant institutions, the Veter-
inary Colleges. Their great object is to form a school of veterinary sci-
ence, in which the anatomical structure of quadrupeds of all kinds — horses,
cattle, sheep, dogs, &c. — the diseases to which they are subject, and the
remedies proper to be applied for their removal, might be investigated and
regularly taught ; in order that, by this means, enlightened practitioners
of liberal education, whose sole study has been devoted to the veterinary
art in all its branches, may be gradually dispersed over all the kingdom.
The Veterinary College of London was instituted in 1791, according to
the plan of Mr. Sain Bel, who was appointed the first professor. Parlia-
mentary grants have been afforded at times to aid this institution, when its
finances rendered such a supply essential. It is supported by subscription.
Every subscriber of the sum of c£21 is a member of the society for life. —
Subscribers of two guineas annually are members for one year, and are
equally entitled to the benefits of the institution. A subscriber has the
privilege of having his horses admitted into the infirmary, to be treated,
under all circumstances of disease, at 3s. 6d. per night, including keep,
medicines, or operations of whatever nature that may be necessary ; like-
wise of bringing his horses to the college for the advice of the professor
gratis, in cases where he may prefer the treatment of them at home.t—
Until last year, care was chiefly bestowed in this institution on the horse,
when the Royal Agricultural Society of England, deeming it as important
for the promotion of Agriculture to attend to the diseases of the other ani-
mals reared on farms as well as the horse, voted 66300 a year out of their
funds for that purpose.
The Veterinary College of Edinburgh had its origin in the personal ex-
ertions of its present professor, Mr. William Dick, in 1818, who, after five
years of unrequited labor, fortunately for himself and the progi'ess of the
veterinary science in Scotland, obtained the patronage of the Highland and
Agricultural Society of Scotland, who have afforded him a small salary
since 1823. Since then the success of his exertions has been extraordi-
nary— not fewer than from seventy to one hundred pupils attending the
college every session, of whom about twenty every year, after at least two
years' study of practical anatomy and medicine, become candidates for the
diploma of veterinary surgeon. Their qualifications are judged of after an
examination by the most eminent medical practitioners in Edinburgh.—
The students enjoy free admission to the lectures on human anatomy and
physiology in Queen's College, by the liberality of its professors. Through
the influence of the Highland Society, permission has been obtained for
the graduates to enter as veterinary surgeons into her Majesty's cavalry
regiments, as well as those of the Honorable East India Company.
In recommending farmers to attend lectures on veterinary science, it
* Irish Farmer's Magazine, No. 51.
t Beauties of England and Wales, vol. x. Part IV. p. 181.
(43)
44 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
must not be imagined that I wish them to become veterinary surgeons. —
Let every class of people adhere to their own profession. But there is no
doubt that a knowledge of veterinary science is of great use to the farmer,
not in enabling him to administer to the diseased necessities of his live-
stock— for that requires more professional skill and experience than any
farmer can attain to, and is the proper province of the regularly bred ve-
terinary surgeon — but to enable him readily to detect a disease by its
symptoms, in order to apply immediate checks to its progress until he can
communicate with and inform the veterinary surgeon of the nature of the
complaint, whereby he may bring with him materials for treating it cor-
rectly on his arrival. The death of a single animal may be a serious loss
to the farmer ; and if, by his knowledge of the principles of the veterinary
art, he can stay the progress of any disease, he may not only avert the
loss, but prevent his animal being much affected by disease. Disease, even
when not fatal to animals, leaves injurious effects on their constitutions for
a long time.
With regard to attending lectures on Agriculture, I should say, from
my own experience, that more benefit will be derived from attending them
after having acquired a practical knowledge of husbandry than before ;
because many of the details of fai-ming cannot be comprehended, unless
the descriptions of them are given where the operations themselves can be
refened to.
Abroad are several institutions for the instruction of young men in Agri-
culture, among which is the far-famed establishment of Hofwyl, in the can-
ton of Berne, in Switzerland, belonging to M. de Fellenberg.* This estab-
lishment is not intended so much for a school of Agriculture, as that of
education and moral discipline. All the pupils are obliged to remain nine
years, at least until they attain the age of twenty-one — during which time
they undergo a strict moral discipline, such as the inculcation of habits of
industry, frugality, veracity, docility, and mutual kindness, by means of
good example rather than precepts, and chiefly by the absence of all bed
example. The pupils are divided into the higher and lower orders, among
the former of whom may be found members of the richest families in Ger-
many, Russia, and Italy. For these the course of study is divided into
three periods of three years each. In the first, they study Greek, Grecian
history, and the knowledge of animals, plants, and minerals ; in the second,
Latin, Roman history, and the geography of the Roman world ; and, in the
third, modem languages and literature, modem history to the last century,
geography, the physical sciences, and chemistry. During the whole nine
years they apply themselves to mathematics, drawing, music, and gymnas-
tic exercises. The pupils of the canton of Berne only pay M. de Fellen-
berg 45 louis each, and do not cost their parents above 100 louis or 120
louis a year. Strangers pay him 125 louis, including board, clothing, wash-
ing, and masters.
The pupils of the lower orders are divided into three classes according
to their age and strength. The first get a lesson of half an hour in the
morning, then breakfast, and afterward go to the farm to work. They
return at noon. Dinner takes them half an hour, and after another lesson
of one hour, they go again to work on the farm until six in the evening.
This is their summer occupation ; and in winter they plait straw for
chairs, make baskets, saw logs and split them, thresh and winnow corn,
grind colors, knit stockings ; for all of which different sorts of labor an
[* For a valuable notice of this institution, see the Report of Professor Bache, on his return
from Europe — having been sent by the Girard College, on a tour of observation, and to purchase
a library (we believe) for that institution. {Ed. Farm. Lib.
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INSTITUTIONS OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. 45
adequate salary is credited to each boy's class until they are ready to
leave the establishment. Such as have a turn for any of the trades in de-
mand at Hofwyl, wheelwright, carpenter, smith, tailor or shoemaker, are
allowed to apply to them. Thus the labor of the field, their various sports,
their lessons, their choral songs, and necessary rest, fill the whole circle
of the twenty-four hours ; and judging from their open, cheerful, contented
countenances, nothing seems wanting to their happiness.
It is admitted that, on leaving the establishment, the pupils of the higher
classes are emmently moral and amiable in their deportment, that they
are very intelligent, and that their ideas have a wide range ; and though
they may not be so advanced in science as some young men brought up
elsewhere, they are as much so as becomes liberal-minded gentlemen,
though not professors. The pupils of the lower classes leave at the age
of twenty-one, understanding Agriculture better than any peasants ever
did before, besides being practically acquainted with a trade, and with a
share of learning quite unprecedented among the same class of people ;
and yet as hard-working and abstemious as any of them, and with the
best moral habits and principles. It seems impossible to desire or ima-
gine a better condition of peasantry.
As all the instiniction at this establishment is conveyed orally, a gi-eat
many teachers are required in proportion to the number of the pupils. In
1819, there were thirty professors for eighty pupils. This entails a con-
siderable expense upon M. de Fellenberg, who besides extends the erec-
tion of buildings as he finds them necessaiy. He is, however, upon the
whole, no loser by the speculation. Each pupil of the lower orders costs
him ^56 a year to maintain and educate, which is ^3 8s. a year beyond
the value of his work, and yet the investment is a profitable one, yielding
something more than 81 per cent, interest, net of all charges. " The farm
is undoubtedly benefited by the institution, which affords a ready market
for its produce, and perhaps by the low price at which the labor of the
boys is charged. But the farm, on the other hand, affords regular em-
ployment to the boys, and also enables M. de Fellenberg to receive his
richer pupils at a lower price than he could otherwise do. Hofwyl, in
short, is a great whole, where one hundred and twenty or one hundred
and thirty pupils, more than fifty masters and professors, as many servants,
and a number of day-laborers, six or eight families of artificers and trades-
men, altogether about three hundred j^ersons, find a plentiful, and in many
respects a luxurious subsistence, exclusive of education, out of a produce
of one hundred and seventy* acres ; and a money income of .£6,000 or
c£7,000, reduced more than half by salaries, affords a very considerable
surplus to lay out in additional buildings."t It seems that, since 1807,
two convents, one in the canton of Fribourg, and the other in that of
Thurgovie, have formed establishments analogous to those of M. de Fel-
lenberg.|
The celebrated German institution for teaching Agriculture is at
Moeglin, near Frankfort on the Oder. It is under the direction of M. Von
Thaer. There are three professors besides himself — one for mathematics,
chemistry, and geology ; one for veterinary knowledge ; and a third for
botany and the use of the different vegetable productions in the materia
medica, as well as for entomology. Besides these, an expex-ienced agri-
culturist is engaged, whose office it is to point out to the pupils the mode
* This is the number of acres in the farm as stated in the Edinburgh Review for October, 1819; but a
correspondent in Hull's Philanthropic Repertory for 1832, makes it 250 acres,
t Edinburgh Review, No. 64.
t Ebel, Manuel du Voyagcur en Suisse, tome ii.
(45)
46 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
of applying the sciences to the practical business of Husbandry. Such a
person would be difficult to be found in this country. The course com-
mences in September, the best season, in my opinion, for commencing the
learning of Agiiculture. During the winter months the time is occupied
in mathematics, and in the summer the geometrical knowledge is practi-
cally applied to the measurement of land, timber, buildings, and other ob-
jects. The first principles of chemistry are unfolded. Much attention is
paid to the analyzation of soils. There is a large botanic garden, with a
museum containing models of implements of husbandry. The various
implements used on the farm are all made by smiths, wheelwrights and
carpenters residing round the institution ; the workshops are open to the
pupils, and they are encouraged by attentive inspection to become masters
of the more minute branches of the economy of an estate.
As the sum paid by each pupil, who are from twenty to twenty-four
years of age, is 400 rix-dollars annually (equal to about ^60 sterling, if
the rix-dollar is of Prussian cunency), and besides which they provide
their own beds and breakfasts, none but youths of good fortune can attend
at Moeghn. Each has a separate apartment. They are very well-behaved
young men, and their conduct to each other, and to the professors, is po-
lite even to punctilio.
The estate of Moeglin consists of twelve hundred English acres. About
thirty years ago it was given in charge by the King of Prussia to M. Von
ITiaer, who at that time was residing as a physician at Celle, near Lune-
burg, in Hanover, with the view of diffusing agricultural knowledge in
Piussia, which it was known M. Von Thaer possessed in an eminent de-
gree, as evinced by the translations of numerous agricultural works from
the English and French, by his management in setting an example to the
other great landed proprietors, and stimulating them to adopt similar im-
provements. His Majesty also wished him to conduct a seminary, in
which the knowledge of the sciences might be applied to Husbandry, for
tho instruction of the young men of the first families.* When M. Von
Thaer undertook the management of this estate, its rental was only 2,000
rix-dollars a year (dfiSOO), and twenty years ago the rental had increased
to 12,000 rix-dollars (dCl.SOO). This increased value, besides the build-
ings erected, has arisen from the large flocks of sheep which in summer
are folded on the land, and in winter make abundant manure in houses
const! ucted for their lodging.
These particulars are taken from Mr. Jacob's travels, who visited Moe-
glin in 1819, and who, in considering of the utility of such an institution in
this country, makes these remarks on the personal accomplishments of
M. Von Thaer. " We have already carried the division of labor into our
Agriculture, not certainly so far as it is capable of being canied, but much
farther than is done in any other country. We have some of the best
sheep farmers ; of the best cattle and horse breeders ; of the best hay,
turnip, potato, and com farmers in the world ; but we have perhaps no
one individual that unites in his own person so much knowledge of chem-
istry, of botany, of mathematics, of comparative anatomy, and of the ap-
plication of these various sciences to all the practical pui-poses of Agri-
culture as Von Thaer does ; nor is the want felt, because we have num-
bers of individuals who, by applying to each branch separately, have
[* For his biography and a general account of his writings, and the whole of his great work
on "The Principles of Agriculture," see the Farmers' Library, commencing with Num-
ber 3, Vol. I. The whole has been published, and may be had, botmd by itself, and ought on-
doubtedly to be a standard book iu every school in the United States. Ed. Farm. Lib.\
(46)
INSTITUTIONS OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. 47
reached a hight of knowledge far beyond what any man can attain who
divides his attention between several objects. In chemistry we have now
most decidedly the lead. In all of botany that is not mere nomenclature
it is the same. In mechanics we have no equals. There are thus abun-
dant resources, from which practical lessons may be drawn, and be drawn
to the gi-eatest advantage ; and that advantage has excited, and will con-
tinue to excite, many individuals to draw their practical lessons for each
particular branch of Agriculture, from that particular science on which it
depends ; and thus the whole nation will become more benefited by such
divisions and subdivisions of knowledge, than by a slight tincture of all
the sciences united in the possession of some individuals."*
France also possesses institutions for the teaching of Agi-iculture. The
first was that model farm at Roville, near Nancy, founded by M. Mathieu
de Dombasle.t Though it is acknowledged that this farm has done ser-
vice to the Agriculture of France, its situation being so far removed fi-om
the centre of that country, its influence does not extend with sufficient
rapidity. Its Hmited capital does not permit the addition of schools, which
are considered necessary for the instruction of young proprietors who
wish to manage their own properties with advantage, and of agents capa-
ble of following faithfully the rules of good Husbandry.
To obviate the disadvantages apparent in the institution of Roville, " a
number of men distinguished for their learning and zeal for the prosperity
of France, and convinced of the utility of the project, used means to form
an association of the nature of a joint-stock company, with 500 shares of
1,200 francs each, forming a capital of 600,000 francs (c£25,000). The
first half of this sum was devoted to the advancement of superior culture,
and the second half to the establishment of two schools, one for pupils
who, havmg received a good education, wish to learn the theory and the
application of Agriculture, and of the various arts to which it is applica-
ble ; and the other for children without fortune, destined to become la-
borers, instructed as good plowmen, gardeners, and shepherds, worthy of
confidence being placed in them."| This society began its labors in 1826
by purchasing the domain of Grignon, near Versailles, in the valley of
Gaily, in the commune of Thiverval, and appointing M. Bella, a military
officer who had gained much agricultural information from M, Von Thaer
during two years' sojourn with his corps at Celle. M. Bella traveled
through France, in the summer of 1826, to ascertain the various modes of
cultui-e followed in the different communes. Grignon was bought in the
name of the king, Charles X. who attached it to his domain, and gave the
society the title of the Royal Agricultural Society for a period of forty
years. The statutes of the society were approved of by royal ordinance
on the 23d May, 1827, and a council of administration was named from
the list of shareholders, consisting of a president, two vice-presidents, a
secretary, a treasurer, and directors.
The domain, which occupies the bottom and the two sides of the valley,
in length 2,254 metres (a metre being equal to 3 feet and Hi lines), is
divided into two principal parts ; the one is composed of a park of 290
hectares (387 acres), inclosed with a stone wall, containing the mansion-
house and its dependencies, the piece of water, the trees, the gardens,
and the land appropriated to the farm ; the other, called the outer farm,
is composed of 176 hectares (234 acres), of uninclosed land, to the south
of the park.
• Jacob's Travels in Germany. &c. pp. 173-188.
t Annales de Roville.
I Rapport General sur la ferme de Grignon, Juin, 1828, p. 3.
(47)
48 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
With regard to the nature of the schools at Grignon, this account has
been published : " The council of administration being occupied in the
organization of regular schools, has judged that it would be convenient
and useful to open, in 1829, a school for work-people, into which to admit
boys of from twelve to sixteen years of age, to teach them reading,
WTiting, arithmetic, and the primary elements of the practice of geometry.
The classes to meet two hours every day in summer, and four hours in
winter, the rest of the time to be employed in manual work. The fee to
be 300 francs the first year, 200 francs the second, and 100 francs the
third. After three years of tuition the fee to cease, when an account is to
be opened to ascertain the value of their work against the cost of their
maintenance, and the balance to go to form a sum for them when they
ultimately leave the institution."
" Meanwhile, as the director has received several applications for the
admission of young men, who, having received a good education, are de-
sirous of being instructed in Agi-iculture, the council has authorized the
conditional admission of six pupils. But as there are yet no professors,
the pupils who are at present at Grignon can only actually receive a part
of the instruction which it is intended to be given. They every day re-
ceive lessons from the director on the theory of Agriculture, besides les-
sons on the veterinaiy art, and the elements of botany, from the pait of
the veterinary school attached to the establishment ; also lessons of the
art of managing trees and making plantations, given by a forester of the
crown forests, and some notions of gardening by the gardener. During
the rest of the time, they follow the agricultural labors and other opera-
tions of the establishment. They pay 100 francs a month, including bed,
board, and washing.
" Several proprietors who occupy farms, having expressed a desire to
see young fann-servants taught the use of superior implements, and the
regular service on a farm, the director has admitted a few, lessening the
fee to the payment of board and lodging. There are two just now. To
such are given the name of ' farm pupils.' "*
The course of education proposed to be adopted at Grignon, is divided
into theoretical and practical. The course to continue for two years. In
the first year to be taught mathematics, topogi'aphy, physics, chemistry,
botany and botanical physiology, veterinary science, the principles of cul-
ture, the principles of niral economy applied to the employment of capi-
tal, and the interior administration of farms. The second year to compre-
hend the principles of culture in the special application to the art of pro-
ducing and using products ; the mathematics applied to mechanics,
hydraulics, and astronomy ; physics and chemistry applied to the analysis
of various objects ; mineralogy and geology applied to Agriculture ; gar-
dening, rural ai'chitecture, legislation in reference to rural properties, and
the principles of health as applicable both to man and beast.
There are two classes of pupils, free and internal. Any one may be
admitted a free pupil that has not attained twenty years of age, and every
free pupil to have a private chamber. The pupils of the interior must be
at least fifteen years of age.
The fee of the free pupils is 1,500 francs a year; that of the pupils of
the interior 1,300 francs. They are lodged in the dormitories in box-beds ;
those who desire private apartments pay 300 francs more, exclusive of
furniture, which is at the cost of the pupils,t
There is an agricultural school at Hohenheim, in the Duchy of Wir-
* Annalee de Grignon, 2tl livraison, 1829, p. 48.
t Annalea dc Grignon, 3d livraison, 1830, p. 108.
(48;
EVILS OF NOT LEARJIING PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. 49
temberg, and another at Flottbeck in Flanders, belongintr to M. Voeht
An account of both these institutions is given by M. Bella, in the third
number of the Annales of Grignon. There are, I understand, schools of
Agriculture, both in St. Petersbui'g and Moscow, but have not been so
fortunate as to meet with any account of them.
It appears to me from the best consideration I can give to the manner
m which Agi-iculture is taught at these schools, that as means of impart-
ing real practical knowledge to pupils, they are inferior to the usual mode
adopted in this country, of living with farmers. In reference to the re-
sults of the education obtained at Moeglin, Mr. Jacob says : " It appeared
to me that there was an attempt to crowd too much instruction into too short
a compass, for many of the pupils spend but one year in the institution, and
thus only the foundation, and that a veiy slight one, can be laid in so short
a space of time. It is, however, to be presumed, that the youno- men come
here prepared with considerable previous knowledge, as" they are mostly
between the ages of twenty and twenty-four, and some few appeared to be
still older."* ^
Although the pupils are kept at Hofwyl for nine years, and are fined if
they leave it sooner, it is obvious that the higher class of them bestow but
little attention on farming, and most on classical literature. And the par-
ticulars given in the elaborate programme of the school of Aoriculture at
Grignon, clearly e-s-ince that attention to minute discipline, such as mark-
ing dowTi results, and to what are termed principles, which just mean
vague theorizings, form a more important feature of tuition than the prac-
tice of husbandry. The working pupils may acquii-e some knowledo-e of
practice by dint of participating in Avork, but the other class can derive
very little benefit from all the practice they see.
7. OF THE EVILS ATTENDANT ON LANDOWNERS NEGLECTING TO
LEARN PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
" leaving me no sign —
Save men's oprinions, and my living blood —
To show the world I am a gentleman."
RiCHABD II.
There would be no want of pupils of the highest class for institutions
such as I have recommended for promoting agricultural education, did
landed proprietors study their true interests, and learn practical Agricul-
ture. Besides the usual succession of young fanners to fill the places of
those who retire, and these of themselves would afford the largest propor-
tion of the pupils, were every son of a landowner, who has the most dis-
tant prospect of being a landed proprietor himself, to become an agricul-
tural pupil, in order to qualify himself to fulfill all the onerous duties of
his station, when required to occupy that important position in the coun-
try, that class of pupils would not only be raised in respectability, but the
character of landed proprietors, as agriculturists, would also be much ele-
vated. The expectant landlord should therefore undergo that tuition,
though he may intend to follow, or may have already followed, any other
profession. The camp and the bar seem to be the especially favorite arenas
upon which the young scions of the gentry are desirous of displaying their
* Jacob's Travels in Gennany, &c. p. 185.
(97) 4
50 THE BOOK OF TI^ FARM.
first acquirements.* These professions are highly honorable, none more
so, and they are, no doubt, conducive to the formation of the character of
the gentleman; but, after all, are seldom followed out by the young
squire. The moment he attains rank above a subaltern, or dons his gown
and wig, he quits the public service, and assumes the functions of an in-
cipient country gentleman. In the country he becomes at first enamored
of field sports, and the social qualities of sportsmen. Should these prove
too rough for his taste, he travels abroad peradventure in search of sights,
or to penetrate more deeply into the human breast. Now, all the while
he is pursuing this course of life, quite unexceptionable in itself, he is
neglecting a most important part of his duty — that of learning to become
a good landlord. On the other hand, though he devote himself to the
profession of arms or the the law, either of which may confer distinction
on its votaries ; yet if either be prefeiTod by him to Agriculture, he is
doino- much to unfit himself from being an influential landlord. To be-
come a soldier or a lawyer, he willingly undergoes initiatory drillings and
examinations ; but, to become a landlord, he considers it quite unneces-
sary, to judge by his conduct, to undergo any initiatory tuition. That is
a business, he conceives, that can be learaed at any time, and seems to
forget that it is his profession, and does not consider that it is one as diffi-
cult of thorough attainment as ordinary soldiership or legal lore. No doubt
the army is an excellent school for confirming, in the young, principles of
honor and habits of discipline ; and the bar for giving clear insight into
the principles upon which the rights of property are based, and into the
time theory of the relation betwixt landlord and tenant ; but while these
matters may be attained, a knowledge of Agriculture, the weightiest mat-
ter to a landlord, should not be neglected. The laws of honor and discip-
line are now well understood, and no army is required to inculcate their
acceptableness on good society. A knowledge of law, to be made appli-
cable to the occurrences of a country life, must be matured by long expe-
rience ; for, perhaps, no sort of knowledge is so apt to render landed pro-
prietors litigious and uncompromising with their tenants as a smattering
[* So is it in the United States; and who can wonder at it, seeing that the bar and the habit
of public speaking acquired at it open the broadest and easiest road to public distinction, while
the military is almost the only life commission bestowed by the Government. Having once
received that, the ofBcer is placed for the remainder of his daj-s beyond the reach of political
vicissitude. Even his education has been at the public expense, and having once received his
sword, he has only to keep his head above ground and he is sure of promotion and of increased
pay. Courage in the line of his profession is, properly, sure of honors and rewards ; while the
same virtue in civil life offers no immunity against proscription and party despotism. All liberty
of thought is deemed to be incompatible with party loyalty. This preference and elevation of
the military over civil virtues is but a sei-A'ile prejudice derived from despotic Governments,
where rulers, cut off from sympathy with and dependence on the people, have to rely on the
military arm for support on all occasions of popular commotion and outbreak under irremediable
oppression. Nor will civil virtues and the capacity to promote the substantial interesfts of the
people enjoy that eminence in the public esteem, and that encouragement and reward which it
should be the care of a republican government to bestow, until the mass of the cultivators of the
soil become more generally and thoroughly instructed, not only in the practical principles of
their calling, but in the preference which they have a right to assert as due from Government to
the landed interest — an interest on which all others live, and without which they would all
dwindle and perish, as does the misletoe when the oak on which it grows falls under the strokes
of the woodman's ax.
When will agriculturists force a system of legislation in which honor shall be rendered to the
men of the co7/K/r_y for talents and civil \nrtue9; and miiitarj- and other parasitical institutions
and classes be reluctantly tolerated and supported as necessary evils, or at least as mere append-
ages in the great machinery of Government ?
(98)
EVILS OF NOT LEARNING PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. 51
of law. Instances have come under my own notice, of the injurious pro-
pensities which a shght acquaintance with law engenders in landed pro-
prietors, as exhibited on their own estates, and at county and parochial
meetings. No class of persons require Pope's admonition regarding the
evil tendency of a " little learning " to be more strongly inculcated on
them, than the young hamster who doffs his legal garments, to assume in
ignorance the part of the country squire :
"A little learning is a dangerous thing !
Brink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring ;
There shallow draughts intoxicate the brain."
I do not assert that a knowledge of military tactics, or of law, is incon-
sistent with Agriculture. On the contrary, a competent knowledge of ei-
ther, and particularly of the latter, confers a value on the character of a
country gentleman versant with Agriculture ; but what I do assert most
strongly is, that the most intimate acquaintance with either will never
ser\-e as a substitute for ignorance of Agriculture in a country gentleman.
One evil arising from studying those exciting professions before Agri-
culture is, that, however short the time spent in acquiring them, it is suf-
ficiently long to create a distaste to learning Agriculture practically, for
such a task can only be undertaken, after the turn of life, by enthusiastic
minds. But as farming is necessarily tJie profession of the country gentle-
man, for all have a farm, it should be learned, theoretically and practically,
before his education should be considered finished. If he so incline, he
can aftex'ward enter the tented field, or exercise his forensic eloquence,
when the tendency which I have noticed in these professions will be una-
ble to efface the knowledge of Agriculture previously acquired. This is
the proper course for every young man destined to become a landed pro-
prietor to pursue, and who ^vishes to be otherwise employed as long as
he cannot exercise the functions of a landlord. Were this course always
pursued, the numerous engaging ties which a country life never fails to
form, rendered more interesting by a knowledge of Agriculture, would
tend to extinguish the kindling desire for any other profession. Such a
result would be most desirable for the country ; for only contemplate the
effects of the course pursued at present by landowners. Does it not strike
every one as an incongi-uity for a country gentleman to be unacquainted
with country affairs ] Is it not " passing strange " that he should require
inducements to learn his hereditary profession — to know a business which
alone can enable him to maintain the value of his estate, and secure his
income ] Does it not infer a species of infatuation to neglect becoming
well acquainted with the true relation he stands to his tenants, and by
which, if he did, he might confer happiness on many families ; but to
%'iolate which, he might entail lasting misery on many more 1 In this way
the moral obligations of the country gentleman are too fi-equently neglect-
ed. And no wonder, for these cannot be pei-fectly understood, or prac-
ticed aright but by tuition in early life, or by veiy diligent and irksome
study in maturer years. And no wonder that great professional mistakes
are frequently committed by proprietors of land. Descending from gen-
eralities to particulars, it would be no easy task to describe all the evils
attendant on the neglect of farming by landowners ; for though some are
obvious enough, others can only be morally discerned.
1. One of the most obvious of those evils is, when country gentlemen
take a prominent share in discussions on public measures connected with
Agriculture, and which, fi-om the position they occupy, they are frequently
called upon to do, it may be remarked that their speeches are usually in-
troduced with apologies for not having sufficiently attended to agricultural
(99)
52 THE BOOK OF THE FaRM.
matters. The avowal is candid, but it is any thing but creditable to the
position they hold in the agricultural commonwealth. When, moreover,
it is their lot or ambition to be elected members of the legislature, it is
deplorable to find so many so little acquainted with the questions which
bear directly or indirectly on Agricultui-e. On these accounts, the ten-
antry are left to fight their own battles on public questions. Were land-
owners practically acquainted with Agriculture, such painful avowals
would be spared, as a familiar accjuaintance with it enables the man of
cultivated mind at once to perceive its practical bearing on most public
questions.
2. A still greater evil consists in their consigning the management of
valuable estates to the care of men as little acquainted as themselves with
practical Agriculture. A factor or agent, in such a condition, always af-
fects much zeal for the interest of his employer ; but it is " a zeal not
accordino- to knowledge." Fired by this zeal, and undirected, as it most
probably is, by sound judgment, he soon discovers something at fault
amono- the poorer tenants. The rent, perhaps, is somewhat in aiTear — the
strict terms of the lease have been deviated from — things appear to him
to be going down hill. These are fruitful topics of contention. Instead of
being " kindly affectioned," and thereby willing to interpret the terms of
the lease in a generous spirit, the factor hints that the rent must be better
secured, through the means of another tenant. Explanation of circum-
stances affecting the condition of the farmer, over which he has perhaps
no control — the inapplicability, perhaps, of the peculiar covenants of the
lease to the particular circumstances of the fann — the lease having per-
haps been drawn up by himself, or some one as ignorant as himself — are
excuses unavailingly ofl'ered to one who is confessedly unacquainted with
country aft'airs, and the result ensues in interminable disputes betwixt him
and the tenants. With these the landlord is t/nwilling to interfere, in or-
der to preserve intact the authority of the factor; or, what is still worse,
is unahle to interfere, because of his own unacquaintance with the actual
relations subsisting betwixt himself and his tenants, and, of course, the
settlement is left with the originator of the disputes. Hence originate
actions at law, criminations and recriminations — much alienation of feel-
ing ; and at length a settlement of matters, at best, perhaps, unimportant,
ia left to the arbitration of practical men, in making which submission the
factor acknowledges as much as he himself was unable to settle the dis-
pute. The tenants are glad to submit to arbitration to save their money.
In all such disputes they, being the weaker parties, suffer most in purse
and character. The landlord, who should have been the natural pi'otector,
is thus converted into the imconscious oppressor, of his tenants. This is
confessedly an instance of a bad factor ; but have such instances of op-
pression never occurred, and from the same cause, that of ignorance in
both landlord and factor ]
A factor accjuainted with practical Agriculture would conduct himself
very differently in the same circumstances. He would endeavor to pre-
vent legitimate differences of opinion on points of management terminat-
ing into disputes, by skillful investigation and well-timed compromise. —
He studies to uphold the honor of both landlord and tenants. He can see
whether the terms of the lease are strictly applicable to prevailing circum-
stances, and judging thereby, checks every improper deviation from ap-
propriate covenants, while he makes ample allowance for unforeseen con-
tingencies. He can discover whether the condition of the tenants is in-
fluenced more by their own doings, than by the nature of the fanns they
occupy. He regulates his conduct toward them accordingly ; encour-
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EVILS OF NOT LEARNING PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. 53
aging the industrious and skillful, admonishing the indolent, and amend-
ing the unfavorable circumstances of the farms. Such a man is highly
respected, and his opinion and judgment are greatly confided in by the
tenantry. Mutual kindliness of intercourse always subsists between them.
No landlord, whether himself acquainted or unacquainted with farming,
but especially the latter, should confide the management of his estate to
any other kind of factor.
3. Another obvious evil is one which affects the landed proprietor's own
comfort and interest, and which is the selection of a steward or grieve for
conducting the home-farm. In all cases it is necessary for a landowner
to have a home-farm, and to have a steward to conduct it. But the stew-
ard of a squire, acquainted and unacquainted with farming, is placed in
very dissimilar circumstances. The steward of a squire acquainted with
farming, enjoying good wages, and holding a respectable and responsible
situation, must conduct himself as an honest and skillful manager, for he
knows he is superintended by one who can criticize his management well.
A steward in the other position alluded to, must necessarily have, and
will soon take care to have, everything his own way. He soon becomes
proud in his new charge, because he is in the service of a squire. He soon
displays a haughty bearing, because he knows he is the only person on
the farm who knows anything about his business. He becomes overbear-
ing to the rest of the servants, because, in virtue of his office, he is ap-
pointed purveyor to the entire establishment ; and he knows he can starve
the garrison into a surrender whenever he pleases. He domineers over
the inferior work-people, because, dispensing weekly wages, he is the cus-
todier of a little cash. Thus advancing in his own estimation step by step,
and finding the most implicit reliance placed in him by his master, who
considers his services as invaluable, the temptations of office prove too
powerful for his virtue, he aggi'andizes himself, and conceals his malprac-
tices by deception. At length his peculations are detected, by perhaps
some trivial event, the insignificance of which had escaped his watchful-
ness. Then loss of character and loss of place overtake him at once. —
Such flagrant instances of unworthy factors and stewai'ds of country gen-
tlemen, are not supposititious. I could specify instances of both, whose
mismanagment has come under my own observation. Both species of
pests are engendered from the same cause — the ignorance of landowners
in country affairs.*
4. Another injurious effect it produces is absenteeism. When farming
possesses no charms to the country gentleman, and field-sports become
irksome by monotonous repetition, his taste for a country life declines,
and to escape ennui at home, he banishes himself abroad. If such luke-
warm landed proprietors, when they go abroad, would always confide the
management of their estates to unexceptionable factors, their absence
would be little felt by the tenants, who would proceed with the substan-
tial improvement of their farms with greater zest under the countenance
of a sensible factor, than of a landlord who contemns a knowledge of Ag-
riculture. But it must be admitted that tenants farm with much greater
confidence under a landlord acquainted with farming, who is always at
home, than under the most unexceptionable factor. The disadvantages of
absenteeism ai'e only felt by tenants left in charge of a litigious factor, and
[* With obvious allowance for difference of circumstances, some of these remarks may be made
to apply to gentlemen, more especially in the South, who devolve their affairs too much on their
managers or overseers ; and to merchants, and other gentlemen of fortune, yvho cannot reside
•hrough the year on their estates. Ed. Farm. Lih\
(101)
54 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
it is always severely felt by day-laborers, tradesmen, and shop-keepers in
villages and small country towns.
Now, all these evils — for evils they certainly are — and many more I
have not touched upon, would be avoided, if landowners would make it
a point to acquiie a knowledge of practical Agriculture. This can best
be done in youth, when it should be studied as a necessary branch of edu-
cation, and learned as the most useful business which country gentlemen
can know. It will qualify them to appoint competent factors — to deter-
mine upon the terms of the lease most suited to the nature of each of the
farms on their properties, and to select the fittest tenants for them. This
qualification could not fail to inspire in tenants confidence in their land-
lords, by which they will be encouraged to cultivate their farms in the
best manner for the land and for themselves, in even the most trj'ing vi-
cissitudes of seasons ; and without which confidence the land, especially
on estates on which no leases are gianted, would never be cultivated with
spirit. It confers on landlords the power to judge for themselves of the
proper fulfillment of the onerous and multifarious duties of a factor. It
enables them to converse freely in technical terms with their tenants on
the usual courses of practice, to criticize work, and to predicate the prob-
ability of success or failure of any proposed course of culture. The re-
proving or appro\"ing remarks of such landlords operate powerfi.illy w ith
tenants. How many useful hints is it all times in the power of such land-
lords to suggest to their tenants or managers, on skillfulness, economy,
and neatness of work ; and how many salutary precepts may they incul-
cate on cottagers, on the beneficial effects of parental discipline and do-
mestic cleanliness ! The degiee of good which the direct moral influence
of such landlords among their tenantry can effect, can scarcely be over es-
timated ; its primaiy effect being to ensure respect, and create regard. —
The good opinion, too, of a judicious factor is highly estimated by the ten-
antry ; but the discriminating observations of a practical and well-dis-
posed landlord go much farther in inducing tenants to maintain their
farms in the highest order, and to cherish a desire to remain on them from
generation to generation. Were all landlords so actuated — and acquaint-
ance with farming would certainly prompt them thus to act — they could
at all times command the serxaces of superior factors and skillful tenants.
They would then find there is not a more pleasing, rational, and inter-
esting study than practical Agriculture ; and soon discover that to know
the minutiae of farming is just to create an increasing interest in every
farm operation. In applying this knowledge to practice, they would soon
find it to operate beneficially for their estates, by the removal of objects
which offend the eye or taste, and the introduction of others that would
afford shelter, promote improvement, and contribute to the beauty of the
landscape of the country around.
These maxims of Bacon seem not an inapt conclusion to our present
remarks : " He that cannot look into his own estate at all, had need both
choose well those whom he employeth, and change them often, for new
are more timorous and less subtle. He that can look into his estate but
seldom, it behoveth him to turn all to cei'tainties."* [Essays, p. 106.]
[• It has doabtless already occurred to the reader that some of the preceding observations do
not apply to our oountrj', but where they are not exactly applicable, they are mixed up with
others that may be applied, or from which hints may be drawn. In republishing an author, we
should remember the anecdote told by Doctor Franklin when Members of Congress were pick-
ing holes in the Declaration of Independence— how a party from the country criticized a hatter's
sign with the picture of a hat. and under it, " Hals sold here for cash, hy John Smith." One
said the ^ign showed it was hats, and nothing else ; another, that it was useless to say sold, be-
(102)
EXPERIMENTAL FARMS AS PLACES FOR INSTRUCTION. 55
8. EXPERIMENTAL FARMS AS PLACES FOR INSTRUCTION IN
FARMING.
" Things done without example, in their issue
Are to be feared." Uenrx vm.
It seems to be a favorite notion with some writers on agricultural sub-
iects throf all places for learning farming, experimental farms are the
ies ' They even Recommend the formation of experimental farms wi h
lu'lZe-alar^eet^ghextent^for an experimental farm, and that on
such a farm 100 pupils^ould be trained to become farmers, stewards and
^^TTery slic^ht consideration of the nature of an experimental farm, ^rill
se^e to show how unsuitable such a place is for learmng farming The
soil obiect of an experimental farm is, to become acquainted with the best
nroper ies of plants^ and animals by experiment, and thereby to ascertain
^X^niose Wrties are such ^ ^^ VorrtrsTat^t,'^^^^^^^
tXrUrintraXeH^n^^^^^^^^^
r;Pvrd plan 'of cultivating each sort of plant^ To confound the -nd oj
a becrinnei bv presenting before it various modes of doing the same tlim
withourth'e abihty to inform it which is the best, is to do him a lasting
^ m-v Were a pupil, who had been trained up on an ordinary farm, to
hSpportunities'of witnessing varieties of experiments conducted on aia
exrerEtaTfarxn, he might Then derive benefit from numerous hmt
Xh would be suggested in the course of making the experiments But
J Zp's wouid be^^unfavorably placed on an experimental farm, by re-
ISg constantly on it, much more would the farm itself be -jured^^by
havincrlts experiments perfox-med by mexpenenced pupils.^ So far ftom
pupifs being'able to conduct experiments to a satisfactory issue, the most
dons will apply to other sections of the work, though they may not be repeated^^ ^^^^ ^ .^ ^
(103)
56 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
experienced cultivators are at times baffled by unforeseen difficulties ; and
so far would such experiments inspire confidence in farmers, that they
would assuredly have quite an opposite tendency. So far, therefore,
would the services of pupils in any degree compensate for the extraor-
dinary outlay occasioned on experimental farms, by unsuccessful or un-
profitable experiments, that even those of the most experienced culti-
vators would most probably produce no such desirable result ; for no
experimenter can command success, and failure necessarily implies extra-
ordinary outlay. So far, therefore, could the services of pupils accom-
plish what those of experienced cultivatoi's could not command, that their
very presence on an experimental farm, with the right of cooperating in
the experiments, would be a constant source of inconvenience to the ex-
perienced experimenters.
But, besides these objections, the mode of conducting experiments on
60 small farms as those recommended by most wTiters, would be quite un-
suitable to pupils desirous of learning farming. Where varieties of cul-
ture on various sorts of plants are prosecuted on a small extent of ground,
only a very small space can be allotted to each experiment. It is true
that, should any of the varieties of plants be new to this country-, the seed
of which at first being of course only obtainable in small quantities, to
procure such being a primary object with the promoters of experimental
farms the space required for them at first must be verj' small. But
although each lot of ground should be small, the great varieties of seeds
cultivated in so many different ways, will nevertheless require a great
number of lots, which altogether will cover a considerable extent of
ground. How all these lots are to be apportioned on 200 acres, together
with ground for experimenting on different breeds of animals, and differ-
ent kinds of forest trees, is more than I can imagine. It would require
more than double that extent of ground to give mere standing-room to all
the objects that should be cultivated on an experimental farm, and over
and above which, 100 pupils on such a farm would form a perfect crowd.
Besides, the lots being so small, would require to be worked with the
spade instead of the plow ; and this being the case, let the experiments
on such a farm be ever so perfectly performed, they could give pmpils no
insight whatever into real farming, much less secure the confidence of
farmers.
It is the pleasure of some writers on experimental farms, to institute a
comparison, or even strict analogy, betwixt them and experimental gar-
dens. As the latter have improved the art of gardening, they argue, so
would the former improve Agriculture. But the truth is, there can bene
analogy betwixt the introduction into common gardens of the results ob-
tained in experimental gardens, and the results of experiments obtained
in such small experimental farms as recommended by agricultural ^\Titers,
introduced into the common field culture of a farm ; because, the experi-
ments in an experimental garden having been made by the spade, may be
exactly transferred into almost any common garden, and, of course, suc-
ceed there satisfactorily ; whereas the experiments made by the spade in
a small experimental fann, cannot be performed \\'ith the spade on a com-
mon farm ; they must there be executed by the plow, and, of course, in
quite different circumstances. The rough culture of the plow, and most
probably in different circumstances of soil, manure, and shelter, cannot
possibly produce results similar to the culture of the spade, at least no
farmer %vill believe it ; and if tliey put no confidence in experiments, of
what avail will experimental farms be 1 Announcements of such results
may gratify curiosity, but no benefit would be conferred on the country
(104)
EXPERIMENTAL FARMS AS PLACES FOR INSTRUCTION. 57
by experiments confined within the inclosures of an experimental farm.
No doubt, a few of the most unprejudiced of the farmers will perform
any experiment, with every desire for its success, and there is as little
doubt that others will follow the example ; and some will be willing to
test the worth of even a suggestion ; but as these are the usual modes by
which every new practice recommends itself to the good graces of farm-
ers, no intervention of an experimental farm is therefore required for their
promulgation and adoption. It is the duty of the promoters of experi-
mental farms to disseminate a proved experiment quickly over the coun-
try, and the most efficient mode of doing so is to secure the confidence of
farmers in it. To ensure their confidence, it will be necessary to show
them that they can do the same things as have been done on the experi-
mental farm hy the usual means of labor they possess, and they will then
show no reluctance to follow the example. Take the risk, in the experi-
mental farm, of proving results, and show the intrinsic value of those
results to the farmers, and the experiments, of whatever nature, will be
performed on half the farms of the kingdom in the course of the first
season.
For this pui-pose it is necessary to ascertain the size an experimental
farm should be, which will admit of experimients being made on it, in a
manner similar to the operations of a farm. The leading operation, which
determines the smallest size of the fields of an experimental farm, is plow-
ing. The fields should be of that size which will admit of being plowed
in ordinary time, and at the same time not larger than just to do justice
to the experiments performed in them. I should say that^/?e acres impe-
rial is the least extent of ground to do justice to plowing ridges along,
across, and diagonally. Three acres, to be of such a shape as not to waste
time in the plowing, would have too few ridges for a series of experiments,
and to increase their number would be to shorten their length, and lose
time in plowing. But even five acres are too small to inclose with a
fence ; ten acres, a good size of field for small farms, being nearer the
mark for fencing. Taking the size of an experimental plot at five acres,
the inclosure might be made to sun-ound the divisions of a rotation ; that
is, of a rotation of four years, let twenty acres be inclosed ; of five years,
twenty-five acres, &c. ; but in this arrangement the experiments would
only prove really available to small tenants, who frequently cultivate all
their crops within one fence, and the subject thus experimented on would
not be individually inclosed within a fence, as is the case with crops on
larger farms.
The whole quantity of land required for an adequate experimental fann
may thus be estimated. New varieties of seeds would require to be in-
creased by all the possible modes of reproduction. Old varieties should
undergo impregnation — be subjected to different modes of culture — be
preserved pure from self-impregnation — and be grown in different alti-
tudes. Each variety of seed already cultivated, such as wheat, barley,
oats, potatoes, turnips, &c., to undergo these various modifications of
treatment on five acres of land, would, including the whole, require an
immense extent of ground, and yet, if each kind did not undergo all these
varieties of treatment, who could then aver that all our seeds had been
subjected to satisfactory ^e^^ experiments 1 Only one kind of grain, treat-
ed as variedly as might be, on five acres for each modification of treat-
ment, would occupy seventy acres ; and were only five kinds of seed taken,
and only five varieties of each, and the whole cultivated on both low and
high ground, the quantity of ground required altogether would be 3,500
acres. The extent of ground thus increases in a geometrical progression,
(105)
58 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
with an increase of variety of plants. Besides, the numerous useful
grasses, for the pui-poses of being cut green, and for making into hay,
would require other 1,000 acres. The whole system of pasturing young
and old stock on natural and artificial grasses in low grounds and on high
altitudes, and in sheltered and exposed situations, would require at least
3,000 acres. Then, experiments with forest-trees, in reference to timber
and shelter in different elevations and aspects, would surely require 1,000
acres. Improvements in bog and muir lands should have other 1,000 acres.
So that 9,500 acres would be required to put only a given proportion of
the objects of cultivation in this country to the test of full experiment. —
Such an extent of o-round will, no doubt, astonish those who are in tho
habit of talking about 200 acres as capable of affording sufficient scope for
an experimental farm. Those people should be made to understand that
the plow must have room to work, and that thei-e is no other way of ex-
.perimentizing satisfactorily for Jield culture, on an experimental farm, but
by aflbrding it a real field to work in. If less ground be given, fewer sub-
jects must be taken; and if any subject is rejected from experiment, then
the system of experimentizing will be rendered incomplete. The system
of experimentizing should be earned out to the fullest extent of its capa-
bility on experimental farms, or it should be left, as it has hitherto been,
in the hands of farmers. The farmers of Scotland have worked out for
themselves an admirable system of husbandry, and if it is to be improved
to a still higher pitch of skill by experimental farms, the means of improve-
ment should be made commensurate with the object, otherwise there will
be no satisfaction, and certain failure ; for the promoters of experimental
farms should keep in mind that the existing husbandry, improved as it is,
is neither in a stationary nor in a retrogi-ading, but in a progressive state
toward farther improvement. Unless, therefore, the proposed experiments,
by which it is intended to push its improvement still farther toward per-
fection, embrace every individual of the multifarious objects which engage
the attention of agriculturists, that one may be neglected which, if culti-
vated, would have conferred the gi-eatest boon on Agriculture. I come,
therefore, to this conclusion in the matter : that minute experiments on the
progressive developments of plants and animals are absolutely requisite to
establish their excellence or worthlessness, and these can be performed on
a small space of ground ; but to stop short at this stage, and not pursue
their culture on a scale commensurate with the operations of the farm, is to
render the experimental farm of little avail to practical husbandry, and
none at all to interest the fanner.
So large an extent of farm would most probably embrace all the varie-
ties of soil. It should, moreover, contain high and low land, arable, bog,
and muir land, sheltered and exposed situations, and the whole should lie
contiguous, in order to be influenced by the climate of the same locality.
It would scarcely be possible to procure such an extent of land under the
same landlord, but it might be found in the same locality on different es-
tates. &uch a farm, rendered highly fertile by draining, manuring, liming;
and labor, and plenished, as an experimental farm should be, with all the
varieties of ci"op, stock, implements, and woods, would be a magnificent
spectacle worthy of a nation's effort to put into a perfect state for a na-
tional object. What a wide field of observation would it present to the
botanical physiologist, containing a multiplicity of objects made subservi-
ent to experiment ! What a laboratory of research for the chemist, among
every possible vaiiety of earths, manures, plants, and products of vegeta-
tion ! What a museum of objects for the naturalist, in which to observe
the living habits and instincts of animals, some useful to man, and others
(106)
THE EDUCATION BEST SUITED TO YOUNG FARMERS. 59
injurious to the fruits of his labor ! What an arena upon which the hus-
bandman to exercise his practical skill, in varying the modes of culture of
crops and live-stock ! What an object of intense curiosity and untatisfying
wonder to the rustic laborer ! But, above all, what interest and solicitude
should the statesman feel the appliance of such a mighty engine, set in
motion, to work out the problem of agricultural skill, prosperity, and
power.*
y. OF THE KIND OF EDUCATION BEST SUITED TO YOUNG
FARMERS.
" Between the physical sciences and the arts of life there subsists a constant mutual
interchange of good offices, and no considerable progress can be made in the one with-
out, of necessity, giving rise to corresponding steps in the other. On the one hand,
every art is in some measure, and many entirely, dependent on those very powers and
qualities of the material world which it is the object of physical inquiry to investigate
and explain." Hebschel.
*
With respect to the education of young farmers, no course of element-
ary education is better than what is taught at the excellent parochial
schools of this country. The sons of farmers and of peasants have in them
a favorable opportunity of acquiring the elements of a sound education,
and they happily avail themselves of the opportunity ; but, besides ele-
mentary education, a classical one sufficiently extensive and profound for
farmers may there also be obtained. But there are subjects of a different
nature, sciences suited to the study of maturer years, which young farmers
should make a point of learning — 1 mean the sciences of Natural Philoso-
phy, Natural History, Mathematics, and Chemistry. These are taught at
colleges and academies. No doubt these sciences are included in the cur-
riculum of education provided for the sons of landowners and wealthy
farmers ; but every class of farmers should be taught them, not with a
view of transforming them into philosophers, but of communicating to
them the important knowledge of the nature of those phenomena which
daily present themselves to their observation. Such information would
make them more intelligent farmers, as well as men. The advantages
which farmers would derive from studying those sciences will be best un-
derstood by pointing out their nature.
It is evident that most farming operations are much affected by external
influences. The state of the weather, for instance, regulates every field
operation, and local influences modify the climate very materially. Now
it should be desired by the farmer to become acquainted with the causes
which give rise to those influences, and these can only be known by com-
prehending the laws of Nature which govern every natural phenomenon.
The science which investigates the laws of these phenomena is called Nat-
ural Philosophy, and it is divided into as many branches as there are classes
of phenomena. The various classes of phenomena occur in the earth, air,
water, and heavens. The laws which regulate them, being unerring in
their operation, admit of absolute demonstration ; and the science which
affords the demonstration is called Mathematics. Again, every object, an
imate or inanimate, that is patent to the senses, possesses an individual
identity, so that no two objects can be confounded together. The science
which makes us acquainted with the marks for identifying individuals is
* Paper by me on the subject in the Quart. Jour, of Agri., vol. vii. p. 538.
(107)
60 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
termed Natural History. Farther, every object, animate or inanimate,
cognizable by the senses, is a compound body made up of certain elements.
Chemistn/ is* the science which makes us acquainted with the nature and
combinations of those elements. We thus see how generally applicable
those sciences are to the phenomena around us, and their utility to the
farmer will be the more apparent, the more minutely each of them is in-
vestio-ated. Let us take a cursory view of each subdivision as it affects
Agriculture.
Mathematics are either abstract or demonstrative. Absti-act mathemat-
ics " ti-eat of propositions which are immutable, absolute truth," not liable
to be affected by subsequent discoveries, " but remains the unchangeable
property of the mind in all its acquirements." Demonstrative mathematics
are also' strict, but are " interwoven with physical considerations" — that is,
subjects that exist independently of the mind's conceptions of them or of
the human will ; or, in other words still, considerations in accordance with
nature. Mathematics thus constitute the essential means of demonstrating
the strictness of those laws which govern natural phenomena. Mathemat-
ics must, therefore, be first studied before those laws can be understood. —
Their study tends to expand the mind — to enlarge its capacity for general
principles, and U> improve its reasoning powers.
Of the branches into which Natural Philosophy is divided, that \yhich
is most useful to farmers is Mechanics, which is defined to be " the science
of the laws of matter and motion, so far as is necessary to the construction
of machines, which, acting under those laws, answer some purpose in the
business of life." Without mechanics, as thus defined, farmers may leam
to rcork any machine which answers their purj^ose ; but it is only by that
science they can possibly understand the jtrimijiles upon Avhich any ma-
chine is constructed, nor can any machine be properly consti-ucted in defi-
ance of those principles. Both machinists and farmers ought to be versed
in mechanical science, or the one cannot make, and the other guide, any
machine as it ought to be ; but, as I have had occasion to express my sen-
timents on this subject already, I shall abstain fiom dilating farther upon
it here. Mathematical demonstration is strictly applicable to mechanics,
whether as to the principles on which every machine operates, (»r the form
of which it is constructed. The princi2iles of mechanics are treated of sep-
arately under the name of Dynamics, which is defined to be " the science
of force and motion."
Pnev7>mtics is the branch of natural philosophy which is next to me-
chanics in being the most useful to the farmer to know. It " treats of
air, and the laws according to which it is condensed, rarefied, gravitates."
The states of the air, giving a variable aspect to the seasons, as they pur-
sue their " appointed course," endue all atmospherical phenomena with ex-
treme interest to the farmer. Observation aVone can render variety of
phenomena familiar; and their apparent capriciousness, arising most
probably from the reciprocal action of various combinations of numerous
elements, renders their complicated results at all times difficult of solution;
for all fluids are susceptible of considerable mutations, even from causes
possessing little force ; but the mutations of elastic fluids are probably
effected by many inappreciable causes. Nevertheless, we may be assured
that no change in the phenomena of the atmosphere, however trivial,
takes place but as the unerring result of a definite law, be it chemical or
physical.
Closely connected with pneumatics, in so far as the air is concerned, are
the kindred natural sciences of electricity and magnetism. These agencies,
though perfectly perceptible to one or more of the senses, and evidently
(108)
THE EDUCATION BEST SUITED TO YOUNG FARMERS. 6i
constantly at work in most of the phenomena of the atmosphere,
are mysteriously subtle in their operations. It is extremely probable
that one or both are the immediate causes of all the changes which the
atmosphere is continually undergoing. It is hardly possible that the at-
mosphere, surrounding the globe like a thin envelop, and regularly carried
round with it in its diurnal and annual revolutions, should exhibit so very
dissimilar phenomena every year, but from some disturbing cause, such as
the subtile influences of electricity, which evidently bear so large a share
in all remarkable atmospherical phenomena. Its agency is the most proba-
ble cause of the irregular currents of the air called winds, the changes of
which are well known to all farmers to possess the greatest influence on
the weather.
Natural History comprehends several branches of study. Metcorologif
consists of the obsei^vation of the apparent phenomena of the atmosphere.
The seasons constitute a principal portion of these phenomena. The
clouds constitute another, and are classified according to the forms they
assume, which are definite, and indicative of certain changes. The winds
constitute a third, and afford subject for assiduous observation and much
consideration. Attention to the directions of the wind and forms of the
clouds will enable farmers to anticipate the kind of weather that will af-
terward ensue in a given time in their respective localities. The preva-
lence of the aqueous meteors of rain, snow, hail, and ice, is indicated by
the state of the clouds and winds.
Hydrography is the science of the watery part of the terraqueous globe.
It makes us acquainted with the origin and nature of springs and marshes,
the effects of lakes, marshes, and rivers, on the air and on vegetation in
their vicinity ; and the effects of sea air on the vegetation of maritime
disti'icts.
Geology is the knowledge of the substances which compose the crust of
the earth. It explains the nature and origin of soils and subsoils ; that is,
the manner in which they have most probably been formed, and the rocks
from which they have originated ; it discovers the relative position, struc-
ture, and direction in which the different rocks usually lie. It has as yet
done little for Agiiculture ; but a perfect knowledge of geology might
supply useful hints for draining land, and planting trees on soils and over
subsoils best suited to their natural habits, a branch of rural economy as
yet little understood, and very injudiciously practiced.
Botany and botanical physiology , which treat of the appearance and
structure of plants, are so obviously useful to the agricultural pupil, that
it is unnecessary to dilate on the advantages to be derived from a know-
ledge of both.
Zoology, which treats of the classification and habits of all animals, from
the lowest to the highest organized structure, cannot fail to be a source
of constant interest to every farmer who rears stock. There are few wild
quadrupeds in this countiy ; but the insect creation itself would employ
a lifetime to investigate.
Anatomy, especially comparative anatomy, is highly useful to the farmer,
inasmuch as it explains the functions of the internal structure of animals
upon which he bestows so much care in rearing. Acquainted with the
functions of the several parts which constitute the corporeal body, he will
be the better able to apportion the food to the peculiar constitution of the
animal ; and also to anticipate any tendency toward disease, by a previ-
ously acquired knowledge of premonitory symptoms. Comparative
anatomy is most successfully taught in veterinary schools.
The only other science which bears directly on Agriculture, and with
(109)
62 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
which the pupil farmer should make himself acquainted, is Chemistry ;
that science which is cognizant of all the changes in the constitution of
matter, whether effected by heat, by moisture, or other means. There is
no substance existing in nature but is susceptible of chemical examina
tion. A science so universally applicable cannot fail to arrest popular at-
tention. Its popular character, however, has raised expectations of its
power to assist Agriculture to a much gieater degree than the results of
its investigations yet waiTant. It is veiy generally believed, not by prac-
tical farmers, but chiefly by amateur agiiculturists, who profess great
regard for the welfare of Agriculture, that the knowledge derived from
the analysis of soils, manures, and vegetable products, would develop
general principles which might lead to the establishment of a system of
Agriculture as certain in its effects as the unerring results of science.
Agriculture, in that case, would rank among the experimental sciences, the
application of the principles of which would necessarily result in increased
produce. The positive effects of the weather seem to be entirely over-
looked by these amateurs. Such sentiments and anticipations are. very
prevalent in the present day, when every sort of what is teniied scientific
knowledge is sought after vAx\\ an eagerness as if prompted by the fear
of endangered existence. This feverish anxiety for scientific knowledge
is very unlike the dispassionate state of mind induced by the patient in-
vestigation of true science, and very unfavorable to the right application
of the principles of science to any practical art. Most of the leading
agricultural societies instituted for the promotion of practical Agriculture,
have been of late assailed by the entreaties of enthusiastic amateur agri-
culturists, to consti-uct their premiums to encourage only that system of
Agriculture which takes chemistry for its basis.
These are the physical sciences whose principles seem most applicable
to Agriculture ; and being so, they should be studied by everj' farmer who
wishes to be considered an enlightened member of his profession. That
farmers are quite competent to attain to these sciences, may be gathered
from these obsei"vations of Sir John Herschel : " There is scarcely any
well-informed person who, if he has but the will, has not the power to add
something essential to the general stock of knowledge, if he will only ob-
serve regularly and methodically some particular class of facts which may
most excite his attention, or which his situation may best enable him to
study with effect. To instance one subject which can only be effectually
improved by the united obsei'vations of gi'eat numbers widely dispersed :
Meteorology, one of the most complicated but important branches of sci-
ence, is at the same time one in which any person who will attend to plain
rules, and bestow the necessary degree of attention, may do effectual ser-
vice." But in drawing our conclusions, great caution is requisite ; for,
" In forming inductions, it will most commonly happen that we are led to
our conclusions by the especial force of some two or three strongly im-
pressive facts, rather than by affording the whole mass of cases a regular
consideration ; and hence the need of cautious verification. Indeed, so
strong is this propensity of the human mind, that there is hardly a more
common thing than to find persons ready to assign a cause for every thing
they see, and in so doing, to join things the most incongruous, by analo-
gies the most fanciful. This being the case, it is evidently of great im-
portance that these first ready impulses of the mind should be made on
the contemplation of the cases most likely to lead to good inductions. The
misfortune, however, is, in natural philosophy, that the choice does not
rest with us. We must take the instances as Nature presents them. Even
if we are furnished with a list of them in tabular order, we must under-
(110)
THE EDUCATION BEST SUITED TO YOUNG FARMERS. 63
Stand and compare them with each other, before we can tell which are
the instances thus deservedly entitled to the highest consideration. And,
after all, after much labor in vain, and gi'oping in the dark, accident or
casual observation wall present a case which strikes us at once with a full
insight into the subject, before we can even have time to determine to
what class its prerogative belongs."*
Many farmers, I dare say, will assert it to be far beyond the reach of
their means, and others beyond their station, to bestow on their sons so
learned an education as that implied in the acquirement of the sciences
just now enumerated. Such apprehensions are ill-founded ; because no
faiTner that can afford to support his sons at home, without working for
their bare subsistence, but possesses the means of giving them a good
education, as I shall immediately prove ; and no farmer, who confessedly
has wealth, should grudge his sons an education that will fit them to
adorn the profession they intend to follow.
It cannot be denied that a knowledge of mathematics and natural phi-
losophy greatly elevates the mind. Those farmers who have acquired
these sciences, must be sensible of their tendency to do this ; and they
will therefore naturally wish their sons to enjoy what they themselves do.
Those who of themselves do not know these sciences, on being informed
of their beneficial tendency, will probably feel it to be their duty to edu-
cate their sons, and thereby put it in their power to raise themselves in
society and at the same time shed a lustre on the profession of which they
are members. The same species of reasoning applies to the acquirement
of the peculiar accomplishments bestowed on the mind by a knowledge
of natural history and chemisti-y. Neither the time nor expense of ac-
quiring such an education is of that extent or magnitude as to deter any
farmer's son from attempting it, who occupies a station above that of a
farm steward. Besides these considerations, a good education, as the trite
saying has it, is the best legacy a parent can leave his child ; and, on this
account, it is better for the young farmer himself to bestow on him a su-
perior education, in the first instance, with a part even of the money des-
tined by his father to stock him a farm, than to plenish for him a larger
farm, and stint his education. The larger farm would, no doubt, enable
the half-educated son to earn a livelihood more easily ; but the well-edu-
cated one would be more than compensated in the smaller farm, by the
possession of that cultivated intelligence which would induce him to ap-
ply the resources of his mind to drawing forth the capabilities of the soil,
and making himself an infinitely superior member of society. Were in-
dustrious farmers as eager to improve their sons' minds by superior edu-
cation, as they too often are to amass fortunes for them — a boon unprofit-
ably used by uncultivated minds — they would display more wisdom in
their choice. No really sensible farmer should hesitate to decide which
course to take, when the intellectual improvement of his family is con-
cerned. He should never permit considerations of mere pelf to overcome
a sense of right and of duty. Rather than prevent his son having the power
to raise himself in his profession, he should scrupulously economize his
own expenditure.
I shall now show that the time occupied in the acquisition of those
sciences which are expedient for the farmer to learn, is not lost when
compared with the advantages which they may bestow. Part of three
years will accomplish all, but three years are doubtless an immense time
* Discourse on the Jftudy of Natural Philosophy, pp. 133, 182.
(Ill)
64 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
for a young man to lose ! So it would be ; but, to place the subject in its
proper light, I would put this statement and question for consideration —
Whether the young farmer's time, who is for years constantly following
bis father's footsteps over the farm, and only superintending a little in his
absence, while the father himself is, all the time, quite capable of conduct-
ing the farm, is not as much lost, as the phrase has it, as it would be when
he is occupied in acquiring a scientific education at a little distance from
home ? Insomuch as the young man's time is of use to the farm, the two
cases are nearly on a par ; but, in as far as both cases affect himself, there
is no question that science would benefit him the more — no question that
a superior education would afterward enable him to learn the practical
part of his profession with his father, with much greater ease to himself
The question is thus narrowed to the consideration of the alternative of
the cost of keeping the son at home, following his father as idly as his
shadow, or of sending him to college. Even in this pecuniary point of
view, the alternative consists merely of the difference of maintenance at
home, and that in a town, with the addition of fees. That this difference
is not great, I shall now show.
Part of three years, as I have said, would accomplish all amply, and in
this way : the first year to be devoted to mathematics, the second to
natural philosophy, and the third to natural history and chemistry ; and
along with these principal subjects, some time in both years should be
devoted to geography, English grammar and composition, book-keeping,
and a knowledge of cash transactions. The two months' vacation in each
year could be spent at home. There are seminaries* at which these sub-
jects mayt be studied, at no gieat distance from every farmer's home.
There are, fortunately for the youths of Scotland, universities, colleges,
and academies, in many parts of the country. Edinburgh, Glasgow,
Aberdeen, and St. Andrews, can boast of well-endowed universities and
colleges ; while the academies at Dundee, Perth, Ayr, Dollar, and Inver-
ness, have been long famed for good tuition.
10. OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF FARMING.
" I'll teach you differences."
Lear.
Perhaps the young farmer will be astonished to learn that there are
many and various systems of farming ; yet so in reality is the case, and
moreover that they all possess very distinctive characteristics. There are
six kinds of farming practiced in Scotland alone ; and though all are pur-
sued under some circumstances common to all, and each kind is perhaps
best adapted to the particular soil and situation in which it is practiced ;
yet it is highly probable that one of the kinds might be applicable to, and
profitably followed, in all places of nearly similar soil and locality. Lo-
cality, however, determines the kind of fanning fully more than the soil ;
the soil only entirely detei-mining it when of a very peculiar consistence.
The comparative influence of locality over soil in determining this point
will be better understood after shortly considering each kind of farming.
[» Or free schools. t Or ought to be, Ei. Farm. Lib\
(112)
THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF FARMING. 65
1. One kind is wholly confined to pastoral districts, which are chiefly-
situated in the Highlands and Western Isles of Scotland — in the Cheviot
and Cumberland hills of England — and very generally in Wales. In all
these districts, farming is almost restricted to the breeding of cattle and
sheep ; and, as natural pasture forms the principal food of live-stock in a
pastoral country, very little arable culture is there practiced for their be-
hoof Cattle and sheep are not always both reared on the same farm.
Cattle are reared in very large numbers in the Western Isles, and in the
pastoral valleys among the mountain-ranges of England, Wales, and Scot-
land.* Sheep are reared in still greater numbers in the upper parts of the
mountain-ranges of Wales and of the Highlands of Scotland ; and on the
green round-backed mountains of the south of Scotland and the north of
England. The cattle reared in pastoral districts are small sized, chiefly
black colored, and horned. Those in the Western Isles, called " West
Highlanders," or " Kyloes," are esteemed a beautifully symmetrical and
valuable breed of cattle. Those in the valleys of the Highland moun
tains, called " North Highlanders," are considerably inferior to them in
quality, and smaller in size. The black-faced, mountain, or heath, horned
sheep, are bred and reared on the upper mountain-ranges, and fattened in
the low country. The round-backed green hills of the south are mostly
stocked with the white-faced, hornless, Cheviot breed, ; though the best
kind of the black -faced breed is also reared in some localities of that dis-
trict, but seldom both breeds are bred by the same farmer. Wool is a
staple product of sheep pastoral farming.
Pastoral farms are chiefly appropriated to the rearing of one kind of
sheep, or one kind of cattle ; though both classes of stock are bred where
valleys and mountain-tops are found on the same farm. The arable cul-
ture practiced on them is confined to the raising of provisions for the sup-
port of the shepherds and cattle-herds ; and perhaps of a few turnips, for
the support of the stock duiing the severity of a snow-storm ; but the
principal artificial food of the stock in winter is hay, which in some cases
is obtained by inclosing and mowing a piece of natural grass on a spot of
good land, near the banks of a rivulet, the alluvial soil along the river
sides being generally of fine quality. All pastoral farms are large, some
containing many thousands of acres — nay miles in extent ; but from 1,500
[* In the United States the mountain ranges running from east to west may be considered our
" pastoral " or grazing districts.
The farther we go east the more are such lands devoted to sheep husbandry, while in the west
and southwest they are given up to the rearing of cattle, to be sold, as lean or stock cattle, to the
grazier, who sometimes buys and carries them through the winter on wheat straw, and fattens
them on grass against the next autumn. But more generally they are sold in spring, grazed
through the summer, and fattened on corn the following winter. Thus prepared for market, they
are either killed and packed in the West, or driven thence in spring and summer to the eastern
markets. For our pastoral or grazing districts, a comparatively smaller and more thrifty race of
cattle, weighing, when at market, from 500 to 700, is most advantageous for all parties, as, with
but little exception they have to " shift for themselves " throughout the year, and often get no
special feeding.
It is as true now as it was in the time of Sir John Sinclair, that where the surface is barren and
the climate rigorous, it is essential that the stock bred and maintained there should be enabled to
sustain the severities and vicissitudes of the weather as well as scarcity of foood, or any other
circumstance in its locality and treatment that might subject a more delicate breed to injury.
For the purposes of the cattle breeder in the mountains, it is probable that the hardy middle sized
North Devon would be found most eligible ; or if it should be deemed expedient to try a foreign
cross which we have not tried, obvious reasons suggest that the Polled, or Galloway, and the
Scotch Highland races should be had recourse to. Ed. Farm. Lib.^
(U3) 5
66 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
to 3,000 acres is perhaps an ordinarj' size* Locality determines this kind
of fanning.
The stocking of a pastoral farm consists of a breeding stock of sheep or
cattle, and a yearly proportion of barren stock intended to be fed and sold
at a proper age. A large capital is thus required to stock at first, and
afterward maintain such a fai-m ; for, although the quality of the land may
not be able to support many heads of stock per acre, yet, as the farms are
large, the number of heads required to stock a large farm is very consid-
erable. The rent, when consisting of a fixed sum of money, is of no great
amount per acre, but sometimes it is fixed at a sum per head of the stock
that the farm will maintain.
A j)astoral farmer should be well acquainted with the rearing and man-
agement of cattle or sheep, whichever his farm is best suited for. A know
ledge of general field culture is of little use to him, though he should know
how to raise turnips and make hay.
2. Another kind of farming is practiced on carse land. A carse is a dis-
trict of country, consisting of deep horizontal depositions of alluvial or dilu-
vial clay, on one or both sides of a considerable river ; and may be of great
or small extent, but generally comprehends a large tract of country. In
almost all respects, a carse is quite the opposite to a pastoral district. Carse
land implies a flat, rich, clay soil, capable of raising all sorts of grain to
great perfection, and unsuited to the cultivation of pasture grasses, and, of
course, to the rearing of live-stock. A pastoral district, on the other hand,
is always hilly — the soil generally thin, poor, and various, and commonly
of a light texture, much more suited to the growth of natural pasture glasses
than of grain, and, of course, to the rearing of live-stock. Soil decides this
kind of farming.
Being all arable, a carse farm is mostly stocked ^\-ith animals and imple-
ments of labor ; and these, with seed-com for the large proportion of the
land cultivated under the plow, require a considerable outlay of capital. —
Carse land always maintains a high rent per acre, whether it consists solely
of money, or of money and com valued at the fiars prices. A carse farm,
requiring much capital and much labor, is never of large extent — seldom
exceeding 200 acres.
A carse\ farmer requires to be well acquainted with the cultivation of
grain, and almost nothing else, as he can rear no live-stock ; and all he re-
quires of them are a few milch cows, to supply milk to his household and
farm-scn,'ants, and a few cattle in the sti-aw-yard in winter, to trample do^vn
the large quantity of straw into manure — both of which classes of cattle are
purchased when wanted.
3. A third sort of farming is that which is practiced in the rtcighhorhood
of large towns. In the immediate vicinity of London, farms are appropri-
ated to the growth of garden vegetables for Covent-Garden market ; and,
of course, their method of culture can have nothing in common with either
pastoral or carse farms. In the neighborhood of most towns, garden vege-
tables, with the exception of potatoes, are not so much cultivated as green
crops, such as tuniips and grass, and dry fodder, such as straw and hay, for
the use of cow-feeders and stable-keepers. The practice of this kind of
farming is to dispose of all the produce, and receive in return manure for
the land. And this constitutes this kind of fanning a retail trade like that
in town, in which articles are bought and sold in small quantities, mostly
* It is to be regretted that neither the Old nor the New StatUticai Account of Scotland gives the lewt idea
01 the nie of the farms in any of the parishes described,
[t What we call a grain-farmer. £^. parm Lib 1
(114)
THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF FARMING. 67
for ready money.* When there is not a sufficient demand in the town for
all the disposable produce, the farmer purchases cattle and sheep to eat the
turnips, and trample the straw into manui^e, in winter. Locality decides
this kind of farming.
The chief qualification of an occupant of this kind of farm is a thorough
acquaintance with the raising of green crops — potatoes, clover, and turnips ;
and his particular study is the raising of those kinds and varieties that are
most prolific, for the sake of having large quantities to dispose of, and which,
at the same time, are most suitable to the wants of his customers.
The capital required for a farm of this kind, which is all arable, is aa
large as that for a carse farm. The rent is always high per acre, and the
extent of land not large — seldom exceeding 300 acres.
4. A fourth kind of farming is the dairy husbandry. It specially directs
its attention to the manufacture of butter and cheese, and the sale of milk.
Some farms are laid out for the express purpose ; but the sale of milk is
frequently conjoined with the raising of green crops, in the neighborhood
of large towns, whose inhabitants are whence daily supplied with milk,
though seldom from pasture, which is mostly appropriated as paddocks for
stock sent to the weekly market. But a true dairy-farm I'equires old pas-
ture. The chief business of a dairy farm is the management of cows and
of their produce ; and whatever arable culture is practiced thereon is made
entirely subservient to the maintenance and comfort of the dairy stock. —
The milk, where practicable, is sold; where beyond the reach of sale, it is
partly churned into butter, which is sold either fresh or salted, and partly
made into cheese, either sweet or skimmed. No stock are reared on dairy-
farms, as on pastoral, except a few quey (heifer) calves, occasionally to re-
plenish the cow stock ; nor aged stock fed in winter, as on farms in the
vicinity of towns. The bull calves are frequently fed fbr veal, but the prin-
cipal kind of stock reared are pigs, which are fattened on dairy refuse. —
Young horses, however, are sometimes successfully reared on dairy-farms.
Horse labor being comparatively little required thereon, mares can carry
their young, and work with safety at the same time ; while old pasture,
spare milk, and whey afford great facilities for nourishing young horses in
a superior manner. Locality has decided this kind of farming on the large
scale.
The purchase of cows is the principal expense of stocking a dairy farm ;
and as the purchase of live-stock in any state, especially breeding-stock, is
always expensive, and live-stock themselves, especially cows, constantly lia-
ble to many casualties, a dairy-farm requires a considerable capital. It is,
however, seldom of large extent — seldom exceeding 150 acres. The arable
portion of the farm supplying the green crop for winter food and litter,
does not incur much outlay, as hay — that obtained fi-om old pasture grass
— forms the principal food of all the stock in winter. The rent of dairy-
farms is high.
A dairy farmer should be well acquainted with the properties and man-
agement of milch cows, the manufacture of butter and cheese, the feeding
of veal and pork, and the rearing of horses ; and he should also possess as
much knowledge of arable culture as to enable him to raise those kinds of
[* The facilities afforded by steam for the quick transportation of perishable articles — such as
fruit and milk, and the more delicate vegetables — has had the effect of opening market gardens
at a comparatively great distance from the large towns. A railroad or a steamboat will bring
these articles into market, from a distance of fifty miles, Wvh. as little delay, and less injury by
transportation, than an ordinary conveyance would bring them ten miles. Obvious as is this fact,
it is deemed proper to mention it, that it may not be lost sight of in the purchase of farms.
Ed. Farm. Lib\
(115)
68 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
green crops, and that species of hay, wliich are most congenial to cows for
the production of milk.
5. A fifth method of farming is that which is practiced in most arable
districts, consisting of any kind of soil not strictly carse land. This rnethod
consists of a regular system of cultivating grains and sown grasses, with the
partial rearing, and partial purchasing, or wholly purchasing, of cattle ; and
no sheep are reared in this system, they being purchased in autumn, to be
fed on turnips in winter, and sold off fat in spi-ing. This system may be
said to combine the professions of the farmer, the cattle-dealer, and the sheep-
dealer*
To become a farmer of this mixed husbandry, a man must be acquainted
with evers- kind of fanning practiced in the country. He actually practices
them all. ' He prosecutes, it is tnie, each kind in a rather different manner
from that practiced in localities where the particular kind is pursued as the
only system of fanning ; because each branch of his farming must be con-
ducted so as to conduce to the welfare of the whole, and, by studying the
mutual dependence of parts, he produces a whole in a superior manner. —
This multiplicity of objects requires from him more than ordinary attention,
and much more than ordinary skill in management. No doubt, the farm-
ers of some of the other modes of farming become very skillful in adapting
their practice to the situations in which they are actually placed, but hia
more varied experience increases versatility of talent and quickness of dis-
cernment ; and, accordingly, it will be found that the farmers of the mixed
husbandry prove themselves to be the cleverest and most intelligent agri-
culturists of the country.
11. OF CHOOSING THE KIND OF FARMING.
"Choice, being mutual act of all our souls, makes merit her election."
Tboii,c3 and Ckessida.
These are the various kinds of fanning pursued in this kingdom ; and,
if there be any other, its type may, no doubt, be found in the mixed sys-
tem just described. One of these systems must be adopted by the aspirant
pupil for his profession. If he succeed to a family inheritance, the kind of
farming he will follow will depend on that pursued by his predecessor,
which he will learn accordingly ; but if he is free to choose for himself, and
not actually restricted by the circumstances of peculiar locality, or soil, or
inheritance, then I would ad\-ise him to adopt the mixed husbandry, as
contaujing within itself all the varieties of fanning which it is requisite for
a farmer to know.
If he is at liberty to take advice, I can inform him that the mixed hus-
bandry possesses advantaores over every other ; and practically thus : in
pastoral farming, the stock undergoes minute examination, for certain pur-
poses, only at distantly stated times ; and owing to the wide space over
which they have to roam for food in pastoral districts, comparatively less
attention is bestowed on them by shepherds and cattle-herds. The"^ pas-
toral farmer has thus no particular object to attract his attention at home
between those somewhat long intervals of time ; and in the mean while
time is apt to bane: heavy on his hands. The carse farmer, afler the la-
bors of the field are finished in spring, has nothing but a little hay-making
[* Which, in our countrv, are often combined. £d Farm Lib\
(116)
SELECTING A TUTOR-FARMER. 69
and much bare-fallowing in summer, to occupy his mind until the harvest.
Dairy-farming affords little occupation for the farmer in wintei". The
farmer in the vicinity of large tow^ns has almost nothing to do in summer,
from turnip-seed to harvest. Mixed-husbandry, on the other hand, affords
abundant and regular employment at all seasons. Cattle and sheep feed-
ing, and marketing grain, pleasantly occupy the short days of winter. Seed-
sowing of all kinds affoids abundant employment in spring. The rearing
of live-stock, sale of wool, and culture of green crops, fill up the time in
summer until harvest ; and autumn, in all circumstances, brings its own
busy avocations at the ingathering of the fi-uits of the earth. There is,
strictly speaking, not one week of real leisure to be found in the mixed
system of farming — if the short period be excepted, from assorting lambs
in the beginning of August to putting the sickle to the corn — and that pe-
riod is curtailed or protracted, according as the harvest is early or late.
If the young farmer is desirous of attaining a knowledge of every kind
of farm work — of securing the chance of profit every year — and of find-
ing regular employment at all seasons in his profession, he should deter-
mine to follow the mixed husbandry. It will not in any year entirely
disappoint his hopes. In it, he will never have to bewail the almost total
destruction of his stock by the rot, or by the severe storms of winter, as
the pastoral farmer sometimes has. Nor can he suffer so serious a loss as
the carse farmer, by his crop of grain being affected by the inevitable
casualties of blight or drouth, or the great depression of prices for a suc-
cession of years. Were his stock greatly destroyed or much deteriorated
in value by such casualties, he might have the grain to rely on ; and were
his grain crops to fail to a serious extent, the stock might insure him a
profitable return. It is scarcely within the bounds of probability that a
loss would arise in any year from the total destruction of live-stock, wool,
and grain. One of them may fail, and the prices of all may continue de-
pressed for years ; but, on the other hand, reasonable profits have been
realized from them all in the same year. Thus, there are safeguards
against a total loss, and a greater certainty of a profitable return from
capital invested in the mixed, than in any other kind of husbandry at pres-
ent known.
12. OF SELECTING A TUTOR-FARMER FOR TEACHING FARMING.
" The«e are their tutors, bid them >ise them well."
Taming op the Shrew.
After resolving to follow farming as a profession, and determining to
learn the mixed, as the best system of husbandry, it now only remains for
the young farmer to select a farmer who practices it, with whom he would
wish to engage as a pupil. The best kind of pupilage is to become a
boarder in a farmer's house, where he will not only live comfoitably but
may learn this superior system of husbandry thoroughly. The choice of
locality is so far limited, as it must be in a district in which this particular
system is practiced in a superior manner. The qualifications are numer-
ous. The farmer should have the general reputation of being a good
farmer ; that is, a skillful cultivator of land, a judicious breeder, and an
excellent judge of stock. He should possess agreeable manners, and have
the power of communicating his thoughts with ease. He should occupy
a good farm, consisting, if possible, of a variety of soils, and situate in a
(117)
70 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
tolerably good climate, neither on the top of a high hill, nor on the co«-
fines of a large moor or bog, but in the midst of a well cultivated country.
These circumstances of soil and locality should be absolute requisites in
a farm intended to be made the residence of pupils. The top of a hill,
exposed to every blast that blows, or the vicinage of a bog, overspread
Avith damp vapor, would sunound the farm with a climate in which no
Kind of crop or stock could arrive at a state of perfection ; while, on the
Jther hand, a very sheltered spot in a warm situation, would give the pu-
oil no idea of the vexations experienced in a precarious cHmate. His in-
experience in these things will render him unfit to select for himself either
a qualified fanner, or a suitable fann ; but friends are never wanting to
render assistance to young aspirants in such emergencies, and if their
opinion is formed on a knowledge of farming, both of the farm and the
personal qualifications of the farmer they are recommending, some confi-
dence may be placed in their recommendations.
As a residence of one year must pass over ere the pupil can witness the
course of the annual operations of the farm, his engagement at first should
be made for a period of not less than a year ; and at the expiring of that pe-
riod he will, most probably, find himself inadequate to the task of man-
aging a farm. The entire length of time he would require to spend on a
farm, must be determined by the paramount consideration of his having
acquired a competent knowledge of his profession.
13. OF THE PUPILAGE.
"A man loves the meat in his youth that he cannot endure in his age."
Much Ado about Nothing.
Having settled these preliminaries with the tutor-farmer, the pupil
should enter the farm — the first field of his anticipations and toils in farm-
ing— with a resolution to acquire as much professional knowledge, in as
short a time as the nature of the business which he is about to learn will
admit of
The commencement of his tuition may be made at any time of the year;
but since farming operations have a regular beginning and ending every
year, it is obvious that the most proper time to begin to view them is at the
opening of the agricultural year, that is, in the beginning of icinter. It may
not be quite congenial to the feelings of him who has perhaps been accus-
tomed to pass his winters in a town, to participate for the first time in the
labors of a farm on the eve of winter. He would naturally prefer the
sunny days of summer. But the beginning of winter being the time at
which every important operation is begun, it is essential to their being un-
derstood throughout, to see them begun, and in doing this, minor incon-
veniences should be willingly submitted to, to acquire an intimate know-
ledge of a profession for life. And, besides, to endeavor to become
acquainted with complicated operations, after the principal arrangements
for their accomplishment have been completed, is purposely to invite wrong
impressions of them.
There is really nothing disagreeable to personal comfort in the business
of the farm in winter. On the contrary, it is full of interest, inasmuch as
the well-being of living animals then comes home to the attention more
forcibly than the operations of the soil. The totally different and well-
marked individual characters of different animals, engage our sympathies
(118)
DEALING WITH THE DETAILS OF FARMING. 71
in aifferent degrees ; and the more so, perhaps, of all of them, that they
app^r more^ome'sticatedwhen under confinement than at liberty to
roam ah^t in quest of food and seclusion. In the evenmg, an wmter, the
Wtality of the social board awaits the pupil at home, or at a friend s
hZe after the labors of the day are over. Neighbors interchange visits
at tS social season, when topics of conversation common to all societies
are varied by remarks on professional occurrences and management eli-
rkedbv the modified practices of the different speakers from which the
pup?imlypicTupmu?h usefixl information. Or should society present
no charms ?o him^the quieter companionship of books, or the severer task
n?«tn^v is at his command. In a short time, however, the many objects
^ecS'to the seaZi which present themselves in the country m winter.
^The'Sy'fiiTtSng';^ which the pupil . should direct his attention on
enterinrthe farm, is to become well acquainted with .is physrcalgeogra.
X that IS its position, exposure, extent; its fences, whether of wall or
£T Its she term relltion to rising gi'ounds and plantations ; its roads,
tiS^v rfnblic or m-ivate ; its fields, their number, names, sizes, relative
whethei P^^i^^^,^^P;Tf water- the position of the farm-house and stead-
FnTrf— T Vamm^^^^^^^^ with alUhese particulars will
enlbleWrto understand more i4adily the orders given by the farmer for
the workTo be performed in any field. It is like possessing a map of the
So^nd on which certain plans of operations are about to be u-dertaken
TZl of the farm would much facilitate an introduction to this famihar
acauaLtance The ^«^.r-farmer should be provided with such a plan to
^i^ereach of Hs pupils, but if A. have it not, the pupil himself can set
Tout constructing one which wiU answer his pux^^ose well enough.
U. OF DEALING WITH THE DETAILS OF FARMING.
« Oh I is there not some patriot . . •
To teach the lab'ring hands the sweets of toU ?
Yes, there are such." Thomson.
The principal object held in view, while makmg the precedmg observa-
tions was the^preparation of the mind of the young person desirous ofbe-
comikra farmer, into such a state as to enable him, when he enters a farm
asTpupil to ant cipate and overcome what might appear to him great dif-
ficulSf practice%hich, with an unprepared mmd, he could not know
eSted at all, far le s know how to overcome ; but, on being informed that
hrmust encounter them at the very outset of his career he -f ^ -e t^«
merns pointed out to him for meeting and overcommg them These diffi-
?uWes have their origin in the pupil seeing the operations of the farm, of
whoever nature, performed for the first time, in the most perfect manner
Tud always with a view to accomplishment at some >^t.re period. The
ontS of overcoming such difficulties, and thereby satisfying his mind
X the pupil to ascertain by inquiry the purport of every operation he
Tees perfoLhic ; and though he may feel that he does not quite compxe-
Z:A^:^7rVok even when informed of it, still t^-;;f ^Xr ^a^^^^
him of its approaching consummation, and he ^^^^ "°;' ^^,;^"Jj;;3^' kI
time thereafter be taken by surprise when the ^"^^^l^^'l^^^JZ^^t.^rt of
show the pupil the importance of makmg mquury regardmg the purport oi
72 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
every operation he sees performing, I see no better mode of rendering all
farming operations intelligible to his mind. In order to urge him to become
familiar with the purport of everj'thing he sees going on around him, I have
endeavored to point out the numerous evih attendant on farmers, landown-
ers, and emigrants neglecting to become thoroughly acquainted with prac-
tical husbandry, before attempting to exercise their functions in their new
vocations. And, in order that the young person desirous of becoming a
farmer may have no excuse for not becoming u-ell acquainted with farming,
I have shown him where, and the manner how, he can best become ac-
quainted with it ; and these are best attained, under present circumstances,
by his becoming an inmate for a time in a fann-house with an intelligent
farmer. Believing that the foregoing observations, if perused with a will-
ing mind, are competent to give such a bias to his mind as to enable the
pupil, when he enters a farm, to appreciate the importance of his profes-
sion, and thereby create an ardent desire for its attainment, I shall now pro-
ceed to describe the details of every operation as it occurs in its due course
on the farm.
The description of these details, which are multifanous and somewhat
inti'icate, will compose by far the most voluminous portion of this work, and
will constitute the most valuable and interesting part of it to the pupil. In
the descriptions, it is my intention to go very minutely into details, that no
circumstance maybe omitted in regard to any of the operations, which may
have the appearance of presenting a single one to the notice of the pupil in
an imperfect form. This resolution may invest the descriptions with a de-
gree of prolixity which may, perhaps, prove tiresome to the general reader;
but, on that very account, it should the more readily give rise to a firm de-
termination in the pupil to follow the particulars of every operation into
their most minute ramifications ; and this because he cannot be too inti-
mately acquainted with the nature of every piece of work, or too much in-
formed of the various modifications which every operation has frequently
to undergo, in consequence of change in the weather, or the length of time
in which it is permitted by the season to perform it. Descriptions so mi-
nute will answer the purpose of detailed instructions to the pupil ; and,
should he follow them with a moderate degree of application through one
series of operations, he will obtain such an insight into the nature of field
labor as will ever after enable him easily to recognize a similar series when
it is begun to be put into execution. Unless, however, he bestow consider-
able attention on all the details of the descriptions, he will be apt to let
pass what may appear to him an unimportant particular, but which may be
the very keystone of the whole operation to which they relate. With a tol-
erable memory on the part of the pupil, I feel pretty sure that an attentive
perusal of the descriptions will enable him to identify any piece of work he
afterward sees performing in the field. This achievement is as much as any
book can be expected to accomplish.
In describing the details of fanning, it is necessary to adhere to a deter-
minate method ; and the method that appears to me most instructive to the
pupil is to follow the usual routine of operations pursued on a fann. It
will be requisite, in following that routine implicitly, to describe every op-
eration from the beginning ; for it must be impressed on the mind of the
pupil that farm operations are not conducted at random, but on a tned and
approved system, which commences with preparatory labors, and then car-
ries them on with a determinate object in view throughout the seasons, un-
til they terminate at the end of the agricultural year. The preparatory op-
erations commence immediately after harvest, whenever that may happen,
and it will be earlier or later in the year according as the season is early or
(120)
DEALING WITH THE DETAILS OF FARMING. 73
late ; and as the harvest is the consummation of the labors of the year, and
terminates the autumnal season, so the preparatory operations begin with
the winter season. Thus the winter season takes the precedence in the ar-
rangements of farming, and doing so, that should be the best reason for the
pupil commencing his career as an agi'iculturist in winter. In that season
he will have the advantage of witnessing every preparation as it is made
for realizing the future crops — an advantage which he cannot enjoy if he
enter on his pupilage at any other season ; but it is a great advantage, inas-
much as every piece of work is much better understood, when viewed from
its commencement, than when seen for the first time in a state of progi-es-
sion.
Having offered these preliminary remarks respecting the condition of the
agricultural pupil when about to commence learning his profession, I shall
now proceed to conduct him through the whole details of farming, as they
usually occur on a fami devoted to the practice of the tnixed, or, in other
words, of the most perfect system of husbandry known ; while, at the same
time, he shall be made acquainted with what constitute differences from it
in the coiresponding operations of the other modes of farming, and which
are imposed by the peculiarities of the localities in which they are practiced.
These details I shall nan-ate in the order in which they are performed, and
for that purpose will begin with those of Winter — the season which com-
mences the agricultural year — for the reason assigned in the paragraph im-
mediately preceding this one.
74 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
WINTER.
" All nature feels the renovating force
Of Winter, only to the thoughtless e}'e
In ruin seen. The frost-concocted glebe
Draws in abundant vegetable soul,
And gathers vigor for the coining year."
Thomson'.
The subjects which court attention in Winter are of the most interesting
description to the farmer. Finding little inducement to spend much time
in the fields at this torpid season of the year, he directs his attention to the
more animated portions of farm-work conducted in the steading, where
almost the whole stock of animals are collected, and where the preparation
of the grain for market affords pleasant employment for work-people within
doors. The progress of live-stock to maturity is always a prominent object
of the farmer's solicitude, but especially in winter, when the stock are com-
fortably housed in the farmstead, plentifully supplied with wholesome food,
and so an-anged in various classes, according to age and sex, as to be easily
inspected at any time.
The labors of the field in winter are confined to a few great operations.
These are, plomng the soil in preparation of future crops, and supplying
food to the live-stock. The plowing partly consists of turning over the
ground which had borne a part of the grain crops ; and the method of plow-
ing this stubble land — so called because it bears the straw that was left un-
cut of the previous crop — is deteiTnined by the nature of the soil. That
portion of the stubble land is first plowed which is intended to be first
brought into requisition for a crop in spring, and the rest is plowed in the
same succession that the different crops succeed each other in the ensuing
seasons. The whole soil thus plowed in the early part of Avinter in each
field (where the fann is subdiA'ided with fences), or in each division (where
there are no fences), is then neatly and completely provided with channels,
cut with the spade in suitable places, for the pui-pose of permitting the
water that may fall fi'om the heavens to run quickly off into the ditches,
and thereby to maintain the soil in as dry a state as is practicable until
spring. Toward the latter part of AA-inter, the newest grass land — or lea*
as grass land is generally tenned — intended to bear a crop in spring, is
then plowed ; the oldest grass land being earlier plowed, that its toughness
may have time to be meliorated by spring by exposure to the atmosphere.
. . . -When the soil is naturally damp underneath, winter is the season se-
lected for removing the damp by draining. It is questioned by some farm-
[* Every agricultural student and reader would do well to notice these peculiar terms em-
ployed by English agricultural writers, because it is in that country, above all others, that the
spirit of investigation is constantly at work. It is there that the progress of discovery is most
steady, and publication most prompt and difiiisive, and that, above all, in our own mother tongue.
Ed. Farm. Lib.\
(123)
. WINTER. 75
ers whether the winter is the best season for draining, as the usually rainy
and otherwise unsettled state of the weather then renders the carnage of
the materials for draining very laborious. On the other hand, it is main-
tained by other farmers that, as the quantity of water to be drained from
the soil determines both the number and size of the drains, these are thus
best ascertained in winter ; and, as the fields are then most free of crop,
they are in the most convenient state to be drained. Truth may perhaps
be found to acquiesce in neither of these reasons, but rather in the opinion
that draining may be successfully pursued at all seasons Where fields
are uninclosed, and intended to be fenced with the thorn-hedge, wdnter is
the season for performing the operation of planting it. Hard frost, a fall
of snow, or heavy rain, may put a stop to the work for a time, but in all
other states of the weather it may proceed in perfect safety When
meadows for irrigation exist on any farm^ winter is the season for begin-
ning the irrigation with water, that the grass may be ready to mow in the
early part of the ensuing summer. It is a fact well worth keeping in re-
membrance, in favor of winter irrigation, that irrigation in winter produces
wholesome, and in summer unwholesome, herbage for stock. On the other
hand, summer, not winter, is the proper season for forming water-mead-
ows Almost the entire live-stock of an arable farm is dependent on
the hand of man for food in winter. It is this circumstance which, bring-
ing the stock into the immediate presence of their ovvTier, creates a stronger
interest in their welfare then than at any other season. The fanner then
sees them classed together in the farmstead according to their age and
Bex, and delights to contemplate the comparative progress of individuals
or classes among them toward maturity. He makes it a point to see them
provided at all times with a comfortable bed or lair, and a sufficient sup-
ply of clean food at appointed hours in their respective apartments. The
feeding of stock is so important a branch of faiTn business in winter that it
regulates the time for prosecuting several other operations. It determines
the quantity of turnips that should be carried from the field for the cattle
in a given time, and causes the farmer to consider whether it would not
be prudent to take advantage of the first few dry fresh days to store up a
quantity of them, to be in reserve for the use of the stock during the storm
that may be at the time portending — for storms like other
" Cominn: events cast their shadows befor ■."
It also determines the quantity of straw that should be provided from the
stack-yard, in a given time, for the use of the animals ; and upon this, again,
depends the supply of grain that can be sent to the mai'ket in any given
time. For although it is certainly in the farmer's power to thresh as many
stacks as he pleases at one time, provided the machinery for the purj^ose is
competent for the task — and he is tempted to do so when prices are high —
yet, as new threshed strav\^ foi-ms superior provender for live-stock confined
in the farmstead, its supply, both as litter and fodder, is therefore mainly
dependent on its use by the stock ; and as its consumption as litter is
greater in wet than in dry weather, and wet weather prevails in winter,
the quantity of straw used in the course of that season must always be very
considerable, and so, therefore, must the quantity of grain ready to be sent
to market. All the stock in the farmstead in winter, that are not put to
work, are placed under the care of the cattle-man The feeding of that
portion of the sheep-stock which are barren, on turnips in the field, is a
process practiced in winter. This forms fully a more interesting object
of contemplation to the farmer than even the feeding of cattle — the beha-
rior of sheep in any circumstances being always fascinating. Sheep being
76 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
put on turnips early in winter, a favorable opportunity is thereby afforded
the farmer, when clearing the field partially of turnips for the sheep (in a
manner that will afterward be fully described to the pupil), to store a quan-
tity of them fjr the cattle in case of an emergency in the weather, such as
rain, snow, or frost. This removal of the surplus turnips that are not used
by the sheep confined on the land renders sheep-feeding a process which,
in part, also determines the quantity of that root that should be carried
from the field in a given time The flock of ewes roaming at large over
the pastures requires attention in winter, especially in frosty weather, or
when snow is on the ground, when they should be supplied with hay, or
turnips when the former is not abundant. The shepherd is the person who
has charge of the sheep flock The large quantity of straw used in win-
ter causes, as I have said, a considerable quantity of grain to be sent at
that season to market. The preparation of grain for sale constitutes an
important branch of winter farm-business, and should be strictly superin-
tended. A considerable portion of the labor of horses and men is occupied
in carrying the grain to the market-to\\Ti, and delivering it to the purchas-
ers— a species of work which jades farm-horses very much in bad weather.
In hai-d frost, when the plow is laid to rest, or when the gi'ound is cov-
ered with snow, and as soon as,
" by frequent hoof and wheel, the roads
A beaten path afford,"
the farm-yard manure is carried from the courts, and deposited in a large
heap, in a convenient spot near the gate of the field which is to be ma-
nured with it in the ensuing spring or summer. This work is carried on
as long as there is manure to carry away, or the weather continues in either
of those states Of the implements of husbandry, only a few are put in
requisition in winter : the plow is in constant use when the weather will
permit ; the threshing-machine enjoys no sinecure ; and the cart finds peri-
odic employment.
The weather in winter is of the most precarious description, and, being
so, the farmer's skill to anticipate its changes in this season is severely put
to the test. Seeing that all operations of the farm are so dependent on the
weather, a familiar acquaintance with the local prognostics which indicate
a change for the better or worse is incumbent on the farmer. In actual
rain, snow, or hard frost, none but in-door occupations can be executed ;
but, if the farmer have wisely " discerned the face of the sky," he can ar-
range the order of these in-door operations, so as they may be continued
for a length of time, if the storm threaten a protracted endurance,
or be left without detriment, should the strife of the elements quickly
cease.
The winter is the season for visiting the market toivn regularly, where
the sui-plus produce of the farm is disposed of — articles purchased or be-
spoke for the use of the farm, when the busy seasons anive — where inter-
mixture with the world affords the farmer an insight into the actions of
mankind — and where selfishness and cupidity may be seen to act as a foil
to highten the brilliancy of honest dealing.
Winter is to the farmer the season o^ domestic enjoyment. The fatigues
of the long summer-day leave little leisure, and much less inclination, to
tax the mind with study ; but the long winter evening, after a day of brac-
ing exercise, affords him a favorable opportunity, if behave the inclination
at all, of partaking in social conversation, listening to instructive reading,
or hearing the delights of music. In short, I know of no class of people
a24)
WINTER. 77
more capable of enjoying a winter's evening in a rational manner, than
the family of the country gentleman or the farmer.*
Viewing winter in a higher and more serious light — in the repose of
nature, as emblematical of the mortality of man — in the exquisite pleas-
ures which man in winter, as a being of sensation, enjoys over the lower
creation — and in the eminence in which man, in the temperate reo-ions,
stands, with respect to the development of his mental faculties, above his
fellow-creatures in the tropics : in these respects, winter must be hailed
by the dweller in the country, as the purifier of the mental as well as of
the physical atmosphere.
On this subject, I cannot refrain fi-om copying these beautiful reflections
by a modern writer, whose great and versatile talents, enabling him to
write well on almost any subject, have long been known to me. " Win-
ter," says he, " is the season of Nature's annual repose — the time when the
working structures are reduced to the minimum of their extent, and the
energies of growth and life to the minimum of their activity, and when the
phenomena of nature are fewer, and address themselves less pleasingly to
our senses than they do in any other of the three seasons. There is hope
in the bud of Spring, pleasure in the bloom of Summei-, and enjoyment in
the fruit of Autumn; but, if we make our senses our chief resource, there
is something both blank and gloomy in the aspect of Winter.
" And if we were of and for this world alone, there is no doubt that this
would be the correct view of the winter, as compared with the other sea-
sons ; and the partial death of the year would point as a most mournful in-
dex to the death and final close of our existence. But we are beino-s oth-
erwise destined and endowed — the world is to us only what the lod"-e is
to the wayfaring man ; and while we enjoy its rest, our thoughts can be
directed back to the past part of our journey, and our hopes forward to
its end, when we shall reach our proper home, and dwell there securely
and forever. This is our sure consolation — the anchor of hope to our
minds during all stoiTns, whether they be of physical nature, or of social
adversity
" We are beings of sensation certainly ; many and exquisite are the plea-
sures which we are fitted for enjoying in this way, and much ought we to
be grateful for their capacity of giving pleasure, and our capacity of re-
ceiving it ; for this refined pleasure of the senses is special and peculiar to
us out of all the countless variety of living creatures which tenant the earth
around us. They eat, they drink, they sleep, they secure the succession
of their race, and they die ; but not one of them has a secondary pleasure
of sense beyond the accomplishment of these very humble ends.t We
[* Especially if reared in a love of books, and the study of the natural history of all nrnuud
*em. ^rf. Farm. Lib.]
[t It strikes us as a gloomy and mistaken view to say that in the whole range and variety of
creation, man should be the only being endowed with susceptibility to social pleasures. Who
has not witnessed with admiration not merely the force of conjugal, parental and filial ties be-
tween animals and birds, bat the social aiTections also— the sentiments of friendship and hospi-
tality, of jealousy, revenge, and of triumph! We may mention an instance under our own ob-
servation, of friendship a il hospitality displayed between two dogs. A lady residing in Baltimore
petted a magnificent Newfoundland dog, Pelham, while her mother, residing at Annapolis, be-
stowed her frienjlship on a small terrier, whose name was Gvess. A steamboat plied between
the two cities, and Pelham often accompanied his mistress on her vLsits to her mother, and theie
formed an intimacy with Guess. When the boat was leaving for Baltimore, Guess was sure to
accompany his mistress to see her friends oiF; and on one occasion was left on board and carried
to Baltimore, where he was landed among strangers, not knowing where to put his head. Pel-
78 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
stand far higher in the mere gratifications of sense ; and in the mental
ones there is no comparison, as the other creatures have not an atom of the
element to biing to the estimate.
" The winter is, therefore, the especial season of man — our own season,
by way of eminence ; and men who have no winter in the year of the re-
gion in which they are placed, never of themselves display those traits of
mental development which are the true characteristics of rational men, as
contrasted with the iiTational part of the living creation. It is true there
must be the contrast of a summer, in order to give this winter its proper
effect, but still, the winter is the intellectual season of the year — the sea-
son during which the intellectual and immortal spirit in man enables him
most triumphantly to display his superiority over ' the beasts that perish.' "*
15. OF THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD.
"When we see the figure of the house, then must we rate the cost of the erection."
Henry IV. Part II.
(1.) Before proceeding to the consideration of the state in which the
pupil should find the \ys\ovis fields at the beginning of winter, it will tend
to perspicuity in the furnishing of a farm to let him understand, in the
first instance, the principles on which a steading, or onstead, or farmstead,
ox farm-offices, or farmery, as it has been variously styled, intended for a
farm conducted on the mixed husbandry, should be constructed, and also
to enumerate its constituent parts. This explanation being given, and got
quit of at once, the names and uses of the various parts of a farmstead
will at once become familiarized to him. And before beginning with the
description of anything, I may here express it as my opinion that my
descriptions of all the farm operations will be much more lucid and
graphic if addressed personally to the pupil.
ham by chance met him in the street, was transported with joy at the sight of him. learned how
by accident he had arrived, and soon persuaded him to go home with him, where he knew his
mistress would kindly entertain him for her mother's if not for his own sake, until the boat
should return. It was an instance of cordial hospitality such as towns' gentlemen are not always
ready to reciprocate with their friends from the country.
No one, in fact, can be at a loss for examples to show that Providence has kindly blessed infe-
rior beings with capacity for other than mere brutal enjoyments. The congregation of various
birds is a remarkable indication of the spirit of sociality among the feathered tribe of creation ;
so animals herd together under the same love of company. The strongest fences cannot confine
some horses in a field alone. Cattle will not fatten in the finest pastures without society ; nor is
tills propensity confined to animals of the same species. A charming naturalist says he knevi^ a
doe, then still alive, that was brought up from a little fawn among dairy cows. With them it
went afii'ld, and with tbcm it returned to the cow-yard. The dogs of the house took no notice of
the deer, being used to her; but if strange dogs came bj', a chase ensued, and while the master
would look on and smile to see his favorite securely leading her pursuers over hedge, or gate, or
stile, till she returned to the cows, they, with fierce lowings and menacing horns, would drive
the assailants quite out of the pasture.
This complete degradation of all other created things, placing such a vast abyss between them
and man, seems to detract from the benevolence of a common Father over all. Let us felicitate
ourselves on the superiority of our physical structure and reasoning faculties, and the improve-
ments and the power thence derived ; but let us also remember in humility if not in shame, that
of all animals, not one is more prone than man, to the wanton abuse of his strength.
Ed. Farm Lib.\
* Mudie's Winter, Preface, p. 3 — 5.
(126)
u:
&J
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD. 79
(2.) To present a description of a steading in the most specific terms, it
will, in the first place, be necessary to assume a size which will afford
accommodation for a farm of given extent. To give full scope to the
mixed husbandry, I have already stated that a farm of 500 imperial acres
is required. I will therefore assume the steading, about to be described,
to be suited to a fai-m of that extent. At the same time you should bear
in mind that the principles which determine the arrangement of this par-
ticular size, are equally applicable to much smaller, as well as much larger
Bteadings ; and that the mixed husbandry is frequently practiced on farms
of much smaller extent.
(3.) It is a requisite condition to its proper use, that every steading be
conveniently placed on the farm. To be most conveniently placed, in theory,
it should stand in the center of the farm ; for it can be proved in geometry
that of any point within the area of a circle, the center is the nearest to
every point in its circumference. In practice, however, circumstances
greatly modify this theoretical principle upon which the site of all stead-
ings should be fixed. For instance, if an abundant supply of water can
be easily obtained for the moving power of the threshing-machine, the
steading may be placed, for the sake of thus economizing horse labor, in
a more remote and hollow spot than it should be in other circumstances.
If wind is prefeiTed, as the moving power, then the steading will be more
appropriately placed on rising ground. For the purpose of conveying the
manure down hill to most of the fields, some would prefer the highest
ground near the center of the farm for its site. Others, on the contrary,
would prefer the hnllowest point near the center, because the grain and
green crops would then be earned down hill to the steading, and this they
consider a superior situation to the other, inasmuch as the grain and green
crops are much more bulky and heavy than the manure. In making either
of these choices, it seems to be forgotten that loads have to be carried
both to 9XiA.from the steading ; but either position will answer well enough,
provided there be no steep ascent or descent to or from the steading. The
latter situation, however, is more consonant to experience and reasoning
than the other ; though level gi-ound affords the easiest transit to wheel-
carriages. It is also very desirable that the fann-house should be so
situated as to command a view of every field on the farm, in order that
the farmer may have an opportunity of observing whether the labor is
prosecuted steadily ; and if other circumstances permit, especially a plen-
tiful supply of good water, the vicinity of the farm-house should be chosen
as the site for the steading ; but if a sacrifice of the position on the part
of either is necessary, the farm-house must give way to the convenience
of the steading.
(4.) As a farm of mixed husbandry comprises every variety of culture,
BO its steading should be constructed to afford accommodation for every
variety of produce. The grain and its straw, being important and bulky
articles, -should be accommodated with room as well after as before they
are separated by threshing. Room should also be provided for every kind
of food for animals, such as hay and turnips. Of the animals themselves,
the horses being constantly in hand at work, and receiving their food
daily at regular intervals of time, should have a stable which will not only
afford them lodging, but facilities for consuming their food. Similar ac-
commodation is required for cows, the breeding portion of cattle. Young
cattle, when small of size and of immature ago, are usually reared in in-
closed open spaces, called courts, having sheds for shelter and troughs for
food and water. Those fattening for sale are cither put into smaller
courts with troughs called hammels, or fastened to stakes in byres or feed-
(127)
80 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
ing-houses, like the cows. Young horses are reared either hy themselves
in courts, with sheds and mangers, or get leave to herd with the young
cattle. Young pigs usually roam about even.'where, and generally lodge
among the litter of the young cattle, while sows with sucking pigs are
provided with small inclosures, fitted up with a littered apartment at one
end, and troughs for food at another. The smaller implements of hus-
bandry, when not in use, arc put into a suitable apartment ; while the
carts are provided with a shed, into which some of the larger imjilements
which are only occasionally used, are stored by. Wool is put into a cool,
clean room. An apartment containing a furnace and boiler to heat water
vnd prepare food when required for any of the animals, should never be
wanting in any steading. These are the principal accommodations re-
quired in a steading where live-stock are cared for ; and when all the
apartments are even conveniently arranged, the whole building will be
found to cover a considerable space of ground.
(5.) The leading princij^Ic on which these arrangements is determined
is verj' simple, and it is this : 1. Straw being the bulkiest article on the
farm, and in daily use by every kind of live-stock, and having to be car-
ried and distributed in small quantities by bodily labor though a heary
and unwieldy substance, should be centrically placed, in regard to all the
stock, and at a short distance from their respective apartments. The po-
sition of its receptacle, the straw-ham, should thus occupy a central point
of the steading; and the several apartments containing the live-stock
should be placed equidistant from the straw-bam, to save labor in the
carrj'ing of straw to the stock. 2. Again, applying the principle, that so
bulky and heavy an article as straw should in all circumstances be moved
to short distances, and not at all, if possible, from any other apartment
but the straw-bam, the threshing-machine, which deprives the straw of its
grain, should be so placed as at once to throw the straw into the straw-
barn. 3. And, in farther application of the same principle, the stack-yard
containing the unthreshed straw with its com, should be placed contigu-
ous to the threshing-machine. 4. Lastly, the passage of straw from the
stack-yard to the straw-bam through the threshing-machine beine: directly
progressive, it is not an immaterial consideration in the saving of time to
place the stack-yard, threshing-mill, and straw-barn in a right line.
(6.) Different classes of stock require different quantities of straw, to
maintain them in the same desfiee of cleanliness and condition. Those
classes which require the most should therefore be placed nearest the straw-
barn. 1. The yoimjrer stock requiring most straw, the courts which they
occupy should be placed contiguous to the straw-bam, and this can be
most effectually done by placincj the straw-bam so as a court may be put
on each side of it. 2. The older or fattening cattle requirinc: the next
larg^esr quantity of straw, the hammels which they occupy should be
placed next to these courts in nearness to the straw-bam. 3. Horses in
the stables, and cows in the Imes, requiring the smallest quantity of straw,
the stables and byres may be placed next farthest in distance to the ham-
mels from the straw-barn. The relative positions of these apartments are
thus determined by the comparative use of the straw. 4. There are two
apartments of the steadinqr whose positions are necessarily detemiincd by
that of the threshing-machine ; the one is the upper-barn, or threshing-
bam, which contains the unthreshed corn from the stack-yard, ready for
threshing by the mill ; and the other the cora-barn, which is below the
mill, and receives the com immediately after its separation from the straw
by the mill to be cleaned for market. 5. It is a great convenience to
have the granaries in direct communication with the corn-bara, to save
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD. 8i
the labor of canying the clean com to a distance when laid up for future
use. To confine the space occupied by the steading on the ground as much
as practicable for utility, and at the same time insure the good condition of
the grain, and especially this latter advantage, the granaries should always
be elevated above the ground, and their floors then form convenient roofs
for either cattle or cart-sheds. 6. The elevation which the granaries give
to the building should be taken advantage of to shelter the cattle-courts
from the north wind in winter ; and for the same reason that shelter is
cherished for warmth to the cattle, all -the cattle-courts should always be
open to the sun. The courts being thus open to the south, and the grana-
ries forming a screen from the north, it follows that the granaries should
stretch east and west on the north side of the courts ; and, as has been
shown, that the cattle-courts should be placed one on each side of the
straw-bam, it also fellows that the straw-barn, to be out of the way of
screening the sun from the courts, should stand north and south, or at
right angles to the south of the granaries. 7. The fixing of the straw-
bam to the southward of the gi-anaries, and of course to that of the thresh-
ing-machine, necessarily fixes the position of the stack-yard to the north
of both. Its northern position is highly favorable to the preservation of
the com in the stacks. 8. Tlie relative positions of these apartments are
very difterently arranged from this in many existing steadings ; but I may
safely assert, that the greater the deviation from the principle inculcated
in paragraphs (5) and (6) in the construction of steadings, the less de-
sirable they become as habitations for live-stock in winter.
(7.) This leading principle of the construction of a steading which is in-
tended to afford shelter to live-stock during winter, is as comprehensive as
it is simple, for it is applicable to every size of steading. Obviously coiTect
as the principle is, it is seldom reduced to practice, possibly because arch-
itects, who profess to supply plans of steadings, must be generally unac-
quainted with their practical use. There is one consideration upon which
architects bestow by far too much attention — the constructing of steadings
at the least possible cost ; and, to attain this object by the easiest method,
they endeavor to cojifine the various apartments in the least possible space
of ground, as if a few square yards of the ground of a farm were of great
value. No doubt, the necessity of economy is urged upon them by the
grudging spirit of the landlord when he has to disburse the cost, and by
the poverty of the tenant when that burden is thrown upon him. Now,
economy of construction should be a secondary consideration in compari-
son with the proper accommodation which should be afforded to live-stock-
Suppose that, by inadequate accommodation, cattle thrive by 10s. a-head
less in the course of a winter than they would have done in well construct-
ed courts and hammels (and the supposition is by no means extravagant),
* and suppose that the farmer is prevented realizing this sum on three lots
of twenty cattle each of different ages, there would be an annual loss to
him of c£30, from want of proper accommodation. Had the capital sum,
of which the annual loss of ^£30 is the yearly interest, been expended in
constructing the steading in the best manner, the loss would not only have
been averted, but the cattle in much better health and condition to slaugh-
ter, or to fatten on grass. Economy is an excellent rule to follow in farm-
ing, but it should never be put in practice to the violation of approved
principles, or the creation of inconveniences to live-stock, whether in the
steading or out of it. I regret to observe both errors too prevalent in the
construction of steadings. For example : It is undeniable that as cattle
occupy the courts only in winter, when the air, even in the best situations,
is at a low temperature, and the day short, they should in such circum-
(129) 6
82 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER, t-
stancee enjoy as much light and heat from the sun as can be obtained. It
is quite practicable to afford them both in courts facing fully to the south,
where these influences may be both seen and felt even in winter. Instead
of that, cattle-courts are very frequently placed within a quadrangle of
buildings, the southern range of which, in the first instance, eclipses the
winter's sun of even his diminished influence ; and the whole of which, be-
sides, converts the chilling air, which ruslies over the comers of its roof
into the courts, into a whirlwind of stai-vation, which, if accompanied with
rain or sleet, is sure to engender the most insidious diseases in the cattle.
Beware, then, of suffering loss by similar fatal consequences to your cat-
tle ; and, to prompt you to be always on your guard, impress the above
simple principle of the construction of steadings firmly upon your minds.
Rest assured that its \-iolation may prove in the end a much greater loss
by preventing the cattle thriving, than the paltry sum saved at first in the
outlay of the buildings can possibly ever recompense you for that loss.
(8.) Fig. 1, Plate 1. gives an isometrical view of an existing steading
suitable for the mixed husbandry, somewhat though not on the precise
principles which I have inculcated just now, but rather on the usual plan
of huddling together the various parts of a steading, with a view of sa^^ng
some of its original cost.* There are many steadings of this construction
to be found in the country, but many more in which stalls for feeding cat-
tle are substituted for hammels. The north range a a represents the gran-
aries with their windows, b the upper barn, c c the arches into the sheds
for cattle imder the granaries. The projecting building d in the middle is
the straw-bam, which communicates by a door in each side with the court
c or f for the younger cattle. The projecting building g, standing paral-
lel ^vith the straw-bam on the right hand side of the court f, is the stable
for the work -horses ; and the other projecting building h, also parallel with
the straw-bam on the left-hand side of the court e, is the cart-shed. The
cow-b\Tes i, and hammels k for feeding cattle, are seen stretching to the
right in a line with the north range a, but too far off from the straw-bam
d : I are hammels for a bull and queys : in, sheds for shepherds' stores :
n, stack-yard ^^•ith stacks : o, turnip stores : p, piggeries : q, calves' court :
r, implement-house : *, boiling-house : t, horse-pond : %t, hen-house : v.
liquid manure tank : w, hay -loft : x, out -houses : y, slaughter-house : and
z, hammels for young horses. This is a common disposition of the prin-
[* The reader will, probably, find nothing in " The Book of the Farm" which, at first view,
may Bcem more obnoxious than this to the appearance of being on a scale of accommodation and
expense nnsniicd to American farmers and American husbandry. And yet, -when he comes to
examine the observations of the Author in all their details, they will be found to be replete with
practical instruction and directions, which may be heeded with profit in the construction and ar-
rangement of all buildings, on whatever scale, designed for the shelter of domestic animals, the *
care and distribution of their food, and the preservation of farm vehicles and implements — such
buildings ns in England are termed the "steading or farmstead."
Some there may be, and doubtless are — such as wealthy merchants on retiring from the cares
and vicissitudes of commerce — who nnite the means with the de»ire to have their farm.stead as
lomplete as the best architectural design and materials can make ;t. To all such the plans here
presented may eerv-e as models, while they, and others with less means at command, may so
modify them as to suit all difference of circumstances — avoiding some portions, and yet seeing
much in parts of them that is eligible and in accordance with their own views and means.
But, without desiring to prejudice the judgment of the reader, we may ask him at least to ad-
mit, in the costliness of the illustrations connected with this part of the Book of Uie Farm, some
evidence that the Publishers desire not to shun any outlay that may be necessary to make the
Farmers' Librart worthy of public patronage, and fitted to fulfill their own promises.
Ed. Farm. L%b.\
(130)
^.^
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD. 83
cipal parts of a modern improved steading ; and a slight inspection of the
plate will convince you that in the arrangement of its different apartments
is exhibited much of the principle which I have been advocating. Many
modifications of this particular arrangement may be observed in actual
practice : — 1. such as the removal of the straw-bam d into the north range
a, and the placing of hammels, such as k, into the courts e and f, and the
conversion of one of the sheds c into cart-sheds. 2. Another modification
encloses a large court divided into two, within a range of buildings form-
ing three sides of a quadrangle, and retaining the north range for the gran-
aries, of a higher altitude than the rest. 3. While another comprises two
large courts, each surrounded by three sides of a quadrangle, the range in
the middle occupied by the threshing-mill and straw-barn being retained
at a higher altitude than the rest. 4. Another completes the quadrangle
around one court. 5. While another surrounds a large court, divided into
two, with a quadrangle. 6. And the last modification surrounds two sep-
arate courts, each with a quadrangle, having a common side. These mod-
ifications are made to suit either large or small farms ; but they all profess
to follow the same plan of arrangement. In truth, however, so varied is
the construction of steadings, that, I dare say, no two in the country are
exactly alike. Modifications in their construction in obedience to influen-
tial circumstances may be justifiable, but still they should all have refer-
ence to the principle insisted on above.
(9.) Fig. 2, Plate II. contains an engraving of a ground-plan of the
steading represented by the isometrical view in Plate I. It is unnecessary
for me to describe in detail all the component parts of this plan, as the
names and sizes of the vai'ious apartments are all set down. A short in-
spection will suffice to make you well enough acquainted with the whole
arrangement. This plan has been found, by extensive use, to constitute a
commodious, convenient, and comfortable steading for the stock and crop
of 500 acres, raised by the mixed husbandry ; and those properties it pos-
sesses in a superior degree to most similar existing steadings of the same
extent in this country, and in a much greater degree than any of the mod-
ified plans to which I have just alluded.
(10.) The steading I loould desire to see erected would be exactly in ac-
cordance with the principle I have laid down. I do not know one, nor is
there probably in existence one exactly on that pi-inciple, but I have seen
several, particularly in the north of England, which have impressed me
with the belief that there is a construction, could it be but discovered,
which would afford the most excellent accommodation, the gi'eatest con-
venience, and the utmost degree of comfort to live-stock ; and live-stock
being the principal inhabitants of steadings, too much care, in every re-
spect, cannot, in my opinion, be bestowed on the construction of their hab-
itations, so as to insure them in the inclement season the greatest degree
of comfort. I shall describe both an isometrical view and ground-plan of
a steading of imaginary construction, in strict accordance with the above
principle — the principle itself having been brought out by the promptings
of experience. I shall minutely describe these plans, in the sanguine hope
that the obvious advantages which they exhibit will recommend their con-
struction for adoption to all proprietors and tenants who feel desirous of
obtaining a plan of a steading for crop and stock, the arrangements of
which have been suggested by matured practical experience. The size
of these particular plans is not suited to any farm, whereon the mixed hus-
bandry is practiced, of less extent than 500 acres ; because, in order to
illustrate their principle, it was necessary to fix on some definite size, that
the relative sizes and positions of the different apartments might be dcfini-
(131)
84 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
lively set do«-n ; but the whole arrangement of the apartments is suited to
any size of plan, as the size and number of the apartments may be enlarged
or diminished according to the extent of the farm.
(11.) Fig. 3, Plate III. represents an isomctrical view of such a stead-
ing, and keeping the principle upon which it is constructed in mind, you
will find that this view illustrates it in every respect that has been stated.
1. A A is the principal or north range of building, of two stories in bight,
standing east and west. It contains two granaries, A and A, the upper-
barn C, which is also the site of the threshing-machine ; the corn-bam
being immediately below it is of course invisible, the sheds D D are under
the granaries ; E is the engine-house, and F the steam-engine furnace-
stalk, where the power employed to impel the threshing-machine is steam,
G the implement-house entering from the west gable, and H the hay-
house, under a granarj'. These several apartments, while occuppng the
north range, are greatly sennceable in sheltering the young stock in the
large courts I and K from the north wind. 2. Immediately adjoining to
the south of the corn-bam, upper-barn, and threshing-machine, is the
straw-bam L, standing north and south, contiguously placed for the emis-
sion of straw from either side into the courts I and K. 3. It is also con-
venientlv situated for supplying straw to the feeding hammels M, to the
right or eastward of the large court K, and equally so for supplying it to
those at X, to the left or westward of the large court I. 4. It is accessi-
bly enough placed for supplying straw to the work-horse stable O, and the
saddle-horse stable P, to the right or eastward in a line of the principal
range A. It is equally accessible to the cow-byre Q, and calves'-cribs R,
to the left or westward, in a hne of the principal range A. S is the stack-
yard, from which the stacks are taken into the upper-bam C,by the gang-
way T ; U is the boiling-house ; V the cart-shed, opposite and near the
work -house stable O; W is the wool-room, ha^*ing a window in the gable,
and its stair is from the straw-bam L ; XX comprise two small hammels
for bulls ; Y is the sei-vants' cow-house, in the hammels N ; Z is the gig-
house, adjoining to the liding-horse stable P. a are four sties for feeding
pigs therein ; 5 is a small open court, with a shed for containing young
pigs after they have just been weaned ; c are two sties for brood-sows
while lying-in. d are three apartments for the hatching and rearing of
fowls, e and f are turnip-stores for supplying the hammels M ; ^ is the
turnip-store for supplying the large court K; /<, that for small hammels
X, and the servants' cow-hf»use Y ; /, that for the large court I ; and p
and J are those for the hammels N. h is the open court and shed, \vith
water-ti'ough for the calves ; / the open court, with water-trough far the
cows, m is the turnip-shed for the cow-house Q, and calves'-cribs R. n
is the hay-stark built in the stackyard S, near the hay-hou-^c H. o and o
are straw-racks for the center of the large courts I and K. u is the ven-
tilator on the roof of the boilinir-house U; r that on the cow-house Q;
*, that on the calves'-cribs R ; t and ?/-, tho.se on the roof of the work-hoi-se
stable O ; and y. that on the ridinij-horse stable P. x is the liquid manure-
well to which drains converge from the various parts of the fannstead.
z are feeding-troughs, dispersed in the different courts and hammels. v
is the open court for the sers'ants' cows. And Z' and f are potato stores.
(12.) A ven,' little consideration of the airangement just now detailed,
will suffice to show you that it completely illustrates the principle I have
been advocating for the construction of farmsteads. Still, looking at the
isometrical view, in fie. 3, Plate III., it will be obsei-\ed that the threshing-
machine C — the machinery for letting loose the straw — is situated in the
middle of the groat range A, ready to receive the unthreshcd crop behind
(132)
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD. 85
from the stack-yard S, and as ready to deliver the straw threshed into the
straw-barn L standing before it. The store of straw in L, being placed
exactly in the center of the premises, is easily made available to the large
courts I and K and the sheds D and D by its four doors, two on each side.
The straw can be earned down the road on the right of the straw-barn
L, to the hammels M ; and along the farther end of the court K, through
the gate at H to both the stables O and P. It can with as much facility
be carried across the eastern angle of the large court I, through the gate
at the bull's hammels X, to the range of hammels at N, and to the
servants' cow-house Y, by its door near the turnip-store h. It can also
be earned right across the same court I, through the gate behind Y to the
cow-house Q., and the calves'-cribs R. The hammels X, the pigs vn a h
and c, and the fowls in d, can easily be supplied with straw. You may
observe in the arrangement of these apartments, that the stables O and P,
and the cow-house Q, and the calves'-cribs R, are situated beliind the
hammels M and N, and they are there for these reasons : Hammels for
feeding cattle requiring much more straw than stables and byres, accord-
ing to the foregoing theory, should be placed near the straw-barn ; and
hammels, moreover, being only occupied in winter by stock, should de-
rive, during that season, the fullest advantage that can be given them of
the light and heat of the sun. The servants' cow-byre Y being placed
nearer the straw-barn than the hammels N, may seem to cont'-avene the
principle laid down ; but the cow-byre, if desired, may be removed to the
other end of the hammels, though in the case where young horses and
queys in calf are intended to occupy the small hammels N, it may con-
veniently remain where it is, as they do not requii-e so much straw as
cows. If these hammels are to be destined to the accommodation of
feeding stock, then the byre ought to be removed to the extreme left of
the building. This form of steading is amply commodious, for it can ac-
commodate all the working and breeding stock, together with four gen-
erations of young stock in different stages of growth. A more convenient
arrangement than this for a farmstead, as I conceive, can scarcely be
imagined, and all the parts of it are of such a magnitude as not only to
afford ample room for every thing accommodated within it, but with
proper fittings up, the arrangement is capable of conferring great comfort
on its inmates. Its commodiousness will be the moi'e apparent after the
ground-plan has been considered in detail.
(13.) Fig. 4, Plate IV. is the ground-plan of the steading, of which the
preceding plate that has just been described is the isometrical view. The
straw-ham L is seen at once, running north and south. It is purposely
made of the hight of the upper barn to contain a large quantity of straw,
as it is oflen convenient in bad weather to thresh out a considerable quan-
tity of corn, when no other work can be proceeded with, or when high
market prices induce farmers to reap advantage fi-om them. There is
another good reason for giving ample room to the straw-barn. Every sort
of straw is not suited to every purpose, one sort being best suited for lit-
ter, and another for foddei'. This being the case, it is desirable to have
always both kinds in the barn, that the fodder-straw may not be wasted
in litter, and the litter-straw given as fodder to the injury of the bestial.
Besides, the same sort of straw is not alike acceptable as fodder to every
class of animals. Thus wheat-straw is a favorite fodder with horses, as
well as oat-straw, while the latter only is acceptable to cattle. Barley-
straw is only fit for litter. To give access to litter and fodder straw at the
same time, it is necessary to have a door from each kind into each court.
Thus four doors, two at each side near the ends, are required in a large
(133)
86 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
straw-barn. Slit-like openings should be made in its side-walls, to admit
air and promote ventilation through the straw. A sky-light in the roof at
the end nearest the threshing-machine, is useful in giving light to those
who take away and store up the straw from the threshing-machine when
the doors are shut, which they should be whenever the wind happens to
blow t()(j strongly througli them into the machine against the straw. In-
stead of dividing straw-barn doors into two vertical leaves, as is usually
done, they should be divided horizontally into an upper and a lower leaf,
so that the lower may always be kept shut against intruders, such as pigs,
while the upper admits both light and air into the barn. One of the doors
at each end should be fumished with a good stock-lock and key and thumb-
latch, and the other two fastened with a wooden hand-bar from the inside.
The floor of the straw-barn is seldom or never flagged or causewayed,
though it is desirable it should be. If it were not so expensive, the as-
phaltum pavement would make an excellent floor for a straw-bam. What-
ever substance is employed for the puq^ose, the floor should be made so
finu and dry as to prevent the earth rising and the straw moulding.
Mouldy straw at the bottom of a heap superinduces throughout the upper
mass a disagreeable odor, and imparts a taste repugnant to evei-y animal.
That portion of the floor upon which the straw first alights on sliding
down the straw-screen of the threshing-machine, should be strongly board-
ed to resist the action of the forks Avhen removing the straw. Blocks of
hard-wood, such as the stools of hard-wood trees, set on end, causeway-
wise, and sunk into the earth, form a very durable flooring for this pui-pose.
Stone flagging in this place destroys the prongs of the pitchforks. The
straw-barn should communicate with the chaff'-house by a shutting door, to
enable those who take away the straw to sec whether the chaff" accumu-
lates too high against the end of the winnowing-raachine. The communica-
cation to the wool-room in this plan is by the straw-barn, by means of the stair
d , made either of wood or stone. The straw-bam is represented 72 feet in
length, 18 feet in breadth, and 15 feet in hight to the top of the side walls.
(14.) C is the corn-ham. Its roof is formed of the floor of the upper
bam, and its hight is generally made too low. The higher the roof is the
more easily will the corn descend to be cleaned from the threshing-machine
down the hopper to the winno wing-machine. Nine feet is the least hight
it should be in any instance. The plan gives the size of the com-barn as
31 feet by 18 feet, but taking off" 5 feet for partitioning off" the machinery
of the threshing-mill, as at s, the extent of the workable part of the barn-
floor will be 2G feet by 18 feet. In that space I have seen much barn-
work done, but it could be made more by diminishing the size of the shed
D of the court K. The corn-bam should have in it at least two glazed
windows to admit plenty of light in the short days of winter, and they
should be guanled outside with iron stanchions. If one window cannot
be got to the south, the door when open will answer for the admission of
sunshine to keep the apartment comfortably dry for the work-people and
the grain. The door is generally divided into upper and lower halves,
which, as usually placed, are always in the way when the winnowing-
maahine is used at the door. A more convenient method is to have the
door in a whole piece, and when opened, to fold back into a recess in the
outer wall, over the top of which a plinth might jiroject to throw off" the
rain. In this case the ribets and lintel must be giblet-checked as deep as
the thickness of the door, into which it should close flush, and be fastened
with a good lock and key, and provided with a thumb-latch. The object
of making the com-bana door of this form is to avoid the inconvenience of
its opening into the barn, where, unless it folds wholly back on a wall, ia
(134)
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD.
87
frequently in the way of work, particularly when winnowing roughs, and
taking out sacks of com on men's backs. As to size, it should not be
less in the opening than 7^ feet in hight and 3^ feet in width. A light
half-door can be hooked on, when work is going on, to prevent the intru-
sion of animals, and the wind sweeping along the floor. The floor of the
corn-barn is frequently made of clay, or of a composition of ashes and
lime ; the asphaltic composition would be better than either ; but in every
instance it should be made of wood — of sound, hard red-wood Drahm bat-
tens, plowed and feathered, and fastened down to stout joists with Scotch
flooring sprigs driven through the feather-edge. A wooden floor is the
only one that can be depended on being constantly dry in a corn-bana ;
and in a barn for the use of corn, a dry floor is indispensable. It has been
suggested to me that a stone pavement, square-jointed, and laid on a bed
of lime over 9 inches of broken stones ; or an asphaltum pavement, laid
on a body of 6 inches of broken stones, covered with a bed of grout on
the top of the stones, would make as dry and more durable barn-floor than
wood, and which will not rot. I am aware that stone or asphaltum pave-
ment is durable, and not liable to rot ; but there are objections to both, in
a corn-barn, of a practical nature, and it is certain that the best stone
pavement is not proof against the undermining powers of the brown rat ;
while a wooden floor is durable enough, and certainly will not rot, if kept
dry in the manner I shall recommend over the page. The objections to
all stony pavements as a barn-floor are, that the scoops for shoveling the
corn pass very hai'shly over them — that the iron nails in the shoes of the
work-people wear them down, and raise a dust upon them — and that they
are hurtful to the bare hands and lighter implements, when used in taking
up the corn from the floor. For true comfort in all these respects in a
barn-floor, there is nothing hke wood. The walls of this bam should be^
made smooth with hair-plaster, and the joists and flooring forming its roof
cleaned with the plane, as dust adheres much more readily to a rough
than to a smooth surface. The stairs to the granaries * and s should en-
ter from the corn-barn, and a stout plain-deal door with lock and key
placed at the bottom of each. And at the side of one of the stairs may be
inclosed on the floor of the barn a space, t, to contain light corn to be
given to the fowls and pigs in summer when this sort of food is scarce
about the steading.
(15.) As the method of hanging doors on a giblet-check should be adopt-
ed in all cases in steadings ^'S- 5-
where doors on outside walls
are likely to meet with obstruc-
tions on opening inward, or
themselves becoming obstruct-
ive to things passing outward,
the subject deserves a separate
notice. In fig. 5, a is a strong
door, mounted on crooks and
bands, fully open, and thrown
back into the recess of the wall
b ; the projecting part of the
lintel c protecting it effectually
from the rain ; d is the giblet-
check in the lintel, and e that
iti the ribets, into which the
door shuts flush ; f is the light
movable door used when work is going on in the corn-bam.
(135)
THE CORN-BARN DOOR.
oO
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
(16.) The wooden floor of the cora-barn is liable to decay unless precau*
tions are used to prevent it, but a much too common cause of its destruc-
tion is veiTnin — such as i-ats and mice. It is discreditable to fanners to
perniit this floor to remain in a state of decay for any length of time, when
an effectual preventive remedy is within their reach ; and the more cer-
tainly preventive that remedy is, the more it should be appreciated. I used
a most effectual method of preventing the destructive ravages of either ver-
min or damp, by supporting the floor in the particular manner represented
in fig. 6. Tlie earth, in the first instance, is dug out of the bam to the depth
of the foundations of the walls, which should be two feet below the door
soles ; and, in the case of a new steading, this can be done when the foun-
dations of the walls are taken out. The ground is then spread over with
Fig. 6.
SECTION OF THE CORN BARN FLOOR.
a laye/ of sand, sufficient to preserve steadiness in the stout rough flags h A,
which are laid upon it and jointed in strong mortar. Twelve-inch thick
sleeper walls a a, of stone and lime, arc then built on the flags, to serve the
purpose of supporting each end of the joists of the floor. The joists c,
formed of 10 by 21 inch plank, are then laid down 16 inches apart, and the
spaces between them filled up to the top with stone and lime. The build-
ing between the joists requires to be done in a peculiar way. It should be
done with squared rubble stones, and on no account should the mortar
come in contact with the joists, as there is nothing destroys timber, by su-
perinducing the dry rot, more readily than the action of mortar upon it. —
For this reason great care should be observed in building in the joists into
the walls — in placing the safe-lintels over the doors and windows, the
stones being dry-bedded over them — and in beam-filling between the
couple-legs. The floor d is then properly laid on a level with the door-
sole, and finished with a neat skifting board / i round the walls of the barn.
By this contrivance the vermin cannot possibly reach the floor but from
the flags, which are nearly 2 feet under it. A hewn stone pillar f, or even
two, are placed on the flags under each joist to support and strengthen the
(136)
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD. 89
floor. This construction of floor admits of abundance of air above and be-
low to preserve it, and affords plenty of room under it for cats and dogs to
hunt after the vermin. This figure also gives a section of the building
above the com-barn, including the floor of the ujiper barn, the outside
walls, and the coupling, slating, and ridging of the roof of the middle range
of building.
(17.) The chaff-house, r, stands between the corn and straw barns. It is
separated from the former by a wooden partition, and from the latter by a
stone-wall. Its hight is the same as that of the com-barn, the floor of the
upper barn forming a roof common to both. It is 18 feet in length and 14
feet in width. It contains the winnowing-machine or fanners of the thresh-
ing-machine, from which it receives the chaff". It has a thin door with a
thumb-latch into the straw-barn, for a convenient access to adjust any of
the gearing of the fanners ; as also a boarded window hung on crooks and
bands, fastened in the inside with a wooden hand-bar, and looking into the
large court K ; but its principal door, through which the chaff" is emptied,
opens outward into the large court I. This door should be giblet-checked,
and fastened fi-om the inside with a wooden hand-bar. The space between
the head of the fanners and the wall should be so boarded up as not to in-
terfere with the action of the fanner-belts, but merely prevent the chaff" be-
ing scattered among the machinery, and any access by persons being effect-
ed by the machinery into the upper bam.
(18.) D D are two sheds for sheltering the cattle occupying the courts I
and K from rain and cold, by night or day, when they may choose to take
refuge in them. The shed of the court I is 52 feet in length by 18 feet in
width, being a little longer than that of the court K, which is 47 feet in
length and 18 feet in width, and their hight is 9 feet to the floor of the gran-
aries, which forms their roof. The access to these sheds from the courts
is by arched openings of 9 feet in width, and 7^ feet in hight to the top of
the arch. There should be a rack fastened against one of the walls of each
shed to supply fodder to the cattle under shelter in bad weather, as at h'.
As when a large number of cattle are confined together, of whatever age,
some will endeavor to obtain the mastery over the others, and to prevent
accidents in cases of actual collision, it has been recommended to have two
openings to each shed, to aff"ord a ready means of egress to the fugitives ;
and, as a farther safety to the bones and skins of the unhappy victims, the
angles of the hewn pillars which support the arches should be chamfered.
In my opinion, the precaution of two openings for the reason given is
unnecessary, inasmuch as cattle, and especially those which have been
brought up together, soon become familiarized to each other ; and two
openings cause draughts of air through the shed. If holes were made in
the faces of the pillars opposite to each other in the openings, so as bars
of wood could be put across them, the cattle could at any time be kept con-
fined within the sheds. This might at times be necessary, especially when
the courts are clearing out of the manure. The shed of the court K has a
door d' in the back wall for a passage to the work-people when going from
the corn to the upper barn, by the gangway T.
(ID.) E is the engine-house for the steam-engine, when one is used. It
is 18 feet in length and 8 feet in width, and the granary -floor above forms
its roof. It has a window looking into the large court I, and a door into
the boiler and furnace-house F, which house is 24 feet in length and 8 feet
in width, and has an arched opening at the left or west end. The chim-
ney-stalk is 6 feet square at the base, and rises tapering to a hight of 45
feet. If wind or horses are preferred as the moving power, the windmill-
tower or horse-course would be erected on the site of F.
(137)
90 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
(20.) G is the implement -house for keeping together the smaller imple-
ments when not in use, when they are apt to be thrown aside and lost. —
The intiinsic value of each implement being small, there is too generally
less care bestowed on them than on those of more pecuniary value ; but in
use each of them is really as valuable as the most costly, and even their
cost in the aggi'cgate is consideralile. The implement-house is 18 feet in
length by 14 feet in width, and its roof is formed of the granary -floor. —
This house should be provided with a stout plain-deal door with a good
lock and key, the care of which should only be entrusted to the faiTn-stew-
ard. It should also have a partly glazed window like that of the cow-
house, as sometimes this apartment may be converted into a convenient
work-shop -fur particular puqioses. The floor should be flagged, or laid
with asphaltum pavement. Besides the implements, this apartment may
contain the barrel of tar, a useful ingredient on farms where sheep are
reared, and where cait-naves require greasing ; the grindstone, a conveni-
ent instrument on a farm on many occasions for sharjjening edge-tools,
such as scythes, axes, hay-knife, dung-spade, &:c. A number of wooden
pins and iron spikes, driven into the walls, will be found useful for sus-
pending many of the smaller articles upon. The walls should be plastered.
(21.) H is the hay-house at the east end of the noith range A, and cor-
respondincj in situation to the implement-house. It is 18 feet in length, 17
feet in width, and its roof is also formed of the floor of the granary above.
Its floor should be flagged with a considerable quantity of sand to keep it
dry, or with asphaltum. It should have a giblet-checked door to open out-
ward, with a hand-bar to fasten it by in the inside ; it should also have a
partly glazed window, with shutters, to afford light when taking out the
hay to the horses, and air to keep it sweet. As the hay-house communi-
cates immediately with the work-horse stable O by a door, it can find room
for the work-horse corn-chest y, which may be there conveniently supplied
with com from the granary above by means of a spout let into the fixed
part of the lid. For facilitating the taking out of the corn, the end of the
chest should be placed against the wall at the side of the door which opens
into the stable, and its back part should be boarded up with thin deals to
the gfia nary -floor, to prevent the hay coming upon the chest. Its walls
should be plastered. This hay-house is conveniently situated for the hay-
stack n in the stack-yard S.
(22.) The form of the corn-chest, y, is more convenient and takes up less
room on the floor, when high and narrow, than when low and broad. —
When of a high form, a part of the front should fold down with hinges, to
g^ve easier access to the corn as it gets low in the chest. Part of the lid
should be made fast, to receive the corn-spout from the granary, and to
lighten its movable part, which should be fastened with a hasp and pad-
lock, and the key of which should be constantly in the custody of the farm-
steward, or of the man who gives out the com to the jslowmen, where no
faiTn-steward is kept. A fourth part of a peck-measure is always kept in
the chest, for measuring out the com to the horses. You must not ima-
gine that, because the spout sup])lies corn from the granary when required,
it supplies it without measure. The com appropriated for the horses is
previously measured off on the granary-floor, in any convenient quantity,
and then shoveled down the spout at times to fill the chest ; besides, lines
can be marked on the. inside of the chest indicative of every quarter of com
which it can contain.
(23.) O is the stable for the u'ork-horscs. Its length, of course, depends
on the number of horses employed on the farm ; but in no instance should
tts width he less than 18 feet, for comfort to the horses themselves, and con-
(138)
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD. 91
venience to the men who take charge of them. This plan, being intended
for a definite size of farm, contains stalls for 12 horses, and a loose box be-
sides— the whole length being 84 feet. Few stables for work-horses are
made wider than 16 feet, and hence few are otherwise than hampered for
want of room. A glance at the particulars which should be accommodated
in the width of a work-horse stable will show you at once the inconveniejice
of this narrow breadth. The entire length of a work-horse is seldom less
than 8 feet ; the extreme width of the hay -rack is about 2 feet ; the harness,
hanging loosely against the wall, occupies about 2 feet ; and the gutter oc-
cupies 1 foot : so that in a width of 16 feet there are only 3 feet left fi-om
the heels of the horses to the harness, on which to pass backward and for-
ward to wheel a barrow and use the shovel and broom. No wonder, when
so little space is left to work in, that cleanliness is so much neglected in
farm-stables, and that much of the dung and urine are left to be decom-
posed and dissipated by heat in the shape of ammoniacal gas, to the prob-
able injury of the breathing and eye-sight of the horses, when shut up at
night. And, what aggravates the evil, there seldom is a ventilator in the
roof; and, what is still woi'se, the contents of the stable are much con-
tracted by the placing of a hay -loft immediately above the horses' heads. —
Whatever may be the condition of a work-horse stable in reference to size
and room, its walls should always be plastered with good haired plaster,
as forming the most comfortable finishing, and being that most easily kept
clean Some people imagine that twelve horses are too great a number
to be in one stable, and that two stables of six stalls each would be better.
Provided the stable is properly ventilated, there can no injury accrue to a
larger than to a smaller number of horses in a stable ; and, besides, there
are practical inconveniences in having two work-horse stables on a faiTn.
The inconveniences are that neither the farmer nor farm-steward can per-
sonally superintend the grooming of horses in two stables ; that the orders
given to the plowmen by the steward must be repeated in both stables ;
and that either all the plowmen must be collected in one of the stables to
receive their orders, or, part of them not hearing the orders given to the
rest, there cannot be that common understanding as to the work to be done
which should exist among all classes of work-people on a farm.
(24.) Another particular in which most work-horse stables are im-
properly fitted up, is the narrowness of the stalls, 5 feet 3 inches being the
largest space allowed for an ordinaiy sized work-horse. A narrow stall
is not only injurious to the horse himself, by keeping him peremptoiily
confined to one position, in which he has no liberty to bite or scratch him-
self, should he feel so inclined, but materially obstructs the plowman in
the grooming process, and while supplying the horse with food. No
work-horse, in my opinion, should have a naiTower stall than 6 feet from
center to center of the travis, in order that he may stand at ease, or lie
down at pleasure with comfort. If " the laborer is worthy of his hire,"
the work-horse is deserving of a stall that will afford him sound rest.
(25.) It is a disputed point of what form the hay-racks in a work-horse
stable should be. The prevailing opinion may be learned from the gene-
ral practice, which is to place them as high as the horses' heads, because,
as it is alleged, the horse is thereby obRged to hold up his head, and he
cannot then breathe wpon his food. Many more cogent reasons, as I con-
ceive, may be adduced for placing the racks low down. In the first place,
a work-horse does not require to hold his head up at any time, and much
less in the stable, where he should enjoy all the rest he can get. 2. A low
rack permits the position of his neck and head, in the act of eating, to be
more like the way he usually holds them, than when holding them up to a
(139)
92 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
high one. 3. He is not nearly so liable to pull out the hay among his
feet from a low as from a high rack. 4. His breath cannot contaminate
his food more in a low than in a hiffh rack, because the greatest proportion
of the breath naturally a.scends ; though breathing is employed by the
horse to a certain degiee in choosing his food by the sense of smell. 5. He
is less fatigued eating out of a low than from a high rack, eveiy mouth-
full having to be pulled out of the latter, from its sloping position, by the
side of the mouth turned upward. 6. 3Iown-grass is much more easily
eaten out of a low than a high rack. 7. And lastly, I have heard of peas
falling out of their straw, when eaten out of a high rack, into the ears of
the horse, and therein setting up a serious degree of inflammation.
(26.) The front rail of the loir-rack should be made of strong hard-wood,
in case the horse should at any time playfully put his foot on it, or bite it
when groomed. The front of the rack. should be spaircd for the admis-
sion of fresh air among the food, and incline inward at the lower end, to
be out of the way of the horses' fore-feet. The bottom should also be
spaiTed, and raised about 6 inches above the floor, for the removal of hay
seeds that may have passed through the spars. The corn-trough should be
placed at the near end of the rack, for the greater convenience of supply-
ing^ the com. A spar of wood should be fixed across the rack from the
front rail to the back wall, midway between the tra\ns and the corn-
trouerh, to prevent the horse tossing out the fodder with the side of his
mouth, which he will sometimes be inclined to do when not hungn.'. The
ring through which the stall collar-shank passes, is fastened by a staple
to the hard-wood front rail. I have lately seen the manger in some work-
horse stables in steadings recently erected made of stone, on the alleged
score of being more easily cleaned than wood after the horses have got
prepared food. From my own obsei-vation in the matter, I do not think
wood more difllicult of being cleaned than stone at any time, and espe-
cially if cleaned in a proper time after being used — daily, for instance.
As plowmen are proverbially careless, the stone-manger has perhaps been
substituted on the supposition that it will bear much harder usage than
wood ; or perhaps the landlords, in the several instances in which stone-
mangers have been erected, could obtain stone cheaper from their own
quarries than good timber from abroad : but either of these reasons are
poor excuses for the carelessness of servants on the one hand, or the par-
simony of landlords on the other, when the well-being of the farmers'
most useful animals is in consideration ; for, besides the clumsy appear-
ance of stone in such a situation, and its comfortless feel and aspect, it is
injui-ious to the horses' teeth when they seize it suddenly in grooming, and
it is impossible to prevent even some work-horses biting any object when
groomed ; and I should suppose that stone would also prove hurtful to
their lips when gathering their food at the bottom of the manger. I have
no doubt that the use of stone-mangers will have a greater effect in grind-
ing down the teeth of farm-horses, than the " tooth of old Time " itself.
(27.) The hirtd pofits of travises should be of solid wood rounded in
front, grooved in the back as far as the travis boards reach, sunk at the
lower ends into stone blocks, and fastened at the upper ends to battens
stretching across the stable from the ends of the couple legs, where there
is no hay-loft, and from the joists of the flooring where there is. The
head-posts are divided into two parts, which clasp the travis boards be-
tween them, and are kept together with screw-bolts and nuts. Their
lower ends are also sunk into stone blocks, and their upper fastened to
the battens or joists. The travis boards are put endways into the groove
in the hind-post, and pass between the two divisions of the head-post to
(140)
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD. 93
the wall before the horses' heads ; and are there raised so high as to pre-
vent the contiguous horses troubling each other,
(28.) The floor of all stables should be made hard, to resist the action
of the horses' feet. That of a work-horse stable is usually causewayed
with small round stones, embedded in sand, such as are to be found on
the land or on the sea-beach. This is a cheap mode of paving. When
these cannot be found, squared blocks of whinstone (trap rock, such as
basalt, greenstone, &rc.) answer the puipose fully better. Flags make a
smoother pavement for the feet than either of these materials, and they
undoubtedly rriake the cleanest floor, as the small stones are very apt to
retain the dung and absorb the urine around them, which, on decomposi
tion, cause filth and constant annoyance to horses. To avoid this incon-
venience in a great degree, it would be advisable to form the gutter be-
hind the horses' heels of hevvn freestone, containing an entire channel,
along which the urine would flow easily, and every filth be completely
swept away with the broom. The channel should have a fall of at least
1^ inch to the 10 feet of length. The paving on both sides should incline
toward this gutter, the rise in the stalls being 3 inches in all. In some
stables, such as those of the cavalry and of carriers, the floor of the stalls
rise much higher than 3 inches, and on the Continent, particularly in Hol-
land, I have observed the rise to be still more than in any stables in this
country. Some veterinary Avritei's say that the position of the feet of the
horse imposed by the rise, does not throw any unnecessary strain on the
back tendons of the hind-legs.* This may be, but it cannot be denied that
in this position the toes are raised above the heels much higher than on
level ground. I admit that a rise of three inches is necessary in stalls in
which geldings stand, as they throw their water pretty far on the litter ;
but in the case of mares, even this rise is quite unnecessary. It is indis-
purable that a horse always prefers to stand on level ground, when he is
free to choose the ground for himself in a gi-ass-field, and much more ought
he to have level ground to stand on in a stable, which is his place o£rest.
(29.) Fig. 7 gives a view of the particulars of such a stall for xoork-
horscs as I have described, a a are the strong hind-posts ; b h the head-
posts, both sunk into the blocks c c c c, and fastened to the battens d d,
stretching across the stable from the wall e to the opposite wall ; fj" the
travis-boards let into the posts a a hy grooves, and passing between the
two divisions of the posts hb ; the boards are represented high enough to
prevent the horses annoying each other; gg curb-stones set up between
the hind and fore posts a and b, to receive the side of the travis-boards in
grooves, and thereby secure them from decay by keeping them beyond
the action of the litter ; h is the spaned bottom of the hay-rack, the up-
per rail of which holds the ring i for the stall collar-shank ; k the com-
manger or trough ; / the bar across the rack, to prevent the horse tossing
out the fodder ; 7n the pavement within the stall ; n is the freestone gutter
for conveying away the urine to one end of the stable ; o the pavement of
the passage behind the horses' heels ; p are two parallel spars fastened
over and across the battens, when there is no hay-loft, to support trusses
of straw or hay, to be given as fodder to the horses in the evenings of
winter, to save the risk of fire in going at night to the straw-barn or hay-
house with a light.
(30.) The harness should all be hung against the wall behind the horses,
and none on the posts of the stalls, against which it is too frequently
placed to its great injury, in being constantly kept in a damp state by the
• Stewart's Stable Economy, p. 17.
(141)
94
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
horses' breath and perspiration, and apt to be knocked down among the
horses' feet. A good way is to suspend harness on stout hard-wood pins
driven into a strong narrow board, fastened to the wall with iron hold-
fasts; but perhaps the most substantial way is to build the pins into the
wall. The harness belonging to each pair of horses should just cover a
space of wall equal to the breadth of the two stalls which they occupy,
and when windows and doors intervene, and which, of course, must be
left fiee, its arrangement requires some consideration. This mode of ar-
rangement I have found convenient. A spar of hard-wood nailed firmly
across the upper edge of the batten d, fig. 7, that supports both the posts
Fiff. 7.
STALL FOR WORK-HORSE STABLE.
of a Stall, will suspend a collar on each end, high enough above a person's
head, immediately over the passage. One pin is sufficient for each of the
cart-saddles ; one will support both the bridles, while a fourth will suffice
for the plow, and a fifth for the trace-harness. Thus 5 pins or 6 spaces
vrill be required for each pair of stalls, and in a stable of 12 stalls, de-
ducting a space of 13 feet for 2 doors and 2 windows in such a stable,
there will still be left, according to this arrangement, a space for the har-
ness of about 18 inches Ixjtween the pins. Iron hooks driven into the
board betwixt the pins will keep the cart-ropes and plow-reins by them-
selves. The curry-comb, hair-brush, and foot-picker may be conveniently
enough hung up on the hind-post betwixt the pair of horses to which they
belong, and the mane-comb is usually carried in the plowman's pocket.
(31.1' Each horse should be bound to his stall with a leather stall-collar,
haying an iron-chain collar-shank to play through the liiig i of the hay-
(142)
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD. 95
rack, fig. 7, with a turned wooden sinker at its end, to weigh it to the
ground. Iron-chains make the strongest stall-collar-shanks, though cer-
tainly noisy when in use ; yet work-horses are not to be trusted with the
best hempen cords, which often become affected with dry-rot, and are, at
all events, soon apt to wear out in running through the smoothest stall-
rings. A simple stall-collar, with a nose-band, and strap over the head, is
sufficient to secure most horses ; but as some have a trick of slipping the
strap over their ears, it is necessary to have either a throat-lash in addi-
tion or a belt round the neck. Others are apt, when scratching their neck
^vith the hind-foot, to pass the fetlock joint over the stall-collar-shank, and
finding themselves thus entangled, to throw themselves down in the stalls,
bound neck and heel, there to remain unreleased until the morning, Avhen
the men come to the stable. By this accident, I have seen horses get in-
jured in the head and leg for some time. A short stall-collar-shank is the
only preventive against such an accident, and the low rack admits of its
being constantly used.
(32.) The roof o? a. wor^-stable should always be open to the slates, and
not only that, but have openings in its ridge, protected from the weathei
by a particular kind of wood-work, called a ventilator. Such a thing as a
ventilator is absolutely necessary on the roof of a work-horse stable. It is
distressing to the feelings to inhale the air in some farm stables at night,
particularly in old steadings economically fitted up. It is not only warm
from confinement, moist from the evaporation of perspiration, and stifling
from sudorific odors, but cutting to the breath, and pungent to the eyes,
from the decomposition of dung and urine by the heat. The windows are
seldom opened, and many can scarcely be opened by disuse. The roof in
fact is suspended like an extinguisher over the half stifled horses. But the
evil is still farther aggravated by a hay-loft, the floor of which is extended
over and within a foot or less of the horses' heads. Besides the horses
being thus inconvenienced by the hay-loft, the hay in it, through this nightly
roasting and fiimigation, soon becomes dry and brittle, and contracts a
disagreeable odor. The only remedy for these inconveniences in work-
horse stables is the establishment of a complete ventilation through them.
(33.) Fig. 8. represents one of these ventilators, in which the Venetian
blinds a are fixed, and answer the double purpose of permitting the es-
Fig. 8.
A VENTILATOR.
cape of heated air and effluvia, and of preventing the entrance of rain or
snow. The blinds are covered and protected by the I'oof h, made of
slates and lead ; c is an apron of lead. Such a ventilator would be more
ornamental to the steading than fig. 8, and more protective to the blinds,
if its roof projected 12 inches over. One ventilator of the size of 6 feet in
length, 3 feet in hight in front, and 2 feet above the ridging of the roof,
(143)
96 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
for every four horses in a work-horse stable, may perhaps suffice to main-
tain a complete ventilation. But openings in the roof will not of them-
selves constitute ventilation, unless there be an adequate supply of fresh
air from below, to enforce a cuirent ; and this supply should be obtained
from openings in the walls, including the chinks of doors and windows
when shut, whose gross areas should be equal to those of the ventilators.
The openings should be foiTned in such situations, and in such numbers,
as to cause no draught of cold air to be directed against the horses. They
might conveniently be placed, protected by gratings of iron on the outside
to prevent the entrance of vermin, in the wall immediately behind the
haraess, through which the air would pass, and cross the passage toward
the hoi-scs ; and the air on thus entering the stable should be made to de-
flect to both sides of each opening, by striking against a plate of iron
placed before the opening, at a short distance from the w^all. I observe
other fomis of ventilators in use in steadings, one consisting of large lead
pipes projected through the roof, with the ends turned down ; and another
having a portion of the slating or tiling raised up a little, and there held
open. Either of these plans is much better than no ventilation at all, and
I dare say either mode may be cheaply constructed ; but neither is so
effectual for the pui-poses of ventilation as the one I have figured and
described.
(34.) Besides the ordinary stalls, a loose-hox, u, will be found a usefu'.
adjunct to a work-horse stable. A space equal to two stalls should be
railed off at one end of the stable, as represented at u on the plan, fig. 4,
Plate IV. It is a convenient place into which to put a work-mare when
expected to foal. Some mares indicate so very faint symptoms of foaling
that they frequently are known to drop their foals under night in the sta-
ble, to the great risk of the foal's life, where requisite attention is not di-
rected to the state of the mare, or where there is no spare apaitment to
put her into. It is also suitable for a young stallion, when first taken up
and preparing for traveling the road ; as also for any young draught-horse
taken up to be broke for work, until he become accustomed to a stable.
It might be, when unfortunately so required, converted into a convenient
hospital for a horse, which, when seized with an unknown complaint,
might be confined in it, until it is ascertained whether the disease is in-
fectious, and then he should be removed to an oiit-house. Some people
object to having a loose-box in the stable, and would rather have it out of
it ; but the social disposition of the horse renders one useful there on the
occasions just mentioned. It is, besides, an excellent place in which to
rest a fatigued horse for a few days.
(35.) Adjoining to this I have placed the stable for ridivg-horsen, as at P
on the plan, fig. 4, Plate IV, not that those stables should always be to-
gether, for the riding-hoi*se stable can be placed at any convenient part of
the farmstead or near the farm-house. It may be fitted up in the form of
three stalls of 6 feet each, or two loose-boxes of 9 feet each, according to
inclination, that is, a size of 18 feet square will afford ample room for all
the riding-hf)rses a farmer will require. The high rack is always put v.p
in riding-horse stables, to oblige the horse to keep iip his head, and main-
tain a lofty carriage with it. The long manger, stretching from one tvavis
to another, is frequently used where the high rack is approved of But
the neatest mode of fitting up the stall of a riding-horse stable is with a
hay-cnb in one of the corners, and a corn-box in the other, both being
placed at convenient bights from the ground. The stall-posts in riding-
horse stables are fastened into the ground in a body of masoniy, and not
to the roof, as that should be made as lofty as the bight of tl:e balks of die
(144)
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD. 97
couples will admit, and it should be lathed, and all the walls plastered, for
the sake of appearance, warmth, and cleanliness. The corn-chest may be
placed either in the recess of the window, where its lid might form a sort
of table, or in a corner. One door and a window are quite enough for
light and entrance. The door should open outward on giblet-checked
ribets, and provided with a good lock and key, and spring-latch with a
handle, so as not to catch the harness. The hight and width of both riding
and work -horse stable-doors are usually made too low and too naiTow for
the easy passage of ordinary sized horses in harness ; 7^ feet by 3i feet
are of the least dimensions they should ever be made. A ventilator is as
requisite in a riding as a Avork-horse stable, and, to promote ventilation,
the under part of the window should be provided \vith shutters to open.
The neatest floor is of droved flags ; though I have seen in stables for
riding-horses very beautiful floors of Dutch clinkers.
(36.) The lowest part of a high rack is usually placed about the hight
of a horse's back, in contact ^A-ith the wall, and the upper part projecting
about 2 feet from it. This position is objectionable, inasmuch as the angle
of inclination of the fi-ont with the wall is so obtuse as to oblig-e the horse
to turn up the side of his mouth before he can draw a mouthfull of prov-
ender out of it, though the front be sparred at such a width as to permit
hay and grass to pass easily through. A better plan is to have the front
nearly parallel with the wall, and the bottom sparred to admit the falling
out of dust and seeds.
(37.) The long manger, which is always used with the high rack, is chiefly
useful in permitting the corn to be thinly spread out, and making it more
difiicult to be gathered by the lips of the horse, and on that account con-
sidered an advantageous form of manger for horses that are in the habit
of bolting their corn. I doubt whether horses really masticate their com
more effectually when it is spread out thin, though no doubt they are
obliged to take longer time in gathering and swallowing it, when in that
state.
(38.) The hay crib fixed up in one corner of the stdll, usually the far
one, is not large enough to contain fodder for a work -horse, though amply
so for a riding-horse. A work-horse will eat a stone of hay of 22 lbs.
every day, which, when even much compressed, occupies about a cubic
foot of space. To make a quadrifid hay-crib contain this bulk, would re-
quire the hay to be hard pressed down, to the great annoyance of the
horse, and the danger of much waste by constant pulling out. Plowmen
require no encouragement by small racks to press fodder hard into racks.
This they usually do, with the intention of giving plenty of it to their
horses ; but were racks generally made capacious enough, they would
have less inducement to follow a practice which never fails to be attended
■wath waste of provender. Such hay-cribs are usually made of iron.*
[* Not so yet in the United States, although iron is being more and more substituted for wood,
for various purposes, and would be for many more, if iron-masters were farmers, or, t-ice versa, to
make both more familiar with tlie numerous purposes to which it might be economical!}- applied.
Among those who will read this, there are yet doubtless some who well remember when rope
traces and wooden mould-boards and hay-forks were used almost exclusively. Iron might be
employed to advantage for a great variety of new uses. It needs for this and other improve-
ments that Americans be brought, as they will be by degrees, to disburden themselves of the
party demagogues by whom they are ridden, and learn, instead of being absorbed by partj- poli-
tics, to turn their attention and studies to their ov.n true and peculiar interests.
Few things serve better to distinguish the habits and even the character of the progeny from
the parent stock — the Americans from their English ancestors — than the more perfect finish and
durabilitv of all their mechanical works, machinery and buildings.
(193) 7
98 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
(39.) With regard to the relative advantages of stalls and loose-boxes in
riding-stables, 'there is no doubt that, for personal liberty and comfort to
the horse, the latter are much to be preferred, as in them he can stand, lie
down, and stretch him out in any way he pleases ; but they require more
litter and a gi'eat deal of attention from the groom to keep the skin of the
horse clean, and preserve the horse-clothes from being torn — considera-
tions of some importance to a farmer who has little use for a regularly-
bred groom to attend constantly on his riding-horse ; unless he be a sports-
man.*
(40.) The Jloor of the riding-horse stable may be paved either with
small stones, and a gutter of freestone to carry off urine, like the work-
horse stable, or, what is better, with jointed flags ; but the neatest form
of floorings is of jointed droved flags, grooved across the passage from the
door to the stalls, to prevent the slipping of the horses' feet. This plan
has also the advantage of being the cleanest as well as the neatest, but it
is obviously more suited to the stables of the landlord than the tenant.
(41.) If you use a wheeled vehicle of any kind, the coach-liou.se should
adjoin the riding-horse stable. Of 18 feet square in size it will contain
two light- wheeled caniages, and afford ample room besides for other pur-
poses, such as the cleaning of harness, &c. As the utmost precautions of
ventilation and cleanliness cannot prevent deposition of dust in a riding-
horse stable, the harness should be placed beyond its reach in the coach-
house, where it should be hung upon pins against a boarded wall. To
keep it and the carriages dry in winter, there should be a Xarge Jire-j)lace
in the coach-house. The floor should be flagged, and the roof and walls
lathed and hair-plastered. A door should open from the liding-horse
stable, provided with lock and key, and the large coach-house door should
op^n outward on a giblet-check, and be fastened with bolts and a bar in
the inside. Z in plan fig. 4, Plate IV. is the coach-house, with the large
fire-place i in it. Coach-houses having to be kept dry in winter, to pre-
vent the moulding of the leather-work, are frequently kept so by stoves,
which, when not in use in summer, become rusted and out of working or-
der ; and when again lighted in that state, never fail to smoke and soil
every thing with soot.t
There things arc made to endure ; here they are made to answer the purposes of the day.
There railroads often cost one hundred and ffty thousand dollars a mile ! but when they are
done, they are done ! On the other hand, Americans beat the world in ingenuity and in readiness
to imitate and improve. Short apprenticeships, slighted and imperfect structures, unseasoned and
perishable materials hastily put together, and even the restless and roaming temper of our popu-
lation, may be regarded as the natural growth of our freer and looser form of government, and we
must take the bitter with the sweets. Ed. Farm. Lib.]
[* " Horse cloths " or coverings are not generally used or needed on American farms. Horses
are in no danger from cold. Stables should be always drj% but well ventilated, and care should
always be taken, when horses are heated, not to leave them at rest, in a cold wind or current of
air uncovered. No man of any consideration or mercy would do it, or allow it to be done.
Ed. Farm. Lib.]
[t This suggestion of a fire-place in a coachhouse may be regarded as another English refine-
ment, and like many things in this book, which must be published (from their inseparable con-
nection with others that are practicable and expedient) is not therefore to be considered as recom-
mended for imitation.
A fire place in a house connected with the farmstead, to prevent the mould on harness, which
in England is the result of the dampness of the climate, implies more capital and more careful
servants than we have at command in this country. Approved English or foreign servants, as
they are styled abroad, on coming to America either go at once, with their means, and for a few
dollars, several hundred miles west, and there buy government lands at 81 25 an acre, or they
(194)
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD. 99
(42.) The cow-liouse or hyre, Q,, is placed on the left of the principal
range, in a position corresponding with that of the work-horse stable. It
is 53 feet in length and 18 feet in width. The stalls of a cow-house, to
be easy for the cows to lie down and rise up, should, in my opinion, never
be less than 5 feet in width. Four feet is the more common width, but
that is evidently too narrow for a large cow, and even 7 feet are consid-
ered by some people as a fair-sized stall for two cows ; though, in my
opinion, every cow should have a stall for herself, for her own comfort
when lying or standing, and that she may eat her food in peace.* The
width of the byre should be 18 feet ; the manger is 2 feet in width, the
length of a large cow about 8 feet, the gutter 1 foot, leaving 7 feet behind
the gutter for the different vessels used in milking the cows and feeding
the calves. The ceiling should be quite open to the slates, and a ventilator,
moreover, is a useful apparatus for regulating the temperature and sup
plying fresh air to a byre. A door, divided into upper and lower halves,
should open outward to the court on a giblet-check, for the easy pasage of
the cows to and from the court, and each half fastened on the inside with
a hand-bar. Two windows with glass panes, with the lower parts fur-
nished with shutters to open, will be quite sufficient for light, and, along
with the half-door, for air also. The walls should be plastered for comfort
and cleanliness.
(43.) The stalls are most comfortably made of wood, though some
recommend stone, which always feels hard and cold. Their hight should
be 3 feet, and in length they should reach no farther than the flank of the
cow, or about 6 feet from the wall. When made of "wood, a strong hard-
wood hind-post is sunk into the ground, and built in masonry. Between
this post and the manger should be laid a curb-stone, grooved on the up-
per edge to let in the deals of the travis endways. The deals are held in
their places at the upper ends by a hard-wood rail, grooved on the under
remain in the towns, under much higher wages than the American Farmer can afford to give,
taxed as he is to support enormously expensive miUtary and civil establishments. Who would
believe, for example, that in Maryland the farmers and planters, asking so little, and getting
60 much less, from Government, pay 100 men $4 per day each, and even the postage on all
their political and private as well as public correspondence, for the space of three months every
year, to make new laws and patch up old ones !
Would any cultivated agricultural community, educated as they ought to be, with an under-
standing oi their own true interests and just power, submit for one year to be thus humbugged
and fleeced ? Ed. Farm. Lib.]
[* This would all be very well if the American farmer had capital to build, for better accom-
modation, on any scale, however expensive. But where he is forced, according to a common
saying, to " cut his coat according to his cloth," less roomy stalls must answer. In our best dairy
establishments, as at Morrisania and others, the partition between the stalls is usually very short,
just sufficient to prevent the heads of the cows from coming in contact, leaving the space open
between their bodies, the width of the stall being often not more than three feet in the clear, and
these seem to answer well.
In some of these best milk establishments, strong tubs, which are easily removed to be cleaned
or filled, are in use for giving short provender, cut hay or straw, or com fodder, as the case may
be, wet and mixed with bran shorts or meal of some sort, leaving the long provender to go into
the manger, which runs from one end of the stable to the other, sometimes resting on the floor.
These tubs are filled in the feeding passage, from which also the long provender is supplied to the
mangers. Usually this feeding passage is between two rows of stalls in which the cows stand
■with their heads to the passage. We shall hereafter give exact plans, where it may be deemed
necessary, on a scale suited to American farmers ; but it is deemed best here not to disturb the
copy before us, as every part in the plan has some connection with some other part. From the
whole the reader proposing to build may easily select such portions as he may like, and re-com-
bine them to meet and satisfy his own views. Ed. Farm. Lib.]
(195)
100
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
side, into which the ends of the deals ai'e let, and the rail is fixed to the
back of the hind-post at one end, and let into the wall at the other, and
there fastened with iron holdfasts. Stone travises are no doubt more dura-
ble, and in the end, perhaps, more economical, where flag-stones are plen-
tiful ; but I would in all cases prefer wood, as feeling warmer, being more
dry in winter, and less liable to injure the cows coming against them, and
within doors will last a long time. The plan of the stalls may be seen at
Q and Y in the plan fig. 4, Plate IV.
(44.) The mangers of byres are usually placed on a level wit^ the floor,
with a curb-stone in front to keep in the food, and paved in the bottom. —
This position I conceive to be highly objectionable, inasmuch as, when
breaking the turnips, the head of the animal is depressed so low that an
undue vvinght is thrown upon the fore-legs, and an injurious strain induced
on the muscles of the lower jaw. A better position is, when the bottom
of the manger, made of flag-stones or wood, resting on a building of stone
and mortar, is raised about 20 inches from the ground, and a plank set on
edge in front to keep in the food. This plank should be secured in its po-
sition with iron rods batted into the wall at one end, and the other end
passed through the plank to a shoulder, which is pressed hard against the
plank on the opposite side by means of a nut and screw. This form of
manger may be seen in fig. 18, p. 110. In this position of the manger, the
cow will eat with ease any kind of food, whether whole or cut, and all
feeding-byres for oxen should also be fitted up with mangers of this con-
stniction. Mangers are generally made too narrow for cattle with horns,
and the consequence is the rubbing away of the points of the horns against
the wall.
(45.) The method o£ supplying green food to cattle in byres may be va-
rious, either by putting it into the manger from the
inside, or from the outside through holes in the wall
made exactly opposite their heads. Either way is
equally serviceable to the cattle, but the latter is the
more convenient for the cattle-man. Its construc-
tion may be easily understood by fig. 9, which rep-
resents the door shut in the opening of the wall on
the outside. But, convenient as this* mode of sup-
plying food is, I prefer giving it by the stall, when
that is as wide as 5 feet, because, in cold weather
in winter, the draught of air occasioned by the open-
ing of the small doors at the heads of cows may en-
danger their health. There is another method by having a passage of 3
feet in width betwixt the stalls and the wall, from which both turnips and
fodder may be supplied to the cows. In this case the space behind the
cows is reduced to 4 feet in width.
(46.) The floor of byres should be paved with small round stones, ex-
cepting the gutter, which, being as broad as an ordinary square-mouthed
shovel, should be flagged at the bottom, and formed into the shape of a
trough by two curb-stones. A gutter of this form can be quickly cleaned
out. A similarly formed gutter, though of smaller dimensions, should run
from the main one through the wall to the court, to carry off* the urine. —
The causewaying of the stalls of a cow-house should go very little farther
up than the hind-posts, because, in lying down and rising up, cattle first
kneel on their fore-knees, which would be injured in the act of being
pressed against any hard substance like stones. Tliis inner part of the
stall should be of earth, made softer by being covered with litter. The
urine gutters may be seen in the plan at Q. and Y in fig. 4, Plate IV
(196)
Fig. 9.
DOOR THROUGH WHICH TO
SUPPLY MANGERS WITH
TURNIPS.
\
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD.
101
(47.) Fig. 10 represents a section of a travis and manger of a byre, where
a is the wall, b the building which supports the manger c, having a front
of wood, and bottomed with either flags or wood, d the hard-wood hind-
post, sunk into the ground, and there built in \\\Xh stones and mortar, e the
hard-wood top-rail, secured behind the post d, and let into and fixed in
the wall a with iron holdfasts, f the stone curb-stone, into which the tra-
Fis;. 10.
BYRE TRAVIS, MANGER, AND STAKE.
vis-board is let ; g the boarding of wood, let endways into the curb-stone
below, and into the top-rail above, by a groove ; h is a hard-wood stake,
to which the cattle are fastened by binders, the lower end of which is let
into a block of stone ?', and the upper fastened by a strap of iron to a block
of wood k fixed into the wall a ; m is the gutter for the dung, having a
bottom of flag-stones, and sides of curb-stones ; n the paved floor ; o the
opening through the wall a by which the food is supplied into the manger
c to the cattle, from the shed s behind. This shed is 8 feet wide, p being
the pillars which support its roof q, which is just a continuation of the sla-
ting of the byre roof, the wall a of which is 9 feet, and the pillars p 6 feet,
in hight. But where no small doors for the food are used, the shed s, pil-
lars p, and roof q, are not required — a small turnip store being sufficient
for the purpose, and to which access may be obtained by the back door,
seen in Q,, at the right hand of the stalls in fig. 4, Plate IV. Fig. ii.
(48.) Cattle are bound to the stake in vaiious ways.
1. One way is with an iron chain, commonly called
a binder or seal. This is represented in fig. 11,
where a is the large ring of the binder which slides
up and down the stake li, which is here shown in
the same position as it is by 7^ in the section of the
stall in fig. 10. The iron chain being put round '^^
the neck of the beast, is fastened together by a
broad-tongued hook at c, which is put into any link
of the chain that forms the gauge of the neck, and
cannot come out again until turned on purpose
edgeways in reference to the link of which it has
a hold. This sort of binder is in general use in
the midland and northern counties of Scotland.
2. Another method of binding is %vith the baiMe,
Avhich is made of a piece of hard wood e, fig. 12,
(197)
102
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
Fig. 12.
Standing upright and flat to the neck of the beast ; a rope g, fastens tho
lower end of it to the stake, upon which it shdes up and down by means
of a loop which the rope forms round the stake. This rope passes under
the neck of the animal, and is never loosened. An-
other rope A-, is fastened at the upper end of the piece
of wood e, and, passing over the neck of the animal,
and round the stake, is made fast to itself by a knot
and eye, and serves the purpose of fastening and
loosening the animal. The neck being embraced be-
tween the two ropes, moves up and down, carrying
the baikie along with it. This method of binding ani-
mals to the stake, though quite easy to the animals
themselves, has this objectionable property, which
the seal has not, of preventing the animals turning
round their heads to lick their bodies, which they can
do with the seal pretty far back, and yet are unable
to turn round in the stall. The seal being made of
iron, is more durable than the baikie. The top of the
stake of the seal is inclined toward the wall n, and
fixed as represented by i7i in fig. 11 ; the baikie stake
is held pei-pendicular, and is fixed to a log of wood rn, a. baikie.
fig. 12, stretching parallel to the wall o, across the
byre, of which log the cross section only is here shown. The seal-stake
is placed in an inclined position to allow its top to be fastened to the wall,
and in regard to it the animal is comparatively loo.se ; but as the neck is
always held close to the baikie-stake, that stake must be placed in a per-
pendicular position to allow the animal to move its neck up and down to
and from the manger.
(49.) This construction of the byre with its fittings up, is quite as well
suited to fatten oxen as to accommodate milch cows. Feeding byi'es are
usually constructed much too small for the number of oxen confined in
them. When stalls are actually put up, they seldom exceed 4 feet in
width ; more frequently two oxen are put into a double stall of 7 feet, and
not unfrequently travises are dispensed with altogether, and simply a tri-
angular piece of boarding is placed across the manger against the wall, to
divide the food betwixt such pair of oxen. In double stalls, and where
no stalls are used, even small-sized oxen, as they increase in size, cannot
all lie down together to chew their cud and rest, whereas, the fatter they
become, they require more room and more rest ; and large oxen are ham-
pered in them from the first. In such confined byres, the gutter, more-
over, is too near the heels of the oxen, which prevents them standinjg back
when they desire. Short stalls, to be sure, save the litter being dirtied,
by the dung dropping from the cattle directly into the gutter, and this cir-
cumstance no doubt saves trouble to the cattle-man ; but in such a case
the litter is saved by the sacrifice of comfort to the animals. Such con-
siderations of economy are quite legitimate in cowkeepers in town, where
both .space and litter are valuable, but that they should induce the con-
struction of inconvenient byres in farmsteads indicates either parsimony
on the ])art of the landlord or ignorance on that of the architect ; and no
farmer who consults the well-being of his animals, and through them his
own interest, should ever originate such a plan, or sanction it where he
finds it to exist. The truth is, these confineil sti-uctures are ordered to be
erected by landlords unacquainted with Afrriculture, to save a little outlay
at first. Expenditure to them is a tangible object ; but in dealing thus
with their tenants, they seem not to be aware they are actiuf with short-
ies) ^ °
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD. l03
eightedness toward their own interests ; for want of proper accommoda-
tion in the farmstead certainly has, and should have, a considerable influ-
ence on the mind of the farmer, when valuing the rent of the farm he
wdshes to occupy. Should you have occasion to fit up a byre for the ac-
commodation of milch cows or feeding oxen, bear in mind that a small
sum saved at first, may cause you to incur a yearly loss of much greater
amount than the saving, by not only preventing your feeding cattle attain-
ing the pei-fection which a comfortable lodging would certainly pi'omote
in them ; but in affecting the state of your cows by want of room, the
calves they bear in such circumstances are sure to prove weak in consti-
tution.
(50.) Immediately adjoining the cow-house should be placed the calves^
house. This apartment is represented at R of the plan in fig. 4, Plate IV.
fitted up with cribs. It is 35 feet in length, and 18 feet in width, and the
roof ascends to the slates. Calves are either suckled by their mothers, or
brought up on milk by the hand. When they are suckled, if the byre be
roomy enough, that is, 18 feet in width, stalls are erected for them against
the wall behind the cows, in which they are usually tied up immediately
behind their mothers ; or, what is a less restrictive plan, put in numbers
together in loose boxes at the ends of the byre, and let loose from both
places at stated times to be suckled. "When brought up by the hand, they
are put into a separate apartment from their mothers, and each confined
in a loose-box or crib, where the milk is given them. The superiority of
separate cribs over loose boxes for calves is, that calves are prevented
sucking one another, after having got their allowance of milk, by the ears,
or teats, or scrotum, or navel ; by which malpractice, when unchecked,
certain diseases may be engendered. The crib is large enough for one
calf at 4 feet squai-e and 4 feet in hight, sparred with slips of tile-lath, and
having a small wooden wicket to afford access to the calf. The floor of
the cribs may be of earth, but the passage between them should be flagged
or of asphaltum. Abundance of light should be admitted, either by win-
dows in the walls, or sky-lights in the roof; and fresh air is essential to
the health of calves, the supply of which would be best procured by a ven-
tilator, such as is represented in fig. 8, p. 95, already described. There
should be a door of communication with the cow-house, and another in two
divisions, an upper and a lower, into a court fiirnished with a shed, as k
in fig. 4, Plate IV. which the calves may occupy until turned out to pas-
ture. The cribs should be fitted up with a manger to contain cut turnips,
and a high rack for hay, the top of which should be as much elevated above
the litter as to preclude the possibility of the calves getting their feet over
it. The general fault in the construction of calves' houses is the want of
both light and air — light being cheerful to creatures in confinement, and
air particularly essential to the good health of young animals. When de-
sired, both can be excluded. The walls of the calves' house should be
plastered, for the sake of neatness and cleanliness. Some people are of
opinion that the calves' house should not only have no door of communica-
tion with the cow-house, but should be placed at a distance from it, in or-
der that the cows may be beyond the reach of hearing the calves. Such
an objection could only have originated from an imperfect acquaintance
with the nature of these animals in the circumstances. A young cow even
that is at once prevented smelling and suckling her calf, does not recognize
its voice at any distance, and will express no uneasiness about it after the
first few minutes after parturition, and after the first portion of milk has
been drawn from her by the hand.
(51.) The front of one of these calves^ cribs is represented by fig. 13, ip
(19<»>
104
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
Fig. 13.
CALVES CRIB DOOR.
which a is the wicket-door which gives access to it, h h are the hinges, and
c is a thumh-catch to keep the door shut. You will observe that this kind
of hinge is veiy simple and economical. It consists of the rails of the wicket
being a little elongated to-
ward h, where they terminate
in a semi-circular form, and
the lower face of which is
shaped into a pin which fills
and rotates in a round hole
made in a billet of wood, seen
at the lower hinge at h, ■ se-
curely screwed to the upright
door-post of the crib. Another
billet d is screv-zcd immediate-
ly above the lower rail h, to
prevent the O'-or being thl;o\\^l
off the hin^/M' oy any accident.
Oross-tajiett iron hinges, of
the lir|hr/>e-ss suited to such
«foors would soon break by rusting in the dampness usually occasioned by
ihe br^wth of a number of calves confined within the same apartment.
f'^/.A A pretty large court should be attached to the cow-house, in which
ibe cows can walk about for a time in the best part of the day in winter,
r*vKmg in the sun when it shines, rubbing against a post that should be
»er up for the purpose, drinking a little water provided for them in a trough
vif and licking themselves and one another. Such a court is, besides, ne-
cessary for containing the manure from the byre, and should have a gate
oy which carts can have access to the manure : I is such a comt on the
plan, fig. 4, Plate IV. being 58 feet in length by 30 feet in width.
(53.) ^ in the plan, fig. 4, Plate IV. is the court attached to the calves'
house, 30 feet in length by 25 feet in width, in which should be erected, for
shelter to the calves in cold weather, or at night before they are turned out
to pasture, or for the night for a few weeks after they are turned out to
pasture, a shed k, 30 feet in length by 12 feet in width, fitted up with man-
gers for turnips, and racks for hay. A trough of water, w, is also requisite
in this court, as well as a gateway for carts by which to remove the
dung.
(54.) On the left of the cow-house is the hoiUng-house U, for cooking
food in, and doing eveiything else that requires the use of wann water. —
The boiler and furnace h' should be placed so as to afford access to the
boiler on two sides, and fiom the furnace the vent lises to the point of the
^able. A fire-place a' is useful for many purposes, such as melting tar,
boiling a kettle of water, drying wetted sacks, nets, &c. One door opens
into the byre, and another, the outer one, is in the gable, through which
access to the byre may be obtained, or, if thought better, through the gate
and court of the byre. There should be a window with glass, and shutters
in the lower division, to open and admit air, and a ventilator v, fig. 3, Plate
III. on the roof may be advisable here as a means at times to clear the
house of steam. The walls of the boiling-house should be plastered. As
proximity to water is an essential convenience to a boiling-house, water is
quite accessible in the trough of the cows' court /, or, what is still better,
in a trough connected with it outside, as at V , in fig. 3, Plate III. or.?t', in
fig. 4, Plate IV.
(55.) Windows should be of the form for the pui-pose they are intended
to be used. On this account windows for stables, and for other apartments,
(200)
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD.
105
mranL
-nrnx]
STABLE WINDUW.
Fia. lo.
should be of different forms. 1. Fig. 14 represents a window for a stable.
The opening is 4J feet in hight by 3 feet in width. The frame-work io
composed of a dead part a of 1 foot in depth, 2
shutters hh to open on hinges, and fasten inside Fig. 14.
with a thumb-catch, and c a glazed sash 2 feet in
hight, with 3 rows of panes. When panes are
made under 8 inches square, there is a considera-
ble saving in the price of glass. The object of
this form of a stable window is, that generally a
great number of small articles are thrown on the
sole of a work-horse stable window, such as short-
ends, straps, &c. which are only used occasional-
ly, and intended to be there at hand when wanted.
The consequence of this confused mixture of
things, which it is not easy for the farmer to pre-
vent, is that, when the shutters are desired to be
opened, it is scarcely possible to do it A\'ithout first clearing the sole of ev-
erything ; and, rather than find another place for them, the window remains
shut. A press in a wall might be suggested for containing these small arti-
cles ; but in the only wall, namely, the front one of the stable O, in which
it would be convenient to make such a press, all its surface is occupied by
the harness hanging against it ; and besides, no orders, however peremp-
tory, will prevent such articles being, at throng times, thrown upon the
window-soles ; .and where is the harm of their lying there at hand, provided
the \\ando\vs are so constructed as to admit of being opened when desired ?
AVhen a dead piece of wood, as a, \p put into such
windows, small things may remain on the sole,
while the shutters h h are opened over them. 2.
In other apartments, such as byres, coni-barn,
calves' house, boiling-house, implement -house, hay-
house, where there is no chance of an accumula-
tion of sundry articles in the window-sole, the
shutters of the windows, if desired, may descend
to the bottom of the frame, as in fig. 15. The size
of the window may still be the same, 4^ feet in
hight .and 3 feet in width. The frame consists of
two shutters aa 2 feet in hight, with a glazed
sash c 2^ feet in hight, having 4 rows of panes. —
Such a form of window will admit a gieat deal of light and air.
(56.) The vpper barn B, as seen in fig. 16, occupies the whole space
above the corn-bam and chaff-house. It is 32 feet in length and 30 feet in
breadth, and its roof ascends to the slates. It has a good wooden floor like
the corn-barn, supported on stout joists. It contains the principal machinery
of the threshing-machine, and is wholly appropriated to the storing of the
unthreshed com previous to its being threshed by the mill. For the admis-
sion of barrows loaded with sheaves from the stack-yard, or of sheaves di-
rect from the cart, this bam should have a door toward the stack-yard of
6 feet in width, in two vertical folds to open outward, on a giblet-check —
one of the folds to be fastened in the inside with an iron cat-band, and the
other provided with a good lock and key. It is in this barn that the com
is fed into the threshing-mill ; and, to afford light to the man who feeds in,
and ample light to the barn when the door is shut — which it should be
when the wind blows strongly into it — a skv-light should be placed over
the head of the man. The large door should not be placed immediately
behind the man who feeds in, as is frequently the case in farmsteads, to his
(201)
BVRK, iC. WINDOW.
106
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
great annoyance when the sheaves are bringing in. There should be slits
iu the walls for the ventilation of air among the corn-sheaves, which may
not at all times be in good order when taken into the bam. A hatchway
Fig. 16.
PLAN OF UPPER BARN, GRANARIES, AND WOOL-ROOM.
a, 3 feet sqviare, in the floor, over the com-barn below, is useful when any
corn or refuse has to be again put through the mill. Its hatch should be
furnished with strong cross-tailed hinges, and a hasp and staple, with a
padlock and key, by which to secure it from below in the corn-bani. An
opening h, of 4 feet in hight and 3 feet in width, should be made through
the wall to the straw-barn, for the purpose of receiving any straw from it
that may require to be put through the mill again. This opening should
be provided with a door of one leaf, or of two leaves, to fasten \vith a bar,
from the upper barn. The threshing-machine is not built on the floor, but
is supported on two very strong beams extending along the length of the
barn : t is the site of the threshing-machine in the figure.
(.57.) Immediately in connection with the upper bam is \\ie gavgway, T,
fig. 4, Plate IV. and fig. 16. It is used as an inclined plane, upon which
to wheel the corn-barrows, and form a road for the carriers of sheaves
from the stack-yard. This road should at all times be kept hard and
smooth with small broken stones, and at the same time sufiiciently strong
to endure the action of barrow-wheels. Either common asphaltum or
wood pavement would answer this pui-pose well. To prevent the body
of the gangway affecting the wall of the corn-bam with dampness, it
should be kept apart from that wall by an arch of masonry. Some farm-
ers prefer taking in the corn on carts instead of by a gangway, and the
carts in that case are placed alongside the large door, and emptied of their
contents by means of a fork. I prefer a gangway for this pui-pose ; be-
cause it enables the farmer to dispense with horse-labor in bringing in the
stacks if they ai-e near at hand, and they should always be built near the
upper-bam for co»venience. Bams in which flails alone are used for
(202)
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD.
107
threshing the cora, are made on the ground, and the barn-door is made as
large as to admit a loaded cart to enter and empty its contents on the
floor.
(58.) In fig. 16, AA are two granaries over the sheds DD, implement-
house G, and hay-house H, in fig. 4, Plate IV. That on the left is 76 feet
in length and 18 feet in width, and the other 65 feet in length and 18 feet
in width. The side walls of both are 5 feet in hight. Their roofs ascend
to the slates. Their wooden floors should be made strong, to support a
considerable weight of grain; their walls well plastered with hair plaster;
and a neat skifting-board should finish the flooring. Each granary has 6
windows, three in front and three at the back, and there is one in the ga-
ble, at the left hand over the door of the implement-house. These win-
dows should be so formed as to admit light and air very fi-eely, and 1
know of no forai of window so capable of affording both, as this in fig. 17,
which I have found very serviceable in granaries. The opening is 4^ feet
in length and 3 feet in hight. In the frame a are a glazed sash 1 foot in
hight, composed of two rows of panes, and b Venetian shutters, which may
be opened more or less at pleasure : c shows in section the manner in
which these shutters operate. They revolve by their ends, formed of the
shape of a round pin, in holes in the side-posts of the frame d, and are
kept in a parallel position to each other by the bar c, which is attached to
Fig. 17.
GRANARY WIiVDOW AND SECTION OF SHUTTERS.
them by an eye of iron, moving stiff on an iron pin passing through both
the eye and bar c. The granary on the right hand being the smallest, and
immediately over the work -horse corn-chest, should be appropriated to the
use of horse-com and other small quantities of grain to be first used. The
other granary may contain seed-corn, or grain that is intended to be sold
when the prices suit. For repairing or cleaning out the threshing-machine,
a large opening in the wall of this granary, exactly opposite the machinery
of the mill in the upper barn, will be found convenient. It should be
provided with a large movable board, or folding doors, to close on it,
and to be fastened fi^om the granary. This opening is not shown in
fig. 16.
(59.) At the end of the straw-barn L is the wool-room W, fig. 16, its site
being indicated by W on the roof of the isometrical view, fig. 3, Plate III.
It just covers the small hammels X, and is therefore 25 feet in length and
18 feet in breadth. It enters from the straw-bam L by means of the
stone or wooden trap-stair c'. Its floor should be made of good wood, its
walls and roof lathed and hair-plastered. Its window should be formed
like that of the byres, with a glazed sash above, and opening shutters be-
low. A curtain should be hung across the window to screen the light and
air from the wool when desired. The door need not exceed 6 feet in
hight, but should be 3i feet in width, to let a pack of wool pass easily
(203)
108 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
throucfh. As the wool is most conveniently packed in this rooin, there
should be provided in the roof two stronjj iron hooks, for suspending the
comers of the pack-sheet in the act of packing it, and another from which
to suspend the Iteam and scales for weigliing the fleeces. Although the
wool will usually occupy this room only when the cattle are in the field,
yet in case it should be' found expedient to keep it over year, or have
animals in the small haramels X in summer, and in case their breath should
ascend into the wool through any openings of the joinings of the deals of
the floor, it will be a safe precaution for presei-^ing the wool in a proper
state, to have the roof of the hammels below lathed and plastered. This
room could be entered by a door and stone hanging-stair in the gable.
(60.) M and N in the plan, fig. 4, Plate IV. are hamvieh for the feeding
of cattle, rearing of young horses, and tending of queys in calf until they
are tied up in the cow-house. 1. Hammels consist of a shed, and an open
court, communicating by a large opening. The shed part need not be so
wide as the rest of the apartments in the farmstead, in so far as the com-
fort of the animals is concerned ; and in making them narrower consider-
able saving will be effected in the cost of roofing. 2. There is no definite
rule for the size of hammels ; but as their great convenience consists in
confeniiifj the power to assort cattle according to their age, temper, size
and condition, while at liberty in the fresh air, it is evident that hammels
should be much smaller than courts, in which no assortment of animals
can be attempted. 3. The courts of hammels, from which the dung is
proposed to be taken away by horse and cart, should not be less than 30
feet in length by 18 feet in breadth, and their entrance gates 9 feet in
width ; and this size of court will accommodate 4 oxen that will each at-
tain the weight of 70 stones imperial. Tliis is the size of the courts of
the hammels M. Should it not be thought inconvenient to take the dung
out of the courts \vith banows, then they need not be made larger than
20 feet in length by 17 feet in \ridth, and this is the size of the courts of
the hammels N, which will accommodate 3 oxen of the above size. 4. The
sheds to both sizes of courts need not exceed 14 feet in width, and their
length w\\\ be equal to the \\-idth of the courts. Of these dimensions 4
oxen in the larger will have just the same accommodation as 3 oxen of
the same size in the smaller hammels. 5. All haramels should have a
trough, c, for turnips, fitted up against one of the walls of the court. The
side-wall is the most convenient part, when a large gate is placed in front,
through which the carts are backed to clear away the dung from the courts.
In the case of the smaller courts, the turnips may be supplied to the trough
over the top of the front wall. 6. To give permanency to hammels, the
shed should be roofed as effectually as any of the other buildings, though
to save some expense at first, many farmers are in the habit of roofing
them with small trees placed close together on the tops of the walls of the
sheds, and of building thereon either straw, com, or beans. This is cer-
tainly an excellent place upon which to stack beans or peas ; but the fin-
ished building is that which should be adopted in all cases. Temporary
erections are constantly needing repairs, and in the end actually cost more
than work substantially executed at fii-st. 7. The division betwixt the shed
and court fonns the front wall of the shed, through which an opening
forms the door betwixt them. This door, 6 feet in width, should always
be placed at one side and not in the middle of the hammel, to retain the
greatest degree of warmth to the interior of the shed. The corners of its
scutcheon should be rounded off* to save the cattle being injured against
shaq-) angles. The divisions betwixt the respective courts should be of
stone and lime walls, 1 foot in thickness, and 6 feet in hitrht. Those with-
(204)
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD. 109
in the sheds should be carried up quite close to the roof. Frequently
they are only carried up to the first balk of the couples, over which a
draught of air is generated along the inside, from shed to shed, much to
the discomfort of the animals ; and this inconvenience is always overlooked
in hammels which are built with the view of saving a little cost in build-
ing up the inside division walls to the roofs. 8. Racks for fodder should
be put up within the sheds, either in the three spare corners, or alono-
the inner end. 9. In my opinion there is no way so suitable for feed-
ing oxen, bringing up young horses in winter, or taking care of heifers
in calf, as hammels ; and of the two sizes described above, I would de-
cidedly prefer the smaller, as permitting the fewer number of animals to
be put together. 10. XX are two small hammels at the end of the straw-
barn L for accommodating a bull, or stallion, or any single animal that re-
quires a separate apartment for itself. These are each 18 feet in leno-th
and 12 feet in width within the sheds, the roofs of which are formed of
the floor of the wool-room W ; and 29 feet in length and 12 feet in width
in the courts. The doors into them should be made to open outward, on
giblet-checks. The courts are furnished with turnip-troughs, z, and one
water-trough, w, will serve both courts, as shown in the plan, figure 4,
Plate IV. A rack should be fitted up for fodder in the inside of each
shed.
(61.) It should be observed that a part of the hammels N is fitted up as
a byre Y. This byre is intended to accommodate the servants' cows. —
There are 8 stalls — 6 for the plowmen's, 1 for the farm-steward's, and 1 for
the shepherd's cows — and they are nearly 5 feet in width. The leno-th of
the byre is 38 feet, and its width is only 14 feet, which gives a rather small
space behind the cows ; but, as servants' cows are generally small, and the
milk from them immediately carried away, if there is just sufficient rooni
for feeding and milking them, and adequate comfort to the cows themselves,
a large space behind them is unnecessary. This byre has a ventilator r'
The cows are furnished with an open court v, 38 feet in length and 20 feet
in width, and a water-trough w.
(62.) I and K of the plan, fig. 4, Plate IV. are two large courts for young
cattle, both in the immediate vicinity of the straw-barn L, and both having
a shed D under one of the granaries ; I is 84 feet in length and 76 feet in
width, and K 84 feet in length and 77 feet in width. Troughs for turnips
should be fitted up against one or more of the walls surrounding the courts
in the most convenient places, such as at z in both courts. Besides racks
for fodder, h' , against one of the walls within the sheds D D, there should
racks be placed in the middle of the cojlrts, that the cattle may stand
around and eat out of them without trouble. The square figures o o xn the
middle of the courts I and K indicate the places where the racks should
stand, and their form may be seen at o <? in the isometrical view, fig. 3, Plate
III. Around two sides of K is a paved road d , 13 feet in width, for carts
going to be loaded with grain at the door of the com-bara C. Though the
cattle have liberty to walk on this pavement, it should be kept clean every
day. Such courts are quite common in steadings for the rearing of young
cattle in winter, and even for feeding large lots of cattle together, as is
practiced by most farmers who do not rear calves ; but, for my part, I pre-
fer hammels for all classes and ages of cattle ; for, although cattle are re-
stricted in them in regard to space, still the few in each hammel have plenty
of room to move about. There is no hardship to the animals in this degree
of confinement, while they have the advantage of quietness among them-
selves in the open air, produced by being assorted according to temper,
size, sex, and age. On abolishing large courts altogether out of steadings,
(205)
110
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
I would substitute in their place hammels of different sizes, and convert the
cattle-sheds D and D into cart-sheds and receptacles for the larger class of
implements. It is probable that the use of large courts will not soon be
dispensed with in fai-msteads, and for that reason I have retained them in
the plan ; but I have no doubt that a period will arrive when fanners, to
insure to themselves larger profits from cattle, will see the advantage of tak-
ing the utmost care of them, from the period of their birth until disposed
of in a ripe condition at an early age ; and then hammels will be better
liked than even courts are at the present day, and farmers will then univer-
sally adopt them.
(63.) Fig. 18 represents a trough for turnips suited both for hammels and
cmirtSy where a is the wall against which the trough is built, and h a build-
Fig. 18.
TCRNIP TROUGH.
ing of Stone and lime 2 feet thick. The lime need not be ueed for more
than 9 inches in the front and sides of the wall, and the remaining 1 5 inches
may be filled up with any hardtmaterial ; c is the flagging placed on the
top of the wall, and forming the bottom of the trough. Some board the
bottom with wood, where wood is plentiful, and it answers well enough ;
but, of course, flags, where easily obtained, are more durable, though wood
is pleasanter for the cattle in wet and frosty weather in winter, t? is a
plank, 3 inches thick and 9 inches in depth, to keep in the tuniips. Oak
planking from wrecks, and old spruce trees, however knotty, I have found
to make cheap and very durable planking for the edging ofmraip troughs.
The planks arc spliced together at the ends, and held on edge by bars of
iron e batted with lead into the wall, in the manner already described in
(44,) p. 100 ; and the figure cleariy shows this mode of fastening the plank.
The masonry represented in the figure is finer than need be for the pur-
pose ; and the trough, though here shown short, may extend to any length
along the side or sides of a court.
(64.) The straw-racks for courts are made of various forms, 1. On
farms of light soils, where straw is usually scarce, a rack of the form of
(206)
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD.
Ill
fig. 19, having a movable cover, will be found serviceable in preserving
the straw from rain, where a a is the bottom inclined upward to keep the
Bti'aw always forward to the front
of the rack in reach of the cattle. —
Through the apex of the bottom, the
shank' which supports the movable
cover b passes, and this cover pro-
tects the straw from rain. The shank
with its cover is worked up and down,
when a supply of straw is given, by a
rack and pinion c, to which pinion is
attached the lying shaft, on which is
shipped a handle d. A rack of this
kind is made of wood, and should be
5 feet square, and 5 feet in hight
to the top of the comer posts ; and
sparred all round the sides, as well
as the bottom, to keep in the straw.
2. A more common kind of rack is
represented by fig. 20, which is of a square fonn, and sparred all round
the sides to keep in the straw. The
COVERED STRAW-RACK.
Straw through the
as its top is too high
Fig. 20.
WOODEN STRAW-RACK.
In use it remains constantly
Fig. 21.
cattle draw the
spars as long
for them to reach over it ; but after
the dung accumulates, and the rack
thereby becomes low, the cattle get
at the straw over the top. This kind
is also made of wood, and should be
5 feet square and 4 feet in hight. —
3. Fig. 21 represents a rack made of
malleable iron, intended to supply
the straw to the cattle always over
its top, and is thei'efore not span-ed,
but rodded, in the sides, to keep in the straw
on the ground, and not drawn up as
the dung accumulates, as in the case
of the other kinds of racks described.
This kind is 5i feet in length, 4i- feet
m breadth, and 4^ feet in hight ; the
upper rails and legs are made of iron
1 inch square, and the other rails ^
inch. Iron is, of course, the most
durable material of which straw -racks
for cattle can be made.
(65.) There are few things which
indicate greater care for cattle when
housed in the farmstead, than the
erection of places for storing turnips for their use. Such stores are not
only convenient, but the best sort of receptacles for keeping the turnips
clean and fresh. They are seen in the isometiical view, fig. 3, Plate III.
and in the plan, fig. 4, Plate IV. at e andyfor the use of the hammels M ;
at g for that of the court K ; at A for the hammels X, and servants' cow-
house Y ; at ^ for the use of the court I ; at ?» for that of the cow-house
Q,, and calves' cribs R ; and at^ and q for the hammels N. The walls of
these turnip-stoi-es should be made of stone and lime, 8 feet by 5 feet m-
(207)
IRON STRAW-RACK.
112 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
side, and 6 feet in hight, with an opening in front, 2 feet and upward from
the giound, for putting in and taking out the turnips thereat ; or they may
be made of wood, where that is plentiful, with stout upright posts in the
four corners, and lined with rough deals. They may be covered with the
same material, or with straw, to protect the turnips from frost. They should
be placed near the apartments they are intended to supply with turnips, and
at the same time be of easy access to carts from the roads. These recep-
tacles may, of course, be made of any convenient form.
(66.) The supply of water to all the courts where as many tuniips as they
can eat are not given to the cattle, is a matter of paramount consideration
in the fitting up of every fannstead. In the plan, fig. 4, Plate IV. troughs
for water are represented at w, in the large courts I and K, in those of
the cow-houses I and v, and calves' cribs h, as well as in those of the bulls'
hammels X. The troughs may be supplied with water either directly from
pump- wells, or by pipes from a fountain at a little distance — the foiTner be-
inof the most common plan. As a pump cannot conveniently be placed at
each troucrh, there is a plan of supplying any number of troughs from one
pump, which I have found to answer well, provided the surface of the
gT»und \rill allow the troughs being nearly on the same level, when placed
within reach of the animals. The plan is to connect the bottoms of any
two or more troughs, set on the same level, ^^•ith lead pipes placed under
ground ; and, on the first trough being supplied direct from the pump, the
water will flow to the same level thioughout all the other troughs. There
is, however, this objection to this particular arrangement, that, when any
one of the troughs is emptying by drinking, the water is di-awTi off from
the rest of the ti-oughs, that it may maintain its level throughout the whole ;
whereas, if the trough which receives the water were placed a few inches
hdow the top of the one supplying it, and the lead pipe were made to come
from the bottom of the supply trough over the top of the edge of the re-
cei\'ing one, the water would entirely be emptied from the trough out of
which the drink was taken, without affecting the quantitv" in any of the oth-
ers. 1. To apply these arrangements of water-troughs to the plan fig. 4.
Plate IV. Suppose that a pump supplies the trough w, in the court I, di-
rect from a well beside it — a lead pipe passing, on the one hand, from the
bottom of this ti'ough under ground to the bottom of the trough 7c, in the
court K, and, on the other hand, to that of the tiough w in the calves' court
tc, and thence to that of the trough w in the court / of the cow-house Q ;
and, in another direction, to the bottom of the trough 2o in the court r of
the ser\'ants' cow-house Y ; and suppose that the troughs in K and k and
I and V are placed on the same level as the supply trough in the court I,
it is obvious that they will all be supplied \\\x\\ water as long as there is any
in the supply trough, and the emptiness of which will indicate that the wa-
ter from it had been dra\vn off by the other troughs, and that the time had
fully arrived when it was necessary to replenish the trough in the court T
direct from the pump. The supply trough, in such an arrangement, should
be larger than either of the other troughs. The trough of the bulls' ham-
mels X might be supplied by a spout direct from the pump in the couit I.
In this way a simple system of watering might be erected from one pump
to supply a number of trouehs in different courts. It may be pioper to
illustrate this mode of connecting water-troughs by a figure. Let h, fig.
22, be the supply trough at the pump, and / the receiving one, and let
both be placed on the same level ; then let g'hc a lead pipe connectinq- the
bottoms of both troughs, the ends of which are protected bv hollow hemi-
spherical drainers, such as c. It is here obvious, from the law which reo-u-
lates the equDibrium of fluids, that the water, as supplied by the pump to
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD,
113
J will always stand at the same hight in f. 2. \ shall now illustrate the
other method of supplying troughs also by a figure. Let a, fio-. 22, be the
supply trough immediately beside the pump ; let h be the trough in any
other court to be supplied with water from a, and for that pui-pose it should
be placed 3 inches below the level of a. Let a lead pipe d be fastened to
the under side of the bottom of a, the orifice of which, looking upward, to
be protected by the hemispherical drainer c. Let the lead pipe cL be passed
under ground as far as the trough h is situated from a, and emerge out of
the ground by the side of and over the top of h at e. From this construc-
Fig. 23.
WATER-TROUGHS.
tion it is clear that, when a is filling with water from the pump, the mo-
ment the water rises to the level of the end of the pipe at e, it will com-
mence to flow into h, and will continue to do so until h is filled, if the
pumping be continued. The water in a, below the level of the end of the
pipe at e, may be used in a without affecting that in b, and the water in b
may be wholly used without affecting that in a. 3. Water-troughs may
be made of various materials ; the form of a is that of one hewn out of a
solid block of freestone, which makes the closest, most durable, and best
trough ; that of b is of flag stones, the sides of which are sunk into the
edges of the bottom in grooves filled wth white lead, and there held to-
gether with iron clamps h. This is a good enough kind of trough, but is
apt to leak at the joints. Trough f is made of wood dove-tailed at the
corners, and held together by clamps of iron i. These troughs may be
made of any size and proportions. 4. In some steadings, the water-troughs
are supplied from a large cistern, somewhat elevated above their level, and
the cistern is filled with water from a well either by a common or a force-
pump. But, in this arrangement, either a cock, or ball and cock, are requi-
site at each trough : in the case of a cock, the supply of water must depend
on the cock being turned on the trough in due time ; and, in that of a ball
and cock, the supply depends on the cistern being always supplied with
water fi-om the pump. There is great inconvenience and expense in hav-
ing a ball and cock at each trough. 5. In steadings where there is an
abundant supply of water from natural springs, accessible without the
means of a pump, lead pipes are made to emit a constant stream of water
into each trough, and the sui-plus is carried away in drains, perhaps to the
horse-pond. 6. There is still another mode which may be adopted where
the supply of water is plentiful, and where it may flow constantly into a
supply-cistern. Let the supply-cistern be 2 feet in length, .1 foot wide, and
18 inches in depth, and let it be provided with a ball and cock, and let a
pipe proceed from its bottom to a trough of dimensions fit for the use of
cattle, into which let the pipe enter its end or side a little way, say 3 inch-
es, below the mouth of the trough. Let a pipe proceed from this trough,
from the bend of the pipe, as from the bend of the right-hand pipe e at the
bottom of the trough b, fig. 22, to another trough, into whose end it enters
in like manner to the first trough, and so on into as many succeeding
troughs, from trough to trough, on the same level, as you require ; and the
water will rise in each as high as the mouth of the pipe, and, when with-
(209) 8
114
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
drawn by drinking from any one of them, the ball and cock will replenish
it direct from the supply-cistern ; but the objection to a ball and cock ap-
pUes as strongly to this case as to the other methods, although there is
economy of pipe attending this method.
(67.) "in most farmsteads a she J fur carts is provided for, though many
farmers are too regardless of the fate of these indispensable machines hy
permitting them to he exposed to all vicissitudes of weather. The cart -shed
is shown'at V in the isometrical view fig. 3, Plate III. and by V in the
plan fig. 4, Plate IV. immediately behind the hammels M, facing the work-
horse stable O, and looking to the north, away fiom the shrinking effects
of the sun's heat. It is 80 feet in length, 15 feet in vdAxh \\-ithin the pil-
lars, and 8 feet in bight to the slates in front. The roof slopes from the
back-slating of the hammels, and is supported at the eave by a beam of
wood resting on 7 stone and hnie pillars, and a wall at each end. The pil-
lars should be of ashler, 2 feet square, and rounded on the comers, to
avert their being chipped off with the iron rims of the wheels by the care-
lessness of the plowmen, when backing the carts into the shed. For the
same puqiose, a pawl-stone should be placed on each side of everj' pillar.
This shed is longer than what is actually required where double-horse
carts are only used, 6 ports being sufficient for that number, but single-
horse carts are now so much in use, that more of these are required, per-
haps not fewer than 8. Two single-horse carts can stand in each port, one
in front of the other. Any spare room in the shed may be employed in
holding a light cart, the roller, the grass-seed machine, the tul•nip-so^^•ing
machine, the bodies of the long carts, and other articles too bulky to be
stowed into the implement-house G.
(68.) Though swine are usually allowed to mn about the steading at
pleasure, yet, to do them justice, they should be accommodated at times
with protection and shelter, as well as the rest of the live-stock. Pigge-
ries or pig-sties are therefore highly useful structures at the farmstead.
They are of three kinds : 1. Those for a brood-sow with a litter of young
pigs. This kind should have
two apartments, one for the ^'S- 23.
sow and the litter to sleep
in, covered with a roof, and
entered by an openinir, the
other an open court in which '%
the feeding-trough is placed.
For a breeding-sty each
apartment should nfit be less
than 6 feet square. This
kind of sty is represented by
c c in the plan, fig. 4, Plate
IV. and at c in the isomet-
rical view, fig. 3, Plate III.
2. Those for feeding-pigs :
these should also have two
apartments, one with litter
for sleeping in, covered by
a roof and entered by an
opening ; the other an open
court for the troughs for
food. A sty of 4 feet square
in each apartment, will accommodate 2 feeding-pigs of 20 stones each.
Of this kind of sty 4 are represented at a in the isometrical view. fi<T. 3.
210) ' o '
DOOR OF PIG-STT.
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD. 115
Plate III. and in the plan fig. 4, Plate IV. These two sorts of sties may
each have a roof of its own, or a number of them may have a laro-e roof
over them in common. The former is the usual plan, but the latter is the
most convenient for cleaning out, and viewing the internal condition of
the sties. 3. The third kind is for the accommodation of weaned young
pigs, when it is considered necessary to confine them. These should have
a shed at one end of the court, to contam litter for their beds. The court
and shed are represented at h in the plan, fig. 4, Plate IV. and isometrical
view, fig. 3, plate III. They extend 25 feet in length and 21 feet in width.
4. The floors of all these kinds of sties should be laid with stout flags to
prevent every attempt of the swine digging into the gi'ound with their
snouts. 5. As smne are very strong in the neck, and apt to push up com-
mon doors, the best kind of door which I have found for confining them
by, is that formed of stout boards, made to slip up and down within a
groove in hewn stones forming the entrance in the outside wall. This
form of door may be seen in fig. 23, and seems to require no detailed de-
scription.
(69.) Domestic folds require accommodation in the steading as well as
other stock. 1. They should be provided with houses for hatching their
eggs hi, as also for roosting in undisturbed, and both kinds should be con-
structed in accoi'dance with the nature of the birds, that is, those fowls
which roost on high should be kept in a different house from those which
rest on the ground. The roosts should be made of horizontal round spars
of wood, and spaces of 18 inches cube should be made of wood or stone
at a hight of 1 foot or 18 inches fi-om the ground, to contain the straw
nests for those which are laying. The hatching-houses should be fitted up
wdth separate compartments containing large nests elevated only 3 or 4
inches above the level of the floor. 2. The foundations should be of large
stones and the flooring of sti'ong flags, firmly secured with mortar above a
body of small broken stones, and the roofs completely filled in under the
slates to prevent the possibility of vermin lodging either above or below
ground. 3. Good doors with locks and keys should be put on the houses,
windows provided for the admission of light and air, and an opening made
in the outer wall of the roosting-house, 4 feet above the ground, to admit
the fowls which roost on high by a trap-ladder resting on the gi'ound, as at
d in fig. 3, Plate III. The roof should be water-tight at all times, and
lathed and plastered in the inside, for warmth and cleanliness. The fowls'
house may be seen at d in the isometrical view, fig. 3, Plate III, and in
the plan, fig. 4, Plate IV. 4. It is not absolutely necessary that either the
hen-houses or pig-sties should be placed where they are represented in the
plan ; but as they do not there interrupt the free entrance of the sun into
the court K, and therefore do not interfere with the comfort of more im-
portant stock, they are there of easy access, themselves quite exposed to
the sun, which they should always be, and they square up the front of the
farmstead. The hen-house has been recommended by some people to be
built near the cow-byre to derive warmth from it ; but all the heat that
can be obtained from mere juxtaposition to a byi-e is quite unimportant,
and not to be compared to the heat of the sun in a southern aspect.
(70.) S, in both the plan, fig. 4, Plate IV. and isometrical view, fig. 3,
Plate III. is part of the stacJi-yard. 1. As most of the stacks must stand
on the ground, the stack-yard should receive that form which will alloAV
the rain-water to run off" and not injure their bottoms. This is done by
ridging up the ground. The minimum breadth of these ridges may be
determined in this way. The usual length of the straw of the grain crops
can be conveniently packed in stacks of 15 feet diameter; and as 3 feet is
(211)
116
THE BOOK OF THE FARM. WINTER.
little enough space to be left on the ground between the stacks, the ridges
should not be made of less width than 18 feet. 2. The stack-yard shou.ld
be inclosed with a substantial stone and lime wall of 4i feet in hight. In
too many instances the stack-yard is entirely uninclosed and left exposed
to the depredation of every animal. 3. It is desirable to place the outside
rows of the stacks next the wall on stools or stathch, which will not only
keep them off the wet ground, should they remain a long time in the stack-
yard, but in a great measure prevent vermin getting into the stacks.
These stathels are usually and most economically made of stone supports
and a wooden frame. The frame is of the form of an octagon, under each
angle and centre of which is placed a support. The frame-work consists
of pieces of jilank, a a, fig. 24, one of which is 15 feet, and the others 1\
feet in length, 9 inches in depth, and 2^ inches in thickness ; and the sup-
ports consist of a stone, h, sunk to the level of the ground, to foiTn a solid
foundation for the upright support, c, 18 inches in hight, and 8 inches
square, to stand upon, and on the top of this is placed a flat rounded stone
A STATHEL FOR STACKS.
or bonnet, d, of at least 2 inches in thickness. The upright stone is bed-
ded in lime, both with the found and bonnet. All the tops of these stone
supports, 8 in number around the ninth in the center, must be on the same
level. TJpon them nre placed on edge the scanthngs a, 9 inches in depth,
to each side of which are fastened with strong nails the bearers e e, also 9
inches in depth and 2 inches in thickness. In this way each support beara
its share of the frame-work. The spaces between the scantlings a are
filled up with fillets of wood, // nailed upon them. If the wood of
the frame-work were previously presei-ved by Kyan's process, it would
last perhaps twenty yeai-s, even if made of any kind of home tim-
ber, such as larch or Scotch fir. 4. There should be a wide gateway into
the stack-yard, and where the com is taken on carts to the upper barn to
be threshed, the same gateway may answer both purposes, but where
there is a gangway to the upper barn, the gate may be })laced in the most
coavenient side of the stack-yard. Where carts are solely used for taking
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD. 117
in the corn to the upper bam, the rows of stacks should be built so widely
asunder as to permit a loaded cart to pass at least between every two
rows of stacks, so that any particular stack may be accessible at pleasure.
When a gangway is used, this width of the arrangement of the stacks is
not necessary, the usual breadth of 3 feet between the stacks permitting
the passage of corn-barrows, or of back -loads of sheaves. Thus, where a
gangway is used, the stack-yard is of smaller area to contain the same bulk
of grain. 5. Stack-stools, or statJiels, or staddles, as they are variously
called, are sometimes made of cast-iron ; but these, though neat and effi-
cient, are very expensive and liable to be broken by accidental concussion
from carts. Stacks on stathels are represented in fig. 3, Plate III. by
figures of stacks, and in fig. 4, Plate IV. by circles. Stathels should also
be placed along the stack-yard wall from m' to 7i' and from n' to o' in fig.
3, Plate III.
(71.) A pigeon-house is a necessaiy structure, and may be made to con-
tribute a regular supply of one of the best luxuries raised on a farm. As
pigeons are fond of heat at all seasons, there seems no place in the farm-
stead, especiallv ia winter, better suited for the accommodation of their
dwelling than t^je upper part of the boiling-house. A large pigeon-house
IS not required, us. with ordinary care, pigeons being very prolific breed-
ers, a suffic'ept, number for the table may be obtained from a few pairs of
breeding r.)r^a. I have known a pigeon-house not exceeding 6 feet cube,
and not ^ery favorably situated either for heat or quietness, yield 150 pairs
of piffcons in a season. For a floor, a few stout joists should be laid on
the tops of the walls. The flooring should be strong and close, and the
eides iront and roof, in the inside, lathed and plastered. A small door
will r^uffice for an entrance, to which access may be obtained fi-om the
Doi'/'jg--house by a ladder. The pigeon-holes may be seen in the gable
of tne boiling-house U, in the isometrical view, fig. 3, Plate III. They
may be formed of wood or stone, and should always be kept bright with
white paint. The cells in this sort of pigeon-house should be made of
wood, and placed all round the walls. I think that 9 inches cube are large
enough for the cells. Another site for a pigeon-house may be chosen in
the gable of the hay-loft above the riding-horse stable, in fig. 1, Plate I.
(72.) Although potatoes are best kept in winter in pits, yet an apart-
ment to contain those in use for any of the stock, will be found very con-
venient in every steading. For convenience the potato-store should be
near the place of their consumption or their preparation into food. In the
latter case, proximity to the boiling-house is convenient. 1. Accordingly
one potato-store will be found aty, just at the door of the boiling-house U,
in the isometrical view, fig. 3, Plate III. and plan fig. 4, Plate IV. It is
30 feet in length and 10 feet in width, and its door being placed in the cen-
ter, two kinds of potatoes may conveniently be stored in it at the same
time, without the chance of admixture. The door should be provided
with a good lock and key. 2. Another store of potatoes may be placed in
the apartment f next the cart-shed V, 18 feet by 15 feet, to supply them
to the feeding beasts in the hammels M, or to the young stock in the
courts ; but should this apartment not be required for this, it can be used
for any other purpose.
(73.) Rats and mice are very destructive and dirty vermin in steadings,
and particularly to grain in granaries. Many expedients have been tried
to destroy them in granaries, such as putting up a smooth triangular board
across each corner, near the top of the wall. The vermin come down any
part of the walls to the corn at their leisure, but when disturbed run to the
corners, up which they easily ascend, but are prevented gaining the top
(213)
118 THE BOOK OF THE FARM. WINTER.
of the wall by the triangular boards, and on falling down either on the
com or the floor, art there easily destroyed. But preventive means m this
case are much better than destructive, inasmuch as the granaries are
thereby always kept free of them, and consequently always sweet and
clean. ' 1. The great means of prevention is, to deprive vermin of con-
venient places to breed in above ground, and this may be accomplished in
all farmsteads by building up the tops of all the walls, whether of parti-
tions or gables, to the sarking, or the slates, or tiles, as the case may be,
and beam-filhng the tops of the side walls, between the legs of the couples,
with stone and mortar ; taking care to keep the mortar from contact with the
timber. These places form the favorite breeding-giound of veiTnin in
famisteads, but which delightful occupation will be put a stop to there,
when occupied with substantial stone and mortar. The top of every wall,
whether of stables, cow-houses, hammels, and other houses, should be
treated in this manner ; for, if one place be left them to breed in the
youno- fry will find access to the com in some way. The tops of the walls
of old as well as of new faiTnsteads can be treated in this manner, either
from the inside, or, if necessary, by removing the slates or tiles until the
alteration is effected. One precaution only is necessary to be attended to
in makino- beam-fillings, especially in new buildings, which is, to leave a
little space under every couple face, to allow room for subsidence or the
bending of the couples after the slates are put on. Were the couples,
when bare, pinned firmly up with stone and lime, the hard points woidd
act as fulcra, over which the long arm of the couple, while subsiding, with
the load of slates new put on, would act as a lever, and cause their points
to rise, and thereby start the nails from the wall plates, to the imminent
risk of pushing out the tops of the walls, and sinking the top of the roof.
2. But besides the tops of the walls, rats and mice breed under ground,
and find access into apartments through the floor. To prevent lodgment
in those places also, it will be proper to lay the strongest flagging and
causewaying upon a bed of mortar spread over a body of 9 inches of
small broken stones, around the walls of every apartment on the ground-
floor Avhere any food for them may chance to fall, such as in the stables,
byres, boiling-house, calves'-house, implement-house, hay-house, pig-sties,
and hen-house. The corn-bam has already been provided for against the
attacks of vermin ; but it will not be so easy to prevent their lodgment in
the floors of the straw-bam and hammels, where no causewaying is usually
employed. The principal means of prevention in those places are, in the
first place, to make the foundation of the walls very deep, not less than
two feet, and then fill up the interior space between the walls with a sub-
stantial masonry of stone and lime mixed with broken glass ; or perhaps
a thick body of small broken stones would be sufficient, as rats cannot
burrow in them as in earth.
(74.) It is very desirable, in all courts occupied by stock, to prevent
the farther discharge of rain-water into them, than what may happen to
fall upon them directly from the heavens. 1. For this purpose all the
eaves of the roofs which suiTound such courts should be provided with
rain-water spouts, to cany off* the supei-fluous water, not only from the
roofs, but to convey it away in drains into a ditch at a distance from, and
not allow it to overflow the roads around, the faiTnstead. 2. With a simi-
lar object in view, and with the farther object of preserving the founda-
tions of the walls from damp, drains should be formed along the bottom
of every wall not immediately sun-ounding any of the courts. These
drains should be dug 3 inches below the foundation-stones of the walls, a
conduit formed in them of tile and sole, or flat stones, and the space above
4214)
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD. 1X9
the conduit to the surface of the ground filled up with broken stones.
These broken stones receive the di'op from the roofs, and cany away the
water ; and, should they become hai'dened above the drains, or gi-own over
with grass, the grass may be easily removed, and the stones loosened by the
action of a hand-pick. Rain-water spouts should be placed under the front-
eaves of the building A A, and on both sides of the straw-barn L, and alono^
the front-eaves of the stables O and P, of the byre Q, calves' cribs R, and
of the hammels M and N. These lines of eaves may easily be traced in the
isometiical view, fig. 3, Plate III. The spouts may be made either of wood
or cast-iron, the latter being the more durable, and fastened to the wall by
iron holdfasts. Lead spouts are, I fear, too expensive for a steading, though
they are by far the best. The positions of the rain-water drains around
the steading may be traced along the dotted lines, and the courses the
water takes in them are marked by aiTOWs, as in the plan, fig. 4, Plate IV.
(75.) But it is as requisite to have the means of conveying away super-
fluous water from the courts, as it is to prevent its discharge into them.
1. For this pui-pose, a drain should enter into each of the large courts, and
one across the middle of each set of hammels. The ground of every court
should be so laid off as to make the lowest part of the court at the place
where the drain commences or passes ; and such lowest point should be
furnished with a strong block of hewn fi-eestone, into which is sunk flush
an iron grating, having the bars only an inch asunder, to prevent the pas-
sage of straws into the drain. Fig. 25 gives
an idea of such a gi-ating, made of malleable ^^s- -^•
iron, to bear rough usage, such as the wheel
of a cart passing over it ; the bars being
placed across, with a curve downicard, to
keep them clear of obstructions for the wa-
ter to pass through them. A %\Titer, in speak-
ing of such gratings, says, " they should be
strong, and have the ribs well bent upicard,
as in that form they are not so Uable to be
choked up."* This remark is quite true in/
regard to the form gratings should have in'
the sewers of to\\Tis, for with the ribs bent draix grating.
doicnward in such a place, the accumulated
stuff" brought upon them by the water would soon prevent the water get
ting down into the drains ; but the case is quite different in courts where
the straw covers the gi-atings from the first, and where being loose over
the grating whose ribs are bent downward, it acts as a drainer, but were
the gratings bent upward, as recommended, the same straw, instead of
acting as loose materials in a drain through which the water percolates
easily, would press hard against the ribs, and prevent the percolation of
water through them. Any one may have perceived that the straw of
dunghills presses much harder against a raised stone in the giound below
it, than against a hollow. The positions of these gi-atings ai-e indicated
in the plan, fig. 4, Plate IV. by x in the different courts ; and in fig. 2,
Plate II. they are seen at the origin of all the liquid manure drains, in the
form of small dark squares. 2. Drains froin the courts which convey
away liquid manure as well as supei-fluous water, should be of a different
construction fi-om those described for the pui-pose of canying away rain-
water. They should be built with stone and lime walls, 9 inches high
and 6 inches asunder, flagged smoothly in the bottom, and covered with
* Highland and Agricultural Society's Prize Essays, vol. viji. p. 375.
(215)
120 THE BOOK OF THE FARM. WINTER.
single stones. Fig. 26 shows the form of this sort of drain, and suffi-
ciently explains its structure. As li(iuid
manure is sluggish m its motion, the drains
conveying it require a much greater fall in
their course than rain-water drains. They
should also run in direct lines, and have as
few turnings as possible in their passage to
the reservoir or fank, which should be situate ^^^
in the lowest part of the gi'ound, not far i^g
from the steading, and at some convenient "
place in which composts may be fonned.
One advantage of these drains being made
straight is, that, should any of them choke liquid manure drain.
up at any time by any obstruction, a large
quantity of water might be poured down with effect through them, to clear
the obstruction away, as none of them are very long. These drains may
be seen in the plan, fig. 4, Plate IV. to run from x in their respect-
ive courts in straight lines to the tank k'. It would be possible to have a
tank in each set of hammels and courts, to let the liquid manure run di-
rectly into them ; but the multiplicity of tanks which such an arrange-
ment would occasion, would be attended with much expense at first, and
much inconvenience at all times thereafter in being so far removed from
the composts. Were the practice adopted of taking the liquid manure to
the field at once, and pouring it on the ground, as is done by the Flemish
farmers, then a tank in every court would be convenient.
(76.) The liquid manure tank should be built of stone or brick and lime.
Its form may be either round, rectangular, or inegular ; and it may be
arched, covered with wood, left open, or placed under a slated or thatched
roof — the arch forming the most complete roof, in which case the rectan-
gular form should be chosen. I have found a tank of an area of only 100
square feet, and. a depth of 6 feet below the bottoms of the drains, contain
a large proportion of the whole liquid manure collected during the winter,
from courts and hammels well littered with straw, in a steading for 300
acres, where rain-water spouts were used. The position of the tank may
be seen in the plan, fig. 4, Plate IV. at k'. It is rectangular, 34 feet in
length and 8 feet in w'idth, and might be roofed with an arch. The tank
a-, in the isometrical view, fig. 3, Plate III. is made cii'cular, to show the
various forms in which tanks may be made. A cast-iron fumjp should be
affixed to one end of the tank, the spout of which should be as elevated as
to allow the liquid to run into the bung-hole of a large baiTel placed on the
framing of a cart.
(77.) Gates should be placed on every inclosed area about the steading.
Those courts which require the service of carts should have gateways of
not less width than 9 feet; the others proportionally less. 1. The more
common form of gate is that of the five-baned, and which, when made
strong enough, is a very convenient form. It is usually hung by a heel-
crook and band. I am not fond of gates being made to shut of themselves,
particularly at a steading; for, whatever ease of mind that property may
give to those whose business it is to look after the inclosure of the courts,
it may too often cause neglect of fastening the gate after it is shut ; and,
unless gates are constantly fastened where live-stock are confined, they may
nearly as well be left altogether open. The force of the contrivance of
gates to shut of themselves has often the effect of knocking them to pieces
against the withholding-posts. 2. Sometimes large boarded doors are used
as gates in courts and especially in a wall common to two courts. They
(216)
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD. 121
are, at best, clumsy looking tilings, and are apt to destroy tliemselves by
their own intrinsic weight. 3. Sometimes the gate is made to move up
like the sash of a window, by the action of cords and weights ninning over
.pulleys on high posts — the gate being lifted so high as to admit loaded
carts under it. This may be an eligible mode of working a gate betwixt
two courts in the peculiar position in which the dung accumulating on both
sides prevents its ordinary action, but in other respects it is of too compli-
cated and expensive a constiniction to be fi'equently adopted. I shall have
occasion afterward to speak at large on the proper construction of gates.
(78.) I wish to suggest some slight modifications of this plan of a stead-
ing, as they may more opportunely suit the views of some farmers than
the particular aiTangements which have been just described. 1. I have
already suggested that, if the large courts I and Iv are to be dispensed with
and hammels adopted in their stead, the hammels M could be produced
toward the left as far as the causeway e' , on the right hand of the straw-
barn L ; and so could the hammels N be produced toward the right as far
as the south gate of the court I. By this arrangement the cait-shed V, and
store-houses g and f , would be dispensed with, and the cattle-sheds D D
convei'ted into cart-sheds and a potato-store. 2. The piggeries a, h, and c,
could then be erected in the middle of the court at K, and thft hen-houses
in the middle of the court I, respectively, of even larger dimensions than
I have given them in the places they occupy. 3. If desired, the work-
horse stable O might be separated from the principal range A by a cart-
passage, as is the case with the byre-range Q, by which alteration the hay-
house and stable would have doors opposite, and the present north door
of the hay-house dispensed with. It would be no inconvenience to the
plowmen to cany the hay and com to the horses across the passage. 4. If
the stable were disjoined, the right-hand gi-anary may have a window in
the east gable, uniform with that in the west over the implement-house G.
5. It may be objected to the boiling-house U being too far removed fi-om
the work-horse stable O. As there is as little inherent affinity betwixt a
boiling-house and byre as betwixt one and a stable, the boiling-house might
be removed nearer to the stable, say to the site of the riding-horse stable
P, and the coach-house Z could then be converted into a potato-store, with
a common door. 6. The gig-house and riding-horse stable could be built
anywhere in a separate range, or in conjunction with the smithy and car-
penter's shop, should these latter apartments be desired at the steading. —
7. The servants' cow-byre Y could be shifted to the other end of the ham
mel range N, to allow the hammels to be nearest the straw-barn. 8. Any
or all of these modifications may be adopted, and yet the principle on which
the steading is constructed would not be at all affected. Let any or all of
them be adopted by those who consider them improvements of the plan
represented on Plate IV.
(79.) As I have mentioned both a smithy and carpenter's shop in connec-
tion with the steading, it is necessary to say a few words, regarding them.
It is customary for farmers to agree for the repairs of the iron and wood
work of the farm with a smith and carpenter respectively at a fixed sum
a-year. When the smithy and carpenter's shops are near the steading, the
horses are sent to the smithy, and every sort of work is performed in the
mechanic's own premises ; but when they are situate at such a distance as
to impose considerable labor on horses and men going to and from them,
then the farmer erects a smithy at the steading for his own use, fitting it up
with a forge, bellows, anvil, and work-bench. Such a smithy, to contain a
pair of draught-horses when shoeing, would require to be 24 feet in length
and 15 feet in width, with a wide door in the center, 7^ feet high, and a
(217)
122 THE BOOK OP THE FARM WINTER.
glazed window on each side of it. As the time of a pair of horses is more
valuable than that of a man, a smithy is often erected at the steading, while
the carpenter's shop is at a distance.
(80.) All the roads around the steading should be properly made of a
thick bed, of not less than 9 inches, of small broken whinstone metal, care-
fully kept dry, with proper outlets for water at the lowest points of the
metal bed, and the metal occasionally raked and rolled on the surface until
it becomes solid.
(81.) The best way of building such a steading as I have just described
is, not to contract for it in a slump sum ; because, whatever alterations are
made during the progress of the work, the contractor may take advantage
of the circumstance, and charge whatever he chooses for the extra work
executed, without your having a check upon his charges. Nor, for the
same reasons, should the mason, cai-penter, or slater work be contracted
for separately in the slump. The prices per rood or per yard, and the
quantities of each kind of work, should be settled beforehand between the em-
ployer and contractor. The advantage of this anangement is, that the
work is finished according to the views and tastes of the individual for
whose use the farmstead has been built — he having had the power of adopt-
ing such slight modifications of the plan, during the progi-ess of the work,
as experience or reflection may have suggested. The contractor is paid
according to the measurement of the work he thus executes. A licensed
survevor, mutually chosen by both parties, then measures the work, and
calculates its several parts according to the piices stipulated for betwixt
the contractor and his employer, and draws up a report of the value of each
kind of work, the total sum of which constitutes the cost of the fannstead.
Installments of payment are, of course, made to the contractor at periods
previously agreed upon. This plan may give you no cheaper a steading
than the usual one of contracting by a slump sum, but cheapness is not the
principal object which you should have in view in building a steading. —
Your chief object should be the convenience of your work-people, and the
comfort of your live-stock. This plan enables you to erect a steading in
accordance with your own views in every respect ; and you can better
judge, in the progress of the work, of the fitness of the plan for the accom-
modation recjuircd, than by any study of the plans on paper — which, upon
the whole, may appear well enough adapted to the pui-poses intended, but
may, nevertheless, overlook many essential particulars of accommodation
and comfort.
(82.) AVhat I mean by essential particulars of accommodation and com-
fort in a steading are such as these : In gi^^ng a foot or two more length
to a stable or byre, by which each animal may have two or three inches
more room laterally, more ease would be given to it, and which is a great
comfort to working stock : A window, instead of looking to the cold north,
may be made with as much ease to look to the warm south : A sky-light
in the roof, to afibrd a sufficient light to a place that would otherwise be
dark : An additional drain to remove moisture or effluvia, which, if left un-
disturbed, may give considerable annoyance : A door opening one way
instead of the other, may direct a draught of air to a quarter where it can
do no harm : These little conveniences incur no more cost than the incon-
gruities of an-angement which are often found in their stead, and though
they may seem to many people as trifles unworthy of notice, confer, nev-
ertheless, much additional comfort on the animals inhabiting the apart-
ments in which they should be made. A door made of a whole piece,
or divided into leaves, may make a chamber either gloomv or cheerful ;
and the leaves of a door formed either vertically or horizontallv when
(218)
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD.
123
left open, may either give security to an apartment, or leave it at liberty
to the intrusion of every passer by. There are numerous such small con-
veniences to be attended to in the construction of a steading before it can
be rendered truly co7nviodious and comfortahle.
(83.) Before the prices of work to be executed can be fixed on be-
tween the employer and contractor, minute specifications of every species
of work should be drawn up by a person competent for the task. A vague
specification, couched in general terms, will not answer; for when work
comes to be executed under it, too much liberty is given to all parties to
interpret the terms according to the interest of each. Hence arise dis-
putes, which may not be easily settled even on reference to the person
who drew up the specifications, as he possibly may by that time have ei-
ther forgotten his own ideas of the matter, or, in adducing his original in-
tentions under the paiticular circumstances, may possibly give offence to
one party, and injure the other ; and thus his candor may rather widen
than repair the breach. Whatever are the ideas of him who draws up
the specification, it is much better to have them all embodied in the spe-
cifications, than to have to explain them afterward.
(84.) The principle of measuring the whole work after it has been exe-
cuted, is another consideration which it is essential you should bear in
mind. It is too much the practice to tolerate a very loose mode of meas-
uring work ; such as measuring voids, as the openings of doors and win-
dows are termed, that is, on measuring a wall, to include all the openings
in the rubble-work, and afterward to measure the lintels and ribets and
corners. In like manner, chimney-tops are measured all round as rubble,
and then the comers are measured also as hewn work. Now the fair plan
obviously is to measure every sort of work as it stands by itself; where
there is rubble let it be measured for rubble, and where there is hewn
woi"k let it be measured for as such. You will thus pay for what work is
actually done for you, and no more ; and more you should not pay for, let
the price of the work be what it may. This understanding regarding the
principle of measurement should be embodied in the specifications.
(85.) To see if the principle I have endeavored to enforce in the arrangement of the
component parts of a steadmg for the mixed husbandry be apphcable to steadings for other
modes of husbandry, you have only to apply it to the construction of steadings ususQly found
in the country.
(86.) In pastoral farnis, the accommodation for stock in the steading is generally quite
inadequate to give shelter, in a severe winter and spring, to the numbers of animals reared
on them. For want of adequate accommodation, many of both the younger and older stock
suffer loss of condition — a contingency much to be deprecated by the store-farmer, as the
occurrence never fails to render the stock liable to be attacked by some fatal disease at a fu-
Fig. 27
a
PASTORAL FARM-STEADING.
ture period. In the steadings of such farms, the numerous cattle, or still more numerous
sheep, as the stock may happen to be, should have shelter. The cattle should be housed in
(219)
124
THE BOOK OF THE FARM. WINTER.
Fig. 28.
sheds or hammels in stormy weather, siipphed with straw for litter and provender, or, what
is still better, siipixirtetl on hay or turnips. For this puiiwise their sheds should be quito
COJitiguous to the sti-aw-biini. Sheep should either be put in large courts bedded with straw,
and supplied with hay or tuniips, or so sujjplied in a sheltered spot, not far distant from the
steadin/J. The jiarticuliu- fonii of steiuling suitable to this species of farm seems to be that
which enibnices three sides of a double rectangle, having the fourth side open to the south,
each rectangle enclosing a large court, divided into two or more parts, on each side of the
straw-bam, which should fonn a side connnon to both rectangles. Tliis form answers to the
modification jH>infcd out at 3, in paragraph (8.) p. 82, and it is shown in fig. '27, where a in
the stniw-bimi, with but the courts ])laced on each side of it.
(87.) In the steadings of carse (iiniLs, comfortiible accom-
inoilation for stock is made a matter of secondary import.
In them it is not unusual to see the cattle-courts facing the
north. As there is, however, great abundance of straw on
such fanns, the stock seem to be warm enough lodged at
night. AVhere so much straw is re<juired to be made into
manure, the couil-s and sUibles shoidd be placed quite con-
tiguous tr) the stnnv-barn. Tlie form of steading most suita-
ble to this kind of fann seems to be that of tln-ee sides of a
rect;ingle, embracing a lar^e court, divided into two or three
parts, facing the south, and having the upper and corn-bam
Srqjecting behind into the straw-Yai'<l, as described in modi-
cation 2, (8.) p. 82, and shown in fig. 28, where a is the
stniw-barn, near the courts, and contiguous to which should
be the byres and stables.
(88.) In farms in the neighborhood of towns, the cow-
houses, feeding-byres, or hammels, being the only means of
converting the straw into manure, which is resented for
home use frf)m the sale of the gi-eafest part to the cow-
feeders and stablers in towais, should be placed nearest the straw-bam. The very confined
state in which cows are usually kept in the byres of
such farms, and especisUly in those near the largest class
of towns, niJikes them very dirty, the effects of which
must injure the quality of the daiiy produce. In con-
stnicting a steading for a farm of this kind, such an in-
convenience should be avoided. The most convenient
fonn of steading is that of the three sides of a rectangle,
embracing within it a set of feeding-hannnels facmg the
south ; the threshing-mill and stniw-barn being in the
north nuige, the work-horse 8tal)le in one of the wings,
and the cow-byre in the other, from both of which the
dung may be wheeled into their respective contiguous
dunghills, as is described in modification 1, (8.) p. 82,
and shown graphically in fig. 29, where a is the straw-
bam, on both sides of which are the byres and stable,
and c are hammels inclosed within the rectangle.
{89A In dairi/ fanns, the cows being the greatest means of making manure, their byres,
as well as the hammels for die young horses and young quevs, and the sties for the swine,
should be those jnost contiguous to the straw-barn. It should be the particular study of the
dair>'-fanner to make the byre roomy and comfortable to the cows, the thriWug state of that
portion of hi.s stock being the source from which his profits are principally derived. The
fonn of steading recommended for farms in the neighborhocid of towns seems well adapted
to this kind of farming, in which the liummcls could be occupied by the young horses and
^^T 1
1 I
CARSE FARM-STEADING.
Fig. 29.
a.
c
■
_L
LL
.LL
_L
DAIHY FARM, &C. STEADING.
,, ipicd by the youn^
young queys, and beside which the pig-sties could also be placed, such as are shown in fi^,.
29, where c are the hammels, and e the hog-sties, but which may be placed elsewhere if de-
Bire<L
(90.) It may jprove of service to inquire whether this principle of constmcting steadings
for every sort of farm is inculcated by the most recent or authoritative writers on Agricul-
ture. 1. In the collection of designs of fann-buildings, in the Prize Essays* of the Highland
and Agncultunil Society of Scotland, the absolute necessitv for the contiguity of cattle-sheds,
hammels, and stables to the straw-bani, is a matter not sufficiently attended to. ^Vhen ham-
mels are placed in front of the principal buildings, as in No. 1 of the designs, doors are re-
quired m the back of the hammels for taking in the straw. These doors not only mcur ad-
ditional cost in the making, but, being placed in the shed, induce the animals to escape
through them, and, when open, occasion an uncomfortable draught of air. The openinca^
too, betwixt the sheds and courts of the hammels being placed in file center, cold easily c'lr-
culates through the sheds. And the separation of the calves' -house from the'cow-byre as in
* Prize Eseaya of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. viii. p. 365.
(220) ^
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD. 125
design No. 2, must be very inconvenient in rearing calves. 2. In " British Husbandry "
the principle of constructing a steading is thus laid down : " The position of a threshing-mill
should decide that of almost every other office ; for it cuts, or ought to cut, the hay into chaff
together with much of the straw ; and the house that immediately receives this chaff ou^ht
to be so placed as to admit of a convenient delivery to the stalls and stables. Thus the sti-aw-
barn, chaff-house, ox-stalls, and horse-stables, with the hay -stacks and the sheep-yard (if there
be any), should be dependent on the position of the threshing mill, as they will be attended
with waste and expense of labor."* If the chaff-cutting machine is to be employed for pre-
paring much of the straw for the use of the stock, it should be placed in the straw-barn, oth-
erwise the straw must be carried to it, which would entail a considerable deal of labor. It
is thus the position of neither the chaff-cutting or thresliing-machine that should determine
the site of the rest of the steading. The^hreshing-machine cannot conveniently be placed
near the centre of a steading, because it would then be necessarily removed to a distance
from the stack-yard, and the carriage of the sheaves from which would also entail considera-
ble labor. In the examples of existing steadings given in this recent work from pages 85 to
109, being chiefly the plans of steadings on the properties of the Duke of Sutherland, the po-
sition of the straw-bam seems in them to be considered a matter of secondary importance. —
In the plans in pages 8-5, 86, 100, 103, 107, 108, and 109, the straw-bam is surely placed at
an inconvenient distance from the apartments occupied by the live-stock, and the caiTia,^e of
straw from it to them must " be attended with waste and expense of labor." 3. Professor
Low inculcates the principle more con-ectly where he says, " Bams, being the part whence
the straw for fodder and litter is carried to the stables, feeding-houses, and sheds, they shoidd
be placed so as to afford the readiest access to these different buildings. It is common to
place them as near the centre of the range as the general arrangement of the other buildings
will allow. "t This is quite correct in principle; but, in referring to the figure, it is said
that, " In the design of the figure, in which are represented the bams, this principle of ar-
rangement is observed ;" yet, on inspecting the figure at p. 624, it will be observed that the
feeding-hammels are placed at a greater distance from the sti'aw-barn than even the pig-sties
and poultry -yards. It does not appear that the yard behind the sties is intended to be occu-
pied by anytliing but manure ; so, if the hammels had occupied the more eligible site of the
hog-sties, they would not have interposed betwixt the sun-light and any stock. It may also
be observed that the cow-houses, which require less sti-aw than feeding stock, are placed
nearer the straw-bam than the hammels on the right. 4. Mr. Loudon, in ti-eating of the
" fundamental principles for the construction of the various parts which compose a farmery,"
recommends the houses for the various kinds of stock to be consti'ucted according to the size
and shape of the animals to be accommodated ; and, assuming the horse, the ox and the
sheep to be of the form of a wedge, he draws these two conclusions : " First, that the most
economical mode of lodging the first two of these quadrupeds must be in houses the walls of
which form concentric circles, or segments of circles parallel to each other ; . . . . and, sec-
ondly, that in all open yards where quadrupeds are allowed to run loose, and eat from racks
and mangers, .... when the rack or manger is to be in a straight line, the breadth of the
broad end of the wedge must be allowed for each animal ; and, when it is to be curved, the
radius of the curve must be determined by the breadth of the smaller end of the wedge. —
From this theory it may also be deduced that there must be one magnitude, as well as one
form, more economical than any other, for lodging each of these animals ; and that this mag-
nitude must be that circumference of a circle which the narrow ends of the wedges com-
pletely fill up, and no more."t And figures are given of both curved and straight mangers
and racks, to illustrate these piinciples. Now, independent of the acknow^ledged inconveni
ence of accommodating any circular or curved fonn of apartment or building in a steading,
as is universally felt in regard to the usually circular form of the horse-course of a threshing
mill, the very data on which this theory is founded are incorrect ; for, although it is ti-ue that
many horses and oxen are of the fonn of a wedge, yet the higher bred and better stock, to
w^liich all improving breeders are desirous of assimilating their own, are not wedge-shaped.
The Clydesdale draught-horse, the short-horn ox, and the Leicester sheep, the ncai'er they
attain perfect symmetiy of form, the nearer they approach the foi-m of a parullelopipedon,
instead of a wedge, in the carcass. This theory is, therefore, not universally applicMltle. —
Indeed, Mr. Loudon aftei-ward says (p. 375) that " these principles for the curvHim-ai- ar-
rangement of stalls, racks, and troughs, we do not lay down as of very great importance, but
rather with a view to induce the young architect to inquire into the reasons of things, and to
endeavor in everything to take principles into consideration rather than precedents." The
object is laudable, but its aim wiU scarcely be attained by the young architect having his at-
tention directed to questionable data. He is at all times much more disposed to follow his
own crude fancies, m the construction of steadings, than to improve on precedents suggested
by the farmer's experience.
(91.) It may be interesting to inquire why the quadrangular form of steading was so much
in vogue some years ago. It was, doubtless, adopted on account of '\XA compactness of form,
* British Husbandry, vol. i. p. 97. t Low's Elements of Practical Agriculture, 2d edition, p. 623.
X Loudon's Encyclopsedia of Architecture, p. 373.
(221)
126 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
admitting it to be erected at a considerable sa%-ing of expense, at a time— during that of the
•vvar — when building-materials of every kind, and wages of everj- desc-ription of artisans, were
ver>' liigh. I do not believe that the value of all the ground on wliich the largest steading
could stand fonned any iiuluceinent for tlie adoption ol the compact form of the quadrangle,
but rather from the wish of the landlord to afford no more than bare accommodation to the
tenant's stocking. An economical plan, furnished by an architect, \yould thus weigh more
strongly with him than a mere regaid for the comfi)rt of his teiiant's hve-stock, whose special
care he' woidd consider more a tenant's tluui a landlord's buj^iness. It is not so easy to ac-
count for tlie teniuit's acipiiescence in such a form of steading ; for, although it must be
owned that, at that perif)d, very imperfect notions were entertamed of what were requisite
for the comfortable accommotlarion of animals, yet the tenant's own interest bemg so palpa-
bly involved in tlie welfare of his stwk, might havf»taught him to desire a more comfortable
form of steading. Thus an imperfect state of thijigs originated in the parsimony of landlords,
and was promoted bv the heedlessness of tenants. The consequences were that cattle were
confined m courts inclosed all around with high building, eating dirty turnips off the dung-
hill, and Wiuhng or standuig mid-leg deep ui dung and water ; and frequently so crowded
together, anil stinted of food, that the most timid among them were daily deprived of theii-
due proportion of both footl and shelter. Is it any matter of wonder that cattle at that time
were unequally and imperfectiy fed ? In the steadings of the smaller tenants, matters were,
if po88il)le, stili worse. The state of the cattle in them was pitiable in the exti-eme, whether
in the courts, or while " cabined, cribbed, and confined " in the bjTes. Though those in the
latter were, no doubt, under the constant shelter of a roof, they were not much better off as
to cleanliness and food ; and much worse oft" for want of fi-esh air, and in a state of body con-
stantly covered with perspiration. But these unmerited haidships, which the cattie had to
endure every winter, have been either entirely removed or much ameliorated, witliin these
few yejirs, by the adoption of conveniences in the construction of steadings on the part of
landlords, and superior management, acquii'ed by experience, on the part of tenants. —
Troughs are now erected along the walls of courts, at convenient places, for holding turnips,
now given clean to the cattle. Rain-water spouts are now put along the eaves of the houses
surrounding the courts. Drains are now fonned to cany off the superfluous moisture from
the courts. The courts themselves ai-e opened up to the meridian sun, and really made
comfortable for calde. And hammels are now built for cattie in steadings where they were
before unknowni. Still, not^vathstaiiding the decided improvement which has undoubtedly
tiilten place in the constiiiction of steadings, there are yet many old steadings which have not
been amended, and too many modern ones erected in wliich all the unprovements that might
have been have not been introduced. Should it be your fate to take a fanu on wliich an old
steading of the quadrangular fonn is stantling, or a new one is proposed to be built, in repair-
ing the one, and coiisbiicting the other, be sure never to lose sight of the leading principles
of construction inculcated above, and insist on their being put into practice. A little pertina-
city on your part on this point will, most probably, obtain for you all your wishes, and their
attainment to the full will vindicate you in offering a higher rent for the fanii, without incur-
ring risk of loss.
(92.^ It is now time to enter minutely into the specifications upon w'liicli everv' kind of
work m the construction of a substantial steading should be executed, and those below will
be found applicable to every size and plan of steaduig. As they accord v^-ith my o\\^l expe-
rience and observation in these matters, and both have been considerable, I offer them with
the greater degree of confidence for your guidance. They embrace the particidars of mason-
work, caipenter-work, slater-work, plumber-work, smith-work, and painter and glazier-
work ; but they aro not dniwTi up in the foixnal way that specifications are usually done, the
various subjects as they are specified being illasUated by examples and the elucidation of
principles.
(93.) Of the specifications of mason-tcork. the first thing to be done is the digging of the
foundations of the walls. When the site of the steading is not obliged to be chosen on a
rock, the depth of the foundations of all the outside walls should never be less than 2 feet.
Judging by usual jii-actice, this may be considered an inordinate depth, and as incumng
much expense in building mi unneces.'saiy <|Uimtity of foundation walls, which are immedi-
ately after tr) be buried out of sight ; but this depth is necessaiy on account of the drains
which should be maile around die outside walls, ti» keep all the floors diy in whiter, and it
is scarcely possible to keeji them dry with drains of less depth than 27 inches, which afford
the water a channel of only 3 inches below the bottom of the foiuidations. The ground-
floor of dwelling-houses may be kej)! in a dry state by elevating it a considerable hight
above the ground ; but such an expedient is impracticable in a steading where most of die
apartments, being occupied by live-stock, must be kept as neiu- as possible on a level wnth
the ground ; and it is not wood-floors alone that must be kept dr)-, but those of sheds, baras,
and byres, whether made of composition, or causeway, or earth. The injurious effects of
damp in the floors of stiibles, byres, and hammels, on the condition of the animals inhabitin<»
them in winter, or of bams on the st<ite of the straw, com, or hav in thcni. ai-e too much
overlooked. Its malign influences on the health of animals, or in retardin"^ their tiiriviiin-
not being appiuent to the senses at first sight, are apt to be ascribed to constitutional defect
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD. 127
in the animals themselves, instead of, perhaps, to the truer cause of the unwholesome state
of the apartments which they occupy. The ti-uth is, the floor of every apaitment of the
steading, whether accommodating living creatures, or containing inanimate things, cannot be
too dry ; and, to render them as much so as is practicable, there seems no way of attaining
the end so effectually as to dig the foundations of the walls deep, and to surround them with
still deeper drains. This position I shall here endeavor to prove to you satisfactorily. There
are many substances upon wliich w^alls are usually founded, w^hich, from their nature, would
make walls constantly damp, were expedients not used to counteract their natural bEilefiil
properties. Amoi-phous rocks, such as granite, w^hich are impervious to water ; whinstone
rocks, which, though frequently containing minute fissures, being delinquescent, become very
damp in wet weather ; clay, and tiUy clay even more than the unctuous, retains a great deal
of water — all these substances form objectionable ground upon which to found any building.
Stratified rocks, such as sandstone, not retaining the water long, form drier substances for a
foundation than any of the amorphous rocks or clays. Pure sand is not always dry, and it
is apt to form, in some situations, an insecure foundation. Pure gravel is the driest of all
foundations, but not the most secure. From the nature of these various substances, except-
ing the gravel, it would appear that no wall founded on them can assuredly be kept diy at
all seasons ; and therefore drains ai'e necessary to render and keep them diy at all seasons.
Moreover, a foundation made in a bank of even the diiest gravel will prove damp, unless
the precaution of deep draining betwixt the foundation and the rise of the bank is resorted
to. Rather than choose a site for your steading which is overhung by a bank, make a deep-
er foundation on more level ground, and dram it thoroughly, or even buUd some hight of
waste wall, and fill up a part of the ground that is low around the steading. I have expe-
rienced the bad effects of digging a foundation for a steading in a rising gi'ound of tolerably
dry materials, and also the good effects of filling up low gi-ound at a part of another steading,
and have found the air in the apartments of the latter, at all seasons much more agreeable to
the feelings than in the fonner. The bad effects of the fonner I endeavored to counteract
by deep draining, though not so effectually as in the latter case. I am therefore warranted ^
in concluding that dry apartments are much more healthy for animals, and better for other
things, than are those which feel cold and damp. A circling, however, of substantial drains
around the steading, between it and the bank, will render the apartments to the feelings, in
a short time, in a comparatively comfortable state.
(94.) The outside tcalls should be founded with stones 3 feet in length, 2 feet in breadth,
and 8 or 9 inches in thickness, so laid, in reference to the line of foundation, as to form a
scarcement of 6 inches on each side of the wall above them. The low walls may stand on
one course of such foundation, while the higher walls should have two such courses.
(95.) All the walls, both extei'nal and iutemal, should be built of the best rubble-work, the
stones bemg squared, laid on their natural beds, closely set in good lime mortar, and weU
headed and packed. Headei-s should go through the thickness of the walls at not more than
5 feet apart in every thiixl course. The walls should only be buUt one course in hight on
side, before the other side is brought up to the same level, the first of the courses to go
through two-thirds of the wall, besides the headers or band-stones.
(96.) The external walls should be 2 feet in thickness, and the internal division- walls, as
also tlie walls composmg the fronts and subdivisions of the courts and hammels, 1 foot. The
low external walls should be raised 9 feet, and the high external walls of the middle range,
as well as that of the sti-aw-bani, 15 feet above the gi-ound. All the gables of the external
walls, and aU the internal division walls, should rise to the pitch of their respective roofs,
xuid be entirely filled up to the sarking or tiles, as the case may be. The front and side
walls of the large courts and bulls' hammels, and the subdivision walls of the courts of the
hammels, should be raised 6 feet, and the fi-ont walls of the hammels, as also those of the
cows' and calves' courts and pig-sties, 5 feet above the gi-ound. All the walls which carry
roofs should be beam-filled with rabble-work, with the precaution given in (73.) p. 118.
(97.) The external fronts of all the outside walls, as weU as those of the front walls of the
courts and hammels, should be faced with hammer-dressed rubble in cottrses, not exceeding
6 inches in tliickness, with the vertical and horizontal joints raised or drawn in hollow. The
tops of the front and subdivision walls of the courts and hammels should be finished with a
coping of hammer-dressed round-headed stones, 12 inches in diameter, firmly set close to-
gether in good lime mortar.
(98.) To test if rubble masonry is well built, step upon a leveled portion of any course,
and, on setting the feet a little asimder, tiy by a searching motion of the legs an 1 feet whether
any of the stones ride upon others. Where the stones ride, they have not been properly
bedded in mortar. To ascertain if there are any hollows, pour out a bucketfall of water on
the wall, and those places which have not been sufficiently packed or hearted with small
stones, will immediately absorb the water.
(99.) The width of all the doors should be 3 feet 6 inches, and their hight 7 feet, with the
exception of those of the work -horse stable, corn-barn, sti-aw-barn, and saddle-horse stable,
which should be 7 feet 6 inches. The width of the arches of the cattle-courts should be 9
feet ; that of those of the hammels 6 feet, and that of the ports of the cart-sh'ail 8 feet, and
aU 7 feet 6 inches in hight. The width of all the windows should be 3 feet, and their hight
(223)
128 THE BOOK OF THE FARM. WINTER.
4 feet, with the exception of those of the granaries, wliich shonld be 4 feet in v\-i(]th and 3
feet in hiijht. The vvindows should have a bay inside of 6 inches on each side. Slits of 1
foot 3 inclies in hight and 3 inches in width in front, with a bay inside like the windows,
ebonld be left in the widls of the straw and ujiper bams for the admission of air to the straw
and the'com in the straw. All the voids should have substantial discharging arches over
the timljor-lintels to be able to support the wall above, even although the timber-lintels
should fail.
(100.) All the door-soles should belaid 3 inches above the ground or causeway, and those
of the stables and bjTes and calves'-house should be beveled m front, that the feet of the an-
imals going out and in may not strike agninst them.
(101.) The corners of the buildings should be of broached ashler, neatly squared, 2 feet
in length. V2 inches of breadth in the bed, and 12 to 18 inches in hight, having 1 inch chisel
draught im both fmnt.s. The windows and doors should have ashler ribets — the outbands 2
feet in length, and the inbands at least twivthirds of the thickness of the walls, and both 12
inches of breadth in the beds, and 14 or 1.5 inches in hight. They should have 1 inch of the
front, 5 inches fif ingoings, and 4 inches of checks, clean droved. The tails of the outband
ribets should be squared and broached. The doors of the work-horse and saddle-horse sta-
bles, upper and com bams, hay-house and bulls' hammels, should havt droved giblet-checks,
to penult them opening outward. The u-indoir-sills should be droved, projecting 1^ inches,
and 6^ or 7 inches in thickness. The lintels of both the doors and windows should have 1
inch of the fn>nt, 5 inches of ingoings clean droved, and be from 14 to 15 inches in hight. —
The sheics should be broached when such are used, having 1 inch chisel-draught on both
margins of the front, and the inner edge with a 4-inch check-plinth, having an inch back-rest
under it. The holes in the byre-wall, through which the turnips are supj^licd, should be 20
inches square, with ashler ribets, flush sills and lintels, having broached fronts suid droved
giblet-checks to receive their shutters. The side corners of the arched openings of the cat-
tle-courts and hammels, and those of the ports of the cart-shed, should be regular out and in-
band, 2 feet in length, 12 inches of breadth in the bed, and 12 inches in hight, and dressed
in a manner similar to the other comers, but should be chamfered on the angles. The arches
should be elliptical, with a rise of 2 feet, with broached soffits on both fronts, an inch-droved
margin, and radiated jomts. In the plan, fig. 4, Plate IV. the cart-sshed ports are not arched,
there being no room for such a finishing in the peculiar form of the roof. The pillars of the
cart-shed, the byre, turnip-shed, and calves'-shed, should be 2 feet square in the waist, of
broached ashler, with inch-droved margins, and built of stones 12 inches in hight. Those of
the two foi-mer should have a droved base course, 12 inches in depth, with 1.^ inches wash-
ing, chamfered on the angles. The tops of the walls of the pig-sties, calves'-shed, hen-house,
and potato-store, should have a 6-inch droved plinth, 12 inches in the bed. The fire-places
in the boiling-house and coach-house should have a pair of droved jambs and a lincel, 3 feet
6 inches of hight in the opening, and a droved hearth-stone 5 feet in length and 3 feet in
breadth. The boiler should have a hearth-stone 4 feet 6 inches in length, and 2 feet 6 inches
in breadth, and it should be built with fire-brick, and have a cope of 4 inches in thickness
of droved a-shler. The flues from both the fire-places and the boiler should be carried up 12
inches clear in the opening, and should have chimney-stalks of broached ashler, 2 feet in
hight above the ridges of the respective roofs, 2 feet square, and furnished with a droved
check-plinth and block 12 inches in depth. The gates of all the cattle and hammel courts
should be hung on the droved ashler comers when close to a house, but on droved built pil-
lars when in connection with low court-walls. The riding-horse stable, if laid at all with
flags, should have them 4 inches thick, of droved and ribbed pavement behind the travis-
posts, having a curved water-channel communicating with a drain outside. The travis-posts
of the work-horse stable should be provided with droved stone sockets, 12 inches in thick-
ness, and 18 inches square, founded on rubble-work, and a droved curbstone should be put
betv^-ixt the stone stjckets of each pair of head and foot ti-avis-posts, provided with a groove
on the upper edge to receive the mider edge of the lower ti-avis-board. For the better rid-
dance of the mine from the work-horse stable, there .should be a droved curved wafer-chan-
nel, 6 inches in breadth, wrought in freestone, all the length of the stable, with a full at least
of IJ inclies to every 10 fei-t of length. The water-channel in the cow-byres and feeding-
houses should be of droved curb-stones, 6 inches thick, 12 inches deep, aiid laid in the bot-
tom with 3-inch thick of dmveti pavement, placed 6 inches below the top of the curb-stones.
If stone is preferred for water-trovghs, which it .should always be when easily obtained, the
troughs sho\ild not be of leas dimensions than 3^ feet hi length, 2 feet in breadth, and 18
inches in depth over all ; or they may be made of the same dimensions of pavement-flags put
together with iron-batts. Wood may be substituted for stone when that cannot be easilv ob-
tamed. The liquid-manure drain should be 9 inches in hight and fi inches in width in the
clear, with droved flat sills and hammer-ilressed covers. A stone 2 feet in length, 18 inches
in breadth, and 8 or !) inches in thickness, with an opening throuizh it, giblet-checked. wiU
contain a grating 15 inches in length and !) inches in breadth, with the bars one inch asTm-
der, at the ends of the liquid-maniuv drains in the courts. The li(iuid-manure tank, sunk into
the ground, will be strong enough with a 0-inch brick or rubble wail of stone and linie-mor
tar, having the bottom laid with jointed flag-pavement. If the ground is gravelly, a puddlin"
(224)
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD. 129
of clay will be requisite behind the walls, and below the jjavement f)f the bottom. The bot-
tom of the freUng-tyoiicrh^ ia th=! byres, courts, and htunmels, should be of 3-inch thick of
flag-pavement, jointed and scabbled on the face, or of wood. All the window-sills in the in-
side should be finished with 3-inch droved or scabbled pavement.
(102.) The walls in the front of the courts are intended to be quite plain; but, should
you prefer ornamental structures, their tops may be finished with a 6-inch droved cope, 15
inches in breadth, with a half-inch washing on both fronts ; and with a droved base-course
12 inches in depth, having a wasliing of 1^ inches. The pillars of the gates to the larger
courts may be of droved ashler, in courses of an octagonal form, of 15 inches in thickness,
and 2 feet by 2 feet, with 12-inch base, and a 12-inch checked plinth and block, built at least
18 inches higher than the wall. And if you prefer an outside hanging-stair to the upper-bam
instead of the gangway, or to the wool-room, the steps sliould be droved 3 feet 6 inches clear
of the wall, with 6 inches of wallhold. And, farther, you may substitute droved crow-steps
on the gables for the broached skews, with an inch back-rest under them. These crow-
steps, in my opinion, are no ornaments in any case in a steading. They are only suited to a
lofty, castellated style of liuilding.
(103.) The floors of the cow-byres, work -horse stable, stalls of the riding-horse stable,
passage of the calves'-house, coach-house, boiling-house, implement-house, hay-house, and
turnip and potato stores, should be laid in causeway with whinstone, or with small land
stones, upon a solid stratum of sand, with the precaution of a bed of broken stones under
the flagging as formerly recommended in (73.) p. 118. A causeway, 13 feet in breadth,
should also be made in the large court K to the corn-bam door, round to the gate at H, for
the use of loaded carts from the bam, with a decUvity from the wall to the dung area of 2
inches in the 10 feet. Causeways are usually formed in steadings with round liard stones
found on the land, or in the channels of rivers, or on the sea-shore, imbedded m sand. In
those situations the stones are always hard, being composed of water-worn fragments of the
primitive and secondary as well as of trap-rocks ; but round boulders of micaceous sand-
stone, usually found in gravel pits, are unfit for the purpose of causeways, being too sol't and
slaty. A more perfect form of causeway is made of squared blocks of ti-aji, whether of
basalt or greenstone, imbedded in sand, such as is usually to be seen in the streets of towTis.
The ready cleavage of trap-rocks into convenient square blocks renders them valuable depots,
where accessible, of materials for causeways and road metal. The floors of the pig-sties and
poultry-yards should be laid with strong, thick-jointed stones imbedded in lime mortar, hav-
ing broken glass in it, upon a bed of 9 inches thick of small broken stones, to withstand not
only the digging propensities of the piga on the surface, but also to prevent vennm gaining
access from below through the floor to the poultry. The areas of the catde-courts, and floors
of the sheds, hammels, and cart-shed, will be firm enough with the earth beaten well down.
(104.) There is a plan of making the floors of out-houses, recommended by Mr. Waddell
of Berwickshire, which deserves attention. It is this: Let the whole area of the apartment
be laid with small broken stones to the depth of 9 inches. Above these let a sohd body of
mason work, of stone and lime properly packed, be buUt to the hight of 12 or 14 inches, ac-
cording to the thickness of the substance which is to fonn tlie upper floor. The lime, wliich
is applied next the walls, should be mixed with broken glass. If a composition is to fonn
the floor, it should be laid on 3 mches in thickness above the masonry ; but if asphaltum, 1
inch thick will suffice, the difference in the hight being made up in the masonry.* This plan
of Mr. Waddell's seems well adapted for making a solid and secure foundation against ver-
min, for the causewaying of the several apartments mentioned above ; but it is not so well
adapted for wood-floors either as a preser\'ative against damp, or preventive against vermin,
as the plan described at p. 88, (16.)
(105.) While tieating of the subject of causewaying, I may as well mention here the va-
rious sorts of flooring and pavement which may be foiTned of other materials than those al-
ready mentioned ; and the first is concrete, which fonns a veiy good flooring for indoor use.
It is formed of a mixture of coal-ashes obtained fi-om furnaces, and from a fourth to a third
part or more, according to its strength, of slaked lime, and worked into the form ot paste
with water. A coating of clay of 2 or 3 inches is first laid on the ground leveled for the pur-
pose, and upon the clay, while in a moist state, the concrete is spread two or three mches in
thickness, and beaten down with a rammer or spade until the mider part of the concrete is
incorporated with the upper part of the clay. The surfice of the concrete is then made
smooth by beating with the back of a shovel, and when left imtouched for a timo, that sub-
stance assumes a very hard texture. This is a cheap mode of flooring, labor being the prin-
cipal expense attending it.
(106.) Another sort of pavement is that oi asphaltum, suitable either for indoor use, or for
outdoor purposes, where no cartage is to be employed upon it. It is a composition of bitu-
men, obtained from coal-tar after the distillation of naphtha, and small clean gravel. When
applied, the bitumen and gravel in certain proportions are melted together in a pot over a
fire, and when sufficiently liquified and mixed, the composition is poured over the surface
of the ground to be paved, which is previously prepared hard and smooth for the purpose,
• Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. viii. p. 373.
(225) 9
130 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
about nn inch or more in thickness, and is spread even and smoothed on the surface with a
heated iron roller. When completely dry, the asphaltum becomes a perfect pavement, aB
hard as stone, and entirely impervious to water. It would form an excellent flooring for the
etraw-bam, 8tr\-ants'-hou8e, boiling-house, potato-stores, and the passages in the cow-byre and
calves'-house. It might also make roofing to out-houses, where there is no chance of the
roof being shaken. As made at the Chemical \N'ork8 at Bomiington near Edinburgh, it
costs 5d. per square foot when laid down, wliich makes it an expensive mmle of paving.
Whether this usphalte wiU bear heat, or the trampluig of horses' feet, I do not know, but
it seems there is a sort of asphaltum pavement in l-"i-ance which will bear lOO*-" of heat
of Fahrenheit, and is employed in flooring the cavalry barracks of that countiy. The sub
stance of which this pavement is made, is called " The Asphaltic Mastic of Seyssel," and
for the manufacture and sale of which a company has been Ibnned in Paris to supply pave
ment for various purposes. The substance is a natural asphalte found at Pyrimout, at the
foot of the eastern side of Mount Jura, on the right bank of the river Rhone, one league
north of Seyssel. In chemicid composition tliis asphalte contains 90 per cent, of pure car
bonate of lime, and 9 or 10 per cent, of bitumen. To form the asphalte into a state fit for
use, it is combuied with mineral pitch, obtained at the same place, in the proportion of 93
j)er cent, of the asphalte to 7 per cent, of the mmeral pitch. The pitch when analyzed con-
tains of resinous petroliferous matter from C9 to 70 per cent, and of carbon from 30 to 35 per
cent. The preparation of tliis asphalte being tedious, its cost is greater than that mentioned
above. For foot-pavements or floors it is about 6^d. and for rools 8|d. per square foot.*
(107.) Another mode of causewaying is wdth blocks of wood, commonly called icood-
pavcment. Portions of the sti'eets of London have been laid with this kind of pavement,
the blocks ha\"ing been j)reviously subjected to the process of Kyanizing, and they are found
to make a smooth, clean, quiet, and durable causewaying. This would be a desirable
method of paving the road round the large court K, Plate IV. the straw-barn, work-horse
stable, hay -house, cow-byres, passage in the calves'-house, riding-horse stable, coacli-house,
and potato-stores. It would be expedient, when used in a stable or byre, tliat some other
substance than sand be put between the blocks, for that is apt to absorb urine too readily.
Grout formed of thin lime and clean small gi^avel, or asphalte poured in between the blocks,
might repel moisture. This latter expedient has already been tried, as may be seen at page
14 of Mr. Simm's obser\-ations on asphalte. There are various methods of disposing of the
blocks of wood so as to make a steady and durable pavement. 1. The earliest plan adopt-
ed in Loudon, in 1833, was that of Mr. Stead, a specimen of laying which I had an oppor
tunity of seeing in the Old Bailey, London, in 1839. It consisted of hexagonal blocks of
wood set on end upon a sandy substi-alum. The blocks had the Kyan stamp on their side
Since then the substratum upon which the blocks rest hiis been made of Roman cement and
what is called Thames ballast, which I sujipose means Thames river sand. The cost of this
mode is 9s. the square yai-d for 6-inch blocks, and 2s. the yard for the concrete. 2. Another
l)lim is that of Mr. Carey, which consists of setting cubical blocks on end, a mere modifica-
tion of that of Mr. Stead. The cost is for 8-inch blocks 12s. 6d. ; 9-inch blocks ISs. 6d. ;
and 10-iuch blocks 14s. 6d. the square yard. 3. Mr. Grinmians's is auollier mode of wood-
paving. It consists of the blocks forming oblique parallelopipedons at an angle of 77'^, and
they are so cut as to set from right to left and from left' to right, presenting a sort of herring-
bone work. The blocks are chamfered at the edges to prevent the slipping of horses' feet.
With the concrete of Roman cement and Thames ballast, this paving is charged 12s. the
square yard. 4. Mr. Rankin's method secures the safety of the horses' feet in shpping, but
is too elaborate a mode for general adoptioji. It consists of a number of small blocks, cut
out of the same piece of wood, lying above one another in a complicated fashion. With con
crel<j, its cost is IGs. the square yard. 5. Of all the modes of wood-paving yet invented,
that of the Count de Lisle is the best. It consists of placing beside each other oblique cubes
of 6 inches, having an inclination of 63° 26' 5 8-10', a rumber derived by cidculation from
the stcreotomy of the cube. " These blocks are cut and drilled by mnduner}-, mathemati-
cally alike; and are so placed in the street that they rest upon and support each other from
curb to curb, each alternate course having the angle of inclination in opposite directions.
These coiu-ses are connected to each other, side and side, by dowels, which occupy the ex-
act centers of two isosceles [eipiilateral ?;| triangles, into which each block is divisii)le. This
arrangement affonls the means of connecting everj- block with four others, and prevents the
possibility of one being forced below the level of another. Pressure and percussion are
therefore distributed, in effect over large surfaces, and a perfect cohesion established. Nor
is this cohesion advantageous only as a means of resistance against superincumbent force. It
is of equal viilue in withstanding any efiort to break up the uniformity of surface by undue
expansion. The concrete foundation having a slight elliptical curve given to it. and the
wood-paving being so laid as to correspond with that curve, for the puqwses alike of strength
and surface drainage, there is naturally a slight tension on the dowc^ls in an upward direc-
tion, which the pressure from above tonds to relieve ; while the lower ends of the blocks
abut so closely together in one direction, and every block is so kept in ite position by two
* Simm'B Practical Observations on the Asphaltic Mastic or Cement of Seyssel, p 3
(226J
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD. 13]
dowels on each side in the other direction, that the whole mass will take any increased
curve consequent upon expansion, without the slightest risk of either partial or general dis-
placement." There is much facility in replacing these blocks, especially since " the dowel-
ing of them together at the manufactory in panels of 24 each, 6 in length by 4 in width, the
blocks at the sides of which being connected by iron cramps. Thus prepared, the process
of covering a street is exceedingly rapid and simple. One end of a panel is cut off at an
angle to agree with that of the curb and the cur\'e of the street, and is then abutted against it ;
each panel containing four courses in alternate angles, another dove-tails precisely with the
first, and thus panel after panel is laid until the sti-eet is crossed, and the last cut off to abut
against the other curb." To pi-event slipping, grooves are cut across the street at about 6
inches apart, aad others are fomied along the street, to prevent rutting, and the joinings of the
longitudinal grooves are broken. The substi-atum upon which this mode of wood-paving is
made to rest is a concrete formed of " blue lias lime, a metallic sand, and Thames ballast," which
becomes permanently solid and impers'ious to water after t\vo or three days, by the oxidation
of the metalhc sand. The cost of this mode is 13s. the squai-e yard for 6-inch blocks and
concrete complete, and 6d. a 3'ard every year for keeping it in perfect repair for 10 or 20
years ; 12s. fi)r 5-inch blocks ; lis. for 4-inch blocks, and proportionately for repairs.
(103.) Of these various modes of wood-paving, the following are the quantities of each
which have been tiied in London up to November, 1841, viz:
Of Stead's hexagons 8,710 sq. yds. Of Grimraan's oblique parallelopipeclons.650 eq. yds.
De Lisle's oblique cubes 19.838 .. Rankin's inverted pyramids 492
Carey's squares . . . , 1,750 . . TTXto
The Metropolitan Wood-paving Company have adopted De Lisle's system.
(109.) As to the durability of wood-paving, it is reasonable to suppose that " a structure
of wood, instead of resisting the pressure or peiTussion of passing vehicles, like such an in-
compressible substance as granite, jaelds to it sufficiendy to counteract friction, from its inhe-
rent property of elasticity. Hence in Whitoliall, where the blocks have been down about
two years, they are not reduced in dejjth J of an inch on an average ; and this reduction, be-
ing more the result of compression than of abrasion, is not likely to continue even at that ra-
tio ; for the solidity of the blocks is increased even if the volume be thus sHghtly reduced.
Indeed, paradoxical as it may at first appear, the ti-affic, which is destructive of wood-paving
in one way, contributes to its preservation in another ; and may thus be explained : The
woud-paving is put down in a comparatively dry state, and, if it were always perfectly dry,
would be much more susceptible of destruction from accidental or mechanical, as well as
from natural causes. But, soon after it is constructed, it becomes perfectly saturated from
rain and other causes, and continual pressure forces more and more water into the blocks,
until every pore is completely filled. In this state, the water assists in supporting superin-
cumbent weight, while it effectually preserves the wood from decay. For, in fact, of the 6
sides of a block of the given form, only the upper one is exposed to the action of the atmo-
sphere ; below the surface the whole mass is as thoroughly saturated as if it were immersed
in water ; aad the surface itself becomes so hardened by pressure and the induration of for-
eign substances, such as giit and sand, as to be impervious to the action of the sun, especially
in a northern climate ; and that water is a preservative against decay may be proved in a va-
riety of cases Dry rot, therefore, can never affect good wood-paving, nor can any
other secondaiy process of ^ egetatiou, in conseepience of the preseir^ative qualities of water
— the shutting ont, in short, if atmospheric influence ; and it is questionable if, under other
circumstances, the incessant vibration to which the blocks are subjected, by traffic, would
not have a strong preservative tendency."
(110.) On the comparative cost of laying down and maintaining wood-paving wdth other
sorts, a statement wiiich has been made regarding wood-pavmg and paving with granite, in
the parish of St. Mary le Strand, in London, for the last 7 years, teUs in favor of the wood.
It is this :
Granite-paving and concrete cost £0 12 6 the square yard.
Repairs for 7 years at 3d. the yard 0 19
0 14 3
Deduct the value of the stones for streets of lesser traflSc 0 3 0
Actual cost of 7 years 0 11 3
Wood-paving cost £0 13 0 the sq. yd.
Repairs for <7 years at 6d. the yard 0 3 6 ..
0 16 6 .. ..
Deduct value of the wood for paving streets of
lesser traffic 0 3 0.. ..
0 13 .6
£0 2 3
Giving an apparent advantage of '2s. 3d. the square yard to the granite-pavin" for the first 7
years ; but, were the comparison continued for an indefinite period onward, it wotdd be
(227)
132 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
found thiit the siime blocks of wooil would biBt longer than the eame blocks of gianite, and
henne the \voo<l would be clienper in the long mn. j ■ j ■, ,
(111.) On coniniu-ing its cost witii niucadaniization, it is found that macadamized roads of
much tnitlic, such as Oxfoitl-street, Piccadilly, cost from 28. 6d. to 3s. the square yard every
year, bcsid.'.<» the e.xpense of the origiuiil fonnation : whereas wood-paving can be laid down
and kept in rep;iir for a rent-ch:«ge^)f 2s. 3d. the scpiiu-e yard every year— being a saving of
from 10 to 30 per cent, per auniun.* i • i. t j j
(112.) I have dwelt the longeron the subject of wood-pavmg, because I am persuaded
that itwonld msike a much more durable road about steadings, and to the fields of farms,
than lh<- materials usually eninloyed for such purposes ; and, as to their comparative condi-
tion under traffic, there would be a decided superiority on the side of the wood-paving, for
farm nuwls are usually in the most vvTetched state of repair — every hour of time and every
ton of nietul expeiide<i on them being grudged, as if they were an item with which the farmer
hail nntliiii" whatever to do. I do not say that wood-paving would be cheap where wood is
scarce iuid'carriage long, and of couree dear; but in those parts of the country where larch-
w(kh1 is in abinidance, and where it realizes low prices, it might be, I conceive, profitably
employed in not only making fann roads, but in paving every aparmient in the steading.
(113.) Another method still of cansev^'aying is with Dutch clinkers — a kind of very hard
brick made in Holland, of about the breadth and thickness of a man's hand. They are used
in paving roads and sheets in that country. They are set lengthways on edge and imbedded
in sand, and are laid so a.i to fonn a slight arch across the road. Most of the great roads in
Holland are iiaved with this brick, and more beautifid and pleasant roads to travel on caimot
be found anvwhere, e.xcept perhaps in the heat of summer, when they become oppressively
hot. I had an opportiniity of sceuig a part of the road near Haarlem laid with these clink-
ers, and observed, as a part of the process, that, as a certain jnece of the causewaying was
finishetl, bundles of green reeds were laid lengthways across the road over the new laid
bricks, to teni])er the pressure of the wheels of can-iages upon the bricks on going along the
roads, tnitil the bricks .<hould have subsided finidy into the stratom of sand. As these clink-
ers are small, they can be laid in a variety of forms, some as a beautiftil kind of Mosaic work.
The import tlutj- on Dutch cluikers was reduced to 38. per 1,000 on 1st January, 1834 ; iu
1819 it was Ifis. 8d.t The pre.sent price of cluikers (1842) iu London is 3.5s. the 1,000.
(114.) Tine smooth durable pavement is made of the beautifully stratified beds of the in-
ferior gniv sandstone, a rock nearly allied to gi-aywacke. It is a rock of fine texture, hard,
and perfectly impervious to water. It occurs in abundance in the south-east part of Forfar-
shire, and. l)eing chietlv shi]i])ed at Arbroath in that county-, it has received the appellation
of "Arbrnii/h Pavement." Hard flags from the counties of Caitlmess and Orkney al.so fonn
very durable, though not always smooth, pavement. Some, however, of this, as well as of
the Arbroath pavement, requires veiy bttle, if any, dressing with tools on the fiice. The
Caithness pavement is cut on the edge with the saw, the Arbroath pavement with common
masons' tools. In a pai>er read to the British Association at their meeting at Glasgow in
1840, rrofessor Tniill described this flag as belonging to the red sandstone series, although
its ai>i)eanuKe as pavement would lead one to suppose it to belong to an older fonnation.
Pavement is also ioniied of the sti-atified portions of the sandstone of the coal-formation.
Most of the foot-pavement of the streets of Edinburgh is of this kind. Its face requires to
be wrought with tools, and its texture admits water. " Arbroath pavement costs fi-om 2d. to
4d. per sijuare foot at the (piam-, according to thickness. Both it and Caithness pavement
cost 10(1. and conniion stone ])avenient 6d. per foot in Edinburgh. When jointed and
droved, till- cost is ilil. per square foot additional.
(11;').) In connection with the subject of ma.sonry, I may advert to the sinking of wells
for a supply of water. 1. In trap ajid other amoiiihous rocks, little water may be expected
to \>e found, and the lalwr of sinking by blasting with gunpowder renders a well sunk in
these substances a very expensive undertaking. When there is probability' of finding water
in stnitifii il nnks under trap, the latter may be penetrated by boring with a jumper, with
the view of fonning an artesian well ; but before such a project is midertaken, it should be
ascertained In foiehand that stratified rock or diluvium exists below the trap, and that the
dip of either is towanl the site of the well. Of .so much importance is one good well on a
&rm, that a considi-rable expense should be incuiTed rather than want, at any season, so es-
Bentiid a beverage as water to man and beast. When insuperable objects exist against find-
ing water on the spot, perhaps the better j)lan will be either to go a distance to a higher
elevation, where a common well may succeed in finding water, and then convey it to the
stciuling by a w(H)d or iron or lead pipe ; or to descend to a lower site and throw the water
up to the steading by means of a force-pumj). Either of these plans may be less expensive,
or more practicable than the boring through a hard rock to a great depth. The well in
Bamborough Castle, in Northumberhuid, was sunk upward of 100 feet through trap to the
sandstone below ; and at Dundee, a Iwre was m;ule throu<;h trap, 300 feet, to the inferior
Band.stone below, by means of a steam-engine, to ohtiiin wat«'r for a spinning-mill. 2. In
gravel and sand, a well may be simk to a considerable depth before finding water. Being
♦ Stevens's Wood-raving in London. t McCulloch'e Commercial Dictionary, Art. Tariffl
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD. 133
desirous of a supply of water to three adjoining fields of dry turnip land, resting on a dee-)
bed of pure gravel, and which had no watering-pool, I fixed on the most likely spot tti con-
taui water, near the foot of a rising gi-ound of diluvial clay, in wliich to dig a well, and it
happened, to be a spot common to all the fields. After persevering to the depth of 22 feet
without success, at the imminent hazard of overwhelming the men with gravel, as a despair-
ing effort, at night-faU I caused a foot-pick to be thrust down into the bottom of the pit as
far as the handle, and on withdrawing the instrument, water was seen to follow it. Next
morning three feet more were dug, when the water excavating the gi-avel around the
bottom of the pit rendered farther digging a dangerous operation for the men, so the ring of
the well was there begun to be built with stones. The water afterward would rise no
higher in the well than the level where it was first found, but the supply, nevertheless, was
sufficient for the use of three fields. On findmg water in this case, in the midst of very
hopeless symptoms, I would recommend perseverance to diggers of wells, and success will
most probably reward their efforts. 3. In very unctuous clay, such as is found in carse
land, water is difficult to be obtained by digging to ordinary depths ; but as such a country
is usually situate iiear a large river, or on the side of a broad estuary, by digging to the
depth of the bed of the river, some sand will most probably be found through wliich the
water will find its way to the well ; and though brackish in the estuarj', it may come into
the well sweet enough for all domestic purposes. 4. Wells dug in stratified rocks, such as
sandstone, may be supphed with water at a moderate depth, perhaps 6 or 8 feet ; but among
regular strata there is as much risk of losing water as there is ease hi obtaining it. To avoid
disappointment, it will be necessaiy to puddle the seams of the rock on that side of the well
in which it dips dowTiward. .5. The substance which most certainly supplies water on be-
ing dug into is diluvial clay, a substance which foniis the subsoil of the greatest e.xtent of
arable land in this kingdom. This clay is of itself impervious to water, but it is always in-
tersected with small veins of sand frequently containing mica, and interspersed with numer-
ous small sUinss, on removing which, water is found to ooze from their sites, and collect in
any pit that is formed in the clay to receive it. The depth to be dug to secure a sufficiency
of water may not be great, perhaps not less than 8 feet or more than 16 feet ; but when the
clay is homogeneous and hard, and there is little appearance of water, digging to upward of
40 feet in depth will be required to find water. I knew a remarkable instance of a well
that was dug in such clay in Ireland, in which 40 feet were penetrated before any water
was found ; but immediately beyond that depth, so large a body of pure water was found
in a small vein of sand, that the diggers escaped with difficulty out of the well, leaving their
tools behind. A force-pump was obtained to clear the well of water, in order to allow the
ring to be built ; but it was unable to reduce the bulk of water, so that the ring remains un-
built to this day ; the water always stands within three feet of the top of the well, and the
clay is not much affected by it. 6. Suppose, then, that this wall is to be dug in clay con-
taining small stones and veins of sand. Let a circle of 8 feet in diameter be described on the
surface of the ground, fi-om whose area let the ground-soil be removed to be used elsewhere.
After throwing out a depth of 8 or 9 feet with the spade, let a v^^nch and rope and bucket
be set up to draw the stuff out of the well. While the digging is proceeding, let a sufficient
quantity of flat stones be laid down near the winch, by which to let them down to build the
ring. A depth of 16 feet will most probably suffice, but if no water is found, let the dig-
ging proceed to the requisite depth. A ring of 3 feet in diameter will be a large enough
bore for the well, the rest of the space to be filled up with dry rubble masonry, and drawn
in at the top to 2 feet in diameter. Whenever the building is finished, the water should be
removed from the well with buckets, if the Cjuantity is small, and with a pump if it is large, to
allow the bottom to be cleared of mud and stones. A thick flat stone, reaching fi-ora the
side of the ring to beyond the center, should be firmly placed on the ground at the bottom
of the well, for the wooden pump to stand upon, or for the lead pipe to rest on. If a wooden
pump is used, a large flat stone, ha\ing a hole in it to embrace the pump, should be laid on
a level with the ground upon the ring of the well ; but if a lead pipe is preferred, the flat
stone should be entire and cover the ring, and the clayey earth throv^^n over it. The cost
of digging a well in clay, 8 feet in diameter and 16 feet deep, and building a ring 3 feet in
diameter with dry rubble masonry, is only £.5, exclusive of carriage and the cost of the
pumps. A wooden-mounted larch pump of from 15 to 20 feet in length costs from £3 to
£3 10s. and a lead one £2 10s. with Is. 2d. per lineal foot for pipe of the depth of the well.
The wooden pump will last perhaps twenty years, and the lead one a lifetime, with ordinary
care, and the lead at all times is worth something.
(116.) The making of the well naturally suggests the subject of water. The different
kinds of water receive names from the sources fi-om which they are derived. Thus there
is sea-water, the water of the ocean ; rain-water, the water \vhich falls from the atmosphere;
river-water, the water which flows in the channels of rivers ; spring-water, the water as it
naturally issues from the ground; well-water, the water collected in wells; pond-water, the
water collected in an artificial hollow formed on the surface of the grouuil ; and marsh-
water, the stagnant water collected in swamps and bogs. All these soits of water possess
different prorierties, acquired from the circumstances from \vhich each is deri\'ed.
(117.) Pure water is not found in nature, for all the sorts of water accumulated on or near
(229)
134
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
the surface of the cailh, though tlitferiiig in purity iii regard U) each other, are none of them
pure m the chemical sense of the tenii ; that is, free of the aihiiixture of other matter, suck
as gases, salu<, eartli. I'ure water is colork-ss, aiid insipid to the taste. Its specific ^avity
is 1.000 ounces per cubic foot. It i.s made tlie standard of gravitj', 1 being its equivalent
mark. It is an inelastic fluid. It consists of hydrogen and oxygen, the combination by
weight being 8 of oxygen and 1 of hydrogen — by volume, 1 of oxygen to 2 of hydrogen —
and by ecjuivalent or atom, 1 of hydi-ogen with I of oxygen ; its chemical symbol being
H-|-0 or 110. Pure water is obuiined by the distillation of rain or river water, and, to re-
tain it so, it must be kept in closed b<}tt]es filled to the stopper, as it has a strong affinity for
common air, oxygen, and carbonic acid giis.
(118.) Water hxim the condensed vapor of fresh water is the purest that can be obtained
by natural means. Hence, niin-water collected after rain has fallen for a time, at a hight
above the ground, in the country, and at a disUnice from any dwelling of man, or new-fallen
melted snow, is the purest water tliat can be collected ui a natural state ; but, nevertheless,
it is not pure, iuiismuch as it contains oxygen, nitrogen, carl)ouic acid, and earthy matter,
■which it has met with in the atmosphere, besides nearly as much common air as.it can absorb.
Procured from the roofs of buildings, min-water is always contaminated with many additional
impurities, derived from the channels through which it has flowed. It is generally very
dark-colored, and, when allowed to stand, deposits a quantity of earthy ingiedients. It is
not ui a pn)pcr state for domestic purposes until it has got quit of as much of these impurities
as it can by deposition.
( 1 19. ) Rain-water for domestic purposes is collected in cisterns. The fonn of a rain-water
cistern, repiesented by fig. 30, I have found an useful one for allowing the undisturbed de
position of impurities, and at the same time the
quick flowing off of the puier water, without
aisturbing the deposition. Let ab b che a. cis-
tern of stone or wood, placed at a convenient
spot of the steading or farm-house, for the re
ception of rain-water. I have found that such
a cisteni, of the capacity of 12 cubic feet, holds
a sufficient (juantity of rain-water for the domes-
tic purposes of an ordinary family. A cistern
of 2 feet square at the base, and 3 feet in hight,
will just contain that (juantity ; but, as the size
of an ordinaiy wash-tub is 2 feet in diameter,
the space betwaxt d and d must be made 2 feet
6 inches at least, and the hight of the cistern b
could be 2 feet; but if more water is required
than 12 cubic feet, then the hight should be 3
feet, which gives a capacity to the cisteni of 18
cubic feet. Suppose the cistern represented in
the figure to contain 18 cubic feet, then the area
of a will be 2^ feet square, and b 3 feet in hight,
supported on two upright stones d d of the
breadth of the ci.stern and 2 feet high. The
cisteni may either be niatle of a block of I'ree-
Btone lie%Nii out to the dimensions, or of fliigs,
of which the sides are let into grooves in the
bottom and into each other, and imbedded in
white-lead, and fastened together with iron
clamps, liavuig a stone movable cover c. Or it
may be fomied of a box of wood, securely fast-
ened at the comers to be water-tight, \\-ith a
cover of wood, and resting on the stone suji-
ports d d. Stone being more durable, is, of
course, i)referable to wood for a cisteni that
stands out in the open air. A hollow copper
cylinder g is fastened perpendicularly into the
bottom a, having its lower end jinijecting 1 inch
below, and its upjier 3 inches above, the respective surfoces of the bottom. The upper end
of the copper cylinder is formed to receive a ground tnincated cone of copper called a plug
or stopper, which is m )vcd up and down with' the lever k, by means of the stout coi>per rod
t. The plug must be made watertight with grease, liie rod of which passes through a hole
in the cover, to be connected with the lever, whose support or fulcrum is fixed on the cover.
Those parts are all male of co|>per, to withstand rusting from the water, with the exception
of the lever, which may be of iron, painted. The i-.iin-water is supplied to the cislem by the
pipe c, which descends from the rain-water conductor, and is let through a hole in the cover.
The water is represented standing as high as I, but, in case it should rise to overflow, it can
pass olT by the lead waste-pipe /, which is secured and movable at pleasure in a gi-ound-
(230)
RAIN-WATER CISTERN.
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD. 135
washer n, whose upper end is made flush wath the upper surface of the bottom a. After the
water has entered the cisteni, it gets leave to settle its sediment, which it may do to the his^ht
of the upper end of g. The sediment is represented by m, and, when it accumulates to k,
the cover c should be taken otf, and the waste-pipe / removed, and it can then be cleaned
completely out by the washer n. The waste water riuis away through the air-ti-ap o, and
along the drain p. It is more convenient to have two small than one large cistern, as, while
the water is rising in the one, that in the other gets leave to settle. The cost of such a cis-
tern, with droved stones, aud to contain 18 cubic feet, \\'ith the proper moimtings, may be
about £5. I think it right to say, in commendation of this fonn of water-cistern, that in no
case have I known the water about the plug to be frozen — in consequence, perhaps, of the
non-conducting power of the mud in the bottom of the cistern. The rod i has sometimes be
come fast to the ice on the top of the water, but a little boUing water poured down by. the
side of the rod tln-ough a fimnel soon freed it fi-om restraint.
(120.) Rain-water, besides containing gases in solution, becomes impregnated wth many
saline substances in its passage through the ground ; and hence the water of springs and riv-
ers always contains many ingredients. The purest spring-water is that which has passed
through gravelly deposits, such as of granite, sandstone, quai-tz ; because the component
parts of those stony substances being insoluble, the water cannot take up much of them. In
the same way the water of old wells is purer than that of new, because the long continued
action of the water has removed or gi-adually dissolved the soluble matters in the same pas-
sages through the gi-ound to the well. " The matters generally contained in spiing, well,
and river water," says Mr. Reid, " are carbonate of lime, sulphate of lime, muriate of lime,
sulphates of potash and soda, muriate of soda, and sometimes a little magnesia. ' In rain-
water,' says Dr. Murray, ' the muriates I have found generally to fonn the chief impregna-
tion, while in spring-water the sulphates and carbonates are predominant, and in the former
the alkalies,' potash and soda, ' are in larger quantity, while the earths, particularly lime, are
more abundant in the latter.' "* It is in its combination with one or more of tliese salts that
water becomes hard, chiefly with the sulphate of lime or ,g^*psum, and the carbonate of lime
or hmestone. Water is said to be hard when it will not dissolve but decompose soap. Soft
water, on the other hand, does not decompose, but combines easily with soap and dissolves
it. Hard water is not so fit as soft for many culinary purposes, such as making tea and boil-
ing vegetables. It is, therefore, of importance for you to know when water is in a hard or
soft state. By placing a few thin slices of white soap in a clean tumbler of the water to be
examined, its hardness will be indicated by white JiaLcs or curdy particles around the soap,
the effect of decomposition — the acids of the salts in the water combining with the alkali of
the soap and leaving the fatty matter. A very small quantity of either of the saljs enumer-
ated above will render water hard. Water can dissolve 1-.500 part of its weight of gypstim ;
bat, according to Dr. Dalton, 1-1000 part is sufficient to render it hard ; and Mr. Cavendish
says that 1"200 grains of water containing carbonic acid ^^'ill hold in solution 1 grain of lime-
stone. Limestone is insoluble in pure water ; but water containing carbonic acid in solution
can dissolve it.
(121.) "To discover whether the hardness be owing to the presence of limestone or gyp-
sum, the following chemical tests," says Mr. Reid, " may be applied. A solution of the
nitrate of barytes will produce a white precipitate with water containing either g^'psum or
limestone ; if limestone have been present in the water the precipitate \\'ill be dissolved,
and the liquid rendered clear on adtUng a few drops of pure nitric acid ; if the presence of
gypsum caused the precipitate, this will not be dissolved by the nitric acid. A solution of
the sugar of lead may be used in the same way, but the niti-ate of barytes is preferred. "t
(122.) As to a practical remedy for hard water, boiling vr\& remove the lime. The car-
bonic acid in excess in the water is converted into the gaseous fonn, and the carbonate of
lime then becoming insoluble, falls to the bottom of the vessel. Hence the iucnistation of
tea-kettles. If the hardness is caused by g^.'psum, a little pearlash or soda (carbonate of
potash or carbonate of soda) ^vill remove it, and the lime of the water will also be precipi-
tated with the carbonic acid of the pearlash or soda.
(123.) River- water is always softer than spring or well water, because it deposits its
earthy ingi-edients when flowing in contact with common air, which it absorbs in considera-
ble quantity'. By analysis, the water of the river Clyde ^-ielded 1-35 of its bulk of gases, of
which 19-20 were common air. " All that is necessary," remarks Mr. Reid, " in order to
render river-water fit for use is to filter it. This is rather a mechanical than a chemical
operation, and is done by causing the water to pour throush several layers of sand, which
intercepts the muddy particles as the liquid passes thi'ough. Filtering stones, made of some
porous material, such as sandstone, and hollowed out so as to be capable of containing a con-
siderable quantity of water, have sometimes been employed to purify water. Compressed
sponges have also been employed for this pm-pose. Sand and charcoal form the chief ele-
ments in the construction of the filters now so much employed for purifying water, the pow-
dered charcoal acting not only mechanically in detaining any muddy particles, but having a
chemical effect in sweetening the water (rendering it fresh) if it be at all tainted, or even m
retarding putrefaction, if it have any tendency that wav."+
* Reid'g Chemistry of Nature, p. 195. t Ibid. p. 199. % ^^^- ^Ol-
(231)
136 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
(124.) Wafer, as a beverage, would be insipitl or even nauseous \\"ithout the g:ase8 and
valine matters usually found in it. They give a natural seasoning and a sparkling appearance
to it, thereby rendering it agreeable to the taste. Every one knows the mawkish taste of
boiled ^^•ater when drank alone.
(125.) As I am on the subject of water, a few words should here be said on the making
of horfc-pnnd.1. The position of the horse-pond will be seen in figs. 1 and 2, in Plates I.
and II. When a small stream passes the steading, it is easy to make a pond serve the pur-
pose of horses drinking and washing in it, and the water in such a ]>ond will always be pure
and clean. But it may happen, for the sake of convenience, when there is no stream, that a
pond should be dug in clay, in which case the water in it will always be dirtj- and offensive,
unless means are used to bring water by a pipe fixjm a distance. If the subsoil is gravelly,
the water will with difficulty be retained on it, on which account the bottom shoidd be pud-
dled with clay. Puddling is a very simple process, and may be performed in this manner:
Let a quantity of tenacious clay be beaten smooth \vith a wooden rammer, mixing with it
about one-fourth part of its bulk of slaked lime, which has the effect of deterring worms
making holes in it. After the mass has lain for some time souring, let large balls of it be
formed and thrown forcibly on the bottom of the pond, made dry for the purjwse, and beaten
do^^-n with the rammer or tramped with men's feet, until a coating 6 or 7 inches in thick-
ness is fonned, or more, if there is plenty of clay. Then let a quantity of clean gravel be
beaten ^vith the rammer into the upper surface of the clay before it has had time to harden.
Should the jwnd be large, and the weather at the time of making it so dr\- as to harden the
clay before its entire bottom can be covered with it, let the puddling and graveling proceed
together bv degrees. Above the coating of gravel, let a substantial causeway of stones and
sand be formed \x\ resist the action of the horses' feet, and which, if {iroperly protected at
the ends, and finished on the open side of the ]iond, will withstand that action for a long
time. I have seen a sort of pond recommended to be made, into wliich the horses enter at
one end, and pass through it by the other. This is a convenient shape of pond, in as far as
it admits of the uninterrupted passage of the horses tkroitph the pond, but it is liable to seri-
ous objections. Being contracted laterally, the pair of horses which first descend to drink
will occupy the greatest proportion of its whole brcaddi. and, while in that position, the
succeeding pair must dinaik the muddy water at their heels ; and. as the contracted form
precludes easy turning in the deepest pari of the water, none of the rest of the horses can
be pennitted to block up the opposite or open end of the pond. A nru h better fonn of pond,
I conceive, is with an open side, having the opposite side fenced, mid the watei- supplied
clean at the upper end, and made to flow immediately away by the lower. At such a pond
a number of horses can stand in a row to drink at the same time, and easily pass each other
in the act of washing the legs after drinking. As to the depth, no horse-pond should ever
exceed the hight of the horses' knees. The water should on no accouut reach their bellies ;
for although I am quite aware of plo^^^nen being desirous to wade their lior.scs deep, and
of even wishing to see their sides laved with water, to save ihcm.'-elvcs some trouble in
cleaning, that is no reason why you should run the risk of endangering the health of your
horses by making the pond deeper than the knee.
(126.) With regard to the kind of stone which should bo emplo'-ed m the building of a
Bteading, it must be determined by the mineral product of the loc.ilitv in which it is pro-
posed to erect it. In all localities where stone is accessible, it should be prefeiTcd to every
other material ; but where its carriage is distant, and of course expensive, oilier materials,
such as brick or clay, must be taken. In large flat tracts of rountr\-. stone is generally at too
great a distance ; but in those situations, clay being alnin(l:int. brick may be easily made,
and it makes an excellent building material for walls, and far superior to the old-fashioned
clay >v!ill.« whii'h were in vogue before brick became so universally u.sed for building. Of
stone, anv kitul may be used that is nearest at hand, though some rocks are much better
adapted fir buildiuL' purposes than others. 1. Of the primitive rocks, gray granite forms a
beautiful and duniblc stone, as is exemplified in the buildings in Aberdeenshire, Cornwall,
and Newrv- in Ireland. Gneiss, micaslate, and clayslate, do not answer the purpose well.
They give a rough e<lgy fracture, frequently rise t<x) thin in the bed, especially in the case
of ciayslave ; are not unfrequentlv curbed in the bed, and at the same time difficult to be
dressed with the hammer. 2. Of the transition series, graywacke makes a beautiful build-
ing-stone, as may be se«'n in the houses at Melrose. The old red sandstone, though a good
building-stone, lias a disagreeably sombre aspect, as seen at Arbroath ; but the inferior gray
sandstone which prevails in the neiphborhood of Dundee, is a beautifid and durable build-
ing-stone. .3. All the sandstones of the coal formation fonn excellent materials for building,
as is exemplifiecl in Edinburgh and many other places. 4. The limestone, from marble to
the mountain carboniferous limestone, make fine b\iilding-stone, as at Plymouth ; but in case
of fire they are apt to be cn^U-ined by heat, as exemplified in the cathedral at Armagh, before
it was repaired. And 5. Even the trap-rocks are employed in building houses where sand-
stones are scarce. Though the two classes of rock are frequently located together. Whin-
stone is objectionable, inasmuch as it throws out dampness in wet weather, and the walls
require to be lathed and pliistered on the inside, to render the house even comfortable. Fre-
quently where whinatone is near at hand, and sandstone can be obtained at a litde distance,
(232)
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD.
137
the latter is employed as comers, ribets and lintels, though the contrast of color betwixt
them is too violent to be pleasant to the eye. If sandstone, therefore, can be procured at a
reasonable cost of carriage, you should give it the preference to whinstoue, for the sake of
comfort to your hve-stock in then- habitations in wet weather. You mav, indeed, choose to
incur the expense of lathhig and plastering all the insides of the walls of the steadiu'^ ; but
a lathed wall in any part of a steading would be apt to be broken by ever>- thing that came
against it, and is, on that account, an unsuitable finisliing for a steading. 6. The worst sort
ot building-stone are landfast boulders of the primitive and trap rocks, which, although re-
duceable by gunpowder, and manageable by cleavage inlo convenient shaped stones, incur
great labor in their preparation for building ; and even after the stones are prepm-ed in the
best mamier they are capable, their beds are frequendy veiy rough, and jointings coursi%
and the variety of texture and color exhibited by them, render them at the best unsightly
objects in a building. They are equally misuitable for dry-stone dykes as for buildings, for
in the case of dykes, they must be used very nearly in their natural state, as the usual charge
for such work wU not bear labor being bestowed on the preparation of the material. Still,
after all, if no better material for building houses is near at hand than those boulders, they
must be taken as the only natural product the country affords. There is a class of Ijoulders,
composed chiefly of micaceous sandstone, found m banks of gravel, which answer for dry-
Btone dykes admirably, splitting with ease with a hand-pick into thin layers, and exhibiting
a rough surface on the bed, very favorable to their adherence together in the wall. Tliis
species of building material is abundant in Forfarshire, w-here specimens of dry-stone build-
ing may be seen of a superior order. In these remarks of the general choice of building-
stones by Mr. G. Smith, architect in Edinburgh, there is much truth : " The engineer and
architect," says he, "go differently to work in choosing their stones. The Ibnner, in makino-
his experiments for his piers and bridges, selects the strongest and hardest as most suited to
resist great pressure. The latter, for his architectural decorations, chooses not, only the most
beautiful as to texture and uniformity of color, but those which may be easily cut into the
most delicate mouldings, and which, moreover, will stand the winter's fi-ost and the sum-
mer's heat. It may be remarked that the hardest stones are not always those which hold
out the best against the effects of the weather."*
(127.) I may here observe, in concluding my obsers-ations on the specifications of masonry,
that any lime that is used on a farm, for the purpose of steeps for grain or for mortar, gets
leave to lie about in the most careless manner, either under a shed, or at some place con-
tiguous to water, where it had been made up into mortar. In either case there is waste of
a useful article ; and in many parts of the countrj', where carriage is far distant, it is a high-
priced article. The lime that is to be used in a dry state should be kept under cover ; and
all that is required in a season could be held in a cask or small hogshead to stand in a cor-
ner of the cart-shed or potato-store, but not in the straw-bani, where a little damp may cause
it to ignite the straw. With regard to mortar, no more should be made at a time than is
used, or it should be carefully heaped together in a convenient place, and covered with turf.
(128.) In Sweden, mortar is made and kept in a convenient form of cart, represented by
fig. 31, a practice which might with propriety be followed in this country. The cart con-
Fig. 31.
SWEDISH MORTAR-CART.
siflta of a cube a b c d of a side of 3 feet made of 2-inch thick battens. The wheels are
formed of the two sides of the cube, on v/hich are fixed circular segments such as e and f,
made of strong battens 3 inches thick, secured by a screw at each end into the side of the
* Prize Kssays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. x. p. 85.
(233)
138 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
cube, and the circles aie shod with iron as common wheels. The axle g, inside and outside,
is closely parsed ihrnuirh the cube, so as not to allow any of the mortar to come out. The
a.\lo moves in a small iron nave attached to the shafts of the cart. On it are screwed iron
bars i. wliich pass through one of the sides of tlio cul)e, and fastened to it by screws k. The
use of these bars is to break the mortar when too tough ; and if one set of bars is found in-
sufficient for that puqiose, similar ones should be put through the opposite side of the cube.
A lid h is well secured to the cube by hinges, and kept fiist by means of a hasp. When
the shaft-s are drawn, the whole cart revolves with the wheels.
(129.) The lime is put into the cart by the lid, and sprinkled over with a little water,
about half a irallou of which to the bushel of lime will be enough the first time. The cart ia
then ilriveu round a while; and wheu the driver, who must often look to the mortar, finds
tliat all the water is imbibed, a little more must be poured in, and the cart again driven
round. Water i.s poured in in small quantitres until the lime forms coagulated masses or
balls, and theu it is worked until no dry lime is seen in the mass. The success of making
good mortar di-ponds on the skill of the driver, who will soon learn to do it well after a cart-
lul or two of driving. Three bushels of lime and sand can be prepared in this way in a short
time, but the sand should not be put in till after the lime has been sufficiently wi-ought with
water.*
(130.) Of the specification o{ carpentcr-irork, the fir.st timber that is used in building con
sists of stifc-lintcis, which should be 4 inches thick, of such a breadth as to cover the space
they are j)laccd over, and they should have a solid bearing at both ends of 12 inches.
(131.) The scnntlings or couples for the roofs vary' in size with the breadth of the build-
ing. When the building is 18 feet wide, the scantlings should be 8 inches wide at bottom,
7 inches at top, and 2.^ inches thick. Those for 1.5 feet wide buildings should be 7^ inches
wide at bottom, and C^ inches at top. All scantlings should be placed 18 inches apart from
center to center, upon wall-plates 8 inches wide by 1^ inches thick, firmly secured to bond-
timber built into the tops of the walls. These dimensions of scantlings are suitable for a roof
of blue slates. For a tile-roof the scantlings are placed 2 feet apart fi-om center to center. —
For roofing with gray-slates, which are very heavy, the scantlings should be 3 inches thick.
With tiles and gray-slates the roofs require a higher pitch than with blue slates, and this is
given by making the scantlings 1 foot longer.
(132.) The balks of an 18 feet wide building should be 7^ inches broad by 2^ inches thick,
and, for the 1.5 feet one, 7 inches by 2J inches. In both cases the balks should be of the
length of one of the scantlings, which will bring its position so low dow^n on the scanthngs as
to be only a little more than 3 feet above the wall-heads. It is geneially supposed that one
balk is sufficient for the support of the scantlings; but it will be seen in fig. 6, p. 88, that I
have represented a vertical section of the principal range of the steading with two balks, be-
cause I would always prefer two balks to one, and the only objection to the two is the ex-
pense. When two balks are employed, the lower one will be about 2 feet, and the upper
one about .5 feet, above the wall-heads.
(133 ) If a slated roof is adopted, there should be a riJge-tree 10 inches broad by 2 inches
thick, and tht^ to[is of the scantlings should be bound with collar-pieces, 5 inches broad and
2 inches thick, half checked into the scantlings. If a tile-roof is preferred, it is sufficient that
the tops of the scantlings be checked in with collar-pieces, as just described.
(134.) The whole roof should be covered with sarking, f inch thick, and clean jointed.
A tile-roof rc(iuires tile-lath, \\ inches square, and 11 inches apart, excepting at the eaves,
which should have a boarding from 12 inches to 15 inches broad, and | inch thick for slates.
Tile-lath is ;Jso em])loyed with gi'ay-slates.
(135.) The pcands and flankers should be 9 inches broad at bottom, and 7 inches at top,
aiid 3 inches thick, properly backed to receive the saiking or tile-lath of the respective sorts
of roofs.
(130.) The joists of the flooring in the part of the buildings that is 18 feet wide should be
10 inches deep by 2^ inches in thickness, placed 18 inches asunder fi-om center to center,
and having a wall-hold or rest of 12 inches at each end. When the bearings of joists exceed
8 feet, it is a more secure and economical plan to have beams, instead of battens, laid across
the building, 13 inches deep, and 6^ inches in width, with a wall-hold of 12 inches at each
end. Upon these .should rest joists 7 inches deep, and 2.^ inches in breadth, and not more
than 16 niches apart from center to center, dove-tailed into the beams with a hold of 9 inches
at each einl. These joints are best cut out of Memel log of first or second quality, the differ-
ence of price between the two qualities being 2d. the cubic foot.
(137.) The floors of the upper and corn-bam and granaries should be of 1:1 inches thick,
of red or white wood battens, grooved and tongued, and well seasoned when wrought and
laid. The under side of the floor, and the joists which support the floor of the upper-bam,
forming the roof of the com-bara, should be clean dressed, to prevent the adherence of dust.
(138.) In some parts of the country, and especially in East-Lothian, the floor of the corn-
barn is made of composition ; but, in order to leave a part of the floor clean, upon which to
winnow the grain, a space, 12 feet square, is usually left in the middle of the floor. This
• Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. xi. p. 245.
(234J
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD. 139
space is laid with sleeper-joisting, 7 inches deep by 2^ iuches thick, and 18 inches apart from
center to center, supporting a flooring of deal 2 iuches thick, grooved and ton<nied. As a
precautiou against vemiin, as well as the enjoyment of cleanliness while winnowang and oth-
erwise handling the grain, I would always lecommend an entire wooden floor for the corn-
bam, to be laid down in the manner described in (16.) and represented in fig. 6, p. 88
(139.) The windows of the stables should be of the form of fig. 14, p. 10-5. Those of the
other apartments of the steading, with the exception of the granaries, should be of the form
of fig. 15, p. 105 ; and those of the granary should be of the form of fig. 17, p. 107. The
astragals, if not made of wood, may be of cast-iron or zinc. Cast-iron astragals cost Is. and
zijic 9ijd. the square foot.
(140.) The exterior doors, 7^ feet hi^h, should be of 1^ inch deal, grooved, and tongued,
and beaded, having three back-bars, 7 inches broad by 1^ inches thick ; those of the corn-
bam, cow-byi-e, and boiHng-house, being in two horizontal leaves, that of the upper-bam in
two vertical leaves, and those of the rest of the apaitments being entire.
(141.) If desired, small whidows of one or two rows of panes may be placed above all the
outside doors ; in which case, the voids of these doors should be made proportionally high,
say 8 feet.
(142.) The inside doors should be 7 feet high, off inch deal, with three back-bars 6 inches
broad and 1 inch thick, grooved, and plowed, and beaded. They should have checks 6 inches
broad by 2.^ inches thick, and keps and facings 4| inclies broad by | inch thick.
(143.) The fravis boarding oi the work-horse stable should be 1^ iuches thick, 9| feet
long, 7 feet 6 inches high at the fore and 4 feet 6 inches high at the heel posts, doweled in
the joints vnth oak pins, and of an ogee form on the top, let into a 2-inch deep gi-oove in the
heel-post, and coped with beading. The heel-posts should be 6 inches square, beaded, the
fore-posts, on both sides, 5 inches by 2^ inches, and both fixed at the top to runtrees, 6
inches deep by 2 inches broad. The side walls af the end-stalls should be finished in the
same manner, and firmly secured to wall-straps and bond-timbers.
(144.) The travis-boarding of the riding-horse stable should be of the same strength as
just described ; but the heel-posts should be turned 5 feet high above the ground, with
moulded caps and balls, and let from 18 inches to 2 feet into the ground, through a stone
frame 18 inclies square and 12 inches thick, fimily built with stone and mortal-. The fore-
posts should be 3 inches in diameter on both sides to the higlit of the travis-boarding. Heel-
posts are also made of cast-iron, which cost 22s. each.
(145.) The hay-racks of the work-horse stable should have a hard-wood rail, 3 inches
deep by 2^ inches wide, and the spars of fir, 2 inches broad by 1.^ inches thick, placed 2j|
inches apart. These spars should be put on both fi-ont and bottom.
(146.) The hay-racks of the riding-horse stable should be of hard-wood, and placed high
up, with rails, 3 inches deep by 2^ inches wide, and turned rollers, 2 inches of diameter, set
2i inches apart. Cast-iron racks ai-e frequently used in the comer of the stall, and they
cost 10s. each.
(147.) The mangers of the riding-horse stable should be of rounded battens in front, of
fiill breadth of the stalls, placed at a convenient hight above the floor, and bottomed and
lined with l:^-inch deal.
(148.) In the work-horse stable, corn-boxes are placed in the near angle of the hay-racks.
(149.J The stalls of the cow or feeding byres should be made of 1^-inch deal, beaded,
grooved, and tongued. They should be 6 feet long, and 4 feet high, with 1-inch beaded
coping, let into stakes or heel-posts, 5 inches to 6 inches diameter, and held to the wall at
the head with a 2-inch fillet, and iron hold-fast on each side. The heel-posts should either
be taken to the hight of the byre-wall, and secured to runtrees, 6 inches deep by 2 inches
broad, or fastened into the ground with masonry like those of the riding-horse stable.
(150.) The doors of the feeding-holes of the byres should be of 3-mch deal, of two thick-
nesses, crossed.
(151.) The stairs from the com-bam to the granaries, if of wood, should have 11 inches
of tread and 7 inches of hight of steps. A stair or trap of similar dimensions may lead to
the wool-room.
(152.) The floors of the granaries, upper and cora-bams, and wool-room, should have an
angular skirting, 3 inches by 3 inches, around them.
(153.) Should the upper-bam, or granaries, or wool-room, be ascended by outside stone
stairs, they should be fumished with plain |-inch iron railing, carried around the outer edge
of the steps and platform, with a hard-wood hand-rail, or be inclosed with |-inch deal linbg,
the whole hight above the steps, and properly framed.
(154.) The interior of the hen-house should be fitted up with rough |-inch deal shelves
and divisions, and roosting-trees 3 inches deep by 2 inches broad.
(155.) The doors of the hen-house should be of l:|-inch deal, beaded, grooved and tongued.
(156.) Wooden ventilators should be placed upon the roof above every alternate pair of
horses and cattle, of the form and dimensions of fig. 8, p. 95 ; or they may consist of |-iuch
deal, 6 inches square, in an opening above every alternate stall, and fumished on the upper
part above the roof, with bent tubes of lead, 6 lbs. to the square foot, or with zinc ones of
the same dimensions. The zinc ventilators vary in price, according to size, from 4s. to 7s. each.
(235J
J40 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
(157.) The ceilings of the stables, boilina-house, pranaries. where tile are used for roofmg,
wool-room, and ht•u-^loui«. should be lalked wiUi Baltic split-lath 3-16 of an inch m thick-
ness. •' Laths are sold bv the bundle, w hich is generally called a hundred ; but 7 score, or
140, are computed iu the'lOO for 3-leet latlis : 6 score, or 120, in such as are 4 feet ; and for
those which are denominated 5 feet, the common 100, or 5 score.'" Lath is also made of
home wood, usuallv Scots fir. sawn up into |-ir.ch plank, and split irregularly with the ax.
and, when naileil nil, the splits are kept open bv means of a wedge. The dnty on foreign
lath-wood is from £4 5s. to £3 128. and on that from the colonies from 15s. to 25s. on the
bulk of G feet w ide bv 6 feet liigli, according to the length of the timber.
(158.) The riding-horse stable should have xaddle-brackefg of 3-mch deal, firmly support-
ed, and two plus let into rails i, inches wide and 1^ inches tliick. for each horse.' The work-
horse stable should have two similar rails, with large and small pins for each horse.
(159.) Even.- court and liaimnel should be provided with a gate, the forms and dimen-
sions of which i will afterward give, when I come to speak of the subject of gates m general,
iu spring.
(160.) The entrance to the piggeries should be fiimished with doors of 1-inch deal, of two
thicknesses. cro.'«ed. as represented iu fig. 23, p. 114.
(161.) All the varieties oi Jir timber imported into the coontr)- are employed in the build-
ing of-steadings. and those kmds are most used iu localities which are obtained from the
nearest sea-ports. For example, along the cast coast of this countrj- ^Iemel logs and Baltic
battens are used for all nmgh purposes, while on the west coast no timber is to be seen in
the construction of steadings but what is brought fiom America. 1. Norway aud St. Pe-
tersburg battens being cut to proper lengths aud breadths, form cheap aud ver}- durable
timber for all faiiu purposes. The price is, tor red from 3d. to 3^d., for white from 2|d. to
3d. the lineal foot. The Norway battens are a shade cheaper. The red or vvhite-wood bat-
tens make excellent floors, and plain deal doors for inside use. Such flooring is beautifully
dressed by planing machinery at Mr. Burstall's mills at Leith. 2. Memel logs are admira-
bly fitted for joisting, windows, outside doors, aud all outside work, it being composed of
strong and durable fibre, surrounded with resinous matter. It sells for from 2s. 4d. to 2s. 6d.
the cubic foot- The greatest objection to its use for small purposes is its knottiuess, on
which account the Norway battens make handier small scantlings and cleaner door-work.
3. The American red-pine is excellent timber, being clean, reedy, and resinous. It is sel-
dom or never of so large dimensions as Memel log. It fetches from 2s. to 2s. 2d. the cubic
foot. It is fitted for beams, joists, scandiums, windows, and outside doors. 4. American yel-
low-pine is well suited to all inside work, aud esf>ecially that which requires the highest
finish, 8uch as boimd-doors, window-fittings, aud mantel-pieces. There is no wood that re-
ceives jtaint so well. The logs are generally of immense sizes, aflfording great economy of
timber iu cutting them up. Its price is, lor small sizes Is. 8d. and for large 28. 3d. the cubic
foot. 5. Swedish 11-inch plank is good and useful timber, but its scantlings are not very
suitable for fann-buildiugs. I have seen stout joists for granaries made of it, with a | draught
taken oflf the side for sarking. It forms excellent planking for wheeling upon, and for gang-
ways. It sells, the white-wood for from 5d. to 6d. and the red from 6d. to 7d. the lineal foot.
(162.) In the interior of the countr}-, at a distance from sea-ports, home timber is much
tised in farm buildings. Larch forms good scanUiugs and joists, ai'd Ls a durable timber for
rough work, and so does well grown Scots fir of good age, and cut down in the proper sea-
eon ; but its durability is not equal to larch, or generally any good foreign timber for rough
purposes, t
(163.) All tlie timber I have referred to is derived from the trees belonging to the natural
order of Conifera, or cone-bearing trees. 1. The Scots fir, Pinus sylvestris, is a well known
tree in the forests of this countr)-, and few new plantations are made without its aid, as a
nurse for hard-wood trees. In favorable situations it grows to a large size, as is evidenced in
the Memel log, which is just the produce of the Scots fir fi-om the forests of Lithuania. I
have seen Scots fir cut down at Ardovie, in Forfarshire, of as good qualitj- and useful sizes
as the best Memel. 2. The Swedish plank is of the spruce, Abies excelsa, or communis^-^
tree which, as it is treated in this countn.-, comes to little value, being rough and full of knots.
Inspection of a cargo from Sweden, which arrived at Hull in 1808, convinced Mr. Pontey
that the white deal, which fetched at that time from £14 to £15 lOs. the load of 50 cubic
feet, was of common spruce, the planks having been recentiy sawn, and a small branch left
attached to one of thein.t 3. Whether the Norway pine is the same species as the pine
found in some of the forests of the north of Scotland, I do not know. I observe that some
writers speak of the Norway batten as of the Norway spruce, called by them Pinus Abie*.
* McCuUoch'i Dictionary of Commerce, wt. Latk.
t Id toL ix. p. 165, of the Prize Essays of the Highland and AgricaUural Society, you will find a long ae.
count of the Larch Plantations of AthoU, drawn up by me from ine papers of the late Duke of AihcU ; and
in voL xii p. 122, of the same work, is an account of the native pine foresu of the north of Scotland, by Mr
John Grigor, Forres.
X Pontey's Profitable Planter, p. 41, 4th edition, 1814 ; and at p. 56 he relates an anecdote of a person who,
though lone accustomed to attend on sawyers, was deceived by some Scou fir. which he considered excel
lent foreign plank.
(236)
u
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD. 141
It may be that the white-wood battens are derived from that tree ; but the red-wood kind
has, very probably, the same origin as the red-wood of the north of Scotland, which is from
a variety of the Firms sylvestris, or horizontalis of Don.* 5. The red pine of Canada is the
Pinus resinosa. 6. And the yellow pine is the Pinus variabilis or Pinus mitis of Michaux,
which towers in lofty hight far above its compeers. It grows to the gigantic hight of 150
feet, and must require great labor to square it to the sizes foimd in the British market, large
as these sizes unquestionably are. 7. The larch, Larix curofaa, is a native of the ravines
of the Alps of the Tyrol and Switzerland, where it shoots up, as straight as a rush, to a great
(164.) In regard to the composition of wood, and its chemical properties, " It is consideretl
by chemists that- dry timber consists, on an average, of 90 parts of fibrous and 4 of soluble
matter in 100 ; but that their proportions vary somewhat with the seasons, the soils, and the
plant. All kuids of wood sink in water when placed in a basin of it under the exhausted
receiver of an air-pump, showing their specific gravity to be greater than 1,000," and vary-
ing from 1.46 (pine) to 1.53 (oak). ..." Wood becomes snow-white when exposed
to the action of chlorine ; digested with sulphuric acid, it is transformed first into gum, and,
by ebullition with water, afterward into grape sugar Authenreith stated, some
years ago, that he found that fine sawdust, mixed with a sufficient quantity of wheat flour,
made a cohesive dough with water, which fonned an excellent food for pigs — apparently
showing that the digestive organs of this animal could operate the same sort of change upon
wood as sulphuric acid does The composition of wood has been examined by
Messrs. Gay-Lussac and Thenard, and Dr. Prout. According to Dr. Prout, the oxygen and
hydrogen are in the exact proportions to form pure water ; accordmg to the others, the hy-
drogen is in excess. "t
(165.) " When minutely divided fragments of a trunk or branch of a tree," as M. Raspail
observes, "' have been treated by cold or boihng water, alcohol, ether, diluted acids and alka-
lies, there remains a spongy substance, of a snow-white color when pure, which none of these
reagents have acted on, while they have removed the soluble substances that were associated
with it. It is this that has been called woody-matter, a substance which possesses aU the
physical and chemical properties of cotton, of the fibre of flax, or of hemp."
(166.) " On observing tliis vegetable cajnit mortuum with the microscope, it is perceived
to be altogether composed of the cells or vessels which formed the basis or skeleton of the
living organs of the vegetable. They are either cells which, by pressing against each other,
give rise to a net-work with pentagonal or hexagonal meshes ; or cells with square surfaces ;
or else tubes of greater or less length, more or less flattened or contracted by drying — some-
times free and isolated, at other times agglomerated and connected to each other by a tissue
of elongated, flattened, and equilateral "cells ; or, lastly, tubes of indefinite length, each con-
taining within it another tube formed of a single filament spirally rolled up against its sides,
and capable of beuig unrolled imder the eye of the observer, simply by tearing the tube
which serves to support it. We find the first in all young organs, in annual and tender
stems, in the pith of those vegetables that have a pith, and always in that of the monocot}'le-
dons. It is in similar cells that the fecTila is contained in the potate. The second is met
with in all the tnaiks and woody branches of trees. The tubes and the spirals (trachea)
are found in all the phanerogamous plants. These are the organs which constiUite the fibre
of hemp, of flax, &c."
(107.) " Experiment in accordance with the testimony of history, proves that, if excluded
from the contact of moist air, woody matter, like most of the other organized substances,
may be presers-ed for an indefinite period." The plants found in coal mines, the wood,
hnen cloths, bandages, and herbs and seeds found in the coffins of Egyptian mummies, have
all their characters undecayed, and yet these tombs are in many cases nearly 3000 yeais old.
" But, if the woody matter be not protected against the action of air and moisture, the case
is very different. By degrees its hydrogen and oxygen are disengaged, and the carbon pre-
dominates more and more. Thus the particles of the texture are disintegrated gradually,
their white color fades, and passes through all the shades till it becomes jet-black ; and if
this altered woody matter be exposed to heat, it is carbonized without flame, because it
does not contain a sufficient quantity of hydrogen. Observe, also, that the cells of woody
matter contain different sorts of substances tending to organize, and that these are mixed
and modified in many different ways." ..." Woody matter, such as I have defined it,
being formed of one atom of carbon and one atom of water, as soon as it is submitted to the ac-
tion of a somewhat elevated temperature, laithout the contact of air, experiences an inter-
nal reaction, which tends to separate the atom of water fi-om the atom of carbon. The wa-
ter is vaporized, and the carbon remains in the form of a black and granular residue. "t
(168.) Now, if any means could be devised by which the substances in the cells of woody
matter could be deprived of their tendency to organize, when in contact with common air,
wood might be rendered as permanently durable, and even more so, than the gi-aius of
wheat which have been found undecayed in Egyptian mummies. This discovery seems to
» See Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. xi. p. 530. t Ure's Dictionary of the Arte, art. fTood.
X Raspail's Organic Chemistry, translated by Henderson, pp. 141-164.
(237)
142 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
have been made by Mr. Kyan. In contemplating the probability of the use of home tim-
ber being much extended in llie coiislnictioii of stcadinirs, when the young woods at present
growing shall have attained their full growth, it nuiy be proper that the growers of wood,
and the farmers on the estates on which wo<xl is grf)wn, be made aware of this mode of
preventing timber being affected by the dr)-rot. \\hat the true cause of dr}-rot is, has
never yet been detennined, but it frequently shows itself by a species of mildew, which
covers the timber, and the action of which apparently causes the wood to decay, and crum-
ble down into powder. The mildew, however, is neither the dry-rot nor its cause, but ita
effect. It is distiuctlv seen by the microscope to be a fungus; and as the fungus itself is so
minute as to require the aid of the microscope to be distinctly seen, its seeds may be sup-
posed to be so veiy minute as to be taken up by the spongcoles of trees. But whatever
may be the cause of dr\-rot in timber, there is not a doubt now of the fact, after years of suc-
cessful experience, that the process discovered by Mr. Kyan of simply steeping timber in a
solution of corrosive sublimate, bi-chloride of mercur)% presenes timber from dr\--rot.
(169.) The principle upon wiiich the chemical action of the corrosive sublimate upon
vegetable matter, preser>cs tlie timber is easily explained. All plants are composed of
cellular tissues, whetlier in the bark, alburnum, or wood. The tissue consists, as you have
seen, of various shaped cells ; and although they may not pass unintemiptedly along the
whole length of the plant, as M. de Candolle maintains, yet air, water, or a solution of any .
thing, may be made to pass through the cells in their longitudinal direction. Experiments
witli the air-pump have proved tliis beyond dispute. Those cells, and particularly those of
the albiunuim. contain the sap of the tree, which, in its circulation, reaches the leaves, where
its water)- particles fly off, and the enlarging matter of the tree, called the albumen, remains.
Albumen is the nearest approach in vegetables to animal matter, and is, therefore, when by
any namral means deprived of vitalit)', \eij liable to decomposition, particularly that wliich
is coimected with the albiunum, or sap-wood. Now, corrosive sublimate has long been
known to preserve animal matter from decay, being used to presene anatomical prepara-
tions ; and even the delicate texture of the brain is preser\ed by it m a firm state. The
an:do2Y between animal and \egetable albumen being established, there seems no reason to
doubt the possibility of corrosive sublimate preseniug both substances fix)m decay ; and,
accordingly, the experiments of Mr. Kyan. with it, on albuminous and saccharine solutions,
have confirmed the correctness of this conjecture. The prior experiments of Fourcroy, and
especially those of Berzelius, in 1813, had established the same conclusions, though neither
of these eminent chemists had thought of their practical application to the preservation of
timber. Berzelius found tliat the addition of the bi-chloride (corrosive sublimate) to an al-
buminous solution produced a profo-ckloride of mercury (calomel), which readily combined
with albumen, and produced an insoluble precipitate. This precipitate fills up all the cel-
lular interstices of the wood, and becomes as hard as the fibres."*
(170.) Even after timber has been subjected to this process, it is requisite to give the air
free access to it by means of ventilation, and for that purpose, where timber is covered up,
which it is not likely to be in a steading, small openings, covered and protected by cas^iron
gratings in frames, shoidd be made tlu-ough the outside walls.
(171.) With regard to the expense of this process, which is a material consideration to
those who have large quantities of timber to undergo the treatment, it costs for steeping £1
the load of 50 cubic feet. But persons having tanks for their own use only, and not for the
puq)osc8 of trade, pay 5s. for each cubic foot of the internal ;on tents of the tank. A tank,
fitted up to steep large scantlings and logs, costs about £50, ad the process may cost 3d. or
less the cubic foot to those who construct a tank for thcmsel es.
(172.) Other means have been devised for preserving timber from decay, such as pyro-
ligncous acid, derived from the smoke of biu-ning wood ; naphtha, obtained by distillation
of coal-tar; and in 1839 a patent was taken out by Sir WilUam Burnett, of the medical de-
partment of the Navy, for steeping wood in a solution of the chloride of zinc ;t but experi-
ment has not yet had time to decide whether any of these methods possesses any superiority
over the valuable process practiced bv Mr. Kyan.
(173.) Tii"^ pine tribe, of which I have been speaking as of so much use in our farm build-
ings, is aliwj highly useful in the arts. It is from the Finns .lylvcstris and the Abies cxceha
that tar is obtained in the largest quantities, for the use of all nations ; and it is a substance
which is of great utility in a farm, though not requisite m large quantity. The tar of the
north of Europe is of a nuich superior description to that of the United States. It is ob-
tained by a process of distillation, which consists of burning, in a smothering manner, roots
and billets of fir-timber, in pits formed in rising ground for tlie purpose, and covered with
turf.
(174.) The quantity of tar imported into this countrj' in 1837, was 11,480 lasts, of 12 bar-
rels per last, each barrel containing 31^ gallons. The duty is 15s. per last, 128. upon tar
from the British {wssessions, and 28. Gd. per cwt. upon Barbadocs tar. " Tar produced or
manufactured in Eiu-ope is not to be imported for home consumption, except in British ships,
• See paper by me on this Bubject in vol. viii. p. 385 of Quarterly Journal of Agriculture,
t Repertory of Patent Invenliond, New Series, vol. xii. p. 346.
(238;
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD. 143
or in ships of the country of which it is the produce, or from which it is imported, iinder
penalty of forfeiting the same, and £100 by the master of the ship."*
(175.) Besides tar, most of the pines afford one or other of the turpentines. Common tur
peutine is extracted by incision from the Abies excelsa and the Pinus sylvestris.
(176.) Of the specifications of f lumber-work, the kind of work done after the carpentiy
the flanks and peands should be covered with sheet-lead, weighing 6 lbs. to the square foot,
18 inches broad. The ridges should be covered either with droved angular freestone ridge-
stones, or with 6-lb. lead, 18 inches broad, supported on 2^ inches in diameter of ridge-rolls
of wood. Platforms and gutters should have 7-lb. lead. In cisterns, it should be 8-lb. in
the bottom and 6-lb. in the sides. Rain-water spouts of 4^ inches in breadth, and conductors
of 2jJ or 3 inches diameter, should be of 6-lb. lead.
(177.) The lead of commerce is derived from the ore galena, which is a siilphuret, yield-
ing about 87 per cent, of lead and 13 of sulphur. Galena is found in greatest quantity in
tiansition rocks, and of these the blackish ti'ansition limestone contains the largest. The ore
is more frequent in irregular beds and masses than in veins. The galena lead-mines of Der-
byshire, Durham, Cumberland, and Yorkshire, are situate in limestone, while those of tlie
Leadhills, in Scotland, are in graywacke. Great Britain produces the greatest quantity of
lead of any country in the world, the aimual produce being about 32,000 tons, of which the
English mines supply 20,000. The rest of Europe does not supply 50,000 tons. The ex-
port of lead has fallen off considerably, and its price has experienced a corresponding de-
pression for some years past, on account of the gi'eatly increased production of tlie lead-mines
of Adra in Granada, in Spain.!
(178.) As zinc has been substituted in some cases for lead in the covering of buildings,
altiiough sufficient experience has not yet been obtained as to their comparative durability,
it may be proper to give here the sizes and prices of covering flanks, peands and ridges with
zinc. The flanks are covered vnth zinc, weighing 16 ounces to the square foot, at a cost of
6.Jd. the square foot. The peands and ridges are covered vdth 12 inch sheet zinc, weighing
18 ounces in the square foot, at a cost of 7d. the square foot. The zinc covers for the peands
and ridges are so prepared that they clasp by contraction, and thereby hold fast by the wood-
en ridge-rolls, and this is so easily done that any mechanic may put them on. Where solder-
ing is required in zinc-work, such as the laying on of platfonns on roofs, the cost of the sheet
of 18 ounces to the square foot is enhanced to 9d. the square foot. Zinc in all jobs costs
about half the price of lead.
(179.) Zinc is not very suitable for gutters and platforms, on account of its tliinness — the
wood below warping in warm weather, and tearing up the sheets of zinc.
(180.) Zinc is an ore which occurs in considerable quantity in England. It is found in
two geological localities, in the mountain limestone and in the magnesian limestone. It oc-
curs in veins, and almost always associated with galena or lead-glance. It is of the greatest
abundance in the shape of a sulphuret or blende, or black-jack, as the miners call it. There
is also a siliceous oxide of zinc, and a carbonate, both called calamine. In North America,
the red oxide of zinc is found in abundance in the iron mines of New-Jersey. The zuic of
commerce is derived, in this country, from the blende and calamine. It is naturally brittle,
but a process has been discovered by which it is rendered malleable, and it retains its duc-
tility ever after. It is this assumed ductility which renders the metal usefid for domestic
purposes. " It is extensively employed for making water-cisterns, baths, spouts, pipes, plates
for the zincographer, for voltaic- battei-ies, filings for fire-works, covering roofs, and a variety
of architectural purposes, especially in Berlin ; because this metal, after it gets covered with
a thin film of oxide or carbonate, suffers no farther change from long exposure to the weather.
One capital objection to zinc as a i-oofing material is its combustibility."}:
(181.) The most malleable zinc is derived from Upper Silesia, under the name of spelter,
which is sent by inland traffic to Hamburgh and Belgium, where it is shipped for this coun-
try. The quantity imported in 1831 was 76,413 cwt. and in 1836 it had fallen off" to 47,406
cwt. A considerable portion of these quantities was exported to India and China, amoimt-
ing, in 1831, to 62,684 cwt. The duty is £2 a ton on what is formed into cakes, and lOs.
per cwt. on what is not in cakes. ||
(182.) The slater-work is then executed. Of its specifications, if blue slates are to be em-
ployed, they should be selected of large sizes, well squared, and have an overlap off, grad-
ually diminishing to the ridge, and well bedded and shouldered with plaster-lime. "The
slates are fastened to the sarking with malleable iron nails, weighing 15 lbs. to the 1000, after
being steeped when heated in linseed oil. These nails cost 3s. 4d. the 1000, 1300 being re-
quired for a rood of 36 square yards. Cast-iron nails were used for slating until a very few
years ago, and which were also boiled in oil.
(183.) Slating is performed by the rood, and from 1000 to 1200 blue slates should cover a
rood. The cost of the slates, in towns, including carriage, and putting them on with nails, ■
is £4 4s. the rood.
* McCuUoch'g Dicrionary of Commerce, art. Tar.
t See Ure'a Dictionary of the Arts, and McCulloch's Dictionary of Commerce, arte. Ijcad.
X Ure's Dictionary of the Arte, art. Zinc. \\ McCulloch's Dictionai-y of Commerce, art. Zinc.
(239)
144 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
(184.) Blue slate is derived from the primitive rock clay-slate. It (Kcurs in large quanti-
ties thmufjh the mountainous part* of the kingdom. Gtx)d slate should not absorb water, and
it should be so compact as to resist the action of the atmosphere. When it imbibes moisture,
it becomes covered with moss, and then rapidly decays.
(185.) The j)rincipal blue slate ouarries in Great BriUiin are in Wales, Lancashire, West-
moreland, Cumberland, Argyle, ana Terthshires. The most extensive quarry is in Caernar-
vonshire, in Wides, near the town of Bangor, on the Penrhyn estate. It employs 1500 men
and boys. The Welsh slate is very large" and smooth, and much of it is fit for putting into
frames hr writing-slates. When used very large, l)eing thin, it is apt to warp on change of
temperature. Tlie English slates at Ulverstone, in LancashiiT, and in the counties of West-
moreland and Cumberland, are not so large as the Welsh, but equally smooth and good.—
The Easdale slates, in Argj-leshire, are small, thick, waved on the surface, and contain many
cubical crystals of iron-pyrites, but its durability is endless. Being a small and heavy slate,
it requires a stout roofing of timber to supjwrt it. The Ballihulish slates are rather smoother
and li'hter than the Ea.sdiile, though also small, and containing numerous crystals of iron-
pyrites, and is equally durable. The slates in Perthshire are of uiferior qTiality to either of
these. " The ardesia of Easdale," says Professor Jameson, " was first quarried about 100
years ago ; but was for a long time of little imjwrtance, as sandstone flags and tiles were gen-
erally used for roofing houses. As tlie use of slates became more prevalent, the quarries
were enlarged, so that 5,000,000 slates are annually shipped from this island. The number
of workmen is at present (in 1800) about 300, and they are divided into quarriers and day-
laborers. The quarriers are paid annually at a certain rate for every 1000 slates, from lOd.
to 15d. I believe, as their work has been attended with more or less ditficulty. The day-
laborers are employed in opening new quanies, and have from lOd. to Is. a day."*
(186.) Slates are assorted into sizes at the quarry. The sizes at Bangor vary from 36
inches in length to 5^ inches in breadth. Their weight vai'ies from 82 to 12 cwt. the 1000,
and the prices from 140s. to lOs. the 1000 for the smaller, and from 55s. to 35s. the ton for
the larger sizes.
(187.) Cisterns, with sidea and ends 1 inch thick, Is. lOd. the cubic foot contents.
li " 28. 2d.
(188.) The export of slates from England to foreign ports has increased from 2,741 tons in
1828, to 6,061 Ions in 1832. That of framed slates has decreased in number, in the same pe-
riod, from 37,034 to 15,420.
(189.) The shipping expenses of slates at Bangor are 6d. the ton, and bills of lading
38. 6d.t
(190.) When the roof is to be covered with Hie, it should be laid with lath 1| inches
square to a gauge of 10 or 11 inches. There should be 3 or 4 courses of slates along all the
eaves. The flanks, peands and ridges should be covered with tile. The whole under joints
of the tiling should be pointed with plaster-lime.
(191.) Tiling is executed by the rood of 36 square yards ; and, as pan-tiles are obliged xt
be made of a certain size, namely, 13^ inches long, 9^ inches wide, and ^ inch thick, by 17 th
Geo. III. c. 42, under a penalty of 10s. for every 1000, a rood will just contain 576 tiles. —
Tiles should be smooth on the surface, compact, and ring freely when struck, when they will
resist water. When they imbibe moisture by porosity, they soon decay in winter by the ef-
fects of rain and frost.
(192.) There were, in 1830, 5,369 brick and tile manufacturers in England and Wales, and
104 in Scotland, and must have greatly increased since.
(193.) The duty on tiles was abolished in 1833, the revenue derived from that source be-
ing very trifling. The duty on foreign pan-tiles is £ 15 the 1000. The export of tiles is in-
considerable, not having exceeded, in 1830, 803,742.1
(194.) Gray-slates require the roof to be latlied in the same manner as tile, but, not being
of an uniform size like tile, they are assorted to sizes in the quarry. The larger and heavier
slates are put next the eaves, and gradually diminish in size to the ridge. The course at the
eaves is laid double, slate above slate. Ever)' slate is hung upon the lath by a wooden pin
being passed through a hole at the upper end, and, on being laid on, the slates are made to
overlap i.t least J. Gray-slates should either be bedded and shouldered in plaster-lime, or
laid on moss, the latter making the warmer roof.
(195.) Gray-slates are pretty smooth on the surface, and, when so compact in texture as
to resist moisture, fonn a durable though very heavy roof.
(196.) The flanks are made of slate, but the ridge is covered with droved angular ridge-
stone of freestone. As tliis species of roofing is not adapted to pavilion roots, the peands
should be covered with lead, but the safest form of roof with gray-slates is with upright ga-
bles.
(197.) The cost of gray-slating depends on the locality where it is washed to be done. At
Edinburgh it costs £6 a rood; whereas in Forfarshire, the matrix of the grap-slate, it can be
done, exclusive of carriage, for £2 103. the rood. In Forfarshire the slates cost £4 per
* Jameson's Mineralogy of the ScoUish Isles, vol. i. p. 195.
\ McCiilloch's Dictionary of Commerce, art. Slater. t ^i^- ^i^- Bricks and TiUt.
(240)
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD. 145
per 1 .000 ; 360 are required for a rood ; the putting them on, including dressing, holiii",
pins for the slates, and nails for the laths, costs only 15s. ; and with moss for bedding Is.,
and lime for teething 3s., 22s. the rood. The droved angular freestone ridging-stone, includ-
ing can-iage, costs 6d. a lineal foot, or 10s. the rood.
(198.) Gray -slates are obtained in best quality from gray slaty inferior sandstone belong-
ing to the old red sandstone series. They are derived from the same quarries as the far-
famed Arbroath pavement, being, in fact, fonned by the action of frost on pavement, set on
edge for the purpose. A mild winter is thus unfavorable to the making of slates. From
Carmylie to Forfar, in Forfarshire, is the great field for the supply of gi-ay-slates ; and as
blue-slates can only be obtained there by sea and long land carriage, and there is little clay
fit for tiles, they constitute the chief roofing of cottages and small farm-houses in that part of
the country, their aspect bemg cold and unpicturesque, though snug enough.
(199.) Of all sorts of slating, there is none equal to blue-slate for appearance, comfort, and
even economy in the long run. When a blue-slate roof is well executed at first, ^vith good
materials, it will last a very long time. Tile I'oofs are constantly requiring repairs, and the
employment of gray-slate is a sacrifice of, and a burden upon, timber. Of the blue-slate the
Welsh give the cheapest roofing, being larger and much lighter than Scotch or English slates.
(200.) As the plasfer-work of a steading does not require to be of an ornamental nature,
its specifications should be simple. The ceilings of the riding-horse stable, boiling-house,
wool-room, hen-house, and granaries, when tile-roofing is employed, should be finished wnih
two coats of the best haired plaster, hard rubbed in. The walls of the granaries, coni-bam,
work -horse stable, cow-byre, boUmg-house, calves'-house, wool-room, gig-house, and hen-
house, should be finished with one coat, hard rubbed in. The walls of the riding-horse sta-
ble should have tlu^ee coats, hard rubbed ui. Plaster-work is measured by the square yard,
and costs for one coat 3d., for two coats from 4d. to 4id., and for three coats from 5d. to 6d.
the square yard.
(201.) It is necessary to say something regarding the specifications of smith-work, although
there is not much of this kind of work required in a steading. AU the outside doors, in-
cluding those on the feeding-holes at the byre, should be hung with crooks and bands ; the
crooks should be fastened into the ingoings of the ribets with melted lead. The larger
crooks and bands cost 10s. and the smaller 5s. the pair. The inside doors should be hung
with T hinges, 18 inches long, and the opening parts of the windows with 9-inch T hinges.
The foimer are Is. and the latter 9d. a pair. The outside doors should have good 10-uich
Btock-aud-plate locks, which cost 2s. 6d. each, except where there are more than one out-
side door to the same apartment, in which case all the doors but one can be fastened by
bars from the inside. The inside doors should have the same sort of locks ; the common
stock-lock, which cost Is. 6d. each, not being worthy of commendation. Thumb-latches are
convenient for opening and keeping shut doors that do not require to be constantly locked,
such as the doors of the corn-bani, granary, boiling-house, cow-byre, and hen-house. These
latches cost from 5d. to 7d. each. A wooden bar of hard wood, to open and shut fi-om both
sides, is a convenient mode of fastening inside doors. The upper bam-door, of two vertical
leaves, requires an iron stay-band to fasten it with. The doors of the riding-horse and work-
horse stables should be pro\-ided with sunk flush ring-handles and thumb-latches, to be out
of the way of catching any part of the harness. The mangers of the riding-horse stable,
and the upper rail of the hay-rack of the work -horse stable, should be provided with rings
and staples for the stall-collar shanks to pass through. These cost Id. each.
(202.) Various descriptions of nails are used for the different parts of work in a steading.
The scantlings of the roofs are fastened together with double-doubles, which cost 5s. per
1,000. Deals of floors are fastened downi wth flooi-ing-nails, 16-lb. weight, and 4s. 6d per
1,000. The bars of the plain-deal doors are put on with 10-lb. nails, which cost 3s. 6d. the
1,000. For fiuishmg, single-flooring nails at 2s. 6d., and 2-inch springs at 23. to 2s. 3d. the
] ,000 are used.
(203.) As a secui-ity agauist robbery, iron stancheons, J inch in diameter, should be fixed
on the outside of the low windows of the cora-bam and implement>-house. Such stancheons
cost 3d. per pound.
(204.) Iron is chiefly found among the members of the coal formation, in bands composed
of nodules, v^^hich are called compact clay -ironstone, a carbonate of iron. It is abundant in
the west of Scotland and in South Wales. Its amiual worked production is probably not
less than 1,000,000 tons.*
(205.) The windows of all the apartments should be g'Za^ei with best 2d crown-glass,
fastened in with fine putty. Glazing is executed for 2s. the square foot.
(206.) A skylight in blue slating is made of a frame fastened to the sarking. In the roof-
ing, tiles are made on purpose to hold a pane of glass. In gray-slating, a hole is made in
the slate to suit the size of the pane. A dead skylight of zuic, to answer any kind of roof-
ing, costs 4s.
(207.) There is a duty of 73s. 6d. the cwt. on good window, and 30s. on broad or inferior
window-glass, which is returned in drawback on expoitation to foreign couuuies. When
* Ure's Dictionary of the Arts, art. Iron.
'289) lO
146 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
pla«s intended for exportiition is cut into panes, it must be in panes of less than 8 incnes in
\h lie to enable it to claim the drawback.
t^i.) J.) Ghiss of small sizes, though of good quality, such as is fit for glazing hot-houses and
forcing-frames, costs only from 8d. to lOd. the square foot ; while in ordinary sized panes it
cosU Is. 3d., and in still larger sizes it is charged Is. 6d. the square foot. I am not sure but
the sort fit for hot-houses would answer the purpose of glazing the windows of a steading.
(209.) " The reseiu-ches of Berzelius having removed all doubts concerning the acid
character of sihca, tlie general composition of glass presents now no difficulty of conception.
Tliis substance consists of one or more salts, which are silicates with bases of pota.«h, soda,
lime, oxide of iron, alumina, or oxide of lead ; in any of which compounds we can substi-
tute one of these bases for another, provided that one alkaline baiie be left. Silica, in its
turn, may be replaced by the boracic acid, without causing the glass to lose its principal
characters."*
(210.) Riiin-water spouts, or runs as they are technically termed, may be made of wood,
cast-ii-ou, lead, or zinc. Wooden ones may be made out of the solid or in slips nailed to-
gether. When made out of the solid, with iron hold-fasts, they cost Is. and when pieced
together 6d. the lineal foot. The conductoi-s from both kinds cost 8d. the lineal foot.
Wooden spouts shoidd be pitched inside and painted outside. Cast-iron ones are heavy, but
they cost no more than 28. a yard if of 4^ inches diameter, and the ctjnductors, of from 2 to 4
inches diameter, from 8s. to 18s., of 9 feet in length each. Lead makes the best spout, but
it is very expen-sive, being Is. 6d. a foot. Zinc ones, on the other hand, are very light.
Stout 4-inch zinc spouts cost 9.^d. the foot, and a 2j| pipe as ccAiductor, T^d. the foot. The
lowest part of this pipe is made strong enough to resist accidents. Eveiy sort of vvater-epout
should be cleaned at least once a year, and the wooden ones would be the better for an an-
nual coat of paint
(211.) The outsides of all the outside doors and windows, all the gates of the courts and
liammels, and the water-troughs in the various coui-ts, if made of wood, should receive three
coats of good paint. Painting costs 3d. or 4d. the square yard, but three coats can be done
for 8d. the square yard. The best standing colors, and they hapjien to be the cheapest too,
are gray, stone, or slate-blue ; the last seems to be most commonly preferred. Green is dear
and soon fades, and red seems veiy distastefid in buildings. But the truth is, that white-lead
and oil are the principal ingredients in paint, and all the coloring matter has no power to
preserve timber from the effects of the weather. A substance called litkic paint has re-
cently been found to answer well for coimtry purposes. The lithic, which costs ^^d. per lb.
is ground to powder, and mixed, in a cei-tain proportion, with cold coal-tar, and the mixture
is applied with a brush. This paint deprives the coal-tar of its noxious smell, and hardens it
into a durable paint in a few days.
(212.) White lead of commerce is a carbonate of had, or ceruse, as it is called, artificially
formed from pure lead. It has long been made with great success at Klagenfurth,
in Carintliia, and large quantities are made in England. The compound is 1 equivalent of
lead, 1 of oxygen, and 1 of carbonic acid ; or by analysis, of lead 77-6, oxygen 6. and car
bonic acid 16-4 in 100 parts. White lead, when it enters the human system, occasions dread-
fill maladies. Its emanations cause that dangerous disease the colica pictonnm, afterward
paralysis, or premature decrepitude and liugeiing death. All paints are ground into fine
powder in a mill, as being a safer plan for the operator, as well as more expeditious, than by
tlie hnnd.t
(213.) I have said (81.). (82.), (83.), that when the building of a steading is to be mea-
sured, the work that has actually been executed should alone be measured, and no alloio-
ances, as they are called, should on any account be permitted to increase the amount of cost.
The correctness of this rule wiU appear obvious, and its adoption reasonable, after you have
learnt the sort of claims for allowances made bv tradesmen in various sorts of work.
(214.) In the first place, in regard to masonry, double measure is claimed on all circular
work. Claims are made for allowimce on all levelings for joists, bond-timbers, and wall-
heads. The open spaces or voids left in the walls for doors and windows, are claimed to be
measured along with rubble-work. Girthing around the external walls of rubble-work is
claimed in measurement, the effect of which is, to mefisure the square pieces of building in
each comer tvvice over. Scontions of all voids are claimed to be measured over and above
ihe nibble- work. The ashlar for the hewn-work is first measured with the rubble, and then
•t is claimed to be measured by itself. In like manner, chimney-tops are first measured as
rubble, and then chiimed to be measiu-ed again as ashlar. In short, wherever any sort of
mason-work differs from the character of the general work under the contract, allowances
are claimed.
{2li).) In regard to carpentry, the claims are equally absurd. For the cuttings connect-
ed with the peands and flanks of roofs, 18 inches of extra measurement are claimed. The
same extent is claimed for angles in the flooring, and in all such unequal work. In v\nndow-
making a claim is made for 3 inches more than the hight, and 4 inches more than the width
of windows, which is more than the voids ; whereas the measurement should be confined
* Ure'8 Dictionary of the Arts, art. Glat». t Ibid. arta. White-had, Paint.
(290J
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD. 147
to the mere daylight afforded by the windows. In many instances IJ, and even double
measure, is claimed for round work, according to its thickness. Where plain deal is cleaned
on both sides, such as the under part of the floor of the upper-barn, which forms the roof of
the com-bam, or shelving, 1^ measure is claimed.
(216.) In slating, claims are made on the making of peands and flanks, from 18 inches to
3 feet in v^adth, and for eaves, from 12 inches to 18 inches in width, more than the actual
work done. For all circular work, siich as the slating of a round horse-course of a thresh-
ing-machine, double measure is claimed.
(217.) In plaster-work, double measure is claimed for all circular work. There is an al-
lowance made in plastering which is, however, quite reasonable, and that is, in the case
where new woi-k is joined to old, an allowance of one foot is made around the new work,
as the old part has to be wetted and prepared for its junction vnth the new.
(218.) A perusal of these statements naturally suggests the question, how could such
claims have originated ? If a workman execute the work he agi-eed to undertake, and gets
payment for what work he executes, he is not entitled to ask more. But what proves an
aggravation of such demands is, that modes of measurement differ in different counties — that
different allowances are made on different kinds of work — and that those allowances differ
in different counties. So it appears that those allowances are based on no principle of equity
But it may be urged in justification of these allowances that the prices of work, as usually
estimated, are too low to remunerate the conti-actor for his labor, and that allowances are
therefore requisite to insure him against loss. To this specious statement it may be replied
by asking, why should any hottest conti-actor estimate work at such rates that he knows will
not remunerate him? A rogue ^\^ll do so, because he wishes to have possession of a job at
all hazards, in order to make up his foreseen loss by exorbitant claims for allowances. If em-
ployers will not pay sufficiently for good work, as is alleged against them, and perhaps with
truth, let them understand that they shall receive insufficient work as an equivalent for
their stinted money. But it is very unfair to take advantage of an honorable employer, by
capricious and absurd allowances, when he is all the while desirous to pay his workmen
well for their labor. So much dependence is sometimes placed on allowances by contract-
ors, that I have heard of a case where a surveyor was obliged to reduce the claims matle
against a single steading, to the extent of £800 ! Such a fraudulent system ought to be en-
tirely abohshed, and it is quite in the power of those who employ tradespeople to abolish it
(219.) It would be completely abolished were contracts to contain sti-iugent clauses pro-
hibiting all allowances whatsoever ; and to consist of detailed measurements, and specified
prices for every species of work to be executed. If more work happens to be executed
than was expected, its value can easily be ascertamed by the settled measurements and
prices, and if less, the contractor is still paid for what he has actually executed. Were such
a form of contract unifonnly adopted, proprietors and fanners could measure the work done
aa well as any sun-eyor, whose services might, in that case, be dispensed with ; but, what
would be still better, the measiu-ements of the surveyor could be checked by the proprietor
or the tenant if either chose to take the trouble of douig it. Where any pecuhar kind of
work is desired to be executed, it could be specified in a separate contract.
(220.) Having thus amply considered all the details which should form a part of all spe-
cifications of the different kinds of work required to build a steading, I shall now give the
particulars which should be specified in all contracts, and that these may not be imaginary,
but have a practic;d bearmg, I sliiill take the steading as shown in the plan, fig. 4, Plate IV.
as the example. In order that the data fiuTiished in the proposed specifications shall be
generally applicable, I shall first give the measurements of the various kinds of work pro-
posed to be executed — then the quantity of materieds required for constnicting the same —
and lastly, the prices paid for the different sorts of work in Edmburgh, both including and
excluding the cost of carnages, that you may have a criterion by which to judge of the cost
of doing the same kind of work in other parts of the country. You may reasonably believe
that the prices of labor and materials are higher in Edinburgh than in the country ; but, on
the other hand, you must consider the superiority of the workmanship obtained in so large
a town. These must affect the total amount of the estimate to a certain extent, but to what
exact per centage I cannot say. I am told that carpenter-work is very litde dearer in Edin-
burgh than in the counUy, but that mason-work, smith-work and plaster-work are all con-
sidei-ably higher ; but of smith-work, as I have already said, httle is required in building a
steading.*
[* Now, although the suggestions and reasoning of this chapter apply to a country where the
kind and cost of the materials, and yet more the cost of labor, differ very materially from such as
are in use or paid in this country, yet the reasoning and the rules laid down are of universal ap-
plication ; and how would it be possible to omit them, without impairing essentially the value of
the work in hand 1
All who have had much experience in building have found it to be difficult to guard agamBt
imposition ; and this is especially the case with men who have not been qualified, either by eda-
cation or experience, to judge for themselves. By education we mean instruction at school ot
(291
148 THE BOOK OF THE FARM. WINTER.
Measurement of the Plan of a Proposed Steading in Fig. 4, Plate IV.
Maton-Kork.
6225 Cubic yards of Foundations, and wheeling the earth not farther than 60 yards '^"'"hr''
207 .. Drains Willi gills and covers.
85 Cubic roods of Rubble-walls, 2 feet thick.
47 Division rubble-walls, Vi to 15 inches thick, including dykes.
42 Lineal feet of Chimney-Tents.
400 .. Comers of buildings.
80 .. Comers for archways.
50 .. Arched lintels for archways.
1528 .. Ribets, sills, lintel.s, and steps.
75 .. Arched lintels over doors.
24 .. Ringpens of archways to granary.
80 .. Corners, sills, and lintels of feeding-holes of byres.
60 . . Comers of gateways to courts.
286 .. Corners or hammer-dressed scontions for gates in dykes.
20 .. Coping of chimney-stalks.
110 .. Ashlar pillars for sheds, from 18 to 20 inches square.
294 .. Skews on gables.
1671 .. Semi-circular hammer-dressed coping on dykes,
100 .. Gutters in byres.
94 .. Coping round liquid manure tank.
300 . . Steps of stairs to granaries.
45 .. Brick stalk for steam-engine, 6 feet square at the base.
152 Square roods of Rubble-causeway.
287 Lineal yards of Causewayed gutters around the buildings outside.
2 Pairs of jambs and lintels.
Building in boiler, including boiler and furnace complete.
17 Droved stones, with gratings for liquid manure drains.
8 Water-troughs in courts.
31 Stones for heel-posts of stalls.
31 Stones for curbs of stall-boardings.
Carpenter-worlc.
540 Square feet of 4-inch thick safe lintels.
2768 Square yards of Roofing, with balks and sarking.
583 . . Joisting and flooring of granariea and com-bani.
762 Lineal feet of Ridge-battens.
192 .. Dressed beams for pillars of roofs of sheds.
1141 .. Door-checks or fixings, 6} inches by 2J inches.
1366 . . Doorkeps or stops and facings.
2132 Square feet of li-inch deal doors.
1360 .. IJ-inch divisions of stalls.
829 Lineal feet of Heel and fore-posts.
18 .. Manger in riding-horse stable.
18 . . Hay-rack in ditto.
96 .. Hay-racks, low, in work-horse stable.
84 .. Feeding-troughs in byres.
670 .. ,. .. courts.
36 .. Racks in cattle-sheds.
432 Square feet of Daylight of windows.
760 .. Sparred divisions of cribs for calves.
669 Lineal feet of Rian-water spouts.
87 . . Conductors from ditto,
10 Small doors of feeding-holes of byre.
14 Corn-boxes for work-horse stable.
2 Square racks for center of courts.
1 Corn-chest for work-horses.
1 . . for riding-horse stable.
7 Luffer-board ventilators for roofs.
8 Sparred gates, from 9 feet to 10 feet wide.
12 .. .. 5
Rails, hamess-pins. and saddle-trees.
Stathel-frames for stacks.
Pump with mounting.
Slater-vjork.
^^^^^^^ 77 Square roods of Blue-slating, gray-slating, or tiling.
eluewhere in the rules of mensuration and the principles of mechanics far enough to know— what
every school-boy might easily be taught— enough of architecture to know the 7iames of every part
and piece of timber employed in building, and the manner of measuring carpenters' and brick-
layers' and plasterers' work— a sort of useful practical information which any young man might
acquire in a few days of eanicst. ardent study.
One important point to be guarded against is the liability to bo imposed upon by exorbitant
charges for every, the very slightest addition to, or departure from the plan of building agreed
upon. If such chapters as these have no other effect, we may hope they will assist in impress-
ing upon the mind of the farmer the obligation he is under as a parent and a friend, to see that
his son is so educated as to enable him to form his own correct opinion, to the end that while he
should be at all times ready to do full justice, and even to be as liberal as he can afford to be to
mechanics, he shall be prepared to detect and resist all attempts at imposition.
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD.
149
Plumber-work.
1084 Square feet of Lead on ridges, fianks, and peands.
669 Lineal feet of Lead rain-runs or spouts.
87 . . Lead-pipes or conductors from runs.
Plaster-toork.
1507 Square yards of Ist, 2d, and 3d coat plaster.
Smith-work.
22 Stockand-plate locks.
28 Pairs of crooks and bands.
9 Pairs of cross-tailed hinges.
35 .. .. .. small.
2 Sets of fastenings for double doors.
3 Locks for small courts.
10 Pairs of crooks and bands for feeding-holes.
10 Sneck-fastenings for ditto.
33 Thumb-latches.
18 Manger-rings.
17 Seals for fastening cows, or feeding cattle.
Stanchions for windows.
Cast-iron runs and conductors,
.. travis-posts, 5- when used.
hay-racks for ndmg-horse stable,
window-sashes,
Boiler and ftimace.
Mounting for gates.
■i
Quantities of Materials and Numbers of Carriages in Steading.
i08i Cubic roods of 2-feet walls, each rood containing 36 cubic yards of building, requiring 40 cart-
loads of rubble-stones, 2 cart-loads of lime, and 4 or 5 cart-loads of sand, besides water
710 Ashlar corners.
1004 Ribets.
100 Sills and lintels, from 4 ft. to 4J ft. long.
20 . . . . 30 inches long.
31 Steps, from 3.} feet to 4 feet long.
60 .. .. 4^ .. 5
20 Lineal feet of Coping of chimney-stalks.
2 Pairs of chimney-jambs, 3i^ ft, by 2 ft. long.
2 Lintels for ditto, from 3^^ ft. to 4 ft. long.
110 Ashlar stones for pillars, from 18 inches to 20 inches square.
294 Lineal feet of Skews.
200 .. Curbstones.
100 . . Sills for gutters in byres.
94 . . Coping round liquid manure tank.
17 Stones for gratings to drains.
31 . . heel-posts.
8 . . water-troughs.
31 . . curbstones below boarding in stables and byres.
100 Square roods of Causeways.
77 . . Slating.
136 Loads of Timber.
326 Square feet of Glass for windows.
On ascertaining the quarry mail, or prime cost of the stones, and the cost of carriage, in the
locality in which yon intend to build your steading, the cost of each of the above quantities
of materials will easily be ascertained.
(221.) The following schedule gives the prices of those materials in Edinburgh, and they
are stated both inclusive and exclusive of carriages.
Masort-work.
Digging foundations per cubic yard.
Rubble-foundations, reduced to 2 feet thick .per rood of 36 cubic yards.
Rubble building, 2 feet thick
18 inches thick and under, reduced to 1
foot thick
Rubble drains, with dressed flags, sills and covers, 12 inches square in
the opening per lineal yard.
Ditto, 15 inches by 18 inches in the opening
Hammer-dressed coursed work, with raised or hollow joints . . per square foot.
Where bricks are used for building the walls, the prices are for —
2i thick brick on edge walls per square yard.
4t .. .. bed
6
Chimney-vents, plastered per lineal foot.
Droved ashlar, from 7 to 8 inches thick per square foot.
Broached . . . . . .
comers, averaging 3 feet girth per lineal foot.
supports for stacks, from 1; feet to 2J feet in girth
Droved ribets, front and ingoing with broached tails, 2 feet long and 1
foot in the head
(293)
Including
Exclud'g
Carriage.
Carriage.
L. S.
D.
L.
S. D.
0 0
6
0
0 4
10 0
0
8
0 0
8 8
0
7
0 0
5 0
0
4
6 0
0 3
0
0
2 4
0 5
0
0
4 0
0 0
3
0 1
9
0
1 6
0 3
0
0
2 6
0 5
0
0
4 8
0 0
6
0 1
2
0
1 0
0 1
0
0
0 10
0 2
6
0 2
0
0 2
6
350
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
Mason-irork (continued).
Droved projecting sills, 7 inches thick per lineal foot.
Sills and lintelg dressed similar to the ribcts
Droved cornices for chimney-stalks, 6 to 7 inches thick
Droved block-course for chimney-stalks, 6 inches deep
Droved skews, "Ji to 3 inches thick per square foot.
Broached
Comers for coach-house doors, with droved giblet-checks per lineal foot.
Elliptical arched lintels for ditto
Segmental ..
Broached pillars for cart-sheds, &c per square foot.
Droved jambs and lintels
Arbroath pavement and hearths
freestone pavement
Broached . . . .
Dressed and jointed flagging
hanging steps, ordinary sizes per lineal foot.
common steps, ..
plats of hanging stairs, single measure per square yard.
stone-skirtings, 4V inches deep per lineal foot.
ridge-stones, common fonn
socket -stones for travis-posts each
feeding-troughs per square foot
stone water-troughs
Curb-stones for gutters in byres per lineal foot.
Droved curb-stones for stalls
Semi-circular coping for dykes, hammer-dressed, from 12 inches to 14
inches diameter
Square dressed whinstone-causeway per rood of 36 square yards.
Rubble causewaj-ing
When ornamental masonry is introduced into steadings, these are the prices :
Droved base-course and belts, 12 inches deep per lineal foot
wall-head plinths, 6 inches thick
cornices, 9 to 10 inches thick
block-course, 12 inches deep
checked plinth and block for chimney-stalks, 1 foot deep
Polished hanging steps, ordinary sizes
Polished plats of hanging stairs, single measure per square foot
Broached copings, with droved edges, for dykes
Droved pillars for small gates to bammels, &.c
Building in boiler and furnace complete
Bricks per 1000.
Rubble stones per load .
Carpenter-work.
Safe-lintels and rough beams per cubic foot
Dressed beams
Scantlinc for roofs, 7 inches by 2} inches, and 18 inches from center
to center per square yard
Scantling for roofs, 7} inches by 2t inches, and 18 inches from center
to center
Balks, 6 inches by 2 inches, and 18 inches from center to center
-.5 .. 2 .. .. ..
Wall-plates for roofing, 7 inches by li inches per lineal foot
Ridge trees, 10 inches by 2 inches
Ridge and jx-and battens, 21 inches diameter
1-inch thick Baltic sarking per square yard
Tile-lath, U inches square, and 11 inches apart
Bond-timber, 3i inches by U inches, and 20 inches apart
Baltic split lath. 3-16 inch thick
Plain joisting 7 in. by 2i in. and 18 inches from center to center
8in.by2iin
9 in. by 2i in
.. 10in.by2iin ."'.'.!!".!.'!!.'.'.".'.!!!!'.'.'.'.
12 in. by 2| in !!!..'..".' '.'.
H Batten flooring, grooved and tongued
Door-checks, 6 inches by 2} inches per lineal foot-
Checked window grounds, 2 inches by 1 J inches
Finishing grounds, 2 inches by } inch [\
Windows for nams and byres, of the form in ig. X5... ............ . .per squai-e foot
stables, of the form in fie 14 .".".'.
granaries, of the form in fig. 17 '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. .'.
,,_,., ,. - .,. , , htcludiiijf Carriagt
1 J Travis-boardmg for nding-horse and workhorse stables, doweled per square fool 0 0 8
H travis-boards, grooved and tongued and beaded, for byres .. 0 0 6
li-inch deal lining, grooved and tongued, for end stalls of riding"horse stab'e with
fixtures ' , 0 0 5
^-incb deal linings, beaded in walls, over and under the mangers in the ridinu-horse
stable ° __ 0 0 3
Turned travis-posu, for riding-horse stable nticti 0 8 0
Beaded travis-posts, fore-posts, and runtrecs, for work-horse stable, reduced" to 3*
iiiches square ... ... •■.-••-••. -•--•- per Uneal foot 005
Stakes and runtrees of byres, 4 inches to 5 mchcs m diameter 006
(294)
Inrlnd
'"«
KxcluiPg
Carru
g'-
Carriage.
L, S.
D.
L. S. D.
0 2
0
0 1
6
0 1
6
0 0
9
0 0
9
0 0
8
0 1
8
0 1
9
0 1
9
0 0
10
0 0
9
0 0
9
0 0 8
0 0
9
0 0 8
0 0
8
0 0 7i
0 0
7
0 0 6^
0 2
4
0 13
0 1
6
0 I 3
0 I
5V
0 1 4J
0 0
4
0 0 3i
0 0
Ih
0 0 7
0 5
6
0 5 0
0 1
1
0 10
0 1
0
0 0 11
0 0
6
0 0 5i
0 0
6
0 0 5
0 0
6+
0 0 6
7 7
0
7 0 0
2 14
0
2 7 0
0 1
1
0 0 10
0 2
6
0 1
1
0 1
2
0 2
6
0 2 5
0 1
6
0 14
0 0
9
0 0 8
0 0 10
0 0 9
0 18
0
1 17
0
1 10 0
0 3
0
0 0 6
0 3
6
0 3 4
0 4
0
0 3 10
0 2
4
0 2 2
0 1
6
0 1 2
0 1
9
0 17
0 1
6
0 1 4
0 0
4
0 0 31
0 0
9
0 0 8
0 0
3
0 0 2J
0 1
10
0 19
0 0
6
0 0 5i
0 0
6
0 0 5}
0 0
6
0 0 5i
0 2
4
X) 2 2
0 3
6
0 3 4
0 4
0
0 3 10
0 4
6
0 4 4
0 5
0
0 4 JO
0 3
4
0 3 2
0 0
6
0 0 5
0 0
21
0 0
\\
0 1
8
0 1 fi
0 1
3
0 1 li
0 1
6
0 1 4
THE STEADING OR FARMSTEAD. 151
Carpenter-work (continued). Including Carriage.
Hard-wcod hiirh liay-viickp, with turned rollers 2 inches diameter and 2} inches i.. s. d.
apart, for riding-horse stnble -- 0 3 0
Fir sparred low hay-racks for work-horse stable .. 0 10
Mangers for riding-horse stable -• 0 16
Corn-boxes for work-horse stable each 0 3 0
li-inch deal beaded outf-ide doors, with 3 backbars per square foot 0 0 7
}-inch deal beaded inside doors, with three 1-inch backbars .. 0 0 6
Sparred calves'-cribs - ,. ",, 9 9 ^
Facings, keps, skirting, and coping, reduced to 4 inches broad per lineal foot 0 0 3
Ogee copiniis for travises •• " 0 2
1 inch beaded coping for lining -• 0 0^
Eain-spouts of wood, out of the solid •- ^ ^ ^
when pieced •- 0 0 o
Conductors from rain-spouts ■- x. n ^ ^
Small doors for feeding-holes ofbjTCs each 0 10
Racks for center of courts 0 12 0
Corn-cliest for work-horses - 0 15 0
Stout 5-barred gates, 9 feet wide, for courts each 1 10 0
4 . . . . 5 . . . . hammels 0 14 0
Rails, harness-pins, and saddletrees 2 10 0
Luffer-board ventilators. 6 feet long by 4 feet wide, and 2^ feet high in front per square foot 0 16
Octagonal stathel-frames for stacks, 15 feet diameter each 1 13 0
Pump with mounting, 20 feet long 3 10 0
Slater-xoork.
Blue-slatin" per rood of 36 square yards 4 4 0
Grav ° •- 2 11 0
Tiling::::;.".".'.' -- ,^2100
Blue slates per 1,000 3 10 0
Grayslates 4 10 0
Tiles 2 17 0
Plumher-work.
6-lb. per square foot lead on peands, flanks and ridges (253. per cwt.) per square foot 0 1 3i
5-lb. lead for aprons to ventilators, &c -- Oil
Mastic for raglets per lineal foot 0 0 li
Rain-water pipes of 6-lb. lead : -- 0 16
6-inch open runs of 6-lb. lead, supported with iron straps or holdfasts. 2 feet apart. . . . 0 16
Lead-pump, with mounting -- 2 10 0
Lead-pipe for ditto - -- 0 1 2
Smith-work.
Cast-iron travis heel-posts each 12 0
corner hay -racks for riding-horse stable 0 10 0
pump for liquid-manure tank, with 6feet pipe 3 0 0
Stock and plate-locks for outside doors, 10 inches long 0 2 6
18-inch cross-tailed hinges per pair 0 13
9-inch .. 0 0 9
rO 0 5
Thumb-latches each J to
to 0 7
Manger rings 0 0 1
Seals for binding cattle 0 2 6
Cast-iron rain-spouts, 4i inches diameter per lineal yard 0 2 0
Pipes from ditto, 2 inches diameter, > y j. j e^ch\l ,% ^
4 inches diameter, J ° i 0 18 0
rO 12 0
Gate-mountings \ to
CO 15 0
36-inch boiler, with furnace complete, t 2 JO 0
30-inch .. .. .. ^ or 14s. per cwt 2 7 0
24-inch -. .. -. 3 2 4 0
Crooks and bands for outside doors per pair 0 10 0
feeding-hole doors in byres 0 5 0
Stanchions, | inch diameter per pound 0 0 3
Cast-iron window saslies per square foot 0 10
Plaster-work.
rO 0 5
Best 3-coat plaster per square yard^ to
to 0 6
.2 -. 0 0 4}
1 .. 0 0 3
Glazier-work.
Best second crown-glass in small panes per square foot 0 0 10
.... .. large panes -- 0 1-
Pai7iter-work.
White lead, colored gray, stone, or slate-blue, 3 coats per square yard 0 0"
152 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
(222.) There is a sim;>le nile for d jtenniniii? the pi'ch which a roof should have for the
various sorts of slutinu. In bbie-sliitin<r the nile is, tliat the roof should be in hight \ of the
breadth of the biildiii;^. Sii;)i» )8e that a buildiu:^ is 18 feet inside in \%-idth like the middle
range of the steading, the walls are each two feet thick, which gives a breadth of 22 feet
over walls. Deduct 6 inches on each wiJl for an escarpment on its top, upon which the
scantlings or couple-legs rest ujKin the wall-plates, and J of 21 feet gives 7 feet for the hight
of the roof above the walls. Old fashioned houses have a pitch of the s<]uare, that is, the
hight is equal to half the breadth, which, in the supposed ca.se, would be 10.§ feet. In gray
slating the pitch is fixed at 1 foot below the square, or the hight would be 9^ feet. In tiling,
the pitch niav be lower than even in blue slating, and it is determined according to circum-
stances ; ami even blue slate roofs are made as low in the pitch as | of the breatlth, that is
with large Welsh slates. Taking the rise at 7 feet, the scantlings should be 13 feet long
each, and the balk, of course, as long. Taking the rise at 9j| feet, the scantlings should be
14 feet long. (131.) and (132.), p. 138.
(223.) A liquid manure tank can be constructed at little cost. An excavation being made
in clay, a lining shoidd be built all round. The lining may be either of lubble masonry, of
stone and mortar, or of brick and mortar. If the subsoil is not of a retentive nature, a plas-
tering of Roman cement n\t11 suffice to render the building retentive. A 9-inch wall, or a
brick in length, will make a lining of sufficient strength to contain the hquid. The tank
should be covered over in any of the various ways I have mentioned in (76.^, and paved in
the bottom with flags or bricks secured by cement. A cast-iron pump should be inserted
at one end of the tank when it will be ready for use.
(224.) The cost of constructing such a tank, with brick in length and cement, will be
somewhat as under, exclusive of drains :
Feet. Inches.
Inside length of tank 13 6
. . wicfth 6 6
depth . . 6 0=19i cubic yarda.
Cutting the bed of the tank, at 3d. per cubic yard &0 7 6
Building wall, including bricks and mortar 6 8 0
Plastering and cement 0 16 0
Covering with flags 2 15 0
Total £10 6 6
Such a size of tank is said to be sufficient for a farm of from 1.50 to 200 acres. A recepta-
cle of a more simple and unexpeusive nature might be constructed, which would answ^er
some of the ends of a more complete tank. It might be made under a shed, and composed
of walls of clay, and covered with slabs of boardling. The expense of such a receptacle
woidd be somewhere as under, the dimensioas being as in the preceding case :
Cutting the clay, « 3d the cvbic yard S.0 7 6 ~~^
Clay and carting 0 14 0 "-"-^
Boards, and expense of covering 0 5 0 ~^-%
Total .£1 6 6 r— l
Sticn a tank, however, would suffer in frost or drouth. A cask sunk into the ground, with
open cbaimels to it, forms a sufficient tank for a cottager.*
[* There are few instances in which gross neglect of valuable resources within their reach is
so glaring on the part of American agriculturists as in the general failure to collect an abundant
supply of water for all purposes from the roofs of their houses, and especially where these are of
any considerable size, and yet more when they are so contiguous that the rain which falls on sev-
eral of them might be collected into one common reservoir.
Having ascertained, as any one may do by reference to meteorological tables kept an\-where in
his County or Sute, what is the annual quantity of rainwater which falls in that region, it is ea.ey
to calculate what measure of water may be gathered into a cistern from roofing of a given sur-
face. Waistell urges the importance of placing spouu round all the buildings of the farm, ob-
serving that, besides the value of the supply of water thus obtained, the buildings will be bene-
fited by the walls and foundations being kept drier than when the water from the roof is suffered
to fall upon them. He states that the quantity of water that falls annually in his county upon
every 100 superficial feet, or 10 feet square, of building, is about 1,400 imperial gallons.
In Mississippi, from dire necessity, such cisterns are in common use ; but how many farmers
over the country might, in this way, save the immense labor bestowed and the time lost in bring-
ing water by hand from a distance, and in st'nding their domestic animals to it, while the remedy
is so close at hand ! By a simple process of filtration, and the use of ice, water so collected makes
the purest and best drinking-water.
The tank or cistern may be puddled round with clay, to avoid the expense of Roman cement.
Btit the yet more valuable use of tanks is the one referred to by our author for collectin" the
(296)
THE FARM-HOUSE. • 153
16. THE FARM-HOUSE,
" Do you but mark how this becomes the house."
Leak.
(225.) In alluding to the farm-house at all, it is not my intention to give
a full plan of one, as I have given of the steading; because its internal ar-
rangements are generally left to the fancy of architects or of its occupiers,
and with little regard to their adaptation to a farm. Any specific plan
which I would recommend of a farm-house would therefore, I fear, receive
little attention from either landlord or tenant. But the part of it which is
exclusively devoted to labor has so intimate a connection with the manage-
ment of the farm that I must give my opinion upon it. The part I mean
includes the kitchen and dairy, and their accompanying apartments. Now,
it may frequently be seen in the plans furnished by architects, that, to give
the fai'm-house a fashionable and airy appearance, the working portion of
it is too often contracted and inconveniently arranged. The principle of
its construction should be to make this part of the house thoroughly com-
modious in itself, and at the same time prevent its giving the least annoy-
ance to the rest from noise or disagreeable effluvia, which cannot at all
times be avoided in the labors of the kitchen. Both objects would be ac-
complished by placing it independent of the main body of the house, and
this is best effected by a jamb. Whatever may be the external form given
to the house, the relative positions of its two parts may easily be preserved,
whether in the old-fashioned form of a front tenement and back jamb, or
the more modern and beauteous form of the Elizabethan style.
(226.) The ground-plan which I recommend of the kitchen and the other
parts of the farm-house in which work is performed, may be seen in fig.
32, where a is the kitchen, 18 feet in length, 16 feet in breadth, and 10 feet
in hight, provided with a door to the interior of the house, in the wall
nearest to you, another to the kitchen pantry Tc and dairy m, and a thii'd
to the scullery d and porch p. It contains two windows, one on each side
of g on the left, a lai'ge kitchen range, oven, and furnace-pot at b, a com-
modious lock-up closet c, a wall-press h, and a dresser and table g. There
is a stair at c to the servants' and other apartments above, and which also
leads to the principal bed-rooms in the upper story of the house. Beyond
the kitchen is the scullery d, which contains a large furnace-pot e, a sink in
the window yj a wall-press h, and a dresser g. This apartment is 18 feet
liquid manure; and we are assured that in France and Germany, and more especially in Bel-
gium, where manure is saved as we save dollars, a manure-tank is considered as indispcBsable as
any other part of the steading or farm-buildings.
Their size will depend, of course, on the number of animals which the system he pursues may
invite the farmer to keep. Instead of making them round or oval, it is contended that the best
way is to make them into cubes or squares. A tank, says De Rham, for a farm of 200 acres of
arable land, should be 15 feet wide, 15 deep, and 45 long — giving 3 cubes of 15 feet of liquid. — •
The rule in Germany is to have tanks large enough to contain ten times as many hogsheads as
there are heads of cattle on the place. But as we shall, in the Journal of Agriculture, treat
more fully of this subject, we need not prolong this note. Of the expense of construction, every
one must judge for himself, according to the price of labor and materials ; but of this we are sure,
that these must be exorbitant, where the profit does not very soon afford ample remuneration.
Ed. Farm. Lib.
(897)
154
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
in length, 10 feet in breadth, and 10 feet in hight. A door from it, and
another from the kitchen, open on a lobby common to both, and which
lobljy ijivcs access by another door to the principal kitchen entrance-door
Fig. 32.
GROUND PLAN OF A KITCHEN, tC. OF A FAUM-HOUSE.
through the porch p. The porch p, 6 feet square, is erected for the pur-
pose of screening both the kitchen and scullery from wind and cold, and it
contains the back entrance-door, and is lighted by a window. On the out-
side, and in front of the porch-door, is r, the rain-water cistern, fig. 30, p.
134. On going to the right from the kitchen to the hitchen-pantry Ic, is a
wall-press in the passage. The pantry k is provided with a door ; a win-
dow, which should look to the east or north ; a larder /, and abundance of
shelving at o ; it is 12 feet square, having a roof of 10 feet in hight. With-
in this pantry is the milk-house or dairy m, having two windows also facing
to the north or east ; a lock-up closet n, and shelving o around the walls ;
it is 18^ feet in length, 12 feet in breadth, and 10 feet in hight.
(227.) These are the different apartments, and their relative positions,
required for conducting the business of a farm within the house, and in
the fitting up of which are many particulars which require attention. The
floor of the kitchen should be of flagged pavement polished, that it may
be cleaned with certainty and ease. The outside wall and ceiling should
be lathed, and all the walls and ceiling plastered with the best hair-plaster.
Iron hooks, both single and double, should be screwed into the joists of the
roof, from which may be suspended hams or other articles. The dressers
g are best made of plain-tree tops and black American birch frames, the
chairs of the latter wood, and the stools of common fir. In case of acci-
dents, or negligence in leaving them unfastened at night, it would be well
to have the lower sashes of the windows of the kitchen and sculleiy fast,
and the upper ones only to let down for the occasional admission of fresh
and the escape of heated air.
(228.) In the scullery, the sink /should be of polished free-stone, made
to fit the window-void, with a proper drain from it, provided with a cess-
pool. The floor should be of the same material as that of the kitchen, for
the sake of cleanliness. The outside wall and ceiling should be lathed,
and all the walls and roof plastered. There should be a force-pump in
(298)
THE FARM-HOUSE. 155
the sculleiy to fill a cistern with water at the upper part of the house, to
contain a constant supply for the sink. A boiler behind the kitchen fire
provided with a small cistern and ball-cock and ball in connection \%-ith the
upper cistern, for the supply of cold water into the boiler ; and a cock
ijom it in the kitchen, and another from it in the sculleiy, for drawino- off
warm water when required, could be fitted up at no great cost, and would
be found a most serviceable apparatus in a fami-house.
(229.) The large furnace-pot e should be built in with fire-brick sur-
rounded with common brick, plastered, and protected with cloth on the
outside, iTibbed hard into the plaster, and the mouth of the pot protected
with a -i-inch pavement polished. To carry off the supei-fluous steam, a
lead-pipe should be fastened into a narrow, immovable portion of the pot-
lid, and passed through the wall into the flue. An iron bar should project
fi'om the stone-wall about 3 feet or so above the furnace-pot, having a hori-
zontal eye at its end directly over the center of the pot, to be used when
making the ponidge for the reapers' morning meal in harvest, as shall be
described afterward. The dresser g should be of the same material as that
of the kitchen. There should be iron hooks fastened into the roof for
hanging any article thereon. Shelving is also useful in a scullery.
(230.) The outside walls and ceiling of the kitckcn-pantnj should be
lathed, and all the walls and ceiling plastered. The flooring should be of
the same material as that of the kitchen, or of hard brick. The shelving o
should be of wood of several tiei-s, the lowest row being 3^ feet above the
floor. The movable portion of the window should be protected with fly
zinc-gauze, and so also the side and door of the larder /. A few iron
hooks in the roof will be found useful for hanging up game or fowls. A
set of steps for reaching above an ordinaiy hight is convenient in a pantry.
(231.) The outside walls and ceiling of the milk-house should be lathed,
and the walls and roof plastered. The flooring should be of polished pave-
ment, for the sake of coolness. The windows should be protected in the
movable part with fly zinc-gauze, which is much better than wire-gauze ;
and the side and door of the lock-up closet n should also be lined with
zinc-gauze. The best shelving for a milk-house is marble ; and, though
this substance may appear exti-avagant in a farm-house, the price of mar-
ble is now so much reduced that it is worth the extra expense, the import
of foreign mai'ble being now free. Marble is always cool, and easily
cleaned and freed of stains. Scottish marble is hard and unequal of text-
ure. The gi-ay-veined marble from Leghorn is therefore preferable, though
the black marble of the county of Galway in Ireland is equally good; but
the gi'ay color has a coolness and freshness about it in a dairy, which the
black does not possess. Polished pavement is the next best material for
coolness, but it is very apt to stain with milk or butter, and the stains are
difiicult of removal. I speak fi-om experience, and know the labor required
to keeping stone-shelving in a milk-house always sweet and clean ; and,
let me say farther, unless it is so kept, any other material is preferable to
it. If marble be rejected on account of expense, I would recommend stout
shelving of beech or plane-tree, as being smooth, and hard, and easily kept
clean. This shelving should be 2 feet broad, li inches thick, and, to be
convenient, should not exceed the hight of 3 feet from the floor.
(232.) It is necessary to make the wall which separates the kitchen and
scullery from the milk-house and pantry of brick or stone, to keep the lat-
ter apartments more cool, and less likely to be affected by the heat and
vapor, which must, of necessity, sometimes escape fiom the former. It
would, no doubt, be convenient for the removal of dishes to have a door
communicating between the scullery and milk-house ; but it is much bet-
(299)
156
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
ter to avoid every risk of contamination from a place which must at times
be filled with vapors injurious to milk — a substance which is at all times
delicately susceptible of injury.
(233.) The windows of all the apartments should be provided with shut'
ters on the inside ; and it may be a safe precaution against nocturnnl intru-
ders to protect those of the milk-house and pantry with iron stancheons
on the outside, as they should, occasionally at least, be left open even all
night.
(234.) On this side of the kitchen will be observed a stair. It is 4 feet
in width, and intended to lead to the story above the kitchen floor, as also
to the upper story of the principal part of the house. The stoiy above the
kitchen may be subdivided in this way. Let a continuation of the brick
or stone wall which separates the kitchen and scullery from the milk-house
and kitchen-pantry be carried up, in the form of a partition of lath and
plaster, to the roof of the second story, which may be 9 feet in bight, as
seen on the right of g, fig. 33. The wall of the kitchen flue b should, of
Fig. 33.
CHEESE-llOOM iC. OF FARM-HOUSE.
course, be carried up to a chimney-stalk above the ridging, containing at
least 4 flues from below — one of the kitchen fire, one of the small funiace-
pot of the kitchen, one of the oven, and one of the large furnace-pot in the
sculleiy ; but there should also be one from the room above the scullery,
and one from one of the rooms above the kitchen ; and, to render both
kitchen and scullery as wholesome by ventilation as possible, there should
be a small flue from the ceiling of each to carry off" heated air and vapor.
The kitchen-stalk would thus contain 6 flues from below and 2 from above.
(235.) The upper story should be partitioned off" in the way as seen in
fig. 33. Let the apartment a above the scullery be fitted up with a fire-
place y as a bed-room for the female servants, having a closet c in the outer
wall. After taking off a passage ^ of 31 feet in width along the whole
length of this part of the house, this room will be 14 feet long and 10 feet
wide. The space above the kitchen may be divided into 2 bcd-roofus — one
i, 14 feet in length, by 9 feet in width, and 9 feet in hight, with a fire-place
y and window, and closet c. This might be occupied as a sitting-room
and bed-room by the housekeeper, if the services of such a person are re-
THE FARM-HOUSE. 157
quired ; if not, it might serve as a large store-room, with a fire-place which
would be useful for various purposes. The other room d, 14 feet in leno-th
by 8 feet 3 inches in width, and 9 feet in hight, having a window in it, but
no fire-place, might be fitted up as a bed-room for occasional stranger serv-
ants. This latter apartment has a closet e in it, 3 feet in width by 2 feet
in depth, directly above the lock-up closet c off the kitchen.
(236.) At the end of the passage is a water-closet i, lighted by a Avindow
in the gable of the jamb. The size of the water-closet is 5 feet 3 inches
by 3^ feet. Its cistern is supplied with water from the cistei-n that sup-
plies the sink in the scullery, and its soil-pipe could descend in an appro-
priate recess in the wall. The window of the water-closet could give light
to the passage ^ by a glass- window above the water-closet door, or the
passage could be lighted by a cupola in the roof, or it could be lighted
from the cheese-room h by two windows in the lath and plaster wall, each
of which could have a pane to open into the cheese-room for the purpose
of ventilation.
(237.) The entire space above the kitchen-pantry and milk-house may
be appropriated to a cheese-room h, 29 feet 3 inches in length on the floor,
12 feet in width, and 9 feet in hight, having 3 windows in it. Besides the
floor, proper shelving m should be put up for the accommodation of the
cheese, in its various stages toward maturity ; and the lower halves of the
windows should be provided with Venetian shutters, outside of the glass,
to regulate the air into the room when the windows are opened.
(238.) If there is suflScient room in the roof above these various apart-
ments for a garret, access can be obtained to it by a stair at I, which would
have to return upon itself in ascending the 9 feet, the hight of the story ;
and both this stair and the one k down to the kitchen could be lighted by
the window n. If there is no gan-et, then the cheese-room will be 32 feet
3 inches in length, by dispensing with the stair /. The window n could
then be also dispensed with.
(239.) These dimensions of kitchen and other apartments would be suit-
ed to the farm-house of a farm of from 500 to 1000 acres, under the mixed
husbandly. The milk-house may, perhaps, be large enough for even a
dairy-farm of ordinary extent ; but should it be too small for that purpose,
it might easily be enlarged by increasing either or both the length and
breadth of the building.
(240.) In regard to the relative positions which the farm-house and steading should occupy,
it has been remarked by a recent writer, that "It is generally advised that the fann-house
should be placed directly in front : to which, however, it may be objected that it casts a
shade over the southern entrance of the yard if veiy near, and if too far off', its distance will
be found to be inconvenient. Perhaps the best situation is on one side of the farm-yard,
with the common parlor and kitchen opening nearly into it : farmers may talk as they like
about unhealthy odors arising from the stables and yards, but there never was any one in-
jured by them, and they cannot keep too close an eye upon their sei-vants and stock."* If
farmers " cannot keep too close an eye upon their servants and stock," and if the position of
their houses will enable them to do so, they should do something more than place them " on
one side of the faiTn-yard:" they must remain constantly in them, and cause " their servants
and stock " to be continually in sight in the farm-yard, otherwise their watching will be of
no avail ; for v^rhen the servants come to know that the house has been placed there merely
to watch their proceedings, they at least, if not the stock, can and vdll easily avoid the par-
ticular place constantly overlooked by the house. The truth is, and every farmer knows it
that it is not the spot occupied by his house, whether here or there, that maintains his ai
thority over his servants ; he knows that he himself must be " up and doing " in the fields
in the farm yard, every where — " be stining with the lark,"
" From mom to noon, from noon to dewy eve"-
ere he can ascertain whether his servants are doing their work well, and his stock tluiving
• British Husbandry, vol. i. p.
(301)
158 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
•well. Inconvenience to himself in poing a great distance betwixt his house and the stead-
ing, will induce the fanner to place liis house near ratlier than at a distance from the stead-
ing. He wishes to be within call — to be able to be on the spot in a few seconds, when his
presence is required in the fiirm-yard, the stable, the byre, or the bam ; but more than this
he does not ■want, and need not care for. Place your house, therefore, if you have the
choice, ou some pleasant spot, neither " direct in front '" nor much in the rear of the stead-
ing. If there be no such spot at hand, make one for your house, place it there, and dwell
in it, with the comfortable assurance that your servants will not regard yon the less, or your
btock thrive the worse, because you happen to hve beyond the influence of the " unhealthy
odors arising from your stables and yaras " — odors, by the way, of the impleasantuess of
which I never heard a farmer complain. No one of that class but a sloven would place bis
hoose beside a dunzhill.
17. THE PERSONS WHO LABOR THE FARM.
'John. Labor in thy rocarion.
Gto. Thoa hast bit it; for there 'a no better eien of a brave mind than a hard hand."
He.nev \I. Pan n.
(241.) Those who labor a farm form the most important part of its ma-
leiial ; they are the spirit that conducts its operations. You should, there-
fore, become early acquainted with those functionaries. They are the
farmer himself, the steward or giieve, the plowman, the hedger or laborer,*
the shepherd, the cattle-man, the field-worker, and the dairy-maid. These
have each duties to perform, which, in their respective spheres, should
liarmonize and never interfere with each other. Should any occurrence
happen to disturb the harmony of labor, it must arise fiom some misap-
prehension or icriiorance in the interfering party, whose abeiTations must
be rectified by the presiding power. I shall consider the duties in the or-
der I have mentioned the respective agents.
(242.) And first, those oix}c\Q farmer. It is his province to originate the
entire system of management — to determine the period for commencing
and pursuing every operation — to issue general orders of manaerement to
the steward, when there is one, and if there be none, to give minute in-
structions to the plowmen for the performance of eveiy separate field
operation — to e.xercise a general superintendence over the field-workers —
to observe the general behavior of all — to see if the cattle are cared for —
to ascertain the condition of all the crops — to guide the shepherd — to di-
rect the hedger or laborer — to effect the sales of the surplus produce — to
conduct the purchases conducive to the progressive improvement of the
farm — to disburse the expenses of management — to pay the rent to tlie
landlord — and to fulfill the obligations incumbent on him as a residenter of
the parish. All these duties are common to the farmer and the steward
engaged to manage a farm. An independent steward and a farmer are
thus so far on the same footing ; but the farmer occupies a loftier station.
He is his own mister — makes bargains to suit his own interests — stands
on an equal footing with the landlord in the lea.se — has entire control over
the seiA-ants, hiring and discharging them at any term he pleases — and
possesses power to grant favors to scr\ants and fiiends. The farmer has
not all those duties to perform in any one day, but in the course of their
proper fiilfiUment, daily calls are made on his attention, and so large a por-
tion of his time is occupied by them, that he finds httle leisure to go far
from home, except in the season when few operations are performed on a
[* Altosether inapplicable to our coontry. £i. Farm. Lib.]
(302)
THE PERSONS WHO LABOR THE FARM. 159
fb,rm, viz. the end of summer. These are the professional duties of the
farmer ; but he has those of domestic and social life to fulfill, like every
other member of society. If a farmer fulfills all his duties as he ought to
do, he cannot be said " to eat the bread of idleness."
(243.) The duty of steward, or grieve* as he is called in some parts of
Scotland, and bailiff in England, consists in receiving general instructions
from his master the farmer, which he sees executed by the people under
his charge. He exercises a direct control over the plowmen and field-
workers ; and unreasonable disobedience on their part of his commands
is reprehended as strongly by the farmer as if the aflfront had been offered
to himself: I say unreasonable disobedience, because the farmer is the
judge of whether the steward has been reasonable in his demands. It is
the duty of the steward to enforce the commands of his master, and to
check every deviation from rectitude he may observe in the servants against
his interests. Although he should thus protect the interests of his master
from the attacks of any servant, yet it is not generally understood that he
has conti'ol over the shepherd, the hedger, or the cattle-man, who ai'e
stewards in one sense, over their respective departments of labor. The
farmer reveals to the steward alone the plans of his management ; intrusts
him with the keys of the corn-bam, granaries and provision-stores ; dele-
gates to him the power to act as his representative on the farm in his ab-
sence ; and takes every opportunity of showing confidence in his integ-
rity, truth and good behavior. When a stewai'd conducts himself vnth.
discretion in his master's absence, and exhibits at all times a considerate
mind, an active person, and an honest heart, he is justly regarded as a
valuable servant.
(244.) Personally, the farm-steward does not always labor y\nth. his own
hands ; verifying, by his judicious superintendence, on a large farm at
least, the truth of the adage, that " one head is better than two pair of
hands." He should, however, always deliver the daily allowance of com
to the horses. He should, moreover, be the first person out of bed in the
morning, and the last in it at night. On most farms he does work : he
sows the seed-corn in spring, superintends the field-workers in summer,
tends the harvest-field and builds the stacks in autumn, and threshes the
corn with the mill, and cleans it with the winnowing-machine, in winter.
On some farms he even works a pair of horses, like a common plowman ;
in which case he cannot personally sow the corn, superintend the workers,
build the stacks, or ftiresh the corn, unless another person takes charge of
his horses for the time. This is an objectionable mode of employing a
steward ; because the nicer operations — such as sowing com, &c. or the
guidance of his horses — must be intrusted to another, and most likely in-
ferior, person. But in by far the greatest number of cases, the steward
does not work horses ; on the contrary, when a plowman qualifies himself
to become a steward, it is chiefly with the view of enioying immunity
from that species of drudgery. In any event, he should be able to keep
an account of the work-people's time, and of the quantity of gi-ain threshed,
consumed on the farm, and delivered to purchasers.
(245.) Stewards are not required on all sorts of farms. On pastoial
farms his species of sei-vice would be of no use, as it is on arable land that
these are really required. Anywhere, his services are the most valuable
where the greatest multiplicity of subjects demand attention. Thus, he is
a more useful servant on a farm of mixed husbandry, than on one in the
neighborhood of a town, or on a carse farm. But even on some farms of
[* Overseer or Manager. Ed. Farm. Lib.]
(303)
160 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
mixed culture, the services of a steward are dispensed with altogether ; in
which case the farmer himself gives his orders directly to the plowmen,
or indiiectly through the hedger or cattle-men, as he may choose to ap-
point to receive his instructions. In such a case the same pei-son is also
mtrusted to corn the horses ; for the plowmen themselves are never in-
trusted with that business, as they are apt to abuse such a trust by giving
too much com to the horses, to their probable injury. The same person
performs other parts of a steward's duty ; such as sowing com, superin-
tending field-workers, and threshing com ; or those duties may be divided
betwixt the cattle-man and hedger. On the large fann in Berwickshire
on which I learned farming, there was no steward, the cattle-man deliver-
ing the master's orders and coming the horses, and the hedger sowing the
com, building the stacks, and threshing the com. The object of this ar-
rangement was to save the wages of a steward, when the farmer himself
was able to undertake the general superintendence. I conducted my own
farm for several years without a steward.
(246.) The duties of a ploicman are clearly defined. The principal duty
is to take charge of a pair of horses, and work them at every kind of labor
for which horses are employed on a faiTn. Horse-labor on a farm is vari-
ous. It is connected with the plow, the cart, sowing-machines, the roller,
and the threshing-mill, when horse-power is employed in the threshing of
com ; so that the knowledge of a plowman should comprehend a rariety
of subjects. In the fiilfillment of his duties, the plowman has a long day's
work to perform ; for, besides expending the appointed hours in the fields
with the horses, he must gioom them before he goes to the field in the
morning and after he returns from it in the evening, as well as at mid-day
between the two periods of labor. Notwithstanding this constant toil, he
must do his work with alacrity and good will ; and when, from any cause,
his horses are laid idle, he must not only attend upon them as usual, but
must himself work at any farm-work he is desired. There is seldom any
exaction of labor from the plowman beyond the usual daily hours of work,
these occupying at least 12 hours a day for 7 months of the year, that be-
ing a sufficient day's work for any man's strength to endure. But occa-
sions do arise which justify the demand of a greater sacrifice of his time,
such as seed-time, hay-time, and har\-est. For such encroachments upon
his time, many opportunities occur of repaying him with indulgence, such
as a cessation from labor, especially in bad weather. It is the duty of the
plowman to work his horses with discretion and good temper, not only foi
the sake of the horses, but that he may execute his work in a proper man-
ner. It is also his duty to keep his horses comfortably clean. Plowmen
are never placed in situations of trust ; and thus, having no responsibility
beyond the care of their horses, there is no class of servants more inde-
pendent. There should no partiality be shown by the master or steward
to one plowman more than to another, as it is the best policy to treat all
alike who work alike. An invidious and reprehensible practice exists,
however, in some parts of the country, of setting them to work in an order
of precedency, which is maintained so strictly as to be practiced even on
going to and returning from work — one being appointed foreman, whose
movements must guide those of the rest. Should the foreman prove a
slow man, the rest must not go a single bout more than he does; and, if
he is active, they may follow as best they can. Thus, while his activity
confers no benefit to the farmer beyond its own work, his dullness discour-
ages the activity of the others. This consideration alone should be suffi-
cient ground for farmers to abolish the practice at once, and put the whole
of their plowmen on the same footing. I soon saw the evils attending the
(304,
THE PERSONS WHO LABOR THE FARM. 161
system, and put an end to it on my own farm. When one plowman dis-
plays more skill than the rest, it is sufficient honor for him to be intrusted
to execute the most difficult pieces of work ; and this sort of preference
will give no umbrage to the others, as they are as conscious of his superi-
ority in work as the farmer himself can possibly be. The services of plow-
men are required on all sorts of farms, from the carse-farm to the pastoral,
on which the greatest and the least poition of arable culture are practiced.
(247.) The services of a shepherd, properly so called, are only i-equired
where a flock of sheep are constantly kept. On carse-farms, and those in
the neighborhood of large towns, he is of no use ; nor is he required on
those farms on which sheep are bought in to be fed off in winter. On pas-
toral fanns, on the other hand, as also those of the mixed husbandry, his
services are so indispensable that they could not be conducted without
him. His duty is to undertake the entire management of the sheep ; and,
when he bestows the pains he should on his flock, he has little leisure for
any other work. His time is occupied from early dawn, when he should
be among his flock before they rise from their lair, and during the whole
day, to the evening, when they again lie down for the night. To inspect
a large flock at least three times a day, over extensive bounds, implies a
walking to fatigue. Besides this daily exercise, he has to attend to the
feeding of the young sheep on turnips in winter, the lambing of the ewes
in spring, the washing and shearing of the fleece in summer, and the bath-
ing of the flock in autumn. And, over and above these major operations,
there are the minor ones of weaning, milking, drafting, and marking, at
appointed times ; not to omit the unwearied attention to be bestowed, for
a time, on the whole flock, to evade the attacks of insects. It will readily
be seen, from this summary of duties, that the shepherd has little time to
bestow beyond the care of his flock. As no one but a shepherd, thoroughly
bred, can attend to sheep, there must be one where a standing sheep-flock
is kept, whatever may be the extent of farm. On a small farm, his whole
time may not be occupied in his profession, when he can make as well as
mend nets, prepai'e stakes for them, and assist the hedger (if there be one)
to keep the fences in repair ; or he may act as groom, and take charge of
the horse and gig, and go en-ands to the post-town ; or he may undertake
the duties of steward. On large pastoral or mixed husbandry farms, more
than one shepherd is required. The establishment then consists of a heaci
shepherd, and one or more young men training to be shepherds, who are
placed entirely under his control. The office of head shepherd is one of
great trust. Sheep being individually valuable, and in most instances con-
sisting of large flocks, a misfortune happening to them, from whatever
cause, must incur great loss. On the other hand, the care and skill of the
shepherd may secure a good return for the capital invested in sheep. The
shepherd acts the part of butcher in slaughtering the animals used on the
farm. The only assistance which he depends upon in personally managing
his flock is that of his faithful dog, whose sagacity in that respect is little
inferior to his own,
(248.) The services of the cattle-man are most wanted at the steading in
winter, when the cattle are all housed. He has the sole charge of them.
It is his duty to clean out the cattle-houses, and supply the cattle with
food, fodder, and litter, at appointed houi's every day, and to make the
food ready for them, should prepared food be given them. The business
of tending cattle being matter of routine, the qualifications of a cattle-man
are not of a high order. In summer and autumn, when the cows are at
grass, it is his duty to bring them into the byre or to the gate of the field,
as the case may be, to be milked at their appointed times ; and it is also
(305) 11
162 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
his duty to ascertain that the cattle in the fields are plentifully supplied
with food and water. He should see the cows served by the bull in due
time, and keep an account of the cows' reckoninp^s of the time of calving.
He should assist at the important process of calving. As his time is thus
only occasionally employed in summer, he frequently undertakes the su-
perintendence of tho field-workers. In harvest, he is usefully employed in
assisting to make and carry food to the reapers, and may lend a hand at
the taking in of the com. As cattle occupy the steading in winter on all
kinds of farms, the services of the cattle-man appear indispensable ; but
all his functions may be performed by the shepherd, where only a small
flock of sheep are kept. The office of the cattle-man is not one of trust
nor of much labor. An elderly person answers the purpose quite well,
the labor being neither constant nor heavy, but well-timed and methodi-
cal. The cattle-man ought to exercise much patience and good temper
toward the objects of his charge, and a person in the decline of life is most
likely to possess those qualities.
(249.) Field-workers are indispensable servants on everj' farm devoted
to arable culture. They mostly consist of young women in Scotland, but
more frequently of men and boys in England ; and yet there are many
manual operations much better done by women than men. In hand-pick-
in"- stones and weeds, in filling drains, and in barn-work, they are far more
expert, and do them more neatly, than men. The duties of field-workers,
as their very name implies, are to perform all the manual operations of the
fields, as well as those with the smaller implements, which are not worked
by horses. The manual operations consist chiefly of cutting and planting
the sets of potatoes, gathering weeds, picking stones, collecting the potato
crop, and filling drains with stones. The operations with the smaller im-
plements are pulling turnips and preparing them for feeding stock and
storing in winter, performing bam-work, carrying seed-corn, spreading
manure upon the land, hoeing potatoes and turnips, and weeding and
reaping coni-crops. A considerable number of field-workers are required
on a farm, and they are generally set to work in a band. They work most
steadily under superintendence. The steward, the hedger, or cattle-man,
should superintend them when the band is large ; but, when small, one of
themselves, a staid person, who is capable of taking the lead in work, may
superintend them well enough, provided she has a watch to mark the time
of work and rest. But field-workers do not always work by themselves ;
being at times associated with the work of the horses, when they require
no particular superintendence. On some faiTns, it is considered economi-
cal to lay the horses idle, and employ the plowmen at their labors rather
than engage field-workers. This may be one mode of avoiding a little
outlay of money ; but there is no tnie economy in allowing horses " to eat
off their own heads," as the phrase has it ; and, besides, plowmen cannot
possibly do light work so well as field-workers. In manufacturing districts
field- workers are scarce ; but were farmers generally to adopt the plan of
employing a few constantly, and hire them for the purpose by the half
year, instead of employing a large number at times, young women would
be induced to adopt field-labor as a profession, and become very expert in
it. It is steadiness of service that makes the field-workers of the south of
Scotland so superior to the same class in other parts of the country.
(250.) The duties of the (lairi/-mald are well defined. She is a domes-
tic servant, domiciliated in the farm-house. Her principal duty is, as her
name implies, to milk tho cows, to manage the milk in all its stages, bring
up the calves, and make itito butter and cheese the milk that is obtained
from the cows after the weaning of the calves. The other domestics gen-
(306)
THE WEATHER IN WINTER. - 163
erally assist her in milking the cows and feeding the calves, when there is
a large number of both. Should any lambs lose their mothers, the dairy-
maid should bring them up with cow's milk until the time of weaning,
when they are retunied to the flock. At the lambing season, should any
of the ewes be scant of milk, the shepherd applies to the dairy-maid to
have his bottles replenished with warm new milk for the hungered lambs.
The dairy-maid also milks the ewes after the weaning of the lambs, and
makes cheese of the ewe-milk. She should attend to the poultry, feed
them, set the brooders, gather the eggs daily, take charge of the broods
until able to provide for themselves, and see them safely lodged in their
respective apartments every evening, and let them abroad every morning.
It is genei-ally the dairy-maid, when there is no housekeeper, who gives
out the food for the reapers, and takes charge of their articles of bedding.
The dairy-ma,id should be an active, attentive, and intelligent person.
(251.) These are the duties of the respective classes of servants found
on farms. You may not require all these classes on your farm, as you have
seen that some sorts of farms do not require the services of all. You have
seen that a pastoral-farm has no need of a steward, but of a shepherd ; a
carse-farm no need of a shepherd, but of a steward ; a farm in the neifh-
borhood of a town no need of a hedger, but of a cattle-man ; and, on a
dairy-farm, no need of a shepherd, but of a dairy-maid ; but, in the case
of a farm of mixed husbandry, there is need of all these classes.
(252.) And now that you have seen how multifanous are the duties of
them all, you will begin to perceive how intricate an affair mixed hus-
bandry is, and how well informed a fanner should be of every one of these
varieties of labor, before he attempts to manage for himself To give you
a stronger view of this, conceive the quantity and variety of labor that
must pass through the hands of these various classes of work-people in the
course of a year, and then imagine the clear-headedness of arrangement
which a farmer should possess, to make all their various labox's coincide
in every season, and under every circumstance, so as to produce the most
desirable results. It is in its variety that the success of labor is attained :
in other words, it is in its subdivision that the facility of labor is acquired,
and it is by the intelligence of the laborers that perfection in it is attained.
And vain would be the endeavors of any farmer to produce the results he
does, were he not ably seconded by the general intelligence and admirable
eflSciency of his laborers.
18. THE WEATHER IN WINTER.
" See, Winter comes to rule the variedyear,
Sullen and sad, with all his rising train ;
Vapors, and clouds, and storms. Be these my theme."
Thomson.
(253.) As the weather, at all seasons, has undeniably a sensible power
to expedite or retard the field operations of the farm, it becomes an in-
cumbent duty on you, as pupils of Agriculture, to ascertain the principles
which regulate its phenomena, in order to anticipate their changes and
avoid their injurious effects. It is, no doubt, difficult to acquire an accu-
rate knowledge of the laws which govern the subtile elements of Nature ;
(307)
164 THE BOOK OF THE FARM ^WINTER.
but experience has proved that accurate ohseri^ation of atmospherical 'phe-
nomena is the chief means which we possess of becoming acquainted with
those laws.
(254.) In savins^ tliat the weather has power to alter the operations of
the farm, I do not mean to assort that it can entirely change any gieat plan
of operaticms that may have been determined on, for that may be prose-
cuted even in spite of the weather ; but there is no doubt that the weather
can oblige the farmer to pursue a different and much less efficient treat-
ment toward the land than he desires, and that the amount and quality of
its produce may be very seriously affected by the change of treatment. —
For example, tlie heavy and continued rain in autumn 1839 made the land
'so very wet that not only the summer-fallow, but the potato-land, could
not be seed-fuiTowed ; and the inevitable consequence was that sowing of
the wheat was postponed until the spring of 1840, and in many cases the
farmers were obliged to sow barley instead of wheat. The itnmediate ef-
fect of this remarkable interference of the weather was restriction of the
breadth of land appropriated to autumnal wheat, and the consequent ex-
tension of that intended for barley and spring wheat — a change that caused
so much work in spring that it had the eflfect of prolonging the harvest of
1840 beyond the wished-fof period, and of otherwise deranging the calcu-
lations of fanners.
(255.) Now, when such a change is, and may in any season be, imposed
upon the farmer, it becomes a matter of prudence as well as of desire to
become so acquainted with usual atmospherical phenomena as to antici-
pate the nature of the weather that is to come. If he could anticipate
particular changes of weather by obsei-v-ing peculiar phenomena, he could
arrange his operations accordingly. But is such anticipation in regard to
the weather attainable % No doubt of it; for, although it is not as yet to
be expected that minute changes of the atmosphere can be anticipated,
yet the hhd of weather which is to follow — whether rainy or frosty, snowy
or fresh — may be predicted. We all know the prescience actually attained
by people whose occupations oblige them to be much in the open air and
to observe the weather. In this way shepherds and sailors, in their respect-
ive circumstances, have acquired such a knowledge of atmospherical phe-
nomena as to be able to predict the advent of important changes of the at-
mosphere ; and to show that the sort of knowledge acquired is in accord-
ance with the circumstances obsei-ved, it is obvious that, even among these
two classes of observers, great difference of acquirements exists on account
of diversity of talent for observation. For example : A fi'iend of mine, a
commander of one of the ships of the East India Company, became so
noted, by observation alone, for anticipating the probable results of atmo-
spherical phenomena in the Indian seas, that his vessel has frequently been
Been to ride out the storm, under bare poles, while most of the ships in the
same convoy were more or less damaged. As an instance of similar saga-
city in a shepherd, I remember in the wet season of 1817, when rain was
predicted as inevitable by every one engaged in the afternoon of a very
busy day of leading in the corn, the shepherd inteipreted the symptoms as
indicative of wind and not of rain, and the event comjiletely justified his
prediction.
(256.) I conceive that gi-eater accuracy of knowledge in regard to the
changes of the weather may be attained on land than at sea, because the
effect of weather on the sea itself enters as an uncertain element into the
question. It is generally believed, however, that seamen are more pro-
ficient than landsmen in foretelliTig the weather; and, no doubt, when the
imminent danger, in which the lives of seamen are jeopardized, is consid-
(308)
THE WEATHER IN WINTER. 165
ered, the circumstance may reasonably be supposed to render them pe-
culiarly alive to certain atmospheiical changes. To men, however, under
constant command, as seamen are, it is questionable whether the ordinary
changes of the atmosphere are matters of much interest. In everything
that affects the safety of the ship, and the weather among the rest, every
confidence is placed by the crew in the commanding officer, and it is he
alone that has to exercise his weather wisdom. On the other hand, every
shepherd has to exercise his own skill in regard to the weather, to save
himself, perhaps, much unnecessary personal trouble, especially on a hill-
farm. Even the young apprentice-shepherd soon learns to look out for
himself. The great difference in regard to a knowledge of the weather
betwixt the sea-captain and the farmer, though both are the sport of the '
same elements, consists in this, that the captain has to look out for him-
self, whereas the farmer has his shepherd to look out for him : the sea-
faring commander himself knowing the weather, directs his men accord-
ingly ; while the farmer does not know it nearly so well as his shepherd,
and probably even not so well as his plowmen. See the effects of this
difference of acquirement in the circumstances of both. The captain
causes the approaching change to be met by prompt and proper appliances;
whereas the farmer is too frequently overtaken in his operations fiom a
want of the knowledge probably possessed by his shepherd or plowmen.
You thus see the necessity of farmers acquiring a hnowhSgc of the iceather
(257.) It being admitted that prescience of the state of the weather is
essential to the farmer, the question is, how the pupil of Agi-iculture is to
acquire it ] No doubt it can best be attained by observation in the field ;
but as that method implies the institution of a scries of observations ex-
tending over a long period of years, a great part of the lifetime of the
pupil might pass away ere he could acquire a sufficient stock of knowledge
by his own experience. This being the case, it is but right and fair that
he should know what the experience of others is. This I shall endeavor
to communicate, premising that he must obseiTO for himself, after being
made acquainted with the manner of conducting his own observations.
(258.) The simplest way for me to communicate what has been estab-
lished in regard to the observation of atmospherical phenomena, is, in the
first place, to describe to you the various instruments which have, from
time to time, been contrived to indicate those phenomena ; and to put these
instruments into a right use, you should become well acquainted with their
respective modes of action, which are all dependent on strictly scientific
principles. All the instruments required are the barometer, thermometer,
weathercock, hygrometer, and rain-gauge. The principles upon which
these instruments operate shall be separately explained ; the phenomena
of the clouds and winds, upon which the diversity of the states of the at-
mosphere appear so much to depend, shall be described ; and the efficacy
of the electric agency, which seems to affect so many of the phenomena
obsei-ved, shall be noticed. The general principles of atmospherical phe-
nomena being thus considered in this place, I shall have no more occasion
to recur to them, but will only have to notice the characteristic phenomena
of each season as they occur.
(259.) Atmospherical phenomena being the great signs by which to
judge of the iceather, instruments are used to detect their changes which
cannot be detected by the senses. These instruments possess great inge-
nuity of construction, and they all indicate pretty accurately the effects
they are intended to recognize. But though they tell us nothing but the
truth, such is the minute diversity of atmospherical phenomena that they
do not tell us all the truth. Other means for discovering that must bo
(309)
166 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
used ; and the most available within our reach is the converting of the phe-
nomena themselves into indicators of atmospherical changes. In this way
we may use the transient states of the atmosphere, in regard to clearness
and obscurity, danipnt^ss or dryness, as they aflect our senses of sight and
feeling, the shapes and evolutions of the clouds, and the peculiar state of
the wind, into means by which to predicate the changes of the weather.
But this kind of knowledge can only be acquired by long obseiTation of
natural phenomena.
(260.) The most important instrument, perhaps — the most popular, cer-
tainly— for indicating the changes of the atmosphere, is the harometer. an
instrument so universally known and used by farmers, that a particular de-
scription of it is here unnecessary. This instrument is formed to be placed
either in a fixed position or to be portable. As it is only used in the
poitable shape to measure the altitude of mountains, the method of using
it need not be here described. For a fixed position, the barometer is made
either of the figure of an upright column or of a wheel. Whether it is
because that the divisions on the large circular disk, pointed out by the
long index of the wheel-barometer, are more easily observed than the va-
rieties of the column of mercury in the peipcndicular one, is the reason
which renders the wheel-barometer more popular among farmers, I know
not ; but were they to consider that its indications cannot be so delicate
as those of the upright form, because of the machinery which the oscilla-
tions of the mercury have to put in motion before the long index can in-
dicate any change, the upright form would always be prefeiTed. It is
true that the tube of the upright barometer is genei-ally made too small,
and is perhaps so made to save mercury and make the insti-ument cheaper;
but a small tube has the disadvantage of increasing the friction of the
mercury in its passage up and down the tube. On this account the mer-
cury is apt to be kept above its proper level when falling, and to be de-
pressed below its proper bight when rising. To obviate this inconvenience,
a tap of the hand against the case of the instrument is required to bring
the mercury to its proper position. The tendency of the mercury to rise
may be obsci^ed by the convex or raised form of the top of the column ;
and the hollow or concave form indicates its tendency to fall.
(261.) In obsei'ving the state of the barometer, too much regard should
not be had to the numerals and words usually written on the giaduated
scale, ])laccd along the range of the top of the column of mercury ; be-
cause it is the rising or falling of the mercury alf)ne that is to be taken as
indicative of a change of weather, whatever may be its actual bight in the
tube. The greatest hight attained by the column is entirely determined
by the hight of elevation of the place of obsei-vation above the level of
the sea. The higher the place is above the sea, the mean hight of the
column will be the lower. For example, on comparing two barometers
at the .same time, at two place? of different bights in the same part of the
country, and subject to the same climate, one may stand as high as 30
inches, and the other only at 291 inches. According to the usual mark-
ings of barometers, the mercury at the first place would stand at " Fair,"
whereas, at the other place, it would be at " Changeable." This differ-
ence of the mercury is in itself important, but it does not arise from any
difference in the state of the air, as indicative of a change of weather, but
merely from the difference of elevation of the two places above the level
of the sea. The mercury is as near its greatest bight at 29^ inches at the
higher place, as it is at .30 inches at the lower place, in reference to their
respective positions above the sea ; and this being the case, and other cir-
cumstances equal, it will be the same weather at both places. This differ-
(310)
THE WEATHER IN WINTER.
167
ence of the hight of the mercury is explained in this way. The barome-
ter being the instniment which indicates the weight or pressure of the
atmosphere, as its name imphes, it is found on trial that the mercury
stands highest at the level of the sea, and that it descends as elevation
above the sea increases. The depression has been found by experiment
to be jg of an inch for about every 88 feet of elevation, or more correctly
as given in this table.*
Table showing the Nujiber of Feet of Altitude corresponding to Depressions
OF the Barometer.
Depression.
Altitude in
feet.
Depression.
Altiiude in
feet.
•1
-2
-3
•4
■5
87
175
262
350
439
-6
■7
■8
■9
1 inch.
527
616
705
795
885
(262.) It becomes, then, a matter of some importance for you, in order
to place explicit reliance on the changes indicated by your barometer, to
ascertain the hight of your farm above the level of the sea. If you know
that by other means, namely, by trigonometry, then the allowance in the
table will give you its true elevation ; but should you not be acquainted
with its elevation, which is usually the case with farmers, the mean hight
of the barometer can be ascertained by a series of simple observations,
made at a given time, over a year or more. For example, " the sum of
one year's observations, made at 10 A. M. and 10 P. M. in 1827, was
21615-410 inches, and this number divided by the number of observations,
730, or twice the number of days in that year, gave 29-610 inches as the
mean hight or changeable point of the barometer."! Now, taking the
mean hight of the barometer at 29-948 inches at the mean level of the sea,
where the atmosphere always indicates the greatest density, deduces from
nine years' observations at the mean temperature of the air, with a i-ange
from 28 inches to 31 inches, it is seen that the instance adduced above of
29-610 inches gives -338 of an inch less than the mean, which, by the ta-
ble, indicates an elevation of the place of observation of about 265 feet
above the mean level of the sea. It is from the mercury being above or
below this point of 29-610 inches in the supposed place of your farm, that
you are to conclude what weather may be expected at that place, from
the changes of the barometer. From the want of this knowledge, farm-
ers are generally led into the mistake of supposing that the words " Fair,"
" Change," " Rain," engraved on the scale of the barometer, indicate such
weather in all places, when the mercury stands at them. The best way to
coiTect this mistake is to have the words engraved at the bights truly ap-
plicable to the particular place of observation. Notwithstanding this
source of common error, the barometer is a generally useful instrument,
inasmuch as its indications foretell the same results at all seasons, with per-
haps only this exception, those of the effects of heat in summer, which
cannot of course be noticed in winter.
(263.) The general indications of the barometer are few, and may easily
be remembered. A high and stationary mercury indicates steady, good
weather. A slow and regular fall indicates rain; and, if during an E.
wind, the rain will be abundant. A sudden fall indicates a gale of wind,
and most probably from the W. Good, steady weather must not be ex-
pected in sudden depressions and elevations of the mercury. A fine day
* Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. iii. p. 5.
(311)
t Ibid, p. 3.
168 THE BOOK OF T1!E FARM WINTER.
may intervene, but the jjeneral state of the weather may be expected tc
be unsteady. An E. or N. E. wind keeps up the mercury against all other
indications of a change. A W. or iS. W. wind causes a fall when the wind
changes from E. or N. E. ; but, should no fall take place, the maintenance
of the hight, in the circumstances, is equivalent to a rise, and the reverse
of this is equivalent to a fall. The quantity affected by these paiticulai-
causes may be estimated at ^ of an inch.* The barometer, at .'^ea, is a
good indicator of wind, but not of rain. When the barometer is used
within dooi-s, the best situation for it is in any room where the tempera-
ture is equal, and not exposed to sunshine. The cost of a perpendicular
barometer of good workmanship is from c£*l lis. 6d. to £2 12s. 6d. accord-
ing to taste and finish ; that of a wheel-barometer from ,£2 2s. to c£5 Ss.
The barometer was invented by Toiricelli, a pupil of Galileo, in 1643.
(264.) Among the variable causes which affect the barometer is the di-
rection of the wind. The maximum of pressure is when the wind is X. E.
decreasins: in both directions of the azimuth till it reaches the minimum
between S. and S. W. This difference amounts to above yq of an inch at
London. The variation occasioned by the wind may be owing to the cold
which always accompanies the E. winds in spring, connected as they prob-
ably are with the melting of the snow in Norway ; but it is not unlikely to
be owins:, as Mr. Meikle suggests, to its opposition to the direction of the
rotation of the earth, causing atmospherical accumulation and pressure, by
diminishing the centrifugal force of the aerial paiticles.t
(265.) The accidental variations of barometric pressure are greatly in-
fluenced by latitude. At the equator it may be said to be nothing, hurri-
canes alone causing any exception. The variability increases toward the
poles, owinor probably to the irregularity of the winds beyond the tiopics.
The mean variation at the equator is 2 lines,t in France 10 lines, and in
Scotland 15 lines, throughout the year — the quantity having its monthly
oscillations. These do not appear to follow the parallels of latitude, but,
like the isothermal lines, undergo inflections, which are said to have a
striking similarity to the isoclinal magnetic lines of Hanstcen. If so, it is
probably by the medium of temperature that these two are connected. —
More lately, M. Kamtz has pointed out the connection of the winds with
such changes, and he has illusti-ated the influence of the prevalent aerial
currents which traverse Europe, though not with apparent regularity, yet,
at least, in subjection to some general laws.||
(266.) The st/mpicsomefer was invented by Mr. Adie, optician in Edin-
burgh, as a substitute for the common barometer. Its indications are the
same, with the advantage of having a longer scale. For the measurement
of hights this instrument is very convenient, from its small size admitting
of its being cjirried in the coat-pocket, and not being subject to the same
chances of accident as the portable barometer. The hight is given in fath-
oms on the instrument, requiring only one correction, which is performed
by a small table engraved on its case. It is stated to be delicately sensi-
ble of changes at sea, particularly of gales. Not being an instmment
which has been brought into general use, though Professor Forbes is con-
vinced it might be, I need not allude to it farther here.§
(267.) The next instrument which claims our attention is the thermome-
ter. As its name implies, it is a measurer of heat. It is undoubtedly the
most perfect of our meteorological instruments, and has been the means
• Qudrteriy Journal of Acriculture. voL iii. p. 2. t Edinbureh New Philosophical Jonrnal, vol. iv. p. 106.
t A line = twelfth part of an inch. || Korbes'g Report on Meteoroloey, voL L
5 See Edinburgh Journal of Science, vol. x. p. 334, for a descnption of this ingenious instrument ; and
New Series, voU it. pp 91 and 329.
(312)
THE WEATHER IN WINTER. 169
of establishing the most important facts to science ; but, being a mere
measurer of temperature, it is incapable of indicating changes of the atmo-
sphere so clearly as the barometer, and is therefore a less useful instru-
ment to the farmer. Regarding the ordinary temperature of the atmo-
sphere, the feelings can judge sufficiently well ; and, as the condition of
most of the productions of the farm indicates pretty well whether the cli-
mate of a particular locality can bring any species of crop to perfection,
the farmer seems independent of the use of the thermometer. Still, it is
of importance for him to know the lowest degi'ee of temperature in winter,
as certain kinds of farm produce are injured by the effects of extreme cold,
of which the feelings are incapable, from want of habit, of estimating their
power of mischief For this purpose, a thermometer self-registering the
lowest degree of cold will be found a useful instrument on a farm. As
gieat heat does no harm, a self-registering thermometer of the greatest lieat
seems not so useful an instrument as the other two.
(268.) " The thermometer, by which the temperature of our atmosphere
was determined," says Mr. John Adie, of Edinburgh, " was invented by
Sanctario, in 1590. The instrument, in its first construction, was very im-
perfect, having no fixed scale, and air being the medium of expansion. It
was soon shown, from the discovery of the barometer, that this instrument
was acted upon by pressure as well as temperature. To separate these
effects, alcohol was employed as the best fluid, from its gi-eat expansion by
heat, but was afterward found to expand unequally. Reaumur first pro-
posed the use of mercury as the expansive medium for the thermometer.
This liquid metal has great advantages over every other medium ; it has
the power of indicating a great range of temperature, and expands very
equally. After its introduction, the melting point of ice was taken as a
fixed point, and the divisions of the scale were made to correspond to
l.o_.th parts of the capacity of the bulb. It was left for the ingenious
Fahrenheit to fix another standard point, that of boiling water under the
mean pi-essure of the atmosphere, which is given on his scale at 212^ ; the
melting point of ice at 32^. This scale of division has almost universally
been adopted in Britain, but not at all generally on the Continent. The
zero of this scale, though an arbitrary point adopted by Fahrenheit, from
the erroneous idea that the greatest possible cold was produced by a mix-
ture of common salt and snow, has particular advantages for a climate like
ours ; besides being generally known, the zero is so placed that any cold
which occurs very rarely causes the mercury to fall below that point, so
that no mistake can take place with regard to noting minus quantities. —
The only other divisions of the thermometer between the two fixed points
in general use are those of Reaumur and the centesimal : the former di-
vides the space into 80 equal parts ; the division of the latter, as indicated
by its name, is into 100 parts. In both these scales the zero is placed at
the melting point of ice, or 32° Fahrenheit."* The self-registering ther-
mometers were the invention of the late Dr. John Rutherfurd, and his are
yet the best. The tube of the one for ascertaining the greatest degree of
heat is inclined neai'ly in a horizontal position and filled \Wth mercury, up-
on the top of the column of which stands an index, which, on being pushed
upward, does not return until made to descend to the top of the mercury
by elevating the upper end of the thermometer. This index was first made
of metal, which became oxydized in the tube, and uncertain in its motions.
Mr. Adie, optician in Edinburgh, improved the instrument, by introducing
a fluid above the mercury, in which is floated a glass index, which is free
* Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. iii. o. 5
(313)
170 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
from any action, and is retained in its place by the fluid. " The other
thermometer, for retpsteriiiij the hjwest degree," says Mr. John Adie, "is
filled with alcohol, having an index of black glass immei-sed in the liquid.
This index is always carried down to the lowest point to which the tem-
perature falls ; the spirit passes freely upward without changing the place
of the index, so that it remains at the lowest point. This instioiment, like
the other, turns upon a center, to depress the upper end, and allow the in-
dex, by its own weight, to come into contact with the surface of the spiiit,
after the greatest cold has been obsei-\-ed, which is indicated by the upper
end of the index, or that farthest from the bulb. In both cases the instru-
ments are to be left nearly horizontal, the bulb end being lowest. This
angle is most easily fixed by placing the bulb about f of an inch under the
horizontal line."*
(2G9.) Thermometers of all kinds, when fixed up for observation, should
be placed out of the reach of the direct rays of the sun or oi any reflected
heat. If at a window or against a wall, the the.- nometer should have a
northern aspect, and be kept at a little distance from either ; for it is sur-
prising through what a space a sensible portion of heat is conveyed from
soil and walls, or even from gi-ass illuminated by the sun. The maxima
of temperature, as indicated by thermometers, are thus generally too gi'eat ;
and from the near contact in which thermometers are generally placed
with larjje ill-conducting masses, such as walls, the temperature of the night
is kept up, and the minima of temperature are thus also too high. The
price of a common thermometer is from 5s. 6d. to 14s. and of Rutherfurd's
minimum self-registering thermometer 10s. 6d.
(270.) Many highly interesting results have been obtained by the use of
the thermometer, and among the most interesting ai'e those regarding the
mean temperature of diflerent localities. In prosecuting this subject, it
was found that a diurnal oscillation took place in the temperature as well
as the pressure of the atmosphere, and that this again vaiies with the sea-
sons. Nothing but frequent observations during the day could ascertain
the mean temperature of different places ; and, in so prosecuting the sub'
ject, it was discovered that there were hours of the day, the mean temper-
ature of which, for the whole year, was equal to the-mean of the whole 24
hours, which, when established, would render all future observations less
difficult. The results exhibit an extraordinary coincidence.
Thus the mean of 1804 gave 13' past 9 A. M. and 26 past 8 P. M.
1825 .. 13' .. 9 .. .. 28 .. 8 ..
Giving the aiean of the 2 years 13' ..9 .. .. 27' .. 8 ..
These results were obtained from a series of observations made at Leith
Fort in the years 1S24 and 1825 by the Royal Society of Edinburgh.!
Some of the other consequences deducible from these observations are,
"that the mean hour of the day of minimum temperature for the year is 5
A. M., and that of maximum temperature 40' past 2 P. M. ; that the devia-
tion of any pair of hours of the same name from the mean of the day is
less than half a degree of Fahrenheit, and of all pairs of hours, 4 A. M.
and P. M. are the most accurate ; that the mean annual temperature of
any hour never differs more than 3^.2 from the mean of the day for the
whole year ; that the mean daily range is a minimum at the winter sol-
stice, and a maximum in April ; and that the mean daily range in this
climate is 6*^.065. "J The mean temperature at Leith Fort for the mean
of the two years, at an elevation of 25 feet above the mean level of the
• QuRrterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. JiL p. 7. t Edinburgh Philosophical Transactions, voL x.
t Forbef's Report on Meteorology, voLi.
(314)
THE WEATHER IN WINTER. 171
sea was found to be 48°. 36. The mean, taken near Edinburgh, at an alti-
tude of 390 feet above the mean level of the sea, at 10 A. M. and P. M.
with a common thermometer, and with the maximum and minimum re-
sults of self-registering thermometers, gave these results when reduced to
the mean level of the sea : With the self-i-egistering thermometers 48°. 413
and with two observations a day with the common thermometer 48°.352,
which correspond remarkably with the observations at Leith Fort. These
observations were taken at 10 A. M. and 10 P. M., which were found to
be the particular hours which gave a near approximation to the mean
temperature of the day ; but had they been made at the more coiTect pe-
riods of 13' past 9 A. M. and 21' past 8 P. M., it is probable that the re-
sults with those at Leith Fort would have corresponded exactly.* The
mean temperature of any place may be ascertained pretty nearly by ob-
serving the mean temperature of deep-seated springs, or that of deep
wells. Thus the Crawley Springs, in the Pentland Hills, which supply
Edinburgh with abundance of water, situated at an elevation of 564 feet
above the level of the sea, give a mean temperature of 46°.3, accordino-
to observations made in 1811 by Mr. Jardine, civil engineer, Edinburgh;
and the Black Spring, which is 882 feet above the level of the sea, gave
a mean temperature of 44^.9, by observations made in the course of
1810-11—15-18-19. A well in the Cowgate of Edinburgh gave a mean
temperature of 49°.3, by observations made every month in the year 1794,
of which th^ temperature of the month of June approached nearest to
the mean temperature of the yeai", being 49°.5.t
(271.) The measurement of the humidity of the atmosphei'e is a jub-
ject of gi-eater importance in a scientific than in a practical poliit ; for
however excellent the instrument may be for determining the degree of
humidity, the atmosphere has assumed the humid state betore any indica-
tion of the change is noticed on the instrument, and in this lespect it is
involved in the same predicament as the thermometer, which only tells
the existing heat, and both are less useful on a farm than the barometer,
which indicates an approaching change. No instrument has yet been con-
trived by which the quantity of moisture in the air can be ascertained
from inspection of a fixed scale, without the use of tables to rectify
the observation. The insti'ument used for ascertaining the moisture of
the air is appropriately termed a hygrometer. Professor Leslie was the
first to construct a useful instrument of this kind. His is of the form of a
diffei'ential thermometer, having a little sulphuric acid in it ; and the cold
is produced by evaporation of water from one of the bulbs covered with
black silk, which is kept wetted, and the degree of evaporation of the
moisture from the bulb indicates the dryness of the air.
(272.) Another method of ascertaining the moisture of the atmosphere,
is by the dew-point hygrometer of Professor Daniells ; but this instru-
ment is considered rather difficult of management, except in expert hands.
(273.) The best hygrometer is that of Dr. Mason, which consists of two
thermometers, fastened upright to a stand having a fountain of water in a
glass tube placed betwixt them, and out of which the v/ater is taken up
to one of the bulbs by means of black floss silk. When the air is very
dry, the difference between the two thermometers wall be great ; if moist,
less in proportion ; and when fully saturated, both will be alike. The silk
that covers the wet bulb, and thread which conveys the water to it, re-
quire renewal about every month, and the fountain is filled when requi-
site with distilled water, or water that has been boiled and allowed to cool,
* Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, toI. iii. p. 9. t Ibid. p. 10-11.
{315J
172 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
by immersing it in a basin of the water till the aperture only is just upon the
surface, and the water will flow into it. For ordinary purposes of ob-
servation, it is only necessary to j)lace the instrument in a retired part of
the room away from the fire, and not exposed to weather, open dehors, or
passages ; but for nice experiments the observations should always be
made in the open air and in the shade, taking especial care that the in-
strument be not influenced by the radiation of any heated bodies, or any
currents of air. When the hygrometer is placed out of doors in frosty
weather, the fountain had better be removed, as the freezing of the watei
within may cause it to break ; in this case a thin coating of ice may soon
l>e formed on the wet bulb, which will last a considerable time wet, and
be rewctted when required.
(274.) Very simple hygi'ometers may be made of various substances, to
8how whether the air is more or less humid at any given time. One sub-
stance is the awn of the Tartarian and wild oats, which, when fixed in a
perpendicular position to a card, indicates, by its spiked beard, the degree
of humidity. A light hog's bristle split in the middle, and riding by the
split upon the stem of the a^vn, forms a better index than the spike of the
awn itself To adjust this instrument, you have only to wet the awn and
observe how far it canies round the index, and mark that as the lowest
point of humidity, and then subject the awn to the heat of the fire for the
highest point of dryness, which, when marked, will give betwixt the two
points an arc of a circle, which may be divided into its degrees. I have
used such an instrument for some time. When two or more are com
pare ' together, the mean of humidity may be obtained. The awns can
be rene,\ed at pleasure. With regard to confiding in the truth of this
simple hygrometer, the precaution of Dr. Wells is worth attention. " Hy-
grometers formed of animal and vegetable substances," he says, " when
exposed to a clear sky at night, will become colder than the atmosphere,
and hence by attracting dew, or, according to an observation of Saussure,
by merely cooling the air contiguous to them, mark a degi-ee of moisture
beyond what the atmosphere actually contains. This serves to explain
an observation made by M. de Luc, that in serene and calm weather, the
humidity of the air, as determined by a hygrometer, increases about and
after sunset with a greater rapidity than can be attributed to a diminution
of the general heat of the atmosphere."* The principle of this sort of
hygrometer may serve to explain a remarkable natural phenomenon.
" Hygrometers were made of quills by Chimincllo, which renders it prob-
able that birds are enabled to judge of approaching rain or fair weather.
For it is easy to conceive that an animal having a thousand hygrometers
intimately connected with its body, must be liable to be powerfully affect-
ed, with regard to the tone of its organs, by very slight changes in the
dryness or humidity of the air, particularly when it is considered that many
of the feathers contain a large quantity of blood, which must be alter-
nately propelled into the system, or withdrawn from it, according to their
contraction or dilatation by dryness or moisture."! Does Virgil allude to
a hygrometric feeling in birds when he says —
"Wet \veatlicr Bcldom hurts the most unwise,
So plain t!ie signs, such prophets are the skies :
The wary crane foresees it first, and sails
Above the storm, and leaves the lowly vale8."t
(275.) The Weat?ier-cock is a very useful instrument to the farmer. It
should be erected on a conspicuous part of the steading, which may readily
* Wells on Dew, p. 64. t Edinburgh EncyclopiBdia, art. Hygrometry. % Dryden's Virgil, i. Georgics, 514
(316)
THE WEATHER IN WINTER. 173
be observed from one of the windows of the farm-house. Its position on
the steading may be seen in fig. 1, Plate I., and fig. 3, Plate III. Its car
dinal points should be marked with the letters N. E. S. W., to show at a
glance the true points of the compass. The vane should be fitted up with
a ball or box containing oil, which may be renewed when required. There
is not a neater or more appropriate foraa for a vane than an arrow, whose
dart is always ready to pierce the wind, and Avhose butt serves as a gov-
ernor to direct it to the wind's eye. The whole should be gilt, to prevent
the iiisting of the iron. Mr. Forster had such a vane erected at his place
of residence, which had a small bell suspended from its point which struck
upon the anns pointing to the direction of the compass, and announced
every change of wind.* Such a contrivance may be considered a con-
ceit, but it has the advantage of letting you know Avhen the wind shifts
much about, as when it does there is as little chance of settled weather as
in the frequent changes of the barometer. A better contiivance of the
bell would be to have a hammer suspended from the dart by a supple
spring, and a bell of different tone attached to each of the arms which in-
dicate the point of the compass, and the different toned bells, when stmck,
would announce the direction in which the wind most prevailed. Besides
bells, there is a contrivance for indicating the directions of the wind by an
index on a vertical disk, like the dial-plate of a clock, an instance of which
may be seen in the western tower of the Register-House in Edinburgh.
This would be a very convenient way of fitting up a weather-cock.
(276.) With regard to the origin of the name of iveather-cock, Beckmann
says that vanes were originally cut out in the form of a cock, and placed
on the tops of church spires, during the holy ages, as an emblem of clerical
vigilance.! The Germans use the same term as we do, wctterhahn ; and
the French have a somewhat analogous term in coq de cloclier. As the
vane turns round with every wind, so, in a moral sense, every man who is
" unstable in his ways," is tei'med a weather-cock.
(277.) In reference to the wind is another instrument called the ane-
mometer, or measurer of the wind's intensity. Such an instrument is of
little value to the farmer, who is more interested in the direction than the
intensity of the wind, as it is that property of it which has most effect in
promoting changes of the weather. It must be admitted, however, that
the intensity of the wind has a material eflect in modifying the climate of
any locality, such as that of a farm elevated in the gorge of a mountain
pass. Still, even there its direction has more to do in fixing the character
of the climate than the intensity ; besides, the anemometer indicates no
approach of wind, but only measures its force when it blows, and this can
be sufficiently well appreciated by the senses. The mean force of the wind
for the whole year at 9 A. M. is 0.855, at 3 P. M. 1.107, and at 9 P. M.
0.605.
(278.) The best instrument of this class is Lind's anemometer, which,
although considered an imperfect one, is not so imperfect, according to the
opinion of Mr. Snow Harris, of Plymouth, who has paid more attention to
the movements of the wind than any one else in this country, as is gener-
ally supposed. Lind's anemometer " consists of two glass tubes about 9
inches long, having a bore of -^-^ of an inch. These are connected, at their
lower extremities, by another small tube of glass, with a bore of jL of an
inch. To the upper exti-emity of one of the tubes is fitted a thin metallic
one, bent at right angles, so that its mouth may receive horizontally the
current of air. A quantity of water is poured in at the mouth, till the
* Forster's researches into Atmospherical Phenomena. f Beckmann's History of Inventions, vol. i.
(317)
174 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
tubes are nearly half full, and a scale of inches and parts of an inch is
placed betwixt the tubes. When the wind blows in at the mouth, the col-
umn of water is depressed in one of the tubes, and elevated in the same
degree in the other tube; so that the distance between the surface of the
fluid in each tube is the length of a column of water, whose weight is
equivalent to the force of the wind upon a surface equal to the base of the
column of fluid. The little tube which connects the other two is made
with a small aperture, to prevent the oscillation of the fluid by iriegular
blasts of wind. The undulations ])roduced by sudden gusts of wind would
be still more completely prevented by making the small tube, which con-
nects the other two large ones, of such a length as to be double between
the other two, and be equal to the length of either. The same effect might
also be produced by making a thin piece of wood float upon the surface of
the fluid in each tube."*
(279.) Another meteorological instrument is the rain-gavge. This in-
strument is of no use to the farmer as an indicator of rain, and, like some
of the rest which have been desciibed, only professes to tell the quantity
of rain that actually has fallen in a given space, yet even for this purpose
it is an imperfect instrument.! " The simplest fonn of this instrument,"
says Mr. John Adie, " is a funnel, with a cylindrical mouth, 3 or 4 inches
high, and having an area of 100 square inches, made of tinned iron or thin
copper. It may be placed in the mouth of a large bottle for receiving the
water, and, after each fall, the quantity is measured by a glass jar, divided
into inches and parts. A more elegant an-angement of the insti-ument is
formed by placing the funnel at the top of a brass cylindrical tube, having
at one side a glass tube, communicating with it at the under part, with a
divided scale placed alongside of it. The area of the mouth is to that of
the under tubes as 10 : 1 ; consequently 1 inch deep of rain falling into the
mouth will measure 10 inches in the tubes, and 1 inch upon the scale will
be equal to a fall of y^ of an inch, which quantities are marked upon the
scale, and the water is let oft' by a stop-cock below. The instrument should
be placed in an exposed situation, at a distance from all buildings and
trees, and as near the surface of the giound as possible. , , . In cases
of snow-storms, the rain-gauge may not give a coiTect quantity, as a pait
may be blown out, or a greater quantity have fallen than the mouth will
contain. In such cases, the method of knowing the quantity of water is to
take any cylindrical vessel, such as a case for containing maps, which will
answer the ])urpose very well ; by pressing it perpendicularly into the
snow, it will bring out with it a cylinder equal to the depth. This, when
melted, will give the quantity of water by measurement. The proportion
of snow to water is about 17 : 1, and hail to water 8 : 1. These quantities,
however, are not constant, butdepend upon the circumstances under which
the snow or hail has fallen, and the time they have been upon the ground. "if
The cost of a rain-gauge, according as it is fitted up, is ^£1 5s. £2 12s. 6d.
and <:£4 4s.
(280.) These are the principal instruments employed by meteorologists
to ascertain atmospherical changes, and seeing their powers and uses, as
now described, you can select those which appear to you most desirable to
Eossess. Of them all, only two are indicators of approaching changes, the
arometer and the weather-cock ; and these, of good construction, you will
of course have, whichever of the othei-s you may choose to possess.
(281.) Besides these two instruments, there are objects in nature which
indicate changes of the weather. Of these the Clouds are eminent premon-
* Edinburgh Encyclopieilin, nrt. Ancmomiter. t See Thomson's History of the Royal Society,
j Qunrteiiy Journal of Agriculture, vol. iii. p. 13.
(318)
THE WEATHER IN WINTER. 175
itoi's. Tt may at first sight be supposed that clouds, exhibiting so great a
variety of forms, cannot be subject to any positive law ; but such a suppo-
sition is erroneous, because no phenomenon in nature can possibly occur,
but as the effect of some physical law, although the mode of action of the
law may have hitherto eluded the acutest search of philosophical observa-
tion. It would be unphilosophical to believe otherwise. We may there-
fore depend upon it, that eveiy variety of cloud is an effect of a definite
cause. If we cannot predict what form of cloud will next ensue, it is be-
cause we are unacquainted vsdth the precise process by which they are
formed. But observation has enabled meteorologists to classify every va-
riety of form under only three primary figures, and all other forms are only
combinations of 'two or more of these three.*
(282.) 1. The first simple form is the Cirrus, a word which literally
means a curl, or lock of hair curled. 2. The second is the Cumulus, or
heap. 3. And the third is the Stratus, or bed or layer. Combinations of
these three give the four following forms, the names of which at once indi-
cate the simple forms of which they are composed. 1. One is Cirro-Cumu-
lus, or combination of the curl and heap. 2. Another is the Cirro-Strattfs,
or combination of the curl and stratus. 3. A third is the Ctimulo- Stratus,
or combination of the heap and the stratus. 4. And, lastly, there is the
combination of the Cumulo-Cirro-Stratus , or that combination of all the
three simple foi'ms, which has received the name of Nimbus or rain-cloud.
The English names usually given by writers to some of these forms of
clouds are very singular, and seemingly not very appropriate. The cui'l
is an appropriate enough name for the cirras, and so is the rain-cloud for
the nimbus ; but why the heap should be called the stacken-doud, the stra-
tus the Jail-cloud, the curled heap the sonder-cloud, the curled stratus the
2oane-cloud, and the heaped stratus the twain-cloud, is by no means obvi-
ous, unless this last form, being composed of two clouds, may truly be de-
nominated a twain-c\ovidi ; but, on the same pi'inciple, the ciiTo-cumulus,
and the cirro-stratus, and the cumulo-stratus, may be termed ticain-cXoMdis.
We must, however, take the nomenclature which the original and ingen
ious contriver of the classification of clouds, Mr. Luke Howard, of Lon
don, has given.
(283.) The first form of clouds which demands your attention is the Cir-
rus or curl-cloud. This is the least dense of all clouds. It is composed
of streaks of vapor of a whitish color, arranged with a fibrous structure,
and occun-ing at a great hight in the atmosphere. These fibrous streaks
assume modified shapes. Sometimes they are like long nanow rods, lying
quiescent, or floating gently along the upper region of the atmosphere. —
At other times one end of the rod is curled up, and spread out like a feath-
er ; and, in this shape, the cloud moves more quickly along than the other,
being evidently affected by the wind. Another form is that familiarly
known by the " gray inare's tail," or " goat's beard." This is more affect-
ed by the wind than even the former. Another form is in thin fibrous
sheets, expanded at times to a considerable breadth, like the gleams of the
aurora borealis. There are many other forms, such as that of net-work,
bunches of feathers, hair, or thread, which may respectively be designated
reticulated, plumose, comoid, and filiform cirri.
(284.) In regard to the relative bights at which these different forms of
cim appear, I would say that the fibrous rod assumes the highest position
[" For farther observations on the " Means of Prognosticating the Weather," see last number
of Jour, of Ag., page ] 37. For a vahiable work on this subject, as applicable to our own countrj-,
the reader is referred to Forry on the Climate of the United States. Ed. Farm. Lib.]
(319)
176 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
in the air ; the rod with the tumed-up end the next hio^hest ; tlie hunch of
feathers is approaching the earth ; the mare's tail is descending still far-
ther ; and the slieet-like form is not much above the denser clouds. Some-
times the fibrous rod may be seen stretching between two denser clouds,
and it is then supposed to be acting as a conductor of electricity between
them.
(285.) As to their relative periods of duration, the fibrous rod may be
seen high in the air for a whole day in fine weather ; or it vanishes in a
short time, or descends into a denser form. When its end is turned up, its
existence is hastening to a close. The plumose form soon melts away ;
the gi-ay-mare's tail bears only a few hours of pretty strong wind ; but the
bioad slieet may be blown about for some time.
(286.) The sky is generally of a gray-blue when the fibrous rod and
hooked rod are seen ; and it is of the deepest blue when the plumose
watery cirrus appears. It is an observation of Sir Isaac Newton, that the
deepest blue happens just at the changes from a dry to a moist atmosphere.
(287.) The ciiTus cloud fiequently changes into the complete ciiTO-cumu-
lus, but it sometimes forms a fringed or softened edge to the cirro-stratus ;
and it also stretches across the heavens into the density of a ciiTo-stratus.
Of all the seasons, the cirrus appears least frequently in winter.
(288.) The Cumulus may be likened in shape to a heap of natural
meadow hay. It never alters much from that shape, nor is it ever otherwise
than massive in its structure ; but it vai'ies in size and color according to
the temperature and light of the day, becoming larger and whiter as the
heat and light increase ; hence it generally appears at sunrise, assumes a
larger form by noon, often screening the sun from the earth, and then
melts away toward night. On this account it has received the designation
of the " cloud of day." Its density will not allow it to mount very high
in the air ; but it is, nevertheless, easily buoyed up for a whole day by
the vapor plane above the reach of the earth. When it so rests it is ter-
minated below by a straight line. It is a prevailing cloud in the daytime
at all seasons, and is exceedingly beautiful when it presents its silvery tops
tinted with sober colors against the bright blue sky. Cumuli sometimes
join together and as suddenly separate again, though in every case they
retain their peculiar form. They may often be seen floating in the air in
calm weather, not far above the horizon; and they may also be seen
driving along with the gale at a gi'eater hight, casting their fleeting
shadows on the ground. When in motion, their bases are not so straight
as when at rest. Cumuli, at times, disperse, mount into the air, and form
cirri, or they descend into strati along the horizon ; at others a single cu-
mulus may be seen at a distance in the horizon, and then increasing rap-
idly into the storm-cloud, or else overspreading a large portion of the sky
with a dense veil. Does the poet allude to the cumulus, as seen in a sum-
mer afternoon, in these breathing words ?
■' And now Uio mists from earth are clonds in heaven,
Clouds slowly castellating in a calm
Sublimor than a storm; which brighter breatbea
O'er tlio whole firmament the breadth of blue,
Because of that excessive purity
Of all those haugine: snow-white palaces,
A gentle contrast, but with power divine."*
(289.) The Stratus is that bed of vapor which is frequently seen in the
valleys in a summer evening, permitting the trees and church spires to
stand out in bold relief; or it is that horizontal bank of dark cloud seen to
■ Wilson.
(3i.>0)
THE WEATHER IN WINTER. I77
rest for a whole niglit along the horizon. It also forms the thin dry white
fogs whicli come over the land from the sea with an east wind in spring
and summer, wetting nothing that it touches. When this dry fog hangs
over towns in winter, which it often does for days, it appears of a yellow
hue, in consequence, probably, of a mixture with smoke. It constitutes
the November fog in London. The stratus is frequently elevated by
means of the vapor plane, and then it passes into the cumulus. On its ap-
pearing frequently in the evening, and its usual disappearance during the
day, it has been tei-med the " cloud of night." Having a livid gray color
when the moon shines upon it, the stratus is probably the origin of those
supposed spectral appearances seen at night by superstitious people in
days of yore. The light or dry stratus is most prevalent in spring and
summer, and the dense or wet kind in autumn and winter.
(290.) " Cirrus," remarks Mr. Mudie, " is the characteristic cloud of the
upper sky ; and no cloud of denser texture forms, or is capable of beino-
sustained there. Cumulus is, in like manner, the characteristic cloud of
the middle altitude ; and although it is sometimes higher and sometimes
lower, it never forais at what may be called the very top of the sky, or
down at the surface of the ground. Stratus is the appropriate cloud of
the lower sky, and it is never the first formed one at any considerable ele-
vation ; and, indeed, if it appears unconnected with the surface, it is not
simple stratus, but a mixed cloud of some kind or other."*
(291.) The forms of the clouds which follow are of mixed character,
the first of which that demands our attention is a compound of the cin-us
and cumulus, or cirro-cumulus, as it is called. The curus, in losing the
fibrous, assumes the more even-grained texture of the cumulus, which,
vyhen subdivided into small spherical fragments, constitute small cumuli of
little density, and of white color, arranged in the form of a cirrus or in
clusters. They are high in the air, and beautiful objects in the sky. In
Germany this form of cloud is called " the little sheep ; " which idea has
been embodied by a rustic bard of England in these beautiful lines :
" Far yet above these wafted clouds are seen
(In a remoter sky, still more serene,)
Others, detached in ranges through the air,
Spotless as snow, and countless as they 're fair;
Scattered immensely wide from east to west.
The beauteous 'semblance of a flock at rest."t
Cirro-cumuli are most frequently to be seen in summei*.
(292.) Another form of cloud, compounded of the cirrus and stratus, is
called cirro-stratus. While cirri descend and assume the form of cirro-
cumuli, they may still farther descend and take the shape of cirro-stratus,
whose fibres become dense and decidedly horizontal. Its characteristic
form is shallowness, longitude, and density. It consists at times of dense
longitudinal streaks, and the density is increased when a great breadth of
cloud is viewed horizontally along its edge. At other times it is like
shoals of small fish, when it is called a " hening sky;" at others, mottled
like a mackerel's back, when it is called the " mackerel-back sky." Some-
times it is like veins of wood, and at other times like the ripples of sand
left by a retiring tide on a sandy beach. The more mottled it is, the cir-
ro-stratus is higher in the air, and the more dense and stratified, the nearer
it is the earth. In the last position, it may be seen cutting off a mountain
top, or stretching behind it, or cutting across the tops of large cumuh.
Sometimes its striated lines, not very dense, run parallel over the zenith,
whose opposite ends apparently converge at opposite points of the hori-
* Mudie's World. f Bloomfield-
(321)... ....la
178 THE BOOK OF THE FARM. WINTER.
zon, and then they form that peculiar phenomenon named the '• boat," or
"Noah's ark." At times ciiTO-strati cut across the field of the setting sun,
where they appear in well-defined dense striae, whose upper or lower
edges, in reference to their position with the sun, are burnished with the
most brilliant hues of gold, crimson, or vermilion. Sometimes the cirro-
stratus extends across the heavens in a broad sheet, obscuring more or less
the light of the sun or moon, for days together, and in this case a halo or
corona is frequently seen to surround these orbs. In a more dense foiTn,
it assumes the shapes of some small long-bodied animals, and even like
architectural ornaments ; and in all its mutations it is more varied than
any other form of cloud. The streaked cirro-strati are of frequent occur-
rence in winter and autumn, whereas the more delicate kinds are most
seen in summer.
(293.) A third compound cloud is formed of the cumulus and stratus,
called cumulo-stratvs. This is always a dense cloud. It spreads out its
base to the sti-atus foiTn, and, in its upper part, frequently inosculates with
cini, cino-curauli, or ciiTO-strati. In this form it is to be seen in the plate
of the three cows. With all or either of these it forms a large massive
series of cumulative clouds which hang on the horizon, displaying great
mountain shapes, raising their brilliantly illuminated silver}- crests toward
the sun, and presenting numerous dusky valleys between them. Or it ap-
pears in formidable white masses of variously defined shapes, towering
upward from the hoi-izon, ready to meet any other foiTn of cloud, and to
conjoin ^^Tth them in making the dense dark-colored storm-cloud. In ei-
ther case, nothing can exceed the picturesque grandeur of their towering,
dazzling fonns, or the sublimity of their masses when surcharged with
lightnings, ^^•ind, and rain, and hastening with scowling front to meet the
gentle breeze, and hunying it along in its determined course, as if impa-
tient of restraint, and all the while casting a portentous gloom over the
earth, until bursting with terrific thunder, scorching with lightning some
devoted object more prominent than the rest, deluges the plain vdxXx
sweeping floods, and devastates the fields in the course of its ungoverna-
ble fur}-. A tempest soon exhausts its force in the temperate regions ;
but in the tropics it rages at times for weeks, and then woe to the poor
mariner who is overtaken by it at sea unprepared. Of the cumulo-stratus
the variety called " Bishops' ^^^gs," as represented near the horizon in the
plate of the draught-mare, may be seen at all seasons along the horizon,
but the other and more imposing form of mountain scenery is only to be
seen in perfection in summer, when storms are rife. It also assumes the
shapes of larger animals, and of the more gigantic foiTns of nature and
art. Is the cumulo-stratus the sort of cloud described by Shakspeare as
presenting these various forms ?
"Sometime, we see a cloud that 's dragonieh ;
A vapor, sometime, like a bear or lion,
A towerd citadel, a pendant rock,
A forked mountain or blue promontory
With trees upon't. that nod unto the world,
And mock our eyes with air :
That, which is now a horse, even with a ihongbt.
The rack dislimns, and makes it indistinct.
As water is in water."*
(294.) The last compound form of cloud which I have to mention is the
cirro-cumulo-stratus, called the nimbus or rain-cloud. A showery fonu of
the cloud may be seen in the plate of the draught-horse. For my part I
cannot see that the mere resolution of a cloud into rain is of sufficient im-
* Anthony and Cleopatra.
(322)
THE WEATHER IN WIiXTER. 179
portance to constitute the fonii into a separate and distinct cloud ; for rain
is not so much a fomi as a condition of a cloud, in the final state in which
it reaches the earth. Any of the three compound forms of clouds just de-
scribed may form a rain-cloud, Avithout the intervention of any other.
CiiTo-strati are often seen to drop down in rain, without giving any symp-
toms of foi'ming the more dense structure of the nimbus ; and even light
showers fall without any visible appearance of a cloud at all. The nim-
bus is most frequently seen in summer and autumn.
(295.) There is a kind of cloud, not unlike cumuli, called the scud, which
is described usually by itself as broken nimbus. It is of dark or light color,
according as the sun shines upon it, of vaiied foi-m, floating or scudding
before the wind, and generally in front of a sombre cumulo-sti-atus stretch-
ing as a backgi'ound across that portion of the sky, often accompanied with
a bright streak of sky along the horizon. The ominous scud is the usual
harbinger of the rain-cloud, and is therefore commonly called " messen-
gers," " earners," or " water-wagons."
(296.) On looking at the sky, forms of clouds may be observed which
cannot be referred to any of those, simple or compound, which have just
been described. On analyzing them, however, it will be found that every
cloud is referable to one or more of the forms described. This defective-
ness proves two things in regard to clouds. 1. That clouds, always pre-
senting forms which are recognizable, must be the result of fixed laws. —
2. That the sagacity of man has been able to classify those forms of clouds
in a simple manner. Without such a key to their forms, clouds doubtless
appear, to common observers, masses of inexplicable confusion. Clouds
thus being only effects, the causes of their formation and mutations must
be looked for in the atmosphere itself; accordingly, it has been found that,
when certain kinds appear, certain changes are taking place in the state
of the atmosphere ; and beyond this it is not necessary for a common ob-
server to know the origin of clouds. It is sufiicient for him to be aware
of what the approaching change of the atmosphere will be, as indicated by
the particular kind of cloud or clouds which he observes ; and in this way
clouds become guides for knowing the weather. In endeavoring thus to
become a judge of the weather, you must become an attentive observer of
the clouds. To become so w4th success in a reasonable time, you must
first make yourself well acquainted with the three simple forms, which,
although not singly visible at all times, may be recognized in some part of
those compound clouds which exhibit themselves almost every day.
(297.) That clouds float at different altitudes, and are more or less dense,
not merely on account of the quantity of vapor which they contain, but
partly on account of their distance from vision, may be proved in various
ways. 1. On ascending the sides of mountains, travelers frequently pass
zones of clouds. Mountains thus form a sort of scale by which to estimate
the altitude of clouds. Mr. Crossthwaite made these observations of the
altitude and number of clouds in the course of five years :
Altitude of Clouds Number of Clouds.
From 0 to tOO yards 10
100 to 200 42
200 to 300 62
300 to 400 179
400 to 500 374
500 to 600 486
600 to 700 416
Altitude of Clouds. Number of Clouds.
From 700 to 800 yards 367
800 to 900 410
900tol000 518
1000 to 1050 419
3283
Above 1050 ^...2098
Hence the number of clouds above 1050 yards were, to the number below,
as 2098 : 3283, or 10 : 16 nearly. The nomenclature of Howard riot hav-
ing been known at the time, the forms of the various clouds met with at
the different altitudes could not be designated. 2. Another proof of a dif-
(323)
180 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
ference of Jiltitudes in clouds consists in different clouds being seen to
move in different directions at the same time. One set may be seen mov-
ing in one direction near the earth, while another may be seen through
their openings unmoved. Clouds may be seen moving in different direc-
tions, at apparently great bights in the air, while those near the ground
may be quite still. Or the whole clouds seen may be moving in the same
direction with different velocities. It is natural to suppose that the hghter
clouds — those containing vapor in the most elastic state — should occupy a
higher position in the air than the less elastic. On this account, it is only
fleecy clouds that are seen over the tops of the highest Andes. Clouds, in
heavy weather, are seldom above ^ mile high, but in clear weather from
2 to 5 miles, and cirri from 5 to 7 miles.
(298.) Clouds are often of enormous size, 10 miles each way and 2 miles
thick, containing 200 cubic miles of vapor ; but sometimes are even ten
times that size. The size of small clouds may be easily estimated by ob-
serving their shadows on the ground in clear breezy weather in summer.
These are usually cumuli scudding before a westerly wind. The shadows
of larger clouds may be seen resting on the sides of mountain ranges, or
spread out on the ocean.
(299.) You must become acquainted with the agency of Electricity be-
fore you can understand the variations of the weather. The subject of at-
mospherical electricity excited great attention in the middle of the last
centurj' by the experiments and discoveries of Franklin. He proved that
the electric fluid,* drawn from the atmosphere, exhibits the same proper-
ties as that obtained from the electrical machine, and thus established their
identity. Since that period, little notice has been taken of its powerful
agency in connection with meteorology ; but brilliant are the discoveries
which have since been made in regard to its powers in the laboratories of
Davy, Faraday, and others. They have clearly identified electricity with
magnetism and galvanism, and, in establishing this identity, they have ex-
tended to an extraordinaiy degi-ee the field of observation for the meteor-
ologist, though the discovery has rendered meteorology much more diflS-
cult to be acquired with exactness. But tin; science should, on that ac-
count, be prosecuted with the greater energy and perseverance.
(300.) It must be obvious to the most indifferent observer of atmospher-
ical phenomena, that the electric agency is exceedingly active in the atmo-
sphere, how inert soever may be its state in other parts of the earth. Ex-
isting there in the freest state, it exhibits its power in the most sensible
manner ; and its fieedom and frequency suggest the interesting inquiry
whence is derived the supply of the vast amount of electricity which seems
to exist in the atmosphere \
(301.) Of all investigators of this interesting but difficult inquiry, M.
Pouillet has directed his attention to it with the gi'eatest success. He has
shown that there are two sources fiom which this abundant supply is ob-
tained. The first of these is vegetation. He has proved, by direct exper-
iment, that the combination of oxygen with the materials of living plants
is a constant source of electricity ; and the amount thus disengaged may
be learned from the fact that a surface of 100 square metres (or rather
more than 100 square yards), in full vegetation, disengages, in the course
of one day, as much vitrous electricity as would charge a powerful bat-
tery.
(302.) That some idea may be formed of the sort of action which takes
* " Electricity, though frequently called a fluid, has but little clawn to thnt designation ; in using it, there-
fore, let it be always understood in a conventional sense, not as expressing any theoretical view of the
physical state of electric matter." Dr. Golding Biju)
(324;
THE WEATHER IN WINTER. 181
place between the oxygen of the air and the materials of living plants, it
is necessary to attend, in the first place, to the change produced on the
air by the respiration of plants. Many conflicting opinions still prevail on
this subject ; but " there is no doubt, however, from the experiments of
vaiious philosophers," as Mr. Hugo Reid obsei-ves, " that at times the
leaves of plants produce the same eftect on the atmosphere as the lungs of
animals, namely, cause an increase in the quantity of carbonic acid, by
giving out carbon in union with the oxygen of the air, which is thus con-
verted into this gas ; and it has been also established that at certain times
the leaves of plants produce very opposite effects, namely, that they de-
compose the carbonic acid of the air, retain the carbon and give out the
oxygen, thus adding to the quantity of the oxygen in the air. It has not
yet been precisely ascertained which of these goes on to the greater ex-
tent ; but the general opinion at present is, that the gi'oss result o the
action of plants on the atmosphere is the depriving of it of carbonic acid, re-
taining the carbon and giving out the oxygen, thus increasing the quantity
of free oxygen in the air."*
(303.) It being thus admitted that both carbonic gas and oxygen are ex-
haled by plants during certain times of the day, it is important to ascer-
tain, in the next place, whether electricity of the one kind or the other ac-
companies the disengagement of either gas. Toward this inquiry M.
Pouillet instituted experiments with the gold-leaf electroscope, while the
seeds of various plants wei"e germinating in the soil, and he found it
sensibly affected by the negative state of the ground. This result might
have been anticipated during the evolution of carbonic gas, for it is known
by experiment that carbonic gas, obtained from the combustion of char-
coal, is, in its nascent state, electrified j^ositively, and, of course, when car-
bonic gas is evolved from the plant, the gi'ound should be in a state of
negative electricity. M. Pouillet presumed, therefore, that when plants
evolve oxygen, the ground should be in a positive state of electricity. He
was thus led to the important conclusion, that vegetation is an abundant
source of electricity.!
(304.) The second source of electricity is evaporation. The fact of a
chemical change in water by heat inducing the disengagement of electri-
city, may be proved by simple experiment. It is well known that meclian-
ical action will produce electricity sensibly from almost any substance. If
any one of the most extensive series of resinous and siliceous substances,
and of dry vegetable, animal and mineral produce, is rubbed, electricity
will be excited, and the extent of excitation will be shown by the effect
on the gold-leaf electroscope. Chemical action, in like manner, produces
similar effects. If sulphur is flised and poured into a conical wine-glass,
it will become electrical on cooling, and affect the electroscope in a man
ner similar to the other bodies mechanically excited. Chocolate on con-
gealing after cooling, glacial phosphoric acid on congealing, and calomel
when it fixes by sublimation to the upper part of a glass vessel, all give
out electricity ; so, in like manner, the condensation as well as the evap-
oration of water, though opposite processes, gives out electricity. Some
writers attribute these electrical effects to what they term a change of
fonn or state ; but it is obvious that they may, with propriety, be included
under chemical action. This view is supported by the fact of the pres-
ence of oxygen being necessary to the development of electricity. De la
Rive, in bringing zinc and copper in contact through moisture, found that
the zinc became oxidized, and electricity was evolved. When he pre-
* Reid's Chemistry of Nature. t Leithead on Electricity.
(325;
182 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
vented the oxidation, by operating in an atmosphere of nitrogen, no elec-
tric excitement followed. When, again, he increased the chemical action
by exposing xinc to acid, or by substituting a more oxidable metal, such
as potassium, the electric effects were gioatly increased. In fact, elec-
trical excitation and chemical action were observed to be strictly propor-
tional to each other. And this result is quite consistent with, and is
conoborated l)y, the necessary agency of oxygen in evolving elcctiicity
from vegetation.* But more than all this, " electricity," as Dr. G. Bird
intimates, " is not only evolved during chemical decomposition, but during
chemical comhinaUon ; a fact first announced by Becquerel. The tnith of
this statement has been, by many, either altogether denied or limited to
the case of the combination of nitiic acid with alkalies. But after repeat-
ing the experiments of Becquerel, as well as those of Pfatf, Mohr, Dalk,
and Jacobi, I am convinced that an electric current, certainly of low ten-
sion, is really evolved during the combination of sulphuric, hydrochloric,
nitric, phosphoric, and acetic acids, with the fixed alkalies, and even with
ammonia."t
(305.) As evaporation is a process continually going on from the surface of
the ocean, land, lakes, and rivers, at all degrees of temperature, the result of
its action must be very extensive. But liow the disengagement of electri-
city is produced, either by the action of oxygen on the structure of living
plants, or by the action of heat on water, is unknown, and will perhaps
ever remain a secret of Nature. It is easy, however, to conceive how the
electricity produced by these and other sources must vary in different
clinaates, seasons and localities, and at different bights in the atmosphere.;f
(306.) It thus appears that the sources of electricity are found to be
evolved in every 2)0!isihle form of action. It is excited by almost every sub-
stance in nature, by friction, which is a mechanical action ; it is as readily
evolved by chemical action, as you have just learned ; as also in the cases
of condensation and evaporation of liquids ; and it has also been proved
to be excited by vital action, as in the case of vegetation ; and as the ac-
tion of oxygen is the same in the animal as in the vegetable function, it is
as likely that the respiration of animals produces electricity as that of
vegetables. When the sources of this mysterious and subtle agent are
thus so numerous and extensive, you need not only not be sui-prised at its
extensive diffusion, but the universality of its presence indicates that its
assistance is necessary to the promoting of every o])eration of Nature. Its
identity in all cases is also proved by the fact, that though the means
employed for its excitation are various, its mode of action is always the
same. In every case of excitation, one body robs the other of a portion
of its electricity, the former being ^jZw* or ]>ositivc,l\ie other minus or nega-
tive in its natural (]uantity. " The two species, or negative and positive
electricity," says Dr. Bird, " exist in nature combined, forming a neutral
combination (in an analogous manner to the two magnetic fluids) incapable
of exerting any obvious jihysical actions on ponderable matter : by the
process of friction, or other mechanical or chemical means, we decompose
this neutral combination, the negative and positive elements separate, one
adhering to the surface of the excited substance, the other to the rubber ;
hence in no case of electrical excitatiim can we obtain one kind of electri-
city without the other being simultaneously developed. We do not ob-
serve any fi-ee electricity on the surface of metallic bodies submitted to
friction, in consequence of their so readily conducting electricity that the
• I/eilhcad on Electricity. t Bird's Elementa of Natural Philosophy.
X Forbes's Report on Meteorology, voL i.
(326)
THE WEATHER IN WINTER. 183
union of the negative and positive fluids takes place as rapidly as they are
separated by the friction employed."*
(307.) The natural state of every body in I'egard to its electiicity is thus
in a state of quiescence or equilibrium, but this equilibrium is very easily
disturbed, and then a series of actions supei-\'ene, which illustrate the pe-
culiar agency of electricity, and continue until the equilibrium is again
restored.
(308.) 'Y\\e force of the electrical agency seems to be somewhat in the
propoition to the energy with which it is roused into action. Dr. Fara-
day states, that one grain of water " will require an electric cunent to be
continued for 3^ minutes of time to effect its decomposition ; which cur-
rent must be strong enough to retain a platina ^vire jJ ^ of an inch in
thickness red-hot in the air during the whole time." " It will not be too
much to say, that this necessary quantity of electiicity is equal to a very
powerful flash of lightning."t When it is considered that, during the fer-
mentation and putrefaction of bodies on the surface of the earth, water is
decomposed, and that to effect its decomposition such an amount of elec-
tric action as is here related is required to be excited, we can have no dif-
ficulty in imagining the great amount of electricity which must be derived
from the various sources enumerated being constantly in operation.
(309.) In mentioning the subject of electricity, I will take the opportu-
nity of expressing my opinion that the electrometer is a meteorological in-
strument of much gieater utility to you than some of the insti'uments I
have described ; because it indicates, with a great degree of delicacy, the
existence of free electricity in the air ; and as electricity cannot exist in
that state without producing some sort of action, it is satisfactory to have
notice of its freedom, that its effects, if possible, may be anticipated. The
best sort of electrometer is the " condensing electroscope :" it consists of a
hollow glass sphere on a stand, inclosing through its top a glass tube, to
the top of which is affixed a flat brass cap, and from the bottom of which
are suspended two slips of gold-leaf At the edge of the flat brass cap is
screwed a circular brass plate, and another circular brass plate, so as to be
parallel to the first, is inserted in a support fixed in a piece of wood moving
in a gioove of the stand which contains the whole apparatus. This is a
very delicate instrument, and, to keep it in order, should be kept free of
moisture and dust.
(310.) In regard to the usual state of the electricity in the atmosphere,
it is generally believed that it is positive, and that it increases in quantity
as we ascend. In Europe the observations of M. Schiibler of Stuttgardt,
intimate that the electricity of the precipitating fluids from the atmosphere
is more frequently negative than positive, in the proportion of 155 ; 100 ;
but that the mean intensity of the positive electricity is greater than that of
the negative in the ratio of 69 : 43 ; and that different layers or strata of
the atmosphere, placed only at small distances fi-om each other, are fre-
quently found to be in different electric states.^ It appears, also, from re-
cent observations of M. Schiibler, that the electiicity of the air, in calm
and serene weather, is constantly positive, but subject to two daily fluctua-
tions. It is at its minimum at a little before sunrise ; after which it grad-
ually accumulates, till it reaches its first maximum a few hours afterward
—at 8 A. M. in May ; and then diminishes until it has descended to its
second minimum. The second maximum occurs in the evening about two
hours after sunset ; and then diminishes, at first rapidly, and next in slower
brogi-ession during the whole of the night, to present again on the follow-
* Bird's Elements of Natural Philosophy. t Faraday's New Researches, 8vo edition.
\ Forbes's Report on Meteorology, vol. 1.
(327)
184 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
ing day the same oscillations. It is probable that the exact time of its in-
crease and decrease is hifluenced by the seasons. The intensity increases
from July to January, and then decreases ; it is also much more intense in
the winter, though longer in summer, and appears to increase as the cold
increases.* These fluctuations may be observed throughout the year more
easily in fine than in cloudy weather. " Among the causes modifying the
electric state of the atmosphere," observes Dr. Bird, " must be ranked its
hygrometric state, as well as probably the nature of the effluvia which may
become volatilized in any given locality. Thus, Saussure has observed
that its intensity is much more considerable in elevated and isolated places
than in naiTow and confined situations ; it is nearly absent in houses, u;i-
der lofty trees, in narrow courts and alleys, and in inclosed places. Tii
some places the most intensely electric state of the atmosphere appears
to be that in which large clouds or dense fogs are suspended in the air at
short distances above the surface of the earth ; these appear to act as con-
ductors of the electricity from the upper regions. Cavallo ascertained,
fi^om a set of experiments performed at Islington in 1776, that the air al-
ways contains free positive electiicity, except when influenced by heavy
clouds near the zenith. This electricity he found to be strongest in fogs
and during frosty weather, but weakest in hot weather, and just previous
to a shower of rain ; and to increase in proportion as the instrument used
is raised to a greater elevation. This, indeed, necessarily happens," con-
tinues Dr. Bird, " for as the earth's surface is, coctcris paribus, always neg-
atively electrified, a continual but gradual combination of its electricity
with that of the air is constantly taking place at its surface, so that no free
positive electricity can be detected within 4 feet of the surface of the
earth."t
(311.) A comparative view of the fluctuations of the barometer and elec-
trometer may tend to show that in their mode of action all the physical
agencies may be governed by the same law. The mean results of many
observations by various philosophers are as follows :
l8t MRximum.
Density 10 A.M.
Electricity 8-9 A. M.
(312.) These are all the general remarks which are called for at present
on the subject of atmospherical electricity. As electrical phenomena ex-
hibit them.selves most actively in summer, observations on particular ones
will then he more in season than in winter ; and the only electrical excita-
tion that is generally witnessed in winter is the aurora horcatis or noithem
lights, or " merry dancers," as they are vulgarly called. It mostly occurs
in the northern extremity of the northern hemisphere of the globe, where
it gives almost constant light during the absence of the sun. So intense is
this radiance, that a book may be read by it, and it thus confers a great
blessing on the inhabitants of the Arctic Regions, at a time when they are
benighted. The aurora borealis seems to consist of two varieties ; one a
luminous, quiet light in the northern horizon, gleaming most frequently
behind a dense stratum of cloud ; and the other of virid coruscations of
almost white light, of a sufticient transparency to allow the transmission
of the light of the fixed stars. They are sometimes colored yellow, green,
red, and of a dusky hue. The coruscations are generally short, and con-
fined to the proximity of the northern horizon ; but occasionally they reach
the zenith, and even extend to the opposite horizon ; their direction being
from N. W, to S. E. It seems now undeniable, that the aurora borealis
8t Minimum.
2d Maximum.
2d Minimum.
4-0 P. M.
10-11 P. M.
4-5 A. M.
4 P.M.
9 P.M.
6 A. M.
* Journal of Science and the Arte, No. IV. t Bird's KIcmcnts of Natural PhiloBophy.
(328)
THE WEATHER IN WINTER. 185
fi-equently exercises a most marked action on the magnetic needle ; thus
affording another proof of the identity of the magnetic and electric agencies.
(313.) It is not yet a settled point among philosophers, whether the au-
rora borealis occurs at the highest part of the atmosphere, or near the earth.
Mr. Cavendish considered it probable, that it usually occurs at an eleva-
tion of 71 miles above the earth's surface, at which elevation the air must
be but jxg^5 e^y time the density of that at the surface of the earth, a degree
of rarefaction far above that afforded by our best constructed air-pumps.
Dr. Dalton conceives, from trigonometrical measui'ements made by him of
auroral arches, that their hight is 100 miles above the earth's surface. His
most satisfactory measurement was made from that of the 29th March,
1826. As the peculiar appearance of aurora and its coruscations pre-
cisely resemble the phenomena which we are enabled to produce artifi-
cially by discharges of electricity between two bodies in a receiver through
a medium of highly rarefied air, the opinion of Lieut. Morrison, R. N. of
Cheltenham, a profound astronomer and meteorologist, is deserving of at-
tention, as regards the position of the aurora at the time of its formation.
He states that long, light clouds ranging themselves in the meridian line in
the day, at night take a fleecy, aurora-like character. " I believe," he says,
" that these clouds are formed by the discharges and currents of electri-
city, which, when they are more decided, produce aurora." Mr. Leithead
conjectures that the aurora becomes " visible to the inhabitants of the earth
upon their entering our atmosphere."* If these conjectures are at all cor-
rect, tbe aurora cannot he seen beyond our atmosphere, and therefore cannot
exhibit itself at the hight of 100 miles, as supposed by Dr. Dalton, since
the hight of the atmosphere is only acknowledged to be from 40 to 50
miles. This view of the hight of the aurora somewhat corroborates that
held by Rev. Dr. Farqharson, Alford, Aberdeenshire, and which has been
sti'ongly supported by Professor Jameson.t
(314.) There are other atmospherical phenomena, whose various aspects
indicate changes of the weather, and which, although of rarer occurrence
than the clouds or electricity, are yet deserving of attention when they ap-
pear. These are, Halos around the disks of the sun and moon ; Coronas
or hroughs, covering their faces ; Parhelia, or mock suns ; Falling Stars ;
Fire-balls ; and the Rainbow. Of these, the halo and corona only appear
in winter ; the others will be noticed in the course of the respective sea-
sons in which they appear.
(315.) A halo is an extensive luminous ring, including a circular area,
in the center of which the sun or moon appears. It is formed by the in-
tervention of a cloud between the spectator and the sun or moon. This
cloud is generally the denser kind of cirro-stratus, the refraction and re-
flection of the rays of the sun or moon at definite angles through and upon
which, is the cause of the luminous phenomenon. The breadth of the
ring of a halo is caused by a number of rays being refracted at somewhat
different angles, otherwise the bi-eadth of the ring would equal only the
breadth of one ray. Mr. Forster has demonstrated mathematically the an-
gle of refraction, which is equal to the angle subtended by the semidiame-
ter of the halo.f Halos may be double and triple ; and there is one, which
Mr. Forster denominates a discoid, halo, which constitutes the boimdary
of a large corona, and is generally of less diameter than usual, and often
colored with the tints of the rainbow. " A beautiful one appeared at Clap-
ton on the 22d December, 1809, about midnight, during the passage of a
* Leithead on Electricity. t Encyclopaedia Britannica, 7th edition, art. Aurora Borealis.
J Forster's Researches into Atmospherical Phenomena.
(329)
186 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
cirro-stratus cloud before the moon."* Hales are usually pretty coirect
circles, thou^li they have been observed of a somewhat oval shape ; and
they are j^eneraliy also colorless, ihouj^h they sometimes display faint col-
ors of the rainbow. They are most frequently seen around the moon, and
acquire the appellation of lunar or solar halos, as they happen to accom-
pany the particular luminary.
(316.) The corona or h rough occurs when the sun or moon is seen
through a tiiin cirro-stratus cloud, the poition of the cloud more immedi-
ately around the sun or moon appearing much lighter than the rest. Cor-
onee are double, triple, and even quadruple, according to the state of the
intervening vapors. They are caused by a similar refractive power in va-
por as the halo; and are generally faintly colored at their edges. Their
diameter seldom exceeds 10°. A halo frequently encircles the moon, when
a small corona is more immediately around it.
(317.) Hitherto I have said nothing of rain, snow, wind, or hail — phe-
nomena which materially aflect the operations of the farmer. Strictly
speaking, they are not the cause, but only the effects, of other phenomena ;
and on that account, I have purposely refrained alluding to them, until you
should have become somewhat acquainted with the nature of the agencies
which produce them. Having heard of these, I shall now proceed to ex-
amine jjarticularly the familiar phenomena of ruiri, snow and wind. Rain
and \^-ind being common to all alie seasons, it will be necessary to enter at
once into a general explanation of both. Snow is peculiar to winter, and
will not again require to be alluded to. And hail will form a topic of re-
mark in summer.
(318.) You must be so well acquainted with the phenomenon of rain,
that no specific definition of it is here required to be given. It should,
however, be borne in mind, that the phenomenon has various aspects, and
the variety indicates the peculiar state of the atmosphere at the time of its
occurrence. Rain falls at times in large drops, at othei"s in small, and
sometimes in a thick or thin drizzle ; but in all these states, it consists of
the descent of water in drops from the atmosphere to the earth. In re-
flecting on this phenomenon, how is it, (you may ask yourselves) that the
air can possibly support drops of water, however minute % The air cannot
support so dense a substance as water ; and it is its inability to do so, that
causes the water to fall to the ground. The air, however, can support
vapor, the aggi'egation of the particles of which constitutes rain or water.
Vapor is formed by the force of the heat of the sun's rays upon the surface
of land, sea, lakes and rivers ; and from its easy ascent into the atmosphere,
it is clear that water is rendered lighter than air by heat, and, of course,
vastly lighter than itself. The weight of one cubic inch of distilled water
(with the barometer at 30 inches, and the thermometer at 62° Fahrenheit)
is 252'45S gi-ains ; that of 1 cubic inch of air is 0-3049 of a grain ; of course,
vapor must be lighter than this last figure. Heat has effected this light-
ness by lendering vapor highly elastic ; and it is not improbable that it is
electricity which maintains the elasticity, after the vapor has been canied
away beyond the influence of its generating heat, and there keeps it in mix-
ture with the air. The whole subject of evaporation is instructive, and
will receive our attention in summer, when it presents itself in the most
active ctiiidition to our view, and is intimately connected with the phe-
nomenon of dew.
(319.) The quantity of vapor in the atmosphere is variable. This Table
shows the weight in gi'ains of a cubic foot of vapor, at different tempera-
tures, from 0° to 95° Fahrenheit :
• Forrter'B Researches into Atmospherical Phenomena.
(330)
THE WEATHER IN WINTER.
187
Tempera-
Weight in
Tempera-
Weight in
Tempera-
Weight in
'I'empera-
Weight in
ture.
grains.
ture.
grams.
ture.
gr
nms.
lure.
grams.
0
0-8J6
24
1-961
48
4
279
72
8-924
1
0-892
22
2-028
49
4
407
73
9-199
2
0-928
26
2-096
50
4
535
74
9-484
3
0-963
27
2-163
51
4
684
75 •
9-780
4
0-999
28
2-229
52
4
832
76
10-107
5
1-034
29
2-295
53
5
003
77
10-387
6
1-069
30
2-361
54
5
173
78
10-699
7
1-104
31
2-451
55
5
342
79
11-016
8
1-139
32
2-539
56
5
511
80
11-333
9
1-173
33
2-630
57
5
679
81
11-665
10
1-208
34
2-717
58
5
868
82
12-005
11
1-254
35
2-805
59
6
046
83
12-354
12
1-308
36
2-892
60
6
222
84
12-713
13
1-359
37
2-979
61
6
399
85
]3-081
14
1-405
38
3-066
62
6
575
86
13-458
15
1-451
39
3-153
63
6
794
87
13-877
16
1-497
40
3-239
64
7
013
88
14-230
17
1-541
41
3-371
65
7
230
89
14-613
18
1-586
42
3-502
66
7
447
90
15-005
19
1-631
43
3-633
67
7-
662
91
15-432
20
1-688
44
3-763
68
7-
899
92
15-786
21
1-757
45
3-893
69
8-
135
93
16-186
22
1-825
46
4-022
70
8-
392
94 •
16-593
23
1-893
47
4-151
71
8-658 1
95
17-009
Dr. Dalton found that the force of vapor in the ton-id zone varies from 0*6
of an inch to 1 inch of mercuiy. In Britain it seldom amounts to 0*5 of
an inch, but is sometimes as great as 0'5 of an inch, in summer ; whereas,
in winter, it is often as low as O'l of an inch of mercury. These facts
would enable us to ascertain the absolute quantity of vapor contained in
the atmosphere at any given time, provided we were certain that the den-
sity and elasticity of vapors follow precisely the same law as that of gases,
as is extremely probable to be the case. If so, the vapor will vary from
ro ^^ Too P^^^ ^^ ^^^ atmosphere. Dalton supposes that the medium quan-
tity of vapor in the atmosphere may amount to yg of its bulk.*
(320.) The theory propounded by Dr. Hutton, that rain occurs from the
mingling together of great beds of air of unequal temperatures differently
stored with moisture, is that which was adopted by Dalton, Leslie, and
others, and is the cuiTent one, having betr illustrated and strengthened
by the clearer views of the nature of deposition which we now possess.
(321.) On the connection of rain with the fall of the harometer, Mr.
Meikle has shown that the change of pressure may be a cause as well as
an effect ; for the expansion of air accompanying diminished pressure,
being productive of cold, diminishes the elasticity of the existing vapbr,
and causes a deposition.!
(322.) M. Arago has traced the progress of decrease in the annual
amount of the fall of raxn. from the equator to the poles ; and these are the
results obtained by various observers at the respective places :
Coast of Malabar, in Lat. 11° 30' N. the quantity is 135-5 inches.
At Grenada, Antilles 12° .. .. 126-
At Cape Francois, St. Domingo 19° 46' ,.
At Calcutta 22° 23' ..
AtRome 41° 54' ..
InEngland 53°
At St. Petersburgh 59° 16' ..
AtUlea 65° 30'..
120-
Sl-
ag-
as-
16-
13-5
On the other hand, the number of rainy days increases from the equator to
the poles, according to the observations of M. Cotte. Thus :
* Philosophical Magazine, vol. xxiii. p. 353.
(331)
t Royal Institution Journal.
188 THE ROOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
From N. lat 12° to 43^, there are 78 rainy days.
.. 43° to 46'=, .. 103
.. 4G° to 50^, .. 134
.. 50° to 60°, .. 161
(323.) There is a great variation in the quantity of rain riiat falls in the
same latitude oVi tlie different sides of the same continent, and particularly
of tlie same island. Thus, to confine the instances to our own island, the
mean fall of rain at Edinburgh, on the cast coast, is 26 inches ; and at
Glasgow, on the west coast, in nearly the same latitude, the amount is 40
inches. At North Shields, on the east coast, the amount is 25 inches ;
while at Coniston in Lancashire, in nearly the same latitude on the west
coast, it is as great as 85 inches.*
(324.) A remarkable variation takes place in the fall of rain at different
hig/tts ; the quantity of rain that falls on high ground exceeding that at
the level of the sea. This fact may be easily explained by the influence
of a hilly country retaining clouds and vapor. At Lancaster, on the coast,
the quantity that falls is 39 inches ; and at Easthwaite, among the moun-
tains in the same county, the amount is 86 inches. By a comparison of
the registers at Geneva and the convent of the Great St. Bernard, it ap-
pears that at the former place, by a mean of 32 years, the annual fall of
of rain is 30'70 inches ; while at the latter, by a mean of 12 years, it is
60-05 inches. Dr. Dalton clearly points out the influence of hot cuiTcnts
of air ascending along the surface of the giound into the colder strata
which rest upon a mountainous country. The consequence is, that al-
though neither the hot nor the cold air was accompanied with more moist-
ure than could separately be maintained in an elastic state, yet when the
mixture takes place, the arithmetical mean of the quantities of vapor can-
not be supported in an elastic state at an arithmetical mean of the tem-
peratures ; since the weights of vapor which can exist in a given space
increase nearly in a geometrical ratio, while the temperatures follow an
arithmetical one.t But the amount of rain at stations abi-uptly elevated
above the surface of the earth, diminishes as we ascend. For example, at
Kinfauns Castle, the seat of Lord Gray, on the Tay, in Perthshire, by a
mean of 5 years, 22-66 inches of rain fell ; while on a hill in the imme-
diate neighborhood, 600 feet higher, no less than 41-49 inches were col-
lected, by a mean of the same period. This is an instance of a high ele-
vation rising pretty rapidly above the castle, but in a natural manner ; and
it is adduced as a contrast with an artificial elevation of a rain-gauge at
the observatory at Paris, when the rain that fell on the town, at a vertical
hight of 28 metres (rather more than as many yards), was 50-47 inches,
whrle, according to the observation of M. Arago, it was 56-37 inches in
the court below.J
(325.) The variation in the amount of rain in the seasons follows, in a
great measure, the same law as that propounded by Dalton in reference
to the hights of mountains. The greatest quantiti/ of rain falls in autumn,
and the least in winter. Thus, according to M. Flaugergues, taking the
mean amount as 1 —
In winter, there falls 0'1937 inches, including December, January and February.
In spring, .. • 0-2217 .. .. March, April and May.
In summer, .. 0-2001 .. .. June, July and August.
In autumn, .. 0-3845 .. .. September, October and November.
It may be useful to give the proportional results of each month. Again,
taking the mean amount of the yeai- as 1, the proportional result for
* Table of the qunntity of Rain that falls in different parts of Great Britain. By Mr. Joseph Atkin-
»on, Harraby, near Carlisle,
t Manchester Memoirs, New Series vol. v. J Forbcs's Report on Meteoroloey, vol. L
(332)
THE WEATHER IN WINTER.
189
January, is 00716
February 00541
March 00557
April 00S02
Mav 0-0847
June 00765
July 00544
August 0 0679
September 0-1 236
October 0-1370
November 01250
December 0-0693
As M. Flaugergues observes, the maximum belongs to October and the
minimum to February, and May comes nearest to the mean of 40 years.*
Taking these proportional results by the months which constitute the
seasons of the agiicultural year as I have aiTanged them, the mean of the
seasons w^ill be respectively thus :
r November 01250 (
Winter, ) December 0-0693 Summer, .
(January 00716 (
May 0-0847
June 00765
July 00544
Total 0-2659 Total 0-2156
C February 00541
Spring, / March 00557
(April 0-0802
Autumn,
■ August 0-0679
' September 0-1236
October 01370
Total 01900 Total 0-3285
This method of division still gives the maximum of rain to autumn, though
it ti-ansfers the minimum from the winter to the spring ; which, as I think,
approaches nearer to the truth in reference to Scotland than the conclu-
sions of M. Flaugergues, which specially apply to France.
(326.) The last table but one gives the proportional amount of rain thai
fell, in a mean of 40 years, in each month. It may be useful to know the
mean mimber of rainy days in each of the months. They are these :
In January 14-4 days
February 15-8 . .
March 12-7 ..
April 14-0 ..
Mav 15-8 ..
. June -. 11-8 ..
In July 16-1 <
August 16-3
September . . . •. 12-3
October 16-2
November 15-0
December 177
These tables show that though the number of rainy days is nearly equal in
the venial and autumnal equinoxes, the quantity of rain that falls in the
autumn is nearly double of that in spring. If this last table is ari'anged
according to the months of the agi'icultural seasons, the number of rainy
days in each season will stand thus :
C November 15-0 days.
In Winter, ^ December 17-7 ..
(January 14-4 ..
Total .47-1 days.
C February 15-8 days.
In Spring, ^ March 12-7 ..
(April 140 ..
Total 42-5 days.
In Summer,
' May 158 days.
June 11-8 ..
(July 16-1 ..
Total 43^ days.
In Autumn,
Total 44-8 days.
■ August 163 days
September 12-3 ..
October 16-2 ..
In all 178'1 days of rain. This arrangement shows that the greatest num-
ber of rainy days is in the agiicultural winter, and the least number in
the spring, which seems to agree with experience.
(327.) Mr. Howard remarks, that, on an average of years, it rains every
other day ; and, by a mean of 40 years at Viviers, M. Flaugergues found
98 days of rain throughout the year.t
(328.) With regard to the question. Whether more rain falls in the night
than in the day? Mr. Howard's statement bears, that of 21"94 inches — a
mean of 31 lunar months — rain fell in the day to the amount of 8'67 inches,
and in the night to 13-27 inches. Dr. Dalton also says, that more rain
falls when the sun is under the horizon than when it is above it.f
Encyclopeedia Metropolitana, art. Meteorology.
(333J
\ Ibid.
+ Ibid.
190
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
(329.) It has not been ascertained whether, on the whole amount over
the glohe, rain is increasing or diminishing in quanfiti/. As M. Arago
justly observes, it is very difficult to know how many years of observa-
tions are necessary to get a mean value of the fall of rain, the amount be-
ing extremely variable. There are, no doubt, several causes which may
tend to change the amount of rain in any particular spot, without forming
part of any general law, such as the destniction or forming of forests, the
inclosure and drainage of land, and the increase of habitations. M, Arago
has shown that the fall of rain at Paris has not sensibly altered for 130
years, and that although an increase was supposed to have been proved at
Milan, by obsen-ations for 54 years, yet the extremes of the annual results
between 1791 and 1817 were 24-7 and 58-9 inches. The observations of
M. Flaugeigues, at Viviers, establish an increase there in 40 years. The
number of rainy days throughout the year is 98, but dividing the 40 yeai-s
into decades, the number sensibly increases. Thus —
From 1778 to 1787, there were 830 days.
1788 to 1797, .. 947 ..
1798 to 1807, .. 1062 ..
1808 to 1817, .. 1082 ..
But this result must aiise from local circumstances, as at Marseilles there
has been a striking decrease in 50 years.
(330.) Notwithstanding the enormous annual Jail of rain at the equator,
particular instances of a great depth of rain in a short time have occa-
sionally occuned in Europe, which probably have seldom been equaled
in any other part of the globe. At Geneva, on the 25th October, 1822,
there fell 30 inches of rain in one day. At Joyeuse, according to M. Arago,
on the 9th October, 1827, there fell 31 inches of rain in 22 hours.* With
regard to remarkable variations in the quantity of rain in different places,
among the Andes it is said to rain pei-petually ; whereas in Peru, as Ulloa
affirms, it never rains, but that for a part of the year the atmosphere is
obscured by thick fogs called garuas. In Egypt it hardly ever rains at
all, and in some parts of Arabia it seldom rains more than two or three
times in as many years, but the dews are heavy, and refresh the soil, and
supply with moisture the few plants which grow in those sunny regions.
(331.) According to a statement of observations by Mr. Howard, there
appears a relatioii to exist betwixt the winds and the annual amount of rain.
This is his statement :
Yeab.
Wind.
Calm
Annual
rain in
N. K.
K. S.
34
S VV
W. N.
days.
inches.
1807
61
113
114
43
20-14
1808
82
38
108
103
35
23-24
1809
68
50
123
91
33
25-28
1810
81
72
78
83
41
28-07
1811
58
59
119
93
36
24-64
1812
82
66
93
91
34
27-24
1813
76
53
92
124
20
23 -.56
1814
96
65
91
96
17
26-07
1815
68
36
121
107
33
21-20
1816
64
66
106
102
28
32 -.37
74
54
105
100
32
25-18
The remarks which this statement seems to warrant are, that in regard to
the E. winds, in the dry year 1807, the class of N. — E. winds is nearly
double of the class of E. — S. winds ; in 1815, the next driest year, is the
same result ; and in 1808, the next driest to that, the result is rather more
than double. Still farther in regard to E. winds, in the wettest year,
• Forbes'a Report on Meteorology, vol L
(334)
THE WEATHER IN WINTER. 19]
1816, the class of E. — S. winds exceeds that of N. E. ; in 1814 they were
I of the latter; in 1812, f, and 1810, }. With regard to the class of W.
winds, the class of W. N. winds falls off gradually fi-om 1807 to 1810 in-
clusive, while the annual amount of rain increases from year to yeai-, and
in thx"ee of the six remaining years the amount is drier than the average
in the diy years, and wetter than the wet ones.
(332.) Mr. Howard says, that 1 year in every 5 in this country may he
expected to be extremely dry, and 1 in 10 extremely wet.
(333.) The mean annual amount of rain and dew for England and
Wales, according to the estimate of Dr. Dalton, is 36 inches. The mean
quantity of rain falling in 147 places, situated between north lat. 11° and
60°, according to Cotte, is 34*7 inches. If the mean fall over the globe be
taken at 34 inches, it will, perhaps, not be far from the truth.*
(334.) The influence of the lunar periods on the amonnt of rain deserves
attention. Professor Forbes believes that there is some real connection
between the lunar phases and the weather. M. Flaugergues, who has ob-
served the weather at Viviers with the gi'eatest assiduity for a quarter of
a century, marked the number of rainy days con-esponding with the lu-
nar phases, and found them at a maximum at the first quarter, and a mini-
mum at the last.
(335.) It almost always happens that rain brings dotcn foreign matter
from the air. It is known that the farina of plants has been carried as far
as 30 or 40 miles, and the ashes of volcanoes have been carried more than
200 miles. We can conceive that when the magnitude of the particles of
dry substances is so reduced as to render them incapable of falling in any
given velocity, that their descent may be overcome by a very slight cur-
rent of the air ; but even in still air a sphere of water of only the almost
inconceivable size of e o o^o o o P'^''^ *-'^ ^^ inch in diameter falls 1 inch in a
second, and yet particles of mist must be much larger than this, otherwise
they could not be visible as separate drops ; the least drop of water that
is discoverable by the naked eye falls with a velocity of 1 foot in the
[* It is said tliat, on an average, half as much more rain falls in England than on the Continent of
Europe. In Ireland, says Doctor Kane, a very able and profound writer on the Industrial Resources
of that counti-y, there is probably not more rain than in England, but there is more damp. Long
since, Arthur Young, he says, noticed the difficulty of drying agricultural produce in Ireland, and
to this humidity he attributed the rapid vegetation ^vhich clothes that island vi-ith natural herb-
age, even where there is scarcely a trace of soil, and causes it to be likened to an " emerald "
Bet in the ring of the sea. Like caus.es produce like effects in our country — hence on the hills
and small mountains about Lebanon, N. Y. the Messrs. Tilden carry through the driest summers
their flock of 1,000 of the best Saxonies in the finest condition ; those hills are ever green. The
average quantity that falls over the entire surface of Ireland is put down at 36 inches. Thus,
if all that falls in the year were collected at one time, it would cover the whole Island to the depth
of 3 feet ; and as the area of Ireland amounts to 80,208,271 square acres, containing 100,712,631,6'40
square yards, there are this number of square yards of water precipitated on the island in every
year.
For youthful readers we may be allowed in this place to transcribe from the admirable author
above mentioned the following brief and simple explanation of the origin and formation of
clouds, rain and rivers, and " water power : "
"The land being placed on the surface of our globe at a level superior to that of the ocean, by
which its coasts are washed, there is produced continually, by atmospherical conditions, a cirf-a-
lation of the mass of water, which, evaporating from the surface, ascends as vapor to the higher
and colder regions of the air, where it is condensed into clouds. These float until the electrical
condition wliich characterizes their peculiar molecular state being dissipated, they fall a.? rain, as
bail, or snow, and the water thus regaining the .solid or liquid form, tends continually by its grav-
ity, to a lower level, until it gains the general mass of ocean from whence it had been originally
derived. The rain or snow thus falling into the interior and elevated districts of country, forms
at first rivulets, then streams, finally rivers; and the force of the descending water is capable of
giving motion to machinery : it is the source best known, and most simply applicable, of water
pcncer." Ed. Farm. Lib.}
(335)
192 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
second, when the air is still. Although it is probable that the resistance
opposed to the descent of small bodies in air, may be considerably greater
than would be expected from calculaticjn, still the wonder is how they are
supported for any length of time.* In this difficulty there is much inclina-
tion to call in the aid of electricity to account for the phenomenon. Mr.
Leithead accounts for it in this way : " When the eaith is positive and the
atmosphere negative, the electiic fluid, in endeavoring to restore its equi-
librium, would cause a motion among the particles of the air in a direc-
tion from the earth toward the higher region of the atmosphere ; for the
air being a very imperfect conductor, the particles near the earth's surface
can only convey electricity to the more remote particles by such a motion.
This Avonld, in effect, partly diminish the downward pressure of the air,
which is due to its actual density ; " and, in doing this, might it not, at
the same time, counteract in some degree the gravity of any substance in
the air by surrounding it with an electrical atmosphere ] " When, on the
contrary," continues Mr. Leithead, " the earth is negative and the air
positive, this motion of the particles wdll be reversed ; thus increasing the
pressure toward the earth, and producing the same effect as if the air had
actually increased in density ;"t and would it not thereby be more capable
of supporting any foreign taody in it ?
(336.) Rain falls at all seasons, but snow only in winter, and it is just
frozen rain ; whenever, therefore, there are symptoms of rain, snow may
be expected if the temperature of the air is sufficiently low to freeze va-
por. Vapor is supposed to be frozen into snow at the moment it is col-
lapsing into drops to form rain, for we cannot suppose that clouds of snow
can float about the atmosphere any more than clouds of rain. Snow is a
beautifully crystalized substance when it falls to the ground, and it is
probable that it never falls from a great bight, otherwise its fine crystal-
line configurations could not be presei-ved.
(337.) "Yhe forms of snoiv have been ananged into five orders. 1. The
lamellar, which is again divided into the stelliform, regular hexagons, ag-
gregation of hexagons, and comhination of hexagons with radii, or spines
and projecting angles. 2. Another form is the lamellar or sj)herical nu-
cleus with spinous ramifications in different places. 3. Fine sjnculce or
6-8ided prisms. 4. Hexagonal pyramids. 5. <S^/cm?(R, having one or both
extremities affixed to the center of a lamellar crystal. There are numerous
varieties of forms of each class.| All the forms of crystals of snow afford
most interesting objects for the microscope, and when perfect no objects
in nature are more *beauti fully and delicately formed. The crystals rami-
fy from a center, or unite with one another under the invariable angle of
60°, or its complemental angle of 120°. The lamellated ciystals fall in
calm weather, and in heavy flakes, and are evidently precipitated fi-om a
low elevation. The spiculcC of 6-sided prisms occur in heavy drifts of
snow accompanied with wind and intense cold. They are formed at a
consideral)U' elevation ; and they are so fine as to pass through the mi-
nutest chinks in houses, and so hard and firm that they may be poured
like sand from one hand into another, with a jingling sound, and without
the risk of being melted. In this coimtry they are most frequently ac-
companied with one of the varieties of the lamellar crystals, which meet
their fall at a lower elevation ; but in mountainous countries, and espe-
cially above the line of peii^etual snow, they constitute the gieatest bulk
of the snow, where they are ready at the surface to be blown about with
• PolehBtnpton's Onllcry of NBture find Art. vol. iv.
t Leithend on Klectiicity, p. 374. This explnnalion ^^r. I-oithond nlso pivpg to Recount for the chan'os in
the density of the atmosphere, as indicntod by the oscillations of the barometer.
\ Encyclopaedia Meti-opolilana, nit. Meteorology.
(336)
THE WEATHER IN WINTER. 193
the least agitation of the air, and lifted up in dense clouds by gusts of
wind, and precipitated suddenly on the unwary traveler like a sand-drift
of the torrid zone. These spiculee feel exceedingly sharp when driven by
the wind against the face, as I have experienced on the Alps. How pow
erless is man when overtaken in such a snow-storm, as
' down he sinks
Beneath the shelter of the shapeless drift,
Thinking o'er all the bitterness of death ! "*
The other forms of snow are more rare.
(338.) All other things being equal, Professor Leslie supposes that a
flake of snow, taken at 9 times more expanded than water, descends three
times as slow.
(339.) From the moment snow alights on the ground it begins to under-
go certain changes, which usually end in a more solid crystalization than
it originally possessed. The adhesive property of snow arises from its
needly crystaline texture, aided by a degree of attendant moisture which
afterward freezes in the mass. Sometimes, when a strong wind sweeps
over a surface of snow, portions of it are raised by its power, and, passing
on with the breeze under a diminished temperature, become crystalized,
and, by attrition, assume globular forms. Mr. Howard describes having
seen these snow-balls, as they may be termed, in January, 1814 ; and Mr.
Patrick Shin-eff, when at Mungoswells, in East Lothian, observed the like
phenomenon in February, 1830.t I observed the same phenomenon in
Forfarshire, in the great snow-storm of Febniary, 1823.
(340.) During the descent of snow, the thermometer sometimes rises, and
the barometer usually falls. Snow has the effect of retaining the temper-
ature of the ground at what it was when the snow fell. It is this property
which maintains the warmer temperature of the ground, and sustains the
life of plants during the severe rigors of winter, in the Arctic Regions,
where the snow falls suddenly, after the warmth of summer ; and it is the
same property which supplies water to rivers in winter, from under the
perpetual snows of the alpine mountains. While air, above snow, may be
38^ below zero, the ground below will only be at zero.f Hence the fine,
healthy, green color of young wheat and young grass, after the snow has
melted off them in spring.
(341.) In melting, 27 inches of snow give 3 inches of water. Rain and
snow-water are the softest natural waters for domestic purposes ; and are
also the purest that can be obtained from natural sources, provided they
are procured either before reaching the ground, or from newly fallen
snow. Nevertheless, they are impregnated with oxygen, nitrogen, and
carbonic acid, especially with a considerable quantity of oxygen ; and rain-
water and dew contain nearly as much air as they can absorb.|| Liebip
maintains that both rain and snow-water contain ammonia.§
(342.) Snow reflects beautifully blue and pink shades at sunset, as i:
observed with admiration on the Alps of Switzerland. It also reflects so
much light fi-om its surface as to render traveling at night a cheerful occu-
pation ; and in some countries, as in Russia and Canada, it forms a delight-
ful highway when frozen.
(343.) Hoarfrost is defined to be frozen dew. This is not quite a cor-
rect definition ; for dew is sometimes frozen, especially in spring, into
globules of ice which do not at all resemble hoar-frost — this latter sub-
stance being beautifully and as regulai-ly crystalized as snow. The forma-
tion of hoar-frost is always attended with a considerable degree of cold,
* Thomson. 1 Encyclopsedia Metropolitana, art. Meteorology. X Phillip's Facts.
II Reid'g Chemistry of Nature. § Liebig's Organic Chemistiy.
(385) 13
194 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
because it is preceded by a great radiation of heat and vapor from the
earth, and the phenomenon is the more perfect the warmer the day and
the clearer the night have been. In the country, hoar-fiost is of most fre-
quent occurrence in the autumnal months and in winter, in such places as
have little snow or continued frost on the average of seasons ; and this
greatly from great radiation of heat and vapor, at those seasons occasioned
by a suspension of vegetable action, which admits of little absorption of
moisture for vegetable purposes.*
(344.) Dr. Farquharson, Alford, Aberdeenshire, has paid great attention
to the subject of hoar-frost or rime, which frequently injures the crop>8 in
the noi-them portion of our island long before they are ripe. The results
of his obsen-ations are very instructive. 1. He has obser\-ed that the
mean temperature of the day and night at which injurious hoar-frosts may
occur, may be, relatively to the freezing-point, very high. Thus, on the
nights of the 29th and 31st August, 1S40, the leaves of potatoes were in-
jured, while the lowest temperatures of those nights, as indicated by a
self-registering themiometer, were as high as 41^ and 39^ respectively. —
2. Hoar-frost, at the time of a high daily mean temperature, takes place
only during calm. A very slight, £<.eady breeze will quickly melt away
frosty rime. 3. The air is always unclouded, or nearly all of it so, at the
time of hoar-frost. So incompatible is hoar-frost with a clouded state of
the atmosphere, that on many occasions, when a white frosty rime has been
formed in the earlier part of the night, on the formation of a close cloud
at a later part, it has melted off before the rising of the sun. 4. Hoar-
frosts most frequently happen with the mercury in the barometer at a high
point and rising, and \nth the hygrometer at comparative dryness for the
temperature and season ; but there are striking exceptions to these rules.
On the morning of the loth September, 1S40, a very injurious frost oc-
curred, ^\ith a low and falling barometric column, and with a damp atmo-
sphere. 5. In general, low and flat lands in the bottom of valleys, and
grounds that are in land-locked hollows, suffer most from hoar-frost, while
all sloping lands, and open uplands, escape injurj*. But it is not their rel-
ative elevation above the sea, independently of the freedom of their expo-
sure, that is the source of safety to the uplands ; for, provided they are in-
closed by higher lands, without any wide, open descent from tliem on some
side or other, they suffer more, under other equal circumstances, than sim-
ilar lands of less altitude. 6, A very slight inclination of the surface of
the ground is generally quite protective of the crops on it from injury by
hoar-frost, from which flat and hollow places suffer at the time great in-
jury. But a similar slope downward in the bottom of a narrow, descend-
ing hollow does not save the crop in the bottom of it, although those on its
side-banks higher up may be safe. 7. An impediment of no great hight
on the surface of the slope, such as a stone-wall fence, causes damage im-
mediately above it, extending upward proportionally to the hijjht of the
impediment. A still loftier impediment, like a closely-planted and tall
wood or belt of trees, across the descent, or at the bottom of sloping land,
causes the damage to extend on it much more. 8. Rivers have a bad re-
pute a.s the cause of hoar-frosts in their neighborhood, but the general
opinion regarding their eril influence is altogether erroneous ; the protect-
ive effect of running water, such as waterfalls from mill-sluices, on pieces
of potatoes, when others in like low situations are blackened by frost, is an
illustration which can be referred to. 9. The severity of the injury by
hoar-fiost is much influenced by the wetness or dryness of the soil at the
* Mndie's World.
(3«6)
THE WEATHER IN WINTER. 195
place ; and this is exemplified in potatoes groAving on haugh-lands, by the
sides of rivers. These lands are generally dry, but bars of clay sometimes
intersect the dry portions, over which the land is comparatively damp.
Hoar-frost ^^^ll affect the crop growing upon these bars of clay, while that
on the dry soil will escape injury ; and the explanation of this is quite
easy. The mean temperature of the damp lands is lower than that of the
dry, and, on a diminution of the temperature during frost, it sooner gets
down to the freezing point, as it has less to diminish before reaching it. —
10. Hoar-frost produces peculiar cuiTents in the atmosphere. On flat
lands, and in land-locked hollows, there are no currents that are at all sen-
sible to the feelings ; but on the sloping lands, during hoar-frosts, there is
rarely absent a very sensible and steady, although generally only feeble,
cun-ent toward the most direct descent of the slope. The cun-ent is pro-
duced in this way. The cold first takes place- on the surface of the giound,
and the lower stratum of air becoming cooled, descends to a lower tem-
perature than that of the air immediately above, in contact \\ith it. By
its cooling, the lower stratum acquires a greater density, and cannot rest
on an inclined plane, but descends to the valley ; its place at the summit
of the slope being supplied by warmer air from above, which prevents it
from getting so low as the freezing temperature. On the flat ground be-
low, the cool air accumulates, and commits injury, while the warmer cux'-
rent down the slope does none ; but should the mean temperature of the
day and night be already very low before the calm of the evening sets in,
the whole air is so cooled douai as to prevent any cuiTent doA\Ti the slope.
Injury is then effected both on the slope and the low ground ; and hence
the capiicious nature of hoar-frost may be accounted for.*
(345.) Frost has been represented to arise from the absence of heat ;
but it is more, for it also implies an absence of moisture. Sir Richard
Phillips defines cold to be '" the mere absence of the motion of the atoms
called heat, or the abstraction of it by evaporation of atoms, so as to con-
vey away the motion, or by the juxtaposition of bodies susceptible of mo-
tion. Cold and heat are mere relations of fixity and motion in the atoms
of bodies."t This definition of heat implies that it is a mere property of
matter — a point not yet settled by philosophers ; but there is no doubt
that, by motion, heat is evolved, and cold is generally attended by stillness
or cessation of motion.
(346.) Frost generally originates in the upper portions of the atmo-
sphere, it is supposed, by the expansion of the air carrying off the existing
heat, and making it susceptible of acquiring more. What the cause of the
expansion may be, when no visible change has taken place, in the mean
time, in the ordinary action of the solar rays, may not be obvious to a
spectator on the ground ; but it is known, from the experiments of Lenz,
that electricity is as capable of producing cold as heat, to the degree of
freezing water rapidly. |
(347.) The most intense frosts in this countiy never penetrate more than
one foot into the ground, on account of the excessive dryness occasioned
in it by the frost itself withdrawing the moistui'e for it to act upon. Frost
cannot penetrate through a thick covering of snow, or below a sheet of ice.
(348.) Ice is water in a solid state, superinduced by the agency of frost.
Though a solid, it is not a compact substance, but contains large interstices
filled with air or other substances that may have been floating on the sur-
face of the water. Ice is an aggregation of ciystals subtending with one
another the angles of 60° and 120°. It is quickly formed in shallow, but
* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. -aXv.
t Phillips's Facts. ^ Bird's Elements of Natural Philosophy.
(387)
19t) THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
takes a long time to form in deep water, and it cannot become veiy thick
in the lower latitudes of the globe, from want of time and intensity of the
frost. By 11 years' obsei-vations at the Observatoiy at Paris, there were
only 58 days of frost throughout the year, which is too short and too de-
Bultoiy a period to freeze dvep water in that latitude.
(349.) The freezing of water is effected by frost in this manner. The
up])cr Him of water in contact with the air becomes cooled do^^^l, and
when it reaches 39^.39 it is at its densest state, and of course sinks to the
bottom through the less dense body of water below it. The next film of
water, which is now uppermost, undergoes the same condensation, and in
this way does film after film in contact with the air descend toward the
bottom, until the whole body of water becomes equally dense at the tem-
perature of 39°. 39. When this vertical circulation of the water stops, the
upper film becomes frozen. If there is no wind to agitate the surface of
the water, its temperature will descend as low as 28° before it freezes,
and on freezing vv^ll start up to 32° ; but, should there be any wind, then
the ice will form at once at 32°, expanding at the same time ^ larger than
in its former state of water.
(350.) It is worth while to trace the progress of this curious phenome
non — the expansion of ice. In the first place, the water contracts in hulk
by the frost, until it reaches the temperature of 39°.39, when it is in its
state of greatest density, and then sinks. It then resists the freeaing power
of frost in a calm atmosphere, until it reaches 28°, rvitJwut decreasing more
in hulk, and it remains floating on the warmer water below it, which con-
tinues at 39°.39. When so placed, and at 28°, it freezes, and suddenly
starts up to the temperature of 32°, and as suddenly expands \ more in
bulk than at its ordinary temperature, and of course more than that when
in its most condensed state at 39°.39. It retains its assumed enlarged
state of ice until it is melted.
(351.) So great is the force of water on being suddenly expanded into
ice, that, according to the experiments of the Florentine Academy, eveiy
cubic inch of it exerts a power of 27,000 lbs. This remarkable power of
ice is of use in Agiiculture, as I shall illustrate when I come to speak of
the eftects of frost on plowed land.
(352.) It is obvious that no large body of fresh water, such as a deep
lake or river, can be reduced in temperature below 39°.39, when water is
in its densest state, as what becomes colder only floats upon and covers
the denser, which is at the same time warmer, portion ; and as ice is of
larger bulk, weight for weight, than water, it must float above all, and, in
retaining that position, prevent the farther cooling of the mass of water
below 39°.39. On the other hand, sea-w^tev freezes at once on the sur-
face, and that below the ice must retain the temperature it had when the
ice was formed. Frost in the polar regions becomes suddenly intense, and
the polar sea becomes as suddeidy covered with ice, without regard to the
temperature of the water below. The ice of the polar sea, like the snow
upon the polar land, tlnis becomes a protective mantle against the intense
cold of the atmosphere, which is sometimes as great as 57° below zero. —
In this way, sea animals, as well as land vegetables, in those regions, are
protected against the e fleets of the intensest frosts.
(353.) Ice evaporates moisture as largeh/ as wafer, which property pre-
serves it from being easily melted by any unusual occuiTcnce of a high
temperature of tlie air, because the rapid evaporation occasioned by the
small increase of heat superinduces a greater coldness in the body of ice.
(354.) The great cooling jfoicers of ice may be witnessed by the simple
experiment of mixing 1 lb. of water at 32° with 1 lb. at 172°, the mean
(388]
THE WEATHER IN WINTER. 197
temperature of the mixture will be as high as 102° ; whereas 1 lb. of ice
at 32°, on being put into 1 lb. of water at 172°, will reduce the mixture to
the temperature of ice, namely, 32°. This perhaps unexpected result arises
from the greater capacity of ice for caloric than Avater at the temperature
of 32° ; that is, in other words, more heat is required to break up the crys-
talization of ice than to heat water,
(355.) It may be worth while to notice that ponds and lakes are gener-
ally frozen with different thicknesses of ice, owing either to irregularities
in the bottom, which constitute different depths of water, or to the exist-
ence of deep springs, the water of which, as you have seen, seldom falls
below the mean temperature of the place, that is, 40°. Hence the un
known thickness of ice on lakes and ponds, until its stz-ength has been as-
certained ; and hence also the origin of most of the accidents on ice.
(356.) The phenomenon of Fog or Mist occurs at all seasons, and it ap-
pears always under the peculiar circumstances explained by Sir Humphry
Davy. His theory is, that radiation of vapor from land and water sends
it up until it meets with a cold stratum of air, which condenses it in the
form of mist — which naturally gravitates toward the surface. When the
radiation is weak, the mist seems to lie upon the ground ; but when more
powerful, the stratum of mist may be Seen elevated a few feet above the
ground. Mist, too, may be seen to continue longer over the water than
the land, owing to the slower radiation of vapor from water; and it is gen-
erally seen in the hollowest portions of ground, on account of the cold air,
as it descends fi'om the surrounding rising groimd and mixes with the air
in the hollow, diminishing its capacity for moisture.
(357.) Mist also varies in its character according to its electiic state ; if
negatively affected, it deposits its vapor more quickly, forming a heavy
sort of dew, and wetting everything like rain ; but if positively, it contin-
ues to exist as fog, and retains the vapor in the state in which it has not
the property of wetting like the other. Thin, hazy fogs occur frequently
in winter evenings after clear cold weather, and they often become so per-
manently electric as to resist for days the action of the sun to disperse
them. Thick, heavy fogs occur also in the early part of summer and au-
tumn, and are sometimes very wetting.
(358.) The fogs in hollows constitute the true stratus cloud. We see
vapor at a distance in the atmosphere, and call it cloud ; but when it sinks
to the earth, or will not rise, and we are immersed in it, we call it mist or
fog. When immersed in a cloud on a mountain, we say we are in a mist ;
but the same mist will be seen by a spectator, at a distance in the valley,
as a beautiful cu'ro-stratus resting on the mountain.
(359.) The magnifying power of mist is a well-known optical illusion. —
Its concealing and mistifjing effects may have been obsei-ved by every one ;
and its causing distant sounds to be heard as if near at hand, may also have
been noticed by many. The illusive effects of mist are very well described
in these lines :
" When all you see through densest fog is seen,
When you can hear the fishers near at hand
Distinctly speak, yet see not where they stand,
Or sometimes them and not their boat discern,
Or hall concealed some figure at the stern;
Boys who, on shore, to sea the pebble cast,
Will hear it strike against the viewless mast;
While the stem boatman growls his fierce disdain
At whom he knows not, whom he threats in vain."*
• Crabbe
(389)
198 THE BOOK OF THE FARM — WINTER.
19. CLIMATE.
' " Betwixt th' extremes, two hBppier climates hold,
The temper that partakea of hot and cold."
Drvden.
(360.) This seems a favorable opportunity for saying a few words on
climate — a most interesting subject to the farmer, inasmuch as it will en-
able him to discover the favorable and unfavorable particulars connected
with the site of the farm which he may wish to occupy. This is a point,
in looking at farms, which I am afraid is entirely overlooked by farmers,
much to their disappointment and even loss, as I shall have occasion to
obsene when we come to be on the outlook for a farm. Meantime let us
attend to a few general principles.*
[* It would be vain to attempt to make notes on a subject bo comprehensive, with a view to
adapt the observations of the author in hand to any peculiar circumstances as connected with the
climate of the United States, and its connection with the health and agricultural industry of its in-
habitants. To do so, it would be necessarj- to write a book, and that has been done already by
the late Samuel Fokry, M. D., with a degree of ability and in a spirit that do honor to his
memory.
The meteorological phenomena established by observations at our military posts, taken and
•ollected and published under the direction of our accomplished Surgeon General Lawson, form
the basis of Dr. Forry's book on " The Climate of the United States," published in 1842.
Well aware that tciTcstrial temperature, in its effect on the animal and vegetable kingdom, is
modified as well by local causes as by the position of the sun, the author of this highly interesting
and valuable work has adopted a classification of climates based on physical geography, without
reference to latitude.
The military posts from which the facts are supplied for the basis of his deductions, are divided
into Northern, Middle, and Southern. The first embracing posts on the coast of New-England,
extending as far south as the harbor of New-York — posts on the northern chain of lakes, and posta
remote from the northern and inland seas. The Middle embracing the Atlantic coast from Dela-
ware Bay to Savannah, and interior stations. And the Southern, the posts on the Lower Missis-
sippi, and posts in the peninsula of Ea.st Florida. The last comprehending a region characterized
by the predominance of low temperature — the Southern a high temperature, and the Middle phe-
nomena vibrating to both extremes.
It is to be lamented that a sufficient number of thermometrical observations have not been made
through the range of our mountain regions, to determine more exactly the influence of altitude as
well as of latitude ; but as at such interior and elevated jjoints we have no occasion for military
stations, it would not accord with the policy of this llcpublican Goveiument to make provision
for the collection of facts to enlighten and give more activity and profit to mere industrial pur-
suits. Tabular ab.-^tracts presented in the work of Dr. Forry embrace the condensed results of
observations made at various posts between 'iP 33' and 46"^ 3!>' of north latitude, and between
67° 4' and 9.')-' 43' of longitude west of Greenwich, embracing an extent of 22° 6' of latitude and
28^ 39' of longitude.
To any one having a just apprehension of what is needed to a rational education of young men
intended to be cultivators of the soil, with a knowledge of subjects which it becomes every gen-
tleman to know something about, we need not sny how proper and useful it would be to place
such books as this in all our countrj- schools. This we can aver with the less hesitation, inasmuch
as, in the attempt to extract some passages for the edification of young readers, we find it difficult
to make choice of a portion, whore all is alike instructive. On the general subject of climate,
perhaps the be-st paper is to be found in the Encyclopn<dia Britannica, art. Climate. In that arti-
cle. Professor Leslie estimates that the diminution of temperature of 1'^ of Fahrenheit's scale cor-
responds to an extent of 300 feet. But this, says Brando, will hold true only of moderate eleva-
<390)
CLIMATE. 199
(361.) Climate may be divided into general and local. The foi-mer af-
fects alike all places in the same parallel of latitude ; it is measured fiom
the equator to the polar circles in spaces, in each of which the longest day
is half an houi' longer than that nearer the equator; and from the polar
circles to the pole, it is measured by the increase of a month. It is obvi-
ous that the breadth assumed for those spaces is quite arbitrary, and it is
equally clear that each space is subject to a different temperature. In fact,
a difference of temperature constitutes the chief distinction in the general
climate of places ; and it is this great distinction Avhich has given rise to
the division of zones on the surface of the globe into the tonid, temperate,
and frigid — names indicative of different degrees of temperature.-
(362.) The torrid zone embraces that space of the globe on both sides
of the equator in which the sun passes across the zenith during the year.
Being under the perpendicular direction of the sun's rays, this is the hot-
test portion of the globe. It comprehends 23^° on each side of the equa-
tor, or 47° in all.
(363.) The temperate zones extend 43'^ on each side of the tonid, and
being acted upon by the sun's rays in an oblique direction, are not so
tions. At the altitude of 1 mile, 2 m. 3 m. 4 m. and 5 miles, the increase of elevation correspond-
ing to 1° Fahr. will be respectively 295, 277, 252, 223, and 192. Configuration, too, has a pow-
erful influence on temperature. The form of the limits of any large mass of land, as determined
by its contact w^ith the ocean — that is to say, the greater or less extent of coast it possesses in pro-
portion to its area — exercises, says Brande, and as is well known, a considerable influence on
climate. The small amount of variation in the temperature of the ocean tends to equalize the pe-
riodic distribution of heat among the different seasons of the year ; and the proximity of a great
mass of ■water moderates, by its action on the winds, the heat of summer and the cold of winter.
Hence the great contrast between the climate of islands and of coasts, and the climate of the inte-
rior of vast continents. Europe presents a remarkable example of this. From Orleans and Paris
to London, Dublin, Edinburgh, and even farther north, the mean temperature of the year dimin-
ishes very little, notwithstanding the increase of latitude ; while in the eastern part of the Conti-
nent each degree of latitude, according to Humboldt, produces a variation of l°.l Fahr. in the
mean temperature.
We must take room here for another extract from Forry :
" Where, indeed, do we not meet the evidences of design ? As temperature decreases pro
gressively with the elevation of land, great varieties of vegetation are presented in the 8a;me re-
gion. While the flowers of spring are unfolding their petals on the plains of Northern France,
Winter continues his icy reign upon the Alps and Pyrenees. By this beneficent appointment of
Nature, the torrid zone presents many habitable climates. On the great table-plain of Mexico
and Gautemala, a tropical is converted into a temperate clime. As the vernal valley of Q,uito lies
in the same latitude as the destructive coasts of French Guiana, so the interior of Africa may pos-
sess many localities gifted with the same advantages. In our own country, reference has already
been made to the marked contrast between the Atlantic Plain and the parallel mountain ridges ;
but it is in the geographical features of Columbia, in South America, that we find mo.st strikingly
displayed the physical phenomenon of hight producing the effect of latitude — a change of cli-
mate, with all the consequent revolutions of animal and vegetable life, induced by local position.
It is on the mountain slopes of from 3,000 to 7,000 feet, beyond the influence of the noxious mias-
mata, that man dwells in perpetual summer amid the richest vegetable productions of Nature. —
In the mountains of Jamaica, at the hisjht of 4,200 feet, the vegetation of the tropics gives place to
that of temperate regions ; and here, while thousands are cut oft' annually along the coast by yel-
low fever, a complete exemption exists. In these elevated regions, the inhabitants exhibit the
ruddy glow of health which tinges the countenance in northern climes, forming a striking con-
trast to the pallid and sickly aspect of those that dwell below. In ascending a lofty mountain of
the torrid zone, the greatest varietj' in vegetation is displayed. At its foot, under the burning
sun, ananas and plantains flourish ; the region of limes and oranges succeeds ; then follov\' fields
of maize and luxuriant wheat ; and. still his/her, the series of plants known in the temperate zone.
The mountains of temperate rearions exhibit, perhaps, less variety, but the change is equally
striking. In the ascent of the Alps, having once passed the vine-clad belt, we traverse in succes-
sion those of oaks, sweet chesnuts, and beeches, till we gain the region of the more hardy pmes
and stunted birches. Beyond the elevation of 6,000 feet, no tree appears. Immense tracts are
then covered with herbaceous vegetation, the variety in which ultimately dwindles down to
mosses and lichens, which struggle up to the barrier of eternal snow. In the United States proper,
we have at least two summits,'' the rocky pinnacles of which shoot up to the altitude, perhaps, of
6,500 feet. Of these, Mount Washington, in New-Hampshire, is one. Encircling the base is a
(391)
200 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
warm in any part of them as the toirid, and the temperature of their sev-
eral parts, of course, decreases as they are situated fartlier from the torrid.
Besides this, these zones being entirely intercepted by tlie tonid, the tem-
perature of tlieir northern and southern divisions is hotter and colder as the
sun is faither oft' or nearer to the northern or southejm exti'emes of his de-
clination.
(364.) The frigid zones extend from the temperate to the poles. They
are intercepted by both the torrid and temperate zones. The sun's rays
affect them at a still more oblique angle than the temperate, and, of course,
their mean temperature is yet lower than theirs. They are so far remi)ved
fi'om the sun, that in winter the sun is never seen in them above the hori-
zon, while in summer he is never under the horizon ; and it is this accu-
mulation of the sun's rays in summer that in a degree compensates for the
heavy forest — then succeeds a belt of stunted firs — next a growth of low bushes — and still farther
up only moss or lichens, or lastly a naked surface, the summits of which are covered, during ten
months of the year, with snow. Of the snow-capped peaks of Oregon, we possess no precise
knowledge."
As it is, even if it were proper to make more extended extracts, we have room only for the fol-
lowinp — recommending the book itself to evei-y one who would desire to possess-some acquaint-
ance with a matter that equally affects his own health and the growth of every thing around him
to which his labor is applied, and on which he depends for his subsistence ; for truly the investi-
gation of the laws of climate embraces almost every branch of natural philosophy — constituting,
as it does, according to the broad and true definition of Dr. F., '• the aggregate of all external
physical circumstances appertaining to each locality in its relation to organic natiire."
Here it may be proper, for the information of the useful reader, to state, as it may sen-e him in
his readings in relation to the geography of climate, that writers illustrating the general laws of
temperature have drawn around the globe a series of curves or lines of equal annual tempera-
ture, called isothermal lines; lines of equal summer called isothermal lines, and lines
of equal winter called isochemical curves. It is pleasing, says Dr. F., to contemplate such a di-
vision of the earth — each isothermal belt, as well as those of summer and winter temperatures,
representing zones, in which we may trace the causes of the similarity or diversitj- in animal and
vegetable productions ; and then again he says, to determine the influence of these zones respect-
ively upon the animal economy in health, and the agency exercised in the cessation of disease,
have proved investigations still more interesting.
" For full mental and corporeal development, the due succession of the seasons is requisite. —
Those countries which have a marked spring, summer, autumn, and winter, are best adapted by
this agreeable and favorable vicissitude for developing the most active powers of man. It is, ac-
cording to Malle-Brun, between the 40th and 60th degrees of north latitude,* that we find the
nations most distinguished for knowledge and civilization, and the display of courage by sea and
by land. In countries which have no summer, the inhabitants are destitute of taste and genius;
^vhile, in the regions unfavored by winter, true valor, loj-all\- and palriotisim are almost unknown.
To this all-pervading agency of atmospheric constitution, must be referred, in a considerable de-
gree, the superiority of the warlike nations of Southern Europe over the effeminate inhabitants
of Asia ; and to the same cau.se, in connection with others, is to be ascribed the subse<)uent con-
quest of the former by the formidable hordes which issued from Northern Europe. And in regard
to the political horizon of North America, if we look upon history as philosophy teaching by ex-
ample, it requires not the gift of divination to foresee the destiny of Mexico anil the States south
of it, whose inhabitants, enervated by climate, conjointly with other causes, will yield, V)y that ne-
cessity which controls all moral laws, to the energetic arm of the Anglo-Saxon race. The future
history of these States woulii wem to b(! typified in that of Texas. » » »
" One of the most interesting problems in history is the geographical distribution of the human
family ; for the oldest records seldom allude to an uninhabited country. From remote ages, it is
well known that the inhabitants of evorj- extended locality have been marked by certain physical,
moral and intellectual peculiarities. 8<;rving. no less than particularity of languaire. to distinguish
them from all other people; but how far this result ought .justly to be ascribed to the agency of
climate is still an undetermined point. It may, however, with good reason, be assumed that the
physical characteristics which di.'<tincuish the primitive nices of the human family, usually cla.s.sed
under five varieties, e.Kist independent of external causes; while the various families or nations
composing each race owe their similarity of physical and monil character, and of languatrc, to the
influence of climate, habits of life, and various collateral circumstances. Political institutions and
* This limitation, no drmht well adapted to Europe, is inapplicable to the United States. This is apparent
from the fact that the isothermal lines, in being traced around the plnbc, eutfer preat depression, a,« will be
shown, on the Atlantic region of North America. The 32d and the 46th parallels would consequently form
a reasonable boundary.
(392)
CLIMATE. 201
entii-e depiivation of them in winter, and has the effect of raising the mean
temperature of those zones to a hight in which both human life and vege-
tation may exist. The frigid zones extend 47°.
(365.) The three zones occupy these relative proportions of space:
The ton-id 470
The temperate 86°
The frigid 470
180° fi'om pole to pole.
" The climates of diiferent parts of the earth's surface are unquestionably
owing, in gi-eat measure, to their position with respect to the sun. At the
equator, where the sun is always nearly vertical, any given part of the sur-
face receives a much greater quantity of light and heat than an equal por-
tion near the poles ; and it is also still more affected by the sun's vertical
rays, because their passage through the atmosphere is shorter than that
of the oblique rays. As far as the sun's mean altitude is concerned, it ap-
pears fi'om Simpson's calculations, that the heat received at the equator
in the whole year is nearly 2^ times as great as at the poles ; this propor-
tion being nearly the same as that of the meridian heat of a vertical sun,
to the heat derived, at 23^° from the poles, in the middle of the long an-
eocial organization even struggle successfully against climatic agency; for heroes, men of genius
and philosophers have arisen both in Egypt, under the tropics, and in Scandinavia, under the polar
circle. Climate, however, modifies the whole nature of man. The powerful influence of locality
on human organization is apparent at once in surveying the external characters of the different
nations of auj' quarter of the earth. Even in casting one's eye over our National Legislature, the
diversity of physiognomy, caused by endemico-epidemic influences, is so obvious that the general
countenance of each State's delegation aords a pretty sure criierion tojudge of its comparative
salubrity. We can at once distinguih the ruddj' inhabitant of 'that mountain chain where health
and longevity walk hand in hand, where Jefferson and Madison inspired its cheerful and invigo-
rating breezes, from the blanched resident of our southern lowlands — those fair and inviting plains,
■whose fragrant zephyrs are laden with poison, the dews of whose summer evenings are replete
with the seeds of mortality. As in the smiling, but malarial, plains of Italy —
" In florid beauty groves and fields appear ;
Man seems the only growth that dwindles here."
"Nothing is more obvious, as a general law, than that the animal and vegetable kingdoms have
been adapted to particular climates — the effects of which, for example, in cold and w-arm coun-
tries, upon the same animal, are so great that the fleece of the same species of sheep in the former
is soft and silky, and, in the latter, coarse, resembling hair.
" As regards vegetation, it is in tropical countries, beneath a vertical sun, that it displays its ut-
most glory and magnificence. It is there, amid eternal summer, that we find groves ever verdant,
blooming, and productive. Advancing to the north or south, w-e soon discover forests, which, de-
nuded of their leaves, assume, during half the year, the appearance of death ; and, still approach-
ing the poles, we meet vegetable life under a variety of stunted forms, which are ultimately su-
perseded by a few coarse grasses and lichens.
" In Agriculture, England has been, and to a certain extent still is, our principal school of in
etruction ; but her les.sons must be corrected by ob.serving the difference of climate and collateral
circumstances. To effect this purpose, a comparative view of the meteorology of the two coun-
tries would avail much. But the science of meteorology concerns more particularly the horticul-
turist; for Agriculture has for its object the fertilization of the soil and the growth and nourish-
ment of indigenous plants, and such as have, by a long course of treatment, become inured to the
climate ; while horticulture aims not only at a knowledge of the constitution of soils, but aspires
to the preserving and propagating of exotic vegetation.
" So closely identified is this science with the every-day occurrences of life, that man is by na-
ture a meteorologist. The shepherd and the mariner, in ages remote, when philosophy had not
yet asserted its noble prerogative of releasing the mind from the bondage of superstition, were
wont to look with awe upon the face of heaven as an index to prognosticate future results from
present appearances, and to read upon it ' times and seasons.' "
Can we doubt but that we have sufficiently exposed the interesting character of this subject,
and its bearing on Agriculture, to show that climate is one of the topics which ought to be treated
in a Book of the Farm, and one with which every instructor of youth, and every gentleman and
political economist, ought to make himself acquainted so far as that may be done, as it may by
giving an hour a day, for a few weeks, to the perusal of works which illustrate the researches of
those who have devoted attention to the subject ? .Etf. Farm. Lib.]
(393)
202 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
nual day at the poles. But the difference is rendered still gieater by the
effect of the atmosphere, which intercepts a greater proportion of the heat
at the poles than elsewhere. Bouguer has calculated, upon the supposi-
tion of the similarity of the effects of lijjht and heat, that, in lat. 4.5^, 80
farts of 100 are transmitted at nr)on in July, and .5-5 only in December. —
t is obvious that, at any individual place, the climate in summer must ap-
proach in some degree to the equatorial climate, the sun's altitude being
gi-eater, and in winter to the climate of the polar regions."*
(366.) From what has just been observed, it is obvious that the temper-
ature of the air diminishes gradually from the equator to the poles ; and
it also becomes gradually colder as we ascend in hight above the surface
of the ground. Here, then, are two elements by which to judge of the
general climate of different latitudes. Moreover, the diminution of heat
from the equator to the poles is found to take place in an aiithmetical pro-
gi-ession — that is, the annual temperature of all the latitudes are arithmet-
ical meanx between the mean annual temperature of the equator and the poles.
This law was first discovered by M. Meyer, but by means of an equation
which he founded on it, and afterward rendered more simple, Mr. Kinvan
calculated the mean annual temperature of ever)' degree of latitude be-
tween the equator and the poles. The results were, that the mean tem-
perature at the equator is 84^, that at the poles 31'^, and that in N. lat.
540 493.20.
(367.) From Mr. Kinvan's calculations of the mean temperatures of ev-
erv month, it appears that Januaiy is the coldest month in every latitude,
and that July is the warmest month in all latitudes above 48^. In lower
latitudes, August is the wannest month ; while the difference in tempera-
ture between the hottest and coldest months increases in proportion to the
distance from the equator. Eveiy habitable latitude enjoys a mean heat
of 60^ for at least two months ; and this heat seems necessary for the pro-
duction of com. Within 10^ of the poles the temperature differs little, and
the same is the case within 10^ of the equator. The mean temperatui^e
of different years differs very little near the equator, but it differs more and
more as the latitudes approach the poles.
(368.) As the temperature of the atmosphere constantly diminishes on
ascendingr above the level of the sea, the temperature of congelation must
be attained at a certain hight above every latitude; consequently, mount-
ains which rear their heads alx)ve that limit must be covered with perpet-
ual snow. The elevation of the freezing region varies according to the
latitude of the place, being at all times highest at the equator, and lowest
at the poles. In the higher regions of the atmosphere, especially within
the tropics, the temperature varies but little throughout the whole year ;
and hence, in those brilliant climates, the line of perpetual congelation is
stronsrly and distinctly marked. But, in countries remote from the equa-
tor, the boundary of frost descends after the heat of summer as the influ-
ence of winter prevails — thus varj-ing its position over a belt of some con-
siderable depth.
(369.) But beyond the line of congelation is another which forms the
boundary of the ascent of visible vapor, and this point it is obvious must
be less liable to change than the point of congelation. At the equator the
highest point of vapor is 28,000 feet, at the pole 3,432 feet, and in N. lat.
54^ it is 6,047 feet. In tracing this point successively along every latitude,
vre learn that heat diminishes, as we ascend, in an arithmetical progression.
Hence it follows that the heat of the air above the surface of the eaith is
* Polehampton's Gallery of Nature and Art, vol. ir.
(394)
CLIMATE. 203
not owing to the ascent of hot strata of air fi'om the surface, but to the con-
ducting power of the air itself*
(370.) The question of local chmate presents a much greater interest to
the faraier than that of the general climate of the countiy which he inhab-
its. Local climate maybe defined to signify that peculiar condition of the
atmosphere in regard to heat and moisture which prevails in any given
place. The diversified character which it displays has been generally re-
teiTed to the combined operation of several different causes, which are all
reducible, however, to these two : distance from the eqnator, and hight
aboce the level of the sea. Latitude and local elevation form, indeed, the
great basis of the law of climate ; and any other modifications have only a
partial and very limited influence.t
(371.) The climate of every individual countiy may be considered local
in reference to that of all other countries in the same degi'ees of latitude.
Islands are thus warmer than continents. The E. coast of all countries is
colder than the W., though the latter is moisten Countries lying to the
"windward of great ranges of mountains or extensive forests are waiTnei
than those to leeward.| Small seas are warmer in summer and colder in
winter than the standard portion of great oceans, as they are in some de-
gree aifected by the condition of the surrounding land. Low countries
are warmer than high, and level plains than mountainous regions. Plains
present only one species of climate, which differs in its seasonal characters
alone, but mountains exhibit every variety, from their latitude to the pole
along the meridian of the quadrant. In this way, high mountains, situate
in the tropics, present every variety of climate. " If we take each mount
ain," says Mr. ^ludie, " which rises above the line of perpetual snow, as
the index to its OAvn meridian, we shall find that each one expresses, by its
vegetation, all the varieties of climate between it and the pole ; and thus
these lofty mountains become means of far more extensive information
than places which are situated near the main level of the sea, and more
especially than plains, which, when their surfaces are nearly flat, have no
stoiy to tell, but the same uniform and monotonous one, for many miles."
But although the high tropical mountains are thus indices of climate reach-- '
ing fi"om the equator to the pole, they are not subject to the seasonal dif-
ferences which the climates are along the meiidian of the quadrant. "Al-
though," continues Mr. Mudie, " the temperature does ascend and descend
a little, even upon the mountains immediately under the equator, and al-
though the seasonal change becomes more and more conspicuous as the
latitude increases, either northward or southward, yet, within the whole
tropical zone, the seasonal difference is so slight that there is no marked
summer or winter apparent in the native and characteristic vegetation. .
From the small change of seasons in this region, they are almost all
plants of uniform growth throughout the year, and have no Avinter for re-
pose ; so that, at great elevations, their growth is at all times much slower
than that of plants in polar latitudes, during the perpetual sunshine of the
summer there. . . . Say that the altitude of the mountain under the
equator, upon which the seasonal action is displayed, is a little more than
[t Mr. Jefferson considered the difference as equal to 3^ of latitude — for example, that the cul-
ture of cotton might be carried 3- farther north on the Mississippi than on the Atlantic ; and Vol-
ney ascribed this to the influence of south-west winds carrjnng the warm air of the Gulf of Mex-
ico up the valley of the Mississippi ; but Forrj- contests the truth of the theon,- of these philoso-
phers, by a train of reasoning, for which we regret we have not room. The reader is referred to
the whole of section 3, part 1, of his work. Ed. Farm. Lib.]
* For tables of the altitudes of the points of congelation and vapor, see Kncyclopsedia Britannica, 7th edi
tion, art. Climate. " t Ibid.
(395;
204 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
3 miles. Then, estimating in round numbers, 1 foot of altitude on the
mountain will correspond to about 16,000 feet on the meridian ; that is, a
single foot of elevation on the mountain is equivalent, in difference of tem-
perature, to about 3 miles, or more nearly 3 minutes of a decree in lati-
tude, and theref(»re 20 feet are equal to a whole degree ; and when one
once arrives at the mean temperature of London, 400 feet more of eleva-
tion will bring one to the climate of Lapland."*
(372.) From these facts and reasonings, it appears that a slight differ-
ence of elevation in a mountainous district of this country, which stands
upon so high a parallel of latitude, may make a considerable difference of
climate, and that, other things remaining the same, that farm which is sit-
uated on a high elevation has a much greater chance of being affected by
changes of climate than one at a lower level. Yet certainly local circum-
stances have a material effect in rendering the general position of any farm
less desirable, such as vicinity to a lake or marsh, or a leeward position to
a hill or large wood in reference to the direction from which the wind gen-
erally blows, as these tend to lower the temperature below that of the
mean of the country. So, in like manner, any position in a long, narrow
valley, or on the side of a large, isolated hill, or in a pass betwixt two
mountains separating plains, is moi'e subject to the injurious effects of wind
than the mean of the countiy, as the wind acquires an accelerated motion
in such localities. An elevated table-land is subject to a lower tempera-
ture and hisrher winds than a plain of the same extent on a lower level;
hence most situations among hills are colder and more windy than on
plains. On the other hand, the being on the windward side of a hill or
large wood, or on flat ground backed with hills and woods to the N. and
E., or being in the midst of a cultivated country, all insure a higher tem-
perature and less injurious winds than the mean of the country. An ex-
tensive plain or valley, through which no large river passes, or in which
no large lake or wood exists, is subject to very little violent wind. In the
former exposed situations, the snow lies long, and the winds are cutting
keen ; while in the more sheltered positions the snow soon disappears, and
the wind is less violent and keen. All these diffei'ences in circumstances
have a sensible effect on the local climate of every country, and in a small
one like Great Britain, varied as it is in its physical geography, and sur-
rounded on all sides by water, they have the effect of dividing the country
into as many climates as there are varieties of surface and differences of
position in regard to the sea. These local influences, in most seasons,
nave a greater eff"oct on the time of growth, quantity and quality of the
produce of the earth, than the general climate of the country ; although,
no doubt, the latter exercises such a predominating influence in some rea-
sons, by excessive heat or rain, as to overcome all local influences, and
stamp an universality of character over the season. " According to Cot-
te's aphorisms, local heat l>ecomes gi-eater on plains than on hills ; it is
never so low near the sea a,s in inland parts ; the wind has no effect on it;
its maximum and minimum are about 6 weeks after the solstices , it varies
more in summer than in winter ; it is lea.st a little before sunrise ; its max-
ima in the sun and shade are seldom on the same day ; and it decreases
more rapidly in autumn than it increases in summer."t
(373.) Besides all these causes, there is another phenomenon which has
a material eflfect on local climate, and that is, the darting of cold pulsations
downward from the upper regions of the atmosphere, and of warm pulsa-
tions upward from the earth. This is a different phenomenon from ra-
* Mudie's World. f Poleluunpton'i Gallery of Nature and An, vol. iv
(396)
CLIMATE. 205
diant heat. These pulsations of temperature are detected by a new instru-
ment called the cethrioscope ; and although the experiments with it have aa
yet not been sufficiently numerous to insure implicit confidence in its
results, yet the experience of all who have paid attention to the vaiieties
of circumstances which affect climate, can tell them that many causes are
evidently at work in the atmosphere, to produce effects which have not
yet been recognized by the instruments in common use. " The aethrioscope
opens new scenes to our view. It extends its sensations through indefinite
space, and reveals the condition of the remotest atmosphere. Constructed
with still greater delicacy, it may perhaps scent the distant winds, and
detect the actual temperature of any quarter of the heavens. The impres-
sions of cold which arrive from the north will probably be found stronger
than those received from the south. But the facts discovered by the aethxio-
scope are nowise at variance with the theory already advanced on the
gradation of heat from the equator to the pole, and from the level of the
sea to the highest atmosphere. The internal motion of the air, by the
agency of opposite cuiTents, still tempers the disparity of the solar impres-
sions ; but this effect is likewise accelerated by the vibrations excited from
the unequal disti'ibution of heat, and darted through the atmospheric me-
dium with the celerity of sound. Any surface which sends a hot pulse in
one direction, must evidently propel a cold pulse of the same intensity in
an opposite direction. The existence of such pulsations, therefore, is in
perfect unison with the balanced system of aerial cuiTents. The most re-
condite principles of harmony are thus disclosed in the constitution of this
nether world. In clear weather, the cold pulses then showered entire from
the heavens will, even during the progi-ess of the day, prevail over the in-
fluence of the reflex light, received on the ground, in places which are
screened from the direct action of the sun. Hence at all times the cool
ness of a northern exposure. Hence, likewise, the freshness which tem-
pers the night in the sultriest climates, under the expanse of an almost
azure sky. The coldness of particular situations has very generally been
attributed to the influence of piercing winds which blow over elevated
tracts of land. This explication, however, is not well founded. It is the
altitude of the place itself above the level of the sea, and not that of the
general surface of the country, which will mould its temperature. A cold
wind, as it descends fi'om the high grounds into the valleys, has its capacity
for heat diminished, and consequently becomes apparently warmer. The
prevalence of northerly above southerly winds may, however, have some
slight influence in depressing the temperature of any climate. In our
northern latitudes, a canopy of clouds generally screens the ground from
the impressions of cold. But within the Arctic Circle, the surface of the
earth is more effectually protected by the perpetual fogs which deform
those dreary regions, and yet admit the light oi" day, Avhile they absorb
the frigorific pulses vibrated from the higher atmosphere. Even the
ancients had remarked that our clear nights are generally likewise cold.
During the absence of the sun, the celestial impressions continue to accu-
mulate ; and the ground becomes chilled to the utmost in the morning, at
the very moment when that luminary again resumes its powerful sway.
But neither cold nor heat has the same effect on a gi'een sward as on a
plowed field, the action being neai'ly dissipated before it reaches the gi'ound
among the multiplied surfaces of the blades of grass. The lowest stratum
of air, being chilled by contact with the exposed surface, deposits its
moisture, which is either absorbed into the earth, or attracted to the pro-
jected fibres of the plants, on which it settles in the form of dew or hoar-
frost. Hence the utility, in this country, of spreading a\\Tiings at night,
(397)
206 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
to screen the tender blossoms and tl)e delicate fruits fr<im the influence of
a gelid sky; and hence, likewise, the advantage of covering walled trees
with netting, of which the meshes not only detain the fiigoiiHc pulses, hut
intercept the miimte icicles, that, in their formation, rob llie air of its cold.
It has often been observed as an incontrovertible fact, that the clearing of
the ground and the extension of Agiicullure have a malejial tendency to
ameliorate the character of any climate. But whether the sun's rays be
spent on the foliage of the trees, or admitted to the surface of the earth,
their accumulated effects, in the course of a year, on the incumlient at
mosphere, must continue still the same. The direct action of the light
would no doubt more powerfully warm the ground during the day, if this
superior efficacy were not likewise nearly counterbalanced by exposure to
the closer sweep of the winds, and the influence of night must again re-
establish the general equilibrium of temperature. The drainage of the
surface will evidently improve the salubrity of any climate, by removing
the stagnant and putrefying water ; but it can have no effect whatever in ren-
dering the air milder, since the ground will be left still .suihciently moist for
maintaining a continual evaporation, to the consequent dissipation of heat."*
(374.) The particulars of the geograj)hical distribution of plcvtts and
animals tend to show the action of general climate on the vegetable and
animal functions ; the effects of latitude and of elevation above the earth's
surface being similar upon both, although most sensibly felt in the vegeta-
ble economy. M. Humboldt, the celebrated philosophical traveler, paid
great attention to this subject, and, from his own researches, constructed
tabular views of the range of animal and vegetable being in both condi-
tions of the globe ; but as his obsei-vations are more particularly applica-
ble to America, it is not necessary to repeat them here, interesting as they
really are."t |
(375.) It has been said already, that " the effect of elevation is equiva
lent to latitude; but it must be recollected that plants will not thrive
equally in places with the same mean temperature. Some require a strong
ephemeral heat. Hence, in judging of the aptitude of any })lace for rear-
ing particular plants, we must compare the mean temperature of the sum-
mer, as well as of the whole year, before we decide. Thus, we are enabled
to explain why the pistacio nut ripens in Pekin, but will not ripen in
France, where the isothermal line for the whole year is the same. But
though the Chinese winter be more severe than that of Fiance, the sum-
mer heat is far greater. Innumerable other instances might be adduced
of the same fact. The moisture of a climate has much ii;tluence upon its
vegetation. Water is the vehicle of the food of plants, and perhaps yields
a great propoition of it; so, if moisture be deficient, plants die; but they
require water in very diflerent proportions. Those with broad, smooth,
soft leaves, that grow rapidly and have many cortical pores, require much
water to maintain their vitality ; on the other hand, plants with few cor-
tical pores, with oily or resinous juices and small roots, will generally
thrive best in dry situations. Exposure to light is necessary for most
plants. The green color of plants is oidy formed in light, as is shown by
blanching ; and light appears to be the cause of certain movements wliich
are remarked in the flowers of most plants, and in olliei' paits of some
[t Doctor Forry has sliown thai Homboldt's observations on ihe physical Histrfbaiion of pJants
'•convey very erroneous impressions, frora the circumstance, mosilj-. that his limits of the Old
World are confined to Western Europe, and of the New World to Eastern America." See
Forry on the Climate of the United States, page 76. \Ed. Farm. Lib.
• Kncyctopa-dia BritnnnicR. 7tH edition, art. Cihnate.
1 See Kdinburgh Philosophical Journal, toU. iii. iv. and v.
(398)
CLIMATE. 207
delicately organized individuals, which open and close their leaves accord-
ing to the degree of light. This last property is chiefly seen in tropical
plants. Light appears to be necessary to the decomposition of carbonic
acid, and the fixation of carbon in their tissues ; and it is indispensable to
the light performance of the function of reproduction. The influence of
soil on vegetables is seen in the prefei'ence w^hich many plants have for a
calcareous soil ; some affect silicious sands, others clay retentive of water;
some plants thrive best in the clefts of slaty rocks; some delight to dwell
amid granitic rocks ; and others on a saliferous soil. Earthy matters en-
ter lai-gely into the composition of some vegetables ; and in the epidermis
of the gramineae, silica is invariably found. The presence of animal mat-
ters in soils is necessary to many plants, and is generally nutritive to all
Iron and copper are found in small quantities in some plants. The sta-
tions of particular plants have often been determined by these peculiarities
of soil ; and when a soil and climate are equally suitable for many social
jflants, we find them growing together, until the strongest obtains the mas-
tery, and chokes the others. The common heath appears to have usurped,
in Europe, a space once occupied by other genera, if we may judge fi'om
what generally happens on exterminating heath ; for then other plants
very speedily make their appearance, the seeds of which seem to have long
preserved their vitality in the earth, and only to have wanted room to
spring into visible existence. A continuation of these causes no doubt
influences the distribution of particular species." . . . . " On comparing
the two Continents, we find in general, in the New World under the equa-
torial zone, fewer Cyperaceae and Rubiacege, but more Compositae ; under
the temperate zone, fewer Labiatte and Cruciferae, and more Compositae,
Ericeae, and Amentaceee, than in the corresponding zones of the Old
World. The families that increase from the equator to the pole, accord-
ing to the method of fractional indications, are Glumeaceae, Ericeae, and
Amentaceae. The families which decrease from the pole to the equator,
are Leguminosae, Rubiaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Malvaceae. The families
that appear to attain their maximum in the temperate zone are Compositee,
Labiatae, Umbelliferae, and Cruciferae."*
(376.) In regard to the geogi-aphical distribution of animals, the slight-
est acquaintance with zoology is sufficient to show that animals do not in-
discriminately spread themselves over every part of the habitable globe.
" But the natural limitation of species has been, in some measure, affected
by human agency. The domesticated animals have been, by man, im-
ported from different parts of Asia into Europe, and finally into America.
At the discovery of that continent, it was without the horse, the cow, the
sheep, the hog, the dog, and our common poultry, all which are spread
over it in innumerable herds, and in some places have relapsed into the
wild state, in countries well suited for their subsistence.t The same use-
[t The first neat cattle, a bull and three heifers, were imported into New-England by Edward
Winsboro, one of the founders and then Governor of the Plymouth Colony. They were brought
over in the ship Charity, in March, 1624. For the first four years the settlers of the old Colony
lived without milk. The first notice of horses is 20 years afterward, in 1644. Before the intro-
duction of horses it was, we are told, no uncommon thing for people to ride on bulls. For this
we have the authority of a forthcoming work on the Lives of the Governors, by Jacob B. Moore,
a victim of political proscription, removed for opinion's sake from a subordinate post in a Depart>
ment, though possessing qualities to administer it far superior to its head and to most of its mem-
bers. With his virtues and talents, in the army he would, at his age, be enjoying a high po-
sition and the certainty of yet higher promotion and higher pay for life. As this work carefully
eschews party politics, we do not name any party thus prostitating the powers of the Govern-
* Eucyclopffidia Britannica, 7th edition, art. Physical Geography.
208 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
fiil animals have been, by Europeans, within the last half century, carried
to the larger Islands of the Pacific, >vhere they were previously unknown.
How many insects may have Wen propagated by the cargoes of our ships
in distant lands, it is easier to conjecture than to estimate ; how many have
been imported with the cerealea and other gruniinece of Europe into
newly discovered regions, it is impossible to say. Human agency has
sometimes been the means of propagating in Europe disgusting or destruc-
tive species from foreign regions. Thus, the commerce of the Dutch
wafted tlie Teredo navalis to the dyke-defended coasts of Holland, to the
imminent hazard of that country ; the brown rat and the hlatta, which now
infest this country, are believed to be importations from the East Indies ;
and the white bug, that now lays waste our orchards, is stated to have
reached us with American fruit-trees."*
(377.) The definitions of the limits of the zoological divisions on the
globe has first been attempted by Mr. Swainson, an eminent English nat-
uralist. *' He contenflls that birds of any district afford a fairer criterion
of the limits of a geographical distribution than any other class of animals.
Quadrupeds he believes to be too much under the dominion of man, and
liable to have their geographic limits disturbed by human interference;
and the other classes of animals are either too numerous or too few, to af-
ford the means of determining the limits of such divisions ; while birds,
though seemingly fitted by nature to become wanderers, are surprisingly
steady in their localities, and even in the limits of their annual migrations.
These migrations are evidently caused by scarcity of food. Thus, our
swallows leave us when their insect-food begins to fail, and they naturally
pursue that route which is shortest, and affords subsistence by the way.
The distance from the shores of the Baltic to Northern Africa is not half
80 great as between England and America ; and during the migration over
land, the winged travelers find food and resting-places as they proceed to
more genial climate6."t %
(378.) Before concluding the subject of climate, I may advert to the
very generally received opinion among farmers and others who are much
exposed in the air, that the weather of Great Britain has changed materi-
ally within the memoiy of the present generation. I am decidedly of this
opinion ; and I observe that Mr. Knight, the late eminent botanical physi-
ologist, expressed himself on this subject in these words : '* My own habits
and pursuits, from a verj' early period of my life to the present time (1829),
have led me to expose myself much to the weather in all seasons of the
year, and under all circumstances ; and no doubt whatever remains on my
mind, but that our ^^■inte^s are generally a good deal less severe than for-
merly, our springs more cold and ungenial, our summers, particularly the
ment, meaDing only to refer to and to denounce the anti-republican policy which everyvk-here
gives the most invidious preference to the military over civil virtues; and so will it ever be until
the sons of the cultivators of the soil are differently educated from what they have been.
Ed. Farm. Lib.'\
[t A work of great and curious research has been published lately in France, by Marcel De
Serres, with accompanyinemaps, on the causes of the migrations of divers animals and particularly
of birds and Jishe/:. We lament the want of time to translate, and of room to append some ex-
tracts. It is anollier of that catalogue of books which should go to make up the library of the
countrj- gentleman — by which we mean, once for all, not the man of fine apparel or of ample for-
tune, for these may belong to tlie fool, the upstart, or the demagogue. We mean the man of kind
and gentle nature, who would not wantonly give pain to a fly, and who is eoirer to acquire and
trilling to impart information; men whose gracefulness is in the heart and feeling, rather than
in exterior pomp or ostentatious di.«play of wealth. Several such " country gentlemen," in our es-
timation, have we lately seen and ' eaten salt " with, in their trorking^ clotke.i. Ed. Farm. Lib.]
• Encyclopedia Britannica, 7th edition, an. Phyiical Geography. ♦ Ibid.
(400)
CLIMATE. ^0
latter part of them — as warm at least as they formerly were, and our
autumns considerably warmer." He adds, that " I think that 1 can point
out some physical causes, and adduce rather strong facts in support of
these opinions."
(379.) Of the physical causes of these changes, Mr. Knight conceives
that the clearing of the country of trees and brushwood, the extension of
arable culture, and the ready means afforded by draining to carry off
quickly and effectiially the rain as it falls, have I'endered the soil drier in
May " than it could have been, previously to its having been inclosed and
drained and cultivated ; and it must consequently absorb and retain much
more of the warm summer rain (for but little usually flows off') than it did
in an uncultivated state ; and as water, in cooling, is known to give out
much heat to suiTounding bodies, much warmth must be communicated to
the ground, and this cannot fail to affect the temperature of the following
autumn. The warm autumnal rains, in conjunction with those of summer,
must necessarily operate powerfully upon the temperature of the succeed-
ing winter." Hence, a wet summer and autumn are succeeded by a mild
winter ; and when N. E. winds prevail after these wet seasons, the Avinter
is always cloudy and cold, but without severe frosts ; probably, in part,
owing to the ground upon the opposite shores of the Continent and of this
country being in a similar state. The fact adduced by Mr. Knight in sup-
port of this opinion is that of the common laurel withstanding the winter,
notwithstanding its being placed in a high and exposed situation, and its
wood not being ripened in November.
(380.) " Supposing the ground," continues Mr. Knight, " to contain less
water in the commencement of winter, on account of the operations of the
drains above mentioned, as it almost always will and generally must do,
more of the water afforded by the dissolving snows and the cold rains of
winter will be necessarily absorbed by it ; and in the end of February,
however dry the ground may have been at the winter solstice, it will al-
most always be found saturated with water derived from those unfavorable
circumstances ; and as the influence of the sun is as powerful on the last
day of February as on the 15th day of October, and as it is almost wholly
the high temperature of the ground in the latter period which occasions
the different temperature of the air in those opposite seasons, I think it
can scarcely be doubted, that if the soil have been rendered more cold by
having absorbed a larger portion of water at very near the freezing tem-
perature, the weather of the spring must be, to some extent, injuriously
affected." Hence, the springs are now more injurious to blossoms and
fruits than they were thirty years ago. Hence, also, the farmers of Here-
fordshire cannot now depend on a crop of acorns from their extensive
groves of oaks.* f
[t On this question of the stability of climates in Europe and America, and the influence of
cult"-~at)oa on temperature, the reader should not rest satisfied until he turns to the array of his-
♦ ' cal facts and thermometrical data adduced by Doctor Forry in refutation of the theories main-
i' jed by the philosophers of the Old and of the New World — among the latter Jefferson and
Mttsh, the latter of whom says : " From the accounts which have been handed down to us by ow
ancestors, there is reason to believe that the climate of Pennsylvania has undergone a materia
change. The springs are much colder, and the autumns more temperate, insomuch that cattle
are not housed so soon by one month as they formerly were. Rivers freeze later and do not re-
main so long covered with ice." Doctor F. gives tables of thermometrical observations made at
Philadelphia three years successively, at intervals of 25 years, from 1793 to 1824, and during
thirty-three years at Salem, Mass., to show a remarkable uniformity of mean temperature. The
following table, by Forry, exhibits the duration of winter at the City of New- York :
* Knight's Horticultural Papers.
(401) 14
210
THE BOOK OF THE FAR.M WINTER.
20. OBSERVING AND RECORDING FACTS.
" Facts are to the mind the same thing its food to the body. On the due dieestion
of hcu depend the strength and wisdom of the one, just as vigor and health depend
on the other. The wisest in council, the ablest in debate, and the most agreeable
companion in the commerce of huinnn life, is that man who has assimilated to his
understanding the greatest number of facta" Bukke.
(381.) These words of " the greatest philosophical statesman of our
counti-y," as Sir James Mackintosh designated Burke, convey to the mind
but an ampUfication of a sentiment of Bacon, which says that " the man
who writes, speaks, or meditates, without being well stocked w'nhjacts as
landmarks to his understanding, is like a mariner who sails along a treach-
erous coast without a pilot, or one who adventures on the wide ocean
without either a rudder or a compass." The expression of the same sen-
timent by two very eminent men, at periods so far asunder and in so very
different conditions of the country, should convince you of the universal
application of its tnith, and induce you to adopt it as a maxim. You can
easily do so, as there is no class of people more favorably situated for the
obsei"\'ation of interesting facts than agricultural pupils. Creation, both
animate and inanimate, lies before you ; you must be almost always out
of doors, when carrying on your operations ; and the operations them-
selves are substantial matters of fact, constantly subject to modification by
the state of land and the atmosphere. It is useful to observe facts and to
First ice formed.
1831 Oct 20
1832 Nov. 3
1833 Oct. 31
1834 Oct 30
1835 Nov. 13
1836 Oct 26
1837 Oct 14
1838 Oct 31
1839 Nov. 20
1840 Oct 26
The state of the weather as indicated by the course of the winds, and the proportion of fair and
cloudy days, based upon three years' observations, are shown in the following table :
First enow fell.
Last ice formed.
Last snow fell.
Nov. 3
April 10
April 30
Dec. 12
April 10
Mar. 17
Dec. 15
Mar. 29
Mar. 1
Nov. 15
Mav 15
April 25
Nov. 27
A prills
April 16
Nov. 24
April 12
April 13
Nov. 14
May 1
April 4
Oct 31
April 17
April 24
Nov. 10
Mar. 31
April 17
Nov. 18
Mar. 26
April 1
Places of
Winds.
to
c
1
>
a
u
Weather.
c
'S
>
Observation.
>
N W
days
NE
K
days
S E
days
s w
days
2-64
5-96
6-42
1-67
w
days
1-33
3-08
3-17
0.38
fair
cldy
days
rain
days
1 Idnys
days
9-08
3-46
5-58
10 -.'iO
days
days
Ft. Marion
Ft. King...
Ft. Brooke
Ket V/est
\-5r,
1-62
1-53
3-20
2-86
2-79
3-72
313
1-03
3 -.54
2-89
5-37
10-83
4-37
4-44
5-37
1-11
5-63
2-75
0-54
S E
s w
s w
N E
19-02
25-75
20-33
21-54
5-19
2-88
4-47
3-08
6-22
1-89
5-64
5-92
Kail-
Fair
Fnir
Fair
"We must dismiss the subject, for the want of room, with the following summary obser\-ation
of a writer who, had he lived, had given earnest of his capacity to make such contributions to
the stock of science as would have done yet more honor to himself and his country:
"No accurate thcrmometrical observations yet made in any part of the world, warrant the con-
clusion that the tempt-raturc of a locality undergoes changes in any ratio of progression ; but con-
versely, as all facts tend to establish the position that climates are stable, we are led to believe
that tlie changes or perturbations of temperature to wliich a locality is subject, arc produced by
some regular oscillations, the periods of which arc to us unknown. That climates are suscepti-
ble of melioration bv the extensive changes prod\iced on the surface of the earth by the labors of
man, has been pointed out already ; but these effects are extremely subordinate, compared with
tlie modification induced by the striking features of physical gco?raphy — the ocean, lakes, monn
tains, the opposite coasts of continents, and tL *• prolongation and enlargement toward the poles.
(402)
OBSERVING AND RECORDING FACTS. 21]
familiarize yourself with them, as, when accumulated, they form the stores
from which experience draws its deductions. Never suppose any fact too
trivial to arrest attention, as what may at first seem ti-ivial, becomes, in
many instances, far from being so ; it being only by the comparison of one
circumstance with another, that their relative value can be ascertained ;
and familiar knowledge alone can enable you to discriminate between
those which influence others and those which stand in a state of isolation.
In this point of view, obsex-vation is always valuable ; because at first the
pupil must necessarily look upon all facts alike, whatever may ultimately
be found to be their intrinsic 6r comparative importance. The unfoldino-s
of experience alone can show to him which classes are to be regarded by
themselves, and which are not only connected with, but form the character
of others. Remember, also, that to observe facts correctly is not so easy
a matter as may be at first supposed ; there is a proper time for the com-
mencement of the investigation of their historj^ which, if not hit upon, all
the deductions will be eiToneous ; and this is especially the case when you
are performing experiments instituted for the purpose of corroborating
opinions already adopted ; for, in this way, many an acute experimentalist
has been proselytised into an eiToneous system of belief. But as pupils
you should have no preconceived notions to gratify, no leanings to any
species of prejudice. Look upon facts as they occur, and calmly, cau-
tiously, and dispassionately contrast and compare them. It is only thus
that you will be able to discriminate causes from consequences, to know
the relative importance of one fact to another, and to make the results of
actual observation in the field subservient to your acquiring a practical
knowledsre of Aorriculture.
(382.) The facts to which you should, in the first instance, direct youi
attention, are the effects of the weather at the time, not only on the opera-
tions of the fields and on their productions, but also on the condition of
the live-stock. You should notice any remarkable occuiTence of heat or
cold, rain or drouth, unpleasant or agi-eeable feeling in the air ; the effects
following any peculiar state of the clouds, or other meteors in the air, as
storms, aurora borealis, halos, and the like ; the particular operation of
rain in retarding or materially altering the labors of the field, and the
length of time and quantity of rain that it has taken to produce such an
effect ; as well as the effects on the health or gi-owth of plants, and the
comfort and condition of animals. The effects of cold, or snow, or drouth,
upon the same subjects, deserve equal attention.
(383.) You should particularly observe the time at which each kind of
crop is committed to the ground ; how long it is till it afterward appears
above it ; when it comes into ear ; and the period of harvest. Try also to
ascertain the quantity of every kind of crop on the ground before it is cut
down, and observe whether the event con-oborates your judgment. In the
same way, try to estimate the. weight of cattle by the eye at different pe
riods of their progress toward maturity of condition, and check your triak
by measurements. The very handUng of beasts for the purpose of meas
uring them will convey to you much information regarding their progress
ive state of improvement. When sheep are slaughtered, attend to the
weight of the carcass, and endeavor to correct any errors you may have
committed in estimating their weights.
(384.) Keep a register of each field of the farm ; note the quantity of
'abor it has received, the quantity of manure which has been applied, and
the kind of crop sown on it, with the circumstances attending these opera-
tions— whether they have been done quickly and in good style, or inter-
■'.iptedly, from the hinderance of the weather or other circui rnces ; and
(403)
212 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
whether in an objectionable or favorable manner. Ascertain, in each field,
the nunibiT oindtri-s required to make an acre, and whether the ridtjes be
of equal lenijth or not. Jiy this you will the more ca.sily ascertain how
much duntj the fiehl is receivintj per acre, the time taken to perform the
same quantity of work on ridt!;eH of different lenc;lh, and the comparative
value of crop produced (»n an acre in different j)arts of the field. The sub-
division of the fit-Id into acres in this manner will also enable you to com-
pare the rtdative values of the crops j)roduced on varieties of soil, if any,
in the same field, under the same circumstances of treatment.
(385.) Tlu^ t'asiest and most satisfactoiy ftiode of ])reserving and record-
inc^ all thost' facts is in the tiihi/lar form, which admits of every fact being
put <lowii under its own proper head. This form" not only exhibits a full
exposition of the whole facts at a glance, but admits of every one being
recorded with the least trouble of WTiting. The advantage of writing them
dov\Ti consists not entirely in recording them, but also of impressing them
more strongly on the memory.
(386.) The tables should consist of ruled columns, in a book of sufficient
size of leaf to contain columns for every subject. There shojild also be a
plan of the farm, with every field represented, having its figure, dimen-
sions, and name, the direction of the ridges, and the number of ridges re-
quired to make an acre visibly marked upon it. It would be advisable to
enter each field into the book, in which could be noted the various sorts
of labor it has received, and the produce it has yielded ; so that the whole
transactions connected with it for the year could be seen at a glance. —
There should also be apian of the stack-yard made every year, with each
stack represented in it by a circle, the area of which should contain the
name of the field upon which the crop in the stack was grown, the quan-
tity of com yielded by the stack, and in what way the produce was dis-
posed of; and even the cash (if any) which the produce realized, should
be marked down. This plan of the stack-yard should be comprehended
on a single page of the book.
(387.) To render the whole system of recording facts complete, a sum-
mary of them in regard to the weather in each season, together with the
produce and value of the crop and stock, should be made up every year
to the end of autumn — the end of the agiicultural year. In this way, an
immense mass of useful facts would be recorded within the nanow com-
pass of a single book. Comparisons could thus be easily made between
the results of different seasons, and deductions drawn which could not be
ascertained by any other means.
(388.) The onhj ohjcction you can possibly urge against the adoption of
this plan is the time required to record the facts. Were the records to be
made twice or thrice a day, like the obser\'ations of a meteorological regis-
ter, the objection would be well founded ; because I cannot conceive any
task more irksome than the noting down of dry and (in themselves) un-
meaning details. l?ut the variations .and effects of the weather assume a
very different importiuice, when they possess an overruling influence over
the progress of the crops. The recording of these and such like facts can
only be required at occa.sional times, of perhaps an interval of days. The
only toil connected with the scheme would be the drawing up of the al>-
stract of the year ; but when the task, even if irksome, is for your pi-ofei«
sional benefit, the time devoted to it should be cheerfully bestowed.
,(404)
SOILS AND SUBSOILS. • 213
21. SOILS AND SUBSOILS.
" I wander o'er the various rural toil,
And know the nature of each different soil."
Gav.
(389.) Having expatiated on every subject w-ith which it seemed to ra'
expedient that you should be acquainted, to prepare your mind for the re
ception of lessons in practice, we shall now proceed together to study farm
ing in right earnest. The first thing, as regards the farm itself, whic»-
should engage your attention, is the kinds of soil which it contains. 'lt»
become acquainted with these, so as to be able to identify them anywherB.
you should know the external characters of every soil usually met with on
a farm ; because very few farms contain only one kind of soil, and the gen-
erality exhibit a considerable variety.
(390.) Practicalhj, a knowledge of the external characters of soils is a
matter of no great difficulty ; for, however complex the composition of any
soil appears to be, it possesses a character belonging to its kind, which can-
not be confounded with any other. The leading characters of ordiuaiy
soils are derived from only two earths, day and sand, and it is the greater
or less admixture of these which stamps the peculiar character of the soil.
The properties of either of these earths are even found to exist in wnat
seems a purely calcareous or purely vegetable soil. When either eartn is
mixed with decomposed vegetable matter, whether supplied Tiaturally or
artificially, the soil becomes a loam, the distinguishing character of which
is derived from the predominating earth. Thus, there are clay soils and
sandy soils, when either earth predominates ; and when either is mixed
with decomposed vegetable matter, they are then clay loams and sandy
loams. Sandy soils are divided into two varieties, which do not vary in
kind, but only in degree. Sand is a powder, consisting of small, round
particles of silicious matter; but when these are of the size of a hazel-nut
and larger — that is, gravel — they give their distinguishing name to the
soil ; they then form gravelly soils and gravelly loams. Besides these,
there are soils which have for their basis another kind of earth — lime, of
which the chalky soils of the south of England consist. But these ditfer
in agricultural character in nothing from either the clay or sandy soils, ac-
cording to the particular formation from which the chalk is derived. If
the chalky soil is derived from flinty chalk, then its character is like that
of a sandy soil ; but if from the under chalk-formation, its character is like
that of clay. Wiiters on Agriculture also enumerate a peat-soil, derived
from peat ; but peat, as crude peat, is of no use to vegetation, and, when
it is decomposed, it assumes the properties of mould, and should be con-
sidered as such ; and mould, which forms the essential ingi-edient of loams,
is decomposed vegetable matter, derived either from Nature or fi-om arti-
ficial application. So, for all practical purposes, soils are most conveni-
ently divided into clayey and sandy, with their respective loams.
(391.) Loam, in the sense now given, does not convey the idea attached
to it by many ^vl•iters ; and many people talk of it as if it must necessarily
consist of clay. Thus, Johnson, in defining the verb " to loam," gives as
a synonym the verb "today;" and Bacon somewhere says that "the
mellow earth is the best, between the two extremes of clay and sand, if i»
(405,
214 THE BOOK THE FARM WINTER.
be not loamy and hindinsj ;" evidently refi'ninjj to the binding property
of clay. Sir Humphry Davy defines loam as " the impalpable part of the
soil, which is usually called clay or loam.'"''* And Mr. Keid defines the
same substance in these words : "The term 'loam' is applied to soils
which consist of about one-third <»f finely-divided earthy matter, containing
much carlninate of lime. Other soils are peaty, containing about one-half
of vegetable matter."t Professor Low gives a more correct, though, in
my opinion, nf)t the exact idea of a loam. " The decomposed organic
portion of the soil," he tnily says, "may be termed mould ; but he con-
tinues to say, and this is what I doubt, that " the fertility of soils is, caete-
ris paribus, indicated by the greater or smaller proportion of mould which
enters into their composition. When soils are thus naturally fertile, or are
rendered permanently so by art, they are frequently tenned loa)n.s.'"\ You
thus see what diversity of opinion exists as to what loam is. Loam, in my
opinion, has chanijed its meaning so far since the days of Johnson, as to
consist of any kind of earth that contains a large admixture of decomposed
vegetable matter — I say a large admixture of vegetable matter, because
there is no soil under cultivation, whether composed chiefly of clay or
principally of sand, but what contains some decomposed vegetable matter.
L'^nless, therefore, the decomposed vegetable matter of the soil so prepon-
derates as to greatly modify the usual properties of the constituent earths,
the soil cannot in truth be called by any other name than a clayey or
sandy soil ; but when the vegetable matter so prevails as matenally to
alter the properties of those earths, then a clay loam or a sandy loa?n is
constituted — a distinction well known to the farmer. But, if it is neces-
sary that clay should have a preponderance in loam, then a sandy loam
must be a contradiction in terms. Again, a soil of purely vegetable ori-
gin— such as crude peat or leaf-mould — cannot be called loam ; for ad-
mixture of an earth of some sort is required to make loam, under every
recorded definition of that term. Nor is the fertility of soils dependent
on the greater or smaller proportion of mould or decomposed vegetable
matter in their composition ; for there are soils with apparently very little
mould in them, such as shaqi gravels, which are highly fertile ; and there
are moulds, apparently with very little earth in them, such as deaf black
mould, which are far removed from fertility. Thus, then, all soils have
the pro])erties of clayey or sandy soils, and a considerable quantity of de-
composed vegetable matter converts them into loam. Hence it is possible
for husbandry to convert an earthy soil into a loam, as is exemplified in
the vicinity of larjje towns.
(392.) A pure c/a y-soil has ver>- distinctive external characters, by which
you may easily recognize it. When fully wetted, it feels greasy to the
foot, which slips upon it backward, forward, and sideways. It has an
unctuous feel in the hand, by which it can be kneaded into a smooth homo-
geneous mass, and retain any shape given to it. It glistens in the sunshine.
It retains water upon its surface, and makes water veiy muddy when
mixed with it or runs over it, and is long of .'settling to the bottom. It is
cold to the touch, and easily soils the hand and any thinrr else that touches
it. It cuts like soft chee.se with the spade, and is then in an tinfit state to
be worked with the plow, or any other implement. When drv, clay-soil
cracks into numerous fissures, feels verv- hard to the foot, and runs into
lumps, which are often large, and both large and small are very difficult to
be broken, and indeed cannot l>e pulverized. It soils the hand and clothes
with a dry, light-colored, soft dust, which has no lustre. It is heavy in
* Davy's Agriculnirsl ChemUtry, Pro rdiL IKS. f Reid's Chemistry of Nature.
] Low't Klemenu of Practical Agriculture, 2d edit
(406)
SOILS AND SIT MOILS. 215
weight, and difficult to labor. It absorbs moisture readily, and will adhere
to the tongue. When neither wet nor dry, it is very tough, and soon be-
comes very hard with a little drouth, or very soft with a little rain. On
these accounts, it is the most ticklish of all soils to manage ; being, even
in its best state, difficult to turn over with the plow, and to pulverize with
other implements. A large strength of horses is thus required to work a
clay-land farm ; for its workable state continues only for a short time, and
it is the most obdurate of all soils to labor. But it is a powerful soil, its
vegetation being luxuriant, and its production great. It generally occurs
in deep masses, on a considerable extent of flat surface, exhibiting only a
few undulations. It is generally found near a large river, toward its es-
tuary, being supposed to have been a deposition fi-om its waters. Exam-
ples of this kind of soil may be seen in Scotland, in the Carses of Gowrie,
Stirling, and Falkirk. It may be denominated a naturally rich soil, with
little vegetable matter in it, and its color is yellowish-gray,
(393.) When a little sand and gravel are mixed icith day, its texture is
very materially altered, but its productive powers are not improved. "When
such a clay is in a wet state, it still slips a little under the foot, but feels
harsh rather than greasy. It does not easily ball in the hand. It retains
water on its surface for a time, which is soon partially absorbed. It ren-
ders water very muddy, and soils everything by adhering to it ; and, on
that account, never comes clean off the spade, except when much wetted
with water. When dry, it feels hard, but is easily pulverized by any of
the implements of tillage. It has no lustre. It does not soil the clothes
much, and, though somewhat heavy to labor, is not obdurate. When be-
twixt the states of wet and dry, it is easily labored, and can be reduced to
fine tilth or mould. This kind of soil never occurs in deep masses, but is
rather shallow ; is not naturally favorable to vegetation, nor is it naturally
prolific. It occupies by far the larger portion of the surface of Scotland ;
much of its wheat is grown upon it, and it may be denominated a naturally
poor soil, with not much vegetable matter in it. Its color is yellowish-
brown.
(394.) Clay-loam — that is, either of those clays mixed with a large pro-
portion of naturally decomposed vegetable matter — constitutes a useful
and valuable soil. It yields the largest proportion of the fine wheats
raised in this country, occupying a larger surface of the country than the
carse-clay. It forms a lump by a squeeze of the hand, but soon crumbles
aown again. It is easily wetted on the surface with rain, and then feels
soft and greasy ; but the water is soon absorbed, and the surface is again
as soon dry. It is easily labored, and may be so at any time after a day
or two of dry weather. It becomes finely pulverized, and is capable of
assuming a high temperature. It is generally of some depth, forming an
excellent soil for wheat, beans, Swedish turnips and red clover. It is of a
deep-brown color, often approaching to red.
(395.) All clay-soils are better adapted to fibrous-rooted plants than to
bulbs and tubers ; but it is that sort of fibrous root which has also a tap-
root, such as is found in wheat, the bean, red clover, and the oak. The
crops mentioned bearing abundance of straw, the plants require a deep
hold of the soil. Clay-soils are generally slow of bringing their crops to
maturity, which in wet seasons they never an-ive at; but in dry seasons
they are always strong, and yield quantity rather than quality.
(396.) A pure sandy soil is as easily recognized as one of pure clay.
When wet, it feels firm under foot, and then admits of a pretty whole fur-
row being laid over by the plow. It feels harsh and grating to the touch.
When dry it feels soft ; and is so yielding, that every object of the least
(407)
216 THE ROOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
weight sinks in it : it is then apt to blow away with the wind. In an or-
dinary state, it is well adapted to plants having fusiform roots, such as the
carrot and parsnip. It acquires a high temperature in summer. Sandy
soil generally occurs in deep masses, near the termination of the estuaries
of large rivers, or along the sea shore ; and in some countries in the inte-
rior of Europ(% and over a large proportion of Airica, it covers immense
tracts of flat land, and is evidently a deposition from water.
(397.) A grarvUy soil consists of a large j)roportion of sand ; but the
greater part of its bulk is made up of small rounded fragments of rock
brought together by the action of water. These small fragments have
])oen derived from all the rock-fomiatioiis, while the large bowlders, im-
liedded principally under the surface, have been chiefly supplied by the
older formations. Gravelly deposits sometimes occupy a large extent of
surface, and are of considerable depth. Such a soil soon beccmies warm,
but never wet, absorbing the rain as fast as it falls; and after rain, it feels
somewhat firm under foot. It can be easily labored in any weather, and
is not unpleasant to work, though the numerous small stones, which are
seen in countless numbei's upon the surface, render the holding of the plow
rather unsteady. As an instance of its dry nature, an old farmer of jrrav-
elly soil used to joke with his plowmen, and offer them a " roasted hen "
to their dinner on the day they got their feet wet at the plow. This soil
is admirably adapted to plants having bulbs and tubers ; and no kjid of
soil affords so dry and comfortable a lair to sheep on turaips, and on this
account it is distinguished as " turnip-soil^
(398.) Savfly and gravelly loafns, if not the most valuable, are certainly
the most useful of all soils. They become neither too wet nor too dry in
ordinary seasons, and are capable of growing every species of croj), in
every vaiiety of season, to considerable perfection. On this account, they
are esteemed " kindly soils." They never occur in deep masses, nor do
they extend over large tracts of land, being chiefly confined to the mar-
gins of small rivers, forming haughs or holms, through which the rivers
meander from their source among the mountains toward the larger ones,
or even to the sea; and, in their progress, are apt at times to become so
enlarged with rain, both in summer and winter, as to overflow their banks
to a limited extent on either side,
(399.) These are all the kinds of soil usually found on a farm ; and of
these, the two opposite extremes of the pure clay and the pure sand may
most easily be recognized by you. The intermediate shades in the va-
rieties of soil, occasioned by modifications of greater or smaller (juantity
of decomposed vegetable matter, it would be impossible to describe. Every
soil, however, may be ranked under the general heads of clayey and sandy
soils ; the gravelly and sandy, as you have learned, constituting diflerences
rather in degree than in kind ; and as every soil possesses the property of
either clay or sand — be the sand derived from silicious or calcareous de-
posit— it is useless to maintain the nomenclature of chalky and peaty soils,
although these distinctive terms may be retained to indicate the origin of
the soils thereby implied by them.
(400.) You are now jirepared to consider the question, what constitutes
(he soil — properly so called ] You will perceive the propriety of such a
question, when you consider the difterent ideas entertained of soil by per-
sons of different denominations. The geologist considers the uppermost
alluvial cove ng of the earth's crust as the soil, and whatever stratum
that rests t pon, as the subsoil. The botanist considers as the soil that
portion of the earth's surface which supports plants. People generally
consider the gi'ound they walk upon as the soil ; but none of these ideas
(408)
SOILS AND SUBSOILS.
217
define the soil in the agricultural sense. In that sense, the soil consists
only iii iivAl jfortion uf the earth which is stirred by the ploiv, and the sub-
soil of* that which is A>und immediatehj beloio the flow's course. In this
way the subsoil may consist of the same kind of eaith as the soil, or it
may be quite different, or it may be of rock. As it is of importance for
you to keep this distinction of soil and subsoil always in mind, the subject
should be illustrated by a figure. Let a, fig. 34, be the surface of the
Fig. 34.
SECTIONS OF SOILS AND SUBSOILS.
ground, the earthy mould derived from the growth and decay of natural
plants ; b, a dotted line, the depth of the plow-furrow. Now, the plow-sole
may either just pass through the mould, as at b, when the mould will be
the soil, and the earth below it the subsoil : Or it may not pass entirely
througli the mould, as at c, when the soil and subsoil will be similar, that
is, both of mould : Or it may pass through the earth below the mould, as
at d, W'hen the soil and subsoil will again be similar, while neither will be
mould, but earth : Or it may move along the surface of e, when the soil
v/ill be of one kind of earth, and the subsoil of another, that is, either an
open subsoil of gravel, or a retentive one of clay : Oi" it may move upon
the su7-face of /^ when the soil will be earth, or a mixture of clay, sand
and mould, and the subsoil rock. These different cases of soil and sub-
soil are represented in the figure, each in a distinct sectional division.
(401.) The subsoil, then, in an agricultural sense, is the substance which
is found immediately below the line of the course of the plow, be it earth
or rock. However unifonn in substance, or similar in quality, the subsoil
and soil may have been at one time, cultivation, by supplies of vegetable
matter, and by presentation of the surface to the action of the air, soon
effects a material difference betwixt them, and the diff*erence consists of a
change both in texture and color, the soil becoming finer and ha^^ng a
darker tint than the subsoil.
(402.) The nature of the subsoil produces a sensible effect on the condition
oj the soil above it. If the soil is clay, it is impervious to water, and if the
subsoil is clay also, it is also impervious to water. The immediate effect
of this juxtaposition is to render both soil and subsoil habitually wet, until
the force of evapoiation dries fiist the one and then the other. A reten-
tive subsoil, in the same manner, renders a sandy or gi'avelly, that is a po-
rous, soil above it habitually wet. On the other hand, a gravelly subsoil,
Tvhich is always porous, greatly assists to keep a retentive clay soil dry. —
When a porous soil rests upon a porous subsoil, scarcely any degree of
humidity can injure either. Rock may be either a retentive or a porous
subsoil, according to its structure ; its massiveness throughout keeping
'^V'M-y soil above it habitually wet ; but its stratification, if the lines of strat-
Pcation dip downward from the soil (as at f, fig. 34), will keep even a re-
tentive soil above it in a comparatively dry state.
(403.) These are the different conditions of sit'^ und subsoils, considered
(■lO'j)
218 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
practically. They have terms exprpssive of their state, which you should
keep in remembrance. A s(jil is saiil to be utij" or hcaiy, when it is diffi-
cult to cut through, and is otherwise laborious to work with the ordinary
implements of the farm ; and all clay soils are more or less so. On the
other hand, it is light or free, when it is easy to work ; and all sandy and
gravelly soils, and sandy and gravelly loams, are so. A soil is said to t-5
icet, when it is habitually wet; and to be dnj, when habitually so. All
soils, es])ecially clays, on retentive subsoils, are habitually wet ; and all
soils on porous subsoils, especially gravels and gravelly loams, are habiti:-
allv dry. Anv soil that cannot bring to maturity a fair crop, without an
inordinate quantity of manure, is considered y^wvr ; and any one that does
so naturallv, />i" vields a large retux'n with a moderate cjuantity of manure,
is said to be rich. Thin, hard clays and ordinary sands are examples of
poor soils ; and soft clays and deep loams, of rich. A soil is said to be
deep, when the surface-earth descends a good way below the reach of the
plow ; and in that case the plow may be made to go deeper than usual,
and yd continue in the same soil ; and a soil is thin, when the plow can
casilV reach beyond it. Good husbandry can, in time, render a thin soil
deep ; and bad, shallow plowing may cause a deep soil to assume the
character of a thin one. A deep soil conveys the idea of a good one, and
a thin, or shallow, or ebb, that of a bad. Carse clays and sa.idy loams are
instances of deep soils, and poor clays and poor gravels those of thin. A
soil is said to be a hnvgry one, when it requires frequent applications of a
larc^e quantity of manure to bear ordinary crops. Thin, poor giavels are
instances of a hungiy soil. A soil is said to be grateful, when it returns a
laro-er produce than was expected from what was done for it. All loams,
whether clayey, gravelly, or sandy — especially the two last — are giateful
soils. A soil is said to be Jdndli/, when every operation perfomied upon it
can be done without doubt, and in the way and at the time desired. A
sandy loam, and even a clay loam, both on porous subsoil, are examples
of kindly soils. A soil is said to become sicA-, when rhe crop that has been
made to grow upon it too frequently becomes deteriorated ; thus, soils
soon become sick of growing red clover and turnips. A sharj) soil is that
which contains such a number of small, gritty stones as to clear up the
plow-irons quickly. Such a soil never fails to be an open one, and is ad-
mirably adapted for turnips. A fine, gi-avelly loam is an instance of a
sharp soil. Some say that a sharp soil means a readi/ one — that is, quick
or prepared to do anything required of it ; but I am not of this opinion,
because a sandy loam is ready enough for any crop, and it is never called
a sharp soil. A deaf soil is the contrary of a sharp one ; that is, it con-
tains too much inert vegetable matter, in a soft, spongy state, which is apt
to be canied forward on the bosom of the plow. A deep, black mould,
whether deiivcd from peat or not, is an example of a deaf soil. A jmrovs
or open soil and subsoil, are those which allow water to pass through them
freely and (piickly, of which a gi-avelly loam and gravelly subsoil are ex-
amples. A retentive or close soil and subsoil retain water on them ; and a
clay soil upon a clay subsoil is an instance of both. Some soils are always
hard, as in the case of thin, retentive clays when dry, let them be ever so
well worked ; while othere are soft, as fine, sandy loams, which are very
apt to become so on being too often plowed, or too much marled. Some
soils are always^«f, as in the case of deep, easy clay loams ; oth jrs coarse
or harsh, as in thin, poor clays and giavels. A fine clay is sino th when
iai a wet state, and a thin clayey gravel is roiigh. when dry. As* 1 is said
p ..ave a fine skin when it can be finished off with a beautifully granulated
Buiface. Good culture vnW bring a fine skin on ni%>iy soils, and rich sandy
(410)
SOILS AND SUBSOILS. 219
and clay loams have naturally a fine skin ; but no art can give a fine skin
to some soils, such as thin, hard clay and rough giavel.
(404.) The colors of soils and subsoils, though various, are limited in
their range. Black soils are instanced in crude peat and deep vegetable
mould ; and ichite are common in the chalky districts of England. Some
soils are blue or hluish-gray, fi'om a peculiar sort of fine clay deposited at
the bottom of basins of still water. But the most prevailing color is brown,
fj-om light haii'-brown to dark chestnut, the hazel-brow^n being the most
favorite color of the class. The sand and gravel loams are instances of
these colors. The browns pass into reds, of which there are several vari-
eties, all having a dark hue ; such, for instance, are some clay loams. The
brown and red soils acquire high degi-ees of temperature, and they are also
styled warm in reference to color. There are also yellow and gray soils,
a mixture of which makes a yellowish-gray. They are always cold, both
in regard to temperature and color ; and are the opposite, in these respects,
to brown and red soils. Color is indicative of the nature of soils. Thus,
all yellow and gray colors belong to clay soils. Gray sand and gray stones
ai'e indicative of soils of moory origin. Black soils are deaf and inert ; the
brown, on the other hand, are sharp and grateful, and many of them kind-
ly ; while the reds are always prolific. The color of subsoils is less uni-
form than that of soils — owing, no doubt, to their exclusion from culture.
Some subsoils are very party-colored ; and the more they are so, and the
brighter the colors they sport, they are the more injurious to the soils
above them : they exhilait gray, black, blue, green, bright red, and bright
yellow colors. The dull red and the chestnut brown subsoils are good ;
but the nearer they approach to hazel brown the better. Dull browns,
reds, and yellowish grays are permanent colors, and are little altered by
cultivation ; but the blues, greens, bright reds and yellows become darker
and duller by exposure to the air and by admixture with manures.
(405.) These ax-e all the remarks required to be made on soils, in as far
as practice is concerned ; but a great deal yet remains to be said of them
as objects of natural history, and subjects of chemistry, and, above all, as
the staple of the farm. Part of the natural history, and pai't of their chem
istry, will appear in the paragi-aphs immediately below, and part of both
will deserve our attention when we treat of the fertility of soils ; but the
management of soils will occupy our thoughts through ever'y season.
(406.) The external characters of minerals established by Werner, and recognized by-
mineralogists, have never been used to describe agricultural soils. It would, perhaps, sen'e
no practical purpose to do so ; because there are naturally such minute shades in the varie-
ties of soils, and those shades are constantly undergoing changes in the course of good and
bad modes of cultivation, that definitions, even when establishad, would soon become inap-
plicable. In respect, therefore, to a scientific classification of soils by external character
there ai-e as yet no data upon which to establish it, and the only alternative left is to adop'
such a division as I have endeavored to describe. In adopting that classification I have sub*
divided it into fewer heads than other writers on the same subject have done. In their sub-
divisions they include calcareous and peaty soils with the clayey and sandy. Practically ,-
however, calcareous matter cannot be detected in ordinary soils ; and, as to chalky soils
themselves, their management is so similar to that of light and heavy ordinary soils, accord-
uig to the formation from which they are derived, that no practical distinction, as I have said,
need be drawn betwixt them ; and in regard to peaty soils, when reduced to earth, which
they easily are by cultivation, they partake of the character of mould. The kind of mould
which they forai you will learn when I come to treat of the fertility of soils.
(407.) In regard to the relation of soils to the subjacent strata, it is held by a recent prac-
tical writer on soils that " the surface of the earth partakes of the nature and color of the sub-
Boil or rock on which it rests. The principal mineral in the soil of any district is that of the
geological formation under it ; hence we find argillaceous soil resting on the various clay
formations — calcareous soil over the onalk — and oolitic rocks and silicious soils, over the va
rious sandstones. On the chalk the »»1 if \k\,'"^\ i.u tbo r«d SHndstone it is red ; and on IH»
(411)
t20 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WiNTER.
sands and clavs the surface has nearly the same shade of ctAnr as the 8nl>»oil."* I do not
think that tkiii dt'scription of the position of soil* i* eenerally correct, because many instances
occur Ui mr knowledge of great tract* of goils, including sul)#<jils. h;i\ ing no relation to the
'• geological fiirmatiou under llje«i." The tine, stniiig. deep clay of the Carse of Go%n-rie
rests on the old red sandstone, a rock having nothing in c«nninon, either in consistence or
color, with the clay above it. The large extent of the gray sands of Barrie, and the great,
gray gravelly deposits of the valley of the Lunan, in Furlai-shire, Ijolh rest on the same form-
ation as the carse clay, namely, the old red j-and^tone ; aud so of numerous other examples
in Scr)tland. Id fact, s^^iils are frequently found of iufinitely diversified character, over ex-
tensive districts of rock, whose constituents are nearly uniform; and, on the other hand,
soils of unifoi-m character occur in districts where the uuderlpng rocks are different as well
in their chemical as their geological pro|)erties. Thus, an uuifonn integiiment of clay rests
upon the •n-ay sandstone to the westward of the Carse of Gowiie. in Perthshire, and the
same clav covets tlie Ochil Hills in that county and Fil'eshii-e with an uniform mantle — over
hills which are entirely composed of trap. Oii the other hand, a diversified clay ajid gi-avel
are fimnd to cover au uniform tract of graj-wacke in rertshine. •' We have gray sandstone,"
says Mr. Buist, aptlv. when treatijig of the geolog},- of the nortli-east portion of Perihshire,
" red sandstone, and rtxk-marl. as it is called, cut by various massy veins of trap or beds of
con"lonierate and lime ; yet I defy any man to form the smallest guess of the rocks below
from the soils above them, though the gnjund is sufficiently uniform to give fair scope for all
to manifest tlie infiuence possessed by tliera. There are lands whose agricultural value has
been so greatly modified by the presence or withdrawal of a bed of gravel berween the ara-
ble soil and tillv subsoil, which, when present, affords a universal drain, when absent, leaves
die land almost unarable. But if we must show a i-elation betwixt the sandstone aud any
of these beds, which of the three," very properly asks Mr. Boist, " are we to select as hav-
ing affinity with the rock ?"t
(■103.) In {Ki-ssing fmm practical to scientific opinion on the origin of soils, we find Mr. De
la Beche giving his opinion that •' uatunilly soils are merely decomposed parts of the subja-
cent rock, mixed with the decomposed portions of vegetable substances which have grown
or fallen upon it, and with a proportion of animal substances derived from the droppings of
creatures which liave fed upon the vegetation, from dead insects and worms which once in-
liabited the surface, and from llie decomposition of animals that have perished on die land,
and which have not altogetiier been removed by those quadinipeds. birds and insects that act
as natural scavengei-s.''t This view of the origin of soils seems to corroboiate the oj)inion
of .Mr. Moitnn. qrioted above; but if you look more closely into the definitions of the terms
used bv both writers, you will find there is not that identity of opinion between them which
appears at firet sight. For " the term rock." says Mr. De la Beche, " is applied by geolo-
gis'.s, not only to the liard substances to w hich this name is commonly giveu, but also to those
viu-ious sfindx. gravels, shales, marls, or clai/s. which form beds, strata, or masses. "|| Tak-
ing this correct geological definition of mck. Mr. De la Bethe's view is quite correct in re-
ganl to afrricu/fmal soils, for they certainly are decomposed p<jrtion8 of the rock, geologi-
cally spe;iking — that is, of those " sands, gravels, or clays," upon which they rest; but the
inq)ression left on the mind of the reader on penising Mr. Morton's accoiuit of the origin of
soils, is that the rocki/ strata, commonly so called, because indurated, became decomposed to
f'>nn soil : and his reference to the various geological f<)miations of England, in explanation
of the soils louud above them, wan-ant the correctness of this impression ; but it is this very
impression which I wish to remove from your minds, because it conveys, :u my opinion, an
erroueous idea of the origin of soils.
(■I(lf».) No doubt the chemical action of the air, and the physical force of rain, frost, and
wind, pnnluce visible effects u|ion the most indurdted rocks, but, of coui-se, much greater ef-
fects ii|)on incoherent rocks. We know that the action of these agents loads the waters of
the Ganges with detritus to the extent of2i percent, of their volume, which is an enoiTnous
quantiiy'when we consider that the water discharged by that river into the sea is 500,000
cubic feet ;)er second, although this amount falls far short of Major Rennel's statement of 25
per cent. ; yet these agents have not had sufficient pnver to accumulate, by their owii action
on iiuiurated n»cky strata, all the de|x»sils of clay, gravel, and sand, found accimnilated W
the depth of many feet. Combined in their action, they could only originate a mere o i ng
of soil over the surface of indurated rock, if the rock were situated within the regicrs .^( -.A-n-
nogamous veg'Jtation, because then it would be consianily covered with p'^s*. 'V».t tl«
planU, in then "nni, wcmld protect to? rocks against the action of tbov.< 4,i>'Hcies, and, al-
though they cMild not entirely prevent, lliey could at least reUid, ibr accumulation of soil
beyond what the decay of vegetation supplied. Even in the tropics, where vegetation dis-
plays its greatest luxuriance on the globe, the mould does not increase, though the decay of
vegetables every year is enormous. " Tho quantity of timber and vegetable matter which
grows in a tropical forest in the courseofac— 'turj." says .Mr. Lyell, " is enormous, and mul-
tinides of animal skeletons are scattered there during the same period, besides innumerable
* Morton on ?'oiIs. 1 Vrize Kssays of the Highland and AffricuIlunU Society, toL sfiL
i De la Beche, How lo Obaervc Geulogy. |1 De la Beche* Manual of Ceolog)-.
(412)
SOILS AND SUBSOILS. 2!>
laad shells and other organic substances. The aggregate of these materials, therefore, mi<^ht
constitute a mass greater in volume than that wliich is produced in any coral-reef durin" the
same lapse oi' years ; but, although this process should continue on the land for ever, no
moxmtains of wood or bone would be seen sb-etching far and wide over the countiy, or push-
ing out bold promontories into the sea. The whole soHd mass is either devoui-ed by animals,
or decomposes, as does a portion of the rock aaJ soil (into their gaseous constituents) on
which the animals and plants are supported.''^ These are the causes of the prevention of
the accumulation of soils in the ti'opics. In colder regions a similar result is thus brought
about. " It is well known," continues Mr. Lyell, " that a covering of herbage and shnibs
may protect a loose soil fi-oni being carried away by rain, or even by the ordiuaiy action of a
river, and may prevent hills of loose sand from beuig blown away by the wind ; for the roots
bind together the separate particles into a firm mass, and the leaves intercept the rain-water,
80 that It dries up gradually, instead of flowing oft" in a mass and with great velocity. "t
(410.) Some other agent, therefore, more powei-fiil than tlie ordinary atmospherical ele-
ments, must be brought to bear upon indui-ated I'ocks, before a satisfactoiy solution of the
fonnation of soils can be given. This other agent is water ; but the moment that we assent
to the agency of water bemg able by its gi'eat abrasive power and gi'eat buoyant property,
when in motion, to transport the abraded parts of rocks to a distance, and let them tall on
coming in contact with some opjTOsing banier, that moment we must abandon the idea of
soils havmg been universally derived from the indurated rocky strata upon which they are
found to rest. I quite agree with Mr. Buist in the conclusions he has drawn in regard to
Boils, after he had described their relative positions to the rocks upon which they rest in a
large and important district of Perthshire, where he says, " that the alluvial matters of these
districts, in general, belong to periods much more remote than those ordinarily assigned to
them, and came mto existence under circumstances prodigiously difterent from those which
presently obtain : that the present causes — that is, the action of our modem rivers, brooks,
and toiTents, and of the air and water on the surfaces now exposed to them — have had but
little share in modifying om- alluvial fonnations, or bringing them into their present fomi. —
The doctrine seems to me most distinctly demonstrable, that wherever gravel or clay beds
alternate with each other, and wherever bowlder stones prevail remote from the parent rock,
or cut oft" from it by high intervening ridges, that, at the time when the surface of the solid
rock became covered with such alluvium, much the gi-eater part of it was hundreds of feet
beneath the waves. The supposition of the prevalence of enormous lakes, requiring barriers
only less stupendous than our highest secondaiy mountain-ranges, whose outbursts must have
swept every movable thing before them, seems far more untenable than the assumption that
the present dry land, at the era of bowlders being tiansported, was beneath the level of the
ocean, from which, by slow elevations, it subsequently emerged. Our newer alluvia, again,
■which are destitute of en-atic bowlders in general, such as our Carse of Gowrie and other
clays, must have originated when the sea occasionally invaded the land to such moderate ex-
tent that the transportation of rocky masses, fi-om great distances from our mountain-land, had
been rendered impossible, by the intenention of elevated ridges, or of secondaiy mountain-
i-anges.''^ More than this, is it not probable that, when the sti-atified rocks were being de-
posited in water, portions of the matter of which they were about to be formed weie car-
ried away by cui'rents, and, by reason of the motion given them, were deposited in eddies
xn a mechanical state, instead of getting leave to assume the crystiiline form of indurated
stratified rock ? May not all diluvium have thus originated, instead of being abraded fi-om
solid strata, although it is possible that some portion may have been derived from the abra-
sion of rocks ? It is also quite conceivable that where indurated rocks, such as ch;ilk, and
sandstone, and limestone, were left bare by the subsiding waters, and exposed to atmospher-
ica'- influences, part of the soil upon them may have been derived at first immediately from
them.
(411.) The soil, or incoherent rocks, when complete in all theii* members, consist of three
parts. The oldest or lowest part, not unfrequently teniied diluvium, but which is an ob-
jectionable term, inasmuch as it conveys the idea of its having been formed by the Noachiau
deluge, wliich it may not have been, but may have existed at a much older period of the
globe. This cannot be called a/luvium, according to the definition of that deposit given by
Mr. Lyell, who considers it to consist of " such transported matter as has been thrown
down, whether by rivers, floods, or other causes, upon laud not permanently submerged
beneath the waters of lakes or seas — I say 'permanently submerged, in order to distin-
guish betw^een alluviums and regular subaqueous deposits. These regular strata," he con-
tniues, " are accumulated in lakes or great submarine receptacles ; but the alluvium is iu
the channels of rivers or currents, where tlie materials may be regarded as still in transitu,
or on their way to a place of rest."|| Diluvium, therefore, should rather be tenned subaque-
ous deposits, and may consist of clay, or gravel, or sand, in deep masses and of large extent.
It may, in fact, be trimsported materials, which, it they had been allowed to remain in their
* Lyell's Principles of (^"eology, vol. iii. f Ibid.
t Prize Kseayg of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, vol. xiii.
J {.yell's Principles of Geclogy, vol. iii.
(413)
222 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
original site, would have formed indurated aluminous and silicious rocks. When such sub-
aqueous deposits are exposed to atmospherical influences, an arable soil is easily formed
ujion ihem.
(412.) True alluvial deposits may raise themselves by accumulation above their depositing
waters, and ait can assist the natural process, by the erection of enibiuikmeuts against tlie en-
croachments of these waters, and by the casting out of large ditches for carrying them away,
as has been done in several places in the rivers and coasts of our country. Atmospherical
mfluences soon raise an arable soil on alluvium.
(413.) The third member of soils is the upper mould, which has been directly derived
from vegetation, and can only come into e.\istence after either of the other soils has been
placed in a sitiiation favorable for the support of plants. Mould, being in contact v^nlh air,
always exists on tlie surface, but when either the subacpieous deposit or tlie alluvium is
wantuig, the mould then rests upon the one present ; or both may be wanting, and then it
rests upon the indurated rocky strata.
(414.) When the last case happens, if the rocky stratum is porous, by means of numerous
fissures, or is in inclined beds, the arable soil is an earthy mould of good quality for agricul-
tural purposes ; such as are the moulds upon sandstones, limestones, and trap, and the up-
per chalk fonnatiou; but if it rest on a massive rock, then the mould is converted into a
spongy, wet j)abulum for subaquatic plants, forming a marsh, if the site is low, and if high,
it is converted into tliin peat ; and both are worthless soils for Agriculture. When the
mould rests immediately upon clay subaqueous deposit, a coarse and rank vegetation exists
upon it, and if the water which supports it has no opportunity of passing away, in time a
bog is formed by the cimiidative growth of the subaquatic mosses.* When mould, on the
otlier hand, is fonned on gi-avelly deposit, the vegetation is short, and dry, and sweet, and
particulai'ly well adapted to promote the sound feeding and health of sheep. On such de-
posits water is never seen to remain after the heaviest fall of rain. When mould rests on al-
luvial deposit of whatever natTire, a rich soil is the consequence, and it will be naturally dry
only when the deposit is gravelly or sandy.
(41.5.) Mr. De La Beche seems to think that farmers do not know the reason why subsoils
are favorable or unfavorable to the soil upon them.t I suspect they know more about them
than he is aware of. They know quite well that a diy subsoil is more favorable to Agricul-
ture than a retentive one ; that gi~dvel forms a drier subsoil than clay ; and that the reason
why tliese results should be so is, that clay, or a massive rock, will not let water pass
tlu-ough it so easily as gi-avel, and I presume no geologist knows more of the matter.
(416.) [We must now obsers^e soils and subsoils in another point of view. A practical
outline of the characters of various soils, and the manner in which they may be distinguished
one from another, having been already pointed out to you, my intention now is, to consider
them scientifically, for the purpose of preparing your minds for follo\\-ing me through the
mazy windings of theoretical Agriculture, as developed by the joint application of chemistry,
mechanical philosophy, and vegetable physiology. Although, to the contemplative and still
more to the speculative student, this branch of the subject will exhibit the greatest charms,
still I beg you to bear m mind continually, that it is with practice you have to do, and that
theory must oidy be used cautiously as an adjunct to well-studied and assiduously -applied
practical knowledge ; and although, by so doing, I fully believe you will not only increase
greatly your interest in the whole matter, but will likewise proceed vv-ith more rapid sti'ide.*
in the progress of improvement, I feel equally satisfied that an opposite course, viz. the study
of theory antecedent to the application of practice, will almost invariably be productive of
just the opposite effects, viz. the retardation of your real advance in knowledge, and wiU,
moreover, make you nin a rea t risk of becoming speculative men, than wliich uotliing can
be more inimical to real improvement.
(417.) Soil, considered scientifically, may be described to be essentially a mixture of an
imjialpable jrowder with a greater or smaller quantity' of visible particles of all sizes and
shapes. Careful examination will prove to us, that although the visible particles have seve-
ral indirect effects, of so great importance that they are absolutely necessary to soU, still ihe
impalpable powder is the only portion which directly exerts any influence upon vegetation.
Tliis impalpable powder consists of two distinct classes of substances, viz. inorganic or mis-
tral matters, and animal and vegetable substances, in all the various stages of decomposition.
(418.) A very simple method may be employed to separate these t^vo classes of particles
from each other, viz. the impalpable powder and the visible particles ; and, in so doing, we
obtain a veiy useftil index to the real value of the soil. Indeed all soils, except stiff" clays,
can be discriminated in this mamier. The greater the proportion of the impalpable matter,
the gi'eater, cceteris paribus, will be the fertility of the soil. (438.)
(419.) To effect this separation, the following easy experiment may be performed Take
a glass tube about 2 feet long, closed at one end ; fill it abo\it lialf full of water, and shake
into it a sufficient quantity of the soil to be examined to fill the tube about 2 inches fiom the
bottom ; then put in a cork, and liaving shaken the tube well to mix the earth and water
* For an account of the origin of Bogs, see Aiton on Moas.
t Pe La Beche, How to observe Geology.
(414)
SOILS AND SUBSOILS. 22^
thoroughly, set the tube in an upright position, for the soil to settle down. Now, as the
larger particles are of course the heavier, they fall first, and form the undermost layer of the
deposit, and so on in regular gradation, the impalpable powder being the last to subside, and
hence occupying the uppermost portion. Then by examining the relative thickness of the
various layers, and calculating their proportions, you can make a very accurate mechanical
analysis of the soil.
(420.) The stones which we meet with in soil have in general the same composition as the
soil itself, and hence, by their gradually crumbling down under the action oftair and moisture,
they are continually adding new impalpable matter to the soil, and as I shall show you here-
after the large quantity of this impalpable mineral matter which is annually removed by tho
crops, you will at once perceive that this constant addition must be of great value to the soil.
This, therefore, is one important fiinction performed by the stones of soil, viz. their afibrding
a continually renewed supply of impalpable mineral matter.
(421.) When we come to consider the nourishment of plants, we shall find that their food
undergoes various preliminary changes in the soil previous to its being made use of by the
plants, and the aid of chemistry will prove to us that the effect is produced by the joint
action of air and water ; it follows, therefore, that soil must be porous. Now, this porosity
of the soil is in part produced by the presenct of the larger particles of matter, which, being of
all varieties of shape, can never fit closely together, but always leave a multitude of pores
between them ; and in this manner permit of the free circulation of air and water through
the soil.
(422.) As the porous nature of soil may, to a certain extent, be taken as an index of its
power of retaining moisture, it is advisable to determine its amount. This is effected in the
following way : Instead of putting the water first into the tube, as directed above (419), and
shaking the soil into it, take a portion of soil dried by a heat of about 200° F. and shake it
into the dry tube, and by tapping the closed end frequently on the table, make the soil lie
compactly at the bottom ; when you have fuUy effected this, that is, when farther tapping
produces no reduction of bulk, measure accurately the column of soil, cork the tube, shake
it till the soil becomes again quite loose, and then pour in the water as directed above (419.)
After it has fully subsided, tap the tube as before, and re-measui-e ; the increase of bulk is
dependent upon the swelling of each particle by the absorption of water, and hence shows
the amount of porosity. In very fertile soil I have seen this amount to one-sixth of the whole
bulk.
(423.) The fimctions of the impalpable matter are far more complicated, and will require
a somewhat detailed description. In this poi-tion of the soil the mineral and organic matter
are so completely united that it is quite impossible to separate them from each other ; indeed,
there are very weighty reasons for believing that they are chemically combined. It is from
this portion of the soil that plants obtain all their mineral ingi-edients, and likewise all their
organic portions, in so far as these are obfrained by the roots ; in fact, plants receive nothing
from the soil, except water, which has not been associated with that portion which is at
present engaging our attention.
(424.) The particles forming the impalpable matter are in such close apposition that the
whole acts in the same way as a sponge, and is hence capable of absorbing liquids and re
taiiiing them. It is in this way that soil remains moist so near the surface even after a long
continued drouth ; and I need not tell you how valuable this property must be to the plants,
since by tliis means they are supplied with moisture during the heat of summer, when
otherwise, unless artificially watered, they would very soon wither.
(425.) Another most useful function of this impalpable portion is its power of separating
organic matter from water in which it has been dissolved. Thus, for example, if you take
the dark brown liquid which flows from a dunghill, and pour it on the surface of some earth
in a flower pot, and add a sufficient quantit)' to soak the whole earth, so that a portion flows
out through the bottom of the pot, this latter liquid will be found much lighter in color than
before it was poured upon the earth, and this effect will be increased the nearer the soil ap-
proaches in its nature to subsoil. Now, as the color was entu'ely owing to the organic mat-
ter dissolved in it, it follows that the loss of color is dependent upon an equivalent loss of or-
ganic matter, or, in other words, a portion of the organic matter has entered into chemical
combination with the impalpable mineral matter, and has thus become insoluble in water.
The advantage of this is, that when soluble organic matter is applied to soil, it does not all
soak through with the water and escape beyond the reach of the roots of the plants, but is
retained by the impalpable portions m a condition not hable to uijury from rain, but still ca
pable of becoming food for plants when it is required.
(426.) Hitherto I have pointed out merely the mechanical relations of the various constit-
uents of soil, with but little reference to their chemical constitution ; this branch of the sub-
ject, although by far the most important and interesting, is nevertheless so difficult and com-
plex that 1 cannot hope for the practical farmer doing much more than making himself famil-
iar with the names of the various chemical ingredients, and learning their relative value as
respects the fertility of the soil ; as to his attempting to prove their existence in his own soil
by analysis, I fear that is far too difficult a subject for him to grapple with, unless regularly
educated as an analytical chemist.
(415)
224 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
(427.) Sfiil, to be useful to the British agriculturist, must contain no less than 12 different
chemical substances, viz. silica, alumina, oxide of inm, o.iide of manganese, lime, magnesia,
potass, 8<^>da. phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, chlorine, and organic matter; each of these sub-
stances must engage our attention siiortly ; and as I by no means purpose to burden youi'
memories by relatuig all the facts of interest connected wth them, I sliali confine my obser
rations almost solely to their relative imjx»rtaiK-e to plants, and their amount in soil.
(428.) Silica. This is the pure matter of sauil, and also constitutes on an average about
60 per cent, of the various clays ; so that in soil it generally amounts to from 75 to 9.'j per
cent. In its uncombined state, it has no direct influence ujjon plants, beyond its mechanical
action, in supporting the roots, &.c. ; but, as it possesses the properties of an acid, it unites
with various alkaline matters in the eoU, and produces comjHJUuds which are requii-ed in
greater or less quantity by everj' plant. The chief of these are the silicates of potass and
soda, by which expression is meant the comp<Junds of silica, or, more properly, silicic acid
with tlie alkalies potass antl soda.
(429.) Alumina. This substance never exists pure in soil. It is the characteristic ingre-
dient of clay, although it exists in that compound to the extent of only 30 or 40 per cent. It
exerts no direct chemical influence on vegetation, and Ls scarcely ever found in the ashes of
plants. Its chief value in soil, therefore, is owing to its effects in rendering soil more reten-
tive of moisture. Its amount varies from ^ per cent, to 13 per cent.
(430.) Oxide of Iron. There are two oxides of iron found in soils, namely, the protoxide
and peroxide ; one of which, the protoxide, is frequently very injurious to vegetation — in-
deed, so much so, tliat ^ per cent, of a soluble salt of this oxide is suflicient to render soil
almost barren, The peroxide, however, is often found in small quantities in the ashes of
{)lants. The two oxides together constitute from ^ to 10 per cent, of soil. The blue, yel
ow, red and brown colors of soil are more or less dependent upon the presence of inm.
(431.) Oxide of Manganese. This oxide exists in nearly all soils, and is occasionally
found in jilants. It does not, however, appear to exert any important influence either me-
chanically or chemically. Its amount varies from a mere trace to about 1^ per cent. It ai
gists in giWng the black color to soil.
(432.) These 4 substances constitute by far the greatest bulk of even.' soil, except the
chalky and peaty varieties, but, nevertheless, che-inicaUi/ speaking, are of trifling imj>orlance
to plants; whereas, the remaining 8 are so absolutely essential that no soil can be cultivated
with anv success unless provided with them, either naturally or artificially. And when you
consider tliat scarcely any of them constitute 1 per cent, of the soil, you will no doubt at first
be surprised at their value. The sole cause of their utility lies in the fact that they constitute
the ashes of the plants ; and as no plant can, by possibility-, thrive v^-iihout its inorganic con
stituents (its ashes), hence no soil can be fertile which does not contain the ingredients of
which these are made up. I shall not treat of each separately, but will fiuiiish you witli one
or two analyses of soil to show their importance, and to impress them more fully on your
memorj'. I regret that I must look to foreign works to fhmish these analyses ; but the truth
is, we have not one single published analysis of Briti.«h soil by a British chemist whicli is
worth recording. Sir Humphiy Davy just analyzed soil to determine the amount of the first
4 substances mentioned, and one or two olliers, and failed to detect 5 or 6 of the most import-
ant ingredieriLs. In tact, the only u.seful analyses we possess are those performed by Spren-
gel, and <)uoted in Dr. Lyon Playfair's second edition of Liebig's Organic Chemistry appUed
to Agriculmre, from which valuable woik I quote the following examples.
(433.) Ajialysis of a very fertile aUuvial soil from Honigpolder. Com had been cultivated
upon this soil for 70 years without any manure ha\Tng been applied to it, but it was now and
then allowed to lie fallow :
Silica with fine silicious sand ,..64.800
Alumina 5.700
Peroxide of iron 6.100
manganese 0.090
Lime 5.880
Mspnesia 0.840
Potass combined with silica 0.210
Soda combined vith silica 0.393
Sulphuric acid combined with lime 0.210
Chlorine in common salt 0.201
Phosphoric acid combined tcitk lime 0.4.30
Carbonic acid combined with lime 3.920
_ . (Humus 5.600
organic^ Hnmus »o/mW« in alkalies 2.540
™"^®'- ( Azotized matter 1.582
Water 1 .504
lOO.OOO*
Liebig's Organic Chemistry applied to Agriculture, 2d edit
(4J6J
SOILS AND SUBSOILS. 225
^434.) Alluvial soil from Ohio, remarkable for its fertility —
Silica with fine silicious sand 79.538
Alumina 7.306
Protoxide and peroxide of iron, with mnch magnetic iron-sand 5.824
Peroxide of manganese 1.320
Lime 0.619
Magnesia 1.024
Potass combined with silica 0.200
Soda - 0.02,4
Phosphoric acid combined with lime and iron 1.7.6
Sulpliuric acid combined with lime 0.122
Chlorine in common salt 0.036
f^ ■ (Hamaa soluble in alkalies 1.950
"""^f""^^ Humus with azotized matter 0.236
matter, ^ jj^egj^oug matter and wax 0.025
100.000
(435.) Loamy sand from the environs of Brunswick, very barren —
Silica with coarse silicious sand 95.843
Alumina 0.600
Peroxide of iron 1.800
Peroxide of manganese a trace.
Potass and soda 0.005
Lime combijied w ith silica 0.038
Magnesia combined with silica 0.006
Sulphuric acid 0.002
PhosphorK acid combined with iron 0.198
Chlorine in common salt 0.006
Organic { Humus 0.502
matter, ( Humus soluble in alkalies 1.000
100.000
Here the sterility is evidently produced by the small amount of potass, soda, lime, magne-
sia, and sulphuric acid — all of -which are essential for the ashes of most of our usually culti-
vated crops.
(43<).) These analyses -will give you some idea of the complex nature of the soil, and the
necessity of most minute analysis if we wish to ascertain its real value. The reason for such
minuteness in analysis becomes obvious when we consider the immense weights with whicli
you have to do in practical Agriculture ; for example, every imperial acre of soil, considered
as only 8 inches deep, will weigh 1884 tons, so that 0.00*2 percent, (the amount of sulphm-ic
acid in the barren soil) amounts to 80.64 lbs. per imperial acre.
(437.) I have purposely avoided saj-ing anything of the organic matter of soil, as tliis is a
most complicated subject, and will be far better considered under the head of manures.
(438.) All these substances, except the silica contained in the form of sand, constitute the
impalpable matter of soil. It is evident, therefore, that this may differ much in chemical
constitution without ditfering in amount, and yet have the greatest influence upon the fertil-
ity of the soil ; my design, therefore, of introducing the words " casteris paribus" in para-
gi-aph (418) was to induce you to bear in mind thafthe statement refers solely to soil consid-
ered mechanically. For fear of being misunderstood, therefore, I would paraplirase the sen
tence thus : Witliout a certain amount of impalpable matter, soil cannot possibly be fertile ,
yet, while the existence of this material proves the soil to be mechanically well suited for
cultivation, chemical analysis alone can prove its absolute value to the fanner.
(439.) Potass and soda exist in variable quantities in many of the more abundant miner-
als, and hence it follows that their proportion in soU will vary according to the mineral which
produced it. For the sake of reference, I have subjoined the following table, which shows
the amount per cent, of alkalies in some of these minerals, and likewise a rough calculation
of the whole amount per imperial acre in a soil composed of these, supposing such a soU to
be 10 inches deep.
Name of Mineral.
Amount per cent,
of Alkali.
Name of Alkali.
.4mount per Imperial Acre
in a soil 10 inches deep.
17.75
3.31 to 6.62
2.75 to 3.31
5.75 to 10.
927,360 lbs.
Potass and Soda
161.000 to 322,000 lbs.
Clay-slate
80.500 to 161.000 lbs.
Basalt
Potass and Soda
37,887 to 56.875 lbs.
(440.) From the above table you see the abundant quantities in which these valuable sub-
stances are contained in soU ; some, however, of you, who are acquainted with chemistry,
will naturally ask the question. How is it that these alkalies have not been long ago washed
away by the rain, since they are both so very soluble in water ? Now the reason of their
not having been dissolved is the following ; and it may in justice be taken as an example of
(417) 15
22G THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINIHR
those wise provisions of Nature, whereby what is useful is never wasted, and yet is at all
times supplied abuiidjuuly.
(441.) These iilkiilies exist in combination with the various other ingredients of the rock
in whicn they occur, and in this way have sucli a jiovverful attraction for each other that they
are capable of resisting completely the solvent action of water so long as the integrity- of the
mass is retained. When, however, it is reduced to a perfectly impalpable powder, this at-
ti-action is diminished to a considerable extent, and then the alkali is much more easily dis-
solved. Now this is the case in soil ; and, consecpiently, while the stony portions of soil con-
tain a vast supply of these valuable ingredients m a condition in which water can do them
no injury, the impalpable powder is supplied with them in a soluble state, and hence in a
condition available to the wants of vegetation.
(44'2.) In the rocks which we have mentioned, the alkalies are always associated -with
clay, and it is to tins substance tliat they have the greatest attraction ; it follows, therefore,
that the more clay a soil contains, the more alkalies will it have, but at the same time it will
yield them less easily to water, and through its medium to plants. — H. R. M.]
22. PLANTING OF THORN-HEDGES.
" Next, fcnc'd with hedges and deep ditches round,
Exclude th' encroaching cattle from thy ground."
Dryden's ViRGir..
(443.) Immediately in connection with the subject of inclosures is the
construction of the fences by which the fields are inclosed. There ar."
only two kinds of fences usually employed on farms, namely, thorii-Jicdg
and stonc-dykcs. As winter is the proper season for planting, or runninj^,
as it is termed, thorn-hedges, and summer that for building stone-dykes, I
shall here describe the process of planting the hedge, and defer the de-
scription of building the dyke until the anival of the summer season. It
may be that the farm on which you have entered as a pupil, or that which
you have taken on lease, may not require to be fenced with thorn-hedges.
Still it is requisite that you should be inade acquainted with the best mode
of planting them.*
[* The dryness of our soil and climate, and yet more the want of fersiatcnce which character-
izes American agriculturists, and which is so particularly requisite in the formation of a good
hedge, will render the rearing of hedges a work of very limited extent and of doubtful success.
Moreover, the liahility of all estates to be again and again divided and subdivided, will cooperate
with other reasons to the same end. Still, they answer well and arc highly ornamental for small
inclosures, and for that purpose we are inclined to believe the Madura, or Osage Orange, will
prove valuable as it is beautiful, as any one may see at Mr. Cushing's, near Boston.
As an agricultural topic, we confess we do not regard it as one of general interest, and might
have omitted it altogether but for reasons already alleged, in similar cases. The subscriber -who
reflects that in Stephens's Book of the Farm he is getting a work that would cost him more than
$20, will be content to put up with some things that may not have for him immediate value.
On large estates in the South, everything forbids the expectation that hedges will ever be re-
sorted to as division fences ; and on small ones in the North, stone supplies a more convenient
material. Besides, we anticipate the extension of the soiling system, of which one great bene-
fit will be, that cross fences may be dispensed with, and thus one of the greatest burdens on
Agriculture be shaken off
In the old American Farmer much may be found on the subject of hedges. It was verj' fully
treated oy Caleb Kirli, an intelligent practical Quaker farmer of Delaware. But what is now
needed to be known by American cultivators who are disposed to make experiments in hedging,
is well condensed in the following article from that popular and excellent periodical, the old
Albany CuUivator :
Hedges for America. — A great difference of opinion exists in relation to hedges for this
country. There have been some very successful attempts, and there have also been many failures.
An examination into the cavsex of this difference of success, in actual experimiuits, will doubtless
be of use, and enable us to judge whether hedges possess advantages over other kinds of fence
(418)
PLANTING OF THORN-HEDGES. 227
(444 ) The proper time for planting thorn-hedges extends from the fall
of the leaf, in autumn, to April, the latter period being late enough. The
state of the ground usually chosen for the process is when in lea. 1 recom-
in any case. We lately examined several specimens of successful hedge-making. A part of
thetn were made by John Bx)binson, of Palmyra, N. Y., a vigorous and enterprising English
farmer, v^^hose experiments are of several years' continuance. He has over a hundred rods of
hedge in different stages of growth, the management or treatment of which appears to be par-
ticularly worthy of attention.
The young thorns are set out in the hedge-row at two years of age, after which they are cut off
at the surface of the ground the first year, to cause a thick growth of sprouts ; they are again cui
off the second year, from four to six inches from the ground, according to their hight and vigor,
which causes a second crop of thick sprouts at that hight ; the third year they are cut off six or
eight inches higher, and so on, rising about at that rate until the hedge is five or six feet high.
This mode of treatment, which is well known and often practiced in England, obviates the neces-
sity of plashing, if it is successfully performed ; the successive crops of thick sprouts thus occa-
sioned, densely interlace each other, and the hedge becomes a thick mass of entangled shoots
and branches, which cannot be separated. It is in fact precisely similar to the process ot'feltine-.
but on a larger scale ; and when the best specimens thus grown are forcibly shaken at any point,
whole rods on either side are shaken with it as in one mass. This felting property thus becomes
of more value by far, to the impregnability of the hedge, than the thorns.
One hedge had received three different modes of treatment. A part had been imperfectly
cultivated ; another portion had been well cultivated for a distance of two feet on each side ; and
a third stood on ground which was trenched two feet deep before planting. The growth of the
second was twice as great as the first, and of the trenched portion still greater. Indeed, one may
as well think of raising corn by planting a row in a thick meadow, as to raise a good hedge with-
out keeping the soil constantly mellow about the young trees. A space two feet wide on either
side of the hedge is the distance usually kept cultivated.
From six to eight years are needed to make a good, substantial hedge, proof against cattle.
These hedges are set on a bank about eighteen inches above the surface, with a ditch two feet
deep serving to carry off surface water on one side. The plants are set six inches apart. If
closer, they do not grow so well.
The greatest difficulty which J. Robinson finds, is protecting the young hedge for several
years, until it is proof against cattle. For, although it may be placed along the side of a fence,
next to crops, or meadow, yet in the course of rotation it is thrown into pasture, and is thus en-
dangered. A longer course of alternating crops would be the remedy in usual cases.
Hedges for plashing are not subjected to the successive shortening down which has been ju.st
described ; but the young stems are suffered to grow until several feet high and an inch or more
in diameter, when they are cut partly off near the ground and bent over to an angle of forty-five
degrees in the direction of the line of the hedge. A thick growth of branches is not needed be-
fore this operation. All the large, branches should be cut off at the time, but not clo.sely. Young
shoots afterward ascend, and growing upright, form cross-bars with the main stems which have
been bent over, and interlocking with them produce a sort of lattice-work possessing ultimately
great strength. A small portion of the trees are not bent, but remain upright, to stiffen the rest,
and slender poles are run along the top, alteniating with them, to keep them to their place until
the whole is firmly established. These poles being green and of perishable wood, cost little, and
rot out when they are no longer needed.
The selection of suitable trees for forming hedges, is of the very first importance. One great
reason, without any doubt, why so many have failed in their experiments, is bad selection, or a
want of adaptation of certain species to the climate where they were used. The English haw-
thorn has been found entirely unsuited to most parts of the United States. At Newburgh, accord-
ing to A. J. Downing, "its foliage becomes quite brown and unsightly after the first of August."
He also remarks that it is there extremely liable to the attacks of the borer. Farther south, where
the summers are longer and dryer, and consequently more dissimilar to those of England, it is of
no value whatever. But in the cooler summers of Western New- York, and where, perhaps, the
soil may exert also a favorable influence, it has continued to flourish in well-managed hedges for
many years. All the hedges of John Robinson, already described, are of this species ; a very
vigorous hedge, on the grounds of John Baker of Macedon, N. Y., is of the same. "We had sup-
posed that moist, rich land would be better suited to this thorn than dry upland ; but in the ex-
periments of these intelligent farmers it has been found that good fertile upland is incomparably
better.
The sudden failures, however, of this thorn, in some places farther south, should induce its
cautious use on a large scale, especially while American species have been found in most parts
of the country so much superior. The Washington thorn, fCratcegus cordata) is preferred by
some, and pos.sesses the advantage of the seeds vegetating freely the first year. But in Pennsyl-
vania and Delaware, where both this and the Newcastle thorn (C. crus-galli) have been ex-
tensively used for many years, the latter has in all cases been found so decidedly superior in
hardiness, vigor and freshness of growth, to the former, as to give it eminently the preference.
Indeed, the Newcastle thorn appears to be the only American species extensively tried, which
has, in all cases whatever, proved to be entirely free from all disease or defect. It is not improb-
able, however, that the Washington thorn may succeed finely so far north as northern or western
New-York, where the English species is itself so much more successful than elsewhere. Its easy
growth from seed, besides, renders it worthy of trial. There are other trees, doubtless, of value
for this purpose. The Buckthorn has been found perfectly hardy and successful around Boston ;
and the poisonous character of its bark secures it from attacks of the mice. Its thorns are only
(419)
228 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
mencled lea as the best state for the process, in a paper on ihom-hedges
which appeared some years ago ;* but experience lias since convinced me
that this is not the best state of the ground for the purpose ; because grass
grows up from the turf around the young thorn-plants, and cannot be
easily removed, but with the removal, at the same time, of a considerable
portion of -the earth ui)on which the young plants rest. A much better time,
therefore, is after the ground has been thoroughly fallowed during the sum-
mer, that is, after it has been perfectly cleared of all weeds ; well stirred
and connnixed with the plow and the haiTow, and pulveiized, if need be,
with the roller; freshened l)y lengthened exposure to the air ; amply ma-
nured with good dung, to promote the growth of the young thorn-plants ;
and Bufliciently limed to prevent worms traversing the soil, and, in conse
quence, moles mining in (juest of them. If the field in which the line of
hedge is proposed to be planted is not intended to be thoroughly fallowed —
that is, by a bare fallow or a crop of potatoes or turnips — the part to be oc-
cupied by the hedge should be so treated, in order to render the soil as clean,
and fresh, and fertile as j)ossible; and the expense incurred by this treatment
of the soil will be repaid by the increased health and strength of the hedge
for many years thereafter. There is no doubt that lea-sod affords a firmer
bed for the young thom-plants to rest upon than fallowed ground ; but it
is of much greater importance to secure the ground from weeds, and health
and strength to the young plants, than mere firmness of soil under them,
but v/hich peculiar advantage may be attained, too, partly by allowing the
fallowed ground to consolidate for a time before commencing the opera-
tion, and paitly by trampling the soil thoroughly while in the act of
planting.
(445.) The gi'ound having been thus prepared, the planting of the hedge
may be pnoceeded with forthwith. If its line of direction is determined
by existing fences ; that is to say, if one side of a field only requii'es
fencing, then the new fence should be made parallel with the old one that
rtins N. or S., and it may take any convenient course, if its general direc-
tion is E. and W. Should a field, or a number of fiehls, require laying ofl'
anew, the N. and S. fences should run due N. and S., for the purpose of
the pointed ends of die branches, which are hardly sufficient to repel all kinds of intruders. Of
its treatment by successive heading down, its felting quality, and its capability of plashing, we
are not informed, as in nearly if not quite all the specimens we have seen, those operations were
omitted.
The expense of a vcllmnde hedge, until it is cattle proof, is about fifty cents per rod. Caleb
Kirk, of Delaware, who was thorough and successful in his experiments, gave the following as
the cost of an excellent hcduo thirteen years old :
1,000 quicks, cost from nursery $5 00
Planting, man and boy, each two daj's 2 50
Dressing, first year, with plow and hoe 1 00
Expenses first year $8 50
Dressing for five successive years, plow and hoe 5 00
7th year, trenching with plow, and throwing up ditch, three days $3 75
500 stakes (for upright.s), cutting, and timber 3 50
Poles (horizontal), and cutting them 2 00
One hand three days, at plashing 3 00
12 25
8th to 13th year inclusive, one day each year trimming and cleaning... 4 50
Expense 13 years, sixty rods $30 25
It may be questioned whether hedges will ever be extensively used where timber or stones are
plenty. But as many places are destitute, or likelv to become so, exiHjriments to determine their
practicability must become very desirable. Tiic Sisposition to neglect is so prevalent with most
farmers, that the preat care and attention, nnd constant culture, so necessary, will not be given,
and success cannot take place in such cases. But with skillful management and enterprise they
will doubtless be found highly jirofitable ; that if good they will i)rove a great rural embellish-
ment, we all know ; and that those who have fruit gardens to protect from rogues, will find them
the greatest security, is equally self evident.]
* Ji will be found in the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. L
(420)
PLANTING OF THORN-HEDGES. 229
giving the ridges an equal advantage of the sun both forenoon and after-
noon. To accomplish this parallelism a geometrical process must be gone
through ; and to perform that process with accuracy, certain instruments
are required.
(446.) In the first place, 3 poles at least in number, of at least 8^ feet in
length, should be provided. They should be shod and pointed with iron
at one end, marked off in feet and half-feet throughout their length, and
each painted at the top of a different color, such as white, red, blue, gi'een,
or black, so as to form decided contrasts with each other when set in line.
Three of such poles are required to determine a straight line, even on
level ground ; but if the ground is uneven, four or more are requisite.
These poles will be found of use, not merely in lining off fences, but they
will be required every year on the farm, to set off the breadths of the
ridges of fields after being fallowed. 2. An optical square for setting off
lines at right angles, or a cross-table, for the same pui-pose, should also be
jjrovided. The optical square costs 21s. and the cross-table 7s. 6d. 3. You
should also have an imperial measuring-chain, of 66 feet in length, which
costs 13s., for measuring the breadth or length of the fields, in the process
of fencing ; or of drills, drains, and any other species of work set by piece
to laborers at other times. Iron pins, for marking the number of chains
measured, generally go along with the chain.
(447.) Being provided with these insti-uments, one line of fence is set off
parallel to another in this way. Set off, in the first instance, at i-ight angles,
a given distance from near one end of the old thorn-fence, if there be one,
or of the ditch, and let this distance be 6 feet from the roots of the thorns,
so that a space or scarcement of one foot on the edge or lip of the ditch
be left, and there plant one of the poles. About 100 yards' distance plant
another pole in the same manner, and so on along the length of the fence
from which the distances aie set off. If there be no fence to set off the
distances fi"om, then let a pole be set perpendicularly up in the line the
new fence is intended to occupy, and at noon, in a clear day, observe the
direction the shadow of the pole takes on level gi'ound, and that is N. and
S. ; or a pocket-compass can give the direction required, deducting the
variation of the needle, which in this countiy is about 27° W. ; but the
plan with the pole is the simplest and most handy for work-people. Poles,
at about 100 yards' distance, should be set up in the line of the shadow;
but you should bear in mind that the first two poles should be set up
quickly, otherwise a short lapse of time will make a material difference in
the line of direction of the shadow. Twenty minutes make a difference of
5'^ in the direction of the shadow of the poles, and 5° at the first pole Avill
make a considerable deviation from the true line of N. and S. at the far-
thest end of the line of the new fence. Adjust the poles with one another
to form the straight line, and this line forms the base line of your opera-
tions. This line is c u in fig. 36, projected by shadow in the manner just
described, or set off from the old hedge a b. Let c d and e be 3 poles
planted in that line. Let f be the cross-table erected in the line betwixt,
and adjusted by looking at the poles c and d. Let g, h, and i, be poles
set and adjusted to one another by the cross-table in the liney"^-, which is
the breadth of the field, and which distance is measured by the chain to
contain a number of ridges of given breadth, as any fractional part of a
ridge left at either side of the field afterward proves inconvenient for work.
In like manner, let the line I p be drawn from the cross-table at I by set-
ting the poles m, n, o, p. Then set the pole q in a line with the poles k p,
and measure the distance betwixt q and u, along the line r s t, with the
chain, which distance, if the two previous operations have been accurately
(421)
230
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
conducted, should be exactly equal to the distance betwixt ^and k, or /
and p ; but should it prove greater or less than either, then some error
must have been committed, and which can only be rectified by doing the
Fig 36.
X...
I
4r
r 1*
I
I
-t?
PLAX OF SETTING OFF FENCES PARALLEL TO EACH OTHER.
operation over again. The arrows show the directions in which each line
should be measured. Great accuracy should be obser\'ed in running these
lines of fences parallel, for if a similar error is committed at each suc-
cessive line of fence, the deviation from parallelism may prove very con-
siderable betwixt the first and last lines. Three poles only being employed
to set off the lines fk and t p, the ground may be supposed to be nearly
level ; but wherever such an inequality of gi-ound is found as to cause you
to lose sight of 1 of 3 poles, as many should be employed as to have 3 of
them in view at one time. This point should be constantly kept in view
in setting the poles.
(448.) A line of fence being thus set off, the next process is to plant it
with thorns, and for this purpose certain insti-uments are
required. 1. A strong garden line or cord, of at least 70 Fig- 37.
yards in length, having an iron reel at one end, and a strong
iron pin at the other. Its use is to show upon the ground
the exact line of the fence bet\\nxt the poles. Its cost
is, with a common reel and pin, 4s. 2. A few pointed
pins of wood, with Jiooked heads, to keep the cord in the
direction of the line of the hedge, whether that follows a
vertical curse or a horizontal one, occasioned by the
inequalities of the ground. 3. A wooden rule, 6 feet in
length, divided into feet and inches, having a piece of sim-
ilar wood about 2 feet in length, fastened at right angles
to one end. Its use is to measure off short distances at
right angles. Any country carpenter can make such a
rule. 4. No. 5 spades are the most useful size for hedg-
ing, which cost 4s. 3d. each. 5. A light hand-j}ick, to
loosen the subsoil at the bottom of the ditch and to trim
its sides, and it costs 5s. 6d. or 6s. 6. An iron tramp-
pick to loosen the subsoil immediately under the mould,
and raise the bowlder stones that may be found in it. a tramp-pick.
In some parts of the country this pick is unknown, but
a more efficient implement cannot be employed for the purpose. This pick
(422)
PLANTING OF THORN-HEDGES.
231
The tramp, fig. 37, is movable, and may
Fig. 33.
Stands 3 feet 9 inches in hight.
be placed on either side, to suit the foot of the work-
man, where it remains firm at about 16 inches from the
point, which gradually tapers and inclines a little forward,
to assist the leverage of the shank. The shank is f of an
inch square under the eye through which the handle passes,
and li inches broad at the tramp, where it is the strongest.
It costs 6s. 6d. 7, A ditcher's shovel, fig. 38. Its use is to
shovel the bottom and sides of the ditch, and to beat the
face of the hedge-bank. It is 1 foot broad and 1 foot long,
tapering to a point, with a shaft 28 inches in length, and
its costis, No. 5, 4s. This is a useful shovel on a farm,
cleaning up the bottoms of dunghills in soft ground much
better than a spade or square-mouthed shovel ; and yet in
some parts of the country it is an unknown implement. 8.
Three men are the most convenient number to work to-
gether in running a hedge ; and they should, of course, be
all well acquainted with spade-work. 9. Should tree-root*
be apprehended in the subsoil, a mattock for cutting them
will be required, and it costs 6s. 6d. 10. A
sharp priming-Jcnife to each man, to prepare
the plants for planting, which costs 2s. to 3s.
each.
(449.) The plant usually employed in this
country, in the construction of a hedge, is the
common hawthorn. " On account of the
stiffness of its branches," says Withering,
" the sharpness of its thorns, its roots not
spreading wide, and its capability of bearing
the severest winters without injury, this plant
is universally preferred for making hedges,
whether to clip or grow at large."* Thorns
ought never to be planted in a hedge till they
have been transplanted at least 2 years fi-om the
seed-bed, when they will have generally ac-
quired a girth of stem at the root of 1 inch, a
length in all of 3 feet, of which the root meas-
ures 1 foot, as in fig. 39, which is on a scale of
1-^ inches to 1 foot. The cost of picked plants
of that age is 12s. 6d. per 1,000 ; or, as they
are taken out of the lines, 10s. 6d. As thorns
are always transplanted too thick in the
nursery lines, in order to save room, and
draw them up sooner to be tall plants, I
would advise their being purchased from the
nursery at that age, the year before they are
intended to be planted in the fence, and of
being laid in lines in ample space in garden
mould, or any space of ground having a firee,
deep, dry soil. By such a process the stems
\vill acquire a cleaner bark and greater
strength, and the roots be furnished with a
much greater number of minute fibres, which
will greatly promote the growth of the young
Fi?. 39.
* Withering'8 Botany, vol. iii.
(423)
A THORN-PLANT.
232 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
hedge, and thus amply repay the additional trouble bestowed on the care
of the plants. Jiiit, whether the plants are so treated before they are
planted or not, the bundles, containing 200 plants each, should be imme-
aiately loosened out on their ariival from the nursery, and shevghed in,
that is, spread out upright in trenches in a convenient part of the field,
and dry earth well heaped against them, to protect the roots from frost,
and to keep them fresh until planted. The plants are taken from the
sheughs when wanted.
(450.) If the line of fence is to be straight, which should always be the
case if natural obstacles do not interfere to prevent it, let the poles be set
up in as'straight a line as possible fi-om one end of the fence to the other.
Should the ground be a plain, this line can be drawn straight with the
gi-eatest accuracy ; but should elevations, or hollows, or both, intel•^•ene,
however small, gi"eat care is requisite to preserve the straightness of the
line, because on such ground a straightness of line, determined by })ole8,
is very apt to advance upon the true line in the hollows, and recede from
it in the elevations, especially if the inequalities are abrupt. Surveyors
use the theodolite specially to avoid this risk of error, but it may be
avoided by usiug plenty of poles, so that they may not be set far asunder
fi'om one another. In case evil disposed persons shift the poles in the
night, and thereby alter the line of fence, pins should be driven at inter-
vals, well into the ground, to preserve the marks of the line. Having set
plenty of poles, and so as to please the eye, take the reel and cord, and,
pushing its pin finnly into the ground at the end of the line offence where
you wish to begin, run the cord out its full length, with the exception of a
small piece of twist round the shank of the reel. Be sure to guide the
cord exactly along the bottoms of the poles ; and should any obstacle to
your doing so lie in the way, such as clods, stones, or dried weeds, remove
them, and smooth the ground with the spade ; and then, with your face
toward the cord, draw it backward toward you with considerable force
until it has stretched out as far as it can, and then push the shank of the
reel firmly into the ground. As the least obstruction on the ground will
cause the cord to (deviate from the true line, lift up the stretched cord by
the middle about 3 feet fiom the ground, keeping it close to the sides of
the poles, and let it drop suddenly to the ground, when, it is probable, it
will lie as straight as practicable. Place a rather heavy stone here and
there upon the cord to prevent the possibility of its being shifted from its
position. With the common spade then cut, or as it is technically termed,
rut the line of hedge-bed behind the cord, with your face toward the ditch
that is to be, taking care to hold the spade with a slope corresponding to
that of the sides of the projiosed ditch, and not to press upon, or be too
far back from, or cut the cord with the spade. Then take the wooden
rule, and placing its cross-head along the cord, set off the breadth of the
ditch at right angles to the rutted line 41 feet — first, at both ends of the
still stretched cord, and then here and there ; and mark off" those breadths
with wooden pins, which will serve to check any important deviation from
the true line at either end of the cord. Now, take up and stretch the cord
anew along the other side of the ditch, by the sides of the pins, in the
same manner, and with the same pi-ecautions as with the hedge-bed, and
rut the line with your face toward, and the spade sloping like the side of
the ditch. After securing a continuation of the line of the hedge-bed, re-
move the poles and pins along the length of the cord, and the ditch is thus
marked out ready for the formation of the thorn-bed. AVhen about form-
ing the thorn-bed, that end of the line should be chosen for commencing
the work which best suits the hand of the workman who is intrusted to
(424)
PLANTING OF THORN-HEDGES.
233
make it. The rule for this is, whichever hand giasps the eye of the spade
should always be nearest the thom-bed, and the workman should work
backward.
(451.) In forming the tliorn-hed, raise a large, firm, deep spadeful of
earth fi-om the edge of the first rutted line of the hedge, and invert it along
that line, with its rutted face toward the ditch. Having placed a few
spadefuls in this manner, side by side, beat down their crowns with the
back of the spade, paring down their united faces in the slope given to the
first rut, and then slope their crowns with an inclination downwai'd and
backward from you, forming an inclined bed for the thorn-plant to lie up-
on as at b c, fig. 40. In like manner, place other spadefuls, to the end of
Fig. 40.
^^^■^
THE THORN-BED.
the thom-bed last made, taking care to join all the spadefuls so as to make
one continued bed, and so on to the whole length of the cord of 70 yards.
(452.) While the principal hedger is thus proceeding with the thorn-bed,
his two assistants should prepare the thorn-plants for planting. On re-
ceiving the thorn-plants from the nursery, the usual practice is to put the
bundles of plants into the soil in some convenient corner of the field, until
they are wanted for planting. I have recommended the plants being pur-
chased the year before they are to be planted, and transplanted in wide
lines in good garden-mould, to enlarge and multiply the root-fibres. And
now that the plants are more particularly to be spoken of, I would farther
recommend them to be assorted, according to their sizes, as they are taken
out of the bundles, and before being transplanted in the lines. The ad-
vantage of this plan is this. Plants should be suited to the situation they
are to occupy. On examining the bundles, they will be found to contain
both stout and weak plants. The stoutest plants cannot derive sufficient
nourishment in the poorer class of soils, however well the soils may have
been previously treated for their reception ; while weak plants will, of
course, thrive well in the better soil. From this circumstance, it may be
concluded that weak plants are best adapted to all classes of soils. Not
so ; for however well weak plants may thrive in all soils, stout plants will
grow much more rapidly than weak in good soils ; and were all the soils
good, the most profitable fence would be obtained from the best and picked
plants. But as every farm possesses soils of various degrees of fertility,
although the class of its soils may be the same ; and as plants in a stout
and weak state are usually mixed together, the most prudent practice is
to put the weaker plants in the best soil, and the stouter plants in the
worse kind of soil, thus giving a chance of success to both sorts of plants
and soils. Were the plants assorted when placed in transplanted lines,
those could be selected which would best suit the soil which was under
operation at the time. But should this trouble not be taken at first, still
the plants should be assorted when being prepared for planting, accord-
ing to the nature of the soil, the weaker being taken for the good soil, and
the stronger for that of inferior quality. Want of attention to this adapta-
tion of means to ends is one cause of failure in the rearing of thorn-hedges
(425)
234 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
in many parts of the country ; and one of those means consists in trans-
planting the weakest plants in good soil, and allowing them to remain
there until they had ac(iuired sufficient strength for being planted out. Al-
though the thorn-plant may truly be said to affect every kind of soil in cul-
tivation, yet the plant, in its different states of growth, will thrive better in
one condition or kind of soil than in another ; and this discrimination
should be exercised by the planter, if he would have a good hedge.
(4.53.) The prepared thoni-plant is represented by fig. 41 ; and it is pre-
pared in this way. Grasp the stem of the full plant, im-
mediately above the root, firmly in the hand, and cut it
across with a sharp knife, in an inclination toward the
top of the plant at a ; and the cut thus made will be
about 6 inches above the root and fibres. Cut away the
long parts of the tap-roots i, and any other straggling
and injured roots, and even injured fibres ; but presnr\-e
as many of the fibres entire as possible. Bum the tops
thus cut off', or bury them deep in the ground ; as they
will vegetate, and are easily blouTi about by the wind,
and very troublesome to sheep in the wool. Take great
care, in frost, to cover up the prepared roots in earth un-
til they are planted, for roots in the least affected by frost
will not vesretate. The safest plan, in frosty weather, is * thorn-plant pre-
, , ^ „ , • ^ r ^1 T r\ PARED FOR PLANTING.
to take but a tew plants at a time out or the lines. Un
the other hand, in dry weather in spring, when the hedge is to be planted
in dry ground, put the roots of the prepared plants in a puddle of earth
and water, in a shady place, for some hours before laying them in the
thom-bed, and their vegetation will thereby be much facilitated.
(4.54.) When both the thom-bed and plants are prepared, the assistants
lay the plants in the bed. This is done by pushing each plant firmly into
the mould of the bed, with the cut part of the stem projecting not more
than 1 of an inch beyond the front of the thorn-bed, and with the root-end
lying away from the ditch, at distances varying from 6 to 9 inches ; the 6
inches being adapted to inferior land, and the 9 inches to good soil. While
the two assistants are laying the plants, the hedger takes up all the fine
mould nearest the thorn-bed, and, dexterously inverting the shovel-fiiUs of
the mould, places them above the laid plants, and secures them in their
places. The two assistants having finished laying the thorns, dig and
shovel up with the spade all the black mould in the ditch, throwing it upon
the roots and stems of the plants, until a sort of level bank of earth is
fomned OTer them. In doing this, one of the assistants lifts the soil across
the ditch, moving backward, while the other proceeds forward, face to
face, shoveling up all the black mould he can find, whether in a loose or
firm state, in the ditch. When the hedger has finished covering the plants
with mould, and while the assistants are proceeding to clear all the mould
from the ditch, he steps upon the top of the mound which they have
thrown up above the plants, and, with his face toward the ditch, firmly
compresses, with his feet, the mould above the plants, as far as they ex-
tend. By the time the compression is finished, all the mould will have
been taken out of the ditch. When the thorns have received this quan-
tity of earth above them, they may be considered in a safe state from
the frost ; but it is not safe, in frosty weather, to leave them, even for a
night, with less earth upon them ; for plants may not only be frosted in
that short space of time, but the earth may be rendered so hard by frost,
as to be unfit for working the next day ; and should the frost prove se-
vere and the work be altogether suspended, the plants left at all exposed
(426)
PLANTING OF THORN-HEDGES. ^^^
11 • .1 T,, fvnstv weather the plants should not be laid on
T^^r^t/irreafte^oon LToni;in the forenoon, as in the after-
the thorn-bed ^^^ ^^^^^^ ill not be time to cover the plants
noon of a shoit ^ay ^le Pioba^^ y .^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^, ^^^^ ^^^
with a sufficient q^^"^^%^* ;™_ the work off altogether- not only
around continues hard all day, leave tne woik u « frosted
oeS not ol on acco^.V the cloggy state of the . ground for «oa
Fvn r Imt the iiiabilitv of the men to withstand much ram in winter. 1 he
work, but tne ";,!>"'"] , , 1^ ;,, 1^ „,„,.e uniform and look better,
't "''rctnTiderrWe etfAh of it is finished at the same time, than when
il" 'sartMeinI at short intervals; but in frosty or- >n very wet
f^Sixra-rL-UUiti^n^^^^^^^^
tt::ri, /thTlru'lnll; bed, with the end of the stem projecting a
verTlMe outward, and d the mound above m .ts compressed state.
milted n the diStCt Aould the ditch ha.e to contain a stream oi wate^
Zu'h in winter only, it should be made proport.onably capacious , for .t
though " ""«" .' ,|j ;,,,^r ,,^,.e to be made so at last, or the force of
not so ™ade at fii.t .t w • a ^^^^^^ ^^^ .^^^,p_ ^^ ^j^^ ^ „f
the water will a»""^'i'y,'" ,,;„,„, ,,, ' .„ brought to a point at the bottom
lr?"bSiJn: e"n'shape f^rX -"ris'^They do Lt afford sufficient
are objectionaoie y protective bank or mound for the young
Sorn ptnts tl ey ar" easily fiUedSp with the mouldering of earth Irom the
thorn-plants t.ey , vegetables ; and when any water gets into
£ o wUch here's eLJ chance when there is an overflow of surface-
tnem, oi wxi j ^ bottom with mud. JNot-
rh^tandt 'tSl'c^:LiXtio"of such ^ditches in works of AgricuUure J
^ev sWd^ avoided when there is the probab hty of the least quan ity of
watlr reaching them ; and no ditch in connection with a field can be ex-
'7:,e)Vl:lT'^^^^^^ to this length, the other imple-
mints rome into use. If the subsoil of the ditch, however, be a tenacious,
TctUe cUv "he "pade alone is best to remove it, as pick ng is useless m
I. Stance especially if somewhat moist ; for it will raise no more
:ra tLe tan he biSth 'of the face of the pick But i^f it consists of
hard Try clay interspersed with veins of sand and gravel-which com
nound forms a very common subsoil in this country-picking is absolutely
?equ"red forthes'pade cannot get through the small stones with effect,
r^me 'parts of tL country,.the handpick y-Vfrl°"exp^"ic in
soil, while in others the footpick is employed; and from expenence
' T^munieations to the Board of Agriculture, vol. ii. Loudon's Encyclopedia of Agriculture.
(427)
236 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
both, I would rcconimend the latter as being by far the mure efliiMf-nt im-
plement for such work, and less laborious to the workman. Let one of
the assistants loosen the subsoil with the footpick as deep as lie can «^o ibr
the tramp, with the point of the pick away from him ; he theii pulls the
handle towaid him, until he brings it down abt)ut half way to the ground,
and after that he sits on it, and presses it down with the whole weight of
his body, until the subsoil gives way and liecomes loose, in which state he
leaves it before him, and steps backward. When the picker has thus pro-
ceeded a short way, the other assistant lifts up what has been loosened
with his spade, and throws it upon the top of the mould above the thorn,
taking care to place the subsoil so thrown up continuous with the slope
backward, given to the face of the bank. He also throws some to the
bade of the bank, to cover the whole of the black mould with the subsoil ;
and endeavors to make the shape of the bank uniform. In doing all this,
he works backwaid with his back to the face of the footpickei", but his
back would be to the back of a handpicker, standing upon the subsoil
which has been loosened by the footpick. He pares down the side of the
ditch nearest his right hand, which, in this case, is the opposite erne from
the hedge. The hedger follows the last assistant, working toward him
face to face, and moving forward, shoveling up all the loose earth left by
the assistant's spade, throwing it upon the top and front of the mound,
making all equal and smooth, and beating the earth firmly and smooth
on the face of the bank. Should the subsoil retpiii'e no picking at all, the
two assistants follow one another, using the spade ; and the hedger brings
up the rear as before, using the shovel. In this way the hedger throws
the earth fully on the face of the bank, even although some should trickle
dovvn again into the ditch, rejecting all the larger stones that come in his
way, paring down that side of the ditch, griving the proper slope to the
bank, and beating the face of the bank with the back of the shovel, and
smoothing it downward from its top as far as the black mould is seen on
the side of the ditch. The three men thus proceed regularly in their
work. Should there be more earth at one place of the ditch than another
— which will be the case where there are inequalities in the depth of the
ditch — the surplus earth should either be thrown to the back of the bank,
rather than its top be made higher at one place than another, or wheeled
away to a spot on which a deficiency of earth is apprehended. Besides
giving the bank an irregular appearance, it is not desirable to cover the
young thorns too heavily with a supeiincumbent load of earth, so as en-
tirely to exclude the air and moisture from their roots.
(457.) If going along the ditch twice finish the work, the earth in it will
have been in a friable state ; but with a hard subsoil the work is not so
easily done. The handpick is almost always used to raise the last 4 or 5
inches of the bottom of the ditch, and in accomplishing this the same ar-
rangement of the men, and the kind of work performed by each, will have
to be gone through ; only that, in this case, the assistant uses the hand for
the tramp-pick, and works forward. ^V^^ile this last picking and shovel-
ing are proceeding, the hedger again tramps down the top of the bank
before throwing up the last portion of earth. The beating with the back
of the shovel is absolutely necessary to produce a skin, as it were, on the
face of the bank ; because the smoothed surface will resist the action of
the frost, and thereby prevent the mouldeiing down of the earth into the
ditch. A covering of clay over the bank, and the poorer it is the better
for the pui"pose, is useful in being extremely unfavorable to the vegetation
of small seeds. They will readily take root in fine mould, if that formed
the extei'nal covering, and their eradication afterward would create much
(428)
PLANTING OF THORN-HEDGES.
237
ti-ouble and cause much waste of earth. The necessity of beating the clay
shows the expediency of projecting the plants but a very short way out
of the bank, as that process might wound and injure the pomts of the
stems. Indeed, T would prefer their being nearly buried m the bank, so
as the young sprouts had to be relieved from captivity, rather than the
points should be injured ; but the force of vegetation generally accom-
plishes their release with ease. While the two assistants are prepanng
the cord for another stretch, and rutting off both sides of the ditch the
hedger pushes back 2 or 3 inches, less or more, of the crest of the bank
\vith his shovel, in wder to make the finished top parallel with the row of
thorns, and after he has gently beaten do\\Ti the front of the top into a
rounded form, the process of planting thorns is finished. Fig. 42 gives an
idea of a section of the whole work when finished.
Fig. 42.
r \ ^^^^-r'- ^ ■'^■:'"^-- "" :;/
V '■'
''/, ^^^ , ' '''',' .: '/'"
FINISHED HEDGK-BANK.
(458.) Hitherto the work has proceeded quite easily, no obstacles hav-
ing presented themselves to frustrate or alter the original design of a level
fence ; but obstacles are sometimes met with, and means should be used
to avert or remove them. The obstacles alluded to generally consist of
large stones, unequal gi'ound, and stagnant water. 1. Landfast stones are
frequently found in clayey subsoils, many of which can be removed with
the foot pick, but some are so large and massive as to defy removal but
through the' assistance of gunpowder. If you should meet with any such
enorrnous masses, and much above giound, it would be better to can-y the
hedge with a sweep past them, than incur the trouble and expense of re
moving them with the simplest means. If they lie a short way under the
thorn-bed, but have plenty of mould over them, they will do no harm to
the hedge above them ; but should the earth be scanty over them, it will
be proper to make the earth deep enough for thorns above them, if that
can be easily done, even although an elevation be thereby caused there,
above the general line of hedge. 2. With regard to inequality of surface,
when the ground dips in the direction of the hedge, and yet when particu-
lar undulations in it are so deep and high as to prevent the flow of water
over them in the ditch, the higher parts should be cut the deeper and the
hollow parts the less, so as a continuous fall may be obtained for the flow
of the water along the bottom of the ditch ; but the line of the hedge
should be placed on the natural surface of the gi-ound, and thereby partake
of its undulations. It is in such cases of compromise that the supera-
bundant earth should be wheeled away from the inordinate depths, to
make up for the want of earth in the hollows, and thereby equalize the di-
mensions of the hedge-bank. Should any hollow be so deep as that the
hight on either side will not allow the flow of water, a dram should be
made fi-om the hoUowest part of the bottom of the ditch down the declina-
(429)
238
THE BOOK OF THE FARM — WINTER.
tion of the adjoining field to some ditch or drain aheady existing at a
lower level. 3. Undulations of the ground cause another inconvenience
in hedge-plantin<^, by retaining vi'ater in the hollows behind the hedge-
bank. Such collections of water, though only of temporary existence, in-
jure much any hedge, but especially a young one. The only effectual
way of getting rid of them is fortunately a simple one, which is by con-
structing a conduit through the hedge-bank from each such hollow to the
bottom of the ditch ; and as these conduits must be founded upon the sub-
soil, completely under the black mould, and a little above the bottom of
the ditch, they are most conveniently built after the ditch has been en-
tirely dug out ; and on this account the thorn-bed cannot be formed across
these hollows until after the completion of the ditch and hedge-bank on
both sides of them. Some taste and dexterity are required in the hedger
to fill up the gaps thus left in the planting of the hedge and finishing them
neatly afterward. Fig. 43 will give you an idea how to overcome the in-
Fig. 43.
PLAN HOW TO PREVENT WATER LODGING IN HOLLOWS OF FENCES.
convenience created by these hollows, where a is the line of hedge upon
the natural surface of the undulating gi-ound, h the top of the hedge-bank
parallel to the hedge, c the bottom of the ditch, exposed to view by the
entire removal of the gi'ound on this side of the ditch, and which removal
also shows the positions of the conduits d, which carry the stagnant water
away from behind the hedge-bank through below the hedge in the lowest
part of the undulations of the ground, and it also shows the position of
the drain c through the adjacent ground. It will be observed that the bot-
t(>m of the ditch c is not quite parallel with the dotted line of hedge a, but
s(> inclined from the right and left, through the bights and hollows of the
ground, as to allow the water to flow in a continuous stream toward the
lowest part by the drain e. Fig. 42 shows by the dotted lines d and f a
vertical section of the position and form of the conduits formed across anci
below the hedge-bed. The ground behind the hedge-bank is represented
in fig. 43 as declining toward the hedge, thereby giving a fall to the sur-
face water in the same direction. To give such water an outlet, a drain
should be formed along the head-ridge 2 or 3 yards behind the hedge-
bank, so as to be a little out of the way of the roots of the thorns when
they push outward, and in connection with all the conduits d. This drain
should have a conduit at bottom such as drain-tiles afford, and be filled
above them with broken stones to about 1 foot from the top.
(459.) In ordinary practice, when two lines of hedges meet, the one ter-
minates against the other, or, crossing each other, foirn a junction of 4 fields
by the corners ; and where this latter junction happens, should the land be
not of much value, or should the particular situation be much exposed to
(430)
PLANTING OF THORN-HEDGES.
239
the weather from an obnoxious quarter, it may be advisable to make a
clump of planting of a stellar form. It is necessary, in the first place, to
ascertain what quantity of ground can be conveniently spared for the pur-
pose ; and that should be determined by the value of the ground, or its
exposed situation. If the land is valuable; a smaller piece must suffice ;
but if shelter only, and not ornament, is the chief requisite, then a larger
piece should be appropriated ; but whatever may be the object of forming
such a clump of planting, it is not worth while to inclose a smaller space
of ground than \ of an acre, and the largest need not exceed 1 acre in ihe
low country. Supposing the space is determined on, the inclosure of it is
gone about in this manner. Ascertain the point where the two lines of
hedges would intersect, and fix a pole there, as at a, fig. 44 ; and from it
Fig. 44.
MODES OF DESCRIBING A CURVE IN THE CORNERS OF FIELDS.
m-easure equal distances with a chain along each line of fence to the points
within which is to be included the space of ground allotted for the plant-
ing, as from a to b, a to c, a to d, and a to e. Then there are 3 ways of
describing an arc between any two of these outward points. 1. Taking
the distance a b from i as a center, sweep an arc, and from c as a center,
with the same radius, sweep another arc intersecting that from Z» in y /
and then from y as a center, still with the same radius, sweep the arc c b.
In like manner an arc of the same radius may be swept betwixt c and d,
d and e, and e and b. This rule gives no predetermined arch, but it is one
which presents a pleasant curve to the eye. 2. Another plan is to fix the
hight of the segment which determines the point, beyond which the hedge
shall not approach toward a. This is done by at once fixing the point g,
which gives 3 points, d, g, and c, by which to find the center of the circle
e d. Join g d, which bisect, and from the point of bisection raise a per-
pendicular ; also join g c, which bisect, and from the point of bisection
raise a perpendicular, and where these two perpendiculars intersect at k
as a center, sweep the arc d c. This rule is founded on the corollary to
the 1st problem of the 3d book of Euclid.* A simple rule which practical
gardeners employ in drawing one line at right angles to another is this :
* See Duncan's Elements of Plane Geometry.
(431)
240
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
From the point of bisection, as above, measure 6 feet along the lino to-
ward c or i!, from the same point also measure outward 8 feet; from the
farther end of the 6 feet measure 10 feet, toward the end of the 8 feet, and
where these two lines meet, that is the point in a pei-pendicular direction
from the point of bisection, and a line through which, meeting a pei-pen-
dicular fiom the other point of bisection, intersect at the center Ji of the
circle d c. This rule is directly founded on the celebrated 47th proposi-
tion of the 1st book of Euclid. 3. There is still another method of draw-
ing what may be called a compound cui-\'e through two given extreme
points, and other fixed points between them. The method is this. Let d
and e be the teiTninations of the straight lines of the fences d and e, and I
a point in the intended curve any where beyond the straight line between
d and e, and equidistant from d and e, but within a quadrant of the two
lines of fence ; then set off any point i also equidistant fiom d and c, and
join i I ; from any point on the line / /, describe an arc of such radius as
shall pass through I, but will fall anywhere beyond d and e. Draw d o at
right angles to the fence d, and make d o equal to i I, then find a point p
on the line d o equidistant fi'om o and i. Join i ji, and produce it to A-, and
from ^ as a center describe the arc d k. For, d o and ^ k being equal, and
p 0, p i being also equal, the remaining^ d &nd^ k must be equal to one
another and i ]> k being in a straight line, the circle of which r^ ^ is an arc,
will touch the larger circle, of which k m is also an arc, according to Eu-
clid, 3d book, 11 prob. In like manner, the arc e m can be described by
first drawing e n, at right angles to the line of fence e, and proceed as be-
fore. If the lines of fence run at right angles to each other, the arcs d k
and e m will have equal radii. This is, perhaps, too intricate a mode of
drawing such cui-\'es for practical pui-poses, but it is well that your inge-
nuity be exercised in every possible way, so as you may never be at a loss
to apply expedients according to circumstances.
(460.) A very common practice — a much too common one — and recom-
mended by almost every wiiter on planting hedges, is the leaving a broad
scarsement in front of the thorn-bed ; and the reason given for adopting
the plan is, that it is necessary to supply the young thorns with moisture.
Fig. 45.
EFFECT OF A HEDGE-BANK WITH SCARSEMENT.
It is alleged that the sloping face of the bank conveys away the rain that
falls. What although it doesi The young thorn does not require to im-
bibe moisture by the point of its stem, but by its roots, which it can easily
do through the mound, as it is loose enough for the admission of rain. —
(432)
PLANTING OF THORN-HEDGES. 241
But, independently of that, it is obvious that a scarsement is so excellent
a contrivance for the growth of weeds, that it is impossible to clean a hedge
well where there is one. To be sure, earth from the bottom of the ditch
may occasionally be thrown upon the scarsement to smother the weeds,
but its accumulation there must be limited to the hight of* the thorn-bed.
Besides, weeds can grow as well upon this eatth as upon the scarsement ;
and, though they may there be mown down at times, the roots of the pe-
rennial ones are quite ready to spring up again in favorable weather. The
very figure which a thorn-hedge cuts on a scarsement will at once show
the impolicy of placing it in such a position. Thus, in the first place, in
fig. A5~a is the scarsement, on which there is nothing to hinder the weeds
b to grow in great luxuriance, vying in stature and strength with the young
plant c itself. How true that there " nothing teems but hateful docks,
rough thistles, kicksies, burs, losing both beauty and utility ; and our
hedges, defective in their natures, grow to wildness."* How is it possible
in such a nursery to "deracinate such savagery]" In the next place,
such a scarsement holds out a strong temptation to travelers to make it a
foot-path, so long as the hedge is young, and when it is situated by the
side of a public road. And it invites the poor woman's cow, pasturing on
the green road-side, to step upon it and crop the tops of the young hedge
along with the grassy weeds ; and it makes an excellent run for hares, in
the moonlight nights, on passing along which they will not fail to nibble
at the young quicks. " Fern is a great enemy to young hedge-plants,"
says Mr. Marshall ; " it is difficult to be drawn by hand without endanger-
ing the plants ; and, being tough, it is equally diflftcult to cut it with the
hoe ; and, if cut, will presently spring up again ;" and yet, " in a soil free
from stones and other obstructions of the spade," he says, " the planting
vnth an offset (scarsement) is perhaps, upon the whole, the most eligible
practice."t Where can fern obtain a better site for gi-owing upon than a
scarsement of a young hedge 1 Such are the inconsistencies into which
the acutest writers fall when they relinquish the guidance of common
sense,
(461.) Where part of a hedge is desired to be carried across a water-
course, an arch or large conduit is often made to span it, and its sides are
banked up with sods or earth, and a quantity of mould wheeled upon it,
to form the thorn-bed. I have seen such structures, but do not approve
of them. If the nature of the ground will at all admit of it, it is far better
to plant the thorns on the surface of the natural ground, as near as possi-
ble to the water-mark, when the water is flooded. The water-channel,
which will probably be dry in summer, when the fields are only used for
stock, could be fenced with paling, or, what is a much better fence in such
a situation, a stone-wall, if stones can be procured at a reasonable distance,
with openings left in it to allow the water to pass through in winter. —
These openings could be filled up in summer with a few thorns, to keep
in sheep. This latter plan is a much better one than the other, for I have
found that hedge-banks on a stone-building do not retain sufficient nourish-
ment in summer to support even young thorn-plants.
(462.) If it is desired to plant a thorn-hedge on the top of a sunk fence,
or along the edge of a walk by the side of a shrubbery, or to inclose a
shrubbery or a clump of trees in pleasure-ground or lawn, the plants may
be assorted and prepared as directed above ; but instead of raising a
mound, which in such situations would not look well, trench a stripe of
ground with the spade, in the intended line of the hedge, at least 3 feet irf
* Shakepeare's Henry V. t Marshall on Planting.
(481) 16
242 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
breadth, pointing in dung and raking in lime in adequate quantities some
time before the time for planting. When that time arrives, stretch the
cord in the middle of the stripe, guiding the curves with the wooden pins.
First, smoothen the surface of the ground under the cord with a clap of
the spade, and then notch deeply with it by the side of the cord, drawing
the earth toward you. Into this fun'ow carefully place the roots and
fibres of the thoni-})lants, with their cut stems leaning against the cord ;
and thus, keeping the plants in their places with the left hand, fill up the
funow with earth with a trowel in the right hand. Press the plants firmly
against the earth with the outside of the foot placed in a line with the
stems, and make the surface level with the spade. After the removal of
the cord, press the ground with the row of thorns between your feet, and
finish off the work with the rake. In planting ornamental hedges, you
should always bear in mind that, for whatever pui-pose a hedge may be
wanted, the thorns should always be planted on the natural surface of the
ground; for, if set in traveled earth, unless it is of considerable bulk and
depth, they run the risk of either being stunted in growth, or of altogether
dying for want of nourishment.
(463.) In setting poles for straight lines, ordinary accuracy of eye will
suffice ; but in setting them in curves, where geometrical ones cannot be
introduced, considerable taste is required by the planner. Such cui'\'es can
only be formed by setting up large pins, and judge of their beauty by the
eye, so that the sweeps may appear naturally to accommodate themselves
to the inequalities of the ground, and form, on the whole, a suitable figure
for the purpose they are intended to serve. Curves in fields should always
be made conformable to the plowing of the adjoining land ; for, if such
adaptation is not attended to, land may be lost to tillage in the depth or
acuteness of the curves. After the large pins are set to show the general
form of a long cun^e, or series of long curves, smaller ones should be em-
ployed to fill up the segments between the larger, and the cord then
stretched by the side of all the pins, and the beautiful sweep of the curve
carefully preserved by the small pins with the hooked heads. If a curved
ditch is required, the rutting of the breadth of the ditch, as also the making
of the thorn-bed, should follow the cord in its curved position ; but gieat
care is required to preserve the two sides of a curved ditch parallel, for if
the cross-headed wooden rule is not held at right angles to the line of the
hedge, at every point where the breadth of the ditch is measured off — that
is, if the cross-head is not held as a tangent to each particular curve — the
breadth of the ditch will vary considerably in different places, and, of
course, the ditch will there present a twist. There is no error into which
laborers are so apt to fall as this : they measure, without thinking of the
consequences, at any angle across the ditch ; but they should be taught to
avoid it, because, if not rectified in time, it will deprive the hedge-bank
of essential covenng at certain places, on account of the ditch being twist-
ed into broad and narrow portions.
(464.) Whore tnif is plentiful, it may be employed in this way to fence at once one side
of a hedge. Let n. fig. 4fi, he the tmf wall 4 feet high, 18 inches broad at the base, and 1
foot at the top, co[)ed witii a large turf; h the stuff thrown out of the ditch c, and inclined
upward toward the top of the wall. For keeping in Clieviot or Black-faced slieep, or cattle,
a stJike and single rail of paling d, will be recpiired on the top, but not for Leicester sheep.
In Norfolk, a high bank is thrown up, without a wall, from (5 to 7 feet in hight from the
bottom of the ditch, and the thorn-plants are set into it as at b, fig. 46, among the crude earth
taken out of the bottom of the ditcli. As might be expected in such a plan, it is no uncom-
mon sight in that county to see the face of the bank, with the quicks in it, washed down by
beating rains; and as the roots, enlarge and the bank moulders down, the yoinig ])lantshang
their heads downward upon the face of the bank. The reason assigned for the adoption of
this objectionable practice is, that there is no wood in that county to form temporary fences
(482)
PLANTING OF THORN-HEDGES.
243
until the thorns shall grow, and that being set upon the top of a steep bank, they are out of
the reach of cattle at the bottom of the ditch. Even with a wall like a, fig. 46, thorns at h
wiU never grow so vigorously as when placed at e ; and in dry weather they are soon stinted
Fig. 46.
TURF FENCE TO A THORN-HEDGE.
of moisture. Where flat stones are plentiful, a good sheltering fence may be formed by in-
closing a space of a few feet in breadth between two walls, and on filling it with earth, an
upright hedge may be planted in it, where it wiU thrive veiy well. Such fences mav be
seen in Devonshire, where flat stones from the primitive clay-slate formations are obtained
in abundance. In connection with the mode of fencing considered in this paragraph is one
recommended of building a 2^ feet wall on ike top of the bank behind the hedge which had
been throwTi out of the ditch, and to make its coping of trnf. There are objections to this
plan ; in the first place, a turf coping on a stone wall never grows well, and in consequence,
turf soon becomes /Ae re an eyesore. In the next place, a wall founded on earth that has
been throvvni out of the bottom of the ditch, will not remain even but a very short time, on
account of the unequal subsidence of the earth, and the consequent sinking of the stones. A
3 feet stone wall, founded upon the hai-d ground, on the site of the tiu-f-wall a in fig. 46,
with a single railed paling raised behuid it, until the hedge get up, would make a far better
fence both for sheep and cattle. Another mode of planting a thom-hedge is to build a stone
wall as at a, fig. 46, in which are left holes, about the position where the letter a is sitaate
in the figure, through which the thorns grow which have been planted in the bank of earth
b. This is also an objectionable mode, inasmuch as the plants, whose roots are ramifying iu
the bank b, have no support from that portion of the stem which has to gi-ow in a horizontal
direction through the holes of the wall, and the consequence is, that the leverage of the part
of the stem which grows upright in the face of the wall is apt to shake the roots,
and should the horizontal portion of the stem rest for support upon the wall within the h e,
its weight and motion soon bring down the wall, if it is constructed of dry stones, or shatter
it, if built with mortar Thorios have been recommended to be planted at the bottom of a
wall, as of a, fig. 46, ^^'ith no bank such as b near it, but having the ditch c before it as a
fence to the hedge, with a paluig on its hp. If a stone wall is buUt in such a situation, there
seems no use at all of the hedge as a fence, and if a turf one, then surely thorns will thrive
much better with a bank of earth behind them, such as b, than at the bottom of a turf wall.
Note — On Shelters. — The employment of artificial shelters, in fields, for plants, and treea^
and animals, is carried to a degree of expense, if not of refinement, in England, which is not
likely to be extensively imitated in this country. Pig. 35 represents the form of such shelters
better than words could well do it.
Not only all along the sea-board of Long Island, but more or less along all our whole sea-coast,
fruit anA other trees are liab'.e to be blasted and rendered unproductive by the strong blasts which
strike them after acquiring a powerful momentum in sweeping over the ocean.
The wall and the wood on the inside and near to it are of the same hight, but, still farther m,
the wood rises considerably higher, owing to the peculiar form of the cope of the wall and the
(483)
344
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
shape of the wall itself, being like an isoceles triangle — when the wind strikes its side, it is re-
flected upward into the air, at the same angle.
Where such shelters can be provided, they are decidedly usefal — as all must have perceived
the difference, in early spring, between the advance of vegetation on the south and the north side
of every inclosnre. Even common garden walls in this way afford opportunities of making beds
for early plants, of lettuce, cabbage, radishes, and other vegetables. [Ed. Farm. Lib
Fig. 35.
(484)
THE PLOW. 245
23. THE PLOW.
" Howsoever any plow be made or fashioned, so it be well tempered, it may the
better be suffered." Fitzherbekt.
(465.) The plow serves the same purpose to the fanner as the spade
to the gardener, both being used to turn over the soil and the object of
doing this is, that this form of operation is the only means known of obtain-
ing such a command over the soil as to render it friable and inclose ma-
nure within it, so that the seeds sown into it may grow into a crop of the
gi'eatest perfection.*
[* VVhat we may lack, if any, of approbation from the farmer, we shall make np in the ap
proval we challenge from the plow-maker, for the adoption of all that is said by the author in
hand in respect of an implement which is almost as indispensable in the manufacture of crops as
the stones in the mill for manufacturing the wheat into flour. As of all implements the plow is
the most efficient and labor-saving, so on none has the ingenuity of the farmer and the machinist
been so much exercised. It would be hazardous to say, that it has been pushed to its ne plus
vltra, and that nothing now remains but to remove the animal and hitch on steam power ; but it
is not easy to imagine what desideratum remains to be supplied in the construction of the plow.
Instead, however, of suppressing anything in the Book of the Farm, we prefer rather to super-
add what we find on the subject in a very elaborate essay on the Agriculture of Norfolk, Eng-
land, to which the Royal Agricultural Society lately awarded a high prize, and paid the compli-
ment of publishing it separately, in extenso, with all its illustrations. Among these ave the rep-
resentations of the prize plow, which will also be found at the end of this chapter, although we
do not perceive any essential difference from or improvement upon the Mid-Lothian plow given
by Stephens, the plate of which accompanied our last number, and which is described in this one.
To go back, as our author does, and bring up the history of its progress to its present excellence
of construction, from the rude implement in use by the Romans, will need no justification to the re-
flecting mind, ready as all such minds will be to draw from it the proud conclusion that the march
of improvement has been from as humble beginnings to ashighreachings in Agriculture as in other
arts. Neither can it fail to inspire the hope that much more may yet be achieved in other departments
if not in this. None in fact is yet closed to the career of improvement in the estimation of those
who are animated by that spirit for going ahead, without which no melioration would occur in
any branch of human industry. The French Vigneron, wlio, better than any one else under-
stands the culture of the vine, says that after ages of observation, the art of adapting each par-
ticular species of vine to the soil most congenial to its culture, is yet in its ivfancy ! Let us
think so of everjthing while to improve remains even barely possible !
It may here be mentioned as a curious fact that President Jefferson's explanation and diagrams
to illustrate them, on the principles of mechanical philo.sophy involved in the structure of plows,
and especially in their mould boards, have been referred to and quoted by writers of the highest
authority on that subject in Europe. It is no less curious, that his son-in-law, Governor Ran-
dolph, a man of genius, has the credit of being the inventor of the hill-side plow, with a shifling
mould-board. In Mississippi and the South, where lands seem to be peculiarly subject to injury
by washing, owing, perhaps, to the suddenness and violence of their showers, hill-side plowing
is very extensively practiced, and with great skill and dexterity, by negro plowmen, as any one
may see at Mr. TumbuU's, near Bayou Sara and other places. There, on lands very slightly un-
dulating, may be found very perfect and beautiful specimens of this conservative process.
From the " Prize Report " on Norfolk Agriculture.
There is perhaps no implement which has undergone more improvement or more variation
than the plow ; and a glance at the catalogues which of late years have emanated from the most
celebrated implement-makers, will prove of how vast importance it has been considered to ob-
tain such a construction that while lightness and stiffness were insured, vibration in the beam
should be avoided, and a perfect action with economy of power, or a diminution of resistance
should be secured, for from such a combination true work can alone result. To obtain these
(485)
246
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
(466.) The spade is an implement so simple in consti-uction, that there
seems but one way of using it, whatever peculiarity of form it may re-
ceive, namely, that of pushing its mouth or blade into the ground with the
great desiderata, appears to have been one of the groat objcctB with Messrs. Ransome, for from
DO foundry has ever been seen a greater number of these implements, or which combined in a
lUrger extent tlicse leading points ; but in every case exhibiting the thought and skill from which
they had proceeded. The Reports of the Royal Agricultural Society demonstrate the estimation
in which these progressive improvements have been held. It was, however, reserved for these
manufacturers to exhibit, at the Southampton meeting of the year 1844, a new plow, which
proved it-self equally well adapted for light and heavy soils. This implement was chiefly novel
in its material, and formation of the handles and beam. These are constructed of the best
wrought iron, combining lightness with adequate strength. The beams are made on the "truss
principle " — that is, connecting tlie two sides together in such a manner as to prevent thorn from
giving way to any amount of force, on whichever side it may be applied. The other new point
is the mode of fastening the coulter, which facilitates its being placed in any new position with
rapidity and ease. The following cut exhibits the figure of the prize implement, eitlier with two
or one wheel, and a.s a swing plow.
Wo had seen the plow at work at Mr. Henry Overman's, of Weasenham, in the autumn oi
1843, and the opinion of the judges at Southampton has fully borne out the high opinion that
a practical farmer gave us of its capability and excellence.
Among the implements of late invention which have deservedly obtained the inventor great
credit, and from their utility liave come into consfderable u.sc — one more particularly than the
other — are the subsoil and subturf plows, the invention of Sir Edwakd Stacey, of Rackheath
Hall, Norfolk. Although the.se implements are .10 well known, yet any report of Norfolk Agri-
culture would be incomplete were cither a notice or a sketch of one of them omitted. Their ef-
fects have been found most beneficial on many soils, whore the natural tenacity is increased by a
hard substratum. On one farm where the land was subject to sutTcr from the rains in the autumn,
the subsoil plow was passed up the furrows on a turnip fallow previous to the autumn plowing.
The effect was to free the land from a more than ordinary quantity of moisture which happened
(486)
THE PLOW. 247
foot, lifting up as much earth with it as it can carry, and then inverting it
so completely as to put the upper part of the earth undermost. This op-
eration, called digging, may be done in the most pei-fect manner ; and
any attempt at improving it, in so far as its uniformly favorable results are
concerned, seems unnecessary. Hitherto it has only been used by the
hand, no means having yet been devised to supply gi-eater power than
human strength to wield it. It is thus an instrument which is entirely
under man's personal control.
(467.) The effect attempted to be produced on the soil by the ^Zo^^? is
an exact imitation of the work of the spade. From the circumstance, how-
ever, of the plow being too large and heavy an implement to be wielded
by the hand, it is not so entirely under man's control as the spade. To
wield it as it should be, he is obliged to call in the aid of horses, which,
though not capable of wielding it personally, as "man does the spade, can,
nevertheless, through the means of appropriate appliances, such as har-
ness, do so pretty effectually. It is thus not so much man himself as the
horses which he employs that turn over the ground with the plow, they,
in a great measure, becoming his substitutes in performing that operation ;
and they are so far his superiors, that they can turn over a greater quan-
tity of the soil with the plow in a given time than he can with the spade.
Man, however, has this advantage over horses in turning over the soil, that he
can do it well with a very simple instrument — the spade ; whereas horses
require an instrument of more complex structure — the plow — to perform
the same sort of work not so well ; and the reason is this, that although
the spade is really a very simple instrument, the act of digging with it is
to fall that year, and to benefit materially the following crop of turnips. Sir Edward has already
described the utility of the former upon the heath-land attached to his estate, as well as the im-
provement of his park by the subturf plow, in the journals of the Society
A practice has lately become very prevalent in some parts of the county, to lay the furrows
in one direction. This method, if it should be found advantageous, will be greatly aided by
Lowcock's new plow. This gentleman is a farmer at Westerland, Devon, and his attention
was drawn to its necessity by having found that great injury was sustained in his neighborhood
by the currents of air drawn up the furrows when the land was either ridged or thrown into
stetches. When the land is laid in one plain surface, it is thought that the seed can be more
easily deposited — and that in rainy seasons it will ab.sorb the moisture with greater regularity,
and in a dry one would be less injured by drouth. This implement seems to be the combined
result of theoretical knowledge and practical experience — Mr. Lowcock farming wet soils.
_ The mode of adapting it to each furrow is extremely simple. When the plowman has ar-
rived at the end of the furrow, he directs the horses round on the unplowed side of the land,
and the draught chain slides on a rod to the other end. While they are moving, he reverses
the handles, where a catch drops into a mortice in the beam, and the plow is again ready.
When the share and coulter are at work the mould-board flies into its proper direction, in
which place the resistance of the newly-cut furrow keeps it. Presuming the conjectures as to
the effect of such a system of plowing to be correct, this will become a very valuable imple-
ment in Norfolk. Messrs. Ransome obtained a prize for it at Southampton. (See the oppo-
site page.)
The plows in mo.st general use are the Norfolk and the Swing Plow, which have been ren-
dered lighter and steadier than formerly. There are none, perhaps, as a whole, better suited
to the soil, although for particular purposes there are some superior, the Rutland having been
found from its length of plat to whelm the oUand belter ; while the Norfolk, from its short
breast, lays the earth looser and rougher for the operations of the winter.
(487)
■'W.
THE PLOW. 249
not a simple operation, but requires every muscle of the body to be put
into action, so that any machine that can imitate work that has called into
requisition all the muscles of the body, must have a complex structure.
This would be the case even were such a machine always fixed to the
same spot, and, for such a purpose, there is little difficulty in practical me-
chanics in imitating the work of man's hands, by complicated machinery;
but it is not so simple a problem in practical mechanics, as it at first sight
may appear, to construct a light, strong, durable, convenient instrument,
which is easily moved about, and which, at the same time, though com-
plex in its structure, operates by a simple action ; and yet the modem
plow is an instrument possessing all these properties in an eminent degree.
(468.) The common plow used in Scotland is made either wholly of
iron, or partly of wood and partly of iron. Until a few years ago it was
universally made both of wood and ii'on, but now it is generally made en-
tirely of iron. A wooden plow seems a clumsier instrument than an iron
one, though it is somewhat lighter. The plow is now made wholly of
iron, partly from the circumstance of its withstanding the vicissitudes of
weather better than wood ; and, however old, iron is always worth some-
thing ; and partly because good ash timber, of which plows were usually
made, is now become so scarce in many parts of the country, that it fetches
the large price of 3s. per cubic foot ; whereas iron is now becoming more
abundant and cheap (204), being no more than 6£14 per ton for common
cast goods, and from c£10 to c£18 per ton for malleable ii'on. A wooden
plow with iron mountings usually weighs 13 stones imperial, and an iron
one for the same work 15 stones. The cost of a wooden one is c£3 16s.,
capable of being serviceable, with repairs, for the cuiTency of a lease of
19 years ; that of an iron one ^4 4s., which will last a lifetime, or at least
many years. Some farmers, however, still prefer the wooden one, alleging
that it goes more steadily than the iron. Whatever of prejudice there
may be in this predilection for the wooden plow, it must be owned that
the iron one executes its work in a satisfactory manner. There is, I be-
lieve, no great difference of economy in the use of the two kinds of plows.
(469.) The plow, as it is now made, consists of a number of parts, which
are particularly described below at (493), fig. 48, and to which you should
immediately refer, in order to become acquainted with them. How well
soever these diiferent parts may be put together, if they are not all tem-
pered, as it is termed, to one another, that is, if any part has more to do
than its own share of the work, the entire implement will go unsteadily.
It can be easily ascertained whether a plow goes steadily or not, and the
fact is thus practically ascertained ; and its rationale will be found below.
(470.) On taking hold of the plow by the handles with both hands, while
the horses are drawing it through the land, if it have a constant tendency
to go deeper into the soil than the depth of the furrow-slice previously de-
termined on, it is then not going steadily. The remedy for this eiTor is
twofold, namely, either to press harder upon the stilts with the hands, and,
by their power as levers, bring the sock nearer the surface of the ground,
a.nd this is called "steeping ; " or to effect the same thing in another way,
is to put the draught-bolt of the bridle a little nearer the ground, and this
is called giving the plow " less earth." The pressure upon the handles or
stilts should first be tried, as being the most ready remedy at your com-
mand ; but should it eventually fail of effecting the purpose, or the hold-
ing the stilts so be too severe upon your arms, the draught-bolt should be
lowered as much as required. But should both these attempts at amend-
ment fail, then there must be some error in another part of the plow. On
examining the sock, or share, its point may possibly be found to dip too
(489) . " "^
250 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
much below the line of the sole, which will produce in it a tendency to go
deeper than it should. Thia eiTor in the sock can only be rectified at the
smithy.
(471.) Aq[ain, the plow may have an opposite tendency, that is, a ten-
dency to come out of the p^round. This tendency cannot well he coun-
teracted by the opposite method of supporting the stilts upward with the
arms, because in this condition of body you cannot walk steadily, having
no support for yourself, but rather affording support to the plow. It is
for this reason that a very short man can scarcely hold a plow steady
enough at any time ; and hence such a man does not make a desirable
plowman. The draught-bolt should, in the first instance, be placed farther
from the ground, and in so doing the j)low is said to get " inare earths
Should this alteration of the point of draught not effect the purpose, the
point of the sock will probably be found to rise above the line of the sole,
and must therefore be brought down to its proper level and position by
the smith (525).
(472.) You may find it difficult to make the plow turn over a furrow-
slice of the breadth you desire. This tendency is obviated by moving the
draught-bolt a little to the right ; but in case the tendency arise from some
casual circumstance under ground, such as collision against a small stone,
or a piece of unusually hard ground, it may be overcome by leaning the
plow a little over to the right, until the obstruction is passed. These ex-
•pedients are said to give the plow " more land."
(473.) The tendency of the plow, however, may be quite the opposite
from this — it may incline to take a slice broader than you want ; in which
case, for permanent work, the draught-bolt should be put a little farther to
the left, and for a temporary purpose the plow may be leaned a little over
to the left, and which ax'e said to give the plow " less land."
(474.) These are the ordinary instances of unsteadiness in the going of
plows ; and, though they have been narrated singly, two of them may com-
bine to produce the same result, such as the tendency to go deeper or
come out with that of a naiTower or broader furrow-slice. The remedy
should first be tried to correct the most obvious of the eiTors ; but both
remedies may be tried at the same time, if you apprehend a compound
error.
(475.) Some plowmen habitually make the plow lean a little over to the
left, thus giving it in effect less land than it would have, were it made to
move upon the flat of the sole ; and, to overcome the consequent tendency
of the plow to make a narrower furrow-slice than the proper breadth, they
move the draught-bolt a little to the right. The plowing with a consider-
able lean to the left is a bad custom, because it makes the lowest side of
the furrow-slice, when turned over, thinner than the upper side, which i/s
exposed to view, thereby deluding you into the belief that the land has all
been plowed of equal depth ; and it causes the horses to bear a lighter
draught than those which have turned over as much land in the same time,
with a more equal and therefore deeper furrow-slice. Old plowmen, be-
coming infirm, are very apt to practice this deceptive mode of plowing, —
The plow should always move flat upon its sole, and turn over a rectangu-
lar furrow-slice ; but there are certain exceptions to this rule, depending
on the peculiar con.struction of parts of certain forms of plows, which will
be pointed out to you afterward.
(476.) None assume the habit of leaning the plow over to the right, be-
cause it is not so easy to hold it in that position as when it moves upon
the sole along the land-side.
(477.) Other plowmen, especially tall men, practice the habit of con-
(490)
THE PLOW. 251
Btantly leaning hard upon the stilts, or of steeping; and, as this practice
has the tendency to lift up the fore point of the plow out of the gi-ound,
they are obliged, to keep it in the ground, to put the draught-bolt farther
from the ground than it should be. A little leaning of the hands upon the
stilts is requisite at all times, in order to retain a firm hold of them, and
thereby have a proper guidance of the plow.
(478.) A good plowman will use none of these expedients to make his
plow go steadily, nor will he fall into any of these reprehensible habits. —
He will temper the irons, so as there shall be no tendency in the plow to
go too deep or too shallow into the ground, or make too wide or too nar-
. row a furrow-slice, or cause less or more draught to the horses, or less or
more trouble to himself, than the nature of the work requires to be per-
formed in the most proper manner. If he have a knowledge of the imple-
ment he works with — I mean, a good practical knowledge of it, for a
knowledge of its piinciples is not requisite for his purpose — he will temper
^all the parts, so as to work the plow with great ease to himself, and, at the
same time, have plenty of leisure to guide his horses aright, and execute
his work in a creditable manner. I have known such plowmen, and they
invariably executed their work in a masterly way ; but I never yet saw a
plowman execute his work well, who had not acquired the art of temper-
ing the irons of his plow. Until he leams this art, the best made plow
will be comparatively worthless in his hands.
(479.) In the attempt to temper the irons, many plowmen adopt a posi-
tion of the coulter which increases the draught of the plow. When the
point of the coulter is put forward in a line with the point of the sock, but
a good deal asundei-, to the left or land side, in light land that contains
small stones, a stone is very apt to be caught between the points of the
coulter and sock, and which will throw the plow out of the ground. This
catastrophe is of no great consequence when it occurs on plowing land
preparatory to another plowing ; but it tears the ground on plowing lea,
which must be rectified instantly ; and, in doing it, there is loss of time in
backing the horses to the place where the plow was thrown out. To avoid
such an accident on such land, the point ©f the coulter should be put im-
mediately above, and almost close upon, that of the sock ; and this is the
best temper of those irons, in those circumstances, for lea-plowing. In
smooth soils — that is, free of small stones — the relation of the coulter and
sock to each other is not of much importance in regard to steadiness ; but
it is the best practice to cut the soil clean at all times, and the pi'acticabil
ity of this should be suited to its natui'e.
(480.) The state of the irons themselves has a material effect on the tem-
per of the plow. If the cutting edge of the coulter, and the point and cut-
ting edge of the sock, are laid with steel, the irons will cut clean, and go
long in smooth soil. This is an economical mode of treating plow-irons
destined to work in clay-soils. But, in gravelly and all sharp soils, the
ii'ons wear down so quickly that farmers prefer irons of cold iron, and have
them laid anew every day, rather than incur the expense of laying them
with steel, which, perhaps, would not endure work much longer in such
soil than iron in its ordinary state. Irons are now seldom if ever steeled ;
but, whether they are steeled or not, they are always in the best state when
sharp, and of the proper lengths.
(481.) An imperfect state of the mould-board is another intenniption to
a perfect temper of the plow. When new and rough, it accumulates the
loose soil upon it, whose pressure against the turning fuiTOw-slice causes
the plow to deviate from its right course. On the other hand, when the
mould-board is wora away much below, it is apt to leave too much of the
(491)
252 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
crumbled _ soil in the bottom of tbe furrows, especially in plowing loose
soils. Broki'u si(le-j>lates, or so worn into holes that the earth is easily
pressed thrcoiujh them into the bosom of the plow, also cause rough and
unequal work ; and nuire or less earth in the bosom affects the balance of
the plow, both in its temper and drauglit. These remarks are made upon
the supposition that all plows are equally well made, and may, therefore,
be tempered to work in a satisfactory manner ; but it is well kno\\Ti that
plows sometimes get into the possession of farmers, radically so ill-con-
structed that the best tempering the irons are capable of receiving will
never make them do good work.
(482.) When all the particulai-s which plowmen have to attend to in ex-
ecuting their work — in having their plow-irons in a proper state of repair,
in tempering them according to the kind of plowing to be executed, in
guiding their horses, and in plowing the land in a methodical way — when
all these particulars are considered, it ceases to sui-prise that so few plow-
men should be first-rate workmen. Good plowmanship requires greater
powei-s of observation than most young plowmen possess, and greater
judgment than most will take time to exercise, in order to become famil-
iarized wtth all these particulars, and to use them all to the best advant-
age. To be so accomplished implies the possession of talent of no mean
order. The ship has been aptly compared to the plow, and the phrase,
" plowing the deep," is as familiar to us islanders as plowing the land : to
be able to put the ship in '• proper trim," is the peifection aimed at by ev-
ery seaman; so, in like manner, to "temper a plow" is the gieat aim of
the good plowman ; and to be able to do it with judgment, to guide horses
with discretion, and to execute plowing correctly, imply a discrimination
akin to sailing a ship.
(433.) [The present age is, perhaps, the most remarkable that time has produced, for the
perfection of almost every kind of machine or tool required in the various dejiartments of
art and of miiniifactures. In that most important of all arts — the production of the raw ma-
terial of hiunun CkkI — something like a roiresponding progress has been effected in its ma-
chineiy and tools, though certainly not to the same degree of perfection as those employed
in most of our manufacmres, whether they be in animal, vegetable, mctiiUic or mineral pro-
ductions. Various causes exist to prevent, or at least retard, an equal degree of perfection
being arrived at in agricultural machinerj-, among which may be noticed one per\ ading cir-
ctimstance, that afiects, more or less, almost eveiy machine or implement employed. This
circumstance is, that all the important operations of the fann are perfomied by seasons occu
pying companitively short periods of time , and, should the artisjin be endeavoring to pro-
duce any new or important machine, he can only make trial of it in die proper season. The
imperfection of human perception is too well known to leave us in surprise at the first at-
tempt of any improvement turning out more or less a failure. The artisan, therefore, will
in all probability find that his project requires amendment; and, before that can be effected,
tlie season is i);ist in wliich a second ti-ial could be made, and, consequently, must lie over
for a year, in the course of which many circumstances may occur to cause its being forgotten
or laid aside. Impediments of this kind do not occur to tlie inventor or improver of mana-
facturing ^machinery, where constant daily oppoitunities are at htmd to test the successive
steps of his invention. One other general cause, and of another kind, exists, to supersede
tlie necessity, or even the proprict}', of employing machinery- of such high and delicate finish
as we see in tiie machines of all innloor manufactures. This is the irregularit)' of the media
on which agricultural macliinery is employed, and the numerous changes protluced on these
media — the soils and produce — by vicissitudes of weather and other causes, which not only
affect the operation, but also the existence of many of these machines. From this cause,
with its train of incidents, it may be inferred that agricultund machiner)- and tools must, of
necessity, be of simple construction, which embrace nothing but the essentials of usefulness ;
that they have sufficient strength for their intended purpose, and free of any undue weight ;
that there should bo no redund;mcy nor misapplication of materials ; that all materials em-
ployed should be of the best quality, and the workmanship plain and sound. These prop-
erties, it must be admitted, are of greater importance to agricultural machinerj', in general,
than the minute delicacy of construction and finish observable in many of those almost intel-
lectual tools employed in some of the other arts and manufactures.
(484.) Although, therefore, agricultural machines in general do not require a high me-
chanical finish, yet there are among them those which aie ba.sed on principles implying a
(492)
THE PLOW. 253
knowledge and application of science, as well as mechanical skill, in tbeir construction ; and
in this class is to be ranked the plow, which, in one word, is the most important of all agri-
cultural machines.
(485.) To the plow, then, our attention is first to be directed, not only as standing at the
head of all its fellows in the ranks of the machinery of the farm, but as being the first imple-
ment to which the attention of the fanner is called, in the commencement of this the winter
season.
(486.) Before entering on the details of the implement as it now appears, it will be inter-
esting to look back for a moment into its history. With the earliest stages of human indus-
try, the tillage of the ground in some shape must be considered as coeval ; and in these early
attempts, some implement analogous to a plow must have been resorted to. In all ancient
figures and descriptions of that implement, its extreme simplicity is to be remarked ; and
this is but a natural result ; but with the progress of human intellect, are to be also observed
deviations from the oiiginal simplicity, and an increase in the number of its parts, with a
corresponding complexity in its stnicture. The Roman plows, imperfectly as tliey are de-
scribed by different Roman authors, is an example of this. And as an example of appa-
rently very remote origin, the caschrom, or plow used even at this day, in some portions of the
Outer Hebrides and in Skye, forms a very curious and interesting antiquarian relic of the
ancient Celtic habits. It is formed, as in fig. 47, of one piece of wood, selected from its
Fig. 47.
e
THE CASCHROM.
possessing the natural bend at a, that admits of the head a b assuming a nearly horizontal
position, when the handle c is laid upon the shoulder of the person who wields the imple-
ment. A simple wedge-shaped share, h d, is fitted to the fore part of the sole. A wooden
peg, e, is inserted in the side of the heel at e, which completes the implement. On this last
member the foot of the operator is applied, to push the instmment into the gi-ound. It is of
course worked by the hand alone, and makes simply a rut in the ground. Yet even in this
rude implement are to be traced the rudiments of a plow.
(487.) As the cultivation of the soil became more and more an object of industry, coito
spending improvements would naturally follow in the implements by which such operations
were performed. But in Britain previous to the beginning of the last centuiy, the plow ap-
pears to have continued in a very uncouth state. About that period Agriculture seems to
have become more an object of improvement. Draining began to be studied, and its effects
appreciated. The amelioration of the soil produced by draining would soon call for better
modes of dressing such improved soils ; hence, still farther improvements in the plow would
come into request. In accordance with this, we find the introduction of an improved plow
into the northern counties of England, under the name of the Dutch or Rotherham plow.
This appears to be the foundation of all the modern improvements, and from the circum-
stance of engineers and mechanics having been brought from Holland to conduct the drain-
ing of the English fens, there is good reason to conclude that the Rothei-ham plow was ori-
ginally an importation from Holland, in a similar manner as the barley-mill was, at a later
period, borrowed fi-om that country. About the middle of the past century, the Rotherham
plow appears to have been partially introduced into Scotland ; but until Mr. James Small
took up the subject, and, by his judicious improvements gave a decided character to the
plow, little or no progi-ess had been made with it.
(488.) Small appears to have been the first who gave to the mould-board and the share
a form that could be partially imitated by others, whereby, following his instnictions, mould-
boards might be multiplied, each possessing the due fonn which he had directed to be
given to them. It is to be observed, that when Small first taught the method of construc-
tion, mould-boards were really boards of wood, and for their defence, were covered with
(493)
254
THE BOOK OF THE FARM — WINTER.
plates ofiron. The metliotl of construction being not very clearly defiiK-tl. and mould-hoardB
being necessarily constructed by many difl'erent hands, tlie improved syiiiein. it may be
easily conceived, must have been liable to failine in practice, it was. ihereliire, one of
those happy coincidences which now and then occur lor the Ix-ncfit nl mankind, ihal the
founding of cast-iron was then begiiuiin^ to become general. The liirlunale circumstance
was seized. Mould-boanls, together with the head or sheath, and the sole and land-side
plates, were made of cast-iron; and a model or pattern of ihese pnrls having been once
formed, any number of duplicates could be obtainetl. each pos-sessing every quality, in point
of form, as perfectly as the original mcidel. The plow, thus in a great measure placed be-
yond the power of uninfonncd mechanics to maltreat, came rapidly and deservt-dly into pub-
lic esteem, under the name of Small's plow. Though originally pioducetl in nervvickshire,
the plow that seems to retain the principal feature of Smalls ini|iriivcmenls — the mould-
board is now found chieHy in East-Lothian, and, as will apjicar. dillt-rs very sensibly from
that now generally used in Berwicksliire.
(489.) Other writers, about the same period, published mcthcxis fur constructing a mould-
board on just princii)les. Among these, the method j)roj)osed by IJailey of Clnllingham may
be mentioned as approaching very near to the tnie iheoietical form. Others less perfect
have been proposed, which it is not necessary at present to notice; while several have pub-
lished "enenil descriptions of their construction of the plow, but have withheld the princi-
ples on° which their mould-boards are fomied.
(490.) While these improvements of the past century were going on, the plow was »ni-
versally constructed with wooden framing; but about the beginning of ihe jiresent century
(the precise year cainiot now be well defined), malleable iron began to be empinyed in their
fabrication. The application of this material in the constnictif)n of jilows came wiili s<i much
propriety', that it is now, in Scotland, almost univei-sal. It has many advantages ; but the
most prominent are its gi-eat durability under any exposure, and its belter adaptation to
withstand the shocks to which the implement is frequently liable in the course uf working.
In a national point of vie%v, it is alsf) deserving of the most extended application, being a
produce for wliich Bri^ain .stands unrivaled. This period also, was productive of an inno-
vation on the form of mould-board and share which had been established by Small. The
mould-boards loitherto referred to come under the denomination of concave, or more prop-
erly straight-lined ; when Mr. Wilkie, Uddingslone, near Glasgow, introduced his new form
with convex lines, to be afterward more particulaily noticed, and which has been adopted
in various districts in Scotland, to the exclusion of the concave fonn.
(491.) At a still latw period, a Ibrra of plow was bitmght lin-ward by Mr. Cinmingliam,
Harlaw, near Edinbmfgh, a practical faiTner, in which are combined the properties ol Wil-
kie's, with very slight deviation of form fiom that of Small's plow — the principal diHerence
being in the form of the share.
(492.) Havhig, in this short sketch of the progiess of the plow, brought it to the point
when it has diverged into three varieties, each of which is iield in equal estimation in the
respective districts in which it is used, it is a i-emarkable circumstance that each holds iu
sway in its peculiar locality, to the almost entire exclusion of its compeers. The first two
have undergone numerous sUght changes, forming sub-varieties, but retaining the respective
leadin<^ features of the concave and convex mould-boards; and, as they have each spread
(especmlly the first) over a wide extent of country, I purpose to distinguish them by the
count)' hi which they aie chiefly employed. Thus, the Small's plow shall be demuninated
the East-Lothian, aud Wilkie's the Lanarkshire, plow. The third variety is more limited in
its ran^e of applicatimi, being almost exclusively confined to .Mid-Lothian, and the borders
of tho^ counties adjoining to it, tlu-oughont which it is known by the name of the Currie
plow, but which it is proposed to distinguish here by the name of the Mid-Lothian.
(493.) Before entering upon the detjiiled description, it will be useful to the agricijltural
student that a nomenclature be given of the various parts of the plow. Thus, fig. 48, which
Fig. 48.
(494)
A TIEW OF THE LAND-SI DK OF A PLOW,
CM t
THE PLOW. 255
is a view of a plow in perspective, presents that wliicb plo\\inen and agricultural mechanics
denominate the land-side, so called because when in work it is always (except in the case
of tum-wTest or right-and-left plows) in contact w-ith the firm or unplowed laud. The oppo-
eite or right side of the plow, being that which tunis over the furrow-slice cut from the firm
land, is called the farrow-side. That member of the plow to which the animals of draught
are yoked, marked A in the figure, is the beam. Those parts by which the plowman holds
and guides the implement are called the stilts or handles, B being the great stilt or left han-
dle, and C the little stilt or right handle; D is the muzzle or bridle by which the horses are
attached to the beam ; E the coulter is a cutting mstiaiment that stivers the slice from the
firm land, and F the sock or share which cuts the sUce below from the subsoil ; G is called
the wrest or moidd-board. It is probable that the temi wrest applied formerly to only a par-
ticular portion of the mould-boai-d — the lower portion in the more ancient plow — which waa
supposed to wrest or turn aside tlie slice after being cut by the share ; thus we find in the
Kent turn-wrest plow that the wrest is a simple sti-aight bai' of wood. The mould-boai'd, in
the improved implement, receives the slice from the share, turns it gradually over, and de-
posits it continuously at the proper angle. H is the sole-shoe on which the plow has its prin
cipal support, and on which it moves, and I is the land-side plate, only serving to complete
the sheathing of the land-side, presenting a uniform smooth sui-face to the firm land, and pre-
venting the crumbled eai-th from falling within the body of the plow. These last pai-ts cover
the body-frame fi'om view, which \\'ill be exhibited among the details.
(494.) Without entering into a description of all the sub-varieties of these plows, it will
be sufficient to attend to the type of each variety, and, first, as to their general qualities and
characteristics.
(495.) The East-Lothian plow, figs. 49 and 50, Plate V. — In this plow, the proper lines of the
body on the land-side lie all in one plane, which, in working, should be held in the vertical posi-
tion, or very slightly inclining to the left. The coulter slightly oblique to the land-side plane, the
point standing toward the left, the rake of the coulter varies from 55-' to 65^. In the mould-board
the vertical sectional lines approximate to straight lines, giving the character of apparent concav-
ity, and it is trancated forward. Share pointed, with a feather or cutter standing to the right,
having a breadth of at least § the breadth of the furrow, the cutting edge of the feather lying
nearly as low as the plane of the sole. The neck of the share is prolonged backward, joining and
coinciding %vith the curve of the mould-board, which curvature is also carried forward on the
back of the feather. The character of this plow is to take a furrow of 10 inches in breadth by 7
inches in depth, cut rectangular, leaving the sole of the open turmw level and clean. The resist-
ance to the draught is generally below the average of plows, and this plow is employed for every
kind of soil.
(496.) Lanarkshire plow, figs. 51 and 52, Plate IX. — In this plow, the proper lines of the land-
side lie in difl'erent planes ; thus when the fore-part of the land-side of the bodj', taken at the junc-
tion of the breast with the beam, is vertical, the hind part, taken at the heel, overhangs the sole-
line I inch, and the beam, at the coulter-box, lies to the right of a vertical line from the land-side
of the sole about 1 inch, the point of the beam being recurved toward the land-side. In working,
the fore-part of the body is held in the vertical line, or slightly inclined to the left. The coulter,
by reason of the bend in the beam to the right, and the point being to the left of the land-side,
stands verj' oblique, but nearly coinciding with the laud-side, at the bight of 7 inches from the
sole. Rake of the coulter from 55'-' to 65"^. The vertical sectional lines of the mould-board are
all convex toward the furrow, giving the mould-board the character of convexity, and it is pro-
longed forward, covering the neck of the share. Share chisel-pointed, with the feather seldom
exceeding 5^ inches broad, the cutting edge rising from the point at an angle of 8- till it is 1 inch
above the plane of the sole, when it falls into the curve of the mould-board, while the neck passes
under the latter. The character of this plow is to take a furrow whoso section is a trapezoid, its
breadth from 7^ to 9 inches, and greatest depth 6^ inches, the sole of the furrow being not level,
and deepest at the laud-side. In the finished plowing, the laid-up fuiTow-slices have the acute
angle upward, giving the character which I call high-crested to the furrow slice, especially ob-
servable in plowing lea. Resistance to the draught about the average, and it is considered to be
well adapted to stiff clay, and to lealand.
(497.) Mid-Lothian plow, figs. 53 and 54, Plate X. — This plow is always worked with a chain
bar under the beam. The proper lines of the laud-side lie in different planes ; thus, when the
fore-part of the land-side, taken as in the former case, is vertical, the hind-part, taken at the heel,
overhangs the sole line f inch, but the beam is continued straight. In working, the land-side is
held vertical, or slightly inclined to the left. The coulter stands rather oblique, and the point
about IJ to 2 inches above the point of the share. Rake of the coulter varying from 56° to 80°.
The vertical sectional lines of the mould-board approximate to straight lines, giving the character
of concavity, and the mould-board is prolonged forward, covering the neck of the share. The
share is chisel-pointed, with feather seldom exceeding 5 inches broad, and, when trimmed for lea-
plowing, the cutting-edge rises from the point at an angle of 10° to a hight of I5 inches above the
plane of the sole, ■when it falls into the cur\-e of the mould-board, while the neck passes under it.
The character of this plow is to take a furrow-slice whose transverse section is a trapezoid, having
an acute angle with a breadth of 8^ to 9 inches, and usually from 6 to 6^ inches in depth. The
sole of the furrow is not level, and is deepest at the land-side. In the finished plowing, the laid-
np furrow-slices have the acute angle upward, forming a high crest when plowing lea. Resist-
ance to the draught is about the average, and this plow is considered applicable to every kind of
soil, but particularly to plowing 'ea.
(498.) Before entering upon the specific details of the three varieties into which the modera
Scotch plows are here divided, it will be necessary to lay down certain data, on which the details
(495)
256 TIIK BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
of each variety will be bojifd. For liiiit purpoae, ihc figiireH in elevation, figs. 49, 51, and 53, in
the plates of the euiirc plows ubuut to be de.-H-ribeil, are sappoaed to stand upon a level plane,
the heel and point of the i-hure touching liiat plane, these being aclually the points on which the
f)low is supported when in motion ; this plane sliaJl be called the base lint. The fore-part of the
and-side of the plow's body — standing in the vertical position, as seen in plan figs. 50, 5-2 and 54,
in the plates — is supposed to be placed upon a similar line, touching the land side of the sole-shoe
and the point of the share. The base-line is divided into a scale of feet for the convenience of
comparison. The zero of the scale is taken at that part of the plow's body, where a vertical trans-
verse section, at right angles to the plane of the land-side, will fall upon a point on the surface of
the mould-board, which shall be distant from the land-side plane by a space equal to the greatest
breadth of the furrow taken by the respective plows; the bight of this point above the base-hne
being also equal to the breadth of the slice. Or, the zero is that vertical section of the mould
board, which, in its progress under the slice, will just place the latter in the vertical position. —
The scale, by this arrangement, counts right and left of the zero. The dotted line marked tur-
face-Une in ISgs. 49, 51, o."?, in the plates, represents the depth of the furrow taken by the respect
ive plows.
(499.) This zero point has not been fixed on without much consideration ; for. having experi-
enced the inconvenience of vagne generalities in stating the dimensions of the plow, as given in
works on tlie subject, it has appeared to me desirable that some fixed point should be adopted,
and this has been chosen as less liable to change than any other point in the longitude of the
plow ; all other points of this implement being liable to and may be changed at pleasure, without
change of effect. Thus the beam or the bandies may be lengthened or shortened, the position of
the coulter and the length of the sole may be varied, the mould-board itself may be lengthened or
shortened forward without producing anj- decided change in the working character of the plow,
the apparent changes being easily counteracted by a corresponding change in a different direc-
tion. The lengthening of the beam, for example, would only require a corresponding change in
the hight of its extremity above the base line ; an alteration in the length of the share, or in the
ptosition of the coulter-box, induces only a corresponding change in the angle which the coulter
forms with the base line, which angle, in any case, is liable to change from the wearing of the
irons themselves, but which can be rectified as required by shifting the draught-bolt in the bridle.
The zero point here proposed can, with tolerable exactness, be determined in any plow with the
instruments that every mechanic has in his hands, squares and & foot-rule.
(500.) It may be well, also, to premise farther, in regard to the contour in elevation of the differ-
ent plows, that although the bights at the different points throughout the beam and handles are
given in detail, as adopted bj- the best makers, which those unacquainted with tlie implements
mav follow with confidence, in the construction of implements of the same character, yet I cannot
pa-ss over the circumstance without noticing that, with the exception of one point— ilie hight of
the beam at the draught-bolt — any part of the contour may be altered to the taste of the maker,
and even the point of the beam, as already noticed, may be altered, provided the alteration is
continued backward or forward in a certain angle. The change in position in the vertical direc-
tion of three other points is limited within a certain range — not from principle, however, but for
convenience. These points are the h ight of the beam at the coHlter-box and aX the breast-line
of the mould-board ; these cannot be brought lower than the given dimensions without subjecting
the plow to an unnecessary tendency to choke in foul ground, though they may be raised higher
without injury, provided the corresponding parts — the mould-board and body-frame — are altered
in proportion. The third point here alluded to is the hight of the handles, which is altogether a
point of convenience ; but it may be affirmed of this that it is better to be low than high, since be-
ing low places the plow more under the command of the plowman. The different points, as
given in plan, being more matters of principle, with exception of the position of the handles, can-
not be deviated from without compromising the character of the plow.
(501.) With tliese preliminary remarks I proceed to the general description of the three varie-
ties, taking first,
(502.) The East-Lothian Plow. — Fig. 49, Plate V. represents an elevation of this plow, on
the furrow side, drawn to a scale of 1 inch to 1 foot, and fig. 50 a horizontal plan of the same. It
is found witli various shades of difference, but not to the extent or of such a marked character as
to require separate description from what follows. The beam and handles or stilts are almost in-
variably made of malleable iron, the body-frame being of cast-iron, the latter varjing slightly with
different makers. In its construction, the beam and left handle are usually finished in one contin-
ued bar ABC, possessing the varied curvature exhibited in fig. 49, as viewed in elevation. When
viewed in plan, as in fig. 50, the axix or central line of the beam and left handle are in a straight
line — thoutrh in this arrangement there are some slight deviations a nonir the different makers—
the point of the beam being in some cases turned more or less to the right or furrow side, and this
is found to vary from i inch to 2 inches from tlie plane of the land-side.
(503.) The Hght handle. DE. is formed in a separate bar, and is attached to the body-frame at
tts fore end by a bolt, as will be shown in detail, and farther connected to the left handle by the
bohs FFF, and the stays GG.
(504.) The coulter I is fixed in its box K by means of iron wedges, holding it in the proper po-
sition. Its office being that of a cutting instrument, it is constructed with a sharp edge, and is
set at an angle of from 55^ to 65^ with the base-line.
(505.) The mould-board L, which is fixed upon the body-frame, and to the right handle, is a
curved plate of cast-iron, adapted for turning over the furrow-slice. Its fore-edge or breast MN
coincides with the land-side of the plow's body; its lower edge T behind stands frotn 9J to 10
inches distant from the plane of the land-side, while its upper edge P spreads out to a distance of
19 inches from B, the land-side plane. In this plow the mould-board is truncated in the fore part,
and is met by the gorge or neck of the share, the junction being at the line N.
(506.) The thare or sock NR is fitted upon a prolongation of the sole bar of the body-frame,
(496)
THE PLOW. 257
tenned the head, and falls into the curves of the mould-board, of which its surface forms a contin-
aation.
(507.) The bridle C, or muzzle, as sometimes named, is that part to which the draught is ap-
plied, and is attached to the point of the beam by two bolts, the one S being permanent, upon
which the bridle turns vertically. The other bolt U is movable, for the purpose of varying the
earthing of the plow ; the landing being varied by shifting the draught-bolt and shackle V to
right or left. The right and left handles are furnished at A and D with wooden helves fitted into
the sockets of the handles.
(.508.) The seneral dimensions of the plow may be stated thus, as measured on the base-line :
From the zero-point O to the extremity of the heel T, the distance is 4 inches, and from O for-
ward to the point of the share R, the distance is 32 inches — giving, as the entire length of sole, 3
feet. Again, from O backward to the extremity of the handles A' is 6 feet 2 inches, and forward
to the draught-bolt V 4 feet 7 inches, making the entire length of the plow on the base-line 10
feet 9 inches ; but, following the sinuosities of the beam and handle, the entire length from A to
C is about 11 feet 3 inches.
(509.) In reference to the bodi/ of the plow, the center of the coulter-box K is 14 J inches, and
the top of the breast-curve M 9 inches before the zero-point, both as measured on the base-line ; but,
following the rise of the beam, the distance from M to the middle of the coulter-box will be 7 inches.
(510.) The flights at the different points above the baseline are marked on the figure in eleva-
tion, along the upper edge of the beam and handle ; but the chief points in bight arc repeated
here, the whole of them being measured from the base-line to the upper edge of the beam and
handles at the respective points. At the left handle A the hight is 3 feet, at the right handle D
2 feet 9 inches ; and a like difference in hight of the two is preserved till the right handle ap-
proaches the body at the middle stretcher F ; thence the difference increases till it reaches the
body. The hight at the point of the beam is 18 inche.s, and the center of the draught-bolt, at a
medium, 17 inches. The lower edge of the mould-board behind, of this plow, at T is usually set
about \ inch above the base-line, and at the junction with the share about the same hight.
(511.) The dimensions in breadth, from the land-side line, embrace the obliquity that is given to
the direction of the beam and handles, compared with the land-side plane of the body taken at
the sole. The amount of obliquity, as exhibited by the dotted line AC, fig. 50, which coincides
with the land-side plane of the body, is, that the axis of the beam at the extremity C stands 1|
inches to the right, and at the opposite end the left handle A stands about 2 inches to the left of
the line. These points may, however, be varied slightly from the dimensions here given. In the
first — the point of the beam — it is found in the practice of different makers to range from 1 to 2
inches. In the opinion of some writers and practical men, it is held that the beam should be par-
allel with the land-side plane of the body. With all deference to such opinions, I apprehend that
the direction of the line of draught, in a vertical plane, cannot coincide with the plane of the land-
side ; for the point of resistance in the plow's body cannot fall in that plane, but will pass through
some point to the right of it, and which, from the nature of the subject, cannot be very preciselj-
defined. Both reanon and experience, however, point this out to the plow-maker, and especially
to the observant plowman. Hence, also, may be remarked, from the instructions laid do^vn by
Small* for the formation of the beam — which, in his time, were made of wood— that the land-side
of the beam should lie in the plane of the land-side of the body ; and, as he directed the beam to
be 2^ inches in breadth at that point, its axis must have been 1^ inches to the right of the land-
side plane; and, in all cases, it must be admitted that the resultant of the effect will lie in the axis
of the point, provided the draught-bolt is placed in that line. But, for very sufficient practical
reasons, the draught-bolt has a range from right to left, by wliich the effects of variation of soil and
other causes can be rectified at pleasure.
(512.) A similar difference of opinion has prevailed in regard to the position of the handles, in
reference to the land-side plane. In the plow now under review, the left handle deviates only 2
inches from the line ; whereas, as we shall see, another variety has the handle 7 inches to the left
of the line ; and this deviation has been advocated on the principle of allowing the plowman to
walk right in the middle between the handles, his right and left arms being equally extended.!
Now I would again submitwhether the man v^'ho walks with his arms equally extended, and his
body equally distant from either handle, or he who is compelled to have one handle always near
his body, whereby he can, on any emergency, bring his body in.stantaneously in contact with the
hand, or that which it grasps — which of these men will have the greatest command over the in-
strument he guides? Little consideration, I imagine, will be necessary to satisfy the inquirer that
the latter will have the advantage.
(513.) The dimensions of the parts of the froTne-work of the plovv are: The beam, at its junc-
tion with the mould-board at M, is from 2J to 2| inches in depth, by 1 inch in breadth — the same
strength being preserved onward to the coulter-box K. From the last point a diminution in
breadth and depth begins, which is carried on to the extremity C, where the beam has a depth
of 15 inches, and a breadth of ^ to | inch.
(514.) The coulter-box is fomied by piercing an oblong mortise through the bar, which has been
previously forged with a protuberance at this place, on each side and on the upper edge ; the
'morti.se is 2| by | inches, and the depth 3^ inches.
(515.) From the junction with the mould-board at M backward, the beam decreases gradually
till, at the hind palm of the body at B, it is 2 inches in depth, and | inch in breadth, where it
merges in the left handle A. This last member retains a nearly uniform size throughout of 2
inches by | inch. The right handle D is .somewhat lighter, being usually 1| inches by f inch,
and both terminate in welded sockets, which receive wooden helves, of 6 or 8 inches in length.
The stretchers FFF, which support and retain the handles at their diie distance apart, are in
length suited to their positions in the handles, and their thickness is about | inch diameter, taper-
ing toward the ends, where they terminate in a collar and tail-bolt, with screwed nut. The up-
* Small's Treatise on Plows. t Wilkie in Farmer's Magazine, vol. xii.
(497) ir
258
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
per stretcher hao nleo a semicircular stay riveted to its middle, the tails of the staj's GG terminat-
ing like the stretcher with screwed tails and nuts.
/jlG.) Having f^iveu the gunijral dimensions and outline-description of this plow, there remains
to DC described the tlrfaiU of the body-frame and its sheathing, all the figures of which arc on a
scale of 1 i inches to 1 foot.
(517.) The bodyfratue. — The different views of the body-frame are exhibited in the annexed
cuts, fig. 55 and 56, wherein the same letters refer to the corresponding parts in the different
Fig. 55.
Fig. 57.
THE DETAILS OF THE BODT-FRAME.
figures. Fig. 55 is an elevation of the furrow-side ; fig. 56 a plan of the snle-bar of the frame in-
verted ; and a vortical s(;ction, on the line x x, is given in fig. 57. In all the figures, then, a a is
the sole-bar, with two arms, b and c, extending upward, and having at the lower
cdgg a Hangc d, running along the rightiiand-sidc. Each of the arms b c ter-
minates in a palm, ef, by which it is bolted to the beam. The arm c is furnislied,
beside, with an oblique palm or ear, g, upon which the fore edge of the mould-
board rcsLs, and to which it is bolted. The sole-bar a, with its flange, terminates
forward in the head h, which is here made to form the commencement of the
twist of the mould-board, and upon which the share is fitted, reaching to the dot-
tod line ii, fig. 55. The fore edge k, /. / of the frame is worked into the curve
answering to the oblique section of the fore edge or breast of the mould-board,
and serves as a support to the latter throughout their junction. The curvature
given to the arm b is unimportant to the action of the plow, but the general
oblique direction here given to it is well adapted to withstand the thrust con-
stantly exerted in that direction when the plow is at work. In fig. 56, the
sloping edge d m represents the enlargement of the sole-bar, on which the share
is fitted, and where the lower part of the fore edge of the mould board rests. The
deprcs.sed portion in n is that which is embraced by the flange of the share. In
the frame, o is the lower extremity of the right handle, broken off at o, to show
the manner in which it is joined to the sole-flange of the frame by the bolt p.
The bolt-holes q q are tho.sc by which the beam is secured to the palms of the
frame ; r r arc those by which the land-side plate is attached ; and s n those of
the snle-shoe, I being tliat which secures the mould- board to the car, and ii that
which receives the lower stretcher of the handles. (See fig. 50, Plate V. at F
and O.) The letter v marks the second bolt-hole of the mould-board, while its
third fixture is efl"«-cted upon the right handle by the intervention of a bracket,
or of a bolt and socket, as seen at O, fig. .50, Plate V. The dotted lines m w mark
the position of the beam when attached to the body, the beam being received in-
to the seals formed on the land side of the palms e f, as seen more distinctly at ir, in fig. 57.
(518.) The body-frame being an important member of the implement, regard is paid to having
it as light as may be consistent wilii a due degree of strength ; hence, in the different parts,
breadth has been given them in the direction of the strain, while the thickness is studiously atten-
aatod in such places as can be reduced with safety. The least breadth of the sole-bar a is .Tj
inches, of the arm c 4 J inches, and of i 2^ inches. The breadth of the sole-flange is 2 inches, the
greatest thickness in any of the parts is J inch, and the total weight of the frame is 30 lb».
(438)
d
A VERTICAL
SECTIO.V OF
THE FRAME.
THE PLOW.
259
(519.) The share. — Figs. 58-62 are illustrations of the share and its configuration ; fig. 58 is a
plan, 59 a geometrical elevation of the furrow-side, and 60 a direct end view looking forward, of
which a is the boss adapted to the curvature of the mould-board, b the land-side flange which
embraces the head on the land-side, c the sole-flange, embracing, in like manner, the head be-
low ; and these three parts form the neck or socket of the share, fitting closely upon the head, and
being, in eflfect, part of the mould-board. The part d ef, fig. 58, forms the share proper, consist-
Fig. 60.
Fig. 59.
Fig. 61.
Fig. 62.
THE DETAILS OF THE SHARE.
ing oi d ce the shield, terminating in the point e. and of the part c g e the feather or cutter run-
ning off at the point e. The extreme breadth of the share in this plow, measuring from the land-
side to the point g of the feather, varies from 6 to 65 inches; and its length in the sole, including
the neck, is about 16 inches, the feather being 11 inches The other figures 61 and 62 are trans-
verse sections of the share on the lines g g and h h in the respective figures, exhibiting the struc-
ture and relation of the shield and the feather, as well as the position of the cutting edge of the
feather in relation to the base-line of the plow represented by the line A'V, fig. 49, Plate V.,
where, as will be observed, the cutting edge, through its entire length, lies within less than \ of
an inch of the base-line.
(520.) The share is always formed from a plate forged for the express purpose at the iron-mills,
and known in the trade by the term sock-plate. Fig. 63 represents the form in which these plates
Fig. 63.
A SOCK-PLATE.
are manufactured, the thickness being from ^ to | inches ; they are afterward cut in two through
the line a b, each half being capable of forming a share. To do this, an incision c ^ is made on
the short side to a depth of 2 inches, the part acde is afterward folded down to form the sole-
flaiige, and the part bfg is, in like manner, folded down to form the land-side flange. The point
k is strengthened, when requisite, to receive the proper form of the shield and point, the latter
being tipped with steel. The edge h c is extended to the requisite breadth to form tlie feather. In
order to cut a sock-plate at the proper angle, so as to secure a minimum expenditure of labor and
material, let a central line h h be drawn upon the plate, and bisect this line in the point k, the line
upon which the plate should be cut will form angles of 70° and 110° nearly, with the line A /t;
or, mechanically, draw k I, equal to 5^ inches, at right angles to h h, and la parallel to h h, mark
off 2 inches from I to a, and, through the points ak, draw the line a b, which is the proper direc-
tion in which the plate should be cut.
(521.) Tlie sole-shoe.— The figures 64-66 are illustrative of the sole-shoe. Fi^. 64 is a plan of
the shoe, a a being tlie sole-flange, and b b the land-side flange. Fig. 60 is an elevation of the
same, and fig. 66 a cross section, showing the filling up of the internal angle op'posed to where
the greatest wear takes place. The thickness of Uie sole-flange at the heel a is | inch, diminish-
ing forward to f inch at 3 inches from the point, and thence it is thinned oft" to prevent ob-
struction m its progress through the soil. The breadth of the sole is 2i inches, and its extreme
(499)
260
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
length 20J inches. The Hide-flanRc is J inch thick along the edge by which it is attached to the
Bole, diminishing upward to { incli at the top edge, the hight being 4j inches at the heel and 6
inches at the fore end ; weight about 14 lbs. The upper land-side plate is IS inches in length on
the lower edge, being 1 ^ inch longer tlian the corresponding edge of the sole-plate, the purpose
Fig. 66.
Fig. 65.
Fig. 64
THE SOLK-SHOE.
Fig. 68.
of which will be seen in the figure of the land side. fig. 71 ; the length on the upper edge is 21}
inches. The breadth and the contoar of the upper edge must be
adapted to ilio form that may have been given to the beam. The Fig. 67.
thicknes.s at the lower edge must agree with that of the sole- plate, and
be diminished to i inch at the upper edge ; weight 9 Ib.s.
(52-2.) T/ie coulter. — Fig. 67 is an edge and 68 a side view of the
coulter of this plow, in which the same letters of reference are applied.
The neck a h by which it is alBxed in the coulter-box, is about 10
inches long, though it may, with all propriety, be extended to c\ the
neck is usually about 2 inclies in breadth and J inch in thickness. The
blade bed varies in length according to Uie variety of the plow to
which it belongs, from IS to 22 inchesT The breadth of the blade is
usually about 3 inches in tlie upper part, but is curved off behind and
terminating in a point at d. The thickness of the back at the shoulder
b is \ inch, and tapers gently downward to where the curvature of the
back begins ; thence it diminishes toward the point to \ inch or
less. It is formed quite flat on the land-side, and on the furrow-side is
beveled of}" toward the .-uttiug edge, where it is about j inch in thick-
ness throughout the length of the edtre.
(523.) The bridle. — Fig. 69 is a plan, and fig. 70 a corresponding ele-
vation of the bridle, and the manner of its attachment to the beam,
where a is a part of the beam, b the cross-head, and c c the tails of the
bridle, with their arc-heads d embracing the beam on the two sides : e
is the joint-bolt on which the bridle turns for adjustment to carthins: ;
{is tiie temper pin or bolt, and by insertion of )t into any one of the
oles in the arc-heads, and passing through the beam, which is here
perforated for the parpo.<e. the bridle is held in any required position.
The draught shackle i' is helil in its place upon the'cro.ss-head b by the
draught-bolt k passing through both parts, and the cross head being per-
forated with five or more holes, the bolt and shackle can be shifted from
right to left, or from left to riirht. for the proper adjustment of the land-
»7i"' of tlie plow. To the shackle is appended "the swivel-hook 7, to
which is attached the main drauaht-bar. or swingle-tree of the yoke.
(52-J.) The land-side. — Figs. 71 and 72 are illustrations of the land-
side — fip. 71 being an elevation of the body of this plow, represented
in the working positions, but with the extremities cut off. The point
of the shar"} and the heel rest upon the ba.<!e-line at a and b, and the
lines of the sole lying between the.se points form the very obtuse anele
which obtains in the sole of tliis plow : a c is the share, and d b the sole-
shoe ; (■ is the land-side plate, and /g a part of the beam. The lines
a d and d b, toeether with the base-line, form the very low triangle
a d b. whose altitude at d does not exceed J inch, or by extending the
sole-line bd\oh the depression h a of the point of the share below this
extended line will be \ inch nearly. Fig. 72 repre.«ents a horizonul
section of the body, as if cut off at the level of the upper edge of the
sole-shoe. Here a c is the share. // d the .solc-flanue of the body-frame, the bolt-hole at b being that
by which the palm of the right handle is fixed to the flange ■' e and / the two arms of the frame,
AS cut across in the section g i, the land-side of the sole-shoe coinciding with the land-side plane,'
the continuation of this line, g i to h, cxhibiu the inclination of the share to the land-side, which
in this plow may be taken at \ inch.
(525.) The inclination downward given to the share is intended, and experience confirms the
intention, to give steadiness of motion to the implement, by giving it a lengthened base on which
(500)
THE COULTER.
THE PLOW.
261
to stand. It is evident that if a base the converse of this were given to it — convex instead of con-
cave— so that it should rest on tlie point d, when in motion, the smallest obstruction occurring at
the point of the share vfould give it a tendency to swerve from the horizontal line of progression,
and to lose either depth of furrove or be thrown out, thus rendering the management of the plow
Fig. 70
THE BRIDLE.
very diflBcult and uncertain. Even a perfectly straight base is found not to give the requisite
certainty of action, without a greater amount of exertion, as well as closer attention on the part
of the plowman. A like reason prevails for this inclination of the share landward, as does for its
Fig. 71.
Scale.
THE DETAILS OF THE LAND-SIDE.
earthward inclination ; and, for the steady motion of the plow, the latter is even more necessary
than the former ; but there is another reason for this landward inclination, which is, that as the
plow is seldom held with its land-side truly vertical, but inclining a littlfe landward, and it being
desirable to cut the furrow-slice as near as possible rectangular, the coulter has always a slight
tendency landward at the point; hence it becomes necessary to give the share a like bias. By
this arrangement of the parts, the incision made by the coulter will be nearly vertical. While it
is admitted that these inclinations of the .share afford certain advantages in the action of the plow,
(501)
262
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WLNTER.
it mast not be concealed that the practice ia liable to obasc. It has been slated that, if a different
arrangement were followed, a greater degree of exertion and of attention on the i)art of the plovr-
man would be called forth ; thus, if the sole and land-side of the l)od y were perfectly straight, the
plow would present the least possible resistance, bat as it would thus be so delicately u(iju>>ted,
the sniiillest extraneous obstacle would tend to throw it out, unless a constant, unceasing watch is
kept on its movements bv the plowman. To obviate it\U, he gets tlie share set with a blrong ten-
dency to earth (tor it is tliis tendency that has most etti'ct). greater than is requisite ; and, to pre-
vent "the plow taking a too deep furrow, he counteracts this by adjusting the draught-bolt to an
opposite tendency; the implement will thus be kept in equilibrium, but it js obtained at an addi-
tional expenditure of horse-power. I'ndcr any such circumstances, the plow is drawn at a disad-
vantage to the horses, as will be afterward shown, by reasou of an obli(iuity of the line of draught
to the direction of motion, and this disadvantage is augmented by every undue tendency given to
the parts by which the obliquity of their action is incrca.--ed ; or. if not so increased, the preven-
tion of the increase will induce a deterioration in the work performed. This point 1 shall be able
also to establish when I come to speak of the action of the plow generally. In the mean time, it
may be affirmed that all undue inclination given to the share, bui especially in its earthing, will
either produce an unnecessary resistance to the draught, or it will deteriorate the quality of the
plowing. It is, ilieretbre, the' interest of the farmer to guard against, and to prevent as much as
possible, every attempt at giving any undue bias to this importaiit member of the plow.
(di6.) The La.vaukshike Plow. — The Lanarkshire plow, as cou.structcd by Mr. Wilkie, Ud-
dingstone, is represented in Plate IX. ; fig. 51 being an elevation, and fig. 52 a plan. Like the
former, it now occurs with various shades of ditterence. but the leading points remain unchanged ;
like it, also, its frame-work is invariably made of malleable iron. but. in the construction of this,
the application of malleable iron is carried a step farther, as will appear in the details.
(5i!7.) The beam and left handle are usually finished in one continuous bar, ABC. possessing a
Btiil more varied curvature than in the former plow, inasmuch as it is curved hDrizontally as well
as vertically. When viewed in plan, and compared with the land-Bide plane as applied to the
sole-shoe, and the fore-part of the body standing vertical, it is found that the bcain, where it meets
the breast-curve, coincides with the land-side plane, but at the coulter-box it de%-iates to the right
to the extent of Ij inches, if measured to the axis of the beam. Instead of continuing to deviate
in this direction, the beam retunis toward the land-side plane, till at C it is 1 inch to the right. —
This formation of the fore-part of the beam gives a po.>iiiiou that ai)parently makes llie draught
bear from a point within the body of the plow, that may be imagined to ajiproximate to the cen-
ter of resistance of the bodj-. This is. however, more apparent than real, for the beam in this
case acts simply as a bar bent at an angle, and perfectly rigid, on w hich, suppose a power and
resistance applied at its extremities, the resultant of the strain will not follow the axis of the bar
through its angular direction, but iu the direction of the .shortest line between the two points where
the power and the resistance are applied. In addition to this horizontal curvature of the beam, it
will be observed that the box of the coulter is formed by an increase of thickness on the right side
only, while there is even a slight depression on the left side. This double deviation to the right
gives an inclination to the plane of the coulter much greater than in any other variety of plow,
being about 8"' from the vertical. Though this jieculiarity in the form of the beam is one of the
most decided characteristics of this plow, as we now find it, it does not appear to have been an
original element in VVilkie's plow, for the late Mr. Wilkie says, '• the beam, which is 6\ feet long,
is wrought quite straight on the land-side :''" and, from his data in the same paper, his coulter
must have made an angle with the vertical plane of li-, whereas, by the more modern construction,
the angle is 8"^. Continuing the comparison with the land-side plane, it will be seen that the left
handle, at its junction with the tail of the beam, overhangs the land-side piano to the left fey about
I inch, there being that extent of twist on the .surface of the land-side, within the limits of the body,
and the same handle continues to recede from that plane tdl at the helve A it stands 7 inches to
the left. This is also a point in construction of this plow, though it does not bear upon the prin-
ciple of its actual workmg. As before obser\-ed regarding the position of tlie i)lowman in relation
to the handles (512), this point is one that may be liable to be questioned, but, not being an essen-
tial point, its determination is of minor importance.
(528.) The rif;ht handle HV. is formed in one bar, and attached to the bodj-frame, as will appear
in detail : and it is connected to the left handle by tlie stretcher bolts FFF. and tlie stays GG.
(529.) The coulter I is fixed in its box K ; the rake or ansh at which the coulter stands in this
plow, as before stated (26G), is from 55-' to 65'^. The land-side lace of the coulter is usually set to
form an angle with the land side plane of the plow, horizontally, of about 4-'.
(530.) The viould-hoard L, fixed upon the body-frame and the right handle, is a curved plate
of cast-iror;, adapted to the turning of the furrow-slice. Its fore-edge or breast MN coincides with
the land-side of the body ; its lower edge O behind stands trom 7 J to 8 inches distant from the
land-side, while its upper edge P spreads out to 18 inches from H, the land-.side. In this plow,
the mould -board is prolonged forward, covering the neck of the share, meeting the shield at the
root of the feather Q, of the share. At this point Nti, the horizontal breadth of the mould-board
is 3 inches: its bight from the base-line, at the same point, is from 2| inches to 2J inches, accord-
ing as the inclination of the share varies ; the length along the lower edge from O to N is 20 inches,
and from P to M 23 inches ; the extreme length in a straight line from P to N is 33 inches : and
the perpendicular bight from the plane of the base-line to P is about 11 inches. Slight deviations
from these dimensions of the mould-board are to be found iu the numerous sub-varieties of tliia
plow.
(531.) The share Q.R is fitted upon a malleable-iron head, to be afterward described ; the neck
passing under the mould board at XQ,. and the shield falling into tlie curve of the mould-board,
terminates forward in the chisel-point R.
(532.) The bridle C is formed iu this plow by tlie end of the beam being converted into a fork
Farmer's Magazine, toL xiL
(502)
THE PLOW.
263
or sheers, to which is attached the hridle proper S, by means of the draught-holt U ; the sheers
forming an adjustment vertically, while the bridle yields it horizontally, by shifting the draught-
shackle at S.
(533.) The right and left handles are each furnished at A and D with wooden helves fitted into
the sockets of the handles.
(534.) The general dimensions of this plow are : From the zero-point O to the extremity of the
heel T, 4 inches, and from O forward to the point B/ of the share is 29 inches — giving, as the en-
tire length of sole, 2 feet 9 inches. Again, from O backward to the extremity of the handles, the
distance is 5 feet 6 inches, and forward to the draught-bolt U 4 feet 4 inches, making the extreme
length on the base-line 9 feet 10 inches ; but following the sinuosities of the beam and bandies,
the entire length from A' to U' is about 10 feet 6 inches. In reference to the body of the plow,
the center of the coulter-box is 15 inches, and the point M of the breast-curve 6^ inches before the
zero-point O, both as measured on the base-line ; but, following the rise of the beam, the distance
from M to the middle of the coulter-box will be 10| inches.
(535.) The hisrhts of the different points, as measured from the base line to the upper-line of the
beam and handle, are marked on fig. 51 ; a few only of these may be repeated here. At the helve
of the left handle, the bight is 3 feet 2 inches ; at the same point in the right, it is 3 feet ; at the
middle stretcher, the difference in bight is only 1^ inches, but it again increases downward till
the right handle meets the sole-bar, to which it is bolted. The bight at the point of the beam ia
18 inches, and at the center of the draught-bolt U at a medium 17 inches. The lower edge of the
mould-board behind is usually sei at \ inch above the plane of the base-line, and at its junction
with the share is from IJ to Ij inche.s.
(536.) The dimensions of the frame-work of this plow are in general as follows: The beam, at
its junction with the mould-board at M, is from 2^ to 3 inches in depth, by from 1 to 1\ inches in
breadth, the same strength being preserved onward to the coulter-box K ; and thence, forward to
the root of the sheers, a gradual diminution goes on to about 2 inches by | inch. The coulter box
is formed, as before described, by an oblique mortise being pierced through the beam ; which, for
this purpose, has been previously forged with a protuberance at this place, to the right side only
and upward, giving it a depth of 3 inches. The opening of the coulter-box is about 2^ by | inches.
From the junction with the mould-board, the beam begins to diminish also backward till it merges
in the left handle, and here it measures only 2 inches in depth by | inch in breadth. The left
handle, where it joins the tail of the beam, has a depth of 2 J inches ; and here, also, it forks off into
the hind branch of the body; and it diminishes in depth backward to 1| inches at the commence-
ment of the helve-socket. The right handle, as in the former case, is somewhat lighter, and is con-
nected with the left by means of stretchers, as already described (528) ; and both tenninate in
sockets for receiving the wooden helves.
(537.) The body-frame. — This and the succeeding figures of the details of this plow are on a
scale of \\ inches to 1 foot. In the frame of the Lanarkshire plow, as usually constructed, those
parts which in the East-Lothian plow I have called the body-frame, are here formed in malleable
iron. The two bars or branches of the body are w;elded to, and form prolongations from, the beam
and left handle. Fig. 73 is an elevation of this body-frame ; a a is a portion of the beam ; b b d.
Fig. 73.
Fig. 74.
THE DETAILS OF THE BODY-FRAME.
prolongation of the left handle after it merges in the beam, forming the hind-bar of the body-frame ;
c c is the fore-bar falling from the beam ; each of these bars is kneed to the right hand at the bot-
tom, forming a palm by which they are bolted to the sole-bar d e. This last terminates forward in
the head ef, upon which the share is fitted. The hind-bar is forged to a breadth of 2 inches, its
thickness being | inch. The fore-bar is about 21 inches broad, and | inch thick ; each being re-
spectively thinner than the beam, at the point where they spring from it, by the thickness of the
(503)
264
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
Fig. 75.
laod-BJde plate. The sole bar de is made also of malleable iroo, and is 15 inches in length in tbd
part from d lo e, wiili a breadth of 2 inches swelled at e. and depth of 1 inch at c. The length
from c to/ is fi inclies, and in the depth the bar is tapered off from e toward /. where the depth ia
i inch. From e it tapers backward to J inch at d. A portion of the right handle is e.xhibiied as
broken off at ir ; the lower extremity bein_' twisted to a riv'ht angle, so as to lie flat on the sole-bar
CO which it is bolted, along with the palm of the fore-bar at A.
(538.) To determine the position of the points in this body-frame, let the zero-point O, as already
fixed, be marked on the beam at 15 inches behind the center of the coulter-box K. and the whole
beam carved ai-Teeably to the dimensions given fig. 52, Plate IX. ; tlien, the bight from the bottom
of the solo-bar to the top edge of the beam at tlie zero-point will be 14i inches, as before stated,
le«s the ihicknes-s of the sole-shoe at that point, or equal to 1-4 inches. The fore-part of the sole-bar
at e will have its position determined when a siraieht-e<lge applied to its lower side from d to e,
and extending as far as the point of the beam, will place the U[iper edge of the beam, where it
spreads into the .<1ioit.-j. as at C. Hiz. .11. Plate IX.. 18 inches above the strai^kt-fdirr. or line of the
sole-bar. The heel d of the sole-bar will be 4 inches behind the zero, and its point f 19 inches
before it, tlie sole-bar being in all 23 inches. The fore-edge of tlie fore-bar will be 5 inches before
the zero at top where it springs from tlie beam, and 13 inches at bottom, where it joins the sole-
bar. The cun-ature of the fore-bar is only necessary to prevent its lying in the way of the mould-
board, and a radius of I'* inclies will effect this.
(539.1 The provision tor fixing' the monld-boerd of tliis plow consists in a gland, fig. 74, fixed
on the body-frame and risibt handle with bolts at i k, supporting the fore-
part of the mould-board b\- means of bolts at / »/i. The remaining fixtures
is effected by a bracket H, attached also to the right handle, as seen in fig.
52, Plate IX. The shoe, as seen in position, fig. 73. is marked n o, and is
secured to the body-frame by the bolts />/?. The lower stretcher, by which
the right handle is connected to the left, is marked y. and r r mark the
bolts for fi.xing the land-side plate. Fig. 74. already alluded to, is a front
view of the gland on which the fore-part of the mould-board is supported.
and this is seen also in profile in fig. 75. which is a transverse section of
the body-frame on the line x x. In this figure a is the beam, c the fore-
bar with its kneed palm at h. under which is tliesole-bar e ; ^ is the broken
off part of the right handle, terminating in the palm lying over that of the
fore-bar ; and these three parts are secured by one bok at h. The sole-
shoe is seen at op, with its land-side flange, which is fixed by the bolt p.
(540.) The sh are. — The figures from 76 to ?2 are illu.strati ve of the shares
of this plow, a.« ailapted to both fallow and lea plowing, where fig. 76 is a
plan, fig. 77 a geometrical elevation of the furro%v-side of the eliare ; and
fig. 80 a direct end-view looking forward, in all which a b is the neck or
socket by which it is attached to the bead ; c is the shield, extending over
the body and the feather, but, for distinction, I shall call the portion e cf
in fig. 76 the body, and b g' h the feather, i being the point of the share,
which in this plow is always chisel-shaped. Fig. 78 is an elevation of the
furrow-side of the lea-share, and fig. 79 a direct end view of the same.
These views have the same letters of reference ; and exhibit the rise of
the cutting edge of the feather above the plane of the base line, which,
when it reaches the maximum hight, stands 1^ inches above that plane,
which gives an angle equal to 8^ or more with the plane of the sole in a
innsverse direction. The extreme breadth of this share at e y is 5J to 6
Fig. 78.
A SECTION or THX
BODT-FRAMK.
Fig. 79.
h . Fig. 77.
•^ Fig. 7«.
THE DETAILS OF THE SHARE.
\504)
THE PLOW.
265
inches ; the length from the point to the head of the shield i b, 10 inches, and again from the point
to the extremity of the neck / a, is 16 inches. A share thus formed will necessarily cut the furrow
lower at the land-side than at the extreme edge of the furrow lower at the laud-"side, than at the
extreme edge of the feather ; for, since the share must cut the slice all along its cutting edge at
the same instant, that part of the slice which is cut by the chisel point will be the lowest pos-
sible, and every succeeding point backward will be higher and higher till it reach the apex of the
curved feather 1^ inches above the true plane of the sole. Figs. 79 and 80 exhibit the openin°-
of the neck a h, which fits upon the head, and f c g- the outline of the posterior end of the shield
and feather of the two shares. Figs. 81 and 82 are transverse sections of figs. 76 and 77 on the
lines y y, X X respectively.
(541.) The sole-shoe. — Fig. 83 is a plan of the sole-shoe, where a 6 is the sole-flange with its
single bolt-hole, and c d the land-side flange. Fig. 84 is an elevation of the same, as viewed on
Fig. 84.
THE DETAILS OF THE SOLE-SHOE.
tne furrow-side, wherein a J is the sole-flange seen edgewise, and c d the side-flange, e.xhibitin'^
the notch e. 2 J inches long and 2 iuches deep, adapted to receive the neck of the share, while the
slope d is adapted to the breast-curve of the mould-board. Fig. 85 is a transverse section of the
shoe ; a the sole, and c the land-side, exhibiting also the filling, in the internal angle, opposite to
where the greatest wear takes place on the exterior. The land-side flange is 5 inches in hight,
and along the line of junction with the sole it is \ inch thick, lessening upward to I inch at the
upper edge ; the sole-flange is % inch in depth at the heel, diminishing forward to \ inch at the
fore-end. and retaining a uniform breadth of 2J inches. The length of the sole-flange is 17 inches,
and of the land-side flange to the extreme point 20 inches. The upper land-side plate in this
plow is loj inches in length on the lower edge ; its upper edge, as exhibited in fi^'. 90, corre-
sponds in its outline to the beam, joining flush with the left handle. The thickness at the lower
edge agrees with that of the upper edge of the sole-shoe, and is diminished at the upper edge to
\ inch.
(542.) The bridle. — Figs. 86 and 87 are two views of the bridle, the first a plan, the second a
Fig. 87.
(505)
THE DETAILS OF THE BRIDLE.
266
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
Bide view, wiih the same letters to earh. a is a portion of the beam, the extremity of which ia
forked into the sheers i J, 2 inches wide, each cheek of the sheers being also spread ont into
cross-heads c c, 5J inches lonisr, each famished with four or more perforations; they are also pre-
vented from collapsing by the insertion between them of a stretclier t. The bridle d d is adapt-
ed to the cross-heads of the sheers, and jointed on the draught-bolt e. The web d d of the bridle.
9 inches in Icnirth, is also provided with perforations, and furnished with the shackle f, which is
attached to it by the bolt ir. This arrangement affords the usual facility of changing tne draught
By shiftintr the bridle on the cross heads of the beam, in the vertical direction, the earlhinsr of the
plow is adjusted, and by the same operation on the shackle of the bridle horizontally, the lajid-
tne is adju.ated. The draught swivel-hook k is attached to the shackle, as before described, to
which are appended the draught-bars afterward described.
(543.) This plow is always provided with a verj- useful appendage, an iron hammer, fig. 68.
The head and handle are forged in one j)iece of malleable
iron, the latter part being fonued into a nut-key. With this
simple but uselu! tool, the plowman has always at hand tlie
means by which he can, without lo.ss of time, alter and ad-
just the position of his plow-irons — the coulter and share —
and perform other little operations, which circum.«tances or
accident may require — for the performance of which most
plowmen are under the necessitj- of taking advantage of
the first s(one they can find, merely from the want of this
simple instrument. The hammer is slung in a staple fixed
in the side of a beam in anj' convenient position, as at s in
fig. 73. This little appendage is confidently recommended
to all plowmen, as an essential part of the famiture of the
plow.
{544.) The plow-staff. — Fig. 89 represents the plow-staff, another and a necessarj- article of the
movable furniture of the plow. It is in form of a small shovel, having a socket, into which a
Fig. 88.
THE IRON HAMMER NUT-KET.
Fig. 89.
THE PLOW-STAFF.
helve of 5 feet in length is inserted, and in some parts of the countrj- this is furnished with an
oblique cross-head. Its position in tlie plow is to lie between the handles, and its nse to enable
the plowman to remove all extraneous matter, as earth, stubble, roots, weeds, &.C., that may accu-
mulate upon the mould-board or the coulter. It is common to all plows.
(545.) The Land- Side. — Figs. 90 and 91 are illustrations of the land-side of the body of this
plow ; fig. 90 being an elevation with the extremities cat off, the point of the ehare, as before,
Fig. 90.
Scale.
THK DETAILS OF THX LAHD-SIDI.
rests upon the base-line at a and b. and the lines of the sole lying between these points form the
obtuse angle in the sole lines ; a c is the share, n its neck, and d h the sole-shoe ; e is the land-side
plate, which is adapted to fill up the entire space between the side-flange of the sole-shoe and the
beam ; the fore part being adjusted to finish with the edge of the mould-board, while the posteri-
(506)
THE PLOW. 267
or part may be worked off to the taste of the maker. The lines a d and d b, together with the
base line, t'orm a very low triangle, a d b ; the altitude at d being not more than | of an inch
and by extending the side b d to h, the depression h a of the point of the share below the line b d
thus extended, will be from ^ to f of an inch. Fig. 91 represents a horizontal section of the body,
as if cut otf at the upper edge of the sole-shoe. Here a c is the share, 7i its neck ; the line g hhe
ing a continuation of the land-side plane, indicates the inclination landward of the point of the
Bhare, which, in this plow, is usuallj' from 5 to | inch ; b d is the sole-bar, the bolt-hole at b being
that by which the right handle is fixed to the bar ; e and_/"the two arms or bars of the body-frame,
as cut acro-ss in the section ; and g i is the land-side flange of the sole-shoe. The line c i, con-
tinued to h, exhibits the inclination of the point of the share to landward of the land-siie plane.
The same reasoning applies to the inclinations of the share from the sole and land side planes, as
has been offered in the case of the East-Lothian plow.
(54(3.) The Mid-Lothian or Currie Plow. — The Mid-Lothian or Cnrrie plow is delineated
in Plate X., where fig. 53 is an elevation of the furrow-side, and fig. 54 a horizontal plan of the
entire plow. This variety of the plow, probably from its more recent introduction, has under-
gone fewer changes than the two former. In one of its essential parts — the mould-board, little or
no difl'erence is to be found in all the range of this variety. In the share, greater changes are ob-
servable, and also in the coulter, as shall be noticed in due course. In the majority of these plows,
a cast-iron body-frame is employed, and in all the mould-board is prolonged forward over the
neck of the share ; and the draught is applied, through the medium of a chain-bar, placed under
the beam. In respect of the mould-board of this plow, it is, in point of curvature, nearly the
same as the Ea.st-Lothian, though in its prolongation forward, it bears a resemblance to the Lan-
arkshire, but without possessing that characteristics of that mould-board as will be afterward
shown. The share, in so far as it is immediately connected with the mould-board, closely resem-
bles the Lanarkshire, and the external parts of it take also after that plow. The Mid-Lothian
plow, therefore, may very appositely be termed a hybrid.
(547.) In the construction of the framework of this plow, the beam and left handle are usually
finished in one continued bar, ABC, possessing the varied curvature exhibited in fig. 53. as
viewed in elevation. When viewed in plan, as in fig. 54, the axis of the beam lies in one straight
line, though in this there are slight shades of variation, with different makers ; and the left han-
dle, from its junction with the tail of the beam, gradually deviates from the line of the beam's axis,
till, at the extremity A, it stands 3 inches to the left of the line of that axis. With reference to
the plane of the land-side, also, when the fore part of the body is vertical, the point of the beam
is inclined to the right of the plane about 1| inches, and the hind part of the body on the land-
side overhangs the edge of the sole \ inch, there being that extent of twist upon the surface of the
land-side, within the limits of the body. Some makers of this plow — and they are those of the
greatest eminence-^adopt the practice also of throwing the coulter-box to the right hand, in the
beam, making the beam plain on the land-side, as in the Lanarkshire plow. This, however, is
not universal, many still preferring to have the coulter in the axis of the beam In the first case,
the land-side of the coulter stands at an angle of about 7'^, and the latter about 5° with the vertical
line.
(548.) The right handle DE is formed in a separate bar. and attached to the body-fi-ame at its
fore end by a bolt, as will be shown in detail ; and it is farther connected to the left handle by the
stretcher-bolts FFF, and the stays GG.
(549.) The coulter I is fixed in its bo.x K by means of iron wedges, which set and retain it in
its proper position. The rake or angle that the cutting edge of the coulter in this plow makes
with the base-line, takes a greater range than any of the other two. being from 45^ to 80°. The
land-side face, taken horizontally, is usually set to form an angle of 2° landward, with the land-
side plane.
(550.) The monld-board L is fixed upon the body-frame, as before described, and is adapted,
as in the former cases, to the turning over the furrow-slice. Its fore edge or breast MN coincides
with the land-side of the body ; its lower edge O, behind, stands from 8^ to 9 inches distant from
the land-side ; while its upper edge P spreads out to I93 inches from the land-side. It is, as al-
ready observed, prolonged forward, covering the neck of the share, and meeting the shield at the
root of the feather Ql. At the point NQ,, the horizontal breadth of the mould-board is 3 inches, its
hight from the base-line, at the same point N, ranges from 2^ inches to 3| inches, according to
the degree of inclination that is given to the share ; but the real hight from the plane of the sole-
shoe is 2\ inches. The length of the mould-board along the lower edge, from O to N, is 23
inches; from P to M, along the upper edge, 26 inches; and the e.xtreme length, from P to N, is
35^ inches. The perpendicular hight, from the plane of the base-line to the upper edge at P, is
about 12| inches, though trifling deviations from these dimensions may be found among the
makers of this plow.
(551.) The share Q,R is fitted upon the head, which in general is of cast-iron, as afterward de-
scribed, the neck passing under the mould-board at NQ, : and the shield, falling into the curve of
the mould-board, terminates forward in the chi.sel -point R.
(552.) The bridle C of this plow is formed by a pair of straps S, appended to the point of
the beam ; and from the lower parts of these, the chain-bar H passes to the beam, whereon it il
fixed, a few inches before the coulter.box K. The bridle proper, U, is attached by the same
bolt that connects the chain to the straps. Shifting the straps S up or down upon the beam, afr
fords the requisite adjustment vertically, and the bridle U gives the horizontal adjustment.
(553.) The right and left handles are each furnished, at A and D, with wooden helves, fitted into
the sockets of the handles. In this plow, also, there is usually applied a brace-rod V, fixed at
the fore end to the tail of the beam, and behind to the right handle by a bolt and nut, for the pur-
pose of supporting the right handle.
(554.) The general dimensions of this plow are — From the zero point O to the extremity of
the heel T, the distance is 5 inches ; and from O forward to the point R of the share, is 29
inches ; making an entire length of 34 inches on the sole. Again, from O backward to the ex-
(507)
26S
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER
tremity of the handles A', the distance is 6 feet 2 iaches ; and forward to the dranght-bolt U',
4 feetS inches; inakiii;; the extreme length on the baseline 10 feet 5 inches; but measuring
alone: the sinuosities of the beam and handle, the entire length from A to U is 11 feel 6 inches.
(555.) In reference to the body of the plow, the center of the coulter-box is IC inches, and
the point M of the breast curve 8 inches before the zero-point ; both as measured on the base-
line; but, in following the rise of llie beam, the distance irom M to the middle of the coulter-
box is 11 inches.
(556.) The higlUs of the different points, from tlie base-line to the upper edge of the beam
and handle, are marked on fig. 53 ; the chief points only being expressed here. At the helve of
the left handle, the hight is 3 feet, the right being 2 inches lower ; the difference in hight con-
tinuing nearly uniform throughout their length. The hight of the point of the beam at C ia
23 inches, and to the center of the draught-bolt at a medium of 16^ inches. The lower edge
of the mould-board, behind, is usually set at i inch above the plane of the sole ; while, at its
junction with the share at N, the hight above the base line runs from IJ to IJ inches.
(557 ) For the dimensions of all tlie individual parts of the frame-work of tliis plow, it is
unnecessary to repeat them here, as thcv correspond so nearly with those already stated in
treating oj" the first two varieties. In this respect, llierefore, reference is now made to those
before described in paragraphs (513) and (5361.
(558.) The body-frame. — The Mid-Loihian, like the East-Lothian plow, is usually constmcted
with a cast-iron body-frame, differing, however, in some respects, from the latter. Fig. 92 ia
an elevation of the furrow-side of the body-frame. It consists of a plate or web a b c d of
about J inch thick, upon which is planted the sole-bar b ef, the beam-flange a k, and also the
ribs b i and k I; these last are for the purpose of strengthening the web. Fig. 93 is a direct view
Fig. 94.
Fig. 92.
THK DKTAILS (IF TMK ItOIl V-r KA M E.
of the under surface of the sole-bar. Its breadth at b and e is 2^ inches, but from e toward m
it is diminished to 2 inches, where the thickness is ^ inch ; but at e, where the principal strain
falls, through the action upon the share, the depth is increased to 2 inches, from which it tapers
forward to /, where it measures \\ inches in breadth and j inch in depth. From c it dimin-
ishes al.so backward ; and from / to A a filling piece is inserted in the pattern, in the angle, as
seen at /, f'g. 34, to increase the strength. A filling piece is also inserted at k, fig. 92. to support
that point whore the strain from the beam falls upon the body, as well as to give a bearing to the
breast of the mould board. Fig. 04 is a transverse section of the body-frame on the line x x, look-
ing forward ; a is the web, b e the sole-bar, k I one of the ribs in fig. 92, g the beam-flange, and
w the seat into which the beam is received when applied to the frame, ai^ bolted, as at w w n.
In the best examples of this body-frame, a part of the land-siue plating is cast along with the
frame; the lower edge of this portion is represented by the dotted line o o, fig. 92; and the
frame, as here described, is alvvays cast in one piece, but having the perforation ;)p/?alwaj-8
formed in it. A broken off portion of the right handle is marked q, and is formed at the fore part
into a palm, by which it is bolted to the web. The bolt-hole r is the place of insertion of the lower
stretcher, which connects the right handle to the body-frame ; .<: s are the bolts of the land-side
plate ; 1 1 those for the land-side flange of the shoe ; n u are the bolts for fixing a kneed bracket, on
which the upper fore part of the mould-board rests, and is bolted, the lower fixture being at r; and
a third isobtainod through a bracket, bolted upon the right handle, as seen at Y, fig. 54, Plate X.
The length of the beam-flange in this frame is from 19 to 19J inches, and the hight and outline of
that part are obtained from the bights marked in fig. 53, Plate X, deducting 1 inch for the thickness
of the sole-shoe at the heel, and \ inch at the point.
(508)
THE PLOW.
269
(559.) The sole-shoe. — Fig:. 95 is a plan of the sole-shoe ; a b the sole-flange 17 inches in length
3 teches in breadth, and 1 inch in depth at a the heel, but diminished to \ inch at Z> ; c d is the land
side flange, \ inch in thickness at bottom, and | inch at the upper edge, the hight being 4 inches.
Fig. 96 is the furrow-side of the shoe, with the same letters of reference ; e is the notch at the fore
Fig. 97.
Fig. 96.
THE DETAILS OF THE SOLE-SHOE.
part, for the passage of the neck of the share ; it is 4 1 inches in length and Sj inches in hight, d
being the curve adapted to the breast of the mould-board. Fig. 97 is a transverse section of of the
shoe, a the sole, and c the side-flange.
(560.) The share. — The share of this plow, in principle and construction, is the same as that of the
Lanarkshire ; but in the present case, the head being of cast-iron, the neck is necessarily some
what larger. Fig 98 is a plan, in which a 6 is the neck, «erf the land-side, and c 5- e the shield; hffr
Fig. 9a
THE SHARE.
la the feather, and fr d the point of the share, which, in this plow, is usually chisel-pointed, and longer
between the termination of the feather and the point, than in the share of the Lanarkshire plow.
In farther illustration of this share, reference is made to that of the Lanarkshire plow, where fig.
78 is a direct view of the furrow-side of the share, exhibiting the rise of the cutting edge of the
feather above the base-line, which, in the plows considered the most perfect for plowing lea,
amounts to a rise of 1^ to 1 J inches. The extreme breadth of this share over the feather ranges from
41 to 5| inches, the length irom the point to the head of the shield, at a maximum, is 11 inches,
and including the neck, 17 inches; under the same condition the length from the extreme point
to the commencement of the feather at g, is about 3| inches. Fig. 79 is an end-view of the share
looking forward, in which also the same letters are applied ; a i is the opening of the neck to re-
ceive the head, and e c g shows the outline of the posterior extremity of the shield and feather.
This, like the Lanark.shire plow, is held as peculiarly adapted to the plowing of lealand ; and aa
the share just described is that which is adapted for that purpose — for the chief and almost sole
difference between the adaptation of these plows for lea and stubble land lies in the configuration
of the share — it is necessary to advert to the stubble land or fallow-share. In this the chief, in-
deed the only, difference lies in the formation of the feather, which for stubble land is made broader,
and the cutting edge, instead of rising from the point at an angle of 8'-', is formed so as to ap-
proach to the plane of the sole, or not exceeding an angle of 4°.
(561.) The land-side. — Figs. 99 and 100 are illustrations of the land-side of the body of this
plow — the extremities, as in the previous cases, being cut off. Fig. 99 is an elevation, a b \s the
base line, a c the share, 11 its neck, and d b the sole-.shoe ; e e are the land side plates — the upper
one, as before stated, being cast as a part of the' body, and /s" is a part of the beam. In the ex-
treme cases of this plow, the altitude of the low triangle a n b is I inch ; and, when the line of the
sole b n is extended to h, the depression of the point of the share below that line is found to be
about 1| inches. Fig. 100 represents a horizontal section of the body-frame, as if cut off at the
upper edge of the sole-shoe ; here a c is the share, 71 its neck, and b d the sole-flange ; f and /"are
the two bars of the body frame, and g i the land-side of the sole. By continuing the line of the
land-side to h, the inclination of the share landward is found frequently to be 1 inch. _
(562.) The bridle.— As has been already noticed, this plow differs from the others in it.s bridle
bemg connected with a chain bar, passing under and attached to the beam near the coulter-box ;
and, for the purpose of receiving this equipage, the point of the beam is elevated to the hight of 23
(509)
270
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
inches above the baseline. The chain is usually a single rod of iron, with a link and shackle be«
hind, by which it is i.-oimocted to the beam, by moans ot a bolt passing throujjh the shackle and
FiK.99.
THE DETAILS OF THE LAND-SIDE.
the beam at a point about 3 inches before the coulter-box. The bridle, of which fig. 101 is an ele-
vation and fig. 10-2 a plan, consists of a pair of iron straps a b, 10 inches in length, and \\ inchei
Fig. 101.
Fig. 102.
THE DETAILS OF THE nitlDLE.
by \ inch, each having a number of perforations by which they ran be appended to the point of "
the beam c d. by means of a bolt passing through them and the beam ; a strap (7 b being on each
side of it. The fore end of the chain-bar /c i8,"in like manner, received betwe'en.the lower enda
(510)
THE PLOW. 271
of the straps at b, and secured by the draught-bolt g. On the same bolt is appended the bridle
proper h i, the bolt passing through the whole of the parts. The bridle is formed with a web h i
in front, 9 inches in length, and 1^ inches in breadth, having also a number of perforations for re-
ceiving the shackle-bolt k. In this equipage, the draught-swivel hook / and the shackle m are
combined in one, which completes the arrangement. Thi.s combination of bridle-mounting gives
the same facility as before for shifting the direction of the draught — vertically, by raising or low-
ering the straps a b on the point of the beam, and horizontally, by shifting the shackle-bolt and
shackle k in right and left.
(563.) Of the action of the Plow. — The couUer, the share and the mould-hoard being the
principal active parts of the plow, and those which supply the chief characteristics to the imple-
ment, it may be useful to the farmer, as well as to the agricultural mechanic, to enter into a more
minute descriptive detail of the nature and properties of these members, before entering upon the
duties which each in its turn has to perform in the action of cutting and turning over the furrow-
slice.
(oC4.) The cotdler. — The coulter, in its construction, as well as in the duties it has to perform,
is the simplest member of the plow. It is a simple bar, in form as represented by figs. 67 and 68;
varying in length, according to the variety of the plow to which it belongs, from 18 to 22 inches.
Simple though the fonn and duties of the coulter may be, there is no member of the plow where-
of'such a variety of opinions exi.st as to its position. I have shown that, in practice, the rake or
angle which its cutting edge makes with the base-line ranges from 45^ to 80°, that of its land-side
face from 4~^ to 8° with the vertical, and that the same face, in the horizontal dii-ection, varies from
(P to 4^ with the land-side. The objects of these variations will be duly pointed out, as mere mat-
ters of taste and convention among plowmen. Two points alone, in regard to position, .should be
considered as standard and invariable. These are, 1st, that the land-side face of the coulter shall
be ahuays parallel, in the horizontal direction, to the plane of the land-side of the plow's body ;
and, 2d, that at the hight of 7 inches, or of 6 inches, according to the depth of furrow to ichich
the ploto is adapted, the land-side face of the coulter shall be ^ inch to landward, or to the left,
of the plane of the land-side of the body. One other point in position is subject to a great diver-
sity of opinion — that is, the position in which the extreme point of the coulter should .stand in re-
lation to the point of the share. In respect to landing, or that cause which requires the point of
the coulter to be placed to landward of the share, the range of opinion is within moderate bounds,
being from 0 to | inch ; but, in the vertical direction, the range varies from ^ inch to 2 inches, and
iu the longitudinal direction a like difference of opinion exists. Thus Small recommends that the
point of the coulter should be 2 or 3 inches in advance of the point of the share, and ^ or 1 inch
above the plane of the sole (base-line), while it should be | inch or 1 inch to Za«f?«'rtr(^ of the land-
side plane.* The first of these propositions, as will be afterward shown, is very much at fault;
and the almost universal practice, al.so, of keeping the two points nearly equal in advance, con-
demns the practice, and points out equality as the rule. In regard to the position of the point
landward, it is liable to considerable variation, partly from the inclination that may be given to the
share, and likewi.se from the degree of obliquity between the coulter and the land-side. This last,
indeed, combined with the rule laid down, from the position of the coulter in relation to the land-
side, at the hight of 6 or 7 inches, is the true source from which the landward relation of the points
of the coulter and share can be ascertained ; hence, therefore, in whatever variety of the plow, the
coulter should have its position in regard to land determined first ; and the point of the share
should take its position from the coulter. The distance to which the point of the share stands to
the right of the coulter should in no case exceed | inch, but it were better to confine it to \ inch.
In the vertical position, the advancing of the point of the coulter to, or retiring from, the share,
violates no principle in the relation of the parts ; but, to place the coulter at an undue distance
above the share leaves that portion of tiie slice uncut that falls between the two points ; which
must produce an undue resistance, from the part being forcibly pressed asunder, by a process like
clipping, through the inclined action of the share upward. The nature of the soil, whether stony
or gravelly, or a loam, will, however, always. have an effect on this point of the trimming of the
plow ; and, as no principle is affected, there is no impropriety in giving a latitude in this direc-
tion ; though I conceive that a distance of 1 inch between the points of the share and coulter
ought to be the maximum, except in cases where the nature of the 8oil may demand a deviation
from that distance.
(565.) The office which the coulter has to perform in the action of the plow is simple and uni-
form, being merely to make an incision through the soil, in the direction of the furrow-slice that
is to be raised. It is a remarkable fact that, in doing this, it neither increases nor decreases the
resistance of the plow in any appi-eciable degree. Its sole use, therefore, is to cut a smooth edge
iu the slice which is to be raised, and an unbroken face for the land-side of the plow to move
against in its continued progress.
(566.) In the early works on the principles of the plow, some misconceptions appear to have
been formed of the influence of the coulter, under the supposition that the coulter extending 3
inches in front of the share acted beneficially ; and that giving the coulter a great rake, or a low-
angle with the base, made it cut the soil advantageously, and with less resistance. From a series
of experiments, I have satisfied myself that the first of these suppositions is erroneous, and that the
projection of the coulter before the share increases the resistance in a very sensible degree. With
regard to the second, the resistance seems not to be affected by the angle at which the edge of
the coulter stands; and the analogy of a common cutting instrument! does not hold in the case
of the coulter of the plow. With a razor or a knife in the hand, we make them pass through any
object by drawing their cutting edge over the surface to be cut, in the manner as with a saw,
which greatly increases the effect without any increase of force ; and this holds in all proper cut-
ting instruments; but let the edge of the instrument be placed simply at an angle with the direc-
Small's Treatise on Plows. f Ibid.
(511)
272 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
lion in which the stroke or cut ia to be made, and, in raakinj; the cut, let this oblicjue position be
retained, so that the cuitinp edge shall proceed parallel to its oritrinal position, without any ten-
dency to (Iratrhiir the edge across the direction of the cut ; no miving of force is obtained. This
process must ho familiar to every one who uses a knife for any purpose whatever. In slicing a
loaf, the operator is at once sensible that, by moving the knife gently backward or forsvard, he is
required to exert less force, while he at the same lime makes a smoother cut, than he would do
by forcing the kuife through the loaf, witli its edge either at right angles or obliquely to the direc-
tion in which the knife proceeds. The coulter of the plow acts in this last position ; its cutting
edge Htiuids ohlicjucty to the direction of motion, but has no means of drawing or slidinf^, to cross
the forward motion ; it therefore cuts by sheer force of pressure.* Where elastic substances oc-
cur, an instniment cutting in this manner has some advantages. In the case of fibrous roots, for
example, crossing the path of the coulter — the latter, by pa.ssing under ihem, sets their elasticity
in action, by which they allow the edge to slide under them to a small extent, and thus produces
the sairini.' effect. In the non-elastic earths, of which soils arc chiefly compo.scd, nothing of this
kind, it is apprehended, can occur; hence the angle of the coulter, as it affects the force rcquisito
to move the plow, is of little importance.
{'jG~.) I have said that the projection of the coulter in front of the share increases the resistance,
and I am borne out in this asisertion from the result of experiments not a little inexplicable. On
a subject which has of late attracted considerable attention, I was desirous of obtaining informa-
tion, from exi>eriment8 alone, on the actual implement ; and, to attain this the more fully, I deter-
mined on analyzing the resistance as far as po.ssible. With this view, a plow was prepared whose
coulter descended 7 inches below the line of the sole, and fitted to stand at any required angle. —
This plow, with its sole upon the surface of tiro-ycars' old lea, and the coulter alone in the soil,
the bridle having been adjusted to make it swim without any undue tendency ; the force required
to draw this experimental instrument, as indicated by the djnamometer, was 26 imperial stones,
or .3| cwt., and no sensible difference was ob.served in a range of angles varj'ing from 45^ to 70°.
This coulter having been removed, the plow was drawn along the surface of the field, when the
dyiiamometer indicated 8 stones, the usual draught of a plow on the surface. Another well-
tinmmed plow was at work in the same ridge, taking a furrow 10 by 7 inches, and its drauL'ht was
also 26 stones. On removing the coulter from this plow, and making it take a furrow of the same
dimensions, the draught was still the same — namely, 20 stones ; the furrow thus taken produced,
of course, a slice of verj- rough plowman.ship, and though it exhibited, by a negative, the essential
use of the coulter — the clean cutting of the slice from the solid ground — the whole question of the
operation and working effects of the coulter are thus placed in a very anomalous position. The
question naturally arises, what becomes of the force required to draw the coulter alone through
the ground, when, as it appears, the same amount offeree is capable of drawing the entire plow,
with or without a coulter ? A definite and satisfactory answer, it is feared, cannot at present be
given to the question, and, until experiments have been repeated and varied in their mode of ap
. plication, any explanation that can be given is mere conjecture.
(568.) Since we have seen that the same force is required to draw the plo7v without a coulter
as with it, and as it has been observed that the work performed without the coulter is very rough,
by reason of .the slice being in a great measure torn from the .solid ground, the breast of the plow
being but indifferently adapted for cutting off the slice — it is more than probable that the tearing
asunder of the slice from the solid ground requires a certain amount of force above what would
be required were the slice previously .severed by the vertical incision of the coulter. And though
we find that the force requisite to make this incision, when taken alone, is equal to tiic whole
draught, yet there appears no improbability in the supposition that the minus quantity in the
one may just equal the phis in the other. Bo this as it may, the discovery of the anomaly pre-
sents at least a curious point for investigation, and one that may very probably, through a train
of careful experiments, point out tlie medium through which a minimum of draught is to be ob'
tained.
(569.) Regarding the effect of change on the angle of the edge of the coulter, though it does not
directly affect the draught of the plow, it is capable of producing practical effects that are of im-
portance. In plowing stubble land, or land that is very foul with weeds, the coulter .«hould be
trimmed to a long rake — that is, set at a low angle, say fnmi 45^ to 55° ; this will give it a ten-
dency to free itself of the roots and weeds that will collect upon it. by their sliding upward on
the edge of the coulter; and, in general, will be ultimately thrown oft" without exertion on the
part of the plowman. The accumulation of masses of such refuse on the coulter greatly increases
the labor of the horses. The amount of this increased labor I have frequently ascertained by the
dynamomoior. and have found it to increase the draught of the plows from 26 stones, their ordi-
nary draught when clear, up to 36 stones ; and, immediately on the removal of the obstruction, the
draught has fallen to an average force of 26 stones. It is unnecessary to add that the prevention
of such waste of muscular exertion ought to be the care of the farmer, as far as the construction
of his machines will ailmit of.
(.'570.) To ai)ply a plow, with its coulter set in the position above described, to lea-land with a
rough surface, would produce a kind of plowmanship not approved of; every furrow would be
bristling with the withered stems of the unconsumed grasses; for, to plow such land with a coul-
ter set in this way, would cause its partially matted surface to present a ragged edge, from the
coulter acting upon the elastic fibres and roots of the grasses, pressing them upward before they
could be cut through. The rai;ged edge of the slice thus jiroduced gives, when turned over, that
untidy appearance which is oftt^n obsc^rvable in lea plowing. To obviate this. llu> coulter should
be set at a higher angle, by which it will cut the mat, without tearing it up with a bearded edge.
Crack plowmen, when they arc about to exhibit a specimen of fine plowing, are so guarded
* An ingenioud application of the drawing action here illustrated is to be found in the eubterranean cut-
ters of Mr. Parkes's steam-plow for plowing moss-land.
(512)
THE PLOW. 273
against this defect that they sometimes get their coulter kneed forward under the beam so far as
to bring the edge nearly perpendicular. The same cause induces the makers of the Lanarkshire
plow to set the coulter with its land-side face, not coincident with the land-siae plane horizontally
but at an angle with it of 4-^, thus placing the right hand face of the coulter nearly parallel to the
land-side plane, and thereby removing the tendency of the ordinary oblique position of the right
hand face to produce a rough-bearded edge on the rising slice. The dynamical effect of such a
position will be afterward treated of.
(571.) The xhare. — The structure and position of the diflferent shares having been already point-
ed out (ol9,) (.">40.) (560,). and also their relations to the coulter, there remains to make some gen-
eral remarks on the action of the .share, and on the effects resulting from the varieties of that mem-
ber of the plow.
[i>l-i.) We have seen that the coulter performs but a comparatively small portion of the opera-
lion required in the turning a furrow slice. The share, however, takes a more important and much
more e.\;tensive part in the process; on the functions of the .share, in short, depends much of the
character of the plow. Its duty is very much akin to that of a spade, if pushed horizontally into
the soil with a view to lift a sod of eartli ; but. as its action is continuous, its form must be modified
to suit a continuous action ; hence, instead of the broad cutting edge of the spade, which, in the
generality of soils, would be liable to be thrown out of its course by obstacles such as stone.s, the
share may be conceived as a spade wherein one of its angles has been cut oti obliquely, leaving
only a narrow point remaining, adapted to make the first impression on the .slice. A narrow point
being liable to meet obstruction only in the ratio of its breadth to the breadth of the entire share,
the chances of its encountering stones are extremely few ; and though the oblique edge, now
called the feather, has a like number of chances to come in contact with stones, yet, from its form,
taking them always obliquely, and the direct resistance which the body of the plow lueets with
on the land-side preventing any swerving to the left, such stones as come in contact with the .slop-
ing edge of the feather are ea.iily pu.shed aside toward the open lurrow on the i-ight. The share
thus acts by the in.sertion of its point under the slice intended to be raised, and this is followed up
by the feather, which continues the operation begun by the point, by separating the slice horizon-
tally from the subsoil or the sole of the furrow ; and, simultaneous with this, the coulter separates
the slice vertically from the still solid ground. Probably iho mo.st natural impre.ssion that would
occur, at the first thought of this operation, will be that the feather of the share should be of a
breadth capable of producing the immediate and entire separation of the slice from the sole ; but
experience teaches us that such would not fulfill all the requisite conditions of good plowing. —
The slice must not only be separated ; it must be gradually turned upon its edge, and ultimately
still farther turned over until that which was the upper surface becomes the lower, lying at an
angle of about 4-5^. It is found that, if the slice were cut entirely off from the sole, the plow would
frequently /a/Z in turnins: it over to "the position just referred to ; it might, in place of this, be only
moved a space to the right and fall back, or. at most, it would be liable to remain standing upon
its edge ; in either case the work would be verj- imperfect, and it has therefore been found neces-
sary to leave a portion, usually from ^ to 5, of the slice uncut by the feather of the share. This
portion of the .slice is left to be torn asunder from the sole as it rises upon the mould-board, by
which means the slice retains longer its hold of the subsoil — turning by that hold, as upon a hinge,
till brought to the vertical position, after which it is easily brought into its ultimate place. The
breadth of the .share is thus, of necessity, limited to J the breadth of the slice at a maximum, though
its minimum, as will appear, may not exceed |.
f573.) The disposition of the feather comes next under notice. The feather having to perform
the operation of cutting that part of the .slice below that lies between the point of the share and
the extremity of the feather, it is formed with a thin edge suited to cutting the soil ; but the posi-
tion of that cutting edge forms a principal feature in distinguishing the varieties of the plow, as
before described. This distinguishing character is of two kinds: 1st, that which has the cutting
eA^e lying parallel, or nearly so. to the plane of the sole, as in the East-Lothian plow ; and, 2d,
that which has this cutting edge elevated as it retires from the point of the .share, rising at an angle
with the base-line, which is found to vary from 4-"' to 8^ as in the Lanarkshire and the Mid-Lothian
plows ; and all the sub-varieties of these plows have their shares coming under one or other of
these two divisions.
(574.) The share, in either of the forms above described, passes under the furrow .slice, making
a partial separation of it from the sole of the furrow, rising as the share progresses ; the rise, how-
ever, being confined entirely to the land-side edge of the slice — the furrow edge, as has been
shown, remaining still in connection with the solid ground ; and the shield and back of the share
being a continuation of the mould-board, the latter, in its progress forward, receives the slice from
the share and passes it onward, or, more properly speaking, the plow passes under it.
(575 ) One important consideration remains to be noticed regarding the practical effects of the
two forms of feather. In the first, which has the cutting edge nearly parallel with the plane of
the sole, the furrow-slice being cut below at one level over the whole breadth of the share and
feather, the slice, when exposed in section, will be perfectly rectangular or very slightly rhom-
boidal, and the sole of the furrow 'will be perfectly level across. Such a share, theOr will lift a
slice of any given breadth and depth, which shall contain a maximum quantity of soil, and this
problem can only be performed by a share so con.structed.
(576.) In the second case, where the feather ri.ses above the plane of the sole at the angles al-
ready named, the feather is found sometimes to attain a hight of 1 inch and I5 inches above that
plane. In all such cases, the feather is also narrow ; and. supposing that the part of the slice left
uncut by it may be torn asunder, in a continuation of the cut so made, the slice will have a depth
at its furrow edge less by about 1^ inches or more than at its land-side edge, as cut by the point
of the share. A transver.se section of this slice, therefore, fig. 103, would exhibit not a rectangular
parallelogram as before, bat a trapezoid, who.se sides a b and c d might be each i> inches, and its
sides b d and a c 6 inches and 4i inches respectively. A slice of this form would, therefore, be
(513; IS
274
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
deficient in the quantitv of soil lifted, by a quantity contained in tlie triangle dee, or about 1-7 part
of the entire slice ; and this deficiency is left by the share in the bottom of the furrow as part of
the solid subsoil. The abs<iluie quantity of mAI thus left unlified by shares of this construction will
be found to varj- with the elevation that is given to the feather ; but, wherever this form of share
a CL
THE CRESTED FCRROW-SLICE.
is adopted, results similar to that here described will invariably follow, though they may differ in
degree; but the quantity left in the bottom of the furrow will seldom fall short of 10 per cent, of
the whole slice. An indirect mode of removing this defect is resorted to in practice, which will
be noticed under the head of mould board.
(577.) The rule which I would recommend to be followed in order to secure the maximum of
useful effect in the share, as founded on practice and observation, as well as combining the thcorj'
of the share and mould-board, is. that the length from the tail of the foaiher to the point of the share
should be from 10 to 11 inches ; that the hight of the shield — the surface of the share — on the land-
side, opposite to the tail of the feather, be "-JJ inches above the line of the solo-shoe: that the point
of the share be \ inch below the line of the sole-shoe, and not exceeding \ inch to landward of the
land-side plane, this la.st point being more properly determinable from the coulter: and, lastly,
that no part of the edge of the feather should be more than \ inch above the plane of the sole-shoe,
that plane being alwaj-s understood to be at right angles to the land side plane.
(578.) The vionld board and its action. — Since the time that Small achieved his great improve*
ment in the formation of the mould-board, that member has been generally held as the leading
point in the plow. This, in one sense, is no doubt true ; for if there is a spark of science required
in the construction of the plow, it is certainly the mould-board that most requires it. Yet. for all
tliia 1 have seen a plow making work little, apparently, inferior to the first rate mould-board
plows, that had nothing to enable it to turn over the slice but a straii;lit bar of wood.* In this case,
however, the work was but apparently well done, there being nothing to consolidate the slices
upon each other as they fell over by their own weight. The real state of the case seems to be
this, that the share impresses the furrow-slice with its form and characlcr, and t!ic duty of the
moulii board is to transmit and deposit that slice in the best possible manner, and with the Ica.st
possible injury to the character previously stamped u]ion it by the share. If this view is correct
— and there appears no reason why it should be questioned — the mould-board is only a medium
through which the slice is conveyed from the share to its destined po.sition. To do this, however,
in the most perfect manner, the mould-board has to perform several" hii-'hly important functions —
1st, The transmission of the slice ; 2d, Depositing it in the proper position ; and, 3d, Performing
both these operations with the least po.ssible resi.stance.
(579.) The raising and tranKinitling the slice have frequently been described as if consisting
of three or more distinct movements. With all deference to former writers. I conceive it may be
viewed as having onlj' two movements, namely, cutting the slice by the share and coulter, and
transmitting it to its appointed position through the medium of the mould-board. The first has
been already discussed : I now proceed to the second.
(5t?0.) The object of cverj- mould-board is to transmit the slice in the best manner, and with the
least possible expenditure of force ; but, as might have been expected, we find considerable differ-
ence of opinion on both these points, ari.sing from the variations in the form of the mould-board.
In a general way, the transmission of the slice may be explained in the following manner :
(581.) In fig. 104, a a represents a vertical section of part of an unbroken ridge of land, and the
parallelogram a 1/ c d also a transverse section of an indefinitely short portion of a slice which is
proposed to be raised : the breadth a b being 10 inches, and depth a d ~ inches ; the line d c will
be the bottom of the slice, or the line on which it is separated from the sole by the action of the
share. The points of the share and coulter enter at d ; and, in progre.s.sing forward, the slice will
be gradually raised at d, the point c remaining at rest, while the parallelogram revolves upon it as
a center. When the share has penetrated to the extent of the feather, the point d of the slice will
have been raised OJ to 3 inches. Uy the continued progress of the plow, the parallelogram repre-
senting the slice will be found in the jiosirion c r s f, and again at c g A ?". At the fourth stage, when
the zero-[ioint of the mouldboanl has reached the supposed line of section, the slice will have at-
tained the vertical position c k I m. Daring these stages of this uniform process, the slice lias been
turning on the point c as on a pivot, which has retained its original position, while the point d, in
its successive transitions, has described the quadrant degk. By the continued progress of the
plow, the revolution of the slice will be continued, but it will be obsers-ed that, at this stage, it
- k viirii ty of the Kent tum-wrcst plow which I have seen in the possession of Mr. Hamilton, of Ciircluie,
is an example of this.
(514)
THE PLOW.
275
changes the center of revolution from c to m ; when the point k will have described the arc k o,
the slice has then reached the position m nop ; and ultimately, when the posterior extremity of
THE TRANSMISSION OF THE FURROW-SLICE.
the mould-board has reached the line of section, the slice will have attained its final position mf
qr, lying at an angle of 45"^, and resting on the previously turned-up slice.
(582.) The process of turning over the slice, therefore, appro.\imates to a uniform motion, pro-
vided the parts of the plow destined to perform the operation are properly constructed. The uai-
formity, however, is not directly as the rectilineal pi-ogress of the plow, but must be deduced from
a different function to be afterward explained. And, though the process here described refers
only to an indefinitely short slice, it is only necessary to conceive a continuity of such short slices,
going to form an entire furrow-slice, extending to the whole length of the field; and the length-
ened furrow-slice, being possessed of sufficient tenacity to admit of the requisite and temporary
extension -svhich it undergoes, while the plow is passing under and turning it over, is again com-
pressed into its original length, when laid in its ultimate position. The furrow-slice, therefore,
under this process, may not inaptly be compared to the motion of a wave in the ocean, keeping
in view that the wave of ttie slice is carried forward in a horizontal direction, whereas the ocean
w^ave is vertical. But in both cases, though the wave travels onward, there is no translation of
parts in the direction in which it seems to travel. In the case of the furrow-slice movement, it
appears as in the annexed perspective view, fig. 105, where ab \b the edge of the land as cut by
Fig. 105.
A VIEW or THE MOVEMENT OF THE FURROW-SLICE.
the preceding furrow ; c d the slice in the act of turning over, but from which the plow has been
removed ; e f, the edge of the land from which the slice c <i is being cut ; g h, the sole of the fur-
rows, and i k, I m. slices previously laid up. A consideration of this figure vi'ill also .show that the
extension of the slice takes place along the land-side edge e d only, from e to where the backward
flexure is given to it when rising on the mould-board, and where it is again compressed into its^
original lensth, by the back parts of the mould-board, in being laid down.
(583.) Of the fiirrow-s/ice. — To accomplish efficient plowing, the fun-ow-slice should always,
be of such dimensions and laid in such position that the two exposed faces in a series of slices
shall be of equal breadth ; any departure fi-om this rule is a positive fault, whether the object be
a seed-furrow or intended for amelioration by exposure to the atmosphea-e. Furrow-slices laid
up agi-eeably to this rule will not only present the maximum of surface to the atmosphere, but
they will also contain the riiaximum of cubical contents, both of which propositions may be illus-
trated thus by fig. 106. Let a b represent the breadth of a 10-inch furrow-slice, and describe the
semi-circle acb upon it as a diameter. From the well-known property of the circle, that the an-
(515)
276 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
gle in a semi-circle is a right anplc* evcrj" triangle formed upon tlie diameter, as a base, will be
right angled, oiid the only isosceles triaiitfle that can bo formed within it will be that which has
tlie greatest altitude. The trianL'le ach possesses these properties, for produce cb\D d, making
cd equal to ah — the breadth of ilie slice, which must
always be equal to the di.stance between the apices of Fig. 106.
two contiinious furrows. Complete the parallelogram j i c / h
a c df, which will represent the transverse section of a ::v.v.-
rectangular slice, whose breadth is 10 inches, and whose t' .■■
two expo.sed faces a c and c h lie at angles of 45^, and
their breadth, as well as the area of the triangle a be, / /.
will be a maximum. In order to prove this, let a section / /Oy
of another slice be formed, whoso exposed side f?/ shall /.^^^
be ffrea/fr than the corresponding side a c of the former. ^ 'Jl„
and let this be taken at 8 inches. From f. through the ^^_ t" f ^^.^
point 6, draw /i'. then will o/ 6 be a riuht angle as be- \\-, ^s."*
fore; /s- being also made equal to 10 inches, complete \\'"- /X"*
tlie paralleloi,'ram r?/ 2- A, which will represent the trans- xVx / /?
verse section of a rectangular slice 10 inches bj- 8 inches, \\\v ^//
occupying the same horizontal breadth as before, and \ \^ '••. •'/ x ^
■whose exposed faces will be oy" and _/"i. Draw the line \ \ \ -^y^
i c /: parallel to a 6. and passing through the apex c of -\-..\..._.".'^j^^
the triangle acb; and the line »' k' also parallel to a b, \ \ ^^*
passing through tJie apex / of the triangle afb. Here \ye
the irianrles acb and afb stand on equal bases a i ; ^
but the first lies between the parallels nb and ick. and
the second between those of n /- and i' k ; the altitude PROPORTIO.nal areas of the furrow-
//'. therefore, of the triande afb, is less than the alti- slice in differest positions.
tude cc' of the triansle acb. And triangles on equal
ba.se8 beins proportional to their altitudes, it follows that the triangle afb is Itss than the triangle
acb, both in area and periphery. Suppose, again, a slice whose side o Z is leas than the corre-
sponding side a c, and let it be 6 inches: from /, through tlie point b, as before, draw / m. and con-
struct the parallelosram al m n, we shall have a transverse section of a third slice of 10 by 6 inches,
whose expo.sed faces a I. I b. occupy the same horizontal breadth as before. Here the triangle
alb lies between the parallels a b and i' k', consequently equal to afb and less than neb.
(584.) This simple geometrical demonstration, as applicable to the slice, may be corroborated
ab
by the usual formula of the triangle. Thus, the altitude of the triangle acb is=:-^:=5 inches=c' <r,
and the side a c or c i ie=-v/<2 c'~-\-cc'2 ; or a c' and c cf being each equal to 5 inches, a c or c b
will ^v/ 52-f-52=7 071 inches, which is the depth due to a slice of 10 inches in &rea<fM, and the
sum of the two exposed faces will be "•071X2=14142 inelies.
(58.5.) In the triangle afb, a b^\0 inches and af=8 inches, then ab2 — af2=fb2 and the
\/f b2=i6 inches. The three sides, therefore, of this triangle are 10, 8 and 6 inches, and the alti-
tude f'f is easily found by the principles of similar triangles. Thus, in tlie similar triani^ies aff,
f b f' , ab : a f : -.f b : f f . The perpendicularly is therefore=4-8 inches ; hence the exposed
surtaces are as 14141 : 14. and the altitudes as 5 : 48. Since it turns out that a i is e(]ual to f b,
and n b common to both, it follows that / i is equal to af. and the peripherj- and altitude also
equal, and less in all respects than the triangle acb. And so of any other position or dimen-
sions.
(586.) The slice which presents a rectangular section is not tlie only form which is practiced in
modern plow^ing. Of late years, and since the introduction of the improvements by \Vilkie on
the plow, a .system of plowinsr has been revivedt in which the great object seems to be that of
raisin? a slice that shall preseut a lush, shoulder, as it has been called, or which I have ventured
to denominate the crf.<A"rf /"wrrow. formerly alluded to. The general imjiressions that prevail as
to the advantatres of this mode of plowing are. that the crested furrow afibrds a prea/er suiface
to the action of the atmosphere, and a greater quantity of cover to the seed in the case of a seed
furrow in lea. As there appears to me some decree of fallacy in the reasoninprs on this point
among practical men. and as it does not appear to have been hitherto sufficiently investigated, I
shall venture a few remarks in the hope of leading others to a more full consideration of the points
involved in the subject.
(587.) Tr?e crested slice, instead of the rectangular section of the one already described, pre-
sents a rhomboidal but more frequently a trapezoidal section : indeed the latter may be held aa
inseparable from the practice ; but in comparing them I shall first take the exposed surface. In
fig. 107, then, \ei abed represent a transverse section of a rectangular slice of 10 by 7 inches, a e
the base of the triancle, whose sides ab, be represent the two exposed surfaces of the slice when
set np with the sides at angles of 45^ to the horizen. its angle at b being 90-^ — its altitude b fyviil
ac
be as before "7r= 5 inches. Again, let ^ A be the base of the triangle whose siies g b, b h, rep-
resent the exposed surfaces of a crested slice — whose ba.se /r h. equal to g" d. may be taken at 9
inches, that being the breadth at which such plows take their furrow. Supposinsr, also, that the
cresting is such as to give an altitude / 6 of 5 inches, as in that of the rectangular slice, we shall
have the sides gb, bh, from the usual formula, £'/ 2 "h/" ^ " =o ^^' ^'^^ S'/ being 4 J inches/ i=5
* Euclid. 31, iii.
t Blith'a " English Improver Improved," p. 266, edit, 1692.
(516)
THE PLOW.
277
inches, then they'-'S +5 =CT2 iaches^g h or b k, being rather more than the best practical
authorities tor cresting i)low s give to the depth of a slice ; the dimensions recommended bemg
from 8| to 9 inches broad, and from ei to 6i inches
in depth. It will therefore always fall short in
perpendicular bight of the rectangular slice of 10 by
7 inches. But allowing the hight to be the same, we
have two triangles, a be and g bh oi equal hight but
of unequal bases; their areas will therefore be une-
qual and proportional to their bases.
(588.) In bringing these two systems, however, into
practice over any extent of surtace, suppose a ridge
of a field, the nnmber oi furrows of each required to
turn over such ridge, will be exactly in proportion to
the length of the base of the triangle, or as 9 to 10.
Hence, though the individual crested slices or triangles
h.ave an area less than that of the rectangular slice in
the proportion of 9 to 10 ; yet the aggregate area of all
the triangles over any given breadth of surface, wher-
ever the number of slices of the one exceeds that of the
other in the proportion of 10 to 9, will be the same, but
no more. The imaginary advantage, therefore, of a
greater cover to the seed with a crested furrow falls to
the ground, provided the comparison is made with a
plow that takes a furrow of 10 inches wide by 7 inches
deep, such as the East-Lothian plovr.
(589.) It is to be admitted that, were cresting plows that cut their slices 9 inches wide, to take
them 7 inches deep, and still preserve the rhomboidal or trapezoidal section, they might, in that
case, produce an increase of cover to the seed, as compared with a rectangular slice of 9 by 7
inches. Let us refer again to the last figure, fig. 107, and suppose sr b=l inches, g /"being, as be-
fore, i\ inches, then g h"^ — g f-=bf'^. or b f will be equal to 536 inches, while, by the same
method the rectangular slice of 9 by 7 inches would give 6/ equal to only 4-39 inches, "the crested
slice in this case giving a difference of hight of -97 inch, and ^ of this, or -48 inch, of greater cover of
seed. B ut this is not a practicable case, inasmuch as the cresting plow cannot be worked in a furrow
of 9 by 7 inches, and lay it at an angle that would give equal exposure to both sides of the slice,
whether it possess a rectangular or rhomboidal section, the true depth being 6-36 inches nearlj-,
for a slice whose breadth is 9 inches; and the hight b f oi its triangle would be, if rectangular,
only 4-5 inches. Compared with itself, therefore, the plow that takes a 9-inch furrow rectangular
yields \ inch less cover to the seed than when it raises the crested slice; but, even with the ad-
vantage of the crest, it is not better than the plow that takes a 10-inch furrow ; while, as will ap-
pear, the former labors under other disadvantages arising from that peculiarity of structure for
which it is valued.
(590.) In order to exhibit the difference of effect of the rectangular and the trapezoidal slices,
as lifted and laid on each other by the
THE COMPARISON OF THE RECTANGULAR
A.ND CRESTED SLICES.
Fig. 108.
plow, and as they affect the real inten-
tions of tillage. I shall consider them in
separate detail. Fig. 108 is an example
of the rec:anguiar slice of 10 by 7 inches,
abed may be taken as a transverse sec-
tion of the body of the plow, the line a c
being the terminal outline of the mould-
board, af a section of the slice which is
just being laid up, and g h a. slice previ-
ously deposited. In the triangle i gk the
base i k is 10 inches, being alwaj's equal
to the breadth of the slice, the angle at g
a right angle, and the sides i g, g k each
equal to 7-071 inches, the perpendicular
hight gl being 5 inches, as before demon-
strated. Fig. 109 is a similar representa-
tion, of a cre§ting-plow, with its effects on
the slice and the subsoil ; k n o p \s a. sec-
tion of the plow, k m a. section of a slice
in the act of being deposited on the preceding slice c /. Here the slices are trapezoidal, as they
are always cut by this species of plow ; and from this configuration of the slice, the broader sides
are not parallel, nor do the conterminous sides of the adjacent slices lie parallel to each other in
the transverse direction. The side b c lying at an angle of 48=^ with the base a b, while the side
b m makes the opposite angle at b only 41'^, the angle at c being 84-*, and the triangle abc isos-
celes. The base a 6 of the triangle a b c in now supposed to be 8^ inches— the breadth recom-
mended for a seed-furrow— and the side ac 6^ inches, the opposite side I h being i\ or 5 inches.
The base a b, when bisected in d. gives a rf=4-25 inches, and since a c'^—a d-=r d'', c d will be
4-918 inches, which is less than given by the former demonstration of the crested slice ; but I have
observed cases still more extreme, where, still referring to the same figure; a b was only 7i inches,
but the angle at c became so acute as 75^, yet with these dimensions c d \s still under 5 inches;
hence, in all practical cases, with a furrow less than 9 inches in breadth, the result will be a re-
daction in the quantity of cover for seed.
(591.) One other point remains to be noticed in reference to the two forms of slice. We have
(517)
THE EFFECTS OF A Ut
278 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
seen tliat llie rectangular slice necessarily iin|ir.cs tliat tlie bottom of the furrow shall be cut upon
a level in its transverse section, ti^. 108 ; while the slice that is cut by the cresting-plow leaves
the bottom of the furrow with a tslopinir riiie
from the huuiside toward the fuiTowside at Fig. 109.
every slice, and this rist^ may raUL'c from 1 to
11 inch or more. Hoturninu: to fitr. 109, the
serrated line f li o exhibits a transverse sec-
tion of the surface of the 6ub.'»oil, from which
the soil has been turned up by the cresting
plow. The triangular spaces efg, gh i rep-
resent the quantity of soil left by such piows
at the lifting of each slice. These quantities,
which, as before observed, may amount to 1 7
of what the slice ouclit to be. are thus robbed
from it, anil left adiieriny to the subsoil, ex-
cept in so far as they may be rubbed down
by the ubrailing action of the lower edge of . ^ -
the mouldboard, as nt_/and k, an<l the por- ,^,'„ ... ... ^l\..
tious of soil so' rubbed oft' are thrust into the ^ ^
spaces under the edge of the slices as they the effects OF A TRAPEZOIDAL OR CRESTED
are successively laid up. This last process rVRROW-SLiCE.
may be readily observed at any lime when
the plow is working in tough land or in lea. With a cresting-fjlow the spaces/^ o will be
seen more or less tilled up with crumbled soil, while with the rectangular plow, the corre-
sponding spaces will be left nearly void. 1 cannot take upon me to say whether or not the
filling in of these voids is beneficial to the land in a greater degree than if the 1-7 here left below
had been turned up with the slice ; but this I can say, that it is more frequently left adhering to
the sub.^oil than it is to be found stuffed under the edge of the slice. Under any view, the system
of the crested furrow-plowing is not unworthy the consideration of the farmer.
(590.) In considering the question, there are two points deserving attention. Ist, The imme-
diate effects upon the labor of men and horses. It may be a.s.-;erted generally, that all plows
adapted to form a crested furrow are heavier in drauglit than those that produce the rectangular
furrow. This seems a natural inference from the manner in which they work; the tendency ikat
they all have to nnder-cnlhy the coulter ; the naiTow feather of the .«hare leaving more resistance to
the body in raising and turning the slice ; and not least, the small ridge left adhering to the bottom
of the furrow, if rubbed down and stuffed under the slice, is performed by an unneces.sary waste
of power, seeing that the mould-board is not adapted for removing such adhering obstructions.
2d, The loss of time and labor arising from the breadth of furrow, compared with those plows
that take a 10-inch furrow. Thus, in plowing an imperial acre with a 10-inch furrow — leaving
out of view the taking up of closings, turnings, &.c. — the distance walked over by the man and
horses will amount to 9-!> miles nearly ; with a 9-iiich furrow the distance will be U miles: with
Sj-inch furrovi'. it will be 11^ miles or thereby; and with a 7iinch furrow 13| miles nearly.
(.593.) It may, therefere. be of importance for the agriculturist to weigh these considerations,
and endeavor to ascertain whether it is more for his interest that his plowing should be essen-
tially well done, and with ihc least expenditure of power and time, or that it should be done more
to please the eye, with a high surface finish, though this may perhaps be gained at a greater ex-
penditure of power and time ; while the essentials may in some degree be imperfectly performed.
(.'39-I.) On this part of tin- subject. I cannot refrain a passing remark on the very laudable exer-
tions that have been made all over the country in producing that emulation among our plowmen
which has been so successful in producing excellence in their vocation among that useful class of
agricultural laborers, as to give them a preeminence over all others of their class in any country.
I mean the institution of plowing-matches. While I offer my humble though ardent wishes for a
continuance of the means which have raised the character of the Scottish plowmen, I cannot pre-
vent doubts rising in my mind, that, however good and beneficial these competitions are calcu-
lated to be, if the exertions of the class arc properly directed ; yet the best exertions oi both the
promoters and the actors may he frustrated by allowin^r a false taste to he engendered among
the.se operatives. That such a false taste has taken root I have no doubt ; and the results cf it are
appearing in the spread of opinions favorable to that kind of plowing which to me appears not
much deservinsr of encouragement — the high-crested system. I have observed, at various plowing-
matches. that the palm was awarded to that kind of plowmanship which exhibited the highest
surface-finish, without reference at all to the ground work of it ; and I have compared by actual
weight, ail crumbs included, the quantities of soil lifted by plows that gained prizes with oUiers
^vhi<•h did not, becau.se their work was not so well dres.sed on the surface ; and I have found thai
the one to whom the prize was awarded had not lifted so much soil by 1-10 as some of tho.«c that
■were rejected. I am far from intending, by these remarks, to throw discreilit on plowing-matches ;
on the contrary, I wouhl see them meet with tenfold encouragement, and would also wish to see
many more than is usually met with, of the good and the great of the land, assembled at snch
meetings, to encourage and stimulate by their presence the exertions of tlie competitors in such
intcrcstins- exhibitions. With this short ditrression I leave this subject for the present, with the
intention of resuming it in another division of the general subject.
(.')9.''>.) The I'Ki.scipi.ES and formation of the Moi'LD-iiOARn. — Of the various individuals
who have written upon the plow and the formation of the mould-board. Bailey of Chillingham
and Small of Berwick.shire are perhaps the oidy two who have communicated their views in a
practical shape, and even in their descriptions there is somewhat of ambiguity and uncertainty,
but such may be inseparable from the subject. Many other nameless srtisaus have varied the
mould board until almost every county has something peculiarly its own, and each district claims
for its favorite all the advantages due to perfection.
(5181
THE PLOW.
279
(596.) I have been at irreat pains to analyze a considerable number of these varieties ; and as
the subject is not unimportant in a work of this kind, I have selected a few of those best known,
and of highest chai-aeter. as objects of comparison.
(597.) The method adopted to obtain a mechanical analysis ofthe.se mould-boards has been
simple, but perfectly correct ; and as the principle may be applied to the attainment of counter-
parts of otlier objects, perhaps more important than a mould-board, it may be deserving of a
Elace here. As a matter of justice, also, to the fabricators of tlie ditFerent mould-boards here ex-
ibited, I am desirous to show the principle on which these transcripts of their works have been
thus brnusht forward in a new form, and in contrast with each other.
(598.) The instrument employed for this purpose is a double parallel o£;ram or parallel niler,
as represented in fig. 110, which is a perspective of the apparatus. Tlie bars a b, c d, ef, are
THE PAR.^LLEL RULER.
slips of hard-wood about 3 feet long-, or they may be of any convenient length, and 1^ incnes
broad by 5 inch thick ; each of which is perforated at a, b, c, d, e,f, the perforations being exactly
equidistant in all the bars. Four similar bars, of about half the length, are perforated also at one
uniform distance, and the seven bars thus prepared are jointed together upon brass studs, and se-
cured so as to move freely at every joint, but without shake on the studs. The form, wheu con-
structed, is that of the two parallelograms abed ami c d ef. In the end of the bar c f a stout wire
pointer^' is fixed of about 6 inches in length, lying in the plane of the instrument, aiid parallel to
the edge of the bar. In a continuation of this parallel upon the bar e f, a .socket capable of re-
taining a pencil or tracer is fixed anywhere at g. The instrument so formed is fixed upon a flat
board h i, of about 3 feet square, by means of two screw nails passing through tlie bar a b,m z
position parallel to the lower edge of the board ; thus leaving all the other bars at liberty to move
upon their joints ; which completes the instrument. From the well-known proiierties of the par-
allelogram, as applied to the nentograph and the eidoarraph, it is unnecessary to demonstrate, that
whatever line or figure may be traced with the pointer /. will be faithfully repeated by the tracing
pencil i:, upon any sub.stance placed before it. and of the same dimensions as the original.
(599.) Another board or table or a level platform, is now to be selected, and a line / vi, which
may be called the fundamental, or leading line, drawn upon it. This line, to an extent of 3 feet
or more, is divided into any number of equal parts, but in tliis case the divisions were 3 inches
each ; through the.se points of division are drawn the straight lines I n. op, q r, &c., indefinitely
on each side of the line / ;«, and at right angles to it. The board carrying the instrument is pro-
vided with a foot behind, that keeps the face of the board always perpendicular to the platform
on which it stands. The plow with the mould-board about to be analyzed is now set upon the
table or platform upon which the leading line and the divisions have been laid down ; the land-
side of the plow being set parallel to the leading line, and at any convenient distance from it,
suited to the instrument ; pre.-^entinir the mould in the po.sition .s f'. and so placed in reference to
the lines of division that the zero line shall coincide with one of them, provided the extremities
do not overreach the divisions either way. the laudside of the plow being at the same time per-
pendicular. The instrument is now brought toward one extremity of the mould-board, and placed
upon that parallel of the divisions that come nearest to the extremity, as No. 1 in the figure, the
edge / / of the instrument coinciding with the leading line I m. A sheet of paper having been
now fixed upon the board h i of the instrument, and a tracing-pencil inserted in the socket g, the
operation of tracing commences. The tracing point is passed in the vertical direction over the
surface of the mould-board, tracing along a line No. 1 ; the pencil at the .same time tracing a cor-
responding line No. 1, on the paper, which will be an exact outline of the face of the mould-
board at that division, supposing the mould-board to be cut by a transverse section in that line.
The instrument and board are now to be moved one division upon the leading litie Im, the coin-
cidence of the edge I i of the board with that line being still preserved. The tracing point is
again made to pass vertically over the face of the mould-board, wheu the pencil g will trace on
(519)
280
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
the paper a socomi line No. 2. This process, repealed at each successive division, 3, 4. 5, 6 Ac,
the corresponding lines. 3, 4, 5, 6, &c., on the paper will be traced out, exhibitin.c a series of per-
fect sectional lines of the mould-board, each line being that which would arise from an imaginary
vertical plituc cutting the body of the plow at ripht anirles to its land-side at everj- 3 inches of its
length. To prevent any inaccuracy tliai might arise from a nii.sapplication of the tracing point to
the oblique surface of the mould board, a straiglit-edged ruler, in form of a carpenter's sijuare « r x,
is applied to the mould-board. The stock u v of the square being placed on the platform, and
parallel to the line / m. which brintrs the edge r jr always into the vertical plane, and the tracing
rod mu.st be kept in contact with this edge, while it traverses the face of the mould-board at each
successive section.
(600.) This mode of aijalysis, it is to be ob-ser^-ed. has not been adopted from its having any re-
lation to the principles on which the difterent mould-boards have been constructed, but because
it presents an unerring method of comparing a series of sectional lines of any (.nc mould-board
with tho.<e of any other: hence il aflbrd.-; a correct system of compari.'on. But it is not merely a
comparative view that is afforded by it. for in the sequel it will be seen that a ground-work is thus
afforded from which the mechanic may at any time or place construct a fac-«imUe of any moald-
board, the analysis of which has been made after this manner.
(601.) The results of the analysis of a few of the mould boards from the plows of highest charac-
ter, as taken by this method, are given in the following tigures. Plate XI., fiir. 111. is a eeomel-
rical elevation in a plane parallel to the land-side of the mould-hoard of the East-Loihian plow / d,
being its base line. The perpendicular lines of division, commencinir from the line oo the zero,
and extending right and left, are the lines of s«!Ctiou. Tlio.^e to the right or fore end of the mould-
board, marked aa,bb. &,c., and those to the left 1 1, 2 2. &c. The curved line xy z represents
the path described on the face of the mould-board by the lower land-side edge of the furrow-slice,
as the mould-board passes under it: this line I shall rail the line of iranxit. Fig. 112 is a front
view in elevation of the mould-board of the same plow, and corre.-iponding to fig. Ill ; km is the
base-line of the plow ; m g \& the land-side plane iu a vertical position, m is also the place of the
point of the share, and /( ; the line of .junction between the neck of the share and the mould-board;
tlie remaining lines beyond h i exhibit the outline of all the sections taken by the instrument in
reference to the lines in fig. 111. Thus, o o s- m is the .section of the entire body of the plow in the
plane of the zero, o y o being the outline of the mould-board at this section, and y the zero-point ;
a a g m the first section forward from the zero, bb sm the second, and so ou. In like manner,
1 1 ^ TO is the first section backward from the zero, 2 2 ir wi the second, and so on ; each section so
lettered and numbered having relation to the divisions carryinar the corresponding letters and nu-
merals in fig. 111. The entire .series of lines 1 1, 2 2. &c. and a a. bh. &c. thus form a series of
profiles of the mould-board, supposing it to be cut vertically by planes at right aiiffles to the land-
side of the plow. In fig. 112, also, the doited line m x y z represents the path of the slice or line
of transit, as in fig. Ill, and z k represents a transverse section of the flicc as finally deposited by
the mould board. Figs. 113 and 114 exhibit, in the same manner, the mould-board of the Currie
or Mid-Lothian plow ; tlie divisional and sectional lines being all laid off in the same manner from
the zero as in the example just described of the East-Lothian plow, and the zero-point y in the
line o y o, which is 9 inches from the plane of the land-side. Fig. 114 bears also the same relation
to fig. 113, and as the letters and numerals in these have the same relation and value as in figs. Ill
and 112 — the East-Lothian — the description given of that apjilies not only to the Mid-Lothian, but
to the five succeeding figures. \\z :
Figs. 115 and 116 represent the Berwickshire plow, being that which has been so success-
fully adopted by the Marquis of Tweeddale.
Figs. 117 and 118 are of the Lanarkshire plow.
Figs. 119 and 120, Plate XII., are of the Saline or We.stem Fifeshire plow.
Figs. 121 and 122 are of the FF plow of Me.ssrs. Bansome, of Ipswich.
(602.) With reference to tiie characters of these different mould-boards, it may be remarked :
Of the Rnstl.othiaii mould-board, fig. 112. Plate XI.. that those ponions of the sectional lines lying
between the lower edse and the line of transit are essentially straight, the two lines beyond" the
zero backward excepted, these being slightly concave' toward the lower edge ; and, although the
lines before the zerx) and above the line of transit are concave, that part of the .enrface has no efifect
upon the furrow-.slice. It is, likewise, to be observed that the parallelogram k y. which represents
a section of the slice when brought to the vertical position, has its upper anirle y only touching the,
zero line, and no other part of the side of the parallelogram in contact with the zero line of section
o y o; hence the mould-board, by its pressure being exerted chiefly ag;iin.st the upper edge of the
slice, will always have a tendency to abrade tlie crest of its rectangular slice in its progress over
the mould-board.
(603.) /;■. the Mid-Lothian mould-board, figs. 113 and 114, the lines are also approximating to
straight, except in the lower portions of those before the zero, where they produce a convexity
of surface, but this part of the mould-board can have little influence. The chief difference, then,
lies in those parts of the .sectional lines which lie above the path of the slice, and they also have
no effect whatever in the foniiation or the conveyance of the slice: neither can the circumstance
of elongation forward in this mould-board have any influence, for the same lines are to be found
on the 7icck of the shnre of ihc East-Lothian as are here exhibited in the prolongation of the mould-
board. We have, therefore, two i)lows in which the essential lines of the mould-board are the
same, but which produce work of an opposite character. It must be kej)t in view, however, that
in the Mid-Lothian the zero-point y is only 9 inches from the land-side, while in the East-Lothian
it is 10 inches; but the length behind the zero-line being nearly alike in both, and the width at
the tail also the same, the difference in distance of the zero-point from the land-side produces a
difference in the effect of the pressure of the mould-board on the edce of the slice. This will be
perceived from the relation in which the section k y, representing the slice, stands to the zero-line
o y o of the mould board ; for in this case the anirle at y, formed by the side of the parallelogram
and the zero-line, is not more than i of that iu the former case. This mould-board, therefore, will
(520)
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THE PLOW. 281
sonvey the slice in whatever form it may be cut, with less risk of injury to the crest than can be
expected Irom the former. But, as these discrepancies cannot produce the marked difference
that exists in the appearance of the work performed by these two plows, it is not in the mould-
board we are to look for the cause, but in the conformation of the share and the position of the
coulter, while the mould-board, from the circumstance last pointed out, is better adapted to convey
die slice unaltered.
;604.) The Bene kkghire mould-board, fi^s. 11.5 and 116, which is also truncated forward, has
the sectional lines, lyintr before the zero, nearly straight ; but, as they approach the zero, they be-
come grailually and decidedly concave, which increases toward the extremity. This concavity,
it will be observed, exists only to a certain e.xtent below the line of transit, and. as the sectional
lines approach the line of transit, the curvature is reversed, and the surface becomes convex. —
This is a form well adapted to deliver a slice free of injury to the edge or crest, for, from the con-
vexity immediately below the line of transit, the mould-board will never press upon nor abrade
the edge of the slice, the pressure being exerted always within the extreme edge, as will be seen
from the section k z of the slice, as applied at the extremity of the mould-board; though, when in
the vertical position, as in k j/. the .•section of the slice touches the zero-line at its upper edge, at an
angle nearly equal to that in the East-Lothian, showing that it is liable to abrasion until it has
passed that line. But this plow, in practice, sets up a lurrow of the rectangular species, with its
angle or crest better pre.served than in many others of this class, vshile, at the same time, it takes
out the sole with the characteristic levelness which belongs to the class.
(605.) The Lanarkshire mould-board, figs. 117 and 118, has all its lines convex, the terminal
edge excepted, which is nearly straight below, but preserves the convexity as it approaches the
line of transit. Even above the line of transit the convexitj- is continued, and, though not affect-
ing the slice, it gives in appearance a still more decided character of convexity, and, by thus mak
ing the upper edge of the mould-board retire, gives a long rake to the breast of the plow. It \\ill
be readily conceived that this mould-hoard, from the convexity of all its sectional lines, is essen-
tially formed for turning up a crested furrow, more especially when the !orm of its share and the
position of its coulter are considered. These last, being formed for cutting the slice with a very-
acute angle, will deliver it to the mould-board ; and. from the form of the latter, the slice will pass
over it uninjured ; for the pressure upon the mould-board will be always greatest upon tho.se parts
of the surface of the slice lying within the edge, preventing therebj- the abrasion of that tender
part. These circumstances are clearly seen from the relation of the section of th(^ slice ky as ap-
plied to the zero-line o i/ o, the point of contact lying considerably within the angle at y of the
slice ; and the same relation holds throughout the entire transit, up to the delivery of the slice in
tlie ultimate position k z.
(606.) The Western Fifeshire mould-board, figs. 119 and 120. Plate XII , it will be readily per-
ceived, belongs to the Lanarkshire class ; but in this the convexity is carried so far to an extreme
as to round away the lower parts of the mould-board, till, at the lower edge behind, the width is
only 6 inches. The terminal line, also, is prominently convex throughout. It difl'ers also from its
original type in having those parts of the sectional lines lying above the line of transit tending to
recurvature. This, by carrying forward the upper part of the breast, gives the appearance of
greater length to the mould-board ; but. besides this, the part lying behind the zero is actually
longer than in any of the preceding plows, as will appear from the sectional divisions, figs. Ill,
113^ 115, and 117, Plate XI. As maj- be anticipated, this variety of the Lanarkshire plow is famed
for the acuteness of the furrow which it forms, though, in this respect, it does not excel its proto-
type. From the way in which the section k y of the slice, when in the vertical position, is applied
to th3 zero-line, where the point of contact is seen to lie at \ of its breadth within the edge of the
slice, it will at once appear how well this mould-board is adapted to transmit an unbroken crest.
In every position of its transit up to its ultimate position, the slice will be equally secure from in-
jury in respect to the crest ; and, %vere the crested furrow a true criterion of good plowing, the
plow that bears this mould-board, with share and coulter adapted thereto, would be the most per-
fect ; but there are various and important arguments against it.
(607.) In RayiMine's Bedfordshire, or FF mould-board, figs. 121 and 122, the sectional lines are
of a mi-Kcd character ; those in the fore part being convex, gradually diminishing in convexity to
the zero, behind which they become straight lines, tending to concave — the terminal line being
slitrhtly so — but becoming convex at the upper edge. It differs from all the Scotch mould-boards
in having the terminal edge lengthened out below, instead of the usual shortening, and in hav-
ing the breast cut away nearly parallel to the line of transit. The plows mounted with this
mould-board are generally worked with cast-iron shares, having a wide-spread feather formed
for cutting a level furrow-sole. The furrow usually taken with it is shallow, and, when set up,
looks flat in the crest ; but the ^vork, so far as it goes, is what may be termed, in plow lan-
guage, true ; that is to say, the slice is rectangular and cut from a level sole. Though tlie
sectional lines before the zero possess a form that would save the slice from abrasion, yet, at
the zero line and behind it, they have the opposite character in the extreme, and we accord-
ingly find that this mould-board' lays a very flat crested furrow, while the share and coulter are
perfectly adapted to cut it rectangular.
(608.) ^Vith all the foregoing mould-boards, it will be observed that the section of the furrow-
slice, in its ultimate position, seems to encroach upon the tail of the mould-board ; and this is to
be understood as arising from the circumstance of the slice being represented as incompressible,
and uuabraded below or above. In practice, the slice is pressed downward on the angle at ^•,
and pres.sed home upon the preceding slice, so as to bring the face of the shce simply in contact with
the terminal Hne of the mould-board instead of the apparent mutual interpenetration exhibited in
the figures.
(609.) From the examples here given of the forms of mould-boards, and the effects which they
produce when combined with any particular form of share and position of coulter, it will be easy
to draw a conclusion as to the kind of work that will be performed by any plow that comes under
our observation, and that without any previous knowledge of its merits ; keeping in mind that the
(521)
282 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
nltiinnle form of the furrow will ahvays d«.punJ on Uio form of ihe share and position of the
coulter, lliat the pussaire of the slice over li)e mould-board will liave but a very partial cflic'ct on
tlie form of the slice, and that this etlrct will be greater or less according to the form of Burtace.
Thus, a slitiht convexity of surface, immediately below the line of transit, will w ith jireater cer-
tainty secnre the transit t>l' the slice without injury to its cdf:e, than may be expected from a sur-
face which has a concavity crossintr the line of transit. thoui;li it may be obtained, as in the Mid-
Lothian and EastLotliian plows, with a straight-lined n)ouldboard ; but it will be more certainly
obtained if the share is narrow, as in the Mid Lothian ; thouL'h this last expedient will induce dis-
advanlaires in point of draught, and risk ol losijii: the efl'ect, by any undue placement of the coul-
ter. These disadvantages may arise Irom the coulter not being sufficiently set to landward,
then'hy admiltinir the breast of the plow to scrape upon the land, and send a small portion of earth
along the njould-board, accompanying the edge of the slii'u, which may have the etl'ect of abrad-
ing it so much as to injui'e the (iji/H'iriiiice of the work, though not in fact affecting its efficiency.
(filO.) Having thus enilcavored lo establi.sli some data by which the agricultural mechanist,
whether amati'ur or operative, may be assisted in determining from observ.alion, what practical
ctl'ects may be ex|iecled lo result from any form of mould-board and share, I proceed to mention
some rules by which he may Ibrm a mould-board on- w hat 1 conceive to be the true principle,
but upon which may be enural'ted such deviations as taste or.other circumstances may require.
((ill.) Those writers who contributed to the improvement of the plow in the early stages
of its modern hi.storv, laboretl at a time when mould-boards of wood only were cmidoyed.
He«co. their instructions related to the tbnnation of that material alone, into mould-boards. Later
writers have followed in nearly the same course, and have given rules for forming a mould-
board, out of a block of wood, of sufficient dimensions to contain all the extreniilies of the
projio-sed fabric. The change now pervading this branch of mechanics, wherein the introduction
of cast-iron has become universal, precludes the necessity of falling back upon any of Uie old
rules; what the agricultural mechanic is now reiiuired to furnish being not a mould-board, bnt,
in the language of the Ibundry, a patlcni, from which castings are to be obtained perfect fac-
similes of the original pattern, and which may be repeated ud libiliim ; from this last circum-
stance, it follows that the making of a pattern will be a comparatively rare occurrence, and one
which he will seldom be called upon to perform. It neveriheless appears desirable that a knowl-
edge of the construction of such a fabric should Ix; communicated in a manner that may enable an
ordinarily skille4 mechanic to construct a pattern when inquired, with accuracy and certainty of
effect.
(612.) It ha.s been shown that very considerable discrepancies exist in the form given to mould-
boarils, and there is no doubt that jieculiarities of soil may demand variations in form ; but the
propriety of such wide deviations may be called in question, and the actually required deviation
brought within very «arrovv limils. It appears, indeed, that one form may be brought to answer
all required purpS.ses. if aided by a properly adjusted share and coulter.
(013.) From a careful study of the foregoing analytical diagrams, and from comparison of nu-
merous implements and their jirailieal effects, together with a consideration of the dynamical
principles on which the plow operates, I. have been led to adopt a theoretical form of mould-board,
which seems to fulfill all the conditions required in the investigation, and which is capable, bj-
very simple modifications of adai)lati()n to the circumstances of the medium on which it works.
In the out.set, it is a.ssumed that the soil is homogeneous, and that it posse.s.ses such a degree of te-
nacity and elasticity as to yield to the jiassing form of the jdow, and to resume, when laid in the
due position, that Ibrm which was first impres.sed upon the slice, by the action of the .share and
coulter; the second consideration being the cutting of a slice from the solid land. In a theoret-
ical view, this must be an operation through its whole depth ami breadth ; hence the share is con-
ceived to be a cutting edge w-hich shall have a horizontal breadth equal to the breadth of the slice
that is to be raised, and that the face or land-side of the coulter shall stand at right angles to this.
Another consideration is. that the slice now supposed to be cut has to In; raised on one side, and
turned over through an angle of Ki.')-'. the turning over being performed on the lower right-hand
edge, as on a hinge, through the first SW^, the remaining 45'^ being performed on what was at first
the upper right-hand edge. (Fig. 10-1.) The slice, in going through this evolution, has to under-
go a twisting action, and be again returned to its original form of a right pri.«m. To accomplish
this last process, it is evident that a n-edi^r, fuisfed on its upper surface, must be the agent ; and
to find the form and dimensions of this wedge, is solving the problem that gives the surface of the
mould-board required.
(GH.) \Ve have seen, fig. 104, that the slice, in passing through the first 90"', describes the
quadrant with its lower edge, and in doing so, we can conceive a continued slice to form tlie solid
of revolution abrdc, fig. 123, which is a quarter of a cylinder, as shown here in isometrical per-
spective ; the radius a b or a c being e(iual to the breadth of the slice. We have next to consider
the angle of elevation of the twisted wedge ; and in doing this, we must not only consider the
least resistance, but also the most convenient length of the wedge. In taking a tow angle, which
would present, of course, proiiortiou.-dly little resistance, it would, at the .sanie time, yield a length
of mould board that would be highlv inconvenient, seeing that the generating point, in anv eec-
tion of the slice, must ultimately reach the same hight, whether by a low or a higher angle. From
experience, we find that, from the point of the share to that point in the plow's body where the
slice arrives at the perpendicular position, and which 1 have named the zero, that 30 "inches form
a convenient length. The length c d of the solid is therefore" made equal to 30 inches or more,
and this being divided into 10 equal part,*, the parallels 1 1, 2 2, 3 3, <5cc., are to be drawn upon the
cylindrical surface, and between the points b, d, a curve has to be described that shall be the line
of transit of the slice. After investigating the application of various curves to this f>urpose. I have
found that a circular arc is the only one that can he adopted. It presents the least attainable re-
sistance in the first stages of the ascent, where the force reiiuired to raise the slice is the greatest,
and in the last stages, where the force of raising has vanished, leaving only what is necessary to
turn the slice over, there the resistance is at the greatest j and, above all, the circle being of eqaal
(522)
THE PLOW. 283
flexure tbronghout, it 13 in every way best adapted to the objects here required. To determine
the radius of cur%-ature of this arc. we must evolve the cylindrical surface cb de, and from it con-
Blruct the diagram, fiq:. 121. Draw e h equal to c </ of fig. 123 ; e d equal to the lensrth of the arc
cb or d e. and at right angles 10 c b ; divide e b into 10 equal parts, and from the points of divi.sion
draw the ordinates 1/. 2 xr, 3 h, &c., parallel to erf ; from b set oft" 10 inches for the length of the
share along tlie line b r, which will fall i inch beyond the division 7. and at this distance draw the
dotted line parallel to 7m: upon thi.s-set off a distance 7 7n of 2i inches; ami through the
three points, d, m. b. describe an arc of a circle, Avhose radius ^vill be found equal to the circum-
ference of the cylinder of which n b c. fis. 123. is a quadrant. The circular arc thus found is now
to be transferred to the cylindrical surface c b d e. The transfer may be performed by drawing
the arc on paper, and the paper then laid over the cylindrical surface in such a manner that the
points b, 7)1, d, shall be brought to coincide with the points b, m, d of the cylindrical surface ; when
the remaining points/, s-, A, ?', or any number more, may be marked on the cylindrical quadrant
by pricking through the paper with a pointed instrument at short intervals along the arc ; or, the
length of the ordinates 1 f, 2 g. 3 h of fig. 12-J. may be transferred to the corresponding parallels
of fig. 123, when the lengths of the ordinates will cut the parallels in the points^', c, ^, iScc. In ei-
ther case, the curve can uow be traced through the points b. p, n, m, is.c.. on the cylindrical surface.
Through the points b, p. n, m. &c.. draw the dotted lines J f. g g', h li' . &;c., parallel \.o c d ox b e,
and from the center a draw the radii a f. a g'. a h'. &c. ; the unequal divisions of the arc cb will
thus show the proportional angles of ascent of the slice along the line of transit now found, b, p. H,
&.C., for each division of the length ; while the degree of flexure in the curve or line of transit re-
mains uniform by the same, from any one point, to any other equidi.stant points.
(615.) To convert the prism thus prepared and lined oft' into that of the twisted wedge, we have
only to cut away that portion of it contained within the boundaries n, b, c d. x, preserving the ter-
xaiual edges a b, a x. and d x: and the prism will thus be resolved into a form represented by a
portion a b d x e of fig. 12.i. also in isomctrical perspective. Of this figure, a b d xia the true theo-
retical surface of the mould board, from the edge a b of the share to the zero-line d x ; a b e x is
the sole ; the curve b p n m I, &c.. is th-J line of transit of the slice ; and the triangles 1' /" 1, 2' jg 2,
3' h 3, 4' i 4, &:c., are the vertical planes supposed to cut the .solid thus reduced in tlie divisions 1,
2, 3, 4, &c., to the bight of the line of transit, as in the analytical sections of the mould boards.
(616.) The surface nosv completed can only raise the slice to the perpendicular position ; and to
complete the operation, we have to carrv^the twisted wedge back till it shall place the slice at the
angle of 4.5^. To do this we have to extend the original prism, or suppose it to have been at first
sufficiently eloncrated toward d d', fisr. 125. and to superimpo.se upon its flat side the portion d d'
u X, or a d It of fig. 126. The part d d' 11 x is now to be worked oft' into a part of a new cylindri-
cal surface, whose radius is y rf or y n, fig. 126, and upon this surface the line d 11, fig. 125, is to be
drawn a tangent to the curve bd ?i\. d. A continuation of the divisions of 3 inches is to be made
upon the line d d', and the parallels a' q', b' /, and n d', continued on the cj-lindrical surfaces.
Whatever portion of the superimposed piece n d' n may be found to fall within the small arc a t.
fig. 126, is to be cut away, forming a small portion of an interior cylinder concentric to the point
j^rwhich being done, the remaining portions of the superimposed piece are to be cut away to the
dotted lines d x, ay b z. u n'. of fig. 125, or. what is the same thing, to the lines d a. a' n. b' t. and
u t, of fig. 126, forming tangents to the curve a t, and which will complete the surface of the
twisted wedge through its entire length, and to the bight of the line of transit, producing what I
conceive to be the true theorclicnl xiirf/ice of the mould-board.
(617.) Fig. 126 exhibits distinctly, in the quadrant o b d. the inequality of the angles of ascent
for the slice, where the radii <7 p'. n n' , a m' . &c.. represent the ascents to the corresponding di-
visions of lensrth in the transit of the slice through the curve b d n. which represents the peri-
phery of the cylindrical surfaces at the line of transit. The parts of the figure lying above that
line represent those that must be superimposed above the quadrantal portion of the cylinder, to
complete the upper regions of the mould-board; these parts acting merely as a preventive against
the overfall of soil mto the waste of the plow, are of less importance as to form, than those just de-
ecribed, but are quite necessary in the practice of plowin^r. The parallelogram ;/ d exhibits the
relation in which the furrow-slice stands to this form of mould-board, when the slice has been
raised to the perpendicular, and y a in its ultimate position.
(618.) Although I hold this to be a true theoretical form, it is not in this state fit to be employed
as a practical mould-board ; but the steps to render it so are very simple. The broad shovel-
mouth ab, fiar. 125, would meet with obstructions too numerous to admit for a moment of its adop-
tion in practice ; but we have only to remove the right hand portion of the edge a b, in the direc-
tion b q. making the breadth, q m, 6i or 7 inches broad ; that portion also contained 7' r 3 is to be
cut away, leaving m r about 4 inches broad ; b q r m will then represent the share : the mould-
board being thus of the prolonged form in the fore-part. And though this form has no peculiar
advantage over the truncated, in respect to working, it is better adapted to admit of the body be-
ing constructed of malleable iron, a practice which, though more expensive, is certainly the most
preferable, by rea.sou of its greater durability, and being less liable to fracture through the eftijct
of shock.s, when stones or other obstructions are encountered.
(619.) Besides the removal of these parts of the theoretical mould-board, other slight modifica-
tions are admissible. When the parts have been cut away as described, the edge b q of the share
will be found too thick for a cutting edge. If brought lo a proper thickness, by removing the parts
below, making the edge to coincide with the curved surface ; the share .so prepared would have the
character tliat belongs to the cresting plows. The lower edge of the mould-board from r to 2 would
be also rather high, and would present unnecessary resistance to the lower side of the slice ; both
parts therefore, require to be reduced. The surface of the feather i y is to be sloped down till
it become straight between the points b and q,q not being more than I inch above the plane o' j"e
Bole, as at the dotted lines nz in fig. 126. The lower edge of the mould-board is al.<o to be rounded
off", as shown by the dotted lines along the lower edge from ^ to o in fig. 128. To prevent the abra-
eion of the edge of the slice in passing over the mould-board, it will also be expedient to make
'523)
284
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
126, fall in, from below the line of transmit upward as shown by the
the lines from d to m. in fig
dotted linos at d\ a'. //, 11.
(620.) Other modifications may, if required by peculiar taste or otherwise, be given to this
form of mould board. If after tlvc points bptim. &c. have been determined tipon the cylin-
drical surface, fiir. 12:?, or 12.'), and, in cutting away the jiarts above ab in the latter fi^'ure,
instead of reduciiiff the surfac-e to the straight lines 8' />, f' u. 7' in, tScc. we leave the surfuee
slightly convex ujion all these lines, a surface will be produced as represented by the dotted
sectional lines of fisr. 126, or 128. and by becoming slightly either recurved above the line of
transit, as in fis. 128, or with continued "convexity, as in fig. 118, Plate XI., the .surface so pro-
duced would deliver the slice witliout risk of injury to the edge ; which, though not of vital
importance, is jilways an object in the estimation of the plowman who performs his work with
taste. The same modification w ould also, in the opinion of many agricultural machine makers,
render the mould-board niorc elKcacious in the working of stiti" clay soils,
(621.) Fig. 127, Plate XII.. repres«'nts an elevation of the new mould board, as now constructed
by me. and fig. 128 the analytical sections of the same, taken in the same maimer as described
for those precedinL', and having the same letters of reference. In the present case, the sec-
tional lines are all .-traight to the bight of the line of transit; above that line and before the zero
they are slightly concave, though, as has been shown, this is not imperative: but, behind the
zero, they are convex from a little below the line of transit, as shown by the dotted portions
of the lines. The paralleloi-'ram k 1/, being a section of the slice when in the vertical position,
will be seen to toincide exactly with the zero-line, as it will do through the whole pas.sage of
the slice. The l<;tters and numerals in these two figures have the same reference as in the other
figures of the mould -board,
(622,; Judeing from the trials that have been made of this mould-board, and from the vtii-
form liriffh/eninsr of Us xinface after a few hours' work, it promises to possess a very uni-
form resistance over its whole surface, which is a principal object to be aimed al in the ibrin-
ation of ibis member of the plow,
(62:j,) IVte Moiil<l-ho<ird Pnltern. — The instructions just given refer solely to the formation
of the theoretical surface of the mould-board, including that of the share ; but, in the construc-
tion of a pottcrn from which mould-boards are to be cast, the process is somewhat diSerent,
tlionch based on the principles above laid down,
(624,) In proceeding with this, therefore, the quadrant of the cylinder, upon which the whole
problem is grounded, may or may not be prepared. If it is to be employed, then the first pro-
cess is exactly as before described in reference to the quadrant fig. 123. Plate XII., which must
be formed and lined as there de.scribed ; but the same process may be pursued from lines alone,
without the intervention of the .solid, and in the follo^^■ing manner: Having described the quad-
rant of a circle, as a he. fig. 123. of 10 inches radius, con.struct the diagram fig. 124, as before di-
rected, the entire length eh being 30 inches, divided into equal parts of 3 inches each. The arc
h d \s then to be drawn through the points />/> « m, which points, instead of being a transfer, as
before described, from the quadrant, may here be drawn at once with a beam-compass touching
the three leading points h m d. as before, which will intersect all the divisions, converting them
into ordiuates 1 f. 2 "-, 3 /(, &c, to the curve h d. The lengths of these ordinates, fnmi the base-line
ef>, are now to be carefully transferred to the quadrant of the circle b d of fig, 126, and set off ia
the circumference thereof"; thus the point // in fiir. 126 corresponds to tlic termination b of the base-
line in fig. 124. The first ordinate ir p is to be set off on tjie quadrant from b to p, the second or-
dinate 8 « is ,set ott' from b to n. the third 7 m from b to m, and so on throu; h the entire quadrant
of the circle. The radii a h, a p. a n. &c, being now drawn, will furnish the successive angles of
elevation, with the sole-plane, for each division of the length throughout the quadrant,
(62.'i,) In applying these to the mould-board, i". is to be ob,served that the first three radii belong
to the share, if it is a [noloni-'ed mould-board, or the first five if it is truncated. The quadrant, fig.
126, with its radii, being thus completely dr;iwn out at full size upon a board, produce the line ba
to y, and on y as a center, with a radiu.s of 7 inches, describe the arc n t, and concentric to it the
arc d n. Atan angle of 4.")" draw / u a tangent to the arc a t, and the point 0/ intersection of this
taneent with the arc will fix the extreme point
u of the mould-board at the bight of the line of '^'? ^^•
transit ; which point will bo 19 inches from the
land side plane b ^. and 12 inches above the
plane of the sole, or base-line >/ b. From d, lay
off divisions of equal parts on the arc d n. each
equal to 4J inches — the diagonal of a square of
3 inches — which completes the lines for the fab-
rication of the pattern,
(626.) The next sti'p in the operation is that
of building a block out of which the pattern is
to be shaped. Provide a ilealboard of 3J feet
or thereby in length, with a breadth of 10 inches;
have it dressed of uniform thickness, and at least
one edge and end straight and right angled, as
seen at aic, in the annexed fig. 129, and a b,
fig, 126, Plate XII,, forming a basement to the
block, a being the right angle, and the continu-
ation of the board being bid from view under
the superimposed block. Let the edge ffc of ®
the board be marked off in eqiial divisions of 3 ^hj. buildikg of the block for the mould-
inches, agreeing exactly with those of the dia- board pattern'.
gram, fig, 124, marking the divisions witli letters
or numerals corresponding to the radii of the quadrant, fig. 126, the end a 6 of the board corre-
(524)
THE PLOW. 285
spending to the radius 7n of tlie quadrant, and to the ordinate 7 m of the diagram. Provide also a
suit-stock or bevel of the form represented by d ef, the stock d e being a straiurht bar with a head
piece at e, fixed at right angles to the stock, and into this the blade af is to be jointed, in such a
manner that when the blade and stock are set parallel to each other, they shall just receive the
thickness of the basement board betwixt them, the length of the blade being equal to the breadth
of the slice. Five or more pieces of well seasoned, clean, .3inch Memel or yellow-pine deal are
now to be prepared, each about 30 inches in length, and from 6 to 4 inches in breadth. Set the
bevel to the angle bam, fig. 126, and, appl3'ing it at the end of the board, as in tig. 129, it will
point out the position in which the first block g h mu.st be placed on the board in order that it
may fill the lines of the pattern. The farther end of the block, being set in like manner to fall
within the lines, it is to be firmly attached to the board with screw-nails. The second block ki
is to be joined to the first by the ordinary method of gluing, being set in the same manner as the
first to fill the lines of the pattern at both ends, and this requires its being set obliquely to the first.
The tliird block I m \s set in like manner, and so on with no and pq. The setting of the different
blocks will be much facilitated by having the ends gil np cut off to the plane of the land-side —
that is, to coincide vertically with the land-side edge of the board, and by keeping in view that
the terminal line cq lies at an angle 4.5"^.
(627.) The block being thus prepared, the process of working it off\s plain and easily performed
in this way. Having set the bevel at the angle b a m, fig. 126, which answers to the end a b of
the block, the bevel is applied as in the figure, and the surplus wood is cut away to a short dis-
tance within the end « 6 of the board, until the blade of the bevel lies evenly upon the surface,
and the kneed head-piece touching the edge of the board. Set the bevel now at the angle b al,
and, applying it at the first divi.«ion on the edge of the board, cut away the surplus wood with a
gouge or other tool, in a line parallel to the end of the board, or at risrht angles to its edge until the
edge of the blade af lie evenly on the surface, and the head of the stock touch the edge of the
board as before. Repeating this operation at each successive division with the bevel, setting it
to the corresponding angle up to the vertical or zero-line, and we have a .series of leading lines or
draughts, each occupying its troe position in the surface of the mould-board to the hight of the line
of transit. By continuing these lines, each in the direction already given it, until thej' terminate
in the breast, or in the upper edge of the pattern, we have a corresponding series of points now
determined, in the breast and upper edge ; and by removing the surplus wood still remaining in
the spaces between the lines, and reducing the surface to coincide with them, we have the fin-
ished surface from the neck of the share up to the zero.
(628.) To complete the after portion of the pattern, we have to form a temporary' bevel with a
curved blade, adapted to the small arc a t, fig. 126, which blade is prolonged in a tangent tusA
the angle of 4.5^. With the guidance of this bevel, its stock being still applied to the board, as in
fig. 129. cut away all the wood that occurs to interrupt it behind the zero, until it applies every
where behind that line without obstruction. At the third division beyond the zero, the pattern
may be cut off in a right vertical, though this is not imperative, as the mould-board may be made
considerably longer, and even a little .shorter, without at all aflbcting its operation. At whatever
distance in lengtli its terminal edge maj' be fixed, that portion of the line of transit which lies be-
tween the zero and the terminus must leave the original curve h in J, fig. 123, at a tangent, and it
will reach the terminus as such, or it will gradually fall into a reentering curve, according as tlie
terminus is fixed nearer to or farther from the zero-line ; the terminus of the line of transit being
alvvays 19 inches distant from the land-side plane. That portion of the surface which now re-
mains unfinished between the arcs a t and d it, fig. 126. is to he worked off in tangent.s, applied
vertically to the arc a t. and terminating in that part of the line of transit that lies between d and
u. Such portions of the interior cjlindrical surface as may have been formed under the applica-
tion of the temporary bevel to the arc a t, are now to be also cut away bj- a line paissing through
the junction of the tangents t a', t b', t u, with the cylindrical arc a t, forming a curved termination
in the lower part behind — as seen in fig. 127 — which completes the surfiice as proposed.
. (629.) The modifications, formerly pointed out, paragraphs (61S.) (619,) and (620,) may now be
made upon the lower and the upper parts of the pattern. The breast-curve and the form of the
upper edge will now have assumed their proper curvature ; and there only remains to have the
whole pattern reduced to its due thicknesses. This, in the fore part, is usually about \ inch, in-
creasing backward below to about 1 inch, and the whole becoming gradually thinner toward the
top edge, where it may be 3-16 inch. The perpendicular hight behind is usually about 12 inches,
and at the fore part 14 inches.
(630.) Of THE Draught of Plows. — From the complicated structure of the plow, and the ob-
lique direction in which circumstances oblige us to apply the draught to the implement, some
misconceptions ha%'e arisen as to the true nature and direction in which the draught may be ap-
plied. The great improver of the plow has fallen into this error, and has, in some measure, been
followed T)y others.* He as.serts " that were a rope attached to the point of the share, and the
plow drawn forward on a level with the bottom of the furrow, it would infallibly sink at the
point." Were this reallj' the case, it would prove that the center of resistance of the plow in the
furrow must be somewhere below the level of the sole, which is impossible. As the center of
gravity of any body, suspended from a poiht at, or anywhere near, the surface of that body, will
always be found in a continuation of the suspending line, supposing it to be a flexible cord, so, in
like manner, the c?n'er of resistance of the plow will be always found in the direction of the line
of draught. Now if, with a horizontal line of draught from the point of the .share, it were found
that the point of the share had a tendency to sink deeper into the soil, it would be a clear proof
that the plow was accommodating itself to the general law, and that the center of resistance is be-
low the line of the sole. The fallacy of this conclusion is so palpable that it would be an act of
supererogation to refute it by demonstration, more especially as it never can be of any utility in a
practical point of view. I have thought it necessary, however, to advert to it, as it appears to have
SmalfB Treatise on Plows.
(525)
286
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
aided in tbrowinp a niyrtery over the mode of applying die Uiit or angle of draught, which in
itself is a sutBcieullv siiiijilc |ir«»bk'm.
(631.) Tlic rcawiiilni; liiUicrio ail<>[itoJ on Uiis branch of the theory of the plow seems to be
grounded on the two foliowlDg duta : the hiffkf, on au average, of a horse's shoulder, or that poiot
in bis collar where the yoke is applied ; and the lenp(h of the draught-chains that will give him
ample freedom to walk. It falls out fortunaielv, too. that the angle of ok-vation thus produced
cro.s8C8 the plane of the collar as it lies on the shoulders of the horse when in draught, nea.-ly at
right angles. It is my purpose, however, in this section to show that (keeping out of view some
practical difliculties; the plow may be drawn at aiiy angle, from the horizontal up to a little st>ort
of 90 , and that it would recjuire less and less force to draw it as the direction of the line of draught
approached the horizontal line. It would, in all ca.-ses, be required that the point of tlic beam, or
rather the draught bolt, should be exactly in the straiu'ht Hue from the center of resistance to the
point where the motive force would be applied. II this force could be applied in Uie horizontal
direction, we should have the plow drawn by the minimum of force. This position, however, is
impracticable, as the line of draught would, in such a case, pass through the solid land of the fur-
row about to be raised ; but it is williin the limits of practicability to draw the plow at an angle
of 10-, and, as will be demonstrated, the motive force reijuired at this angle would be 1 stone or
14 lbs. less than is required by drawing at the angle of -20 , which may be held as the average in
the ordinary practice of plowing. A i)low drawn at this low angle, namely 12-. would have its
beam (if of the ordinary lengtli) so low that the draught-bolt would be only 10 inches above the
base-line : and this is not an impracticable bight, though the traces might be required inconveni-
ently long. On the same principle, the angle of draught might be elevated to 60-^ or 70-, provided
a motive power could be apjjlied at sucli high angles. In this, as before, the beam and draught-
bolt would have to fall into the line of draught as emanating from the center of resistance. The
whole plow, also, under this supposition, would require an almost indefinite increase of weieht;
and the motive force rctjuired to draw the plow at au angle of CO- would be nearly twice that
required in the horizontal direction, or 1 16-18 times thai of the present practice. exclasK-e of
what might arise from increased weight. We may therefore conclude that to draw the plow
at any angle higher than the present practice is impracticable, and, though rendered practica-
ble, would still be highly inexpedient, by reason of the disadvantage of increased force bein^
thus rendered necessary; unless we can suppose that the application of steam or other inani-
mate power might require it. Neither would it be very expedient to adopt a lower angle,
since it involves a greater length of trace chains, which, at best, would be rather cumbrous;
and it would produce a saving of force of only one stone on tlie draught of a pair of horses.
Yet it is worthy of being borne in mind that, in all ca-ses, tliere is some saving of labor to the
horses, whenever they are, by any means, allowed to draw by a chain of increased length,
provided the draught-bolt of the plow is brought into the line of draught, and the dranght-
chains are not of such undue weight as to produce a sensible curvature ; in other words, to
insare the change of angle at the horse's shoulder, due to the increased length of the draught-
chain.
(632.) In illustration of tliese changes in the direction of the draught, fis:. 130, Plate XIII. will
render the subject more intelligible. Let« repn'sent the body of a plow, h the point of the beam,
and c the center of resistance of the plow, wliich may be assumed at a hieht of 2 inches above
the plane of the sole d e, though it is liable to cliauire within short limiu. The average length of
the draught chains being 10 feet, including draught-bars, hooks, and all that inter\-enes between
the draught-bolt of the plow and the horse's shoulders; let that distance be set off in the direction
bf, and the average bight of the horse's shoulders where the chains are attached, being 4 feet 2
inches, let the point /be fixed at the bight above the base-line d c. Draw the line f c. which is
the direction of the line of draught acting upon the center of resistance c; and if the plow is in
proper temper it will coincide also with the draught-bolt of the beam ; e c f being the angle of
draught, and equal to CO^. It will be ea.sily perceived, that, with the same horses and the same
length of yoke, the angle ec/is invariable; and if the plow has a tendency to dip at the point of
tilt! share under this arrangement, it indicates that the draught-bolt b is too kis'h in the bridle.
Shifting the bolt one or more holes downward will bring the iilow to strim evenly upon its sole.
On the other hand, if the plow has a tendency to ri.se at the point of the share, the indication from
tills is, that the draught-bolt b is too loir, and the rectification must be made by raising it cme or
more holes in tlie bridle. Suppose, again, that a pair of taller horses were yoked in the plow, the
draught chaiu.s, depth of furrow, and soil — and, by consequence, the point of resistance c — remain-
ing the same, we should then have the point f raised suppose to/'; by drawing tlie line/'c, we
have c c /' as the angle of draft, which will now be 22^; and' in this new arrangement, the
draught-boll is found to be below the line of draught/' c; and if the draught-chains were anplied
at b, in the direction f' b, the plow would have a tendency to rise at the point of the share, by the
action of that law offerees which obliges the line of drauciit to coincide with the line which passes
through the center of resistance ; hence the draught-bolt b would be found to rise to h'. which
would raise the point of the share out of its proper direction. To rectify this, then, the draueht-
boll must be raised in the bridle by a space equal to b b', causing it to coincide with the true liBC
of draught, which would airain bring the plow to swim evenly on its sole.
(633.) lU^^arding the relative forces re(iuired to overcome the resistance of the plow, when
drawn at ditlVrent angles of draught, we have first to consider the nature of the form ot those parta
through which the motive force is brought to bear upon the plow. It has been shown that the
tendency of tlie motive force acts in a direct line from the shoulder of the animal of draught to the
center of resistance ; and referring again to fig. 130, Plate XIII.. were it not for considerations of
convenience, a straight bar or beam lying in the direction c h, and attached firmly to the plow's
body anywhere between c andg, would answer all the nurpo.ses of draught, perhaps, V>otter than
the present beam. But llie drautrht not being the end in view, but men-ly the means by which
that end is accomplish'^d, the former is made to subserve the latter ; and as the beam, if placed in
the direction c b, would obstruct the proper working of the plow, we are constrained to resort to
(526)
THE PLOW,
887
another indirect action to arrive at the desired effect. Tliis indirect action is accomplished through
the medium of a system of rigid angular frame work, consisting of the beam and the body of the
plow, or those parts of them comprehended between the points h, h, c, the beam being so connect-
ed to the body a h, as to form a rigid mass. The effect of the motive force apphed to this rigid
system of parts at the point b, and in the direction bf, produces the same result as if c 6 were firmly
connected by a bar in the position of the line c b, or as if that bar alone were employed, as in the
case before supposed, and to the exclusion of the beam b h.
(634.) Having thus endeavored to illustrate the causes of the oblique action of the plow, show-
ing that the obliquity is a concomitant following the considerations of convenience and fitness in
working the implement, I proceed to show the relative measui-e of the effects of the oblique action.
It is well known that the force of draught required to impel the plow, when exerted in the direc-
tion b f, may be taken at an average of 24 stones, or 336 lbs. Analyzing this force by means of
the parallelogram of forces, if we make the line b fio represent 336 lbs., the motive force ; and
complete the parallelogram 6 ifk, we have the force b f held in equilibrium by the two forces
i b and k b ; the first acting in the horizoidal direction to draw the plow forward, the .second act-
ing vcrticaJli/, to prevent the point of the beam from sinking , which it would do were a horizon-
tal force only applied to the point of the beam. The relation of these forces i b and k b to the ob-
lique force will be as the length of the lines i b and k b to the line b J] or the line ?' b will repre-
sent 322 lbs., while the oblique force is 336 lbs., and the force k b 95 lbs. This last force is repre-
sented as lifting the beam vertically by suspension, but the same result would follow if the beam
were supported by a wheel under the point b ; the wheel would then bear up the beam with the
same Ibrce as that by which it was supposed to be suspended, 95 lbs. But to carrv out the sup-
position, let the draught now found be applied horizontally from the point c. As the plow would
then have no tendency either to dip or rise, the force k b vanishes, leaving only the direct hori-
zontal force i b ; hence, were it possible to apply the draught in a horizontal direction from the
point of resistance, the resistance of the plow would be 322 lbs. instead of 336 lbs.
(635.) But to return to the previous position of the draught, wherein, still supposing it to be in
the horizontal direction, and thereby requiring that the point of the beam have a support to pre-
vent its sinking too low. This support may be supposed either a foot, as seen in many both an-
cient and modem plows, or in the shape of a wheel or wheels, so much employed in many of the
English plows. We see at once, under this consideration, the office that a wheel performs in the
action of a plow. It has been shown, that whether the plov\' be drawn in the ordinary direction
of draught h f in which one oblique propelling force only is exerted, or with two antagonist
forces, b i, in the horizontal direction, and the upholding force, b k, in the vertical, we find that
in the latter, the difference in favor of the motive force is only 1-24 of the usual resistance ; but the
upholding force is equal to 2-7, while none of these variations has produced any chan"-e in the
absolute resistance of the plow. The impelling force is theoreticallj- less in the latter case ; but
since the wheel has to carry a load of 95 lbs., we have to consider the effect of this load upon a
small wheel, arising from friction and the resi-stance it will encounter by sinking less or more into
the subsoil. I have a.scertained, from experiment, that the difference offeree required to draw a
wheel of 12 inches diameter, loaded as above described, and again when unloaded, over a tol-
erably firm soil, is equal to 22 lbs., a quantity exceeding 1^ times the amount of .saving that would
accrue by adopting this supposed horizontal draught with a wheel. Having thus found the
amount of draught at two extremities of a scale, the one, being the oblique draught, in common
use at an angle of 20-", the other deduced from this, through the medium of the established
principles of oblique forces, and the latter producing a saving of only 1-24 of the motive force
while it is encumbered with an additional resistance arising from the support or wheel- it
necessarily follows that, at all intermediate angles of draught, or at any angle whatever, where the
principle of the parallelogram of forces finds place — and it will find place in all cases where
wheels yielding- any support are applied to the plow under the beam — there must necessa-
rily be an increase in the amount of resistance to the motive force.
(636.) This being a question of some importance, the diagram, fig. 131, will render it more
Fig. 131.
THE DRAUGHT OF WHEEL-PLOWS.
evident Let a be the point of resistance of a plow's body, b the point of the beam, c the posi-
tion ot the horse's shoulder, and a d the horizontal line ; then will c a d be the angle of draught
equal to 20 . Let the circle e represent a wheel placed under the beam, which is supported by
288 THE BOOK OF THE FAKM WINTER.
a stem or Bhflcrs, hero repregentcd by ihe line e b. In this poititioii ihe puini of tlic bcnin. wliicli is
also tlic |)')iiit of drmight, lies in the line of draiiu'lil : the wheel, therelnre, honrs no load, bui is
simply in |>liic'i', and has no effect on the draught; the motive force. tliorcCore. '•oniiiiucs lobe
336 lbs. .Suppose now tht." point of the beam to be rai.-ed to :^. so that the line of drauijhi :r c may
be horizontal ; and since the line of draught lies now out of the original line a li r. ami has as-
fiuiiicd that of (/ c (■ — ^ beini; now 8U|iported on llic produced stem c i» of the wheel — draw c t
perpendicular to a c, and coniplcti- the parallelop-am nick; the side a i will siill rejiresent the
oriifinal motive force of :):)ti lbs., but, by the change of direction of the line of drauuhi. the re-
quired force will now be representeil by the diai;onal a g oi the paralleloi;rani. cipial to about
aoi lbs.; and i? r is a continuation of iliis force in a horizontal direction. The draught is ihcro-
fore increased by l.'i lbs. Complete also the parallelogram « / g in. and nsthc iliiigonal a ir — the
line ol draught last found — is equal to iTA lbs., the side / i.' of the paralleloLTani will repres<>nl the
venical |)ressure of the beam upon the wheel c, e(|ual to about VIOO lbs., which, Irom c.xperimcntB
(635), may be valued at 40 lbs. of additional resistance, making the wlmlc resistance lo the mo-
tive force 391 lb.s., and being a total increase arisiiiL; Jivm Ihe in/rmiiir/ion of a uIiitI in llii*
posilioH of M lbs. Having here derived a ma.ximum — no iloubt an extreme case — and the usual
angle of C'O- as the minimum, we can predicate that, at any angle iuiciniediaie \o I n d and / a p,
the resistance can never be reduced to the minimum of 336 lbs. Hence it follows, as a corollary.
that whri/s pltifi'd nnilcr Ihr beam can never les.sen the resistance of the plow ; bui. on the con-
trary, must, in all ca.ses. increase the resistance to the motive lnrci- more or Ics.h. accoriling to the
degree of pressure that is brought upon the wheel, and this will he proportional to the sine of the
angle in the resultant a g o{ the line of draught.
(637.) The application of a wheel in Ihe heel of a plow, doi's not come under the Panic mode
of reasoning as that under the beam, the former becoming a part of the body, from w liich all the
natural resistance flows; but in viewing it as a part of that body only, we can arrive at certain
conclusions which are quite compatible with careful experiments.
(631?.) The breadth of the whole rubbing surface in tlic body of a plow, wlien turning a fur-
row, is on an average about 17^ inches, and supposing that surface to bo pressed nearly c<)uaJ
in all parts, we shall have the sole-shoe, which is about '.ij inches broad, occupying 1-7 part
of the surface ; and taking the entire average resistance of the |)low's body, as iK-lbre. at 330
lbs., we have 1-7 of this, equal to 48 lbs., as the greatest amount of resistance produced by the
sole of the plow. But this is under the supiiosition that the resistance arises from a uiuform
degree of friction spread over the whole i-ubbing surface of the boily : while we have seen, on
the contrary, that the coulter, when acting alone, presents a rcsisi'ancc e<|ual to the entire (ilow.
It is only reasonable, therefore, in absence of farther c.xpcrinierils. to conclude that the fore parts
of the body — the couller and share — yield a Inrsre pmporlion of Ihr rrsisltmce irhrn lurning Ihe
fiirrow-slice ; but. since we cannot appreciate this with any degree of exactness, let the sole nave
Its full share of the resi.siance before stated, namely, 48 lbs. If a wheel is applied at or near tha
heel of the plow, it can only bear up the hind part of the sole. an<l prevent its ordinary friction,
which, at the very utmost, cannot be more than i of the entire friction due to the entire sole. A
wheel, therefore, placed hero, and acting umier every favoring circumstance, even to the sup-
posed extinction of its own friction, could not reduce the resisiance bj- more than -21 lbs., being
the half-of that due to the entire sole, or it is 1-14 of the entire resistance. Hut wecannot imagine
awheel so placed, to continue any length of time, without becoming clogged in all directions,
thereby greatly increasing its own friction ; and when it is coiisidercil that the necessarily small
portion, of any wheel that can be so ap[)lie<l. will sink into the sub.'^oil. lo an extent that will still
brin^' the sole of the plow into contact with the sole ol the furiow. It will thus be f<nin<i that the
amount of reduction of the general resistance will be very much abridged, certainly not less than
onehalf. which reduces the whole saving of f'rauglu to a quantity not exceeding I'J lbs., tind even
this will be always doubtful, from the dilliculiy of keeping such w heels in good working condi-
tion. This viewof a wheel placed at the heel has been conlirmed by actual cxperimcnis, care-
fully conducted, whercjn Palmer's patent plow with a wheel in the heel (as patented many years
ago), but in this case it was applied on the best principles, gave iu/hrnlions of increased resist-
ance from Ihe vse of Ihe nhed. as compared irilk Ihe same plojr when Ihe wheel rras revtored ;
the dlllcrence having been 1 J stone in favor of no wheel. I licsiiaie not. therefore, to .'■ay that in
no ca.se can wheels be of service towanl reducing the resistance of the plow, whether they. be
placed boloro or behind." or in both positions, and the chances are numerous that they shall act in-
juriously. That the use of wheels may, under certain circumsiances. bring the im[)lement wiihin
the management of less skillful hands iban is required for the swing plow, must be admitted ; but,
at the same time, there may be a iiuestion whether, even wiili that advantage the jiractice is com-
mendab'e. 1 should be wanting in candor if. for myself, 1 answered otherwise than in the nega-
tive—.1. S.)
* The wheel under the beam, for general use, is thought by many not commendable ; but the shell
rbecl in the land-side is an improvement, as itdiminiahes or reduces the rcalstanco matorially.
VVii.irix«ov.
(528;
The I'.oiik ot Lhc t'alin.
Fig. 111.
PlateXI.
OP MOULD BOARDS.
The- East Lothiuri
Fid. 112.
FUj. 113
Fiq. 114.
Fig. 115.
The Br-rwickshire..
Fui 116.
Fn,. 117.
The Lanarkshwe-
Fw. 118.
c
r^
^\
h
^
^
•■—
^ \
<^
\
•^
d
^
\
^^
1
\
"
5
^
&
4
l-J S G ^ 0
i , , I , , I . . I .=i=fc
2 Feet.
Vabhshedhy Gteekv ScMf.Elratli.New^rk.
VARIOUS MODES OF PLOWING RIDGES. 289
24. THE VARIOUS MODES OF PLOWING RIDGES.
■...." Your plowshare, ....
Drawn by one pair, obedient to the voice,
And double rein, held by the plowman's hand.
Moves right along, or winds as he directs."
Graham.
(639.) Your knowledge of soils will become more accurate after you
have seen them plowed ; for as long as a crop, or the remains of one, cov-
ers soils, their external characters cannot be fully exposed to ^•iew.
(640.) On observing a plow at work, you might imagine that the laying
over of a fiirrow-slice is a very simple process ; but it is really not so sim-
ple as it appears. You have already seen, in the construction of the plow,
that the flirrow-slice is laid over by a machine of very complicated struc-
ture, though simple in its mechanical action on the soil ; and you may
learn, by a single trial, that the plow is not in reality so very easily guided
as it appears to be in the hands of an expert plowman. You might also
imagine that, as the plow can do nothing else but lay over a furrow-slice,
the forms of plowing do not admit of much variety ; but a short course
of observation will convince you that there are many modes of flowing
land.
(641.) The several modes of plo^^-ing land have received characteristic
appellations, and these are — gathering-up ; crown- and-furrow plowing :
casting or yoking or coupling ridges ; casting ridges with gore furrows ;
cleaving down ridges ; cleaving do\\Ti ridges with or without gore furrows ;
plowing two-out-and-two-in ; plowing in breaks ; cross-fulTO^^•ing ; angle
plowing, ribbing, and drilling; and the preparative operation to all plow-
ing is termed feering or striking the ridges.
(642.) These various modes of ploA\'ing are contiived to suit the nature
of the soil and the season of the year. Heavy land requires more cautious
plowing than light, because of its being more easily injured by rain ; and
greater caution is required to plow all sorts of land in mnter than in sum-
mer. The precautions here spoken of allude to the facilities given to sur-
face water to flow away. The different seasons, no doubt, demand their
respective kinds of plowing ; but some of the modes are common to all
seasons and soils. Attention to all the methods will alone enable you to
understand which kind is most suitable to particular circumstances of soil,
and particular states of season. To give you an idea of all the modes,
from the" simplest to the most complicated, let the ground be supposed to
be even in reference to the state of its surface.
(643.) The supposed flat ground, after being subjected to the plow, is
left in the form of ridges or of drills, each ridge occupying land of equal
area, determined by similar lengths and breadths. The ridges are usually
made N. and S., that the crop may enjoy the light and heat of the solar
rays in an equal degree throughout the day ; but they should, neverthe-
less, traverse the slope of the ground, whatever its aspect may be ; and this
is done that the surface water mav flow easily away.
(644.) Ridges are made of the different breadths of 10, 12, 15, 16, and
18 feet, in different parts of the countiy. These vaiious breadths are oc-
casioned partly by the nature of the soil, and partly by local custom. ^V ilb
regard to the soil, heavy land is formed into narrow ridges, to allow the
(577) 19
29J THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
rain to flow (juickly into the open furrows. Hence, in many parts of Eng-
land, the ricljres are only 10 and 12 feet in width, and in some localities
they are in ridglets of 5 or 6 feet. In Scotland, even on the strongest land,
the ridges are seldom less than 15 feet ; in some localities they are from
16 to .'JG feet, and in light soils a not unusual width is 18 feet. In Ber-
wickshire and Roxburghshire, the ridges have for a long period been 15
feet on all classes of soils, being considered the most convenient width for
the ordinary manual and implemental operations. In other parts of the
country', 16 and 18 feet are more common. More than half a century ago,
ridges were made very broad — that is, from 24 to 36 feet — hiffh on the top
or crowni, and crooked like the letter S, from the mistaken notion that the
crook always presented some part of the ridge in a right position to the
sun — a form which, although it did, would remove other parts as far away
from the sun's influence. In the Carse of Gowrie, such broad, crooked
ridges still exist ; but the usual practice throughout the country is to have
ridges of moderate breadth, straight, and looking to noon-day. In many
parts of Ireland the land is not put into ridges at all, being done up with
the spade into narrow stripes called lazy-beds, separated by deep, nan-ow
trenches. Where the plow is used, however, ridges are always formed,
though naiTow, but usually of 12 feet. For the sake of uniformity of de-
scription, let it be understood, when I speak of a ridge, that an area of 15
feet of width is meant.
(645.) The first process in ridging up land fiom the flat surface is called
Jeering or strihing the ridges. This is done by planting 3 or more of such
poles, giaduated into feet and half-feet, as were recommended for setting
off the lines offence (446), and which are used both for directing the plow
employed to fecr in straight lines, and for measuring off the breadth of the
ridges into which the land is to be made up, from one side of the field to
the other.
(646.) Land is feered for ridging in this way : Let a b, fig. 132, repre-
sent the S. and E. fences of a field, of which let x be the hcad-ridge or
head-land, of the same width as that of the ridges, namely 15 feet. To
mark off its width distinctly, let the plow pass in the direction of re, with
the fuiTow-slice lying toward x. Do the same along the other head-land,
at the opposite end of the field. Then take a pole and measure off the
width of a quarter of a ridge, viz. 3 feet 9 inches, from the ditch lip a to c,
and plant a pole at c. With another pole set off the same distance from
the ditch a to d, and jilant it there. Then measure the same distance from
the ditch at e to y^ and at f look if d has been placed in the line of f c ;
if not, shift the poles a little until they are all in a line. Make a mark on
the ground with the foot, or set up the plow-staff, at f. Then plant a pole
at g in the line of f d c. Before starting to feer, the plowman measures
off Ij^ridges — namely, 18 feet 9 inches — from /"to k, and plants a pole at
k. He then starts with the plow from y to d, where he stops with the pole
standing between the horses' heads, or else pushed over by the tying of
the horses. He then, with it, measures off, at right angles to yc, a line
equal to the breadth of \\ ridges, 18 feet 9 inches, toward t until he comes
to the line of k I, where he plants the pole. In like manner he proceeds
from d to g, where he again stops, and measures off 1^ ridges, 18 feet 9
',nches breadth, from g toward ?' at a point in the line of /.• 7, and plants the
pole there. He then proceeds toward the other head-ridge to the last pole
c from g, and measures off 11 ridges, 18 feet 9 inches, from c to 7, and
plants the pole at 7. From 7 he looks toward k to see if the intermediate
poles are in the line 771: ; if not, he shifi:s them to their proper points as he
returns to the head-ridge x along the furrow he had made in the line fc.
(578)
VARIOUS MODES OF PLOWING RIDGES.
291
On coming down cf he obviates any deviation from the straight line that
the plow may have made. In the line oi f c the fuiTOW-slices of the feer-
ing have been omitted, to show you the setting of the poles. It is of much
importance to the correct feering of the whole field to have those first two
Fig. 132.
00 y P y I y 7» p
"my^^^^^c^^^^x^^^^^^^^^^^^^.
MODE OF FEERING RIDGES.
feerings, f c and h I, drawn correctly ; and, to attain this end, it is proper
to employ two persons in the doing of it — namely, the plowman and the
farm-steward, or farmer himself. It is obvious that an error committed at
the first feei'ings will be transmitted thi-oughout the whole field. A very
steady plowman and a very steady pair of horses, both accustomed to feer,
should only be intrusted with the feering of land. Horses accustomed to
feer will walk up of their own accord to the pole standing before them.
In like manner the plowman proceeds to feer the line k I, and so also the
line op ; but in all the feerings after the first, from f to k, the poles, of
course, are set off to the exact breadth of the ridge determined on — in this
case 15 feet, such as from s to t, u to Vy p to w, in the direction of the ar-
rows. And the reason for setting off" c Z at so much a greater distance than
I p or pw is, that the ^ ridge a h may be plowed up first and without de-
lay, and that the rest of the ridges may be plowed by half-ridges. The
half-ridge a h is, however, plowed in a different manner from the rest ; it
is plowed by going round the feering f c until the open furrow comes to
a e on the one side and to h i on the other. Then h i constitutes the feer-
ing, along with k I, for plowing the 2 half-ridges z i and z ky which, when
done, the open furrow is left in the line z y, corresponding to the open
furrow left in the line e a, and between which is embraced and finished the
full ridge of 15 feet e z. The half-ridges z k and z o are plowed at the
same time by another pair of horses, and the open furrow z y is left be-
tween them, and the full ridge zk z is then completed. In like manner
the half-ridges z o and z r are afterward plowed by the same horses, and
(579)
292
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
the open furrow z y is left between tbem, and the full ridge z o z \& then
completed. And so on with every other feering in the field. Had the
feering Inien set off the breadth of a half-ridge — that is, 1\ feet — in the line
of i h, from a to // and from c to /, this half-ridge could only have been
plowed by all the furrow-slices being turaed over toward /t /, and the plow
returning back empty, thus losing half its time.
(647.) As a means of secuinng perfect accuracy in measuring off the
breadths of ridges at right angles to the feerings, lines at right angles to
J'c should be set off across the field, from the cross-table and poles set at
d and a, in the direction of d t and s^ v, and a fuiTow made by the plow in
each of these lines, before the breadths of the feerings are measured along
them. Most people do not take the trouble of doing this, and a very care-
ful plowman renders it a precaution of not absolute necessity, but every
proficient farmer will always do it, even at the saciifice of a little time and
some trouble, as a means of securing accuracy of work.
(648.) As the plow completes each feering, the furrow-.slices appear laid
over as at i?i and n. While one plowman proceeds in this manner to feer
each ridge across the field, the other plowmen commence the plowing of
the land into ridges ; and, to afford a number of jilowmen space for begin-
ning their work at the same time, the feering-plowman should be set to
his work at least half a day in advance of the rest, or more if the number
of plows is gi-eat or the ridges to be feered long. In commencing to plow
the ridges, each jilownian takes two feerings, and begins by laying the fur-
row-slices of the feerings together, such as >n and n, to form the crowns of
the future ridges. In this way one plowman lays together the furrow-
slices of fc and k I, while another is doing the same with those o£ o j? and
r w. I have already described how the ^ ridge a h is plowed, and stated
that the rest of the ridges are plowed in ^ ridges. The advantage of plow-
ing by \ ridges is, that the open fuiTows are thereby left exactly equi-dis-
tant from the crowns ; whereas, were the ridges plowed by going round
and round the crown of each ridge, one ridge might be made by one plow-
man a little broader or narrower than the one on each side of it — that is,
broader or narrower than the detemiinate breadth of 15 feet.
(649.) A ridge, a a, fig. 13.3, consists of a crown h, two flanks c, two fur-
row-brows d, and two open furrows a a. An open furrow is finished at
the bottom by two mould or hint-end furrows. (Fig. 134.)
(650.) After laying the feering funow-slices to make the crowns of the
ridges, such as at f c, k I, op, and ?■ w, fig. 132, the plan to plow up ridges
from the flat ground is to turn the horses toward you on the head-ridges,
until all the furrow-slices between each feering are laid over until you
reach the lines y z, which then become the open furrows. This method
Fig. 133.
OAlHtKlSO UP FKOM IHfc H.AT.
>f plowing is ca.\\ed gather ing up, or gathering up from the flat, the dispo-
lition of whose furrows is shown in fig. 133, where a a a embrace two
(530J
VARIOUS MODES OF PLOWING RIDGES.
293
whole ridges, on the right sides of which all the furrows lie one way, from
a to h, reading from the right to the left ; and on the left sides of which
all the furrow-slices lie in the opposite direction, from a to h, reading fro
the left to the right ; and both sets of furrow-slices meet in the crowi
hhh. The open furrows aaa are finished off with the mould or hint-eu
furrows, the method of making which is described in the next figure.
(651.) The viouhl or Mnt-cnd fun'ow is made in this way : When th.
last 2 furrow-sHces of the ridges a a, fig. 134, are laid over, the bottom ol
the open furrow is as wide as represented by the dotted line c, extending
Fig. 134.
AN OPEN FL■Klll_l\^• \VrrH M'lCr.l) OR HIST-KND FU RUOW-SI.IC KS.
from a to a. The plow goes along this wide space, and first lays over a
triangular furrow-slice h on one side, and another of the same, h, on the
other side, up against and covering the lower ends of the last fuiTOw-slices
a a, and by which operation the ground is hollowed out in the shape rep-
resented at c by the sole of the plow. The dotted line d shows the level
of the ground in its former state, before it was begun to be ridged up, and
the furrow-slices a a show the elevation attained by the land above its fer-
mer level by plowing.
{Q52.) A ridge that has been plowed the reverse to gathering up from
the flat is said to be split, which is the short phrase for crovm-and-furrow
plowing.
(653^ This kind of plowing o^crown-and-furroio can easily be perfornied
on land that has been gathered up from the flat. In this case, no feering
is required to be purposely made, the open furrows answering that pur-
pose. Thus, in fig. 133, let the furrow-brows d be laid over to meet to-
gether in the open furrow a, and it will be found that they will just meet,
since they were formerly separated in the same spot ; and so let each suc-
cessive furrow-slice be reversed from the position it was laid when gath-
ered up from the flat, and as represented in the figure, then a will become
the crowns of the ridges, and b the open-furrows. In this mode, as well
as in gathering up, the ridges are plowed by two half-ridges, and in both
cases the plowed surface of the ridges is preserved in a flat state ; there
should he no perceptible curvature of the gi'ound, the open fun-ow only
forming a hollow below the level of the plowed surface. When no sur-
face-water is likely to remain on the land, which is the case with light soils,
both these are simple modes of plowing land ; and they form an excellent
foundation upon which to make di-ills upon stronger soils for turnips. —
They are both much practiced in plowing land for barley after turnips.
(654.) But when two plowings are intended to be given to land for bar-
ley after turnips, and when it is found inconvenient to cross-furrow the
land — which will be the case when sheep on turnips occupy a field of great
length in proportion to its breadth, or when the soil or season is too weft
to run the risk of letting the land He any time in a cross-fuiTow — then the
(581)
29 i
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
land should be feered so as to allow it to be gathered up from the flat, that
the rrown-aud-furruw plowing may afterward complete the ridges. On
looking again at fig. 133, where the ridges are represented complete, it is
obvious that, were they plowed from that state into crown-and-furrow, by
making the open furrows a a a the future crowns, a half-ridge would be
left at each side of the field — a mode of finishing off a field wliich no con-
siderate farmer adopts, as it displays great carelessness and want of fore-
thought in forming his plans. The land should, therefore, be so feered at
first as.to leave a half-ridge next the ditch when gathered up fiom the flat,
and which the subsequent crown-and-funow plowing will convert into a
whole one. Thus, the first feering should be made at e o, fig. 132, and
every other should be made at the distance of the width of a ridge, namely
15 feet, from the last one, as at ?/ c, y z, y z. On plowing each feering,
the open funows will then be left at i h, kl, op, and r w. These open
furrows will form the feelings "for, and the crowns of, the future ridges —
which, when plowed, the half ridge from i to e will have to be plowed by
itself; thereby, no doubt, incurring some loss of time in laying all the fur-
row-slices toward the crown 7t i, and retuniing with the empty plow ; but
that loss must be endured to get the ridges finished with a peifect form
(655.) I may mention here, that one stretch of the plow \rith a furrow
is called a landing, and going and returning with a furrow each way is
termed a bout.
(656.) Another mode of plowing land from the flat surface is casting or
yoking or coupling the ridges. The feering for this mode is done in a dif-
ferent way from either of the two foregoing. The first feering is opened
out in the line oi c a, fig. 132, close to the ditch, and every other is meas-
ured off of the width of two ridges from the last — that is, 30 feet asunder —
as at y c, betwixt k 1 and op, and at half a ridge beyond r ic. Casting is
begun by laying the furrow-slice of the feerings together, and then laying
the first furrow-slice toward e a, on going up. and toward y z, betwixt /
and jf, on coming down the bout ; and so on, funow after furrow, turning
the horses on the head-ridges always toward you, until the open furrow is
left at y z, betwixt k 1 and i h. The effect of casting is to lay the entire
furrow-.slices of every ridge in one direction, and in opposite directions on
adjoining ridges. The proper disposition of the furrow-slices you will see
in perspective in fig. 135, which exhibits three entire ridges, two of them
Fig. 135.
CASTING, yOKISG, OR COUPLING RIDGES.
cast or yoked together ; that is, the furrow-slices of a b meet those of c J
in b, which forms the crown of the double ridge, and those of c (Z lie in the
opposite direction from c b, and are ready to meet those of the adjoining
ridge beyond d at d, and they leave the open furrow between them at c ;
and so on, an open furrow between every two ridges. Ridges lying thus
yoked can easily be recast, by reversing the furrow-slices of b c and c d,
thereby converting the open furrow c into a cro^^'n of the double ridge,
f582)
VARIOUS MODES OF PLOWING RIDGES.
295
and making tlie cvown h an open fuiTow. Cast ridges keep the land in a
level state, and can most conveniently be adopted on dry soils. They
form a good foundation for drilling upon, or they make a good seed-fur-
row on dry land. Lea on light land, and the seed-fuiTow for barley on
the same sort of soil, are always plowed in this fasliion. This is an eco-
nomical mode of plowing land in regard to time, as it requires but few
feerings ; the furrow-slices are equal, and on even ground ; and the horses
are always turned inward, that is, toward you. Casting is best performed
upon the ilat surface, as then the uniform state of both ridges can be best
preserved ; and should the land be desired to be plowed again, it can be
cast the reverse way, and the correct form of the ridges still preserved.
In this method of casting, no open furrow is more bare of earth than
another.
(657.) Casting ridges is as suitable plowing for strong as light land, pro-
vided the ndges are separated by a gore-furrow. A gore-fuiTOw is a
space made to prevent the meeting of two ridges, and as a substitute for
an open furrow between them. Its effect is, in so far as the furrow-slices
are concerned, like crown-and-furrow plowing, but the difference consists
in this, that it turns over a whole ridge, instead of a half-i-idge in each
feering. It can only be formed where there is a feering or an open fur-
row. The method of making a gore-furrow is shown in fig. 136. Suppose
Fig. 136.
A GORE-FURIMW.
that it is proposed to make one in a feering such as is shown by k I and
o -p in fig. 132. Let the dotted furrow-slices a and e, and the dotted line
i represent an open furrow such as in fig. 136, of which c is a point in the
middle. Make the plow pass between the center of the furrow-sole c and
the left-hand dotted fuiTow-slice e, and throw up to the right the trian-
gular-shaped mould-fuiTow-slice b. Then turn the horses sharp round
toward you on the head-ridge, and lay the dotted furrow-slice a upon b,
which will then become the furrow-slice d, as seen in the fig. at d. Ao-ain
turning the horses sharp round on the head-ridge, take the plow lightly
through part of the dotted furrow-slice e, and convert it into the triangular
shaped mould-furrow-slice /\ the upper end of e being left untouched ; but
a portion of/ will trickle down toward /. Turn the horses from you this
time on the head-ridge, and bring down the plow behind d, and lay against
it the ordinary furrow-slice g. Turning the horses again from you on the
near head-ridge, lay the ordinary furrow-slice h, by destroying the remain-
der of the dotted furrow-slice c with some more earth, upon the triangular-
shaped furrow /; which, when done, turn the horses from you again on the
farther head-ridge for the last time, and come down the open furrow ?, rub-
bing the soil up with the mould-board of the plow from i against/ and clear-
ing out of the furrow any loose soil that may have fallen into it, and the gore-
fun-ow is completed. The dotted line i shows the surface of the foiTner
(583)
206 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
state of the land. A goic-fuiTow is most perfectly formed and retained
in clay soil, for one in tender soil is apt to moulder down by the action of
the air into the open furrow, which frustrates the purpose of making it a
channel for running water ; hut, indeed, on light soils, gore-furrows are of
little use, and, of cfturse, seldom farmed.
(658.) When land is cast with a gore-fuiTovv upon gathered gi-ound, it is
quite coiTCct to say that the open funow is more bare of eaith than the
gore-furrow, as Professor Low intimates, but it is not so correct to say,
that " this is an impeifection unavoidable in casting a ridge."* Such a
remark is only applicable to cast ridges after they have been gathered up
from the flat, and much more so to ridges that have been twice galheied
up ; but the imperfection does not belong to casting in its most legitimate
form, that is, upon the flat ground. Land, in my opinion, should never
be cast upon gathered ridges, to remain in a jiermanent form, but only for
a temporary purpose ; as in the process of fallowing, for the sake of stir-
ring the soil and overcoming weeds. For, observe the necessary eflect of
casting a gathered ridge. Suppose the two gathered ridges between a u a,
fig. 133, were desired to be cast together toward the middle open fur-
row a ; the effect would be to reverse the ])Osition of the furrows from a
to b, on either side of a. They would remain as flat as formerly ; but
■what would be the effect on the furrows on the other halves of the ridges
from h to (11 They would be gathered twice, so that the double ridge
would have two high furrow-brows by two gatherings, and two low flanks
by one gathering. It would, in fact, be unequally plowed, and the open
furrow on each side of it would, of course, be bared of earth, having been
twice gathered. No doubt, such a distortion might be partially obviated
by making the furrow-slices between a and h on each side of the middle
open fuiTOw a deeper and larger than those between J> and </, and thus en-
deavor to preserve a uniform shape to the double ridge ; but this would
be done by the sacrifice of sterling plowing, and it is much better to con-
fine casting within its own sphere, than practice it in circumstances un-
favorable to the land.
(659.) The open furrow in casting does not necessarily bare the earth
more than a gore-funow. It is broader, certainly, fiom the circumstance
of its funow-slices being laid fiom each other ; but its fu now-sole is not
actually plowed deeper than the gore-furrow. In treating of casting, im-
mediately after showing how ridges may be gathered up once and twice,
it appears to me that Professor Low seems to intimate, at ])age lf)2, that
land so gathered up may be cast, and preserve its form ; but on this 1
would obsei've that casting is almost impracticable after twice gathering;
at least it is unadvisable, because, in that case, the effect would be to cleave
down the side h a, fig. 133, of the lidge fin each side of rt ; that is, to throw
them down again to the level of the ground ; while it would gather up
the other two sides b d thrice, thereby either making the two sides of each
ridge of unequal hights, or, to preserve their level, making the furrow-
slices on the same ridges of une(|ual sizes — practices both undeserving of
commendation under any circumstances. Another authcn*, in speaking of
casting ridges together, and showing how it may be performed by plow-
ing the fun'ow-slices of two adjoining ridges in opposite directions, gives
the caution that " the intei-furrow, which lies between the two ridges,
imavoidably leaves a shoulder or hollow place, of more or less width, ac-
cording to the ex])crtness of the plowman, in the center of the crown,
which defect can only be completely relieved by replowing ; "t and informs
• Low's Elpmcntg of I'rHctical Agriculture,
t British Husbandry, vol. ii.
(584)
VARIOUS MODES OF PLOWING RIDGES.
297
us that the defect may be partly prevented by using two plows of differ-
ent mould-boards. I do not see why plowing two furrow-slices into the
open furrow in casting should be moi'e difficult or less sterling than in any
other mode of plowing. A good plowman will leave in the crown of the
ridge, in either case, neither a shoulder noi-^'hollow place, w'hich ai-e cer-
tainly not synonymous terais, as they seem to be represented here, but the
opposite.
(660.) Nearly allied to casting is a species of plowing called tico-out-
and-two-in, which can be executed on the flat ground, and requires a par-
ticular mode of feering. The first feering should be measured off of the
breadth of two ridges, or 30 feet, from the ditch a e, fig. 132 ; and every
subsequent feering should be measured at 4 ridges breadth, or 60 feet
from the last. The land is plowed in this way. Let a b, fig. 137, be the
Fig. 137.
FEERING FOR PLOWING T\VO-OUT-AND-TWO-IN.
side of the field, and let c rZ be the first feering of 30 feet from a h ; an«l
also, let efhe the next feeling of 60 feet. After returning the feering fur-
row-slices, begin plowing round the feering c d, always keeping it on the
right hand, and turning the horses from you, that is, oiiticard, on both the
head-ridges, until about the breadth of a ridge is plowed on each side of c d.
These two ridges may be supposed to be represented by c^ on the one side,
and c h on the other of c d. AVliile this is doing, the two ridges e / and ek
are plowed, in like manner, toward ef. At this juncture, open furrows
occur at h h and i i, embracing between them the breadth of 2 ridges, or
30 feet, from h to i. Then let the plowman who has plowed round c d,
plow h and i, always laying the fiiiTOW-slices first to h and then to i, and
turning his horses toward him, or ?«ward, on both head-ridges, until the
ground is all plowed to 1 1, which becomes the permanent open furrow.
The next open furrow \vill be at ?fi m, 60 feet or 4 ridges breadth fi'om II.
But as yet only 3 ridges have been plowed bet^vixt I and a, the fourth
ridge g a being plowed along with the head-ridges m a and b m, after all
the ridges of the field have been plowed, laying its fun-ow-slices toward
g g, and making the open furrow at a b. The eftect of this mode of plow-
ing is to lay all the furrow-slices in one direction from a to c, that is, across
the 2 ridges a g and g c, and to lay those from Z to c in the opposite di-
rection, also across 2 ridges I h and h c, and both double ridges meet-
ing in c d, which becomes the c^o^vn of the 4 ridges I It, h c, g c, and a g.
In like manner all the furrow-slices over the ridges I i and i e on the one
hand, and all those over the ridges m k and ^ e on the other hand, meet
{585)
298
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
in their crown nt e /. In plowing by this mode, every plowman takes in
afeerint? of 4 ridges, which he completes before he goes to another. The
reason, J supjiose, that tliis mode of plowing has received the appellation
of two-out-and-two-in is, that 2 ridges are plowed toicard the fearing, and
the other 'Ij'rum the open fuiTow.
(661.) The appearance of the ground on being plowed two-out-and-two-
in is seen in tig. 13!^, where the space fioiti « to e is 60 feet, comprehend-
Fi- in*.
^2^.
ing 4 ridges, between the opiMi funows a and r, 2 of which ridges, a h and
b c, have their furrow-slices lying one way, toward the right, and the other
2, e d and d c, with theirs lyinir toward the left in the opposite way, both
meeting at c. which is the crown of the whole break or division of 4 ridges,
(662.) This method of plowing places the land in large flat spaces, and
as it dispenses with many open funows, it is on this account only suitable
for light soils, in which it may be practiced for seed-fuiTowing. It forms
an excellent foundation for drilling upon for turnips, or even for potatoes
upon gi'avelly soils.
(663.) The gore-funow, described in fig. 136, might be judiciously ap-
plied to the plowing of land two-out-and-two-in on the stronger classes of
soils ; but its introduction changes the character of the ridges altogether,
inasmuch as the crown c fig. 138, where the furrow-slices meet, is not only
converted into an open fuiTOw, but the actual cro\\-n is transferred from c
to b, and d, where the furrow-slices do not vieet from opposite directions,
but lie across the crowns of their respective double ridges in the same di-
rection. Exactly in a similar manner, when the gore-furrow is introduced
into cast ridges, as in fig. 135, the crowns h and d are converted into open
fuiTows, and transferred to c, whei'e the fuiTow-slices lie across the crowns
in the same direction on their respective ridges, instead of meeting there.
(664.) A nearly allied plowing to the last is that o{ ploiving in brcaJcs or
divisions. It consists of making feerings at indefinite distances, and plow-
ing large divisions of land without open furrows. Some farmers plow di-
visions of 8 ridges or 40 yards ; but such a distance incurs considerable
loss of time to travel from fuiTow to furrow at the landings. Instead,
therefore, of distances of a given number of ridges being chosen, as is the
case in the last mode of plowing, two-out-and-two-in, 30 yards are substi-
tuted, and this particular breadth answers another puipose of deviating
from the sites of the ordinary ridges, which deviation has the advantage
of loosenitig any hard land that may have been left untouched by the
plow in any of the sorts of plowings that have yet been presented to your
notice. Land is plowed in breaks only for temporary pui-poses, such as
giving it a tender sui-face fur seed-furronnng, or drilling up immediately.
You might easily estimate how much time would be lost in plowing land
in breaks, were the feerings made at a greater distance than 80 yards, by
looking at fig. 137, where the feerings c d and e f being supposed to be
(586)
VARIOUS MODES OF PLOWING RIRGES.
299
60 yards asunder, the plows would have to go round c d and e/ until they
reached h and i respectively, in doing which they would have to travel in
a progressively increasing distance until its extreme point from h to i
reached 30 yards/or every furrow-slice laid over. Thus is imposed on men
and horses a great deal of traveling for the little work actually done.
(665.) Another mode of plowing, which I shall now describe, is twice-
gathering-up. Its effect may be seen by looking at fig. 139, where it will
Fig. 139.
TWICE-GATHERING-UP .
be observed that the fuiTOw-slices rest above the level line of the gi-ound.
It may be practiced both on lea and red-land. On red-land that has al-
ready been gathered up from the flat, it is begun by making feerings in the
crowns of the ridges, as at b, fig. 133. The furrow-slices of the feerings
are laid together, and the ridges plowed by ^ ridged, in the manner of
gathering up from the flat. The -^ ridge left by the feerings at the sides
of the field must be plowed by themselves, even at the risk of losing time,
because it would not do to feer the first ridge so as to plow the ^ ridge as
directed to be done in the first-gathering-up, in fig. 132, around the feer-
ing of the \ ridge f c, because the furrows betwixt y and i, if plowed in
the contrary direction to what they were before, would again flatten the
ground, whereas the furrow-slices from e tOjf and from z to i, being plowed
in the same direction as foi'merly, the ground would thereby be raised
above the level of i f, and disfigure the plowing of the whole ridge z e.
Gathering up from the flat preserves the flatness of the ground ; and the
second gathering up would also preserve the land in a flat state, though
more elevated, were there depth enough of soil, and the furrow-slices pre-
served of their proper form, as we have seen in (653), but a roundness is
usually given to the ridge in all cases of gathering up furrow-slices toward
the crowns, both by the harrowing down of the precipitous furrow-brows
and the unequal size of the furrow-slices, from want of soil at the fun'ow-
brows and open furrows. In gathering up lea the second time, no feering
is required. The plow goes down a little to the left of the crown of
the ridge, and lays over upon the crown a thin and narrow furrow-
slice upon its back, as a, fig. 139, to sei-ve as a cushion upon which to
rest the adjoining furrow-slices. The horses are then turned sharp round
from you, and the furrow-slice h is laid over so as to rest at the proper
angle of 45° upon a. Turning the horses again sharp round from you,
the fiin'ow-slice c is also laid over at the same angle to rest on a, but nei-
ther c nor h should approach each other so nearly as to cover a, but leave
a space of about 3 or 4 inches between them. The object of leaving this
small space is to form a receptacle for the seed-corn, which, were c and b
made to meet a sharp angle, would slide down, and leave the best part of
the ridge bare of seed. The crown of the rest of the ridges is treated in
the same manner, where in fact is constituted its feering, and the ridges
(587)
300
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
are plowed in \ ridges to the open furrows d, which are finisliod with
mould-furrows, but the plowiiipr of these is attended with some difficulty,
in order to prevent their jrradually muulderiui^ down into the bottom of
the open furrows. Twicc-gHtlu-ring-up is only practiced in strong land,
and its object is to lift the mould above the cold and wet subsoil. On dry
land, no such expedient is required. In fig. I'M the dotted line e is meant
to represent the former configuration of the ground, and now it may be
seen that the open fuirow at d is deeper than it was with once gather-
ing-up.
(G66.) The mode of plowing exactly opposite to twice-gathering-up is
that of clcftrlnff or thruwitii:; down land. The open fuiTows of twice-gath-
ered-up land constitute deep feerings, which are filled up with furrow-
slices obtained from the mould-furrows and furrow-brows of each adjoin-
ing ridge ; and, in order to fill them fully up, the ])low should take as deep
a hold of the furrow-brow as it can obtain. The furrow-slices are plowed
exactly the reverse of those of the twice-gathered-up ridges, and they are
also plowed in ^ ridges. The effect of cleaving down is to bring the
ground again to the level above which it had been raised by means of the
twice-gathering-up. The open furrows are left at the crowns, as at a, fig.
139, the mould-furrows of which are seldom stirred, as cleaving down is
usually practiced to prepare the land for cross-plowing in the spring. But
when heavy land is cleaved down in winter, it is always so with gore-fur-
rows ; and these, with open-furrows, afford convenient channels, at every
half-ridge, for the water to flow off to the ditches. Since twice-gathering-
up is only practiced on strong land, and cleaving dowTi only succeeds
Fig. 140.
CLEAVING DOWN WITHOUT GORK-FUKROWS.
twice-gathering-up, it follows that cleaving down is only practiced on
heavy land. The effect produced by cleaving down ground may be seen
in fig. 140, which represents it without gore-furrows h and mould-furrows
c ; but, in fig. 141, the gore-furrows are shown at a, and the open and
Fi". 141.
mould-furrows at h. The dotted line A, in fig. 140, represents the surface
of the former state of the ground, as does the dotted line c, in fig. 141. —
(588)
VARIOUS MODES OF PLOWING RIDGES. 301
Below a and b, fig. 140, are shown the former open furrows by the dotted
line, as also does the dotted line below a, in fig. 141. In both figures, the
ground upon which the furrow-slices, rest is made somewhat rounded, to
show the effect of twice-gathering it up. In the strict sense, a ridge can
only be cleaved after it has been twice plowed. It is, as I think, scarcely
correct to say that a ridge is cleaved after one gathering from the flat, for
it is then plowed crown-and-furrow. With a strong furrow, a ridge thai
had been twice-gathered-up can be made flat by one cleaving.
(667.) What is called cross-plowhtg, or the cross-farrow, derives its name
fi-om plomng right across the furrow-slices as they lie in ridges, in what-
ever form those ridges may have been formerly plowed. Its object is to
cut the existing fuiTow-slices into small pieces, so that the land may be
more easily pulverized and prepared for the future crops. It is usually
executed in the spring, and should never be attempted in winter, unless
the weather continue so long dry and fresh as to allow the land to be again
immediately plowed into ridges in any of the safe forms of plowing I have
described. Rain, or snow melting on land lying in the cross-fuiTow, is at
once absorbed and retained in it, and in a short time renders it sour. But,
even if cross-furrowing were executed in a proper manner in winter, and
the land thereafter safely put into ridges, the land would become so con-
solidated during winter ijthat it would have to be again cross-furrowed in
the spring before it could be rendered friable. The object of cross-fun-ow-
ing being to pulverize land, it is practiced on every species of soil, and ex-
actly in the same manner. It is plowed in divisions, the feerings being
made at 30 yards asunder, and these are plowed in the same manner as
two-out-and-two-in, by first going round the feering, turning the horses
constantly from you, until about \ of the division is plowed, and then turn-
ing them toward you, still laying the fun'ow-slices over toward the feer-
ings, until your arrival at the open fun'ow. In cross-plowing, however,
the open ftuTOW is never left open, but is again closed by 2 or 3 of the last
furrow-slices being returned, and all marks of it obliterated by the plow
shoveling the loose soil into the fun'ows with the mould-board, which is
purposely laid over on its side, and retained in that position by a firm hold
of the large stilt. The obliteration of the open fiiiTows is necessary to fill
up the hollows that would otherwise be left by them across the ridges afi;er
they were formed.
(668.) Another mode of plowing, having a similar object to cross-fuirow-
ing — namely, of dividing fun-ow-slices into pieces — is what is called angle-
flowing or angle-furrowing ; and it is so named because the feerings in
which it is plowed are made in a diagonal or angular direction across the
field. This mode is also plowed in divisions of 30 yards each, and in ex-
actly the same manner as cross-plowing, and with the same precautions as
to the season in which it is executed, and the closing of the open fiirrows.
It is never practiced but after cross-plowing, and not always then, but on
strong land, or unless the cross-plowing has failed to produce its desired
effect of comminuting and Stirling up the soil. It is chiefly practiced in
bare fallowing, and is therefore mostly confined to strong land.
(669.) I have mentioned a mode of plowing called ribbing (641). In
its best form it is usually performed in spring with the small plow, when
it will more appropi'iately fall to be described than in this place ; but
there is a species of plowing practiced in some parts of the country in au-
tumn or winter which bears the name of ribbing. I notice it because it
is practiced in some parts, not with the view of recommending but of rep-
robating it. It is, I believe, called raftering in England ; and is practiced
on stubble land, and consists of laying a furi'ow-slice on its back upon as
(589)
302
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
much of the firm soil as it can cover, as seen in fig. 142, where a are the
fiirrow-slices laid over upon the firm soil h, and c the plow-tracks. The
figure represents it more compact, clean, and regular, than it is usually
Fig. 142.
RIB-FLOWING STUBBLE LAND.
found in practice. It is sometimes plowed so as the fun-ow-slice shall lap
and hang over the piece of firm soil upon which it rests, and the plow-
tracks are often very crooked. The land lies in this state all winter, and
is dry enough ; but the greatest proportion of the soil remaining unplowed
is none the better for this treatment. It has the advantage of being done
in a short time, and without care, as it is generally done in a diagonal di-
rection across the ridges, and without any sort of feering. It is chiefly
practiced on land in a very foul state, with the view of destroying the
weeds, from its being believed that the under surface of the furrow-slice,
where the roots of the weeds are most abundant, is thus more exposed to
the action of frost than in any other position ; and this opinion is no doubt
correct ; but, if the plowed portion of the gi'ound is in this manner more
exposed to the aii", it is evident that the unplowed part cannot be exposed
at all, and, as the largest proportion of the land is left unplowed, any ad-
vantage attending such a mode of plowing must be gieatly counterbal-
anced by its disadvantages. It is practiced in all sorts of soils. Its prac-
tice in Scotland is confined to the north of the Frith of Forth, and even
there it is now abandoned on the large farms, though it may still be seen
in the fields of the smaller tenants. When a field is so plowed, it has
somewhat the appearance of having been drilled.
(670.) The drilling of land being confined to summer, I shall defer any
remarks on that mode of plowing until its proper season amves.
25. DRAINING.
" In grounds, by art laid dry, the aqueous bane,
That marred the wholecome herlis, is turned to use ;
And drains, while drawing; noxious moisture otf,
Serve also to diffuse a due supply."
Graham.
(671.) It is barely possible that the farm on which you learn your pro-
fession, or the one you may occupy on your own account, may not require
draining. Nevertheless, you should be made well acquainted with this
essential and indispensable practice in husbandry. But the probability is
(r,90)
DRAINING. 303
that, on whatever farm you may pass your life, some part of it at least, if
not the whole, will require draining of one sort or another.*
(672.) Draining may be defined the art of rendering land not only so
free of moisture as that no superfluous water shall remain in it, but that
no water shall remain in it so long as to injure or even retard the healthy
growth of plants required for the use of man and beast.
(673.) On considering this definition, you may reasonably inquire why
water in the soil should injure the growth of useful plants, since botanical
physiologists tell us that the greatest bulk of the food of plants consists of,
or at least is conveyed to them by water. In what way injury should
arise, is certainly not veiy obvious ; but observation has proved that stag
[* We have too frequently and too distinctly dwelt upon the importance of divesting land,
whether intended for the plow or for grass, of all superfluous moisture, to make it necessary to
say more on that point. In England, where the prodigious rental of laud, and the value of its
products as food for man and beast, instigate the farmer to search for and put in practice every
possible mode of augmenting his crops, it is to the condition of the soil with respect to any redund-
ant moisture that he gives his first attention, as we are assured, when examining with a view to
rent or purchase.
There the conviction of the importance and the profits of draining, not merely as the baais of
permanent improvement, but as a source of immediate remuneration for outlay of capital and
labor, is universal ; and one of the greatest obstacles at this time to the yet farther progress of ag-
ricultural improvement and prosperity in England is, on all hands, admitted to consist in the diflB
culty of adjusting between landlord and tenant the proportion to be borne by each respectively
of the expenses of draining the land, which all admit to be indispensable to the realization of the
profits to which the industry and skill of the tenant' entitle him. The landlord refuses to grant a
long lease, being eager to get the higher rent which a higher state of improvement and product-
iveness may enable him to exact, while the tenant justly demands a longer lease to warrant him
in the expenditures, especially the draining, by which, and his own skillful management, that
higher improvement and greater productiveness are to be achieved.
In our country, the same obstacle to plans of improvement, which require time to carry them
out and to reap their profits, does not exist, because here almost every man owns the fee simple
of the land he cultivates; but here again there are two yet, perhaps, more formidable obstacles to
every plan of well-arranged, permanent improvement, involving heavy outlay in the beginning.
These are — want of capital, and the facility of procuring cheap land in the Far West. To these,
also, may be added a want of enterprise and a want of knowledge. Our young men are not edu-
cated in the principles of their profession, as they are for all other professions. Hence, for exam-
ple, in this very process of draining, some knowledge of geology and of the plain rules and laws
of engineering and hydraulics is needed, to caiTy it forward upon any extended scale. But how
many of our young men, except at the military schools (and these at the farmer's expense), are
taught even the simplest elements of these sciences ? Scarcely enough geology do they know to
distinguish gravel from sand, and either from clay, and not enough of mechanics, hydraulics or
engineering, to know how to make or to use a common water-level, to ascertain by what line
water may be made to flow. If then, the reader become impatient at seeing so much on one
subject, and especially on perceiving that the execution of the plans laid down by the author
would be expensive beyond the means of American farmers, there are yet some considerations to
reconcile every reasonable mind. First — He should consider that this is but one chapter of, literal
]y, a great Book of the Farm, so voluminous and comprehensive as necessarilj' to embrace many
things not adapted to all farmers and all localities ; and, secondly, that as this work is designed
to be studied as well as read, and to serve as well for the young man in his school as for the prac-
tical man in the field, it is but fit that the prijiciples as well as the modus operajidi of all agri-
cultural processes should be carefully explained ; and we may add, after attentive perusal, that
in respect of draining, both theory and practice seem here to be so fully described and carefully
illustrated as to leave little or nothing to be added in the way of notes.
A long and very valuable essay appears in the last number of the English Farmer's Magazine,
on draining as practiced in Aberdeenshire ; but we see in it nothing that is tiot embraced in, if not
actually taken from, the work in hand, except some results of particular experiments, and to illus-
trate the profits of the operation. Well aware are we that they are only our wealthy farmers, such
(591)
304 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
nant water, whether on the surface or under the ground, does injure the
growth of all the useful plants. It perhaps altogether prevents or checks
perspiration and introsusception ; or it may neutralize the chemical de-
composition of substances wliich largely supply the food of plants. Be it
as it may, experience a.ssures us that draining will prevent all these bad
effects. You may conceive it quite ])ossible for an obvious excess of wa-
ter to injure useful plants ; because you may have obsei-ved that excess
of water is usually indicated by the presence, in number and luxuiiance,
of subaquatic plants, such as rushes (Juncus acutijlunis and./, ejf'usus), Sec,
which only flourish where water is too abundant for other plants ; and
you may even conceive that damp, dark-looking spots in the soil may con-
as have generally acquired fortunes by other pursuits or by inheritance, who can afford such out
lays — such outlays, however, it may be added, as will pay well when ihcy are made under ju-
dicious circumstances as to locality and markets. How many thousands of acres are there, for in-
stance, along the river and creek shores of the Chesapeake Bay, in Maryland and Virginia, enjoy-
ing the advantages of a />r<7c</caZ contiguity to the best Atlantic market.", which now produce
nothing but coarse grass and malaria, which might, if their owners had the energy, the skill and
the capital to drain them, produce crops equal to such as have been produced on the Nansemond
(Charles county, Md.) estate of B. O. Tayloe, Esq. — where, during the past season, under the
management of Mr. James K. Nash, a crop of 2,000 barrels of com has been made and housed ;
and where, on tico acres, 125 bushels of good merchantable corn were raised, and that after a fair
crop of tobacco the preceding year, and without any unusual application of manure — being 62J
bushels; which, at the present price, 75 cents, is S46 87 J an acre.
Need we ask whether such crops, or say 60 bushels to the acre — at 70 cents a bushel. $42 —
would not well remunerate a heavy outlay for draining ? And do not such crops and such man-
agement better deserve the honors bestowed by Agricultural Societies and Institutes, than mere
isolated cnscs of extraordinary crops, produced at enormous expense, and by the iitful efforts to
which the most indolent may sometimes be stimulated, in the hope of winning a V. or an X. ? —
But again the question recurs, how is the capital to bo had by those who arc without money, and
whose lands might be thus drained ? — for the tendency of ail our legislation that in any way inter-
feres with or acts upon the use and value of labor and capital, owing to the want of spirit and
knowledge on the part of the agriculturists, has a tendency to drive capital as well as enterjtrise
into our large cities, and into channels for the benefit of particular and well-handed c/axsen !
Suppose a field of say ten acres (and how many there are wlio own such) to be drained so that
it would produce even forty bushels of com to the acre — these, at GO cents, would give $24, the
interest on S400 at 6 per cent. ; leaving the land worth intrinsically more than SlOO an acre, and
two crops would more than pay the cost. Yet there arc thousands on thousands of acres in
Maryland and Virginia and North Carolina that might be thus drained and rendered tlius prodnc-
live at an expense of S50 on acre !
But unfortunately if, perchance, a hard-working farmer, toiling through the j'car, and conduct-
ing his household and all other affairs with the severest economy, contrives to have a small sur-
plus beyond his outgoings at the end of the year — even he, instead of investing it in dr.iining, his
land — in erecting more and better buildings — in providing himself with all necessary implomcnts,
and otherwise improving his little estate in appearance and fruitfulncss — even he, as such a farmer
confessed to us last summer in the State of New-York, sends or goes with it to the grenJ, aU-ab-
sorbins Commercial Emporium, to lend it out at 7 per ceiit. on bond and morti^af^e. Hence it
is that while no one knows how much of the State is mortgaged, and while every manufacturing
village wears the aspect of youth and healthfulness, and larger cities grow into enormous magni-
tude— the country, at Ica.st along the great thoroughfares, as far as one can see, sinks lower and
lower in its average products, and puts on the appearance of premature decay and consumption.
All this would be rectified if the education of the rising generation were such as it should be, be-
cause then we should rear up a race of men who wonld understand, as, far as the Government is
concerned, what is due to their numbers and the products of their industry ; and Agriculture
would preside where she ought, at the head instead of at the tail of all Caliini;t councils for the
general welfare.
Looking carefully through this chapter of the Book of the Farm, on draining — the mode of
conducting it — the principles by which it is to be guided — the implements employed, and the out-
(592)
DRAINING. 305
tain as much water as to injure plants, though in a less deo-ree • but
you cannot at once imagine why land apparently dry should require
di-aining. Land, however, though it does not contain such a superabund-
ance of water as to obstruct arable culture, may nevertheless, by its in-
herent wetness, prevent or retard the luxuriant growth of useful plants, as
much as decidedly wet land. The truth is, that deficiency of crops on ap-
parently dry land is frequently attributed to unskillful husbandry, when it
. really arises from the baleful influence of concealed stagnant water; and
the want of skill is shown, not so much in the management of the arable
culture of the land as in neglecting to remove the true cause of the defi-
ciency of the crop, namely, the concealed stagnant water. Indeed, my
opinion is — and its conviction has been forced upon me by dint of lono-
lay, under ordinarj' circumstances, as compared with the results in the account of profit and loss
we see nothing that can be added, except some suggestions as to draining, in a mode and with
materials more within the reach of ordinary American farmers, and which appears not to be
touched upon in this book. At this there should be the less surprise when we consider that wood,
or young timber— the material to which we refer — is so scarce and dear in England as almost to
place it out of question.
In the Eastern States, and along the high lands stretching far away south, stone is at hand in
abundance ; and in New-York, and so through the States east of the Hudson, the practice of
draining is on the increase, and we believe with universal satisfaction as to the advantages ; but
in a large portion of intervale and alluvial country south of the Hudson, with which we are better
acquainted, there is not stone enough in some districts to make the foundation of a chimney. The
situation and circumstances are numerous, however, where farmers are invited by every consid-
eration to drain, with %cood (if nothing better), which many of them have at command. We be-
lieve we have somewhere before adverted to the instance of a Mr. Summers, near Nottingham,
Maryland, who, without example or instruction, has reclaimed and brought under the plow spots
of land which had before been worthless, and which now yield heavy crops ; and which, more-
over, give to his fields an air of good management, proclaiming that their proprietor has a mind
to think, as well as a hand to execute — a consideration which ought to weigh with every farmer
of proper spirit, and which it behooves every community to commend more fervently than thej-
now commend only, or first and far above all others, those who are most successful in fields of hu-
man destruction.
For those who may be inclined — and there ought to be thousands — to drain the boggy spots on
their farms by this method, which is within the reach of almost every one, the following observa-
tions may prove useful ; and the reader will indulge us in this short addition to a long note, when
we announce that we shall make no other upon this branch of the Book of the Farm.
" The wood used for this purpose consists of the thinnings of plantations, i. e. the small trees
commonly converted into paling. Larch is preferable, on account of its greater durability ; but
Scotch fir. being the cheapest and mo.st abundant kind in this quarter, is generally used. The
drains to be filled with wood are usually thirty-two inches in depth, eighteen inches wide at the
top, and about six inches at the bottom. It is essential to the eSiciency and durability of wooden
drains, that the sides be formed with a proper and regular slope from top to bottom. The small
trees — or '■ spars," as they are designated — are prepared for being put into the drain in the follow-
ing manner: A portion of the butt or thick end of each is sawn off for placing transversely in the
drain, about six inches above the bottom ; the breadth of the drain at this part may be assumed
at nine inches, in which case the length of the cross-bars will require to be about fifteen inches
so as to have three inches resting on each side. They are generally about four inches in diame-
ter, and are placed in the drains at intervals of four feet apart ; they are forced firmly into their
proper position by a few blows of a heavy mallet, the workman taking care that they are all in
the same plane or level. Any earth loosened from the sides in striking down the bars is, of course,
thrown out as the work is proceeded with. After the butt-ends of the trees (which are divested
of their branches in the wood) are severed, and placed transversely in the drains in the manner
just described, the remainder of them are laid longitudinally above the bars, three being com-
monly placed side by side, and covered with the branches and twigs, or with turf, heath, &c., pre-
vious to putting in the earth cast out in opening the drains. It is obvious that this method of
draining can be adopted with advantage only in situations where timber is convenient and cheap,
and when the subsoil is sufficiently cohesive to afford a proper support to the transverse bars of
wood; hence it is inadmissible in the case of boggj' lands. The putting in of the wood is accom-
plished in a very expeditious manner : two persons saw off the butts, and another places them in .
their proper position in the drain, after which the longitudinal spars are laid on as clo.sely as pos-
sible, with the top and butt-ends alternately in the same direction, so as to make them fit the bet-
(393) 30
306 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
and extensive obsei"vation of the state of the agricultural soil over a large
portion of the country — that this is the true cause of most of the had funn-
ing to be seen, and that not one farm is to be found throughout the king-
dom that would «o^ he much the better for draining. Entertaining this
opinion, you will not be surprised at my urging upon you to practice
draining, and of lingeiing at some length on the subject, that I may
exhibit to you the various modes of doing it, according to the peculiar cir-
cumstances in which your farm may be placed.
(G74.) To the experienced eye, there is little difficulty in ascertaining
the particular paits of fields which are more affected than others by su-
perfluous water. They may be detected under whatever kind of crop the
tield may bear at the time; for the peculiar state of the crop in those
ter. There is thus formed beneath the wood a channel for the passage of water, of aboat six
inches in width and the same in depth.
" Tlie cost of tliis mode of draining obviously depends much on the price of the ^vood employed.
In most parts of this county the spars used for the purpose are obtainable at from Is. to Is. 6d. per
dozen ; and it requires four dozen, averaging twenty feet in length, to do a hundred yards of drain.
Drains thus constructed have been known to last for a verj- long period ; on one farm the writer
has been assured that drains formed of wood in the manner just described have been in perfect
operation for more than tlurty years."
In a recent conversation with Mr. Hall, a clear-headed, practical farmer, near Lebanon, N. Y.,
he remarked that the practice of draining was extending with himself and neighbors, and, where
well executed, was attended with double the amount of produce previously obtained. %Ve are
indebted to a valued correspondent (one of his young and promising pupils) for the following note
on the system of draining pursued by Mr. Wilki.sso.s. of Dutchess county, N. Y. — one of those
farmers whom we are pleased to name as among those who bring their minda to reason and re-
flect on tlie principles involved in all their agricultural proceedings.
From a Corrtfpondcnt.
Dutchess Agbicttlturai. iNSTmrrE, Aug. 29, 1846.
Dear Sir : Havint; compared the system of under-draining practiced by Mr. Wilkinson, on the Institute
Farm, with that recommended in " Stephens's Book of the Farm,'' and also with that of many farmers of
this State— and being thoroughly convinced that his system is much better adapted to the wants of the
farmers of this country generally, on account of the convenience of construction, cheapness, utility, &c. — I
have been induced to eivc you this article for publiciaion in your Journal. The course he pursues is as
follows : In the first place, in laying out the ditches, he is careful to avoid too great a descent, that the force
of the water running in the ditch may not wash the sides or bottom of it, and thus carry the sediment to
some Bore level portion, where it may collect, and obstnict the water, and render the work valueless. —
After the ditch is staked out, he jilows with a common plow the width required and two furrows in depth,
shoveling out the loose earth each plowing. Then a pair of strong oxen are attached to a one-handled sub-
soil plow, tandem, in single yokes, by which the ditch is plowed to the depth required, which is varied ac-
cording to circumstances ; but the usual depth is from 2i to 3 feet, about 20 inches wide at the top, and 1
foot at the bottom. lie then commences the filling operation, by drawing small stones from where they
have been previously heaped for the occasion, or the scattering small stones from the adjacent lots. The
stones are drawn by oxen on a low, four-wheeled vehicle, which he calls a truck, or lumber<ar, which is
about 20 inches high — being a convenient hight fiir a man to stand beside it on the bank of the ditch, and
take the stones from the car and pass them to a man in the ditch, who places them by first paving the bot-
tom with those of a medium size, by setting them on the small end as closely as is convenient, selecting the
flat ones, or flags, and placing them next to the bank, to prevent it from caving. The largest are next used
and throwi. in promiscuously, taking gi-cat care not to throw them against the sides of the ditch. The
stone-work is then completed by leveling with the smallest ones that can be procured, not filling it nearer
than 1 foot from the surface, that the ground may be plowed and subsoilcd as well over the ditches as else-
where. Before filling in the earth, the stones are covered with pine shavings very lightly, which he obuina
from the sash-factory for tlie cartage.
The advantage in the use of shavings over straw, which is generally used, is that the straw entices the
ground-moles into the ditch ; they burrow in the stones, and dig through to the surface, which forms a
passage for surface-water directly among the stones, and will carry with it quantities of fine mould ; thui,
by frequent rains, the whole work is rendered valueless.
The filling in of the earth is done with a side-hill plow, the team traveling up and down on the bank of
earth, jtlowing a furrow into the ditch— which, Mr. W. says, faciliutes the work 300 per cent over the old
process of shoveling it in.
Where the stones arc convenient foi filling, and taking the average of soil for digging, he thinks his ditches
of the above dimensions, completed, cost about 35 cents per rod of 16| feet
(594)
DRAINING. 307
parts, when compared with the others, assists in determining the point.
There is a want of vigor in the plants ; their color is not of a healthy hue ;
their parts do not become sufficiently developed ; the plants are evidently
retarded in theii- progress to maturity ; and the soil upon which they grow
feels inelastic, or saddened under the tread of the foot. There is no mis-
taking these symptoms when once observed. They are exhibited more
obviously by the grain and gi-een crops, than by the sown grasses. In old
T)asture, the coarse, hard, uninviting appearance of the herbage is quite a
sufficient indication of the moistened state of the soil.
(675.) But there appearances of moistened land, which you may easily
observe without any pre-sdous tuition ; and these are most apparent in soil
after it has been plowed, and more apparent still in spring, in the month
of March, when the winds become dry and keen. Then you may observe,
m a dry day, large patches or stripes, or belts of black or dark-brown col-
ored soil, in the face or near the top of an acclivity, while the rest of the
field seems quite dry, of a light brown color ; or only small spots may be
observable here and there ; or the flat and hollow parts of the field may
be nearly covered with dark-colored soil. You cannot mistake these broad
hints of the lurking water below ; but, in a few weeks, they may all have
disappeared, or be reduced very much in extent, if the weather continues
dry, or have become more extended in rainy weather. In the case of
their disappearance in dry weather, you may conclude that any wetness
of the soil which passes off as the summer advances, can do no harm to
cultivated plants, and that the land, in such cases, does not require to he
drained. Such a conclusion would be very eiToneous : because it is on
account of the water remaining in the soil all vinter that the crops receive
injury in summer. The amount of wetness which you saw pass away first
in spring and then in summer, would have done no injury to the crops, fox-
it would be all absorbed, and probably more, in the wants of vegetation ;
but the wetness remaining in and occupying the pores of the soil and of
the subsoil all winter, render the soil so cold, that most of the summer's
heat is required to evaporate the superfluous moisture out of it, and, in
this very process of drying by evaporation, the heat is dissipated that
should be employed in nourishing the crops all summer. No doubt, when
the soil and subsoil are put into such a state as that the water that falls
upon the soil from the heavens during the winter, on being conveyed
quickly away in drains, does take away some of the heat from the soil,
but it cannot render it cold or sour. In such circumstances, the natural
heat of the weather in spring and summer would have nothing to do but
to push forward the growth of the crops to early maturity, lo fill them
more fully, and make them of finer quality. You thus see how concealed
water injures the soil in which it is retained, and you may easily conceive
how it may injure the drier soil around it, by its imbibing the water m
contact, by capillary attraction. You thus also see the kind of ground
that di-aining effects in soil so situated. Did the symptoms of wet in
spring rerfiain as obvious to your senses throughout the summer, you
would have no doubt of the land requiring draining ; but you may now
admit that you may be deceived by land showing even favorable symp-
toms of drouth. For all that you yet know to the contrary, water may be
lurking under what you imagine to be dry soil. Yes, and it does lurk to
a very great extent in this country, and will continue to lurk in humid
localities and impervious subsoils, until a vent is given to its egress.
(676.) The phenomenon of the dark spots on fields can be satisfactorily
explained. Where the surface of the land is at all permeable to water,
and where it rests on beds of different depths, of various lengths and
(595)
'.308 Tui: HOOK of the farm— winter.
breadths, and of diH'ureiit consistence, the water Bupnlied from rain or
snow is iiitiMTupti'd in its jirog^ress by the retentive beds, and l>ecome8 ac-
cumulated in llieni in laif^er or smaller quantities, according to their form
and capacity ; and, at leng^th, the supei-fluous ])ortion is poured from the
surcharged strata, and bursts over retentive beds througli the surface-soil
in the fjrm of land-springs, at a somewhat lower level. Such springs are
either concentrated in one place or diffused over a large extent of surface,
according as their outlet happens to be extensive or confined, and deep
draining is generally required to remove these ; for which purpose, deep
drains are cut througii alternate Iwds of retentive and permeable matter,
and penetiate into the very seats of the springs. It may happen, how-
ever, that the surfa«'e is as retentive as the subsoil, in which case the water,
not penetrating farther than the suiface-soil, has a free enough passage
l)etween the impervious subsoil and the loose soil ; this state of soil re-
quires mere surface-draining. Where the upjier soil is pervious, and the
subsoil uniformly and extensively retentive, water accumulates on the sub-
soil, to the injury of plants growing on the suiface-soil ; and to remove
water from such a situation, in>t deep but numerous drains are required
to give sufficient opportunities for it to pass away, and such drains are
usually formed in the furrows. Where the soil and subsoil are both po-
rous, the water passes quickly through them, and no draining is required
to assist it in flowing away, as the entire subsoil constitutes a universal
drain. In this state of soil, water is only held in it by capillary attraction,
and what is not so supported sinks down through the porous subsoil by its
OUT! gravity. Capillary attraction is quite capable of supporting and
bringing as much water through a permeable soil and subsoil, from rain
above and soui'ces of water from below, as is useful to vegetation, except-
ing, perhaps, under the extraordinaiy occurrence of excessive drouth ; and
of all the sources from which the soil derires its supplies of water, that
from springs is the coldest, most injurious to useful plants, and most per-
manent in its effects ; and hence it is that the abstraction of water from
the soil by draining does not necessarily interfere with it as a supporter
of plants, as a meliorator of the soil, as a menstruum for the food, as a
regulator of temperature to plants.
(677.) These states of water in the soil and subsoil indicate that a
knowledge of geology might confer a more perfect understanding of the
principles of draining; and, fortunately, practice in this department of ru-
ral economy has always been consistent with the facts of geology. But a
geological drainer is a character who has not yet made his appearance in
the world ; because no practical drainer or scientific geologist has yet ex-
plored that department of geology which is most useful to Agriculture, in
such a manner as to assist the art of draining. Most of our arable soils
are contained within the newest rock formations, the intricate relations of
which present almost insurmountable obstacles to such a knowledge of
them as to be useful in draining. The intricacy of their relations render
the operations of draining inicertain ; and this uncertainty, I fear, must
continue to exist, until the relations of the alluvial rocks are discovered
to be as unvarying as those of the more indurated. Perhaps a certainty
in the matter is unattainable, because the members of the alluvial forma-
tion may not present a strictly relative position to one another. Until the
fact, therefore, is ascertained one way or the other, draining must be con-
ducted, in a great measure, by trial or experiment ; and in all undertakings
on trial, error must be expected to ensue, and unnecessary expense incur-
red. An unfortunate circumstance, arising from this uncertainty, is the
comparative uselessness of the experience acquired in previous operations
(536;
DRAINING. 309
to guide the drainer himself and others, to the means of securing more cer-
tain results in their future efforts at draining. No drainer can affirm that
the number and depth, and even the direction, of the drains which h
chooses to adopt, are the best suited for drying the field he wishes to drain
nor can he maintain that exactly similar arrangements will produce ex
actly similar effects in the adjoining or in any other field, at a greater oi
shorter distance. Every experienced drainer will coincide with the just-
ness of these remarks, and deplore the uncertain nature of his operations ;
but, nevertheless, the satisfactory consolation is, that as long as he finds
draining, even as it is pursued, do good, so long he will continue to pi'ac-
tice it. Were geologists to make themselves acquainted with the prac-
tical details of draining, and then study that branch of geology which
would be of greatest service to draining, it is reasonable to hope that they
would confer lasting obligations on the drainer, not only by directing him
to a well-grounded certainty in his object, but by showing him how to
execute his art with greater simplicity. Were they also to direct particu-
lar attention to the relation that subsists, if any, between the suiface of
the earth's crust and the strata immediately subjacent, their investigations
might supply valuable materials for a correct nomenclature and classifica-
tion of soils.
(678.) You thus perceive that a bare recital of the various modes of
draining is not alone sufficient to make you an accomplished drainer ; for
you should know the principles as well as the practice of the art. The
principles can enly be acquired by a knowledge of geology, in as far as it
has investigated the structure of the alluvial rocks, which are within your
reach everywhere, and entii'ely within your power on your own farm to
investigate. This knowledge, even as it is yet known, is requisite ; for
any difficulty in draining is found not so much in constructing a drain —
most field-laborers can do that — as in knowing ivhcre to construct it ; and
a coiTect knowledge of whether the wetness in the land arises from natural
springs or from stagnant water under the surface of the soil, can alone di-
rect you to open the kind of drain required. So generally is the practical
pait of the operation diffused, that every manager of land conceives he
knows the whole subject of draining so correctly, that he will commence
his operations with the utmost confidence of success ; and this confidence
has caused much money to be expended in draining, that has in great part
been ill directed ; not but that its expenditure has done good, but that it
has not done neai'ly all the good that the means employed might have ef-
fected. Much money has thus been expended in many places in making
a few scattered deep drains, where a greater number of smaller ones would
have answered the purpose much better. A degree of success, however,
has attended every attempt at draining, and it is this circumstance, more
than any other, that has beguiled many into a belief that they are accom-
plished drainers ; for no one, unfit to direct the operation in a proper man
ner, would have attempted it at all, unless he had actually experienced in
jury from wet land ; or have attempted it again, unless his attempts had
partially, at least, I'emoved the injury ; though the results have not been
very successful. Were the efforts of ignorance in draining confined to the
squandering of money, they might be compensated for by superior roan
agement in the other operations of the farm ; but, unfortunately, the sink-
ing of valuable capital in injudicious draining cripples the means of the
farmer, and at the same time prevents his reaping all the advantages de-
rivable fi-om draining itself. Were draining an operation that could be
executed at httle cost and trouble, it would be of less importance to urge
its prosecution in the most effectual way ; but as it is an expensive opera-
(597)
310 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
tion, when conducted in the most economical manner, much consideration
should be given to the matter in all its bearings, before attempting to
break uj) ground for draining to any great extent. An examination of the
earth's crust, upon which you are to operate, is absolutely necessary to
direct your plans aright. Contemplate well, in the first place, the facts
which such an examination unfolds to your view, and endeavor by their
nature to acquire wisdom to expend your money with prudence as well as
skill. Examinations of the soil and subsoil will tell you what kinds re-
quire deep draining, and what kinds may be treated with eijual suc-
cess under a different nnangement. Inattention to such distinctions as
these has hitherto caused the inordinate application of one general prin-
ciple, which, as applicable to a particular system, must receive the as-
sent of every drainer who feels the importance of the art, but which,
nevertheless, is inapplicable to every case — I mean the system of deep
draining.
(679.) You may have observed, from what has been said, that there is
more than one species of draining ; there is one which draws off' large
bodies of water, collected from the discharge of springs in isolated portions
of ground ; and this is called deep or under-diainuig, because it intercepts
the passage of water at a considerable depth under the sui-face of the
gi'ound ; and there is another kind which absorbs, by means of numerous
channels, the superabundant water spread over extensive pieces of gi-ound
under the surface, and has been called surface-draining. This latter kind
of draining subdivides itself into two varieties, the one consisting of small
open channels formed on the surface of the ground in various directions
for the ready use of water flowing upon the land, and this is literally
surface-draining. The other is effected by means of small drains con-
stnicted at small depths in the gi'ound, at short distances from one another,
and into which the water as it falls upon the surface finds its way by its
own gravity through the loose soil, and by which it is discharged into a
convenient receptacle. But for those two species of surface-drains, the
water that falls from above would remain stagnant upon the retentive sub-
soil at the bottom of the plow-furrow. The former kind of surface-drain-
ing is called ^flw-cutting, so named from its resemblance to " a mark or
crack left in the soil by a stroke or pressure ; "* the latter kind derives its
name either from the locality which it occupies, or the aiTangement of its
lines. From its local position, it has been caWed fu rrow-d rain ing when it
occupies the open furrows of the ridges of a field, though it is not neces-
sary that such drains should always <K"Cupy the furrows. It has also been
called frequent-draining, from the circumstance of the water finding fre-
quent opportunities of escape ; but this name, though the original one, is
objectionable, inasmuch as the word may imply that the field requires
draining fre(iuently, which it certainly will not. From the anangement
of its lincH, it has also been ilenonmialcd para/lel-draining, on account of
the usual parallel position of the drains to one another ; and yet it is not
absolutely necessary to success that they shall be parallel to one another.
As by this kind of draining the land is thoroughly or effectually drained,
it has been most appropriately called thorough-draining ; and this term, as
a nomenclature, has the advantage of not committing the drainer to the
adoption of any particular form or position of drain, but only to that form
or position which rendeis land thoroughly diy. There are various other
modes of draining, such as wedge-draining, plug-draining, mole-draining,
each of which will receive consideration in due coui-se.
See Jamieson'a Scottish Dktionary. Goto.
(598)
DRAINING. 311
(680.) The most superficial mode of draining is that effected by open
ditches and gaic-ctits, into whicli the surface-water flows, and is carried off
to a distance to some river or lake. This mode of draining does not pro-
fess to interfere with any water that exists under the surface of the gi-ound,
farther than what percolates through the plowed fuiTow-slices, and makes
its way into the open fuiTows of the ridges. For the purpose of facilitat-
ing the descent of water into the open furrows, the ridges are kept in a
bold, rounded form ; and that the open furrows may be suitable channels
fur water, they are carefully water-furrowed, that is, cleared out with the
plow after the land has been otherwise finished off with a crop. The gaw-
cuts, small channels cut with the spade, are carefully made through every
natural hollow of the ground, however slight each one may be, and the
water-fuiTows cleared into them at the points of intersection. The gaw-
cuts are continued along the lowest head-ridge furrow, and cut across the
hollowest parts of the head-ridge into the adjacent open ditch. The recip-
ient ditch forms an important component part of this system of draining,
by conveying away the collected waters of the field of which it forms the
boundary, and for that purpose is made as much as 4 or 5 feet in depth,
with a proportional width. It is immediately connected with a larger open
ditch, which discharges the accumulated waters from a number of recipi-
ent ditches into the river or lake, or other receptacle which is taken ad-
vantage of for the purpose. The large ditch is from 6 to 10 feet in depth,
with a proporti(mal width, and, when conveying a full body of water in
vdnter, appears like a small canal. It is evident, from this description, that
this is a system of pure 57/r/rtc<'-drainage, and is only applicable to soils
that retain water for a long time on the surface, that is, on very tenacious
clays ; and, accordingly, it is extensively practiced in such districts as the
Carse of Gowrie, where it has been so for a very long period. The large
ditches there are called pows, which literally mean mires. The plowmen
of the Carse are accustomed to the spade, and are yearly employed, in the
proper season, in scouring out the smaller ditches, the larger ones being
only scoured occasionally. Whenever a heavy fall of rain occurs in win-
ter or spi-ing, they are employed in clearing out the gaws, and directing
the water as fast as possible off the land along the furrows. This opera-
tion is a necessary precaution in wet weather upon strong clay land, but
it constitutes a very imperfect system of draining, and sacrifices a large
extent of good surface-soil. It would be better, I think, if the Carse farm-
ers were generally to try the effect of covered drains, which would absorb
and can-y away surplus water equally well as open ones, and save much
time in scouring ditches, besides putting the soil into a fitter state to be
worked at any season than it can be done under the present system.
(681.) The drains which our forefathers made in loamy soils, resting on
a retentive bottom, were placed upon the subsoil immediately under the
upper soil, where that was deeper than the plow-furrow ; but as the ara-
ble portion of the soil, when it is quite of a different nature from the sub-
soil, is never very thick, the drains were necessarily placed at a small
depth ; and, the cut being so, experience would soon teach drainers the
impropriety of placing the materials which are used to fill a drain within
reach of the plow, which consisted of very few stones, often not exceeding
three, and those not of large size — one being placed on each side of the
cut, and another above them, forming a sort of conduit. These conduits
being not far from the surface, of small area, and not very numerous in
any one place, a small addition of water would cairy, and the moles would
force a little earth into them, sufficient to obstruct the flow of water in
them ; and, of course, any drain in that state would produce the very mi?»
(599)
312 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
chief it was intended to remedy. Such paltry drains have evidently been
formed on the notion that a simple conduit, placed between a porous soil
and retentive subsoil, is sufficient to render the soil permanently dry — a
notion the fallacy of which the drainere of the present day are well aware.
I have met with several such drains in the course of my draining opera-
tions, and they were completely choked up ; but on being opened, by the
cutting of the new drains, clear water flowed out of them for a considera-
ble time. They were all beyond the reach of the plow, in the manner in
which the land had been plowed from time immemorial ; but the plowing
had consisted of a mere skimming of 4 inches of the soil, and on this ac-
count the black mould immediately under the plow-track had been com
pressed by the sole of the ])low into a thin, shity crust, under which the
fine black virgin mould remained untouched, while the plowed surface had
become an effete powder by constant cropping.
(6S2.) Compared with this tnfling method, the system of under or deep-
draining, being the deepest method of any, is super-excellent. It is tech-
nically called Elkington's method, because it was first pi'oposed and prac-
ticed by Mr. Joseph Elkington, Princethoi-p, a farmer in Warwickshire,
so long ago as 1764. It is related that he discovered the mode of drain-
ing, which has since borae his name, by accident. His fields being very
wet, and rotting many of his sheep, he dug a trench 4 or 5 feet deep, with
the view of discovering the cause of the wetness. While he was deliber-
ating what was to be done, a servant passed by chance with an iron crow-
bar for fixing sheep-hurdles w-ith in the ground. Having a suspicion that
the drain was not deep enough, and desirous to know the nature of the
materials under it, he forced the bar 4 feet below the bottom of the trench,
and, on pulling it out, to his astonishment, a gieat quantity of water welled
up through the hole it made, and ran along the drain. He was led to in-
fer from this that large bodies of water are pent up in the bowels of the
earth, and are constantly injuring the surface soil, but which may be let
off by tapping with an auger or rod. This discoveiy produced a great
sensation at the time, and, in fact, introduced a complete revolution in^this
country in the art of draining. It sei-ved to establish draining on conect
principles. It was as much more effective a method than the old system,
in changing the quality of the soil, as blood-letting from a vein by the lan-
cet affects the constitution in a gi-eater degree than the topical application
of leeches. But this method soon underwent modifications in practice. —
Casting a drain and tapping with an auger to catch the spnng or bed of
water, as in the principle of Artesian wells, was the original plan ; but
when it was found that water did not in every case follow the auger, as it
would not when disseminated through a mass of earth, and not subjected
to altitudinal pressure, a modification of the plan was inevitable. It was
then attempted to run deep trenches through the lowest part of the damp
soil to the highest point where the sup})ly of water was supposed to be, or
where it made its appearance, and lead it away as it collected by percola-
tion through the soil and subsoil. In order to embrace the whole damp
soil of any locality in the drainage, lateral branches were projected on both
sides of the main branch, as far as the apparent dampness extended ; and,
not to omit the smallest extent of the damp soil, tributary branches were
sent off to short distances from the lateral ones. The different branches
were made of different sizes, according to the quantity of water which each
was supposed to have to convey away. This plan of drains, when project-
ed on the surface, looks like the trunk and branches of a tree in winter de-
prived of its leaves, and it might therefore be called the ramified or den-
dritic form. This is the plan that has been very extensively pursued since
(600)
DRAINING. 313
Elkington's time until about 1S24, since which another system has obtained
the preference. Many thousands of acres of land had been drained by that
method up to that time, and there is no doubt that the country has derived
much benefit from the system. I may mention the fact, as an incentive to
iaiportant discoveries, and as an instance of disinterestedness, that Elking-
ton willingly communicated all his practice to the late Mr. John Johnstone,
the eminent drainer, at the request of the Board of Agi-icultvire, through
whose influence the British Parliainent voted him a reward of d£ 1,000.*
(683.) It will much facilitate your conception of this system of draining,
if we consider, in the first place, the source from toldcli the loater that mars
the cultivated soil is derived. When water is evaporated by heat from the
sea and land, and conveyed in vapor into an elevated part of the atmo-
sphere, and there retained in an invisible form by the agency of electricity,
it remains in that state until a change takes place in the electric equilibri-
um, when the vapor becomes visible in the form of clouds, which, then be-
coming independent bodies, become at the same time subject to the laws
of physical attraction. Being attracted by the mountains, which are the
highest features of the terrestrial portion of the globe, they come into con-
tact with them, give out part of their caLoric to them, and, ultimately dis-
solving, descend upon them in the shape of fog, or rain, or snow. Hence,
as you have already seen (324), rain falls much more plentifully upon the
mountains than the plains. The rain, as it falls upon the mountains, is ab-
sorbed at once by the soil which covers them, and, when it cannot contain
any more, the surplus water flows away, and forms streams and rivers. —
The portion of water retained by the mountain soil undergoes a very dif-
ferent fate. It is conveyed by its own gravity chiefly, and partly by their
capillary attraction, among the mineral strata of which the mountain mass
is composed, and continues to seek its way through them until, reaching a
point beyond which it meets with no resistance, it comes forth to the day
in the shape of a strong spring or springs, or, diffused over the whole sur-
face of the mineral mass, it spreads over a large extent of ground. These
different destinations of the same water are occasioned by a difference in
the nature and positions of the geological formations of the mountain mass.
For example, if the whole rising gi'ound, from its base to the summit, is
spread over with a saddle-shaped covering of tenacious clay, the water will
slide down its face, under the vegetable coating of the surface, as far as
the clay descends, which may be to the plain below. This vegetable cov-
ering will be pemianent gi-ass, if the elevation of the gi'ound is not great ;
or it will be heath and mosses, if the elevation exceed such a hight as that
the mean annual temperature of the air around it does not exceed 40° Fah-
renheit ; or it may be mould capable of supporting cultivated crops. Thus,
in fig, 143, a is the clay over the hill; if rain fall on a, it will descend on
Fig. 143.
THE ORIGIN OF SPRINGS ON A UNIFORM TENACIOUS SURFACE.
* See Sinclair'g Code of Agriculture, notes.
(601)
314
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
the one side to d and on the other to f, and, if the temperature of this re-
gion is under 40^, d ef will form the region of heatli and mosses. The
water will still pass from d to c, which is the region of permanent pasture,
and it will continue to flow to the plains, tf» / under c b, and to k nnilevf g.
The vegetable mould may be traced from b by c, d, e and J", to g. Should
the subsoil between the mould b and the clay / be also retentive, tlien the
water will appear at the surface at c, and affect all the space from c to b ;
but, should the subsoil from k to g be porous, then the water will continue
to flow from y upon the clay /i, and not afi'ect the surface-mould ^g.
(684.) Should the mountain, however, consist oi concentric layers nf dif-
ferent rucks arranged mantle-shaped around it, then tlie water will de-
scend between the lines of junction of the rocks ; and should the masses
or beds of rock be of different extents, and thickness, and consistence,
which is probable, then the water will either appear at the surface of the
gi'ound as a spring, from the subjacent rock of a close texture, or it will
descend yet lower, and be absorbed by the subjacent rock of a porous tex-
ture. In this manner, the harder rocks cause the springs to appear at a
high elevation, while the porous ones convey the water to a lower level,
until it meets with a resisting substance to cause it to come to the day. In
any case the farmer cannot do anything until the water indicates its pres-
ence on the surface of the ground, either at a high or low elevation ; and
then he should take measures accordingly to remove it,
(685.) To illustrate the cases now alluded to, suppose fig. 144 to repre-
Fig. 144.
'^^r^.;v^:.
THE ORIGIN OF SPRINGS ON A VARIED SURFACE.
sent a hill composed of different rocks of different consistence. Suppose
the nucleus rock a to be of close texture, when the rain falls upon the
summit of the hill, which is supposed not to be covered with impervious
clay as in the case above, but with vegetable mould, the rain will not be
absorbed by a, but will pass down by gravity between a and b, another
kind of rock of close texture. When the rain falls in greater quantity
than will pass between these rocks, it will overflow the upper edge of b and
pass over its surface down to c, but as c is a continuation of the nucleus
impervious rock a, a large spring will flow down the side of the hill from
c and render the ground quite wet to d, where meeting another large stra-
tum of impervious rock, it will burst out to-day a large spring at d, which
will be powerful in proportion to the quantity of rain that falls on the
mountain. On flowing do^vn b, part of the water will be intercepted by
(602;
DRAINING. 315
the rocks j and g, both of which being porous, will absorb and retain it
unlil surcharged. The surplus water meeting with the impei-vious rock e,
will be partly thrust out to-day along the black line d h on the one hand,
and d i on the other, when the whole line k i will present a long dark
line of wet oozing out of the soil, with the spring d in the center, and
which darkness and dampness will extend down the inclined ground as
far as the upper line Ic I of that porous stratum of rock. Pait of the water
absorbed by the porous rocks /"and g will be conveyed under the imper-
vious rock e, and come out at their lowest extremities, following the curved
dotted lines h d and d i, and continue to flow on until it reaches the low-
est extremity of e in the dotted line k I, where it will be absorbed by the
porous rock m.
(686.) By such an aiTangement of rocky strata on the side of a moun
tain range, will be exhibited specimens of both wetness and dryness of
soils. The summit a will be wet, and so will the surface of h, but the sur-
faces ofyand g will be dry. Again, the surface of e will also be wet, but
less so than that of b, because part of the water is conveyed by f and g
under e to the dry stratum k I, which being probably thicker, and, at all
events, of gi-eater extent, will be drier than either f or g. On another
side of the side of the hill another result will take effect. The rain falling
on the summit a will descend between a and n, as far as the lowest ex-
tremity of n along the dotted line o jJ, which being under the impervious
rock e, the water will continue to flow out of sight until it descends to k I,
where it will be absorbed by the porous rock m, and thus never appear at
all either as a spring or a line of dampness. But should the quantity of
rain at any time be greater than what will pass between a and n, it will
overflow n and be absorbed in its descent by the porous rock f, which,
after becoming surcharged, will let loose the superfluous water in the line
h r, upon the continuation of the rock n, part of which will come to-day
along the line A o of the impei'vious rock e, and part conveyed down by o
p to the porous rock k I, where it will be absorbed. Thus, on this side of
the hill, as long as little rain falls, none but its summit will be wet, and all
the rest will be dry, though the surfaces of y and k will always be drier
than those of n or e ; but after heavy rains dampness will show itself
along the line h r, will extend itself even to the line of k I, should the rain
continue to fall some time.
(687.) The line s by the summit a to iJ is the mould line pervious to
moisture, and which is here represented as is frequently exhibited in na-
ture, namely, a thickness of soil on the southern side of the hill as from a
to i, and a thickness of soil on the northern basis, as from r to *; but a
thinness of soil on the southern face, as fi'om a to r. It is not pretended
that this figure is a truly geological portrait of any mountain. Perhaps
no such aiTangement of strata actually exists in any single hill, but such
overlying and disconnected but conterminous strata do occur over extend-
ed districts of hilly country which produce springs much in the way just
described. Similar courses of water occur in less elevated districts, though
it I'emains more hidden under the deeper alluvial rocks.
(688.) Now let us apply Elkington's method of draining to these two
cases of wetness, and which are of ordinary occurrence. The hill in fig.
143 being supposed to be covered saddle-shaped with an impervious stra-
tum of clay, no water can descend into it, but will flow over it : a is the
clay stratum ; h also an impervious stratum, but not so much so as a, con-
taining veins of sand and nodules of stones, and forming a very common
subsoil of this country. It is clear that the whole extent of ground from
e to b will be wet on the surface, and the wetness will not exhibit itself
(603)
316 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
in bands, but be diffused in a uniform manner over the whole surface ; but
as b, in this case, is not so tenacious as a, the side of the hill fiom c ta c
will always be wetter than the flat ground fiom c to i, because some of the
water will l)e absorbed and kept out of sight in the looser clay b. The
only method of intercepting the large body of water in its descent down
d is to cut the deep drain at c, not only sufficiently large to contain all the
water that may be supplied from above c, but so deep as to catch any
oozing of water from a toward h. ^Vhat the depth of this drain should
be it is not easy to detennin6 without farther investigation, and to enable
that investigation to be made, a large drain should lie cut on the flat ground
in the line from b to c, which will also answer the pui-pose of leading away
the water that will be collected by the transverse drain c. Suppose the
subsoil from b to i is 4 feet thick, then this leading drain should be made
^ foot deeper, namely 4i feet, in order that its sole may be placed in im-
pervious matter ; and in this case the drain c, of the depth of 6 feet, may
suffice to keep the flat ground dry. But if from b to / is S or 10 feet in
depth, then it would be advisable to make the leading drain from i to c at
least 6 feet deep, in order to drain a large extent of ground on each side
of it, and the drain c may still do at its former depth, namely 6 feet.
Should the bottom of the leading drain get softer and wetter as the cut-
ting descends, its depth should either be earned down to the solid day at
i, or perhaps it would be well to try auger holes in the bottom, with the
view of ascertaining whether the subjacent water might not rise to and
flow along it. The expedient of boring will be absolutely necessary if the
depth from b to i decreases as the distance from the hill increases, for
there would be no other way of letting off" the water from the basin of the
clay from i to c. Should the flat ground be of considerable extent, or
should the face of the plain undulate considerably from right to left, a
leading drain will be required in every hollow ; and each of them should
be made deeper or shallower according as the subsoil is of a drawing tex-
ture or otherwise, Viearing in mind that the sole of the drain should, if pos-
sible, rest upon an impervious substance, otherwise the water will escape
through the pervious matter, and do mischief at a lower level. The sub-
soil between g and h being supposed to be giavel or other porous sub-
stance, it is clear that no drain is required aty to protect the soil between
f and g, as the porous subsoil will absorb all the water as it descends from
(689.) As to the wet surface of the hill itself c d e f,\t being composed
of imper^'ious clay, must be dried on the principle of surface-draining ;
that is, if the ground is in permanent pasture for the support of sheep, a
number of transverse open sheep drains should be made across the face
of the hill, and the water from them conveyed in open ditches into the
great drain c ; or if the ground is under the plow, small covered drains
will answer the purpose best ; and the contents of these can be emptied
into the large drain r, and conveyed down the large leading drain to b.
Thus, in fig. 145, a b is the main drain along the flat ground into which
the large drains c b and d b flow. It may be observed here that when
one large drain enters another, the line of junction should not be at right
angles, but with an acute angle in the line of the flow of .water, as at b.
The open surface-drains in permanent pasture exhibit the form as repre-
sented in this figure, where the leaders c f?LX\(i g h are cut with a greater
or less slope down the hill according to the steepness of the acclivity, and
the feeders across its face nearly in parallel rows, into their respective
leaders. In this way the water is entirely intercepted in its descent down
the hill. I may mention that where small drains enter larger, they should
(604)
DRAINING.
317
not on)y enter with an inclination, as remarked above, but where they
come from opposite sides, as in this case, they should enter at alternate
distances, as seen in the case of the three drains above^ and not as shown
Fig. 145.
A PLAN OF SHEEP DRAINS ON A HILL OF IMPERVIOUS SUBSOIL
in the fourth and fifth drains. The large drain c h d may either be left
open or covered. Should it form the line of separation between arable
ground and permanent pasture, it may be left open, and serve to form a
fence to the hill-pasture ; but should the entire rising ground be under the
plow, this, as also the main drain a b, and all the small drains, should be
covered.
(690.) There are various loays of maTcing small drains in grass. One
plan is to turn a fuiTow-slice down the hill with the plow, and make the
furrow afterward smooth and regular with the spade. When the grass is
smooth and the soil pretty deep, this is an economical mode of making
such drains, which have received the appellation of sheep drains. But
where the grass is rough and strong, and swampy places numerous, the
plow is apt to choke with long grass accumulnting between the coulter
and beam, and makes very rough work, and the horses are apt to over-
strain themselves in the swampy ground. The lines of the drains should
all be previously marked off with poles before the plow is used.
(691.) A better though more expensive plan, is to form them altogether
with the spade. Let a, fig. 146, be a cut thrown out by the spade, 9
Fig. 146.
AN OPEN SHEEP DRAIN 0.\ GRASS.
inches wide at bottom, 16 inches of a slope in the high side, and 10 on
the low, with a width of 20 inches at top on the slope of the surface of the
ground. A large turf h is removed by the spade, is laid on its grassy side
downward, on the lowest lip of the cut, and the rest of the earth is placed
(605) ^ ^
318 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
at its back to hold it up in a firm position, the shovelings being thrown
over the top to finish the bank in a neat manner. Such a drain catchea
all the water that descends in the space between it and the drain above,
and leails it away t-o the sub-main drain, such as e f or g h, which is of
similar construction, but of larger dimensions, running up and down the
hill, and the lower end of which finds an entrance into the laige main
drain at the margin of the arable land.
(G92.) Another sort of sheep-drain is formed as represented in fig. 147.
A cut is made G inches wide at bottom, 16 inches deep, and 18 inches
wide at top. The upper turf a is taken out whole across the cut, as deep
as the spade can wield it. Two men will
take out such a turf better than one. It ^ ^'8- i<7.
is laid on iss grassy face upon the higher
side of the drain, and the earth pared
away from the other side with the spade,
leaving the turf of a trapezoidal shape.
While one man is doing this, the other is
casting out with a narrow spade the bot-
tom of the cut b. The earth and shovel- n.w
ing should be spread abroad over the f^'/}
gi-ass ; and the large turf a then replaced
in its natural position, and tramped down,
thereby leaving an open space b below it ^ covered sheep drai.v in grass.
for the water to pass along. This is not
so permanent a form of sheep drain as the last, nor is it at all suitable in
pasture where cattle graze, as they would inevitably trample down the
turf to the bottom of the drain. It is also a temptation for moles to run
along ; and when any obstiiiction is occasioned by them or any other bur-
rowing animal, the part obsti-ucted cannot be seen until the water over-
flows the lower side of the drain, when the turfs have again to be taken
up, and the obstruction removed. It forms, however, a neat drain, and
possesses the advantage of retaining the surface whole where sheep alone
are grazed. Figs. 146 and 147 are drawn on a scale of -^^ inch to 2 inches.
(693.) Having described the various modes of pure *?///}/cc-draining,
and traced the ongin of springs, immediately connected with which arises
the necessity for the sheep drains just described, I shall now proceed to
you the drcp, or Elkington's method of draining, which is peculiarly well
adapted for draining isolated hollow sjiots of ground. These are usually
formed by water standing in winter on an impervious clay subsoil, the
water being either entirely derived fi-om rain — in which ca.se the pool be-
comes dry in summer — but most frequently partly from rain, and partly
from springs in the subjacent strata fed from a higher source. Such pools
are drained either by boring holes through the imper\"ious clay into a
porous stratum below — should such a sti'atum exist — or by a deep drain,
having an efflux at a lower level.
(694.) I shall give you an account of the successful draining of such a
pool. It was covered with water in winter to the extent of about 2 acres,
in the center of a field of 25 acres ; and though no water was visible in
summer, its site was always swampy. It obtained the name of the " Duck-
mire," wild ducks being in the habit of frequenting it every season. On
taking a level from its water, it was found that a drain of 10 feet in depth
would be required to carry it away in a 2^-feet-deep drain through the
pool. The outlet was on the top of a clay-bank about 150 yards distant
from the nearest margin of the pool, rising peqiendicularly 40 or 50 feet
above the bed of a small river, and was the nearest point for a fall from
(60€)
DRAINING. 319
the pool. The operations were performed in summer, when the pool was
comparatively dry. The deep cut of 10 feet was first executed ; and to
render it ever after secure, a conduit of 9 inches in width by 12 inches in
hight was built and covered with land-stones obtained from the field by
trench-plowing, above which about 2 feet of stones were placed and cov-
ered with turf before the earth was returned into the deep cut. The con-
tinuation of the main drain was carried right through the center of the
pool, where it could only be formed 30 inches deep, in order to preserve
the requisite fall. Another drain, of 3 feet in depth, encircled the area
of the pool a little above the water-mark, and was let by each end into
the main drain. Both these drains were made 9 inches wide at bottom,
to contain a coupled duct of 4 inches in width ; and filled with small round
stones, admirably adapted for the purpose, none exceeding the size of a
goose's egg, gathered from the surface of the field. The stones were
blinded with withered wrack, and the earth returned above them, first
with the spade and then with the plow. The pool was at once deter-
mined to be drained in this manner, because the high bank of clay above
the river — and which formed the entire subsoil of the field — forbade any
attempt at boiing to a porous sti-atum below.
(695.) But a difficulty occurred in passing the drain through the center
of the pool, which was not foreseen. A complete quicksand was met with,
the bottom of which, resting on the clay, was much below that of the deep
cut. To have effectually drained the quicksand, the cut should have been
made at least 13 feet in depth ; so that about 2 feet deep of quicksand
were obliged to be left beneath the drain ; and how to construct a lasting
drain upon such a foundation, was a puzzling thing, as the wet sand
thrown out by the spade was followed by larger quantities sliding down
from each side of the drain, and filling up the emptied space.
(696.) It is here worthy of remark, that I committed a mistake in not
ascertaining the existence of the quicksand, and of its depth, before begin-
ning to cast the deep main drain ; for I had only thought of making such
an outlet as would enable me to make a drain of such a depth through the
center of the pool as would drain it ; whereas I ought to have ascertained
in the first place, the nature of the strata under the pool, which would
have made me acquainted with the depth of the quicksand ; and the drain
and outlet should then have been made of the depth to deprive the quick-
sand entirely of its water. However, as matters were, I was obliged to
do the best to form a drain in the quicksand, and this was found to be a
rather troublesome operation. Thick tough turfs were provided, to lay
upon the sand in the bottom of the drain, and upon these were laid flat
stones, to form a foundation on which to build a conduit of stones, having
an opening of 6 inches in width and 6 or 7 inches in hight. The back of
the conduit, when building, was completely packed with turf, to prevent
the sand finding its way into it from the sides of the drain ; and the pack-
ing was continued behind the few small rubble stones that were placed
over the cover of the conduit. A thick covering of turf was then laid over
the stones, so that the whole stones of the drain were completely encased
in turf, before the earth was returned upon them. The filling up was en-
tirely executed with the spade, in case the trampling of the horses should
have displaced any of the stones ; but these extraordinary precautions
were only used as far as the quicksand was found to be annoying. After
all the drains were finished, a large quantity of water flowed out of the
main drain during the succeeding autumn and winter ; but by spring the
land was quite dry, the blue unctuous clay forming the bottom of the pool
became friable, and on the soil and subsoil being intermixed by deep
(607)
320 THE BOOK OF THE FAIIM WINTER.
plowing, the new and fresh soil, with projier management, ever after bore
fine luxuriant crops.
(607.) A 12-acre field of good, deep land on the farm of Frenchlaw, in
Berwickshire, was rendered swampy l)y springs and oozings of water from
the suiTuunding rising ground being retained upon the clay subsoil. A
4-feet drain was formed all round the base of tlie rising ground, immedi-
ately above the line of wet, and several drains of 3 feet in depth were run
through the flat part of the field. The outlet was obliged to be cut through
a part of a field on the adjoining farm to the depth of 13 feet, conduited
and covered over. The swampiness of the ground was completely re-
moved, and the crops ever afi:er were excellent.
(698.) Another application of Elkington's system may be successfully
made in draining the springs or oozings of water around gravelly eminences
standing isolated in single Jields, or across more than one fuld, vpon a bed
of clay or other impervious matter. A circumvallation of drain around the
base of the eminence, begun in the porous and carried into the iniper>'iou8
substance, having a depth of perhaps from 5 to 7 feet, and connected with
a main drain along the lowest quarter of the field, will most effectually dry
all the part of it that was made wet by the springs or oozings.
(699.) Bogs and marshes have been drained with great effect by Elking-
ton's method. These almost always rest on basin-shaped hollows in clay ;
and, when this is of considerable depth, the only way of draining them is
by bringing up a deep cut from the lowest ground, and passing it through
the dam-like barrier of clay. But it not unfrequently happens that gravel
or sand is found at no great depth below the clay on \yhich bogs rest ; in
which case, the most ready and economical plan is to bore a hole or holes
in the first instance through the clay, with an auger 5 inches in diameter;
and, after the water has almost subsided, to finish the work by sinking
wells through the clay, and filling them up with small stones to within 2
feet of the top.
(700.) I have never seen an instance of the draining of bog by boring or
by wells ; but the late Mr. George Stephens, land-drainer, instances two
or three cases of bogs being successfully drained in Sweden by means of
bore-holes and wells in connection with drains ; and the late Mr. Johnstone
adduces many as successful instances in this country.*
(701.) I have seen extensive and successful effects of drying bogs in Ire-
land by ordinary drains, especially Carrick Bog, at Castle Rattan, belong-
ing to Mr. Featherstonehaugh, in the county of Meath. The plan consists
of dividing the bog into divisions of 60 yards in breadth, by open ditches
of 4 feet in depth and 4 feet wide at top, allowance being made for the
sliding in of the sides and subsidence by drying, and which movements
have the effect of considerably diminishing the size of the drains ; and these
ditches are connected by parallel drains at right angles 3 feet 3 inches in
depth, and 18 inches in width. Fig. 148 is a plan of these drains, where
a are the large ditches and b the small drains. The ditch a at the bottom
is that which takes away all the water to some large ditch, river, or lake.
The fall in the ditches and drains is produced by the natural upheavins: of
the moss above the level of the circumjacent jrround, and, of course, this
peculiarity causes all the drainage of the boqr to flow toward the land.
(702.) The small drains h, fig. 148, are made in this manner: A ffartlen
line is stretched at right angles across the division from the large open
drain a to a, 60 yards. The upper rouffh turf is rutted in a peqiendicular
direction along the line with a short edging-iron. The line is then shifted
* 3ee Stephens's Practical Irrigator and Dniinor. edition of \9'M : and Johnstone's Systematic TYeatiBO
on Drainina. 4to edition of 1834 — both excellent works on the subject of deep drainins.
(608; *^ "
DRAINING.
321
18 inches, the width of the top of the drain, and another rut is made by
the edging-iron. While one man is employed at this, another cuts out a
Fig. 148.
4. PLAN OF DRAINS FOR BOGS A3 PRACTICED IN IRKLA.VD.
thick turf across the drain with the broad-mouthed shovel, fig. 149 ; and,
if any inequalities or niggedness are observed in the wet turf, he makes
them smooth and square with a stroke or two with the back of the shovel.
The drain is thus left for two months to allow the water to run off, the moss
to subside, and the turf to dry and harden.
(703.) At the end of that time the long edging-iron, fig. 150, is employed
to cut down the sides of the drain in a perpendicular direction 2 feet 3
inches (see fig. 153), and the flat shovel is also again employed to cut the
moss into square turfs, which in this case are not thrown out with the
shovel — as on account of their wet state they cannot remain on its clear,
wet face, when used so far below the hand — but are seized by another
man with the small graip, fig. 151, and thrown on the surface to dry. The
Fig. 149. Fig. 150. Fig. 151.
THE BROAD-MOUTHED SHOVEL. THE LONG EDGINO-IRON. THE SMALL GRAIP.
work is again left for two months more, to allow time for the water to
drain off, and the turfs to dry and harden.
(609) .
.»1
322
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
(704.) In tliese four months the moss subsides about 1 foot. After the
two spits of the shovel, the longest edging-iron is again employed to cut
down the last spit, which is done by leaving a shoulder ce, 5 inches broad,
on each side of the drain, fig. 153. The scoop, fig. 152, is then employed
Fig. 13J.
THE Boo DKAtN SCDOP.
to cut under the last narrow spit, which \a removed ircrvn its position by
the small graip. The scoop pares, dresses and finishes the nanow bottom
of the drain, with a few strokes with its back, making the duct d 1 foot
deep.
(705.) The filling of the drain is performed at this time, and it is done
in this manner. The large tui-f Z», fig. 153, which
was first taken out, and is now dry, is lifted by
the hand and placed, grass side undermost, upon
the shoulders e e of the drain, and tramped firmly
down with the feet. The second large turf a,
which is not so dry or light as the first, is lifted
by the giaip and put into the middle of the
drain, and the long, naiTpw stripes of turf c e
separated by the scoop from the bottom, along
with other broken pieces, are also placed by the
graip along both sides and top of the drain, and
all the sods just fill up the subsided drain.
(706.) Fig. 153 represents the drain thus fin-
ished, which is well suited for the drying of bog,
and in its construction possesses the advantage
of having all the materials for filling it upon tlie
spot. It is a well-known property of dried moss
that it resists the action of water with impunity,
and the mode just described of making drains
affords ample time for the drying and hardening
of the turfs cast out of the drains ; but it is not
requisite for the efllciency of the turfs that they
be dried, as they answer the same purpose quite
well in a wet state ; but the time allowed for the subsidence of the moss
itself is a great advantage to the drain, such materials being never again
disturbed in a subsided ])()g drain. A bog drain requires no other materi-
als, such as wood or tiles, to fill it, there being no material so appropriate
or more durable than the moss itself, the sliglitest subsidence in the drain
destroying the continuity of the soles and tiles, whether uf wood or clay,
while those made of the latter substance will gravitate in the moss by their
(610)
THE SHOLLDEKED BOO DRAIN.
DRAINING. 323
own weight. To expedite the subsidence of the moss, the cutting of the
drains is most successfully practiced in summer, when the drouth not only
dries the turfs, but gets quit of a large proportion of the water by evapo-
ration. The scale of this figure is 1 to 2 inches, or ^ inch to 1 foot.
(707.) These are all the cases, as I conceive, in which Elkington's meth-
od of draining can be applied, and even in them all it will not be attended
with certain success, certainly not with equal success. I have frequently
made lines of drains across the spouty sloping faces of fields, to the depth
of even 6 feet, and never less than 4, without drying more than the breadth
which they covered. In these cases I considered the cost of making them
just thrown away ; while in other cases 4-feet drains have completely re-
moved the spouts, though the subsoil was apparently identically the same
in them all. It is possible that the small veins of sand which were inter-
sected by the cutting might, in the unsuccessful cases, dip away from the
drains, and the water in them had perhaps ceased to flow in the same di-
rection after their bisection, and in the successful cases the sand veins may
have dipped with even a more favorable inclination for dischai'ging their
contents into the drains. AVliatever difference of distribution there might
have been in the component parts of the sti-ata, in these opposite cases,
there is little doubt that it was not sufficiently great to be indicated on the
surface of the gi'ound ; and it is questionable that even the most minute
investigation of apparently similar veins of sand, in similar strata, would
acquaint us with their real positions, as it is not impossible that the most
trifling difference in the relative positions of such veias may produce very
different effects upon the course of the water in the subsoil.
(708.) It is now necessary to describe to you the mode to be adopted in
forming drains on Elkington's method. Before determining on the direc-
tion in which the lines of drains should run in the field proposed to be
drained, it has been recommended to sink pits here and there, of such di-
mensions as to allow a man to work in them easily, and to a depth which
will secure the exposure of the subjacent strata and the greatest flow of
water, the depth var\4ng perhaps from 5 to 7 feet. A previous examina-
tion of the underground is certainly requisite, and pits will certainly ac^
quaint you with the arrangement of the substrata ; and, had I pitted the
bottom of the pool, the drainage of which I have described above (696),
the depth of the quicksand would have been easily ascertained, and the
main drain made commensurate with the cii'cumstances of the case. But
I agree with the late Mr. Wilson, of Cumledge, Berwickshire, that the
driving of lines of drains from the bottom to the top of the field is the most
satisfactory method of obtaining an enlarged -sdew of the disposition of the
subjacent sti-ata, and, of course, of the depth to which the drains should be
sunk.* Such lines of drains will not be useless ; on the contrary they will
form the outlets of the system of drains connected with each of them, and
for that purpose they should be made in the lowest parts of the field.
(709.) Having thus ascertained the nature of the undergi'ound, the lines
of the drains which run across from the mains should be marked off. This
can be done by dra^ving a furrow-slice along each line ; but a neater plan,
and one which vrill not spend the time of horses at all, is to set them off
by means of short stakes (Riven into the ground, or, if the field is in gi'ass,
by small holes made in the ground with three or four notches of the spade,
and the turf turned over on its grassy face beside each hole.
(710.) It is very desirable that the stones for filling the drains should be
laid down along the lines in the order the drains are to be opened up, not
* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. vii.
(611)
J24 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
only on account of having them at hand when the filling process is to com-
mence, and of thereby, perhaps, saving the labor of throwing out the earth
diat may have fallen down from the sides of the drain, when waiting for
the stones, and of pi*ocuring additional stones for filling up the spaces thus
enlarged, but of saving the horses much trouble in backing and forwarding
the cart on the ground when it is necessarily much confined at the side of
an opened drain. The stones should be laid down on the upper or higher
side of the ground, if there be one, that the earth from the drain may be
thrown upon the lower side.
(711.) Suppose that it has been determined to make the drains 6 feet
deep. For this depth a width at top of 30 inches, and one at bottom of 18
inches, will be quite sufficient for the puq)08e of drainage, and for room
to men to work in easily. This ])articular, in regard to the dimensions of
the contents of a drain, should always be kept in view when cutting one ;
aa even a small unnecessary addition either to the depth or width, and es-
pecially to both, of a deep drain, makes a considerable difference in the
quantity of matter to be thrown out, and, of course, in the quantity of stones
required for again filliiig up the excavated space. A simple calculation
will at once show you the great difference there is in the contents of a
drain a little wider and narrower than another ; and the difference is much
greater than you would imagine at first sight. A drain of the above di-
mensions— namely, of 6 feet deep, 2i feet wide at top, and 1^ feet at bot-
tom— gives an area by a vertical section of 22^ square feet, and, in a rood
of 6 yards in length, a capacity of 405 cubic feet ; whereas a drain of 6 feet
Jeep, 3 feet wide at top, and 2 feet wide at bottom, as recommended in a
particular instance by the late Mr. Stephens,* would give a vertical section
of 36 square feet, and a capacity of 644 cubic feet, creating more than 50
per cent, of additional work. And you should bear in mind that, provided
the parts of a drain are substantially executed, its icidth, beyond that which
will secure efficacy, cannot render it more eflficacious. The rule for the
width of a drain is very well determined by the ease with which men are
able to work at the bottom ; and, indeed, men working by the piece, when
their work is me<isured longitudinally, will always prefer naiTow to wide
drains.
(712.) The cutting of drains should always be contracted for at so much
per rood of 6 yards. The size of drain which I have just recommended
(711) may be cut for from Is. 6d. to 28. per rood, according to the hardness
or other difficulties of removing the subsoil. Where clay i3 very hard and
dry, or very spongy, tough and wet, or where many boulders interfere, the
larger sum is not too much ; but where the subsoil can be loosened with
ordinary picking, and is mixed with small sand veins and stones, the smallet
sum will suffice. In such a contract, it should always be understood that
the first portion of the earth in the refilling shall be returned into the drain
by the contractor, and that he shall provide himself with all the tools ne-
cessary for the work.
(713.) The first operation in breaking ground is to stretch the garden
line for setting off the width of the top of the drain, 30 inches — the drain
being begun at the lowest part of the ground — and each division thus lined
off consists of about 4 roods, or 24 yards. Three men are the most effi-
cient number for carrying on the most expeditious cutting of drains. —
While the principal workman is rutting off the S(;cond side of the top of
the drain with the common spade, the other two begin to dig and shovel
out the mould-earth, face to face, throwing it upon the lower and opposite
* Prize Essays of the Ilisblnnil and AgricuIturRl Society, vol. tu.
(612)
DRAINING.
325
side from the stones. The first spit of the spade most hkely removing all
the mould, the first man commences the picking of the subsoil with the
foot-pick, fig. 37 ; or, if the mould is too deep to be removed by one spit,
and requires no picking, the first man digs and shovels out the remainder
of it by himself with the spade. The mould is thus all removed from the
lined-off break or division of the drain. When the picking commences,
one man uses the foot-pick, working backward ; another follows him with
his back with a spade, and digs out the picked earth ; while the contractor
comes forward with the shovel, fig. 38, with his face to the last man, and
takes up all the loose earth, and trims the sides of the drain. In this way
the first spit of the subsoil is removed. Should the drain prove very wet,
and danger be apprehended of the sides falling in, the whole division
should be taken out to the bottom without stopping, in order to have the
stones laid in it as quickly as possible. Should the earth have a tendency
to fall in before the bottom is reached, short, thick planks should be pro-
vided, and placed against the loose parts of both sides of the drain, in a
perpendicular or horizontal position, according to the form of the loose
earth, and there kept firm by short stakes acting as wedges between the
planks on both sides of the drain, as represented in fig. 154, where a a ar«
Fig. 154.
THR POSITION OF PLANKS AND WEDGES TO PREVENT THE SIDES OF DRAINS FALLING IN.
the sides of the drain, d planks placed perpendicularly against them, and
kept in their places by the short stake or wedge c, and where /are planka
placed horizontally and kept secure by the wedges e e.
(714.) But if the earth in the drain be moderately dry and firm, another
division of 4 roods may be lined off at top, and the subsoil removed as lov»
as the depth of the former division. Before proceeding, however, to line
off a third division, the first division should be cleared out for the builder
of the conduit. The object of this plan is to give room to separate tb<»
326 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
digjrers of the earth from the builders of the stones, so as there may be no
interference with one another's work, and also to give advantage of the
half-thrown-out earth of the second division as a stage upon which to re-
ceive the larger stones, such as the covers of the conduit, to their being
easily h anded to the builder, as he proceeds in the laying of the conduit in the
first division. On throwing out the earth to the bottom of the first break,
special care should be taken to clear out the bottom square to the sides, to
make its surface even, and to preserve the fall previously determined on.
(715.) When a division of the drain has thus been completely cleared
out, you yourself, or the farm-steward, should ascertain that the dimen-
sions and fall have been preserved correct as contracted for, before any
of the stones are placed in the bottom. I have seen it recommended that
the person appointed to build the conduit should ascertain if these par-
ticulars have been attended to ; but it is always an invidious task for one
class of workmen to check the workmanship of another, and on this ac-
count such a duty should always be performed by the farmer himself, or
by any other authoiiaed person.
(716.) Instead of measuring the dimensions of the drain with a tape-line
or foot-iiile, which are both inconvenient for the purpose, a rod of the
form of fig. 155 will be found most convenient, most ceitain,
and most quickly applied. The rod, divided into feet and *^'b- i^-
inches, is put down to ascertain the depth of the drain, and
then turned partially round while resting on its end on the
bottom of the drain, until the ends of its arm touch the earth
on both sides. If the arms cannot come round square to the
sides of the drain, the drain is narrower than intended; and
if they cannot touch both sides, it is wider than necessary.
When the drain is made narrower than intended, you may
take it off the contractor's hands, for the men having been
able to work in it with ease to themselves, shows that the
width is sufficient ; but if the drain is wider than necessary,
you should object to it to prevent similar enlargements in
other places, for although the contract may have been
formed by the longitudinal measurement, and not by the
cubical contents, the larger space involves you in greater " ~"
expense to fill up with stones. thedrai.n-gauge,
(717.) All deep drains should be furnished with built con-
duits, that the water may have a free passage in all circumstances, and
thereby escape being choked up, and save the consequent expense of re-
lifting and relaying its matenals. The relifting of a drain that has blown,
that is, if one in which the water is forced to the surface of the ground, in
consequence of a deposition of mud among the stones preventing its flow
under ground, is a dirty and disagreeable business for workpeople, and an
expensive one for their employer, as it costs at least 9d., and the filling in
again of the earth Id. more per rood of 6 yards ;* besides, additional
stones are required to fill the enlarged space occasioned by the unavoida-
ble removal of wet earth along with the stones.
(718.) The building of the conduit should be contracted for in a separate
ftem from the cutting of the drains. If both are undertaken by the same
party, there is risk of the two sorts of work being so carried on together,
CO suit the convenience of the contractor and his men, as to deceive even
the inspector ; whereas, if each sort is inspected and passed before another
18 allowed to be begun, then both may be executed in a satisfactory man-
ner. The building of the conduit will cost from Id. to 2d. per rood, ac-
* Stephens's Practical Irrigator aud Drainer.
(614)
DRAINING. 327
cording to the adaptation of the stones for the purpose.* Flat handy
Btones can be built firmly and quickly, whereas round shaped ones will
require dressing with the hammer to bring them into proper shape, and
much pinning to give them stability. The stones are furnished to the
builder, and a laborer is also usually provided for him, to supply the
stones as he requires them. But circumstances may occur in which it
will be more convenient for you to contract with the builder to quarry the
stones, supply himself with a laborer and build the conduit, and you to
undertake only the carriage of the stones. A dry-stone builder of dykes
is a better hand at building conduits for drains than a common mason, as
he does not depend upon mortar for giving steadiness to his work.
(719.) Should the ground be firm, and the drain made in summer, and
the length of any particular drain not very great, the conduit is most uni-
formly built when begun at the top and finished at the bottom of the line
of drain; but in ground liable to fall down in the sides, or in winter, when
the weather cannot be depended upon for two days together, or when the
drain extends to many roods in length, the safest plan is to build the con
duit immediately after the earth is taken out to the bottom.
(720.) A very convenient article in the building of conduits in a deep
drain is a plank of 5 inches in breadth, and of from 6 to 9 feet in length,
to put down in the middle of the bottom of the drain, to afford a dry and
firm footing to the builder, and to answer the pui'pose, at the same time,
of a gauge of the breadth of the conduit, a space of ^ inch on each side
of the plank giving a bi'eadth of 6 inches to the conduit. This plank can
be easily removed by two short rope-ends, one attached near each end to
an iron staple.
(721.) Suppose the plank set down at the mouth of the drain in the
middle of the cut, the dyker begins by leaving a conduit at the mouth of
6 inches wide, having 6 inches of breadth of building on each side of it,
and 6 inches high, and using the plank as his foot-board. When the
building of these dimensions is finished to the length of the plank, this is
carried or pushed by the ropes another length upon the drain, and so
on, length after length, until the whole space of drain, when cleared out
to the bottom, is built upon. The stones are handed down from the sur-
face to the dyker by the laborer, who, in this case, may be a female field-
worker, until the building is finished. The plank is then removed out of
the way, the dyker clears the bottom of the conduit of all loose earth,
stones, and other matter, with a hand-draw-hoe 5 inches wide in the face.
Immediately after this, he lays the flat covers, which extend at least 3
inches on each side over the conduit, they being from 2 to 3 inches in
thickness ; and they He ready for him on the half cast out division of the
drain, from which they are handed to him as he works backward. The
open space left between the meetings of the covers, which will not proba-
bly have square ends, should be covered \vith flat stones, and the space
from the ends of the covers and flat stones to each side of the drain should
be filled up and neatly packed with small stones. In this way the dyker
proceeds to finish the conduit in every division of drain. To keep the
finished conduit clear of all impediments, the dyker makes a firm wisp of
wheat or oat straw large enough to fill the bore of the conduit ; and which,
while permitting the water to pass through, depi'ives it of all earthy impurities.
(722.) Before the conduit is entirely finished, the drainers throw out the
earth of the adjoining division of the drain to the bottom, and the conduit
is then built upon it in the same manner as the one just described. Should
the laborer have any spare time from supplying the builder with materials,
* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. vii.
(615)
328 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
he throws in stones promiscuously upon the covers, until they reach a hight
of 2 feet above the bottom of the dram, where they are leveled to a plain
surface. They have been recommeiideil to reach the hight of 4 feet, and
when the drain is filled with rubble stones entirely, this hight is desirable,
to give the water plenty of room to find its way into it ; but with a con-
duit such as in fig. 156, more than 2 feet seems an unnecessary supply of
stones, unless in places where water is more than usually abundant. It
has also been recommended to break this upper covering of stones as
small as road-metal ;• but in deep draining, such as this, there seems no good
reason for the adoj)tion of such a practice, while it enhances the cost very
considerably. Ordinary land stones or quarry rubbish are quite suitable
for the purpose, and should any of the stones be unusually laige, they can
be broken smaller with a sledge-hammer. This the dyker might be em-
ployed in occasionally, as he will break stones much more easily than a
laborer, and the work might be included in the contract with him. Should
the stones be brought as they are required, the process of filling would be
greatly expedited were they emptied at once out of the cart into the drain.
This could be done by backing the cart to the edge of the drain, and let-
ting the shafts or movable body of the cart rise so gently as to pour out
the stones by degrees. To save the edge of the drain, and break the fall
of the stones, a strong, broad board should be laid along the side of the
drain, with its edge projecting so far as to cause the stones to fall down
into the middle of it. A short log of wood placed in front of the board
will prevent the wheels of the cart coming farther back than itself I am
aware that this mode of filling drains has been objected to by a compe-
tent authority in these matters, the late Mr. Stephens, as being a danger-
ous practice for the safety of the drain, especially as stones carry much
earth along with them.t But in the case of deep and conduited drains I
am sure no danger can arise from its adoption ; because I have pursued
the plan myself to a large extent with perfect impunity, and can vouch for
its expedition and economy, and also for its safeness. To prevent the
stones doing injury to thin covers, tliey should not be allowed to fall
direct upon them, but upon the end of the stones previously throicn in, from
which position numbers will roll down of themselves upon the covers with-
out force, and the remainder can be leveled down with the hand before
the next cart-load is emptied. There is a very considerable saving in the
expense of filling drains in this way, provided it be done in the cautious
manner just described, compared with the usual plan of laying down the
stones when the drain is ready to receive them, and then throwing them
singly in by the hand. Were it convenient to lay the stones down before
the drain was begun to be cut, the plan would be inapplicable. As to the
stones having earth among them, as much care can be taken to avoid that
when they are each thrown or shoveled into the cart, as when put into the drain.
(723.) The leveled surface of the stones should be covered with some
dry material before the earth is put over them. The best substance for
the purpose is undoubtedly turf, but it is expensive to prepare and carry
from a distance ; but, should the field be in grass when it is drained, the
turf over the drain could be laid aside at hand by the drainers, anti used
for covering the stones. Other materials answer well enough, such as
withered wrack, dried leaves, coarse grass, broken moss, tanners' refuse
bark, or straw; but I much dislike to see good straw wasted for such a
purpose, when manure is usually too scanty upon a farm. The object of
placing anything upon the stones is to prevent the loose earth finding its
* Prize Essays of the Highland and AKricultural .Society, toI. vii.
t Quarterly Journal of Agrictilturc, vol. iii , note.
(616)
DRAINING.
329
way among them ; and, altliough it is not to be supposed that any of the
substances lecommended will continue long undecomposed, they, however,
]iieseive their consistence until the earth above them becomes so consoli-
(hited as to ictain its firmness ever afterward. You will learn, in the course
()!" this article, how stones themselves are prepared to answer the purpose
of a covering to those below them.
(724.) vVfter the drain has been sufficiently filled with stones, the earth
whicli vvHh taken out of it should be returned as quickly as possible, in case
rain I'all and wash the earth down its sides among the stones. The filling
in of the first earth of a deep drain is usually included in the contract made
with the drainer, and done with the spade, because no horse can assist in
that operation until the earth has been put in to such a hight as to enable
him to walk upon it nearly on a level with the ground. The men may
either put in all the earth with the spade, or they may put in so much as
to allow the plow to do the remainder, but in both cases a little is left
elevated immediately over the drain, to subside to the usual level of the
ground. There will be much less earth left over the filling than you would
imagine from the quantity thrown out at first, and the space occupied by
the stones ; and it soon consolidates in a drain, especially in rainy weather.
(725.) The section of such a drain as I have been describing is seen in
fig. 156, where a is the opening of the conduit 6 inches square, built with
Fig. 15C.
THE DEEP CONDUITED DRAIN, WITH WELL AND AUGER BORE.
dry masonry, and covered with a flat stone at least 2 inches thick ; and
above it is a stratum of loose round stones b, 16 or 18 inches in thickness.
The covering above the stones is c, and the earth returned into the drain
is d, with the portion e raised a few inches above the ordinary level of the
ground. The mouths of such conduits, when forming outlets, should be
protected against the inroads of vermin by close iron gratings.
(726.) Should water be supposed or known to exist in quantity below
the reach of even a 6-feet drain, means should be used to render the drain
available for its abstraction, and these means are, sinking wells and boring
(tiir)
330 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
holes into the substrata. A well is made as represented by a part of fig.
156, where a pit g of the requisite depth is cast out on the lower side of
the drain a, if the ground is not level. A circular or square opening, of 3
feet in diameter, or 3 feet in the side, will suffice for a man to work down
several feet by the side of the open drain d ; and, when the stratum which
supplies the water is reached, the well should l)e filled with small stones
to about the bight of those in the drain, as at f, and the whole area of the
drain and well should be covered with drj' substances from f to c, and the
earth is filled in again above all, as at g. In making such wells, a small
scarcement of solid ground, on a level with the bottom of the building of
the conduit a, should be presen'ed, so that the building may have a firm
foundation to stand upon, and run no risk of being shaken by the opera
tions connected with making the well. I fear this precaution is less at-
tended to in the making of drain wells than it deserves. Such a well
should be sunk wherever water has been ascertained t») be in quantify at a
lower depth than the drain.
(727.) Or the auger may be used instead of the well for the same pur-
pose, by boring through a retentive stratum into a porous, whereby con-
fined water may be brought up into the bottom of the drain, by altitudinal
pressure, and escape ; or free water may pass down through the bore and
be absorbed by the porous stratum below. In the first case, the retreat
of the water has to be discovered in making the passage for it to pass
away ; in the second, it is got rid of by a simple bore. In boring for wa-
ter at the bottom of a drain, the bore should be made at one side leather
than in the middle of the bottom, because any sediment in the water might
enter the bore at the latter place and choke it, when the water happened
to come up with a small force. In preparation of the bore, let a cut i k,
fig. 156, be made down the side of the drain, and, inserting the auger at
k, let the bore be made down through the solid ground, in the direction
of b h, as far as necessary- — the orifice of the bore being made at a little
higher level than the bottom of the drain, and an opening left in the build-
ing there, to permit the water from the bore to flow easily into and join
the water of the drain.
(728.) As horing-irons may be as useful to you for finding water for
fields, or for draining a bog, or for ascertaining the de])tli and contents of
a moss, as for ordinary draining, it is proper to give a description of them.
The auger, a, fig. 157, is from 2-^ to 3^ inches in diameter, and about 16
inches in length in the shell, the sides of which are brought pretty close
together; and it is used for excavating the earth through which it passes,
and bringing it up. When more indurated substances than earth arc met
with, such as hardened gravel or thin, soft rock, a punch h is used instead,
to penetrate into and make an opening for the auger. When rock inter-
venes, then the chisel or jumper c must be used to cut through it ; and its
face should be of greater In-eadth than the diameter of the auger used. —
There are rods of iron d, each 3 feet long, 1 inch square iron, unless at the
joints, where tlfey are 1^ inch and round, with a male screw at one end,
and a female at the other, for screwing into either of the instruments, or
into one another, to allow them to descend as far as requisite. The short
iron key e is used for screwine: and unscrewing the rods and instrumenta
when required. A cross-handle of wood f, having a piece of rod attached
to it, with a screw to fasten it to the top of the uppemiost rod, is used for
the purpose of wrenching round the rods and auger, when the latter only
is used, or for lifting up and letting fall the rods and jumper or punch,
when they are used. The long iron key g is used to support the rods and
instruments as they are let down and taken up, while the rods are screwed
(618)
DRAINING.
33]
on or off with the short key e. Three men are as many as can conveni
ently work at the operation of boring drains.
Fig. 157.
M
THE INSTRUMENTS FOR BORING THE SUBSTRATA OF DEEP DRAINS
(729.) As I have never witnessed the use of the auger in draining, I will
give a description of the manner of using it from a competent authority.
" Two men," says Mr. Johnstone, " stand above, one on each side of tl>e
drain, who turn the auger round by means of the wooden handle ; and,
when the auger is full of earth, they draw it out, and the man in the hot
torn of the drain clears out the earth, assists in pulling it out, and directing
it into the hole. The workmen should be cautious, in boring, not to go
deeper at a time, without drawing, than the exact depth that will fill the
shell of the auger; otherwise the earth through which it is boring, after
the shell is full, makes it more difficult to pull out. For this purpose, the
exact length of the auger should be regulai'ly marked on the rods from the
bottom upward. Two flat boards, with a hole cut into the side of one of
them, and laid alongside of one another over the drain, in time of boring,
are very useful for directing the rods in going down perpendicularly, for
keeping them steady in boring, and for the men standing on when perform-
ing the operation."*
(730.) The principles of Elkington's mode of draining seem to depend
on these three alleged facts. 1. That water from springs is the principal
cause of the wetness of land, which, if not removed, nothing effectual in
draining can be accomplished. 2. That the bearings of springs to one an-
other must be ascertained before it can be determined where the lines of
drains should be opened ; and by the bearings of springs is meant that line
which would pass thi'ough the seats of true springs in any given locality.
Springs ai'e characterized as true which continue to flow and retain their
places at all seasons ; and temporary springs consist of bursts of water,
occasioned either by heavy rains causing it to appear to the day sooner or
at a higher level than permanent springs, or by tme springs leaking water,
and causing it to appear to day at a lower level than themselves ; and, if
such springs are weak, their leakage may be mistaken for themselves. It
is evident that, if drains are formed through these hursts of water, no effect-
* Johnstone on Elkington's Mode of Draming.
(<319)
332 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
ual draining- takes place, and which can only he accomplished by the drain
passing tlirongh the line of true springs. 3. That tapping the spring with
the auger is a necessary expedient, when the drain cannot he cut deep
enough to intercept it.* From these tliree avemients it would appear that
the seats of true springs are neither at the top nor in the l)a.<e of a rising
ground, hut that temporary springs may be at both ; and, of course, the
more extensive tlie hight, the more numerous will be the springs, whether
true or temporary. In the case of true spiings in the side of rising ground,
a system of branched drains will be required to remove them ; but, in the
case of their being situated near tlie base, their leakage will originate bogs
or swampy grounds ; and hence Elkington's mode of draining is only
adapted to these peculiarities. It has been very extensively and, I must
add, successfully practiced in Scotland, for the removal of both these
sources of annoyance to land. The system would have ample scope in
Ireland, where bog land still exists to an incredible extent ; and in Eng-
land also, where the regularity of alluvial deposits in many of the western
and southern counties might give employment to the auger, to great ad-
Tantage, in removing the largest proportion of the water which is doing
injury ; but in Scotland the system of tapping is inapplicable in inegular
superficial deposits, though it might be tried in the few bogs which rest on
regular strata.
(731.) In so far as the soil of Scotland is affected with water, there is
no doubt that it is not now most injured hy springs. Wliat injury it suf-
fered in that way has long been removed, by the extensive application of
Elkington's mode of draining ; and as in the pursuance of that system ex-
perience soon indicated that injury was sustained by the land from other
water than that issuing from springs, a modification was introduced into
the system, which, not being in accordance with its principles, can excite
no surprise that it failed in many instances ; and the misguided failures
had the effect of bringing disrepute upon otherwise an excellent and effi-
cient mode of draining. The modification I allude to, which brought ob-
loquy upon Elkington's system, was the cutting of deep drains in every
direction, irrespective of the arrangement of the subjacent strata, and the
filling them nearly full of stones of any size and in any order. Much ex-
pense was in the first instance incuned by this practice, and when its ef-
fects were not commensurate with the outlay, disappointment was the re-
sult, and blame was imputed to the system, instead of to the mode of
practicing it.
(732.) The chief injury now sustained by the soil of Scotland arises
from the stagnation oj rain-water upon an impervious subsoil. Most of
the soil of that country consists of loam, of different consistence, resting
on clayey subsoil sufficiently tenacious to retain water, the arable part of
which is of unequal depth ; where it is shallowest, it is itself injured by
the stagnant water immediately below it ; and where it is deepest, the
plants upon it are injured by chilly exhalations.
(733.) The injury done by stagnant water to arable soil may be es-
timated by these effects. While hidden water remains, manure, whether
putrescent or caustic, imparts no fertility to the soil ; the plow, the har-
row, and even the roller, cannot pulverize it into fine mould ; new grass
from it contains little nutriment for live-stock ; when old, the finer sorts
disappear, and ai'e succeeded by coarse sub-aquatic plants. The stock
never receive a hearty meal of grass, hay, or straw, from land in that
state ; they are always hungry and dissatisfied, and of course in low con-
* Johnstone on Elkington's Mode of Draining.
(620)
DRAINING. 333
dition. Trees acquire a hard bark and stiffened branches, and became a
prey to parasitic plants. The roads in the neighborhood are constantly
soft, and apt to become rutted ; while ditches and furrows are either
Slashy, or like a wet sponge, ready to absorb water. The air always feels
amp and chilly, and, from early autumn to late in spring, the hoar-frost
meets the face like a damp cloth. In winter the slightest frost encrusts
every furrow and plant with ice, not strong enough to bear one's weight,
but just weak enough to give way at every step, while snow lies long
lurking behind the sun in comers and crevices ; and in summer muske-
toes, gi-een-flies, midges, gnats, and gadflies, torment the cattle, and the
plowman and his horses, from morning to night ; while, in autumn, the
sheep get scalded heads, and are eaten up by maggots, during the hot
blinks of sunshine. These are no exaggerated statements, but such as I
have witnessed in every similar situation ; and they may be observed in
every county in Scotland, in hill, valley, and plain.*
(734.) The only plan of draining fitted to remove the wetness which
produces this state of things, is the one which allows stagnant water to
now easily away through moderately deep and numerous drains ; for deep
drains cannot take away stagnant water from impervious subsoil at the
distances they are usually made. This constitutes the second mode of
surface-draining alluded to in a former paragraph, (679), and which has
now generally obtained the appellation of thorovgh-draining ; and the
treatment of which must now receive your attention.
(735.) What should be the exact size of these shallow and numerous
drains, is not easily determined. It would be one step toward the settle-
ment of this point were the minimum size determined, which I shall en-
deavor to do. A drain is not a mere ditch for conveying away water ;
were it only this, its size would be easily determined by calculation, or
experiment, of the quantity of water it would have to convey in a given
time. But the principal function of a drain is to draw water toward it
from every direction ; and its secondary purpose is to convey it away
when collected ; though both properties are required to be present, to the
drain performing its entire functions. These being its functions, it is ob-
vious that the greater the area its sides can present to the matter out of
which it draws water, it should prove the more efficacious, and it is also
obvious that this efficiency is not so much dependent upon the breadth as
upon the depth of the drain, so that, other things being equal, the deeper
a drain is, it should prove the more efficient. Now, what are the circum-
stances that necessarily regulate the depth of drains 1 In the first place, the
culture of the ground affects it ; for were land never plowed, but in per-
petual pasture, no more earth than would support the pasture grasses
would be required over a drain, and this need not, perhaps, exceed 3
inches in depth. The plow, however, requires more room ; for the or-
dinary depth of a furrow-slice is seldom less than 7 inches, and, in cross-
furrowing, 8 inches are reached, and 2 inches more than that, or 10 inches
in all, may suffice for ordinary plowing ; but in some instances, land is
plowed with 4 horses instead of 2, in which case the furrow will reach 12
inches in depth, so that 14 inches of depth will be required to place the
materials of the drain beyond the danger of an extraordinary furrow. But
fai'ther still, subsoil and trench plowing are sometimes practiced, and these
penetrate to 16 inches below the surface, so that 18 inches of earth at least,
you thus see, will require to be left on the top of a drain, to place its ma-
* See a paper by me on this Bubject in vol. vL of the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture.
(621)
334 THE BOOK OF THE TARM WINTER.
terials beyond the dangers arising from plowing. This depth having been
thus determined by reference to practice, it should not be regarded as a
source from which a supply of moisture is afforded to the drain by its
drawing power, the water only jiassing through it by absorption ; for it is
certain that plowed land will absorb moisture, whether there be any drain
below it or not. The drawing portion of the drain must, therefore, lie
entirely below 18 inches from the surface. Now it will be requisite to
make the drain below this as deep as will afford a sufficient area for draw-
ing powei-s of the lowest degree among subsoils. And what data do we
possess to determine this critical point ? In the first place, it is evident
that a subsoil of porous materials will exhaust all its water in a shorter
time than one of an opposite nature. Judging from obsenation, I should
say, that 1 inch thick of porous materials will discharge as much water in
a given time, as 6 inches of a tilly, or any number of inches of a truly te-
nacious subsoil. What conclusions, then, ought we to draw from these
data ? Certainly these, that no depth, beyond the upper IS inches, farther
than what is required for the materials of the drain, will draw water from
a truly tenacious subsoil, and that it is therefore unnecessary to go any
deeper in such a subsoil ; that it is also unnecessaiy to go any deeper in
a subsoil of porous materials, because a small depth in it will draw freely;
and that it is only requisite to go deeper in the intermediate kinds of sub-
soil. Still you have to inquire what should be the specific depths in each
of these cases ] In the case of really tenacious subsoil, the size of the duct
for the water depends on the quantity to pass through it, but, giving the larg-
est allowance of 6 inches with a sole beneath and covering above, 1 foot
seems ample depth for these materials to occupy, so that a drain of 2i feet
seems sufficient for the circumstances attending such a subsoil, that is, its
minimum depth, which, in such a case, may also be held to be a maxi-
mum. In the case of a porous subsoil, it is absolutely necessary for the
preser\'ation of its loose materials in their proper position, to have a lining
of artificial materials as far as these extend ; and as such a lining can
hardly be constnicted of sufficient strength of less depth than 1 foot, it fol-
lows that 2^ feet is the minimum depth also in such a subsoil ; but there
is this difference betwixt this subsoil and the tenacious one, that the porous
may be made as deep as you please, provided you apply sufficient mate-
rials for the support of the loose materials. With regard to tilly subsoils,
since 1 foot is requisite for the safety of the filling matenals, it does not
seem an overstretch of liberality to give 6 inches more for extension of
the drawing surface, so that the minimum depth in this case seems to be
3 feet, and as much more as the peculiar state of the subsoil in regard to
tenacity and porosity will warrant you to go. There is another way of
arriving at the same conclusions, and it is this.
(736.) It must be admitted by all drainers, that the part of the drain
which is intended to draw water under the earth should be occupied with
such loose materials as will easily permit the water to pass through them.
It is therefore consonant with reason to give a large area to the sides of
a drain in a subsoil that draws water rather slowly, and by consequence a
smaller area to one in materials that draw freely, while a drain in pure
clay will act chiefly as a channel to convey away the water that is permit-
ted to percolate into it through the superincumbent materials. Keeping
these important distinctions in subsoils in view, you shall soon learn what
use may be made of them in the construction of efficient drains. I guard
myself by saying rfficU-nt drains; for drains can be ill made, although
planned on the most coirect principles ; and to guard myself against far-
ther misconception, you should bear in mind, that the depths which I have
(622)
DRAINING. 335
just specified are the muiimum depths which are considered suitable foi
the respective circumstances of the drains.
(737.) Viewing drains as mere channels for the conveyance of water, it
is obvious that the quicker they promote its emission, without injui'ing
themselves or the land, they act the more characteristically ; and it is also
evident that an open duct will give a freer passage to water than a mass
of loose stones, however large or small they may be used. These obvious
points being conceded, it follows as a corollary that a drain will act the
better of being provided with a duct, along with porous material. View-
ing drains as drawers or gravitators of water, it is also clear that the more
porous the materials, and the gi-eater the quantity used, they will allow the
water an easier passage through them. So, it is also requisite on this ac-
count to have a duct for the water to pass quickly away. I wish you to
pay particular attention to this mode of reasoning in support of the use of
ducts, as I conceive that very erroneous opinions prevail among farmers
regarding their utility ; but I believe such opinions are prompted more on
account of the cost incuiTed by the use of ducts, than from any valid objec-
tion that can be urged against their efficacy.
(73S.) There are various substances which may be employed as ducts :
1st, dry stones, built as you have seen at a, in fig. 156 ; 2d, a coupling of
flat stones set up against each other as a triallgle, or in a more rude way
two round stones, set one on each side of the drain, ^vith a flat one, or a
large round one, to cover them ; 3d, tiles made for the purpose. One or
all of these forms of ducts answer the pui-pose well, and should be selected
according to the facility of obtaining the materials of which they are com-
posed.
(739.) I must now direct your serious attention to another consideration
in the construction of di'ains. It is a well-known fact that, over whatever
kind of substance water flows, it has the power of abrading it ; for, besides
earthy matter, it will in time wear down by friction the hardest rock. This
it is enabled to do, not only by its own physical properties, but by the as-
sistance afforded it by the foreign matters which it almost always holds,
both in solution and suspension, so that both physically and chemically it
has the power to produce destructive effects. It seems, however, to be a
very prevalent opinion among farmers, that hard clay can for any length
of time withstand the action of water in a drain. They judge of the hard-
ness of the clay from the state it is in when laid bare to the sight on the
drain being opened, imagining that it will remain in the same state, but
seeming to forget that water can both soften and scrub against substances.
Were clay, indeed, always to retain the hardness it at first exhibits, it
would require no protection from the abrading action of water ; but, when
it is known that it cannot possibly remain so, the safest practice is to afford
it protection by a covering, which may be fashioned to suit the purpose,
such as a flat stone or tile, both of which obtain the name of drain-soles. —
If water can affect even the hardest clay, it will, of course, have a much
greater effect upon softer earth. The effects usually produced by water
on clay subsoils are, that the lower stratum of stones and the tiles become
imbedded in it to a considerable depth, as has been found to be the case
when drains that have bloicn have been reopened, and as in the first sets
of tile-drains made in Ayrshire. In somewhat softer subsoils, the sandy
particles are cairied along with the water, and deposited in heaps in the
cui-ves and joinings of drains; and, where the subsoil happens to be more
sandy than clayey, the foundation which supports the building or tile gives
way, and the matter thus displaced forms obstructions at parts which ren-
der the drain above them almost useless. Water also cames sand down
336 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
the Bides of the drain, and, where there is no duct, deposits it among the
lowest stratum of stones. You thus see that various risks of derangement
occur in a drain, where there are no soles to protect its bottom. On this
account, I am a strenuous advocate for drain-soles in all ca.se8 ; and, even
where they may really prove of little use, I would rather use too many
than too few precautions in draining, because, even in the most favorable
circumstances, we cannot tell what change may take place beyond our
view of the interior of a drain, which we are never again permitted, and
which we have no desire, to see.
(740.) Porous materials, which are the next things he requires for filling
drains, are few at the command of the farmer on Jiis farm, consisting only,
Ist, Of small stones gathered from the surface of the land by the hand ;
2d, Small stones so prepared in a (juarry by the use of the hammer ; and,
3d, Gravel, obtained either from the bed of a river, the sea-beach, or a
gravelly knoll.
(741.) Before beginning to break ground for thorough draining, it should
be considered what quantity of water the drains will have to convey ; and,
as the water in the soil is entirely derived from the rain that falls and is
absorbed by the soil, its quantity depends upon the climate of the locality
in which the drains are desired to be made. Such an investigation is un-
necessary in commencing Blkington's mode, as the springs show at once
the quantity of water to be conveyed away. In pursuance of the investi-
gation, it is well knowTi that more rain falls on the W. than the E. coast
of this country in the ratio 5:3; so that, under the same circumstances of
soil, nearly double the number or capacity of drains will be required to
keep the soil in the same state of dryness in the western as in the eastern
coast. With a view to ascertain the quantity, it has been, in the first in-
stance, " ascertained that the water which flows from a drain is consider-
ably less at any one time than what formerly ran on the surface ;" and this
is an expected result, for evaporation and vegetation together must dissi-
pate much of the water that falls on the ground before it sinks into the soil.
(742.) In order, however, to obtain accurate data on this subject, Mr.
James Carmichael, Raploch Farm, Stirlingshire, one of the midland coun-
ties, and therefore experiencing about the average fall of rain in Scotland,
ascertained that, in a " length of 200 yards, and the distance from drain to
diain 18 feet, the square feet of surface receiving rain-water for each drain
amounts to 10,800 ; this, at 2 inches of rain in 24 hours, will give 1,800
cubic feet of rain-water, and taking the sectional area of the smallest tile
of 2^ by 3 inches at 7.5 inches, and the water moving in this aperture at
the rate of 1 mile per hour, the number of cubic feet discharged by the
drain in 24 hours will be 6,600, or nearly four times as much as is neces-
sary to carry off so gi'eat a fall of rain as 2 inches in 24 hours ;" and this
besides what would be carried off by evaporation and absorbed by vegeta-
tion. Mr. Stirling, of Glenbervie, also in Stirlingshire, has given similai
testimony of his experience in regard to the capability of drains to let off
water. " I have only three sets of drains," he says, " in which I know the
exact fall in the mains near the mouths and the area drained. The land
is mostly stilTclay, having in some places a fall of 1 in 6, and for 50 yards
from the mouths of the mains only 1 in 140; is drained at 15 feet; the
main-tiles are 2-J by 2)^ inches, and the rain which falls on 5 superficial
roods is discharged at each mouth. I find the tiles nearly -j full after very
heavy rain ; therefore that size of tile would, with the same declivity, pass
the rain which falls on nearly 2 acres; and, if the fall in the side drains
were less, the water would never stand so high in the mains."*
• Prize Kesays of the Highland and Agricultural Socinty, vol. xii.
(824)
DRAINING. 337
(743.) It should be borne in mind that these calculations are founded on
data obtained from strong clay soil, from which, it may reasonably be sup-
posed, much of the rain that fell had run oft', and, consequently, that by a
porous soil much more rain will be absorbed ; but, although this is doubt-
less the case, it is obvious that a small orifice will be c[uite sufficient to
carry oft' much more water than can possibly fall from the heavens in these
latitudes in any given time ; and that in ordinary rain the drains will be
little more than wetted. Still the drainage should he made to carry off the
greatest quantlttj that falls, although it should occur only once in a lifetime.
(744.) Having thus calculated" the probably greatest quantity of rain
that may fall in the locality of j^our fai'm, the next step is to drain each
field in succession. It may seem too indiscriminate an instruction to rec-
ommend the draining of every field ; for it is possible that some of the
fields in your farm may be so dry as not to require entire drainage, but it
is scarcely possible but that every field will require draining to a certain
degree in some part of it. Be that as it may — in pursuing a system of
drainage, every field should be thoroughly examined in regard to its state
of wetness throughout the year, for that land is in a bad state which is
soaking in winter, though it should be burnt up in summer ; but the truth
is, burning land I'equires draining as well as soaked land, because drains
will supply moisture to burning land in summer, while it will render soaked
land dry in winter. Should your farm be pretty level, it matters not at
what side you commence operations ; but should it have a decided inclina-
tion one way, the lowest portion should first be drained ; and, if it inclines
in more than one direction, then each plane of inclination should have a
system of drains for itself. It deserves consideration, however, in choos-
ing the fields for draining, that as drains are more conveniently made at
one member of the rotation of crops than another, it may happen that the
field ready in this respect for drainage is not the one situate at the lowest
part of the farm ; in which case care must be taken to give the water from
the drained field such an outlet as will not make the ground below it wet-
ter, and this may be effected either by clearing a ditch along the side of
the lower field, or by forming a new ditch, or by leading the water to a
ditch, drain or rivulet at some distance.
(745.) The field having thus been fixed upon, the first consideration is
the position of those drains that receive the Avater from the drains that are
immediately supplied from the soil ; and these are called inain drains. —
In every case they should be provided with a duct, and the ducts may be
formed either of stone or of tile — of stone when that material is abundant
on the farm, or can be obtained at a short distance — of tile where stone
cannot be easily procured ; but, if tiles cannot be found at hand, they
should be procured from a distance rather than not be obtained at all where
stones are scarce.
(746.) Ducts of stone may be formed in various ways — the strongest of
which are built with masonrv and covered with strong flat stones, as in
fig. 156.
(747.) Two flat stones, placed against each other at the bottom of the
drain, with another covering, both, as at a, fig. 158, form an equilateral
duct of 6 inches in the side, resting on its apex. It should be held down
in its position by small stones b, gathered from the land, or broken for the
purpose, to a hight of 18 inches ; then covered with turf or other dry sub-
stance c, and the eai'th d returned above them. Where stones are found
in sufficient quantity for such a drain, it is highly probable that the subsoil
will consist of clay, intermixed with small stones and veins of sand, which,
requiring a large area of drawing surface, will fix the depth of the drain
(673) aa
338
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
at 3 feet. In making this form of duct, the drain will require to be 18
inches wide at top, to allow the drainer room to work while standing- on
the narrow triangular space at the bottom. Placing the apex of the tri-
angle undermost gives the water power to sweep away any sediment along
the nanow bottom ; but it possesses the disadvantage of permitting the
water to descend by its own gravity, between the joining of the stones, to
the subsoil, which runs the risk of being softened into a pulp, or of its
sandy portion being carried away ; and it is possible for a stone to get
jammed in the narrow gutter and form a damming.
(748.) Another form of duct, which I prefer to this, and which is also
constructed of stone, may be seen beside it in fig. 159, where a is the duct
Fig. 158.
Fig. 159.
THE TRIA.SGULAR STO.SE DUCT.
THE COUPLED STOMK DtTCT.
consisting of a sole lying on the gi'ound, supporting 2 stones meeting at
the top, forming an equilateral triangle of 6 inches a side. This form en-
courages a deposition of sediment to a greater degree than the fonner, but
it prevents, to any dangerous extent, the descent of the water under the
sole. Having a flat bottom, the drain can easily be cast out with a width
at top of only 15 inches to a dejith of 3 feet. The slanting stones of the
duct are held in their position by selected stones being placed on each
side, which act as wedges between them and the eaith ; and the whole
structure is retained in its place by 18 inches of small stones above them
b, covered with turf c, and the earth d returned above them.
(749.) A more perfect duct than either of the.se is made by a tile and
sole. In all main drains, formed of whatever materials, capable of con-
veying a considerable body of water, a sole is absolutely requisite to pro-
tect the ground from being washed away by the water, and a more effect-
ual protection cannot be given to it than by tile and sole. A main-tile,
which the tiles in main drains are called, of 4 inches wide and 5 inches
high, will contain a large body of water ; but should 1 such tile be consid-
ered insufficient for the pui-pose, 2 may be placed side by side, as repre-
sented by a and h in fig. IGO. Should a still larger space be required, 1
or 2 soles may be placed above these tiles, and other tiles set on them, as
a and b are. Or should a still dcejier and heavier body of water be re-
quired to pass through a main drain, 1 or 2 tiles can be inverted on the
ground on their circular top, as a, fig. 161, bearing each a sole c upon its
open side, and this again surmounted by another tile b in its proper posi-
tion. In such an an'angement, there is some difficulty in making the uu-
(674)
DRAINING.
339
dermost tile a steady on its top ; for which purpose, the earth is taken out
of a rounded form, and the tile carefully laid and wedged round with stones
or earth ; but there is greater difficulty in making the uppennost tile h
Fig. 160.
Fig. 161.
THE DOUBLE TILED MAIN DRAIN.
~ WW \ WW a™
THE INVERTED DOUBLE TILED MAIN DRAIN
Stand in that position \vathout a sole, as is recommended by some wTiters
on draining, because the least displacement of either tile will cause the
upper one to slip off the edge of the under, and fall into it. In the nar-
rowest of these cases of main drains with tiles, the drains can be easily cut
at 15 inches wide at top to the depth of 3 feet. Small stones should be
put above the tiles, if at all procurable, to the hight of 18 inches above the
bottom ; if not procurable, gravel \s^S\. answer the same purpose ; and, if
both are beyond reach, they should be enveloped with thin, tough turf, as
shown afterward.
(750.) Having thus determined on the construction of main drains, ac-
cording to circumstances in which the water is to be conveyed away, the
next thing is to fix the place they should occupy in the field. As they are
intended to caiTy away accumulations of water beyond what they can them-
selves draw, they should occupy the lowest parts of a field, whether along
the bottom of a declivity, the end, or the middle of a field. If the field is
so flat as to have very little fall, the water may be drawn toward the main
drains by making them deeper than the other drains, and as deep as the
fall of the outlet will allow. If the field have a uniform declivity one way,
one main drain at the bottom will answer every purpose ; but, should it
have an undulating surface, every hollow of any extent, and every deep
hollow of however limited extent, should be furnished with a main drain.
No main drain should be put nearer than 5 yards to any tree or hedge,
that may possibly push its roots toward it; but although the ditch of a
hedge, whose roots lie in the opposite direction, merely I'eceive the sur-
face-water from the field at the lowest end, it should not be converted into
a main drain, that should be cut out of the solid ground, and not be nearer
than 3 yards to the ditch lip ; and the old ditch should be occupied by a
small drain, and filled up with earth from the head-ridge.
(751.) As main-drains thus occupy the lowest parts of fields, the fall in
them cannot be so great as in other parts of the field, though it should be
kept quite sufficient for drainage. In the case of a level field, the fall may
entirely depend on cutting them deeper at the lowest end than at other
places ; but, when the fall is small, the duct should be larger than when it
IS considerable, because the same body of water will require a longer time
(675)
340 THE ROOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
to flow away. Should the fall vary in tho course of the drain, the least
rapid parts should be ])rovidod witli the largest sized tiles ; and, in any
case, 1 would recommend an increase of fall on the lust few yards toward
the outlet, to expedite the egress of the water, and promote an accelerated
speed along the whole length of the drain ; hut, where the fall is rapid
enough throughout, there is the less necessity for an increase of accelera-
tion at the termination. It is surprising what a small descent is required
for the flow of wafer in a well-constructed duct. " People frequently com-
plain," says Mr. Smith, " that they camiot find a suflicient fall, or Icrel, as
they sometimes term it, to carry off" the water from their drains. There
are few situations where a suflicient fall cannot be found, if due pains are
exercised. It has been found in practice; that a water-course 30 feet wide
and 6 feet deep, giving a transverse sectional area of ISO square feet, will
discharge 300 cubic yards of water per minute, and will flow at the rate
of 1 mile per hour with a fall of no more than 6 inches per mile."* On
the principle of the acceleration of water from drains, main drains, where
practicable, should be G inches deeper than those which fall into them ;
and the greater depth has the additional advantage of keeping the drains
clear of sand, mud, or other substances which might lodge, and not only
impede but dam back the water in the drains. Should it so happen, from
the nature of tho ground, that the fall in the main drains is too rapid for
the safety of the materials which construct them, it is easy to cut' such a
length of the proper fall as the extent of the gi-ound will admit — -cutting
length after length, and joining every two lengths by an inclined plane. —
The inclined planes could be furnished with ducts like. the rest of the drain,
or, what is better, in order to break the force of the water, like steps of
stairs, of brick or stone masonry, built diy. Fig. 1G2 will illusti-ate this
method at once, where ah i''epresents the line of the lowest fall that can
be obtained for a main drain in a field ; but which, you \v\\\ observe, is
very considerable, and much more so than a main drain should have which
has to convey, at any time, a considerable quantity of water. To lessen
the fall, let the drain be cut in the form represented by the devious line
c h, which consists of, first, a level part at the highest end c d ; then of an
inclined plane, de ; again of a level part, e f; again of an inclined ])lane,
yg ; and, lastly, of a less level part g //, to allow the water to flow rapi<lly
away at the outlet; and this part may be parallel willi rliu inclinatinn of
the ground.
(752.) The inclined parts maybe filled with materials in difterent ways.
One way is with tiles, as seen from k to /, where it is obvious that, as drain-
tiles are formed square at the ends, those in the inclined plane /.; / cannot
conjoin with those on the level above and below, and must, therefore, be
broken so as to fit the others at k and /. In constructing tiles in this way,
it is absolutely necessary that the inclined plane be protected with soles,
firmly secured from sliding down, at the lowest end at I, by having there
a strong stone abutting against the lowermost sole ; or a better jilan would
be to line the inclined ])lane with troughs of hewn stone, which will last
for ever.
(7.')3.) Instead of tiles, or hewn troughs, stones may form a conduit upon
the inclined ])lane ; aiid ducts of this material, in such a situation, and built
dry with selected stones, would certainly be jireferable to tiles, even al-
though they could be obtained of the jjeculiar form required.
(754.) Or the inclined jilane could be condiiited with brick, as repre-
sented from ?• to .y. The bricks could be built dry as well as stones, and
Smith's Remarks on Thorough Draining.
(676)
DRAINING.
34J
could form either a smooth, indined sole like tile-soles, or a series of steps,
as represented in the figure, where they are set two a side lengthways on
bed to form the bottom, as at o ; set on end upon these for the sides of the
Fig. 162.
%
mA
THE DIFFERENT FORMS OF CONDUITS IN THE INCLINED PLAINS OF DRAINS.
conduit, as at r ; and set lengthways across the conduit upon the upright
ones, for the cover, as at p. Tiles on the level above connect themselves
easily with the bricks, as from n ; as also on the level below, as at t. —
Should a considerable run of water be expected at times, the step form is
preferable to the smooth, in order to break the fall and impede the velo-
city of the water; especially toward the lower extremity of the drain, where
it may acquire too much momentum vnthout a preventive check of this
kind. Although much water is expected to flow through the drain, it
would not be prudent to build the steps with lime-mortar, as it is too easily-
removed, and would not prevent the water finding its way to the founda-
tion ; but, in every case, it is proper to build the duct on the inclined
planes, with selected materials skillfully put together.
(755.) After having fixed the position of the main drains, and detenuined
their levels and depths as here described, the next thing is the laying off
of the small drains, which are so placed, or should be so constructed, as
to have an easy descent toward the main drains into which they individu-
ally discharge their waters. They are usually cut in parallel lines down
the declination of the ground ; not that all the drains of the same field
should be parallel to one another, but only those in the same plane, what-
(677)
342
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
ever number of different planes the field may consist of. In a field of one
plane, there can be no difficulty in setting oft' the small drains, as they
should all be parallel and all terminate in the same main drain, whether
tlie field is nearly level or has a descent. Thus, in fig. 1C3, a are the
PARALLEL DRAINS IN THE SAME PLANE OF INCLINATION OF THE GROUND.
fences of the field ; d d \s the main drain, whether the field is a level or
inclined toward d ; and * is its outlet. In this case, all the drains c run
parallel to one another, from the one end hh, which may be the upper, to
the other end d d, which may be the lower end ; and which convey all the
water by the outlet s.
Fig. 164.
DRAINS IMPROPERLY .MADE PARALLEL IRRESPECTIVE OF THE SLOPE OF THE OROUND.
(756.) But when the field has an undulating surface, though the same
principle of parallelism is maintained, a different arrangement is followed
(678)
DRAINING. 343
in regard to it, I have already intimated in a former paragraph (750) that
where an undulating surface occurs in a field, a main drain is carried up
the hollowest part of it, and the small drains are brought in parallels down
the inclination to it This very favorable arrangement for the speedy rid-
dance of water, after it has reached the drain, is not frequently enough at-
tended to. Thus, the common practice is to run the small drains b c d e b,
in fitr. 164, parallel to one another, throughout the whole field, although
its undulating surface, as supposed to be represented by the curved line
b c eb, would cause the so arranged parallelism of the drains at c and e to
run along the sides of the rising ground, where, if any vein of sand occur,
it may escape being cut by the drain running parallel along its hne either
above or below it, instead of being divided across its dip ; and even were
the sand-vein severed along its length, it would be apt to slip down from
the higher side, and render the drain along it inoperative.
(757.) Such drains should be cut, as in fig. 165, up and down the inclined
surface b b, toward the main drain, which would occupy the line along the
Fig. 165.
PARALLEL DRAINS IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE SLOPE OF THE GROUND.
points of junction of the drains b b. This specific plan is just as easily
executed as the other more indiscriminate one of making the direction of
every drain of every field alike.
(758.) The next step is to fix the depth of drain most suitable for drain-
ing the particular field ; and this can only be done by having a thorough
knowledge of the nature of its subsoil. I have already given reasons for
fixing the minimum depth of drains in the different kinds of subsoil, in par-
agraph (735) ; but, as the reasoning given there only establishes the prin-
ciple, it is not sufficient to determine the most proper depth for every pe-
culiarity of circumstances ; for this must be determined by the nature of
the subsoil which guides the whole affair. If the field present an uniform
surface, but inclining, let at least 2 exploratory drains be cut from the bot-
tom to the top of the field, if its extent does not exceed 10 acres, and as
many more as it is proportionally larger ; and if the subsoil of both is found
at once tilly, that is, drawing a little water, let the cut be made 3 feet deep
without hesitation. On proceeding up the rising ground, the depth may
be increased to 4 feet, to ascertain if that depth will not draw a great deal
more water than the other. Should the subsoil prove of porous materials,
2i feet — the minimum — may suffice ; though, on going up the rising
ground, it may be increased to 3 feet, to see the effect ; but should it, on
the other hand, prove a pure tenacious clay, 2 feet will suffice at first, in-
creasing the depth in the rising ground to 21 and even 3 feet ; for it may
(679)
344 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
turn out that the stratum under the tenacious clay is porous. Where the
surface is in small undulations, the drain sliould be cut right through both
the flat and rising parts. In very flat ground, any considerable variation
of depth is impracticable, and only allowable to preserve the fall. From
such experimental drains data should be obtained to fix the proper dimen-
sions of the other drains.
(7.59.) If you find the substratum pretty much alike in all the experi-
mental drains, you may reasonably conclude that the subsoil of the whole
field is nearly alike, and that all the drains should be of the same depth ;
but, should the subsoil prove of different natures in diflerent parts, then
the drain should be made of the depth best suited to the nature of the sub-
soil. A con-ect judgment, however, of the true nature of the subsoil, can-
not be formed immediately on opening a cut ; time must be given to the
water in the adjoining ridges lo find its way to the drain, which, when it
has reached, will satisfactorily show the place which supplies the most
water; and, if one set of men open all the cuts, by the time the last one
has been finished, the first will probably have exhibited its powers of draw-
ing ; for it is a fact that drains do not exhibit their powers until some hours
after they have been opened. When you are satisfied that the drains have
drawn in dry weather as much water as they can, you will be able to see
whether or not the shallowest parts have drawn as much as the deepest ;
and you should then determine on cutting the remainder to the depth which
has operated most effectually. If rainy weather ensue during the experi-
ment, still you can observe the comparative effects of the drains, and abide
by the results. Never mind though parts of the sides of the cuts fall down
during dry or wet weather ; they need not be regretted, as they afi'ord ex-
cellent indications of the nature of the subsoil, the true structure of which
being left by the fall in a much better state for examination than where cut
by the spade ; and you may then observe whether most water is coming
out of the highest or lowest part of the subsoil. It is essential for the du-
rability of drains to bear in mind that they should always stand, if practi-
cable, upon impervious matter, to prevent the escape of the water from the
drain by any other channel than the duct.
(760.) You should be made aware that this is not the usual method
adopted by farmers for ascertaining the depth to which drains should be
cut. The common practice is, knowing that the field stands on tilly bot-
tom, the drains are made of a predetermined dejith, and the contract with
the laborers is made on that understanding, be the guess true or false, as
it may happen. Now, the considerate plan which I have recommended
incurs no additional expense, a.s all the experimental drains will serve their
purpose afterward as well as the others ; and, even although they should
cost more than the same extent of other drains, the satisfaction aflbrded to
the mind of having ascertained the true state of the subsoil more than
compensates f«)r any trifling addition of expense which may have been in-
curred ; and be it remembered that any extra expense consists of only
scouring out the earth (if any) that may have fallen down, and of supj>ly-
ing more materials to fill up the chasms thereby occasioned. But tlie as-
certainment of the most proper depths for drains in any sort of subsoil is
a much more important matter than many farmers seem, to judge from
their practice, to be aware of; for by neglecting to descend only ^ a foot,
nay, perhaps 3 inches more, many of the benefits of draining may be un-
attained. I quite agree with the late Mr. Stepliens on this subject, when
he states that "land may be filled full of small drains, so that the surface
shall appear to be diy ; but the land thus attempted to be drained will
never produce a crop, either in quality or quantity, equal to land that has
(680;
DRAINING. 345
been vcrfccthj Jraiiied,"* where a different kind of draining should have
been resorted to.
(761.) A very important particular in tlie art of thorough draining now
claims your attention, which is the determining the distance that should be
left between the drains. It is evident that this point can only be satisfac-
torily determined after the depths of the drains have been fixed upon, as
drains in a porous substratum, which draws water from a long distance,
need not, of course, be placed so close together as where the substratum
yields water in small quantities , and as drains may be of different depths
in the same field, according to the draining powers of the substratum, so
they should be placed at different distances in the same field. It is the
common practice to fix on the open fuiTows, between the ridges, for the
sites of drains, because the hollow of the open furrow saves a little cutting,
though such saving is a trifling consideration compared to the advantage
of executing the drains in the best manner. For my part, I can see no
greater claim for a drain in the furrow than in any other part of the ridge,
especially as most of the water should be received from the subsoil rather
than the surface, except in pure clay-soils ; and it is, of course, as easy to
make tliem in any other part of the ridge as in the open furrow. • These
observations of Mr. Smith on this subject court remark. " When the ridges
of the field," says he, " have been formerly much raised, it suits very well
to run a drain up every furrow, which saves some depth of cutting. The
feering being thereafter made over the drains, the hollow is filled up, and
the general surface ultimately becomes level." This is all very well for
the purpose of leveling the ground, but mark what follows ! " When the
field is again ridged," he continues, " the drains may be kept in the crowns
or middle of the ridges ; but, if it be intended to work the field so as to
akernate the crowns and furrows, then the ridges should be of a breadth
equal to double the distance from drain to drain ; and by setting oil the fur-
rows in the middle, betwixt two drains, the crowns will be in the same
position ; so that when the furrows take the places of the crowns, they will
still be in the middle betwixt two drains, which will prevent the risk of
surface-water getting access to the drain from the water-fuxTows by any
direct opening."t No doubt, it is easy to transpose fuiTOws into croAvns,
and vice versa ; but how would the transposition be effected in these cir-
cumstances, since the drains were made in each former furrow, and it is
proposed to make the crowns of the ridges between the drains, the trans-
position of the crowns could only be effected by adopting the unfarmerlike
plan of leaving, in a finished field, a half of the breadth of the ridge adopt-
ed at each side ; and, rather than practice such slovenliness, would it not
be better to cut the drains in the middle of the ridges, and preserve each
ridge unbroken %
(762.) With regard to distances between drains, in a partially impervi-
ous subsoil, 15 feet are as great a distance as a 3-feet drain can be expect-
ed to draw; and, in some cases, I have no doubt that a 4-feet one will be
required. In more porous matter, a 3-feet drain will probably draw 20
feet, with as great if not greater effect ; and in the case of a mouldy, deep
soil, resting on an impervious subsoil — which is not an uncommon combi-
nation of soils in the turnip-districts of this country — a drain passing through
the mould, and resting perhaps 3 or 4 inches in the impervious clay —
which may altogether make it 4 feet deep — will draw, I have no doubt, a
distance of 30 feet. More than 30 feet distant, I would feel exceeding re-
luctance to recommend drains being made, unless the circumstances were
» Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. ili. t Smith's Remarks on Thorough Draining, •Ith edition.
(681)
346
THE BOOK OF THE FARM—WINTER.
remarkably eiiigiilar, when, of course, a special thing must be done for a
special case, such as an entirely porous subsoil containing somewhat indu-
rated portions, when a drain through each of these, at whatever distance,
will suffice to keep the whole dry.
(763.) The distance at which ordinary drains in tilly subsoils will not
di'EW is not left to conjecture, but has partially been determined by exper-
iment. Conceiving that a drain in every funow, in a tilly subsoil, is at-
tended with more expense than any anticipated increase of produce from
the soil would, warrant, a farmer in East Lothian put a drain in every
fourth funow ; and that they might, as he conceived, have a chance of
drawing at that distance, he caused them to be cut 4 feet deep. A figure
will best illustrate the results, where the black lines a, fig. 166, are the
Fig. 166.
a d
THE EFFECTS OF TOO GREAT A DISTANCE BETWIXT DRAINS.
di'ains between every fourth fuiTow, and the dotted lines represent the in-
termediate undrained funows ; and where it is evident, at the first glance,
that the drains a have to dry 2 ridges on each side he and de, of which
we should expect that the 2 ridges h and d, being nearest to a, should be
more dried, in the same time, than the 2 farthest ridges c and e, and the
result agrees with expectation ; but still, had the subsoil been of an en-
tirely porous nature, both ridges might have been sufficiently dried by a.
Trusting to similar contingency, it is not an unusual expectation, enter-
tained by many farmers, that a drain will sufficiently dry 2 ridges on each
side, or at least 1 ridge on each side, without ascertaining the exact nature
of the subsoil. But mark the results of this particular experiment, which
was conducted with the usual expectations. The 2 ridges h and d, nearest
to a, actually produced 9 bushels of corn more per acre than the 2 more
distant ridges c and e. This is a great diflerence of jiroduce from adjoin-
ing grounds under the same treatment, and yet it does not .show the entire
advantage that may be obtained by drained over undrained land, because
it is possible that the drain a also partially drained the distant ridges c and
€/ and this being possible, together with the circumstance that none of the
ridges had a drain on each side, it cannot be maintained that either the
absolute or the comparative drying power of these 4 -feet drains was ex-
actly ascertained by this experiment.* It may be conceived, however, that
* Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. viii.
(683)
DRAINING. 347
if the drains had been put into every other, instead of every fourth, furrow,
that the produce of all the ridges would have been alike, inasmuch as ev-
ery ridge would then have been placed in the same relative position to a
drain ; and the conjecture seems so reasonable that most farmers, from
what I observe of their practice, act upon this plan as from a settled opin-
ion. But such a conjecture, not having been founded upon experience,
cannot have the force of an opinion, especially when opposed to the great
probability that, ccstcris paribus, land must be more effectually drained by
a drain in every furrow than at greater distances ; as it is not supposable
that the open fuiTows of b and d can be so thoroughly drained as the fur-
row a, which contains the drain itself; because it is obvious that the one
side of a ridge should be less effectually drained than the other, which, if
of a retentive subsoil, may not be affected at all. All, then, that has been
demonstrated by this experiment is this, and the proof I consider is impor
tant, that a drain — a deep one though it be — will draw water more effect-
ually across one than across two ridges ; and it should be useful to you as
a guide against imitating the practice of those who seem to believe that a
drain cannot have too much to do.
(764.) While taking this view of the subject, I cannot agree in the ad-
vice which Mr. Smith gives when he says, " In cases where time or capi-
tal are wanting to complete the drainage at once, each alternate drain may
be executed in the first instance, and the remainder can be done in the
next time the field is to be broken up."* I would much rather use the
words of Mr. Stirling, of Glenbervie, where he says that " I think it a great
error to make the half the number of drains required at first, with the
intention of putting one between each at a future period. Let what is
drained be done as thoroughly as the farmer's exchequer will allow ; the
farm will be gone over in as short a time, and rnuch more profitably." —
The reason which Mr. Stirling gives for holding this opinion is a true and
practical one — namely, because " a tid (or proper condition of the ground
for harrowing) cannot be taken advantage of on the drained funow until
the other is dry, and the benefit of an extended period for performing the
various operations of the farm is thus lost."t Eveiy farmer who has stud-
ied the influence Avhich soil possesses over crops will be ready to allow
that wet soil does much more injury to the dry soil in its neighborhood
than dry soil does good to the wet. I would, under every circumstance
of season and soil, pi-efer having the half of my farm thoroughly drained,
than the whole of it only half drained.
(765.) At whatever distances drains are placed, they should run nearly
at right angles to the main drains. Excepting in confined hollows, ha\ing
steep ascents on both sides, the drains should run parallel with the ridges,
and always parallel with themselves, in the drainage of the same plane of
the field. Drains should be carried through the whole length of the field,
irrespective of the wet or dry appearances of parts of it ; because uniform
and complete dryness is the object aimed at by draining, and portions of
land that seem dry at one time may be injuriously wet at others, and these
may seem dry on the surface when the subsoil may be in a state of injuri-
ous wetness.
(766.) Regarding the direction lohich the drains should run in reference
to the inclination of the ground, so as to diy the land most effectually, much
diversity of opinion at one time existed ; but I believe most farmers are
now of the opinion that it should follow the inclination of the ground. —
The late Mr. Stephens maintained, and as I think erroneously, that as it
* Smith's Remarks on Thorough Draining, 4th edirion.
t Prize Essays of the Highlandand Asricultural Society, vol. xii.
(683)
348
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
is evidont that water within the earth, or on the surface, seeks a level
where the fall throu'jfh the porous sulisoil is greatest ; therefore a drain
made across the slope i»r declivity of a field, or any ])ieco of land, will un-
doubtedly intercept more water than when it is carried straight up the
bank or rising ground ; and this principle, he says, holds good in every
case, whether "the drain be made to receive surface or subteiraneous wa-
ter." I confess I cannot arrive at the conclusion from the premises. He
reiterates the same opinion more generally, and apparently more j)racti-
cally, in these words : " Drains winding across the slope or declivity of a
field, whatever their number or depth may be, their efl'ect upon tenacious
or impervious substrata will 1)e much greater than if they were made
straight up and down the slope ; and when the soil is mixed with thin
strata of fine sand, which is the case in nine times out of ten, the efl'ect will
be increased in proportion ; and, accordingly, a much less number will an-
swer the purpose, the expense will be gieatly lessened, and the land and
occupier much more benefited in every respect."* Mr. Smith opposes
this opinion, and, what is remarkable, uses the same illustration to refute
it, in regard to the property of water and the structure of the substratum,
as Mr. Stephens did in support of his views. " Drains," says he, " drawn
across a steep, cut the strata or layers of subsoil transversely ; and, as the
stratification generally lies in sheets at an angle to the surface (see fig. 169),
the water passing in or between the strata, immediately below the bottom
of one drain, nearly comes to the surface before reaching the next lower
drain. But, as water seeks the lowest level in all directions, if the strata
be cut longitudinally by a drain directed down the steeps, the bottom of
which cuts each stratum to the same distance from the surface, the water
will flow into the drain at the intersecting point of each sheet or layer, on
a level with the bottoiji of the drain, leaving one uniform depth of diy
soil."t Without taking any other element at present into the argument
than the sinfjle proposition in hydraulics that water seeks the lowest level
in all directions, adduced by Mr. Stephens himself, I shall prove the accu-
Fig. 167.
^^
THB COMPARATIVE EFFICACY OF DKA1.N3 ACROSS AND ALONG RIDGES ON A DECLIVITY.
racy of Mr. Smith's cotidusions by simply refening to fig. 167, which rep-
resents a part of a field all having the same, and that a steep acclivity, and
Stephens's Practical Irrigator and Drainer.
(684)
\ Smilli's Remarks on Thorough DrainiDg.
DRAINING.
349
which is laid off in the ridges abed ef, up and down the slope ; but the
3 ridges a b c have drains across them, and the other 3 ridges have drains
parallel with them, the oblique drains being made at the same distance
from each other as the up and down ones, whatever that distance may be.
Nov/, when rain falls on and is absorbed by the ridges abed ef, it will
naturally make its way to the lowest level, that is, to the bottom of the
drains ; and, as the ground has the same declivity, the water will descend
according to the circumstances which are px-esented to it by the positions
of the respective systems of drains. On the ridges d ef, having the drains
parallel to them, and up and down the inclination of the ground, the water
will take a diagonal direction toward the bottom of the drains, as indicated
by the deflected arrows at k ; and as ground has seldom only one plane
of declination, such as straight up and down, but more commonly two, an-
other in the dii'ection either from a toy or from yto a, it follows that the
one side, that is, the lower side of a ridge thus situated, will be sooner
drained than the other; but both sides will be soon drained, as maybe
seen in fig. 168, where ab are vertical sections of small drains, each 30
Fiff. 168.
THE DESCENT OF WATER FROM A RIDGE INIL) A DRAIN ON EACH SIDE.
inches deep ; c 1 foot of mould, in which the rain is absorbed as fast as it
falls upon the ridge, 15 feet broad, betwixt a and b. On being absorbed,
the rain, seeking the lowest level, will be hastened toward the drains a
and b in the direction o'l c d and c e — that is, by a fall of 30 inches in about
8 feet, which is a rapid fall of rather more than 1 in 3, and which rapid
fall, as is well known, will clear water quickly, and in the clearance of
which the drains have only each to draw a distance of half a ridge, or 71
feet. Whereas on the ridges ab c, which have oblique drains, a, I, g, fig.
167, the water will have to run in the direction of the arrows b and h, in
doing which it will have to traverse the entire breadth of the ground be-
twixt a and / or I and g, that is, 15 feet, just double the distance the other
drains have. But take the superficial view of the case, and suppose that
d,e, f, and a, I, g, are not drains, but open furrows, it is clear that, when
rain falls, the water will flow toward d, e, or f, as indicated by the arrows
at k — that is, 71 feet toward each furrow ; whereas the water that falls on
ac, I m, or g i, will have to run across the entire breadth of the ridge from
a to I, or from I to g, that is, 15 feet, just double the distance of the other,
before it can reach the open furrows. Or rather take the more profound
case, and trace the progress of the water through the substrata. Mr.
Thomson, Hangingside, Linlithgowshire, drained 150 acres of land having
an inchnation varying from 1 in 10 to 1 in 30. Portions of 3 fields had
drains put into them in 1828, 1829 and 1830, in the oblique direction, and,
finding them unsuccessful, he put them in the direction of the slope, like
the rest of the fields. " In order," says he, " to ascertain the cause of these
failures, a cut was made in the field first referred to, entering at a given
point, and carrying forward a level to a considerable depth, when it was
clearly seen that the substrata, instead of taking in any degree the inclina-
tion of the surface, lay horizontally, as represented in fig. 169. It is there-
fore obvious," he continues, " that in making drains across a sloping sur-
350 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
face, unless they are put in at the precise point where the substrata crop
out (and these are exceedingly irregular in pjoint of thickness), they may
in a great measure prove nugatorj' ; because, although one drain is near
rig. 169.
THE USUAL POSITION OF SUBSTRATA IN REFERENCE TO THE SURFACE SOIL.
another, from the rise of the ground, none of them may reach the point
sought ; whereas, in carrying a drain right up the direction of a slope, it
is impossible to miss the extremity of every substratum passed through."*
And although a drain in the oblique direction should cut through a vein of
sand as at /, fig. 168, and thereby carry off the water it contains, yet it
cannot be denied that the drains a and b will also cut through the said
vein — which, when they do, what is there to prevent the water in the vein
running toward the drains a and b on each side of the ridge toward f and
g 1 These observations of Mr. Thomson corroborate Mr. Smith's views,
in which I entirely concur.
(767.) In all cases of thorough draining there should a small drain con-
nect the tops of the drains at the upper end of the field. The object of
this drain is, in the first instance, to dn,- the upper head-ridge, and also to
protect the upper ends of the ridges from any oozings of water that might
come from the fence ditch, or from any rising ground beyond that end of
the field. If the fence ditch conveys no current of water, and the hedge-
roots lie away fi-om the fiald, and there are no hedge-row trees near at
hand, this drain may be made in the ditch itself, and the ends of the fur-
row-drains brought across the head-ridge to it ; but, should water or trees
be connected n-ith the ditch, the drain should be made on the head-ridge
not nearer than 3 yards from the ditch lip ; and it should be of the same
depth, though not deeper than the other drains.
(768.) ^V^len drains have a course along very long ridges, it is recom-
mended to run a sub-main drain in an oblique direction from side to side,
or rather only across all the lonsr ridges of the field, as represented by <• e
in fig. 163. The length of any drain, it is maintained, should not exceed
200 yards, without a sub-main drain to assist in carrying off the water ;
and the reasons assigned by Mr. Carmichael for requiring the assistance
of such a drain are, " because, if the fall is considerable, the bottom may
be endangered by the velocity and volume of water collected during con-
tinued rain ; or if the declivity be very limited, and the aperture small, the
drain is in dancjer of bursting from an impeded discharge ;" but a complete
answer to thene apprehensions is found in the very next sentence, namely,
" the rule is to apportion the area of all drains to their lene^h, decli^^ty,
and distance from each other."t It is quite time what Mr. Smith says on
the subject, that " some people are still prone to the practice of throwing
in a cross-drain, or to branches going off at right angles, which are of no
farther avail in dryine the land, while they increase the lencfth of drain
without a proportionate increase of the area drained,"| Should the want,
however, of proper sized tiles, in any particular part of a field, where the
quantity of water is greater than over the ordinary surface of the farm.
• Prize E«»iy» of the Highlatx] and Airricultur«l Society, vol. xiil. t Ibid, toI. xii.
\ Smith'* Remu-k* on Thorough Draining
{6S6)
DRAINING. 351
induce you to incur the expense of a sub-main drain, rather than run the
risk of injuring the land by the dreaded insufficiency of the drains below,
it should be directed across the field as shown by e in fig. 163, where, if
cut of the same depth as the other small drains, those below should be dis-
joined from it by a naiTow strip of gi-ound in the line of e to e ; but a
much better plan is to make the sub-main 6 inches deeper than the rest
of the drains, where it can be so deepened, and it will intercept the water
coming from the ground above, while the drains will pass continuously
over it. In such a case, when the s'ub-main e falls into the small drain h d
at the side of the field at e, that pait of the latter below e io s should be
converted into a sub-main, which should be larger than small drains, though
sub-mains need not be so capacious as main drains ; but, in truth, in such
an arrangement as this, sub-mains become mains, inasmuch as they convey
as great a quantity of water.
(769.) The experimental cuts having been made, you become acquainted
with the nature of the subsoil, and determine upon the depth of the drains ;
then cutting should be proceeded with forthwith, and this part of the work
is best and most satisfactorily done by contracting with an experienced
spadesman, at so much per rood of 6 yards.* The rates of cutting are
generally well understood in the country. Let me impress upon you, in
the matter of making a contract, the great satisfaction you will feel in en-
gaging stout, active and skillful men ; for although you may find men able
to work a hard day's work, if they are nevertheless unskillful and inexpe-
rienced, you will experience many difficulties. Such men willingly take
on work at low rates ; but you will find it conducive to your interest rather
to give such rates as yv\\\ enable skillful workmen to earn good wages, than
save a little money by employing rough, bungling hands ; for there is
no comparison between the advantages derivable from good and bad
work.
(770.) The cutting of the drains is commenced by that of the main drain
which terminates at the outlet, and the operation is commenced at the out-
let, or lowest part of the field. The commencement of the operation is
done in the same way as pointed out in the drains of the Elkington meth-
od— namely, by stretching the garden-line, and rutting off the breadth at
top with the common spade by the principal man of the party. A second
man then removes the top-mould with the spade ; and if the subsoil is of
strong clay, or tiles alone are to be used in filling the drains, he lays the
mould on one side of the drain, and the subsoil on the other. In othei
kinds of soils and subsoils, and where stones are to be used in conjunction
with tiles, the separation of the soils is not necessary. The I'easons for
this distinction in the use of the soils will be given a little farther on. The
principal man, or contractor, follows, and shovels off all the mould, work-
ing with his face to the first man. A third man — for the gang or set of
drainers should consist of 3, for expeditious and clean work — -loosens the
top of the subsoil with the tramp-pick, fig. 37, and proceeds backward with
the picking, while the other men are removing the mould along the break
or division measured off by the line, perhaps 60 or 70 yards. The second
man then removes the loosened subsoil with the spade in fig. 170, which
is nan-ower than the common spade, being 6 inches wide at the point, dig-
ging with his back to the face of the picker — that is, working backward ;
and the leading man follows \vith a narrow-pointed shovel, fig. 38, called
* It would be extremely convenient and hiiihly satisfactorj' were the lineal measure of the rood, in which
all countrj' work is estimated, fixed of the same lenjth throughout the kingdom, as the great diversities ex-
isting in this measure are truly perplexing I cannot see the utility of a general law on weights and meaa-
ures, if such anomalies as this, and many others, are allowed to exist
352
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
the ditcher's or hedger's shovel, with which he trims the sides of the drain,
and shovels out the loose part of the subsoil left by the digger.
(771.) Sliould the drain be very wet, owing to a great fall of ^'8- ^'0.
xain, or the cut draw much water from the norosity of the sub-
Boil, to secure a proper consistence to the drain, it is better to
leave off the digging at this stage of the work, and proceed to
eet off another length of line at the top ; and, indeed, in such
circumstances, it would be expedient to remove the top of the
whole length of the particular drain in hand, to allow the wa-
ter time to run off, and the sides of the drain to harden, as per-
severance in digging to the bottom, in the circumstances, would
be attended with risk of the sides falling in to a considerable
extent. This precaution in digging drains is the more neces-
sary to be adopted in digging narrow shallow drains than deep
ones, as planks cannot be used in them to support the falling
sides, as in fig. 154, because the men could not find room in
small drains to work helow the wedges which kecj) up the
planks. Should the ground be firm, or no inconvenient quan-
tity of water be present in the drain, the digging, of course,
may properly be proceeded with to the bottom at once.
(772.) To effect this, the picking is renewed at the lower '^"'^ narrow
part of the drain, and another spit of earth thrown out with a
still narrower though of the same form of spade as in the last figure, being
only 4 inches wide at the point. The leading man trims do\\Ti the sides
of the drain with this spade, and pulls out the remaining loose earth to-
ward hira wifb the scoor such as in fig. 171 ; or throws it out with such a
Fig. 171.
THE EARTH DUAIN SCOOP.
Bcoop as in fig. 152 ; and thus finishes the bottom and sides in a neat, even,
clean, square, and workmanlike style.
^ (773.) What with the experimental cuts, and the.'^e first two spits of dig-
ging below the mould, you will be easily able to determine the drawing
property of the subsoil, and, consequently, the depth the drain should go.
If the subsoil prove tilly, but still drawing a little water below the mould
downward, the drain i^liould certainly be 3 feet deep, and 15 inches wide
at top; if of intermixed and minute veins of sand, and otherwise of good
drawing materials, then 30 inches of depth will sufl^ce, and 12 inches of
width at top ; if of quite impervious clay, 2 feet deep and 10 inches of
(688) .
DRAINING. 353
width at top will be found sufficient. It is right to cut the drain a little
deeper where there is any sudden rise of the surface, and a little shallower
where there are any sudden hollows, than to follow the undulations of the
ground where these are trifling. As to the distances betwixt the drains
in the first case of a tilly but drawing bottom, 15 feet asunder is, in my
opinion, quite wide enough. In the second case of a drawing subsoil,
drains at 30 feet asunder will effect as much as in the former case. And,
as to pure clays, as 15 feet is too wide a distance, I would pi-efer 12 feet ;
but, to suit the ridges, there should be a drain in every open furrow, what-
ever distance asunder these may be.
(774.) In filling drains, it is a common practice with farmers to put in
the materials as tlie drain proceeds in the digging — which, I conceive, is
an objectionable proceeding. I think the whole length of the particular
drain in hand should be entirely cleared out to the specified dimensions
before the filling commence ; because it is necessary, in the first place, that
the state of the work be inspected, in accordance with the specification,
before taking it off" the contractor's hands ; and inspection implies meas-
urement of the contents in depth and breadth, and the fall of the bottom —
whether it be regular throughout, where the slope of the ground is regu-
lar, or sufficient, where the general fall of the gi'ound is small; or whether
the fall is presei-ved in all the places where the ground is irregular. These
are not trifling considerations, but essential ; so much so, indeed, that the
very efficacy of a drain as a conductor of water entirely depends upon
them.
(775.) The fall of the ground can at any time be ascertained by the
workmen by a simple contrivance. As the bottom of the drain is cleared
out, a damming of 4 to 6 inches high Avill intercept and collect the water
seeking its way along the bottom, and by this it can be seen whether the
level line of the water cuts the bottom of the drain as far up as it should
do according to the specified fall ; and a succession of such dammings will
preserve the fall all the way up the drain. When the weather is very dry,
and a sufficiency of water wanting in the drain to adopt this mode of test-
ing the fall, a few buckets of water thrown in will detect it, and of course
it is only on comparatively level ground that such expedients as these are
at all required.
(776.) Another reason for filling drains in this shallow mode of draining,
where they are necessarily numerous, is from the upper to the lower eiwT
— and not from the lower to the upper, as is too commonly the practice —
that the bottom of the drain should be cleared out most effectually with the
scoop before the materials are put in, and this is best and most easily done
down the natural declivity of the gi'ound; and besides, in doing this it is
at once seen whether the fall has been preserved, by the following of the
water down the declivity. In deep draining the case is otherwise, because
in that case the drains being few in number, and each possessing impor-
tance, the falls should be previously determined by leveling^ and the
amount of each leveling marked, by which means they can be' preserved
as the filling proceeds ; and, besides, there would be risk of a de«p drain,
which may be of considerable length, and take a long time to throw out,
falling in, to allow it to remain open for a length of time.
(777.) Of the materials for filling drams, I shall first notice stones, not
only because they have hitherto been the most common material, but have
been for the longest time employed for the purpose. Drain stones are
usually derived from two sources : 1. From the surface of the land ; and
when they are small and round, not exceeding the size of a goose's <d%g,
no other material is equal to them in durability for the purposes of a drain ;
(689) 33
354
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
and, 2. From the quarry, where they must be broken with hammers, like
road-metal, to the smallness of from 2^ to 4 inches in diameter. It is a
pernicious, and, indeed, an obviously absurd practice, to mix promiscu-
ously stones of different sizes in a drain, as such can never assort together,
and nothing can be more absurd than to throw in a stone which nearly fills
up the bottom of a drain, and is sure to make a dam across it to intercept
water. All large land-stones should be broken into small pieces, and any
large, angular piece should not be put near the bottom, which should be
kept as open as possible. Stones broken in the quany are always angu-
lar, and in so far they are of an objectionable shape ; because on fitting
together, face to face, they can become a more compact body than round
stones possibly can. No doubt, no ordinary pressure u])on a body of earth
18 inches deep could squeeze small, broken stones together so as entirely
to compress the spaces between them ; but gravity, continually acting on
loose bodies, will in time consolidate small stones more and more ; and
heavy labor on the surface, and subsidence of water through the earth,
assist by their action to produce a similar result ; and we all know that
macadamization makes a much more compact road than the old fashioned
large, round stones.
(778.) Stones should never be broken at the side of the drain. I quite
agree with Mi-. Stirling when he says that " I prefer breaking stones in a
bin. It is more easy to check the size, and it is done cheaper, as other-
wise each heap has to be begun on the sward, and many of the stones are
forced into the ground, which adds to the difficulty of lifting them. There
will be a saving in carting the stones large, but it will be fully balanced by
this disadvantage. I would deprecate of all practice that of breaking the
stones in the field, and filling by the chain. This may be contracted for
Fig. 172.
THI DRAIN STONK HARP OR SCRKEV.
at a low rate, but it is easy to guess how the contractor makes wages."*
But although I would greatly prefer small, round stones to angular ones
• Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural .Society, vol. xiL
(690)
DRAINING.
355
for drains, yet as the places that afford small, round stones naturally are
very limited in number, and draining, if confined to such localities, would
be as limited, it is far better to take any sort of quan'ied stones than leave
land undrained, and there is no doubt that almost every sort of stones forms
an efficient and durable dx'ain if employed in a proper manner.
(779.) As I am acquainted vv^ith no drainer who has bestowed so much
pains in the breaking, preparing, and putting in stones into drains as Mr.
Roberton, I shall describe his method of managing quarried stones ; and
first in regard to the implements used by him for that purpose. 1. There
is a portable screen or harj) for riddling and depositing the stones, as seen
in fig. 172, which consists of " a wheelbarrow a, over and across which is
suspended a screen h, having the bars more or less apart, according to the
description of materials intended to be used. The upper end is hung up-
on two posts c c about 3 feet above the barrow ; the lower end rests upon
the opposite side of the barrow. To this lower end is affixed a spout d,
attached about 10 inches from the lower extremity of which is a board e,
by means of two arms f. Another screen g, about one-half the length,
and having the bars about half an inch apart, is hung parallel, about 10
inches below the larger one. The upper end of g is fixed by means of
two small iron bars li to the upper end of the larger screen ; the lower end
rests upon a board i sloping outward upon the side of the barrow opposite
to that on which the spout d is situate." 2. A movable trough, or, as it is
commonly called, a tail-hoard, a, fig. 173, is attached to the hind part of a
Fig. 173.
THE TAIL-BOARD TROUGH FOR RECEIVING THE DRAIN STONES IN THEIR FALL.
cart, for the purpose of receiving any stones that may drop while the work •
men are shoveling them out of the cart. A portion of the hind part of a
cart h shows the manner in which it is affixed to it. 3. Fig. 174 is a smaW
Fig. 174.
THE DRAIN STONE RAKE.
iron rahe, used by the workman in charge of the screen, " for the purpos^*
(691)
356
THE BOOK OF THE FAKM WINTER.
Fig. 175.
of making the surface of the larger stones of a uniform hight before being
covered with the smaller." 4. Fig. 175 is called a " beater, Yfhich is a
square piece of wood the width of the drain, used for
beating the smaller stones into the interstices of the
larger ones, and thus leveling the surface of the drain."*
(780.) The stones are put in in this manner: The
eaith is all put on one side of the drain. The baiTow-
Bcreen is placed on the other, so as the board e, fig.
172, attached to the lower end of the spout d, shall
reach the opposite side of the drain k. The cart, with
a load of broken stones from the bin, is brought to the
same side of the drain as the barrow, and a little in
advance, and there the tail-board a, fig. 173, is attached
to the hinder part of it. The carter then shovels the
stones out of the cart, and empties them over the top
of the screen. In doing this, some care is requisite ;
for, if the stones are thrown over the screen with force,
they will not alight sooner than half-way down the
screen, and thus its screening efficacy will be impaired.
The proper method is to rest the shovel on the top of
the screen, which part should be shod with plate-iron,
and merely turn it over, by which a separation of the
stones is at once effected — the larger ones, rolling
down, strike against the board e, fig. 172, and drop
into the middle of the drain, without disturbing the
earth on either side. The smaller ones, at the same time, pass through
the upper screen b, and, being separated from the rubbish by falling on the
lower screen g, roll down into the barrow a, while the rubbish descends to
the ground on the side of the barow farthest from the drain.
(781.) The best form of shovel for putting the stones over the top of the
screen is what is called a frying-pan or lime shovel, represented by fig. 176,
THE DRAIN STONS
BEATER.
Fig. 176.
THE FRYING-PAN OR LIME-SHOVEI..
the raised back of which keeps the stones in a collected form until they aie
turned over the screen, and its point secures an easy access along the bot-
tom of the cart under the stones. Such shovels are much in use for spread-
ing lime and shoveling up the bottoms of dunghills in the border counties
of Scotland, and they cost 3s. lOd. each of medium size, ready for use.
(782.) One man takes charge of the filling of the drain. His duties are
to move the baiTow forward along its side, a.s the larger stones are filled
to the required hight ; to level them with the rake, fig. 174 ; to shovel the
smaller stones from the barrow, spread them regularly over the top of the
larger, and beat them down with the beater, fig. 175, so as to form a close
and level surface through which no earth may pass. When the stones are
broken in the quarry so as to pass through a ring 4 inches in diameter, a
quarter of them is so small, or should be made so small, as to pass through
• Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vtL xiv.
(692)
DRAINING,
367
the wires of the upper screen h, fig. 172, which are If inches apart ; and
they then will be found sufficient to give the top of the drain a covering of
2 or 3 inches deep, which, being beaten closely down, requires neither
straw, turf, or anything else fo cover them.
(783.) With regard to covering with vegetable substances, Mr. Roberton
says, with much probable truth, that " the only possible use of a covering
of straw or turf is to prevent any of the earth, when thrown back into the
drain, getting down among the stones ; but it is evident that such a cover-
ing will soon decay, and then it becomes really injurious, because, being
lighter (and finer) than the soil, it will, when decomposed, be easily earned
down by any water that may fall directly upon the drain ; and, if the sur-
face of the stones has been broken so small as to prevent the drain sustain-
ing any injury in this way, then the covering itself must be altogether su-
perfluous. But farther, it will be found that the effect of this practice, ir
many cases, is still more injurious. When drains are filled in the usua'
way, whether \vith land or quarried stones, a man, or sometimes a woman
is appointed to level the surface and put on the straw or turf; and the per-
son appointed to this duty knows that his master expects him to do a cer-
tain number of roods per day, and, finding the stones difficult to break, he
too frequently contents himself with merely leveling the surface, and, by
means of the covering, the fault is effectually concealed. By the method,
however, of separating the small stones from the large, the whole expense
of this sort of breaking is saved, and a covering is given to the drain on
which time will produce no change."* I have often grudged fine straw
being wasted in covering drains, when less valuable materials might have
been collected for the purpose, such as dry leaves, dry quickens, tanner's
refiise bark when near towns, coarse bog hay, broken moss, &c. I never
would suffer a particle of good straw to be wasted in covering drains.
(784.) A drain completed in this manner with stones may be seen in fig.
177. The dimensions given by Mr. Roberton are 33 inches deep, 7 inches
wide at bottom, and 9 inches wide at the bight of
the stones, which is 15 inches ; and within these
dimensions 15 cubic feet of stones will fill a rood
of 6 yards of drain. Mr. Stirling has 30 inches deep
in the furrows, 5 inches wide at bottom, and 8 inches
wide at 15 inches from the bottom ; the contents
of a rood of 6 yards being rather more than 12 cu-
bic feet. The figure here represents a drain 36
inches deep, 9 inches wide at bottom, 12 inches at
the top of the stones, and the stones 18 inches deep.
These dimensions give cubical contents of 23^ feet
per rood of 6 yards ; that is, about half as many
stones more than the drains of Mr. Roberton, and
of course so much more expensive. I own I am
partial to the breadth of the common spade as a
gauge for the width of the bottom of a drain that is
to be filled with stones, because it gives plenty of
room to them to form a durable stony filter, which with small broken stones
7 inches can scarcely do so well, especially when
they are broken to 4 inches in diameter. I am quite persuaded, neverthe-
less, that the permanency of a drain does not depend so much on the quan-
tity as upon the manner in which the stones are put into it ; and I am as
Fig. 177
THE SMALL DRAI.V FILLED
well persuaded that it is no matter what description of materials are used,
* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultuial Society, vol. xiv.
(693) '
358 THE DOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
provitled there is always left an open and large enough space at the bot-
tom to contain the greatest quantity of water that the drain can possibly
have to receive, and provided also that the opening shall be protected from
any earth or mud getting in to intercept the flow of water. Yet I agree
with Mr. Stirling that our experience is not sufficient to prove what is the
smallest size that a drain might be to be j)crmancnt. In which uncertainty
it should be of sufficient breadth to prevent moles pushing across it ; and
this consideration regarding moles acquires greater importance the more
the land is drained ; for, the deeper we confine water vtidcr the ground,
the deeper will the worms b6 obliged to go in search of it, and of course
the nearer the bottom of the drains will the moles be disposed to buiTow
in search of their food. Mr. Stirling proposes only to make the bottom of
the drain 5 inches, but then he directs the stones to be broken to pass
through a ring of 2^ inches diameter. Such diversity of opinion on the
same subject shows you either that expei-ience has not as yet proved what
capacity of drain is the best, or that it is immaterial to the draining of land
of what breadth drains are made. The principle I maintain in the making
of drains is, that, being permanent works, they ought to be made in the
most substantial manner. It has not yet been ascertained by experiment
what dimensions, in given ciiTumstances, affi)rd sufficient permanency, and
until that point has been settled it is wisdom rather to exceed than to cur-
tail the dimensions ; and, although in the mean time the wisdom may be
" dear bought," the question of cost is a secondary one to efficiency and
permanency.
(785.) With regard to the quantity of stones wscd in such drains, and the
time required for putting them in, Mr. Roberton's experience is, in drains
of the above dimensions, namely, 33 inches deep, 7 inches wide at bottom,
15 inches filled with stones, and 9 inches wide at the top of the stones —
the cubical contents being 15 feet per rood of G yards — supposing that a
set of carts, driven by boys or women, are alile to keep a man employed
in unloading them, and another man taking charge of the screen-barrow,
60 to 70 roods can be filled in a summer day of 10 hours ; but, as the lin-
eal length depends on the dimensions of the drain, the work, reduced to
cubical contents, gives 3^ cubic yards j)er hour. These data were derived
from whole pieces of work, such as in 1840 Mr. Roberton contracted for,
for the execution of 4,000 roods, the filling to commence on the 1st July
and to be completed on the 12th August. There were 2 sets of carts and
2 screens employed, and the contractors had some stones ready and part
of the drains half executed by the 1st July. When the filling commenced
66 roods were finished every day — that is, as it haj)pened, a stretch of drain
of exactly 400 yards ; but, as the weather was very unfavorable for the
work, only 3,300 roods, instead of 4,000, were executed, in which about
2,000 cubic yards of stones were bui-ied. In 1839, of drains of 28 inches
deep, 10 to 12 inches of stones in depth, and about 10 cubic feet contents
per rood, 2,100 roods, or from 90 to 110 roods jier day, were filled, with
1 set of carts and 1 screen, from 1st July to 5th August.
(786.) In Mr. Stirling's case of the drains mentioned above, namely, 30
inches deep in the furrow, 5 inches wide at bottom, and 8 inches at the top
of the stones — which were 15 inches deep, and their cubical contents 12.3
feet per rood of 6 yards, the stones being supposed to be carted 1 mile —
2 men filled 60 caits of broken stones each day, allowing for loss of time
in backing into the bin of stones ; a man emptied a cart-load into the drain
in 15 minutes, and was ready to return with the cart in 2 minutes more,
the horse being supposed to walk at the rate c}f 3 miles per hour. In this
way, a chain of 22 yards, or 3.66 roods, required 3 carts of stones.
(694)
DRAINING. 359
(787.) So much for stone, and now for the cost of tile-draining. The
dimensions of tile-drains depend entirely on the mode they are to be con-
structed. If no soles are to be employed, they may be the narrower ; and
if nothing else but tile and sole are to be put into them before the earth is
returned, they may be the shallower. If the same rule be followed in re-
gard to them as with stone-drains — that is, if 18 inches of earth should be
retained over the hard materials, to give liberty to deep plowing — then 18
inches, added to the tile and covering, is the least depth that a tile-drain
should have ; and its least breadth is determined by the breadth of sole
that is used.
(788.) As the dimensions of these drains depend on the use of soles, the
necessity for their adoption should be settled at once. It seems to be the
uniform opinion of all writers on tile-draining that, " in hard-bottomed
land, the sole-tile is unnecessary ; but why unnecessary, as I have before
observed, no one has proved to mi/ satisfaction. Water being the sub-
stance to whose use drains are appropriated, I may mention, in regard to
the quantity that may sometimes be found in drains, that Mr. Stirling has
found that, after a veiy heavy fall of rain, tiles of 2f by 31 inches are filled
with water nearly ^ full ;* and yet writers on draining wish to persuade
you that such a body of water will not at all affect a clay subsoil or endan-
ger the stability of tiles. I advise you to believe no such assertions, but
take for granted that all drains having an earthy bottom of whatever na-
ture, intended to be occupied by tiles, should have soles, or something
equivalent — such as slates — under the tiles, to protect the earth from the
destructive effects of water. Mr. Geoi'ge Bell, Woodhouselees, Dumfries-
shire, has used Welsh slates instead of tile-soles, and found them equally
efficacious and much cheaper.^ Gray slate and pavement quarries, such
as abound in Forfarshire, \\'Ould supply an abundance of excellent materi-
als for the soles of drains.
(789.) The breadth of the sole, then, determines the width of the bottom
of the drain ; and, should the breadth vary in different parts of the coun-
try, the width must in practice be made to suit the sole, but it is probable
that soles vs-ill be made to suit the proper bi-eadth of drains, when that has
been determined by experience. But as that point has not yet been deter-
mined by experience, and soles are made of sizes most convenient for their
manufacture, the drains must continue to be made of the dimensions suited
to the materials by which they are to be filled, until a better order of things
arrive. I perceive that the breadth of soles made in the neighborhood of
Kilmarnock, at the tile-kilns belonging to the Duke of Portland, in Ayr-
shire, as well as those made by Mr. Boyle, tile-maker in Ayr, is 7 inches ;
and this breadth is made to answer tiles varying from 4 to 3 inches in
width, inside measure. For a 4-inch tile, a naiTower width than 7 inches
would not answer ; as the tile is ^ of an inch thick, only \ of an inch is left
beyond each side of the tile when placed on the sole, which is as little
space as it can stand on securely. For the smaller sized tile of 3 inches,
the width is ample ; but still it is no disadvantage to a tile to have plenty
of room on a sole, as its position can easily be fixed by wedging in stones
on each side against the walls of the drain, when stones are used above
the tiles ; or it leaves sufficient room for a lapping of turf over, and wedg-
ing of earth on each side of, the top of the tile. In the case of a 5-inch-
vvide drain at bottom, the smallest size of tile, 2\ inches wide inside, must
be used, as only |^ of an inch would be left on each side of that width of
* Prize Essays of the Highland and .-isricultural Society, vol. xii. t Ibid. vol. siii.
(695)
360 THE BOOK OP THE FARM WINTER.
tile. I am aware that to press the tile into the drain, made tight to fit it,
without a tile-sole, is a very common practice among drainers ; hut the
practice of pressing hard against the sides of the drain is, in my opinion,
objectionable, inasmuch as it is not the hard tile, but the free side of the
drain, that draws the water from the land ; and to press a hard sul)stance
like a tile against the earth in a shnlloic cut, is very like an attempt to
curtail the extent of di-awing surface. The inducement to use such expe-
dients would be greatly removed were soles made to suit each description
of tile; and, what would be still better, were the sizes of tiles more limit-
ed in their range, and more uniformly alike ; fur, as at present made, a
great diversity of sizes exists throughout the country, in the area of verti-
cal section as well as in length, so that the prices quoted afford no true
criterion of their intrinsic worth.
(790.) Soles are usually made flat, but Mr. Boyle makes them cur red ;
not because they are better suited for the purpose, but merely because
they are more easily dried in the sheds ; but a curs-ed sole is objectiona-
ble, as it is more difficult to form a smooth bed for it to lie upon, and it is
more apt to break when it happens not to be firmly laid upon its bed than
a flat sole.
(791.) As to tiles, their perfect form is thus well described by Mr. Boyle :
"All tiles should be a fourth higher than wide; the top rather quickly
turned, and the sides nearly perpendicular. Tiles which are made to
spread out at the lower edge, and flat on the top, are weak, and bad for
conveying water. Some people prefer tiles with flanges instead of soles ;
but, if placed even in a drain with a considerably hard bottom, the mould-
ering of the subsoil by the currents of air and water causes them to sink
and get deranged."* Tiles should be smooth on the surface, heavy, firm,
and ring like cast-iron when struck with the knuckle. They should be so
strong when set as to allow a man not only to stand, but to leap upon
them without breaking. The introduction of machinery' into the manufac-
ture of drain-tiles, by compressing the clay, and working it thoroughly in
a pug-mill to prepare it for being compressed, has greatly tended to in-
crease the strength of tiles. I have seen drain-tiles so rough, spongy,
crooked, and thin, as to be shivered to pieces by a night's frost when laid
down beside the drain. The use of machinery has caused a great deal
more clay to be put into them, and their greater substance has been the
cause of improvement in the construction of kilns, in which they are now
burned to a uniform texture, as well as some avoidance of breakage in the
manufacture ; by all which, of course, their cost is lessened. An under-
burnt as well as an over-burnt tile is bad, the former being spongy and ab-
sorbing water, and ultimately falling down ; and the latter is so brittle as
to break when accidentally struck against any object.
(792.) The Icngt/i of drain-tiles varies in diflerent parts of the country.
Mr. Boyle's are 13 inches; the Duke of Portland's, in Ayrshire, and Mr.
Beart's, Godmanchester, Hertfordshire, 12 inches ; and those from the
Marquis of Tweeddale's machine, 14 inches, when burnt. If the price is
the same per 1,000, of course the 14-inch tile is cheaper than the 12-inch,
but otherwise the 12-inch is the handiest article in the manufacture, as be-
ing less apt to waste in handling, and twist when in the kiln ; and their
number is much more easily calculated in anv given length of drain. The
following table shows the numbers of tiles required for an imperial acre
of the different lengths made, and placed at the stated distances :
Prize Esuyi of the Hlghlind and Ag^ricultnnJ Society, roL xU.
1696)
DRAINING.
361
12 ill.
13 in.
14 in.
15 in.
Drains at 12 feet apart require 3630
3351
3111
2904 per acre.
,,
15
2904
2681
2489
2323
18
2420
2234
2074
1936
21
2074
1914
1777
16.=>9
24
1815
1675
1556
1452
..
27
1613
1480
1383
1291
..
30
1452
1340
1245
1162
33
1320
1218
1131
1056
.,
36
1210
1117
1037
968
The numbers of each length of tile required at intermediate distances can
easily be calculated from these data.
(793.) I give here a representation of a well-formed drain-tile, and how
tiles should be set on soles, as in fig. 178, where a and b are two 12-inch
Fig. 178.
THE DRAIN-TILES PROPERLY SET UPON TILE-SOLES.
tiles, of the correct shape described in paragraph (791) by Mr. Boyle. —
They are represented as set upon the sole-tiles c ; and, to insui'e a contin-
uation of the same relation between tile and sole, the former should stand
upon part of two of the latter, making the joinings of the tiles intermediate
with those of the soles, the latter being also 12 inches in length. The
drain-tiles used for draining the estate of Netherby, in Cumberland, be-
longing to Sir James Graham, Bart., and represented in vol. vii. p. 392 of
the Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, are more
pointed in the arch than these, but, on that account, are not so strong in
the shoulder to bear a weight upon them. It is the practice of some tile-
drainers to put a \ sole under every joining of 2 tiles, leaving the interme-
diate space of the bottom without any sole, imagining that this will insure
sufficient steadiness to tiles on what they call hard clay, while only half
the number of soles are used ; but I hope I have said enough on the hard-
ness of clay when in contact with water, for you to avoid so precarious a
practice.
(794.) There is a mode of joining tiles in drains that meet one another
that deserves attention. The usual practice is to break a piece off the
corner of 1 or 2 main-drain tiles, where the tiles of the common drains
should be connected with them. In breaking off corners, thei'e is risk of
breaking the entire tile ; and, no doubt, many are broken when subjected
to this treatment. Another plan is to set 2 main-drain tiles so far asunder
as the inside width of a common-drain tile, and the opening on the other
side of the tiles, if not occupied in the same manner by the tiles of another
drain, is filled up with pieces of broken tiles or stones, or any other hard
substance. It is possible that the broken piece of tile, so placed, may be
farther broken or dislodged by the returning of the earth and the action
of moles, which may push in earth at that part, and render all above it
useless. This is, perhaps, a better plan than running the risk of breaking
a number of tiles, and, after all, failing in making the opening suitable for
the reception of the adjoining drain-tiles. Both plans, however, are highly
objectionable, and should never be resorted to where tiles, formed for the
purpose of receiving others in their sides, can be procured, Mr. Boyle,
of Ayr, makes main-drain tiles with openings on purpose to receive the
(697)
362
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
THE JUNCTION OF A COMMON TIL!
WITH A MAIN-DRAIN ONE.
shouldered end of the furrow-tiles ,* and to answer a similar purpose in
particular situations, where such tiles cannot be conveniently joined, he
makes i and \ lengths of main and furrow
tiles, which may be so arranged in regard f's- 1'^-
to one another's position as to conjoin the
openings of both at the same place. Fig.
179 represents the mode of joining a com-
mon drain with a main-drain tile, having an
opening in its side. The common tile b is
not inserted entirely into the main-drain tile
a, but only placed against it, with a small
shoulder, that the openings of both tiles may
be always in conjunction.
(795.) The outlet forms the end of the
main drain, and its proper place deserves
serious consideration. There should be a
decided fall from the outlet, whether it is affected by natural or artificial
means. If it be very small — and I have already stated (751) that a small
fall is all that is lequisite — that is, 1 foot in 150 feet, or 3 feet in the mile,
as indicated by the spirit level — the open ditch into which the main drain
issues should be scoured deep en«ugh for the purpose, even for a consid-
erable distance ; and when this expedient is adopted, it will be requisite
to see every year that the outlet is kept open, and the ditch scoured as
often as necessary for the purpose.
(796.) It is a frequent charge of neglect against
farmers, that they allow open ditches almost to
fill up before they are again scoured out ; and a
not unfreiiuent excuse for the neglect is, that
scouring of ditches to any extent incurs consider-
able labor and expense. No doubt they do, and
no wonder, since so much work has to be done,
when It is done. Were the ditches scoured out
when they actually required it — nay, every year,
if that is found necessary for the welfare of stock,
fences, or drains — so little expen.-<e would be in-
curred at one time as to remove every complaint
against the labrn- as a burden ; but much better,
in every case where it can be done, to incur the
expense at once of converting an open ditch into
a covered drain, than grudge the expense of
keeping it in a ])roper state.
(797.) Should the fall from the mouth of the
main drain to a river be too small, and there be
risk, at times, of the overflowings of the river
sending back-water into the drain, the drain
should be carried down as far by the side of the
river as will secure a sufficient f^ill for the outlet.
Rather be at the expense of carrying the drain
under a mill-crturse or rivulet, than permit back-
water to enter it.
(798.) A spirit level, such as fig. 180, 1 have
found a very convenient instrument for ascertaining such a point, and gen-
erally for taking levels in fields. It is furnished with eye sights a b, and
SPIUIT I.KVKI. SKT
OBSERVATION.
* See Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xii., Plate L, for figure of this tile.
(698)
DRAINING. 363
when in use is placed into a framing of brass, which operates as a spring
to adjust it to the level position J, by the action of the large-headed brass
screw c. A stud is affixed to the framing, and pushed firmly into a gimlet
hole in the top of the short rod c, which is pushed or driven into the ground
at the spot whence the level is desired to be ascertained. I need scarcely
mention that the bight of the eye-sight from the ground is deducted from
the bight of observation, and which quantity is easily obtained by having
the rod marked off" in inches and feet ; but I may mention that you should
use this instrument in all cases of draining on level ground, even where
you are confident that you know the fall of the ground, for the eye is a
very deceitful monitor for informing you of the levelness of ground. In
one case of my own, I was pretty sure by the eyfi chat the outlet to a di-
vision of drains in a field should fall, at some yards off', into an open ditch,
which constantly contained spring water. The contractor of the drains
was of the same opinion. On testing with the spirit level, however, we
found that the bottom of the outlet would have been 8 inches below the
bottom of the ditch instead of above it. As, in this particular case, it would
have occasioned a cutting of 200 yards to get a proper fall for the outlet in
another direction, I caused a narrow well to be sunk on the spot, 8 feet
deep, to the sti*atum of gravel below, and, on being filled with stones, the
gravel absorbed all the water from the drains. Such a spirit level, well
finished, costs l-5s. When not in use, the framing is concealed, and the
spirit-tube protected by a movable cover ; and the whole instrument, be-
ing only 8 inches in length, Ij inches deep, and 1 inch broad, and light
withal, can be easily cari'ied in the pocket, while its rod may be used as a
staff.
(799.) It may happen that, through the undulatory nature of the gi'ound,
more than one outlet will be required to clear a field of water, that is,
one division of drains maybe let more easily out in one place, and another
division more easily in another. In such a case, it should be well consid-
ered whether both outlets should be joined together or carried away sep-
arately, the latter being the less objectionable mode.
(800.) The cutting of the main drain should be entirely finished before
the tiles are laid in it ; and immediately after it is finished, it should be
measured with the drain-gauge, fig. 155, to ascertain if it contains the spe-
cified dimensions and fall.
(801.) While the earth is throwing out toward the narrowest side of
the head-ridge, that is, next the fence, the carts should be laying down the
tiles and soles along the open side next the field ; or they can be laid down
before the drain is begun to be opened, and after its line of direction has
been fixed. To be certain that the number of tiles and soles are laid
down, they should each be placed end to end respectively along the whole
line, the soles nearest the drain lying against the tiles, among which, of
course, broken ones are not counted, though a sole fractured in two will
lay down well enough in a good bed between two whole ones. The tiles
with the opening in the side, along with its conjunctive small tile, fig. 179,
should be laid down at the distances determined on for the small drains to
enter the main drain. These preliminary arrangements should be care-
fully attended to, or much inconvenience may be occasioned in carrying
tiles and soles to and fro to the person who lays them in. It is necessary
beforehand to instruct the plowman who is to lay them down out of the
cart, of the plan, as some mistake will inevitably ensue, if he is merely
told to lay down the tiles and soles by the drain ; for few plowmen reflect
on the consequences of what they are doing. If, by inadvertence to these
minutiae of practice, more or fewer tiles or soles are laid down than re
(699)
364 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
quired, part of the yoking of a pair of horses lost in laying ihem down,
and part of another is also lost in leadint^ them away to another place,
while the unused tiles are in danfjer of being broken by frequent lifting,
and all this waste of time arising from want of forethought.
(802.) The ^^(TAOM intrasted with the laying of the soles and tiles into
the drains, should be one who has been long accustomed to that kind of
work, and otherwise a good workman, possessing judgment and common
sense. If he is not a hired sers-ant, he should l)e jiaid by day's wages,
that he may have no temptation to execute the work ill ; and to enable
him to do it well let him take even more time than you imagine is neces-
sary, esj)ecial]y at first, provided he executes what he does to the satisfac-
tion of his employer. You will soon be able to ascertain how much work
of this kind a man should do in a day, according to the .circumstances of
the ciise, and you can then judge whether he has been putting off his
time, and admonish and encourage him accordingly.
(803.) This person should remain constantly at the bottom of the drains;
and, to enable him to do so, he should have an assistant, to hand him the
materials from the ground. The best assistant he can have, in my opinion,
is a female field-worker. Such a one not only receives cheaper wages,
but is dexterous in handling light materials, and quite able to lift tiles,
soles, and turf easily.
(S04.) Immediately before proceeding to lat/ t/tc sole-tiles, the man
should remove any wet, sludgy matter from the bottom of the drain with
a scoop, fig. 171, and dry earth and small stones can be removed with a
narrow draw-hoe, as in fig. 181, with a 2-feet handle h, and mouth a 3
Fig. 181.
1
THE NARROW DRAW-HOE FOR DRAINS. THE TROWEL FOR DRAINS.
inches in width, cost Is. The sole is firmly laid and imbedded a little into
the earth. Should it ride upon any point, such as a small stone or hard
lump of earth, that should be removed ; and a very convenient instrument
for the purpose, and otherwise making the bed for the soles, is a mason's
narrow trowel, as in fig. 182, 7 inches long in the blade a, 5 inches in the
handle c, and 1^ inches at b, and if of cast-steel will cost 2s., of common Is.
3d. If a single sole has been determined to be laid on the groinid, as in
fig. 178, or a double one side by side, as in fig. 160, he lays them accord
ingly. After laying 3 soles in length, he 'examines to see if they are
straight in the face, and neither rise nor fall more than the fall of the
drain. As a safe guide to him, in cases where the fall is not decidedly
cognizable by the senses, a mason's plumb-level, such as fig. 183, will be
found a convenient instrument. A mark at which the plummet-line d J"
will subtend an angle with the plumb-line d r, equal to the angle of the
fall of the drain, should be made on the top of the opening e, which, in
this case, may be supposed to be where the plumb /'at present hangs; by
which arrangement it is demonstrable that the angle e a f is always equal
to the angle h a c, which is the angle of inclination of the fall. The
breadth of the sole or soles, as the case may be, .should occupy the exact
width of the drain, and in the case of a main drain the soles are each 10
inches broad.
(805.) After 3 soles are thus placed, 2 tiles are set upon them, as rep-
resented in fig. 178, that is, the tiles a and b are so placed as that theii
(700)
DIIAINING.
3t)6
joinings shall meet on the intermediate spaces bctivccn the joinings of the
Bolea c , and this is done for the obvious reason that, should any commo-
tion disturb one of the soles, neither of the tiles, partially standing upon
THE DRAINER S PLUMB-LEVEL.
It, should be disturbed. In ordinary cases of water in a main drain, a tile
of 4 inches wide and 5 inches high inside is a good size : and from this
size they vary to 5| inches in width and 61 inches in hight. Although the
size (»f the tile varies, that of the main drain sole is always the same, that
is, 10 inches wide and 12 inches long. Taking the useful tile of 4 inches
in width and 5 inches in hight, its thickness being ^ inch, there will be a
space left in each side of 2^ inches.
(806.) The covering, of whatever siibstance, should be laid in a row or
in heaps along the line of the tiles. Turf is the best covering, and it is
put over the tiles saddlewise. If the turf were cut 12 inches broad and
3 8 inches in length, it would just lap over the size of tile mentioned above,
and rest its end upon the sole on both sides ; and, if it be from 2 to 21
inches in thickness, the small space left on each side between the turf and
the walls of the drain would be filled up. It is as easy to cut the turfs
of the exact sizes required as any other, by rutting off the swarded
ground in regular breadths ; and it would be as easy to cast the turfs in
regular oblongs, as in the irregular pieces usually raised according to the
whim of the spadesman. The old flauchter-spadc of Scotland has long
been used to cast turf, but it is a rude instrument at best, and not nearly
so good as the common spaile for a neat job. When cast, the turfs should
be laid one above another in neat bundles of 3 or 4 turfs, which can be
easily taken up, and placed safely into the cart, and not thrown singly in,
to the risk of their being torn, broken, or put out of shape on being
doubled up. They should be as carefully taken out of the cart, in the
same bundles they were put in, and if not used immediately, should be
put in large bundles to keep them supple and moist ; but not so kept a
long time, in case of their heating and fermenting. If used in summer,
in very dry weather, some watei- should be thrown upon them to keep
them moist, but water in winter might injui-e their texture by frost. If,
on the other hand, they are used immediately, they should be laid down
along l)ie outside of the tiles, not in a single row like them, because taking
them from the cart and lifting them up again js apt to tear them, but in
the small bundles, which are placed as far asundor as the space the turfs
would occupy were they laid singly along in line. Judging from the
usual treatment which it receives, turf seems to be very little valued, be-
1701)
366 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
ing crumpled up, thrown down, and kicked about, until it becomes much
broken and bruised, when it is not nearly bo fit for a covering fur tile as
when raised from the ground. 1 need scarcely add that smooth turf is
much better than tufty or heathery clods. Good turf is an expensive ar-
ticle, and not to be obtained everywhere. A man will ca.st from 4 to 6
cart-loads, of 1 ton each, per day, according to the smoothness and soft-
ness of the ground. Its usual thickness is about 3 inches, when 1 square
yard will weigh about 54 lbs., and of course 1 ton will cover about 40
square yards, or 40 roods of 6 yards with turis of 1 fr)Ot by 1^ feet. In the
country carriage is the heaviest charge against turf; in towns it is charged
from 8s. to 20s. a ton, and 8s. per square yard is charged for casting, cart-
ing, and laying turf for greens and borders.
(807.) On being handed to him, the man lays the turf, grass side down,
over the tiles in a firm manner, taking care to cause the joinings of the
turf to meet as near the middle of the tiles as practicable, and not over
the joinings. Were the turf cut of the same breadth as that of the tiles
used, the covering of a drain would proceed not only rapidly, but neatly
and satisfactorily. He takes care not to displace the tiles in the least
when the turf is being put over; and to secure the tiles in their respective
places, he puts eaith firmly between the covering and the sides of the
drain as high as the turf over the tile. This earth is obtained from the
soil th-at was thrown out ; and if the subsoil is a strong clay, the surface
soil is the best, but a porous subsoil answers the purpose. "When all
these things which I have described have been done, the drain will appear
like the small drain, fig. ISi, where the sole and the tile set upon it, the
turf wrapped round the top of the tile, and the stuffing of earth on each
side of the tile may all be easily obser\'ed.
(808 ^ The preparations for the junction with the small drains should
be made luring the completion of the main drain, for if the main tiles arei
taken up when the small drains are forming, in order to accommodate the
small tiles, they will run the risk of being displaced, and of otherwise dis-
turbing the current of water when it is to run in it. Whichever plan is
adopted for letting in »fie small tiles, and be it ever remembered that the
tiles with the open side are the best for the puqiose, the man should never
forget to make the openings at the stated distances the small drains should
enter, and for this purpose he should be provided with a 6-feet rod,
marked off in feet and inches, to measure the distances as near as he can,
in regard to the fitting of the tiles. The covering of turf should, of course,
not be put over the openings left for the small tiles, but the openings
should not be .left wholly unprotected after the main di'ain is finished, in
case any thing should thrust earth or any other substance into the tile-
duct, ^hat might close up or otherwise injure the drain. A bundle of
straw, or rather a turf, until the small drains are connected with them, will
be sufficient to protect the openings against injury- o^ this kind.
(809.) The rnonth of the main drain at its outlet, whether in a ditch or
river, should be protected with masonry, and dry ma.-^onry will do. The
last sole, which should be of stone, should project as far beyond the mouth
as to throw the water either directly upon th« bottom, or upon masonry
built up by the side of the ditch. The masoniT should be founded below
the bottom of the ditch, and built in a perpendicular recess in its side,
with the outer face sloping in a line with the slope of the ditch. The
sloping face can be made either straight, which will allow the water to
slip down into the ditch, or like steps of a stair, over which the water will
descend with broken force. It would be proper to have an iron grating
on the end of the outlet, to prevent vermin creeping up the drain ; not
(702)
DRAINING. 367
that they can injure tiles while alive, but in creeping too far up, they may
(lie, and cause for a time a stagnation of water above them in the drain.
(810.) If the ground fall uniformly toward the main drain over the
whole field, the small drains should be proceeded with immediately after
the main drain is finished ; but should any hollow ground occur in the
field too deep for its waters to find their way direct to the main drain, then
a sub-main drain should be made along the lowest part of the hollow, to
receive all the drainage of the ground around it, in order to transmit it to
the main drain. The size of sub-main drains is determined by the extent
of drainage they have to effect, and should they have as much to do as
the main, they should have the same capacity, but if not, they should have less.
(811.) Sub-main drains are made in all respects in the same manner as
main drains ; but there may be this peculiarity in regard to them, that
they will most probably have to receive small drains on both sides, on ac-
count of the position they may occupy in the area of a field, when they
will require just double the number of tiles with openings in the side than
the main. In order to avoid the interference o5' sediment from opposite
small drains, these should not enter the sub-main directly opposite to each
other, nor should their ends enter at right angles, but at an acute angle.
(812.) The sub-main drain should be as far below the small drains as
the main itself, when it receives the small drains directly, and for the same
reasons ; and the main should be as far below the sub-main as the latter is
below the small drains. The simple way to effect both these purposes is,
to make the main drain deeper after its junction with the sub-main.
(813.) There is nothing now to prevent yuu proceeding with the small
drains. In a field having a uniform surface, there is no difficulty or ir-
regularity of work to be encountered in bringing the drains directly down
the inclined ground into the main drain. Where sub-mains are employed
in particular hollows, the gz'ound comprehending the drainage belonging
to each hollow shcmld be distinctly mai'ked off from the rest, that no con-
fusion in the direction of the other small drains may ensue in the execu-
tion of the work. These markings should be made in the water-shed of
the ground, from which the fall tends toward each sub-main, if more than
one is required, and it may also tend toward the main drain. The mark-
ings can be made with pins driven in the lines determined by the water-
shed.
(814.) In commencing the small drains from a fence on one side of the
field, supposing that the ridges are 15 feet wide, and keeping in mind
that, if the soil of the field is not strong clay, the drains need not be
formed in the open furrows, it is requisite to measure the distance of the
first drain from the fence, whatever that fence may be, at 16 feet. This
space of 16 feet gives 2 feet for the fence-side, 14 feet from the fence-
side to the drain, and one foot beyond the drain for the open fuiTOw of
the 15-feet ridge. Keeping the distance of every other drain from each
other at the breadth of one ridge of 15 feet, or at any other multiple of
that breadth, it is clear that every drain will fall within one foot of an open
furrow. If the subsoil draws slowly, the drains should not exceed 15 feet
asunder, and the depth, I should say, not less than 2 feet.
(815.) I know it is a common impression among farmers, that if a sub-
soil cannot draw water, there is no use of making drains in it, and this
opinion I conceive to be quite coiTect in regard to pure clay subsoils,
which cannot draw water at all. But the view I take of the matter is this,
that pure clay subsoils are very limited in extent, and that many clays
which seem quite impervious may draw water notwithstanding. Admit-
ting that the subsoil draws water at all, which is the supposition in the
(703)
368
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
present case, it is clear that the larger the area is extended for drawing
It, the more water will be drawn into the drain. Now, a large area can
only be secured by making drains deep and close together; and in the
case supposed above, it appears to nie tliat 3 feet in depth, with 15 feel
asunder, will not give a greater area than is requisite for drawing water
out of such ground. When, on the other hand, the subsoil is free,
and discharges water as freely, so large an area is not required to dry the
subsoil, and drains of less depth and at greater distance will answer the
same purpose as in the other case, such as 30 inches in depth and 30 feet
asunder. You must endeavor to make the depths and distances of the
small drains suit the nature of the subsoil, for it is impossible for me to
lay down here any absolute rule in a matter which admits of such diver-
sity of character.
(816.) Small drains, as well as mains and sub-mains, should be com-
pletely cast out, gauged, and examined for the fall, before being attempted
to be filled up ; and the materials for doing so should be laid down beside
them, as well as in the case of mains. The tiles for small drains are
smaller than for mains and sub-mains, being 3 inches wide and 4 inches
high, inside measurement, which may be considered a large tile in places
where those of 2^ inches wide by 3^ inches high are used ; but so small
ones are not made everywhere. There is this consideration in regard to
the size of tiles which should be kept in view, that a substantial tile will
have the chance of lasting much longer than a slight one, and the proba-
bility is, that the larger ones are the more substantial, which, however,
may not actually be the case, but it is proper to examine whether they are
neavy and firm, before you purchase your tiles. Be guided in your choice
of them more on account of substantiality than cheapness, which, as I have
said before, is quite of secondary consideration when brought into com-
parison with durability. Soles will also be required for small drains, for
don't give credence to the absurd assumption that clay will retain its hard-
ness at the bottom of a drain, because it happened to be hard when first
laid open to the day. Soles for small drains are of different breadths, be-
ing 5 inches at one place and 7 inches at another ; the former, f) inches, I
should conceive, too na/row for most purposes ; for take even the narrow-
est tiles that are made, 2^ inches inside — these are moulded at 4 inch
thick, and allownig them to shrink 1 in the kiln, their thickness will be
1^ inches ; the outside breadth of the tile being thus 4 inches, leaves only
1-J- inches to divide between the two sides of the tile on
a 5-inch sole, or just -^ an inch on each side, a small
enough space, certainly. But as most soles for small
drains are made of the same breadth, take a 3-inch
tile, and it will be found by the same mode of calcula-
tion that only 1 inch on each side of a 5-inch sole will
be left, which is a much too narrow space to afl'ord per-
fect steadiness to the tile. I would prefer the 7-inch
soles as made in Ayrshire, and, of course, the breadth
of the bottom of the drain should also be 7 inches. In
other respects, the filling of the small drains is con-
ducted in the same manner as the mains and sub-mains,
and they are finished as represented by fig. l'"^4.
(817.) While casting out the bottom of the end of
each small drain, care should be taken in communicating it with the main
or sub-main with which it is to be connected, that no displacement of tiles
takes place in either ; and when the bottom is cleared out, the turf or
small bundle of straw left in the openings of the sides of the tiles is re-
'704)
Fig. 184.
THE SMALL TILr.-DRAl^
DRAINING. 369
moved, and the opening examined, and any extraneous matter that may
have got inio the tiles removed. The places for the entrance of the small
di-ain tiles having been prepared while constructing the main and sub-
mains, there will be no difficulty of effecting the junction between the
respective sorts of drains. Thus one small drain after another is hnished,
until the field, having been begun at one side, is furnished with drains by
the time the other is reached. The small drain connecting the tops of
all the small drains along the upper end of the field, should not be neg-
lected. (767.)
(818.) The next procedure is the filling up of tlie drains with the earth
that teas tJtroicn out of them, which is returned either with the spade or
the plow, or both. When drains are furnished with stones, the plow may
be used from the first, giving it as much lajid for the first bout or two as
it can work with. If the earth has been thrown out on both sides, a strong
furrow on each side of the top of the drain will fill in a considerable
quantity of the earth ; but, as the earth is generally thrown out on one
side of the drain, and the plow can only advance the earth toward the
drain while going in one direction, that is, going every other landing
empty, or without a furrow, a more expeditious mode of leveling the
ground, which, in the considerable labor of returning the earth into all the
small drains of a field, is a matter of some importance, is to cleave down
the mound of earth thrown out, and then take in a breadth of land on
both sides of the drain, and gather it up twice or thrice toward the middle
of the drain, which will constitute a prepared feering, after which the har-
rows will make the ground sufficiently level. This species of woi'k, how-
ever, is only required when much earth has been thrown out, and thrown
a distance from the drain, in deep draining ; but in thorough-draining,
what is accomplished by the plow is done with much less trouble. When
the plow alone is used for this purpose, the first two furrows are taken
round the mouth of the drain, and fall into it with considerable force ; and,
where tiles alone are used, such a fall of earth may be apt to break or dis-
place them ; and even the steadiest horses, which should only be em-
ployed at this work, run the risk of slipping in a hind foot into the drain,
which, in attempting to recover, may be overstrained ; and such an acci-
dent, trifling as it may seem, may be attended with serious injury to the
animal. The safest mode, therefore, both for horses and .tiles, is, in all
cases, to put the first portion of earth into the drain Avith the spade, and
this provision can be made in the agreement with the contractor; and
there is this advantage attending the use of the spade that a better choice
can be made, if desired, of the earth to be returned, the surface earth may
first be put in before the poorer subsoil. (770.)
(819.) In regard to the quality of the earth which is employed to fill up
the drains, some considerations are requisite. All deep drains, whether
furnished with stones or tiles, should receive their supply of water from
below, and not immediately from above through the soil ; and all drains
that receive their supply of water in this manner should be denominated
deep drains, in reference to the nature of their functions, whatever may
be their respective depths.
(820.) Wei-e drains entirely filled with loose mould, or other loose ma-
terials, it is evident that the rain, percolating directly through them, will
arrive in the drain loaded with as many of the impurities that the soil may
contain as it could carry along with it in its downward course ; but a pri-
mary object with drainers is to prevent impurities getting into the ducts
of drains, because in time they might either collect in quantities in the
ducts, or fill up the interstices between the stones ; and the smaller the
(705) -Jd
370 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
stones were broken, their upper stratum at least would the more easily be
rendered inoperative as a drain. To prevent one and all of these mis
chances, the practicable way is to return the clayey subsoil into the drain,
where it will again soon consolidate, and resist the direct gravity of rain.
(821.) Keeping these distinctions in view, and applying them first to
the case of strong clay soil, such as in the Carse of Gowrie, which does
not draw water at all, were they filled up above the tiles with pure clay,
the ultimate effect would be that the duct would remain open, but no
water would ever enter it. To make them draw at all, there must loose
materials be put above the tiles within 2 or 3 inches of the plane upon
which the sole of the plow moves ; and to obtain the greatest depth of
loose materials for such drains, they should be made in the open furrows.
As they cannot draw but thruugh the loose materials, and are, in fact,
covered ditches, they must receive their supply of water like any other
ditch, from above ; but here the analogy ceases, for instead of receiving
their water direct from the top like a ditch, they should receive it by per-
colation through the plowed soil, and when the water has descended
through the soil, deprived of most of its impurities, it meets the retentive
subsoil across the whole area of the ridge, upon which it moves under the
arable soil until it meets with the loose materials in the drains, by which
it is taken down into the ducts to be conveyed away. The loose materials
may be gravel, sand, peaty eaith, scoriaj from furnaces, refuse tanners'
bark, and such like.
(822.) In a subsoil that draws only a little water, were the clayey sub-
soil returned immediately above the tiles, it would have the effect of coun-
teracting the purpose for which the drains were made, because it would
curtail the drawing surface to only the hight of the tiles themselves. The
method, therefure, to fill such drains is to put loose materials immediately
above the tiles, to a hight not so far as in the case of pure clay drains, but
to within ^ a foot of the plane of the plow's sole-shoe. Were the drains
in such a sulwoil, however, filled with stones, the case would be different,
for these would secure a sufficient drawing surfice, and the clayey sub-
soil may be returned immediately f >n their top with perfect propriety.
(823.) In the case of a free dra\ring subsoil to the bottom of the drain,
the most retentive portion of the earth may be returned immediately above
even tiles, for such a subsoil would still draw the moisture toward them ;
and were stones used, there would l)e left ample room for drawing with
the most retentive part of the earth returned above them. But should the
part of the drain occupied by the tiles or stones be of strong, impervious
clay, although the soil alx)ve it be of the best drawing materials, as much
of the loose subsoil should be placed above the tiles or stones as would
give an easy access to the water, and all the space above that may consist
of the strongest part of the clay.
(824.) The general rule, then, for filling the drains with the earth that
has been thrown out of them is, that, with the exception of strong clay
soils — the drains in which should Im? filled with porous materials, that the
water on the surface may descend through them into the duct below, and
be thence carried away — that, with this exception, every kind of drain
should be filled near its top with the strongest soil afiorded by the drain,
in order to prevent the descent of the uafer into the drain hy the top, but
rather that the water shall seek its way through the plowed ground, and
thence by the porous materials above the duct, and under the clay put in
above them into the duct at the bottom. Through such a channel of fil-
tration the water vriW have every chance of entering the duct in a com-
paratively pure state.
<706)
DRAINING.
371
Fig. 185.
(S25.) But the best mode, in my opinion, of draining land of any that
has yet been described, has to be brought before your notice, and that is
by the union of stofies and tiles in the same drain. This method is repre-
sented in fig. 185, where a tile a rests on a sole ;
small stones are packed around the tile by the hand
until they cover it as at i ; the remaining small
stones c are put in by any of the methods described
above, but especially by the drain-screen ; a cover-
ing is either put above them or small stones beaten
do^^■n, as in the case of the stone drain, \\'ith the
beater, and the earth returned upon them in either
of the modes just described. The w-idth of the bot-
tom is 7 inches, the width of a good sole, width of
the top 12 inches, depth 2^ feet, composed of 18
inches of earth, and 12 inches to the top of the
coveiing of the stones. This dx'ain is constnacted
similarlv to the tile drains that have been
very
THE TILE AND STONE
described, by first laying the sole at the bottom and
the tile upon it ; but instead of covering the tile
immediately with turf, small stones are packed by the hand on both sides
until they cover its top. As these stones should be packed in as the lay-
ing of the tiles proceeds, they should be laid down in heaps, immediately
after the tiles have been laid down, as near the drain as possible, so as
they may be filled in baskets by the assistant, and handed down in them
to the man in the drain. Two baskets are required for this purpose, one
to be filled by the assistant when the other is emptying by the drainer. In
filling up with stones afterward to their proper hight as to c, I would be
afraid of using the drain-screen at first, in case the fall of the first stones
upon those which were laid in by the hand, as at b, should by any chance
fracture the tiles below them. I would rather fill up a few yards of the
drain as high as required by the hand, and then use the drain-screen to let
fall tlie stones upon the end of those previously filled in, from which they
could be shoveled (fig. 38) or raked (fig. 174) down gently upon the stones
over the tiles ; or the stones could be filled in by the hand at first so high,
while laying those at b, as to remove all danger from those falling in small
quantities from the screen. The filling in from the drain-screen and carts
should not be proceeded with until as much of the drain has been laid
with tiles and packed in with stones by the hand, as to employ at least 2
single horse ^carts for one yoking, and should the weather seem favorable,
not until that number of horses can be employed a whole day, because
otherwise the time of the hoi-ses would be wasted. If the draining is of
such an extent as to keep a pair of horses thus constantly employed, so
much the better. In such a case, other hands than those employed in cut-
ting the drain and laying the tiles should be employed in filling in the up-
per layer of stones with the screen, and beating down the small riddlings
as a covering upon them. On the earth being returned into the drain the
opeiation is completed.
(<826.) This construction of drain is declared by every writer on and
practitioner of draining, to be the ne plus ultra of the art, though I believe
very few farmers have adopted it, not because there can the slightest ob-
jection be urged against it, but because, in cases where stones have to be
quarried and broken, it is an expensive mode, and in other cases stones
cannot be obtained at all. The last reason is a very good one, but that of
the expense must fall to the ground where there is abundance of stones,
as the advantage derived from their use along Avith the tile will be more
(707)
372
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
than counterbalanced by tlie additional cost. The durability and efficien-
cy of such a drain is undoubted. It is a perfect piece of work, inasmuch
as the duct formed of the tile and sole presents the smoothest passage ima-
ginable for carrying off water, and it is proof against the efforts of vermin,
while the stones not only secure the duct in its place, but impart dura-
bility to the whole sti-ucture, which at the same time presents an exten-
sive area to the subsoil. What other property that a good drain should
have does this one not possess 1
(827.) It may be satisfactory to you to have a general idea of thorough
draining a field by a sketch of a ground jilaii, which is represented in fig.
186, where a i is the main drain formed in the lowest head-ridge ; and if
the field were of a uniform surface, the drains would run parallel to one
another from the top to the bottom into the main drain, as those do from
a to c, connected as they should be at the t(jp witli the drain r/ c running
along the upper head-ridge. But as there may be inequalities in the
ground, a very irregular surface cannot be drained in this manner, and
must therefore be provided with sub-main drains, asfg and h i, which are
each connected with a system of drains belonging to itself, and which may
differ in character from each other, as J" g with a large double set k I iu
Fig. 186.
:;:!S2=£X3:::22E2S3::jaES^S2s:iS3-;^^
A PLAN or A THOROUGH-DRAINED FIELD.
connection with it, and h i with only a small single set m ; the sub-main
/ g is supposed to run up the lowest part of a pretty deep hollow in the
ground, and the drains /.-. and / on either side of it are made to run down
the faces of the acclivities as nearly at right angles to the sub-main as ihe
nature of the inclination of the ground will allow, so as alwiiys to preserve
the natural tendency of water to find its way down the hollow. There is
also a supposed fall of the ground from the hight above / toward A, which
causes the drain at tn to run down and fall into what would be a common
ditiin h I, were it not, from this circumstance, obliged to be converted into
a sub-main. The sub-main f e may be made as large as the main drain
a h, as both have much to do ; but the sub-main // / may be made com-
paratively smaller, and not larger, from the top of the field, than a com-
mon drain, until it reaches the point h, where the collateral drains begin
to join it. The main drain should be made larger below g to i than above
(708)
DRAINING. 373
it, and still larger from i to b, which is its outlet. It will be observed
that all the 'common drains a and c, and at I and m, have their ends curved,
those at k not requiring that assistance, as they enter more obliquely into
the main, from the position of the slope of the ground. The dotted lines
represent the upper and lower head-ridges, and the open furrows of the
ridges of the field ; and it will be observed that the drains are not made
to run in the open furrows — that is, the black lines in conjunction with the
dotted, but along the furrow-brows of the ridges. This is done with the
view of not confounding the open fun-ows and drains in the figure ; but it
is a plan which may be followed with propriety in subsoils otherwise than
of strong clay ; that is, of a light loam resting on a rather retentive subsoil;
the water falling upon which should not be drained away by the small
drains receiving it through their tops, but rather by the absorption of the
water toward them from below the plowed soil, as far as the subsoil n
porous. A hollow, such as that occupied by the sub-main drain f g, alsc
indicates that the soil is a loam, and not strong clay. Although the ridges
are supposed to be 15 feet wide, and they have been set off here at quar-
ters of an inch, they bear no true relation to the size of the field ; so thai
this diagram should not be considered as showing the relative proportions
of the distances betwixt the drains and the size of the field.
(828.) The period of the rotation of cropping at which draining should
be executed, requires consideration ; but I believe it is now generally al-
lowed to be best performed when the ground is in grass, and before the
gi'ass is plowed up. There are several advantages attending this period
of cropping over every other, 1. Turf can be obtained at hand for cov-
ering the tiles ; and although one year's grass may not af!brd very good
turf for the purpose, yet if the turfs are carefully raised by the spade, and
as carefully laid aside until used — not heaped upon one another to ninths
risk of rotting, but set down in a row with the grass-side up — and as care-
fully handled when about to be used, it will answer very well. In 2 or 3
years old grass, the turf is better ; and in old pasture or meadow ground
it is as good as can be procured elsewhere. At whatever age the turf is
used, it should not be too rough or too thick, as it will not clap so closely
over the tile in either state as it should. Sheep are the best stock for eat-
ing down the forage, and preparing the tiu-f for this purpose. 2. Another
advantage which grass-land possesses is the firm surface which it presents
to cartage of materials, whether stones or tiles. If the stones are put in
with the screen, the cart and barrow will pass lightly along the side of the
drain ; and if tiles are used, the grass forms clean ground for them to be
laid down upon. 3. In grass, the filling in of the earth with the spade
makes very neat work.
(829.) When it is determined to drain the land while in grass, the sea-
son of the year in which the drains should be opened is thereby in a great
degree determined. It would scarcely be prudent to sacrifice the pastui"-
age in summer, and no stock should be allowed to roam about a field that
is in the act of being drained, not only on account of the possibility of
their injuring themselves by slipping mto the drains, but of injuiing the
di-ains by breaking down their edges, fracturing the tiles, or displacing the
stones. It is therefore expedient to take the use of the summer's grass ;
but that the operation may commence soon in autumn, the grass should
be by that time eaten down bare by an extra quantity of stock. These
preliminary arrangements, then, being made, and the materials laid down '
as long as the weather is dry and the ground hard, the draining operations
may be earned on through the winter, and as far into spring as to give
time for the land to be plowed for the reception of the seed. Whether
^709)
374 THE BOOK OF THE FARM — WINTER.
there are one or more sets of men engaged in cutting the drains, they
should all work in the same field at the same time, as it invariably entaiU
loss of time to drive materials with horses over different fields. With
concentrated work, one field is drained after another, and this regularity
of the order permits the eating down of the grass in succession, as
regularly as the draining proceeds, so that none of the aftermath is
saciificed.
(830.) The next important point for consideration is, whether the gieat
outlay upon land occasioned by draining can be compensated for by in-
crease of produce ] for if no increase of produce, adequate to repay the
large outlay, can be guarantied, draining will not be persevered in. No
one, beforehand, can give such a guaranty ; but the experience of enter-
prising drainers, who have vested their capital in the expeiiment, has
proved that draining — that is, effectual or thorough-draining, by whatever
means that object is attained — not only compensates for the outlay in-
curred, but also improves the quality of the land and everything that
grows upon it. Examples of amelioration, as well as of profit, effected
by draining, inspiring confidence and stimulating imitation, I shall ad-
duce.
(831.) The existence of moisture in the soil being most easily detected
by its injurious effects on the crops usually grown upon it, the benefits of
draining are also first indicated by the crops. On drained land, the straw
of white crops shoots up steadily from a vigorous braird, strong, long, and
at the same time so stiff as not to be easily lodged with wind or rain. The
grain is plump, large, bright colored, and thin skinned. The crop lipens
uniformly, is bulky and prolific, more quickly won for stacking in haiTest,
more easily threshed, winnowed, and cleaned, and produces fewer small
and light grains. The straw also makes better fodder for live-stock. Clo-
ver, in such land, becomes rank, long, and juicy, and the flowers are large
and of bright color. The hay fi-om it wons easily and weighs heavy to its
bulk. Pasture-grass shoots out in eveiy direction, covering the ground
with a thick sward, and produces fat and milk of the finest quality. Tur
nips become large, plump, as if fully grown, juicy, and with a smooth and
oily skin. Potatoes push out long and strong stems, with enlarged tubers,
having skins easily peeled off, and a mealy substance when boiled. Live-
stock of every kind thrive, become good tempered, are easily fattened,
and of fine quality. Land is less occupied with weeds, the increased
luxuriance of all the crops checking their growth. Summer fallow is
more easily cleaned, and much less work is required to put the land in
proper trim for the manure and seed ; and all soils of manures incorpo-
rate more quickly and thoroughly with the soil.
(832.) Thorough-drained land is easily worked with all the common
implements. Being all alike dry, its texture becomes uniform, and, in
consequence, the plow passes through it with uniform freedom ; and even
where pretty large sized stones are found, the plow can easily dislodge
them ; and moving in freer soil, it is able to i"aise a deeper fuiTow-slice ;
and the furrow-slice, on its part, though heavy, crumbles down and yields
to the pressure and friction of the plow, forming a friable, mellow, rich-
looking mould. The harrows, instead of Ix-ing held back at times, and
starting forward, and oscillating sideways, swim smoothly along, raking
the soil into a uniform surface and entirely obliterating foot-marks. The
roller compresses and renders the surface of the soil smooth, but leaves
what is below in a mellow state for the roots of plants to expand in. All
the implements are much easier drawn and held ; and hence, all the opera-
tions can be executed with less labor, and of course more economically
(710)
DRAINING. 375
and satisfactoiily on drained than undrained land.* All these effects of
draining I have observed from my own experience.
(833.) " It is gratifying," says Mr. James Black, in reference to the ef
fects of the Elkington mode of draining on the estate of Spottiswoode in
Berwickshire, " to be enabled to state that the general result of the opera-
tions has been such as to bear out the calculations of the engineer, and to
justify the most sanguine hopes that could have been formed of a valuable
improvement. Bursts and springs, which formerly disfigured entire fields,
and which rendered tillage precarious and unprofitable, ai'e now not to be
seen ; and swamps, which were not only useless in themselves, but which
injured all the land aronnd them, have been totally removed. The conse-
quence is, that tillage can now in those parts be carried on without inter-
ruption, and with nothing beyond the ordinary expenditure of labor and
manure ; and a sward of the best grasses, raised and continued on spots
which formerly only produced the coarsest and least valued herbage."
(834.) But draining has been found beneficial not only to the soil itself,
to the processes of laboring it, to the climate in reference to crops, and to
the growth of trees, but also to the health of the laboring population. Dr.
Charles Wilson, Kelso, when comparing the health of the laboring popu-
lation of the district of Kelso in two decennial periods, from 1777 to 1787
and from 1829 to 1839, came to this conclusion in regard to the effect of
draining, that " our attention is here justly attracted by the extraordinary
preponderance of cases of ague in the first decennium, where they pre-
sent an average of y of all cases of disease coming under treatment ; and
a closer examination of the separate years shows this proportion rising
more than once to even as high as i ; while, in the second decennium, the
average proportion is only ^o^ of the general mass of disease. Ague,
then, as is well known to the older inhabitants of the district, was at one
time regularly endemic among vs ; affecting every year a varying, but
always a considerable portion of population, and occasionally, in seasons
of unusual coldness and moisture, spreading itself extensively as an en-
demic, and showing its ordinary tendency, under such circumstances, of
passing into a continued and more dangerous type. Ague was not usu-
ally in itself a disease of great fatality, the deaths recorded at the Dis-
pensary having been only 1.81 per cent, of the cases treated — a sum which
denotes its absolute mortality, while its relative mortality was 0.26,
when viewed in connection with that from all other diseases. Still, if we
keep in view how frequently it was known to degenerate into fevers of a
worse form, and how often it terminated in jaundice, ' obstruction of the
viscera of the abdomen,' and consequent dropsies ; or even if we take
into consideration the frequency of its recurrence, and the lengthened pe-
riods during which it racked its victims, we shall see much reason to be
thankful that a plague so universal and so pernicious has been almost
wholly rooted out from among us. Those who recollect what has been
stated of the former swampy nature of the soil in our vicinity, and of the
extensive means which have been adopted for its drainage, will, of course,
: have no difficulty in understanding why ague was once so prevalent, and
1 under what agency it should now have disappeared; and will gratefully
acknowledge the twofold value of those iviprovcvicnts inhich have at once
rendered our liomes more salubrious and our fields inore fruitfuir\
(835.) But the most palpable advantage of draining land is the j>^'^fi^
which it returns to the farmer. A few authenticated instances of the profits
actually derived from draining will suffice to convince any occupier of land
* See papers by me on this subject in the Quarterly Journal of Agiicullure, vols. vi. and vlil.
t Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. xli.
(711)
376
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
of the benefits to be derived from it. " I am clearly of opinion," says Mr
North Dalryniple of Cleland, Lanarkshire, " that well authenticated facts
on economical draining, accompanied with details of the expenses, value
of succeeding cmps, and (if the land before and after draining, will be the
means of stimulating both landlords and tenants to pursue the most im-
portant, judicious, and remunerating o( a]\ land improvements. The state-
ments below will prove the advantages of furrow-draining ; and as to the
pro/its to be derived from it, they are great, and a farmer has only to
drain a 5-acre field to have ocular proof upon the point."*
(836.) Without entering into all the minutiie of the statements given by
Mr. Dalrymplc, it will suffice here to exhibit the general results. 1. One
field containing 54 Scots acres cost d£303 7s. to drain, or c£5 12s.t per
acre. The wheat off a part of it was sold for c£ll, and the turnips off the
remainder for ^£25 13s. 4d. per acre. The soil was a stiff chattery clay,
and let in grass for 20s. an acre ; but in 1836, after having been drained,
it kept 5 Cheviot ewes, with their lambs, upon the acre. 2. Another field
of IS acres cost X5 9s. the acre to drain. The wheat off a part of it
fetched .£13, the potatoes off another part ^£15 15s., and the turnips off the
remainder c£21 per aci'e. The land was formerly occupied with whins
and rushes, and let for 12s. the acre; but when let for pasture after being
drained, Mr. Dalrymple expected to get 50s. an acre for it. It may be
mentioned, that the drains made by Mr. Dalrymple were narrow ones, 30
inches in depth, filled IS inches high with stones or scoriee fi'om a furnace,
and connected wdth main drains, 36 inches deep, furnished with tiles and
soles.f
(837.) Mr. James Howden, Wintonliill, near Tranent, in East-Lothian,
asserts from his experience, that although drains should cost as much as
c£7 the acre, yet on damp, heavy land thorough-di'aining will repay from
15 to 20 per cent, on the outlay .||
(838.) A farmer in Lanarkshire, who thorough-drained one-half of a
4-acre field, and left the other half undi-iined, in 1838, planted the whole
field with potatoes, and from the drained portion realized ^£45, while the
undrained only realized c£13 the Scotch acre.§
(839.) A very successful instance of drainage is related to have taken
place on the estate of Teddesley Hay, near the River Penk, in Stafford-
shire, belonging to Lord Hatherton, under the direction of his agent, Mr.
Bright. The soil is represented of a light nature, resting on a subsoil of
stiff clay. The results are these :
Value of the land in its
Value of
the land
n ita
Quantity of
land drained.
original state.
Cost of
draining.
present state.
Per acre.
Annual value-
I'er acre.
Annual v
aluo.
A. R. P.
s.
£ s.
D.
£ a. D.
s.
£ s.
D.
78 1 36
10
39 4
3
262 15 0
27
105 18
9
19 1 32
10
9 14
6
74 9 8
35
34 0
9
38 0 3
16
30 8
3
52 14 2
40
7G 0
9
82 2 2
15
61 17
8
346 16 4
30
123 15
4
30 3 24
10
15 9
0
121 5 8
35
54 1
6
81 1 34
8
32 11
8
153 16 4
22
89 12
2
36 3 16
10
18 8
6
142 8 0
30
55 5
6
33 0 0
8
13 4
0
80 5 2
26
42 18
0
10 2 33
^90 8 0 j
50
26 15
3
10 0 8
21
10 11
0
9 0 0
12
5 8
0
76 9 8
30
13 10
0
15 0 11
16
12 1
0
41 9 4
33
24 17
3
21 2 10
15
16 3
5
66 0 0
30
32 6
10
467 0 9
254 10
9
1.508 17 4
689 13
1
[t Calculate the pound at $4 80, and the shilling at 22 cents.
• Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. Tiii. t Ibid., vol. viii.
(712)
£d. Farm. Lib."]
II Ibid., vol. viiL § Ibid, vol. x.
DRAINING.
377
Here is an increase of o£435 2s. 4d. a year by draining, with an expenditure
of only c£l,508 17s. 4d., or 29 per cent, on the capital expended.*
(S40.) Mr. George Bell's experience of the good effects of thorough-
drainino- on turnips gave, in the instance of Aberdeenshire yellow bullock
turnips, which were raised from bone-dust in 1838, a crop of 16 tons 16
cwt. on 2 acres ; whereas the same extent of undrained land only pro-
duced 6 tons 4 cwt. the acre. In 1839 the produce of potatoes on drained
land was 175 cwt. the acre, whereas that on undrained land was only
70 cwt.
(841.) Besides the methods of draining land with stones and tiles as have just been described
to you at much length, there are other methods which deserve your attention, because they may-
be practiced in particular situations in an economical manner. 1 do not believe that the methoda
I am about to mention are so effectual as those 1 have described, still I have no doubt any one of
them may be made effectual in situations where the materials recommended are abundant. Be-
sides, it is well to have a choice of methods of performing the same operation, that your judg-
ment may be exercised in adopting the one most advisable in the circumstances in which you are
placed ; while, at the same time, you should never lose sight of this maxim in Agriculture, that
tliat operation is most economically executed, or, at all events, affords most satisfaction in the end,
which is executed in the most efficient manner, both as regards materials and workmanship, and
the maxim applies to no operation so strongly as to draining, becau.se of its permanent nature.
The methods of draining which I am about to" mention apply to every species of soil, from light
loam, the heaviest clay, to bog.
(842.) The first method which I shall notice is applicable to a tilli/ subsoil which draws water
a little, situate in a locality in which ,^rt/ stones are plentiful and sufficiently cheap. Suppose a
piece of land, containing 2 ridges of 15 feet in width, which had been gathered up from the flat,
and in this form of plowing, as you have already learned, there is an open furrow on each side
of a ridge {5.=iO). The drains areinade in this maimer : Gather up the land twice, by splitting out
a feering in the crown of each ridge, and do it with a strong furrow. Should the 4-horse plow-
have been used for the purpose, the open furrow will be left 16 inches wide at bottom, and if the
furrow have been turned over 12 inches in depth, and the furrow-slice laid over at the usual an-
gle of 45^. the tops of the furrow-slices on the furrow-brow will be 32 inches apart, as from a to
a. fig. 187. After this plowing the spade takes out a
trench from the bottom of the open-furrow 8 inches Fig. 187.
wide at top e, 16 inches deep by /, and 3 inches wide g^ o
at bottom at g. The depth of the drain will tlrus be /
32 inches in all below the crowns of the gathered up \
ridges. The drain is filled by two flags h h being set
up against its sides and meeting in the bottom at g ;
and they are kept asunder by a large stone of any
shape, as a wedge, but large enough to be prevented
by h h descending farther than to leave a conduit g
for the water. The remainder of the drain is filled to
e with small riddled stones with Mr. Robertson's drain-
screen or with clean gravel. The stones are covered
over with turf and earth like any other drain, or with
small stones beaten down firmly. The expense of this
method of draining is small: the spade-work may be
executed at Id. the rood of 6 yards, and of an imperial
acre, containing 161 J of such roods, the cutting will
cost 13s. Sjd. The flags, at 1 inch thick and 6 inches broad, will make 15 tons per acre, at 4d.
the ton, will cost 5s. more. The broken stones, to fill 9 cubic feet in the rood of 6 yards, at 2\di.
per rood, will cost £\ 10s. 3id. more ; making in all about £2 8s. 8d. the acre, exclusive of carriage
and plowing, v\'hich, though estimated, will yet make this a cheap mode of
draining land so closely as 15 feet apart.t
(843.) The draining of mossy, light soils where peat is plentiftil may be ef-
fected in this way. The peats are made somewhat of the .shape of drain-tiles
but more massive, as may be seen in fig. 188. They are laid in the drain one a
like a tile-sole, and another inverted upon it, as b, like a drain-tile, leaving a
round opening between them for the passage of the water. These peats are cut
nut with a spade-tool, contrived some years ago by Mr. Hugh Calderwood,
Blacklyres, Ayrshire. The spade is easily worked, and forms a peat with one
cut, without any waste of materials; that is, the exterior semicircle b is cutout
of the interior semi-circle of a. A man can cut out from 2,000 to 3,000 peats a
day with such a spade. The peats are dried in the sun in summer, with their
hollow part upon the ground, and are stacked until used ; and those used in
drains have been found to remain quite hard. The invention of this spade, of "■
which a figure, 189, is here given, tends to make tlie draining of Moorish soils the peat-tilk
more practicable than heretofore, and it may be done at 1-5 or 1-4 of the ex- for drains.
pense of ordmary drain-tiles. The frequent want of clay in upland moory dis-
tricts renders the manufacture of drain-tiles on the spot impracticable, and their carriage from a
distance a serious expense.^
THE FLAT STONE DRAIN.
* On Land Drainage, &c
(713)
t Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. -vii. % Ibid., vol. vii.
378
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
Fig. 189.
(84'1.) Sir Joseph Banks alludes to the filling up of drains in bo5:8, which had been execnted at
preat expense at W'obuni, by the growth of the mare.stail (Etpasetnm paluitrt). On examin
ing the plant. Sir Joseph found " its stem under ground a yard or more in length,
and in size like a packthread ; from this a root of twice the size of the stem runs
horizontally in the ground, taking its origin from a lower root, which strikes down
perpendicularly to a depth I have not hitherto been able to trace, as thick as a
small finger."* I have frequently met with the roots or stems of the marestail un-
der ground, which, on being bisected by the drains, poured out a constant run of
water for some time, but, when fairly emptied of it, and no longer receiving sup-
port by a due supply of moisture from above, they withered away. Although
there is no doubt that, in the case mentioned by Sir Joseidi Banks, the rooU of the
niaretitail jienetrated deeper than the drains, yet tlie circumstance of their sending
ujjward shoot.'* which grow "along the openings left for the passage of water,"
proves that sufficient moisture had been left near the surface of the bog, notwith-
standing llie draining, to supi)ort the plant in life ; in short, that the bog had been
instifticienily draineii, otherwise the rivation of support by moisture to the stems
at the surface would inevitably have destroyed the vitality of the roots below.
[ii-t.) A plan similar to that described in (t'43) may be practiced on strong clay
land. The open furrow is formed in the same manner witli the plow, and, being
loft 10 in<'he.s in width, the spade work is condu'.-ted in this manner: Leave a
scarscment of 1 inch on each side of the open furrow left by the jilow. as seen be-
low II a, tig. ]90, and cut out tlie earth, 14 inches wide, perpendicularly, and 10
inches deep, as at b b. Then cast out from the bottom of this cut, with a spade 3
or 4 inches wide, a cut 5 inches or more in depth <•, leaving a scarst^ment of 5
inches on each side of the bottom of the former cut b b. The bottom of the small
cut will be found to be 32 inches below the crowns of the ridges, when twice gath-
ered up with a strong furrow. The drain is filled up in this way: Take flag-
stones of 2 or 3 inches in thickness, as d, and place them across the opening of c
upon the 5inch scarsements, left by the narrow spade ; ihcy need not be dressed
at the j(»iuts, as one stone can overlap the edges of the two adjoining, and they thus
form the top of a conduit of pure clay in which the water may flow. As the wa-
ter is made to flow immediately upon the clay, it is clear that this form of drain
cannot be regarded as a permanent one ; though a flag or tile sole laid on the bot-
tom of the cut c would render it much more durable. The cutting of this form of
drain, the workmen having to shift from one tool to another, will cost Ijii. lite rood
of 6 yards, which, at 15 feet apart, make 20s. 2d. the acre. The flags for covers
will be 12 tons at 4d. per ton, 48. more, in all if4s. 2d., but wilh 10 tons of soles the
cost will be 3s. 4d. more, or 27s. 6d. the acre. exclu.>iive of the carriage of stones
and the labor of the plow. After the joinings of the flags are covered over with turf, the earth
may be returned into the drain with the plow, but with precaution, and probably with tlie previ-
ous a.ssistance of the spade ; but, after all, the proba-
bility is that flat stones cannot be easily obtained in
the neighborhood of strong clay, though this form of
drain may be adopted in any subsoil where flat stones
are abundant.t
(S46.) A somewhat analogous mode to this last of
draining heavy clay land is with the wedge or plug.
As this mode of draining requires a very peculiar
form of tooLs, they will be described as required for
use.
(847.J The first remarkable implement used in this
operation is the bitting-iron, represented by fig. 191,
where a is the moutli, Ij inches wide; h the bit, 6
inches in length ; c the width of the bit, 4J inches. —
The bit is worked out of the body of the instrument,
and laid with the best tempered steel ; e is the tramp
of the implement, placed 18 inches d from the mouth a ; it would perhaps strengthen the power
of the implement to have the tramp on the same side as the bit c ; and f is the helve, which is of
the length of that of a common spade.
THE CALDER-
WOOD PEAT-
TILE SPADE.
Fig. 190.
<i
4
THE CLAY-LA.ND SHOULDER DRAIN.
Fig. 191.
THE BITTINO-IRON IS PLUG-DRAISI.NTi.
(848.) This species of draining is represented by tho.sc who have practiced it to be applicable
to all soils that have a various and uncertain depth of vegetable mould, incumbent on a subsoil of
* Communications to the Board of Agriculture, voL ii.
'714)
t Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, voL vii.
DRAINING.
379
tenacious clay, exceedingly impervious to water, and never dry but by evaporation. It is, how-
ever, more suitable to pasture than to arable land, although it will suit all heavj' soils that are far
removed from stones, or where tiles cannot be conveniently made ; but 1 would remark, on this
last observation, that I w^ould advise you to prefer l.ile draining to this mode, even although the
tiles be very dear, either from distance of carriage or difficulty of manufacture on the spot.
(849.) The first process is to remove the surface turf, 12 inches in width and 6^ inches in depth,
with the common spade, and to place it on the right hand side of the workman, with the grass
side uppermost. A cut is then made in the clay, on each side of the drain, with an edging-iron,
the circular-mouthed spade, as tig. 150 ; bnt a common spade will answer the purpose well enough,
and it requires some skill and dexterity to remove this second cut properly. The first cut having
been made with the spade 12 inches wide, the second should be made at such an angle down
both sides of the drain, 9 inches deep, as that the breadth at the bottom shall be the exact width
of the top of the plug h, fig. 192 — that is, 4 inches wide. Carelessness in expert, or blundering
in inexperienced workmen, in this part of the operation, has caused this kind of drain to fail. —
The bitting-iron then completes the cuttings, by taking out the last cut 9 inches deep, and IJ
inches wide at the bottom. This instrument is used in this manner : The workman gives its
shaft such an angle with the ground line that, when pushed down to the requisite depth, it con-
tinues the cut made by the spade or edging-iron u.sed previously, on the right hand side of the
drain ; and he does exactly the .same on the opposite .side of the drain, using his foot in both cases
on the tramp e, fig. 191. On being forced down on the second side of the drain, the clay, that is
now separated all round by the bit b, leans against the stem of the iron, and is easily lifted out, so
that each bitful of the clay taken out by this instrument will have the form of an oblique parallel-
opipedon. If this part of the operation is performed inaccurately, the drain cannot succeed, be-
cause the angle and depth made by this instrument are of the utmost consequence in forming the
bed which is to be occupied by the plug. Considerable accuracy of hand and eye is requisite ;
which, indeed, cannot well be acquired by workmen without much experience, but both may be
Boon acquired. The clay from the last two cuttings should be placed on the left hand side of the
workmen, or the opposite side to that on which the upper turf was laid ; and, from the la.st cut-
ting being uppermost, it will come readily to hand when first returned into the drain. A^ny loose
soil that may happen to remain at the bottom should be carefully taken out by a scoop spade,
such as fig. 152, so as to leave the drain perfectly clean before the farther operations are effected.
(850.) The next implement used is the suter or plug, fig. 192, -which consists of three or more
pieces of wood i, %\ inches in hight, 6 inches in length, 4 inches wide at the top h, and 1^ inches
Fig. 192.
THE SUTERS OR PLUGS IN PLUG-DRAINING.
wide at the bottom g, joined together by means of iron links I sunk into the sides which allow
them to pass in a cut with a slight curve. A single suter of 18 or 24 inches long would answer
the same or perhaps better purpose. These dimensions are the guage of the opening of the drain
described above.
(851.) The next step in the process is the placing of the plugs on their naiTow edges in the bol
torn of the drain, which they will exactly fit, if the drains have been properly cut out. The most
important part of the proces.s is now to be done. The clay that was last taken out with the bit-
ting-iron is well rammed down upon the plugs, the pieces of the clay being perfectly incorporated
mto one mass; then the next portion that was cut is returned, and equally well rammed down;
and lastly, the turf is placed in the order it was taken out, and fixed in its original po.sition. The
whole earth and the turf are rammed down to the full length of the plug, with a rammer made
for the purpose, or with .such a one as is represented by fig. 175. The operation of ramming be-
ing finished, the lever n, fig. 192, is then struck into the bottom of the drain, and the plugs drawa
torward to within 8 inches of their entire length by the power of the lever on the chain m, which
18 hooked to a staple in the end of the nearest plug. The work of ramming proceeds thus step
by step until the whole drain is completed.
(852.) The finished drain is represented in section in fig. 193, where o is the duct left in the
clay by the plugs, 8^ inches high ; p is the clay that was rammed down above the plugs, 9 inches
deep ; and r is the returned turf, with the grassy side uppermost, 6J inches, which again makes
„ ,^"^ *^. ^™oo*' making a drain of 2 feet in depth. These two figures are drawn to the scale
of I of an inch to 2 inches.
(853.) Some particulars in the conducting of the work should be attended to. 1. Care should
be taken to return all the earth that was cast out of the drain. This is a criterion of good work ;
IT15}
380
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
Fig. 193.
THE SECTION OK
DRAI.N.
and for this purpose, the ratnminij bfini; tlie most laborious part of the operation, the workmen
are apt to excciite it in uii iiiLlHciLiit maimer, uikI ^li<lu)(l ilitrt'ore be strictly euperinteiided in
its execution. Four men and u. boy are tlie best number of people
for carrying- on the work exjieditiously ; and oi.ly Mont people
should be employed, as the ramming is really a laborious jirocess.
2. As few main drains should be made as possible and the open
ends of all should be protected against the inroads of vermin ; or,
what is a better finish, tlte lowest end of a plui; drain should be
furnished v^itll tile and sole or stone. The main drains, of course,
should be made larger than the ordinary drains, and they will have
to be provided with proportionally larger plugs. The drains should
be at a distance from each other, in proportion to the drawing na-
ture of the subsoil. 3. No stock whatever should be allowed to
enter the field while under tliis treatment, and even not until the
earth over the drains has again become somewhat tirin. After the
drains of a field are all finished, the ground should be rolled with
a heavy roller. 4. This sort of drain should not be made in frosty,
snowy, or very rainy weather, as the earth to be Famnied in will
then be either too hard, crumbly, or too soft. A strict superintend-
ence of the work when it is going on is the only guaranty for effi-
ciency of work; for, as to tlic expedient of imposing fines upon
poor workmen, lliey cannot be exacted without hardship, and per-
haps injustice.
(8.'54.) Mr. W. S. Evans, of Selkirk House, near Cheltenham,
Gloucestershire, executed 300 miles of this kind of drain in 4 years,
and is well pleased with its effects upon the laud that has been
subjected to it.
(85-5.) It is not so inexpensive a mode of draining as it at first sight appears, costing lid. the
lineal yard, or £5 Os. lOd. the acre, according to Mr. Evans's experience ; but, according to an-
other account, the expense is 4d. the rood of 6 yards, or £2 ]3s. 9Jd. the acre.
(850.) The principle of this mode of draining is said to have succeeded well on the tops of the
Gloucestershire hills, where the bottoms of the drains descend to and are cut through rock, and
where the bitting-iron and pliig have been laid aside for the pickax, the channel formed by
which is covered with flat stones, and the whole covered with clay rammed down as before de-
scribed. This may be a permanent mode of draining ; but, in plug-draining in clay, I have no
doubt that water will have the effect of softening the sides of the duct, and causing the rammed
wedge of clay above to slip downward ; and, should the water ever reach to the wedge, the lat-
ter will inevitably crumble down, and either entirely fill up, or form a dam across the duct.*
(857.) An imperfect form of wedge-draining is practiced in some parts of England on strong
clay soils, under the name of .•jorfdraining. Tt is executed by removing the upper turf willi the
common spade, and lii^-ing it aside, for the purpose of making it the wedge at
a 8nbse<pient part of the operation ; and, if the turf is tough, so much the belter
for the durability of the sod drain. Another spit is made with the narrow spade,
fig. 170, and the last or undermost one is taken out with the narrowest spade,
represented in fig. 194, which is only 2J inches wide at the mouth : and, as its
entire narrowness cannot allow a man's foot being u.sed upon it in the usual
manner, a stud or spur is placed in front at the bottom of the helve, upon which
the workman's heel is pressed, and pushes down the spade and cuts out the
spit. The depth may be to any desired extent. The upper turf is then put in
and trampled or beaten down into the narrow drain, in which it becomes
wedged against the small shoulder left on each side of the drain, before it can
reach the narrow channel formed by the last-mentioned spade, fig. 194 ; and the
channel below the turf being left open, constitutes the duet for the water. It
will readily be perceived that this is a temporary form of drain under any cir-
cumstances, though it may last some time in grass land, but it seems quite un-
Buited for arable ground, which is more liable to be affected by dashes of rain
than grass land ; and. in any situation, the claj- in contact with water will run
the risk of being so much softened as to endanger the existence of the dust.
(858.) Another method of draining is performed on strong clay land by the
mole plow. This implement is almost unknown in Scotland, its use being con-
fined to some parts of England, particularly in those parts where grass land on
a clay siib.soil abounds. It was, I believe, first introduced to the notice of Scot-
tish agriculturists by the Duke of Hamilton. v,\w caused it to be exhibited pub-
licly on the occa.sion of the Highland and Agricultural Show at Glasgow in
1838. The day after the Show, I saw it exhibited in operation on a farm in the
neighborhood of Glasgow, of strong clay land, for it seems to be best suited to
operate in that kind of soil. Its object is to make a small opening in the soil at
a given distance from the surface, in the form of a molerun, to act as a <luct for
the water that may find its way into it ; hence its name of mo/c-plow. It makes
the pipe or opening in the soif by means of an iron-pointed cone, drawn through the soil by the
application of a force considerably greater than that applied to a common plow.
(859.) The mole-plow as a draming machine can never be of much utility in a country like
Scotland, whose alluvial formations, though not deficient in extent, are characterized more by the
abundance of their stony matters than by their clays as occupying the place of subsoils ; and it is
only in the few patches of carse land that such clays occur as can be brought nndcr the action
Fig. 194.
THE NARROW-
EST SPADE FOR
SOD-DRAINS.
* Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vols. ir. and xi
(716)
DRAINING. 381
of the mole plow. In all those subsoils where bowlders occur, whether large or small, the mole
plow is so inapplicable, its usefulness is limited to such subsoils as consist of pure alluvial clays.
In England, and where extensive flat districts of country occur, there the alluvium may be found
which are the proper sphere of action for the mole-plow.
(860.) This plow is of extremely simple construction, as will appear from fig. 195, which is a
view of it in perspective. It consists of a beam of oak or ash wood 6^ feet in length, and meas-
Fig. 195.
THE MOLE-PLOW^.
nring 6 by 5 inches from the butt-end forward to 4 inches sriuare at the bridle b. As the beam
when in operation lies close upoa the ground, and is indeed the only means of regulating the
depth at which the conduit is to be formed, the lower side is sheathed all over with a plate of iron
about \ inch thick. This plate at the proper place (4 feet 4 inches, or thereby, from the point of
the beam) is perforated for the coulter-box ; its fore-end is worked into an eye, which serves as a
bridle, and is altogether strongly bolted to the beam. At the distance of a foot behind the coulter-
box, a strong stub of wood is mortised into the beam at r, .standing at the rake and spread which
is to be given to the handles. Another plate of iron, of about 3 feet in length and \ inch thick, is
applied on the upper side of the beam ; the coulter-box is also formed through this plate, and the
hind part is kneed at c, to fit upon and support the stub, to which, as well as to the beam, the plate
is firmly bolted. The two stilts or handles cfare simply bolted to the stub, which last is of such
breadth is to admit of several boll-holes, by which the hight of the handles can be adjusted. That
which may be termed the head of the plow is a malleable iron plate of about 2 feet in length ; that
part of it which passes through the beam, and is there fastened by means of wedges like the com-
mon coulter, is 7 inches broad and | inch thick. The part d, below the beam that performs the
operation of a coulter, is 9 inches broad, J inch thick in the back edge, and thinned offto a knife-
edge in the front. The share or mole is a solid of malleable iron, welded or riveted to the head ;
its length in the sole is about 15 inches, and in its cross section (which is a triangle with curved
sides and considerably blunted on the angles) it measures about 3 inches broad at the sole, and 3^
inches in hight. A cylinder is, however, a better form than a triangle ; but in either caise the fore-
part of the share is worked into a conical form, the apex being in the line of the sole, or nearly so.
This, while it enables the share to penetrate the earth more freely, prevents a tendency to rising
out of the ground. The tendency to rise is, however, not so great as may be supposed, for the
center of motion in this implement being very low, not less than 12 inches under the surface of
the ground, and the draft being applied horizontally, there is a strong tendency in the point of the
beam and of the share, as in all similar cases of oblique draft, to sink into the ground (630)-(634) ;
the effect of which, if not properly balanced by the effects of form in the parts, will give the mole-
plow much unnecessary resistance.
(861.) In working this plow, the draft-chain is attached to the bridle-eye at b, and it is usually
drawn by two horses walking m a circular course, giving motion to a portable horse capstan, that
is constructed on a small platform movable on low carriage-wheels, and which is moored by an-
chors at convenient reaches of 50 to 60 yards. The mechanical advantage yielded by the horse
capi3tan gives out a power of about 10 to 1, or, deducting friction, equal to a force of about 14
horses.
(862.) Wben the plow is entered into the soil and moved forward, the broad coulter cuts the
soil with its sharp edge, and the sock makes its way through the clay subsoil by compi-es.sing-it
on all sides; and the tenacity of the clay keeps not only the pipe thus formed open, but the slit
which is made by the broad coulter permits the water that is in the soil to find its way directly
into the pipe. The plow is found to work with the greatest steadiness at 15 inches below the
surface. The upper turf is .sometimes laid over beforehand by the common plow, when the mole-
plow is made to pass along the bottom of its furrow, and the furrow-slice or turf is again carefully
replaced. This is the preferable mode of working this plow, as it serves to preserve the slit made
by the coulter longer open than when it terminates at the surface of the turf, where, of course, it
is liable to be soon closed up ; but the least trouble is incurred when the plow is made to pass
thro'.igb 'he turf unplowed.
(3P0 ) To work the whole apparatus efficiently, 2 horses and 3 men are required ; and if the
comiryw estimate of 10s. a day for 2 horses and 1 man is taken, but which is too high, as you shall
(717)
382 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
have occasion afterward to learn, and 38. 6d. for the other 2 men, an were of ground can be mole*
drained for 138. tiJ., exclusive of the first cost and tear and wear of this apparatas, the cost of
which canuot be less tlian ,£50. At this rate, this is the cheapest of all the modes of draining that
you have yet heard of.
(864.) II tlie molcplow is put in motion in soft clay, the slit made by the broad coulter will not
remain open even for a single day ; and, thon^'h it may again open in severe drouth, it will close
again whenever the clay becomes moist. This plow seems fitted lor action only in pure clay sub-
soils, and, when such are found under old grass, it may partially drain the ground with comparft>
tive economy ; and, the process being really economical, it may be repeated in the course of yean
in the same ground. In my estimation, this mode of draiuinij cannot bear a comparison for effi-
cacy to tile-draiuiug, although it is employed in some parts of England, where its effects are highly
spoken of*
i865.) It has lately been proposed by Mr. Scot, of Craipmoy, Stewartrj- of Kirkcudbright, to
istitute tubes of larch wood for drain-tiles, in situations where larch is plentiful, and conse-
quently cheap, and drain-tiles dear ; aiid he considers that they would be equally efficient with
tiles in many situations, and especially in mossy soils. \Vere larch tubes confined to draining
mos.sy soils, I conceive they would answer tlie purpose well, not only on account of their lengtn
maintaining their original position in the drain, but on account of the durable nature of larch
where water is constantly present, as is iustance<i in cases of great antiquity, such as the piles of
larch upon which the city of Venice is founded. The larch tree that is felled in winter, and al-
lowed to dry with the bark on, is much more durable and useful for every purpo.se, and infinitely
more free of splits and cracks than that which is cut down in sap, and immediately deprived of
its bark for tan.
(866.) The tube finished, fig. 196, presents a square of 4 inches outside, witli a clear water-way
of 2 inches. To those who wish to know how they are made, I refer to Mr. Scot's published state-
ment ;t but in doing this I must remark that the
cost of these tubes will exceed that of clay tiles. f 11'. l'."^
For, take the cost of drain-tiles at 30s. per 1000, ,
including carriage, that will be IJ farthings the f^l . . ~j i ^
lineal loot. Now, a lineal foot of larch tube con- l^ . „ ■ „ . , . „ . '^—-^
tains eay 1 superficial foot of timber at 1 inch
thick, which will cost for carriage and sawing the larch drais-tvbe.
the timber 1 farthing ; the fitting, boring and
pins will cost other 2 farthings; and the timber, at 6(1. the cubic foot, will increase the cost 2 far-
things more, which altogether make the tube more than 3 times dearer than tiles; and, if the cost
of the timber is thrown into the bargain, still they will be double the price of tiles.
(867.) The recommendation of wooden tubes for the purpose of draining land reminds me of
many expedients which are practiced to fill drains, among which are brushwood, tliorus. trees,
and even straw-ropes. With the exception of the trunks of small trees, which, when judiciously
laid down in drains, may last a considerable time, it is not to be imagim-d that brushwood of any
kind can be dunililc. Hence, drains filled with them soon fall in. It could only be dire necessity
that would induce any man to fill drains with straw twisted into ropes ; and it could only have
been the same causiN in situations where stones were scarce, and at a time when drain-tiles were
little known in Scotland, such as was the case during the late war, that could have tempted farm-
ers to fill drains with thorns. No doubt, the astringent nature of thorn-wood and bark may pre-
serve their suh.siance from decay under ground for a considerable time, but the sinking of holes in
such drains, as I have seen, were infallible symptoms of decay. Only conceive what a mess such
a drain mu.st be that is " filled up to the hiiriit of 8 or 10 inches either with bru.-ihwood, stripped
of the leaves — oak. ash, or willow twigs being the best — and covered with long wheat straw,
twisted into bands, which are put in with the hand, and afterward forced down with the spade;
care being taken," the only case of it evinced in the whole operation, "that none of the loose
mould is allowed to go along with them. The trench is then entirely filled up with earth, the first
layer of which is closely trampled down, and the remainder thrown in loosel}-."t And yet such
is the practice in several of the .south-ea.stcru and midland counties of England.
(8C8.) Of the ditrahilUy of common brick when u.sed in drains, there is a remarkable instance
mentioned by Mr. George Guthrie, factor to the Earl of Stair, on Culhom, Wigtonshire. In the
execution of modern draining on that estate, some brick-drains, on being intersected, emitted wa-
ter very freely. According to documents which refer to these drains, it appears that they had
been formed by thi' celebrated Marshal, Earl .Stair, upn-ard of a hundred years as^o. They were
found between the veirelable mould and the clay upon which it rested, between tlie "wet and tlie
dry,"' as the country phrase has it, and about 31 inches below the surface. _ They presented two
forms — one consisting of 2 bricks set asunder on edge, and the other 2 laid lengthwavs across
them, leavinir between them an opening of 4 inches square for water, but having no soles. The
bricks had not sunk in the least through the sandy clay bottom upon which ihev rested, as they
were 3 inches bro.iii. The other form was of 2 bricks laid side by side, as a sole, wiili 2 others
built on bed on each other at both sides, upon the solid grounil, and covered with flat stones, the
building being packed on each side of the drain with broken bricks.||
(869.) Various attempts have been made to lenscn the cost ofatlthi!! drains. One of these is to
cut the drains narrower than they used to be, for the obvious reason that the drawing power of
drains lies more in their dei>tl> than breadth ; and the cubical contents of drains, of any givea
length, have in consequence been much decreased, and the cost of digging them of course muck
lessened.
* See the AericuUnral ."urvcys of Middlesex and Essex.
t Prize Essays of the llighlnnd and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv., where the machinery for making thesa
tubes is ticinrcd and minutely described.
X British Husbandry, vol. L || Prize Essays of the Highland and AgricultJiral Society, vol. sir.
(718)
DRAINING. 383
fS70 ) An attempt has been made with this view by Mr. Peter McEwan, Blackdub, Stirling,
shire. His invention consists of the application of the plow in casting out the contents of drains,
and it certainly displays much mechanical ingenuity, and really performs the work with a consid-
erable degree'of perfection. This application of the plow, however, is by no means adapted to
every species of subsoil — the most common one, of a tilly clay, containing small stones and occa-
sional bowlders, presenting insuperable difBcolties to its progre.ss ; while in pure unctnous clay it
cuts its way with ease, and lays aside the tenacious furrow-slice with a considerable degree of
regularity. The instrument has thus a limited application, but a greater objection exists against
it, inasmuch as it requires an inordinate amount of power to set it in motion, consisting of that of
12 horses. This circumstance alone still more limits its application, for there are comparatively
few farms which employ 6 pairs of horses at work ; and besides, it is almost impossible to yoke
12 horses together, so as to derive the amount of labor from them, as when yoked in pairs. It is
truly distressing to see the horses with this plow, as I once had the opportunity of witnessing in
e field, of favorable subsoil, too, in the neighborhood of Glasgow in 1838, on the occasion of the
Hig+iland and Agricultural Society's Show.
(871.) Mr. Smith, Deanston, has given a description of Mr. McEwan's draining-plow, which it is
not necessary to particularize farther than that the horses go in two divisions, one on each side
of the line of draught, yoked to a .strong master-tree 10 feet long, arranged so as to have 4 abreast,
when 8 horses are used, and 6 abreast when 12 horses are yoked.
(872.) With regard to the state of the work left by this plow, men follow with spades, and
take out a bed for tiles or broken stones, and correct any deviation from a uniform fall in the hot
torn, occasioned by unevenness of ground. The tiles or stones are then put in the usual manner,
and the earth is returned into the drain by the plow.
(873.) This drain-plow is made of two sizes, one weighing 5 cwt., costing £11, the other weigh-
ing 4 cwt. and costing £8 Ss., and the bars or swingle-trees, necessary to accompany each plow,
are 2 six-horse, 4 three-horse, and a strong chain, the whole costing £4 4s.
(874.) With regard to the length of drain cut by this plow. Mr. Smith estimates the time spent
at 2 miles per hour for 8 hours ; and allowing J of it to be lost in turnings, the actual quantity of
work done in 8 hours he takes at 3,126 roods of 6 yards, or about 19| acres, at 15 feet a.sunder, the
drains being cut from 18 to 22 inches in depth. This quantity of work is corroborated by Mr.
John Glen, Hilton, Clackmannanshire, who states that " we drain 400 Scotch chains in 9 hours,"
going down hill with the furrow, and up empty.
(875.) The rate of walking taken by Mr. Smith, at 2 miles the hour, is too great, as the distance
traveled in plowing 1 imperial acre of ground, in the usual w^ay, in a day of 10 hours, which con-
stitutes a good rate of work, is Qj miles, or only 1742 yards per hour, including of course turnings.
There is also a discrepancy in Mr. Glen's statement of draining nearly half the extent of his land
in 9 hours, going half the time empty, with another statement where he says, " we have used Mr
McEwan's drain-plow for the last 4 months, and have drained 837 chains, Scotch measure, with
it ;" that is, only 2 days' work in 4 months, with 6 horses, the drain being 18^ inches wide at top,
and 8 inches wide at bottom, and from 15 to 17 inches in depth.
(876.) The cost of employing this drain-plow is thus given by Mr. Smith :
12 horses at 4s. a day each £2 8 0
8 men at 2s. a day each 0 16 0
To cover interest of cost, and tear and wear of plow, say Is. the hour 0 8 0
Total £3 12 0
wkich is only 1^ farthings per rood of 6 yards.*
'877.) Other plows have been invented for making drains, which have attracted attention, and
engaged the advocacy of friends in the immediate locality in which they originated, but seem
never to have extended farther.
(878.) In 1832, Mr. Robert Green, a farmer in Cambridgeshire, published an account of a drain-
plow of his invention. It cuts the ground 23 inches deep and 8 inches ^vide at top. and 2 inches
at bottom, at three cuts ; the first being 9 inches, the second 8 inches, and the third 6 inches deep.
It is said to take the earth out clean, leaving none to shovel out. It cuts about 500 or 600 poles
or rods of the above dimensions, at three times. It requires 4 horses at the first time, and 6 horses
the other two, and 2 men and a boy to work them, at £l 10s. a day. The price of this plow is
quoted at £l5.t
(879.) In 1833, Mr. Thomas Law Hodges published an account of a drain-plow invented by
Mr. John Pearson, Frotterden, near Cranbrook in Kent. The drain is taken out by it at three
turns. Men follow with narrow scoop-s, and throw out all the loose earth clean, which finishes the
drain at 26 inches deep, at an expense of Id. the rod.
(880.) Both these implements are best adapted to strong clay subsoils, and best for plug-draining,
especially Pearson's, when, after its operation, a long, narrow plug or slide of wood is used, the
clay being rammed down upon which, it is then drawn forward by means of a windlass and
rope. This plow is estimated to cost £9 5s., but ^vith spades, scoops and rammers, it costs £l8.t
(881.) It may be a.s.serted, without much fear of contradiction, that improvements by thorough-
draining will never become general, or be made permanent, unless the assistance of the landlord
be obtained. When left altogether to the tenant, want of capital and the shortness of the lease
will tend at all limes to limit the extent of improvements, and will seldom be made permanent ;
because the true interest of the tenant is to execute the work only in such a manner as will se-
cure his own temporary purpo.se. To the proprietor, among the many inducements to improve
his estate by draining, the greatest, at least the most satisfactory, is, that it yields an immediate
and large return. If he has no spare money, he has only to borrow it at 4 per cent, and lend it,
♦ Smith's Remarks on Tliorou°b-Drainirip.
1 Green on Underdraining Wet and Cold Land.
} Hodges on the Use and .•Advantages of Pearson's liraiGJ&p-jrlow.
(719)
384 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
ont at 6 per cent., a per ccntage which no tenant will refuse to pay, and upon a security, too,
ondoabted — that of his own propt^rty. No one will deny that a proprietor is bh justly entitled to
receive a fair return for money laid out in the improvement of his CHtate, as he is for ihat laid ont
on the original purchase of it. Hence, I would a.ssumc, as a general principle, that for every
penny laid out by a proprietor ui)on ameliorations of any kind, he shall have pn as.surance of a
return, eilJier immediate or pros[)erlivo — immediate, in the form of interest or of additioiinl rent ;
prospective, in the increased value of his property, by which, in after leases, it will yield such an
increa.sc of rent as will repay the prr sent outlay. Again, as regards a tenant, I will assume that
he will niuke every improvement tl e subject of a calculation of profit or loss for one hare only,
and that he will not lay out any moaey merely for the purpose of makinfj improvements to extend
beyond that period Let him even have an assurance of a renewal of his lease, still, before that
takes place, a valuation will be made of his farm, and in that valuation will be included his im
proveraents; so that, while he originally disbursed the whole expense of them, he will in reality
nave to pay for them again in the shape of additional rent.
(882.) (The mechanical principles of draining have been already so fully discosscd that I need
not detain you a moment with their examination ; but this will be the best place for considering
a most interesting subject connected with soil, upon which the whole necessity of draining de-
pends, 1 refer to the manner in which an excess of water proves injurious to the fertility of the
soil.
(883.) In considering this subject it will be advisable to examine into the effects of water, Ist
npon the mechanical condition of the soil, and 2d, upon its chemical constituents, rest^rving the
influence which it exerts directly upon vegetation to be discuased on some future occasion.
(884.) If you call to mind what I have said regarding the mechanical constitution of soil (424),
you will at once perceive that a soil in silv might not inaptly be compared to a porous solid per-
meated by innumerable tortuous channels, these channels being formed by the interstitial spaces
occurring between the various particles composing the soil.
(88.5.) If water is added gradually to soil, the first ettect will be doubtless to fill these channels,
bat from the attraction which the various components of soil have for water, they speedily draw
it into their pores, and thus empty the channels so that even after a considerable addition, the soil,
taken as a whole, does not lose its porosity although each particle has its indiindnal pores filled
with water. This is the healthy condition of soil ; it is what I shall call moist, in contradistinction
to teet. Soil in this state can be crumbled down in the hands without making them muddy, al-
though it feels distinctly damp, and will lose, when heated to 212-^ F., from 20 to 50 per cent of
water.
(886.) If now more water shoald be added, the channels will be again filled, and as the porea
of each particle are already saturated with moisture, they can again be emptied only by one of
the two following methods: 1st, either very gradually by evaporation from the surface, as in un-
drained soil, or, 2d, much more rapidly and cftectually by the channels having communication
with some larger channel in a relatively lower level, as is the ca.se in drained soil. Soil in
which all the interstices between its particles are more or less filled %\'ith w^ater may be called
wet soil, and all such land must be drained before It can be properly and advantageously culti-
vated.
(887.) You will thus perceive that water does no harm, in fact it is absolutely necessary in soil
so long as it does not alter its mechanical condition ; but whenever it fills up the interstitial chan-
nels it becomes injurious for the following rea.sons: 1st, it prevents the circulation of air through
the soil, as this takes place entirely through the medium of these channels ; 2d, it impoverishes
the soil by pennitting soluble matter to soak through ; because until these channels are filled there
is no flow of liquid in the soil, except a very gentle current from below upward, produced by ca-
pillary attraction toward the dricM- particles near the surface.*
(888.) Again, an excess of water acts most injuriou.sly in soil by reducing its temperature. This
is owing to the extremely slight conducting power of water for heat, as corjpared to earthy mat-
ter, assisted also by the cold produced by continued evaporation. According to some experi-
ments which I performed, the diminution of heat produced in this way amounts, in summer, on
an average to 6J degrees of Fahrenheit, which, according to Sir John Leslie's mode of calcu-
lating elevation by the mean temperature, is equivalent to a difference of 1,950 feet. When we
consider the eflTecis of elevation upon the nature and amount of produce, we shall have good rea-
son to see the baneful effects of such a change as this represents.
(889.) Besides the above injuries infiicted by an excess of water, there are numerous efTecta
upon the chemical changes in the soil, and also upon the plants themselves, all of which must be
considen d in their proper place. I trust, however, that what I have advanced will serve to im-
press sufficiently on your minds the evident necessity of thorough-draining in all situations where
the soil is urt.—n. R. M.]
(890.) Alter pointing out the effects of draining in ameliorating the soil and promoting a
healthy condition of vegetation. Profe8.sor .lohnston proceeds to show the eflTccts of water upon
clay soil. " I shall add one important remark,' he says, " which will readily sugcesl itself to the
geologist who has studied the action of air and water on the various clay beils that occur hero
and there as members of the series of stratified rocks. There are n/> clays whif-h do not gradually
soften under the united influence of air and of running water. It is false econoviy, therefore, to
lay down files without soles, however hard and stiff the clay subsoil may appear to he. In the
course of 10 or 15 years, the stiff'est clays will soften, so as to allow the tile to sink, and many
very much sooner. The pa.ssage for the water is thus gradually removed ; and when the tile has
sunk a couple of inches, the whole must be taken up. Thousands of miles of drains have been
thus laid down, both in the low country of Scotland and ij the southern counties of England,
which have now become nearly useless i and yet the system stil! i^oes on. It would appear even
r-
* See Prize Essay on this subject by me in the Prize Essayi of the Highland and Agi-icultural Society,
vol. xiii.
(720)
YOKING AND HARNESSING THE PLOW. 385
as if the farmers and proprietors of each district, unwilling- to believe in or to be benefited by the
experience of others, were determined to prove the matter in their own case also, before they
will consent to adopt that surer system which, though demanding a slightly greater outlay at first,
will return upon the drainer with no after-calls for either time or capital. If my reader," con-
tinaes the Professor, " lives in a district where this practice is now exploded, and if he be in-
clined to doubt if other counties be farther behind the advance of knowledge than his own, I
•would invite him to spend a week in crossing the count}' of Durham, where be may find oppor-
tunities not only of satisfying his own doubts, but of scattering here and there a few words of
useful advice among the more intelligent of our practical farmers."*
(892.) As the preservation of the fall in a drain on nearly level ground is of great importance
in drying it, it may be satisfactory to have a demonstration of tiie fact that the angle subtended
by the plumb-line df, in tig. 183, is equal to the angle of inclination of the drain It a c. The rule
is, as radius : a b : : sine of the angle, h a c : b c, the bight of the fall : Or, multiply the natural
sine of the angle b a c by the length of the fall a b, and the same result will be obtained. t
(8^3.) The Romans practiced draining both with open and covered drains, the former in clay
and the latter in porous soils. The instructions given by Palladius for the formation of drains may
be received with surprise by modern practicers of the art on account of their correctness, and
when their great antiquity is held in remembrance. " If the land is wet," he say.s, " it may be
dried by drains drawn from every part. Open drains are well known: covered drains are
Inade in this manner : Ditches are made across the field 3 feet deep ; afterward they are filled
half-way up with small stones or gravel, and then filled to the surface with the earth that was
thrown out. These covered drains are let to an open one to which they descend, so that the
water is carried off, and destroys no part of the field. If stones cannot be got, branches, or straw,
or any kind of twigs, may be used in their place. "^
[We have omitted some calculations and tabular statements, designed to illustrate the par-
ticular and comparative cost of the several kinds of drains, according to the various inaterials em-
ployed in their formation, and other circumstances affecting the question.
All the elements of these calculations differ so widely from such as would be brought into ac-
count in this country, that the publication of them here would afford no reliable or useful data for
those who might be disposed to enter on a system of draining, more or less extensive. Having
BO thoroughly exemplified and explained the principles of draining as conducted in a counrry
where they are best understood and recently most extensively cairied out, every reader can best
judge for himself as to the cost and the probability of his being adequately remunerated by the
results. These questions, as they arise, must depend, in all cases, on the peculiar circumstance.s
that belong to them. As we have before said, the portions of a farm which most generally invite
the operation of draining, are low grounds, and usually the most fertile, when divested of surplus
moisture ; and if any reliable inference is to be drawn from the profits of this operation in Eng-
land, such as have been detailed, the increased crops to be expected, would warrant a heavy out-
lay, to say nothing of the sanatory effect, which has also been referred to. The reasons here
given for not copying all the details, relating merely to the cost of draining by the different methods,
and with the materials employed in England, might seem to apply to many others which have
been given in respect to other branches of this operation, one of the great sources of the increased
productiveness of English Agriculture ; but, in the first place, the cases are not exactly parallel;
and besides, we are so fully impressed with the importance and the profit of draining rich spots
of land in our country, and so well satisfied that in the old States this important item in the man-
agement of land is too much overlooked, that it was deemed better to illustrate the subject in all
its aspects, even though many of the examples given for that purpose may not be exactly appli-
cable to the situation and circumstances of American landholders. For even these examples may
present encouragement to justify the operation, in numberless instances where it has been neg-
lected ; and at all events, they serve more fully to explain one of the great problems of the day,
with which every enlightened agriculturist ought to be familiar in all its phases. Ed. F. Lib.]
* Johnston's Elements of Ag:ricultural Chemistry.
t See the prnctical application of this rule on a large scale illnstrated in Denton on Model Mapping
J Dickson's Husbandry of the Ancients, vol. i.
(769) 35
386 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
26. YOKING AND HARNESSING THE PLOW, AND OF SWING-TREES.
" No wheels support the diriDg pointed share ;
No eroaning ox is doomed to labor there ;
No Dclpmatcs teach the docile steed his road ;
Alike unknown the plow-boy and the goad ;
, But, unassisted through each toilsome day,
With smiling brow the plowman cleaves hie way."
BLOOMFIfiLD.
(894.) Having inspected the varieties of soil within the sphere of your
observ'atifm, and been told of the various modes in which the land may be
stirred by the plow in winter, it will be proper for you to know the simple
and efficient method by which horses are attached to and driven in the
plow in Scotland, before the winter-j. lowing of the soil is begun, and to
enable you to conceive the process more vividly, you will find a pretty
accurate representation of a plow at work in Plate XIII.*
(895.) The first thing that will strike you is the extreme simplicity of
the whole ari'angement of the horses, harness, plow, and man, impressing
you with the satisfactory feeling that no part of it can go wrong, and af-
ford you a happy illustration of a con.plicated anangement performing
complicated work by a simple action. On examining particulars, you
will find the collar, better seen in fig. 197, around the horse's neck, serv-
ing as a padding to preser\-e his shoulders from injury while pressing for-
ward to the draught. Embracing a groove in the anterior part of the col-
lar, are the haims, composed of two pieces of wood, curved toward their
lower extremities, which are hooked and attached together by means of a
small chain, and their upper extremities held tight by means of a leather
strap and buckle ; and they are moreover provided on each side with an
iron hook, to which the object of draught is attached. The horse is yoked
to the swing-trees l)y light chains called trace-chains, which are linked on
cue end to the hooks of the haims, and hooked at the other into the eyes
of the swing-trees. A back-hand of leather put across the back, near the
[* How little soever may be doing for disseminating iu America among the rising generation
of agriculturists a knowledge of the principles of their art, it may be said to the credit of the
profesl*ion, that in the lightness and perfection of our gearing, and in the manner of attaching and
using the motive power employed in the field of Agriculture, we are not behind, if, indeed, we
are not in advance, of countries the most highly improved. Yankee ingenuity, in unrestricted
play, under our fi-ee Government, has effected wonders in the form and structure and economy of
agricultural implements and machinery, for saving cost and labor, except, perhaps, such as are of
a co.stly nature, involving too much expense for common use. It is not to be maintained that onr
materials, especially of leather, or our workmanship in harness manufacture and saddlerj-. are by
any means as perfect as in England ; but so little have wc 'o learn from them about '• yokinir and
harnessinir the plow," that wc might have ventured to omit this chapter except that we choose,
as well to gratify the curiosity as to in.struct tho miods of young nnd inquiring readers. England
and Scotland are admitted to be in the van of all European nations in the march of irajirovcment,
especially in scientific Agriculture ; and he vrould be deemed but a careless observer who should
visit either the one or the other and come bark without being able to tell if there were anvthing
peculiar in their mode of harnessing their teams to agricultural implements. The next best thing
to seeing for one"s self is to be, as herein, authentically informed. The same rea.sons. without feel-
ing the necessity of repeating them, will prompt us to give many other items ihat might be omit-
ted were we to study nothing but practical usefulness and saving to our publishers.
Ed. Farm. Lib.]
(770)
• YOKING AND HARNESSING THE PLOW. 387
groins of the horse, supports the trace-chains by means of simple hooks.
The bridle has Winders, and while- the horse is in draught, it is customary
to hang th.e'hearing-reins over the tops of the haims. In some paits of the
country there are no blinders ; and there is no doubt that many horses so
brought up will work very well without them. But in cases of horses of
so timid a nature as to be easily frightened at distant objects, and those of
so careless a disposition as to look much about them, they ai'e useful in
keeping the attention of the horse to his work. You observe there are
two horses, the draught of the common plow requiring that number, which
are yoked by the trace-chains to the swing-trees, which, on being hooked
to the draught-swivel of the bridle of the plow, enable the horses to exer-
cise their united strength on that single point ; and being yoked abreast,
they are enabled to exert their united strength much more effectually than
if yoked atrip — that is, one before the other. The two horses are kept
together either by a leather strap, buckled at each end to the bridle-ring,
or by a short rei/i of rope passed from the bridle-ring to the shoulder of
each horse, where it is fastened to the end of the trace-chain with a knot.
The strap prevents the horse separating beyond its length, but allows their
heads to move about loosely ; the short reins prevent them not only sepa-
rating, but keep their heads steady ; and on this account, horses fast-
ened with reins can be turned round more quickly and simultaneously
than with the strap. The plowman guides the horses with plow-reins,
made of rein-rope, which pass from both stilts to the bridle-ring of each
horse, along the outermost side of the horse, threading in their way a ring
on the back-band and sometimes another on the haims. The i-eins are
looped at the end next the plowman, and conveniently placed for him un-
der the ends of pieces of hard leather screwed to the foremost end of the
heaves ; or small rings are sometimes put there to fasten the reins to. In
many places, only one rein is attached to the near-side horse, and in oth-
ers the horses are guided solely by the voice. It is perfectly obvious that
the plowman must have a better and quicker command over his horses
with a double than a single rein, and veiy much more so than by the voice
alone.
(896.) Thus harnessed, each horse has not much weight to bear, nor is
its harness costly, though made of the strongest harness leather, as this
statement will show :
Weight. Value.
Collar 15lb8. £10 0
Haims, when covered with pftite-iron, and with a strap 7 " 0 5 6
Bridle 4^ " 0 10 0
Back-band ..3J " 0 8 0
Chains 8 " atTd.perlh. 0 4 8
Total 38 lbs. and for each horse X2 8 2
When compared with the weight of English harness, these are little more
than feather-weight.
(897.) The collars are differently mounted in the cape in different parts
of the country. The use of the cape is to prevent rain falling upon the
top of the shoulder, and getting between the collar and shoulder, where,
in draught, it would heat and blister the skin. In the Lothians, the cape
of the form of fig. 197 is both neat and convenient. In Forfarshire, and
somewhat more northerly, it is of the form of fig. 198, which lies flatter
and comes farther back than the former ; and it is certainly a complete
protection from rain ; but it makes the collar rather heavy, and its own
weight is apt to loosen the sewing of white sheep-skin with which it
is attached to the body of the collar. Fig. 199 is a form of cape common
in England, which answers no purpose of protection from rain, but rather
388
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
to catch the wind, atiJ thereby obstruct the progress of the horse. Such
a cape is frequently oniiimented with flaring-colored red worsted fringes
round the edge, or with large tassels from the corner and mitfdle, or even
with bells.
Fig. 197.
Fig, 198.
Fig. 199.
THE I.OTHIAN DRAUGHT-
HORSE COLLAR AND HAIMS.
THE FORFAR.SHIRE
DRAUGHT-HORSE COLLAR.
THE K.NGLISH
DRAUGHT-HORSE COLLAR.
(898.) "With regard to ornamenting farm harness, it never appears, in
my estimation, to greater advantage than when quite plain, and of good
materials and excellent workmanship. Brass or plated buckles and brow-
bands, worsted rosettes, and broad bands of leather tattooed with fillagree
sewing, serve only to load and cover the horses when at work, and display
a wasteful and vulgar taste in the owner. Whatever tcmj)tation there
may be in towns to show off the grandeur of teams, you should shun such
display of weakness in the country.
(899.) The English farmer is not unfrecjuently recommended by writers
on Agriculture to adopt the 2-horse plan of working the plow ; but the
recommendation is never accompanied with such a description of the plow
as any farmer could understand it who had never seen a plow with 2 horses
at woik ; and it is not enough to tell people to adopt this or that plan,
without putting it in their power to understand what is recommended. —
To enable tlu; English farmer, who may never have chanced to see a Iwo-
norse plow at work, and to facilitate the understanding of its aiTangements
by those who may have seen, but not have paid sufficient attention to it,
the figure on Plate XIII. has been executed with a regard to show the
just proportions of the various parts f)f the plow and the harness. The
plow has been sufficiently well explained already, and keeping in mind
the relative j)rop<ntions of iLs ])arts, those of the horse and harness may be
ascertained from this plate ; for, so practically correct are those propor-
tions, that any one desirous of mount ing a plow in a similar manner may
easily do so from this figure before them.
(900.) Although the reins alone are sufficient to guide the horses in the
direction they should go — and I have seen a plowman both deaf and dumb
manage a pair of horses with uncommon dexterity — yet the voicf is a
ready assistance to the hands, the intonations of which liorses obey with
celerity, and the modulations of which they understand, whether express-
(772)
YOKING AND HARNESSING THE PLOW. 389
ive of displeasure or otherwise. Indeed, in some of the midland counties
of Scotland, it is no uncommon occurrence to observe the plowmen guid-
ing their horses, both in the field and on the road, with nothing but the
voice ; but the practice is not commendable, inasmuch as those accustomed
to it fall into the practice of constantly roaring to their horses, which at
length become regardless of the noise, especially at the plow ; and on the
road the driver has no command over them, in any case even of the slight-
est emergency, when he is obhged to huiry and seize the bridle of the
horse nearest to him at the time; and should one or both horses evince
restiveness, when he can only have the command of one by the bridle, he
runs the risk of being overcome by the other or by the cart.
(901.) The language addressed to horses varies as much as even the dia
lects are observed to do in different parts of the country. One word. Wo,
to stop, seems, however, to be in general use. The motions required to
be performed by the horse at work are — to go forward, to go backward,
to go from you, and to come toward you ; and the cessation of all these,
namely, to stop or stand still.
To lessen or cease motion. — The word Wo is the common one for a ces-
sation of motion ; and it is also used to the making any sort of mo-
tion slower ; and it also means to be careful, or cautious, or not be
afraid, when it is pronounced with some duration, such as Wo-o-o.
In some parts, as in Forfarshire, Stand has a similar signification ;
but, to stand without ,any movement at all, the word Still is there
employed. In England, Wo is to stop.
To go forward. — The name of the leader is usually pronounced, as also
the well-known Chuck, Chuck, made with the tongue at the side
of the mouth, while impelling the breath.
To step hackward.-'Back is the only word I can remember to have
heard for this motion.
To come toicard you. — Hie is used in all the border counties of England
and Scotland ; Hie here, Gome ather, are common in the midland
counties of Scotland. In towns one hears frequently Wynd and
Vane. In the west of England Wo-e is used.
To go from you. — Hup is the counterpart to hie in the southern coun-
ties, while haud aff is the language of the midland counties ; and,
in towns, Haap is used where wynd is heard, and Hip bears a sim-
ilar relation to vane. In the west of England Gee a gen is used.
In all these cases, the speaker is supposed to be on what is called the
near-side of the horse — that is, on the horse's left side. As a single word
is more convenient to use than a sentence, 1 shall employ the simple and
easily pronounced words hup and hie, when having occasion to describe
any piece of work in which horses are employed.
(902.) [The swingle or siving-trees, whtpp'e-trees, draught-bars, or simply bars — for by all these
names are they known — are those bars by which horses are yoked to the plow, harrows, and
other implements. In the plow-yoke, a set of swing-trees consists of 3, as represented in Us,. 200,
where a points oat the bridle of the plow, b b the main swing-tree attached immediately to the
bridle, c c the furrow or off-side little swing-tree, and d d the land or nigh-side little tree, arranged
in the position in which they are employed in working. The length of the main-tree, between
the points of attachment for the small trees, is generally 3| feet, but this may be varied more or
less ; the length of the little trees is usually 3 feet between the points of attachment of the trace-
chain, but this also is subject to variation.
(903.) Swing-trees are for the most part made of wood, oak or ash being most generally used ;
but the "former, if sound English oak. is by much the most durabte, though good Scotch ash is the
strongest, so long as it remains .sound, but it is liable, by long exposure, to a species of decay re-
sembling dry-rot. As it is always of importance to know the why and wherefore of everything,
I shall here point out how it may be known when a swing-tree is of a proper degree of strength.
A swing-tree, when in the yoke, undergoes a strain similar in practice to that of a beam support-
ed at both ends and loaded at the middle ; and the strength of beams or of swing-trees in this state
is proportional to their breadths multiplied into the square of their depths and divided by their
lengths. It is to be understood that the depth here expressed is that dimension of the swing-tree
(773)
390
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
that lies in iIk- liin-ctiou of the Htraia. or what in the language of agricaltural mechanics is called
the breadth of tl>e 8witi»;-trcc. To apply the abore expression to practice — suppose a swing tree
Fig. 200.
THE SWI.VG-TREE5 FOR TWO HORSES.
of 3 feet in length between the points of attachment for the draoght, that its breadth is IJ inches
and depth 3 inches, and another of the same breadth and depth, but whose length is 6 feet, then
1*5 X 3 X 3 1*5 V 3 V 3
in the case of the first we have ; =: 4*5 : and in the second we have :=2*25
3 feet 6
— ^the strength of these two being as 2 to 1 ; and. to make the 6 feet swing tree of equal strength
with the othor, the breadth must be increased directly as the length — that is to say, doubled — or
the depth increased, so that its aqnore shall be double that of the former. Hence a swing-tree of
6 feet long, and having a breadth of IJ inches and depth 4j inches, will be equal in strength to
the 3 feet sw-ing-tree with a breadth of IJ and depth of 3 inches : but, the depth remaining equal,
the breadth is required to be doubled, or made 3 inches for the 6 feet swini; tree.
(904.) To find the absolute strength of a bar or beam, sitoate as above described, we have tliis
rule : Multiply the breadth in inches by the square of the depth in inches, divide the product by
the length in feet, and multiply the quotient by the constant 660 if for oak, or by 740 if for ash —
the product will be the force in pounds that would break the swinetree or the beam.* Here,
then, taking the former dimensions as of a small swing-tree.
l-S X 3' X 740
= 3,333 lbs. the ab-
solnte force that would break the tree ; but, taking into account the defect that all woods are lia-
ble to break from crossing the fibres and other contingent defects, we may allow \ to eo for secu-
rity against such contingencies, leavine a disposable streneth eqnal to 1,666 lbs. It has been
shown (634) that the usual force exerted by a horse in the plow does not exceed 168 Iba, but U
occasionally rises to 300 lbs., and on accidental occasions even to 6O0 lbs. ; but this is not much
beyond J of the disposable strenirth of the 3fcet swing tree when its breadth and depth are 1}
and 3 inches. The depth of such trees may therefore be safely reduced to 2^ inches, and still re-
tain a suffirient degree of strength to resist any possible force that can come upon it. In the large
■wing-tree the same rule applies ; suppose its length between the points of attachment to be 3
feet 9 inches, its breadth 1} inches, and depth 31 inches, the material being ash as before; tbea
1*75 X 3*5* X 740
— — = 4,230 lbs. ; reducing this \ for security, there remain 2,115 Iba, but the great-
est force that may be calculated upon from 2 horses is 1,200 lbs. ; we have, therefore, nearly double
aecnrity in this size of large swing. tree.
(905.) In proportioning the stn:'ngth of swin^-trees to any particular draught, let the greatest
possible amount of force be calculated that can be applied to each end of the tree, the sum o£ these
will be the opposing force as applied at the middle, and this may be taken as above (904) at 600
lbs. for each horse ; but, for security, let it be 3 times or l.isoo lbs. each horse H, any number of
horses being m H ; and having fixed upon a breadth B for the tree, and L the length, C being the
constant as before, then the depth D will be found thus : — — - ^ DJ *, or, in words, mnlti-
B X C
TredKold's Carpentry, art 110.
(77 4J
YOKING AND HARNESSING THE PLOW.
391
ply the length into as many times 1,800 lbs. as there are to be horses applied to the tree, divide
the product by the constant (740 for ash, or 660 for oak) multiplied into the breadth, the quotient
will be the square of the depth, and the square-root of this will be the depth of the swing-tree,
with ample allowance for assurance strength. In all cases, the depth at the ends may be reduced
to J of that of the middle.
(906.) Wooden swing-trees ought always to be fitted up with clasp and eye mounting of the
best wrought-iron, from 2 to 2J inches broad, about 3-16 inch thick in the middle parts, and worked
off to a thin edge at the sides ; the part forming the eye may range from \ inch diameter in the
center eye of the large tree to 5 inch in the end clasps of the small trees ; and they are applied to
the ■wood in a hot state, which, by cooling, makes them take a firm seat In the main tree, the
middle clasp has usually a ring or a link e welded into it, by which the set is attached to the hook
of the plow's bridle ; the two end clasps have their eyes on the opposite edge of the swing-trees,
with sufficient opening in the eyes to receive the S hooks of the small tree. The small are trees
furnished with the S hooks, by which they are appended to the ends of the main trees ; and end
clasps are adapted to receive the hooks of the trace-chains //, g g, a small part only of which are
shown in the figure. The detached figure A is a transverse section of a tree showing the form of
the clasps, the scale of which is double the size of the principal figure in the cut.
(907.) Though wood has hitherto been the material chiefly used for swing-trees, there have been
some successful trials of malleable iron for the purpose. These have been variously constructed,
in some cases entirely of sheet-iron turned round into a form somewhat resembling the wooden
trers.; but, in this form, either the iron must be tliin, or the bar must be inconveniently heavy ; if
the former, durability becomes limited, by reason of the oxidation of the iron acting over a large
surface, and soon destroying the fabric. Another method has been to form a diamond-shaped
truss of solid iron rods, tlie diamond being very much elongated — its length being 3 feet, and its
breadth about 4 inches, with a stretcher between the obtuse angles. A third has been tried, con-
sisting of a straight welded tube of malleable iron, about 3 feet long and | inch diameter. In this
tube, acting as a strut, a tension-rod, also of malleable iron, is applied with a deflection of 4 inches,
the extremities of the tension-rod being brought into contact by welding or riveting with the ends
of the tubular strut, and eyes formed at the ends and middle for tlie attachment of the hooks and
chains. A tree thus formed is sufficiently strong for every purpose to which it is applied, while
its weight does not exceed 7 lbs. ; and the w^eight of a w^ooden tree, with its mounting, frequently
weighs 8 lbs. The price of a set of common wooden trees, with the iron mounting, is Via., and
of the iron trees ISs.
(908.) The foregoing remarks apply, so far as arrangement goes, to the common 2-horse swing-
trees ; but the various modes of applying horse-power, both as regards number and position of the
horses, require farther illustration. The next I shall notice, therefore, is the "i-horse yoke, of which
there are various modes — the simplest of which is, first, a pair, working in the common trees, fig.
200 ; and, for the tliird horse, a light chain is attached by a shackle to the middle of the main bar
b b. To this chain the third horse is yoked, taking his place in front of the other two, in unicorn
fashion. This yoke is defective, inasmuch as there are no means of equalizing the draught of the
third horse.
(909.) Perhaps the most perfect method of yoking a 3-horse team, whether abreast or unicorn-
fashion, is that by the compensation levers, fig. 201 — a statical combination, \vhich is at once cor-
Fig. 201.
THE SWING-TREES FOR THREE HORSES.
rect in Its equdization, scientific in its principles, and elegant in its arrangement ; and I have to
regret my mability to single out the person who first applied it. The apparatus in the figure is
represented as applied to the subsoil-plow— a being the bridle of that plow ; i is a main swing-
(775) TO r > »
392
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
tree, 5 feet in length, and of strength proportioned to the draught of 3 horaeR; and c de are three
small common trees, one for each horse. The tracechainH are here broken off at/, e- respectir©-
ly, but are to be conceived as extending forward to the shoulders of the horses. Between the
main swing-tree and the three small ones the compensating apparatus is placed, as in the ttcure,
consisting of throe lovers, usually constructed of iron. Two of these, k i and A i, are levers of the
first order, but with unequal arms, the fulcrum k being fixed at J of the entire length frcm the
outward end of each ; the arms of these levers are therefore in the proportion of 2 to 1, and the
entire length of each between the points of attachment is 27 inches. A connecting lever /, of equal
arms, andSO inches in length, is jomted to the longer arms i i of the former, by means of the double
short links m, n. The two levers h i, h i, are hooked by means of their shackles at k to the main
swing-tree b ; and the three small swing-trees r. d, e. are hooked to the compensation lever at k,
k and /. From the mechanical arrangement of these levers, if the whole resistance at a be taken
at 600 lbs., k and k will each require an exertion of ."JOO lbs. to overcome the resistance. But these
two forces fall to be subdivided in the (iroportion of the arms of the levers hi; J of each, or 200
lbs., being allotted to the arms h. and the remaining J, 100 lbs., to the arms i, which brings the
system to an equilibrium. The two forces j, j, beini; conjoined by means of the connectinglevera
m, n, their union produces a force of 200 lbs., thus ecjualizing the three nitimale forces h I h lo 200
lbs. each, and these three combined are equal to the whole resistance a ; and the 3 horses that are
yoked to the swing-tree r, d. e. are subjected to equal exertion, whatever may be the amount of
resistance at n which has to be overcome.
(910 ) The judicious farmer will frequt-ntly see the propriety of lightening the labor of some in-
dividual horse ; and this isea.sily accomplished by the compensation apparatus. For this purpose,
one or more holes are perforated in the levers h i, on each side of the true fulcnim k, to receive
the bolt of the small shackles k. By shifting the shackle and boh, the relation of the forces h and
t are changed, and that in any proportiort that may be desired : but it is necessary to ob«er>-e that
the distance of the additional holes, on cither side of the central hole or fulcrum of equilibrium in
the system, should be in the same proportion as the length of the arms in which the holes are per-
forated. Thus, if the distance between those in the short arm is half an inch, those in the longer
arm should be an inch. By such arrangement, every increase to the exertion of the power, whether
on the long or the short arm, would be equal.
(911.) The same principle of compensation has been applied to various ways of yoking, one of
which is a complicated form of that just described. The main swing-tree and the compensation
levers are the same, except that they may be a few inches shorter in all the arms, and the middle
one of the three small swing-trees also shorter. The yokins is performed in this manner : The
nigh trace-chain of the nigh hor.ie is hooked to the end o of the swing-tree c, and his off-side trace-
chain to the end o of the swing-tree d. The middle horse has his nigh-side cha^n hooked to the
end p of the swing-tree c, while his off-side chain goes to tlie end p of the swing-tree e ; and the
Dff-side horse has his nigh-side chain attached to the end q of the middle swing-tree d, and his off-
side to q of the swing tree e. This system of yoking is complicated, and though in principle it
equalizes the forces so long as all the horses keep equally ahead, yet it is in some degree faulty.
Whenever the middle horse gets either behind or before his proper station — or out of that position
which keeps all the swing-trees parallel to each other — the outside horses have a larger share of
the draught upon one shoulder than upon the other; and. as this produces an unnecesi*ary fatigue
to the animal, it should be avoided. Such irregularity cannot occur with the simple mode of giv-
ing each horse his own swing-tree.
(912.) A modification of this compensation yoke has been contrived, as I am informed, by Mr.
Bauchop. Bogend, Stirlineshire. The compensation levers are formed of wood, and in place of
the connecting levers /, fig. 201, a chain, 2 feet in length, connects the ends i i of the levers h i ;
and in the bight of the chain, as at k, a pulley and strap are placed, to which a soam chain is
booked ; the pulley from it oscillating in the Light of the chain serves the same purpose as the
connecting lever /. In this mode of yoking, the horses work in unicorn-team, the middle horse
pulling by the soam-chain.
(913.) In the yoking of A hones, various modes are also adopted. The old and simple method
is for the plow-norses to draw by a set of common swine-trees, fie 200 ; and to the center of the
main swing-tree at e a soam chain is hooked by means of a shackle or otherwise. The leading-
hon>es are thus yoked by a second set of common swing-trees to the end of the soam This is
now seldom employed, but an improved method of applying the soam has been adopted in its
plaice, which is represented by fig. 202, where a is the bridle of the plow, with its swivel hook. —
A pulley b of cast-iron, 6 inches diameter, mounted in an iron frame, of which an edi;e-view is
given at m, is attached to the hook of the bridle. A link-chain c is rove through the frame of the
pulley ; and to one end of it, the short end, is hooked the main swing-tree rf of a set of common
trees for the plow-horses. The other end of the chain passes forward to a sufficient distance to
allow the leading horses room to work ; and to it is hooked the second set of common swing-trees
at « for the leaders. In the figure, a part of the chain, froni/to g, is broken off; but the full length
is about 1 1 feet. In this yoke, the trace-chains of the niirh-side hind horse arc hooked to the swing-
trees at A A, and tliose of the off-side horse at i i, the leaders being yoked at k k and / / respectively.
In this arrangement, tlie balance of forces is perfectly preserved ; for the hind horses and the lead-
ers, as tliey pull at opposing emls of the chain passin? round a pulley, which must inevitably be
alw^ays in equilibrium, each pair of horses has an equal share of the draught ; and. from the prin-
ciples of the common swing-trees through which each pair acts, the individual horses must have
an equally perfect division of the labor, unless this equilibrium has been removed for the purpose
of easing a weaker horse. In order to prevent either the hindjiorses or the leaders from slipping
too much ahead, it is common to apply a lieht check-chain o. of about LI inches long, connecting
the two parts of the main-chain, so as to allow only a short o.scillation round the pulley, which id
limited by tlie check-chain. When this is adopted, care should be taken never to allow the check-
chain to remain upon the stretch ; for, if it do so, the advantage of equalization in the yoke is lost,
and it becomes no better than the simple soam. In all cases of using a chain, that part of it which
(776J
YOKING AND HARNESSING THE PLOW.
393
passes forward between the hind horses must be borne ap by means of attachment to their back
bauds, or stispended from their collars.
Fig. 202.
THE SWING-TREES FOR FOUR HORSES.
(914. J Mr. Stirling, of Gleuhervie. Stirlingshire, recommends a method of yoking a team of four
horses m pairs, the arrangfements of which are represented in fig. 203 ; a is part of a main swing-
tree of the common length, h a small swing-tree about 4 inches longer than the usual length, bat
both mounted in the usual form, except that, at each end of the small swing-trees, ca.st-iron pulleys
c c, of 3 or 4 inches diameter, and set in an iron frame, are hooked on to the eyes of the swing-tree.
The common trace-chains are rove through the frames of these pulleys, as in the figure ; the ends
dd of the chains are prolonged forward to the proper length for the nigh hind horse, and the ends
ee are extended to the nigh leader. At the opposite end of the main swing-tree, which, in this
figure, is cut off, the same arrangement is repeated for the off-side horses. The principle of action
in this yoke is simple and effective, though different in effect from the former. There the two
hind horses are equalized through the medium of their set of common swing-trees. The leading
horses are alike equalized by their set, and thus the two pairs balance each other through the me-
dium of the scam. Here, on the other hand, the two nigh-side horses have their forces equalized
through the trace-chains, which are common to both, by passing over the pulleys c c ; and the
Bame holds in respect to the two off-sides. The couple of nigh-side and of off-side horses, again,
are equalized through the medium of the one set of swing-trees. In both, therefore, the principle
of equalization is complete, but there is a trifling difference in their economy. In the yoke, fig.
202, which I call the cross balance yoke, tlie soam chain and pulley are the only articles required
m addition to the every-day gear. In that of fig. 203, which I call the running balance yoke, there
is first the set of swing-trees, which, as they have to resist the force of 4 horses, must in all their
parts be made stronger than the common set, agreeably to the rules before laid down ; and to
which are added the 4 pulleys, all of which are applicable only to this yoke. The trace-chain, though
not necessarily stronger than those for common use, is required ahoiit three times longer than sin-
gle horse-chains — that is to say, four horses will require the chains of six ; but the chains of the
(777)
394
THE BOOK OF THE FARM — WINTER.
leaders are more conveniently supported when they pass along the sides of the hind horses, and
it is free of the set of swing-trees which dangle beliina the leaders, of the method fig. 202.
(915.) In cases wiiere fi, 8, and even 12 horses are required, such as for tn-nching. subsoil plow-
ing, and especially draining with the plow, the yoking is accomplished by modifications and ex-
Fig. 203.
THE SWING-TREES ALSO FOR FOUR HORSES.
tension of the principles here laid down ; for example, a team of 6 can be very conveniently ap-
plied with equalized eflect by employing the compensation levers of fig. 202, along with 3 single
Bwing-trees with puUeya at each end and running trace-chains, as in fig. 203. — J. S.j
27. PLOWING STUBBLE AND LEA GROUND.
" 'T is time to clear your plowshare in the glebe."
Graham.
(916.) When you take an extensive glance over the fields immediately
after harvest, when the crop has been gathered into the stack-yard, you
perceive that a large proportion of them are in stubble, while others are
occupied by grass, turnips, and young wheat. On examining the stubbled
fields particularly, you will obser\-e young grass among the stubble in
some fields, and nothing but stubble in others. You could not, of your-
self, discover at once that these various states of the fields bear a certain
proportion to one another, though they really do ; and the cause of their
being in those proportions is that they are cultivated under what is termed
a " regular rotation of crops," which, when followed out, necessarily causes
every field, in its turn, to carry the same series of crops. The numbers
composing the series depend on the nature of the soil, and it shall be my
duty to make you acquainted with them in due time. Meantime, suffice
it to intimate that, when the stubble is in that state, the beginning of the
agricultural year is arrived, when certain parts of it must undergo a change
and be transformed into those which follow the ones you find them in. —
Now, that part of the stubble-land which is devoid of any crop b the first
(778)
PLOWING STUBBLE AND LEA GROUND. 395
to undergo a cha7ige, and it is effected by the plow, not at random, but by
the application of those pi'inciples which have already been explained to
you when we considered the " various modes of plo\ving land into ridges,'
from pages 2S9 to 302, where, as you may remember, the mode of plow-
ing was said to be determined by the nature of the soil and subsoil. The
stubble-land is generally all plowed before the lea is commenced with, and
that part which is to bear the potato-crop next spring is first plowed, then
that for the turnip-ci'op, and last of all for the bare fallow, when there is any
(917.) On daif soil, you will find the stubbled ridges of a rounded fonn,
having been at least twice gathered up, fig. 139 ; and the way to keep
them in a dry state during winter, on a considerable declivity, is to cleave
them down without a gore-furrow, fig. 140, and without a mould-fuiTow,
fig. 134, or to cleave them down with gore-furrows, fig. 141, and mould-
furrows, when clay-land is flat. On less strong soil, casting with a gore-
furrow (657) will preserve land dry whether it be flat or on a declivity. —
On light loams, casting without gore-fuiTows, fig. 135, will serve the pur-
pose. And on sandif and gravelly soils, crown and furrow (653) is the
most appropriate mode of plowing stubble. It is rare that stubble-land is
subjected to any other mode of plowing in winter. Snow should never be
plowed in, nor the ground turned over when affected by frost, nor should
strong clay soil be stiired when very wet, as it is apt to become very hard
in spring, and of course more diflScult to work.
(918.) In every variety of soil, plowed in the forms just described for
winter, care should be taken to have plenty of channels, or gaivs ot grijfs,
as they are usually termed in Scotland, cut in the hollowest places, so as
surface-water may have them at every point by which to escape into the
nearest open ditch. The gaws are first drawn by the plow laying them
open like a feering — taking, in all cases, the hollowest parts of the ground,
whether these may happen to cross the ridges or go along the open fur-
rows ; and they are immediately afterward cleared out with the spade of
the loose earth left by the plow, and cast abroad over the surface. The
fall in the gaws is made to tend toward a point or points best adapted to
carry off surface-water by the shortest route, and do the least injury to the
soil. The ends of the open furrows which terminate at the furrow along
the side of the lowest head-ridge, as well as this fun'ow itself, should be
cleared out with the spade, and cuts made at the hollowest places across
the head-ridge into the ditch. This precaution of gaw-cutting should never
be neglected in winter in any kind of soil, the stronger soils requiring more
gaws than the lighter ; for, as there is no foreseeing the injuries which a
single deluge of rain may commit, it is nevei neglected by the provident
farmer, though many small farmers, to their own loss, pay little heed to
the necessity of its observance.
(919.) With regard to the plo^ving of lea ground, the most usual form
in strong soil is to cast with a gore-furrow, fig. 136 ; and, on less strong
soil, the same form of plowing without a gore-furrow ; while, on the light-
est soils of all, the crown and furrow is in most common use (653). Gath-
ering up is a rare form of furrow for lea, though it is occasionally prac-
ticed on strong soil after gathered up or cast ridges, when it is a rather
difficult operation to plow the furrow-brows and open fuiTOws as they
should be. The oldest lea is first plowed, that the slices may have time
to mellow by exposure to the winter air; and that which is on the strong-
est land is for the same reason plowed before that on light. Lea should
never be plowed in frosty weather, that is, as long as the gi'ound is at all
affected by frost, nor when there is rime on the gi-ass, nor when the gi'ound
is very soft with rain ; because, when ice or rime is plowed down, the non«
(779)
396 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
conductitifj property of gi-ass and earth, in regard to heat and cold, pre-
serves the ice in an unaltered state so long as to chill the ground to a late
period of the season ; and, when the ground is too soft, the horses not only
cut it into pieces with their feet, hut the furrow-slice is apt to he squeezed
out of its proper shape by the mould-board. Nor should lea be plowed
when hard with drouth, as the plow in that case will take too shallow a
furrow-slice, and raise the ground in broad, thin slabs, instead of proper
furrow-slices. A semi-moist state of the ground in fresh weather is that
which should be chosen for plowing lea. Gaws should not be neglected
to be cut after lea-plowing, especially in the fields first plowed, and in
strong land, always whether early or late plowed.
(920.) It is a slovenly though too common a practice to allow the head-
ridges to remain unplowed for a considerable time after the rest of the
field has been finished plowing, and the neglect is most frequently observed
on stubble ground. The reasoning on the matter is that, as all the draughts
cannot be employed on the head-ridges, it is a pity to break their number
in beginning another entire field ; and this reason would be a good one in
summer, when there is little chance of bad weather occurring, but in win-
ter it has no force at all, for the gaw-cuts cannot be properly executed
until the field is entirely plowed ; and to leave a plowed field to the risk
of injury from wet weather, even for a day longer than you can help,
shows little regard to future consequences, which may turn out far more
serious than the beginning to plow a new field without all the draughts.
No doubt, when land has been thorough-drained, there is less dread of ill
consequences from the neglect of gaw-cutting ; but, even in the rhost fa-
vored circumstances of drained land, I think it imprudent to leave isolated
hollows in fields — and such are to be found in numbers on every fann —
without the means of getting rid of any torrent of water that may fall at an
unexpected time. Let, therefore, as many draughts remain in the field as
will plow both head-ridges during the next day at longest ; and if they can
be finished in one yoking, so much the better.
(921.) With regard to the mode of plowing head-ridges for a winter fur-
row, some consideration is requisite. In stubble, should the former furrow
have been cast with or without a gore-fun-ow, then, on reversing the cast-
ing, a ridge will be left on each side of the field, which will be most con-
veniently plowed along with the head-ridges by the plow going round par-
allel to all the fences of the field, and laying the furrow-slices toward them.
The same plan could be adopted in plowing lea in the same circumstances.
Should the furrow given to the stubble have been a cleaving down with or
without gore-furrows, then the head-ridges should be cloven down with a
gore-furrow along the ends of the ridges, and mould-furrows aloncj their
own crowns. On the ridges having been crown and furrowed, llic head-
ridges may be gathered up in early and late lea-plowing and in stubble ;
they may be cloven down without a gore-funow along the ends of the
ridges, especially in the upper head-ridge ; and the half ridge left on each
side of the field may be plowed by going the half of every bout empty. —
But abetter plan would be, onhf if the ridges of f/tr field are short, to plow
half of each head-ridge toward the ends of the ridcres, going the round of
the field, and passing up and down upon the half-ridge on each side emp-
ty, and then to plow those half-ridges with the other half of the head-ridges
in a circuit, laying the furrow-slice still toward the ridges; all which will
have the effect of casting the head-ridges toward the ends of the ridges. —
When the ridges have been plowed in a completed form, a convenient
mode of plowing the head-ridges on strong land is to gather them up, first
making an open feering along the crowns.
(780)
PLOWING STUBBLE AND LEA GROUND. 397
(922.) Whatever mode of plowing the land is subjected to, you should
take special care that it be plowed for a winter furrow in the best manner.
The furrow-slice should be of the requisite depth, whether of 5 inches on
the oldest lea, or 7 inches on the most friable ground ; and it should also
be of the requisite breadth of 9 inches in the former case, and of 10 in the
i. latter ; but as plowmen incline to hold a shallower furrow than it should
be, to make the labor easier to themselves, there is less likelihood of their
making a narrower furrow than it should be — a shallow and broad fun'ow
confei'ring both ease on themselves, and getting over the ground quickly.
A proper furrow-slice in land not in grass, or, as it is termed, in red land,
should never be less than 9 inches in breadth and 6 inches in depth on the
strongest soil, and 10 inches in breadth and 7 inches in depth on lighter
soils. On grass-land of strong soil, or on land of any texture that has lain
long in grass, 9 inches of breadth and 5 inches of depth is as large a fur-
row-slice as may possibly be obtained ; but on lighter soil, with compara-
tively young grass, a furrow-slice of 10 inches by 6, and even 7, is easily
turned over. At all seasons, but especially for a winter furrow, you should
endeavor to establish for yourself a character for deep and correct plowing.
(923.) Correct flowing possesses these chai'acteristics : The furrow-
slices should be quite straight ; for a plowman that cannot hold a straight
furrow is unwoithy of his charge. The furrow-slices should be quite par-
allel in length, and this property shows that they have been turned over
of a uniform thickness, for thick and thin slices lying together present ir-
regularly horizontal lines. The farrow-slices should be of the same hight,
which shows that they have been cut of the same breadth, for slices of dif-
ferent breadths, laid together at whatever angle, present unequal vertical
lines. The furrow-slices should present to the eye a similar form of crest
ard equal surface ; because where one furrow-slice exhibits a narrower
surface than it should have, it has been covered with a broader slice than
it should be ; and where it displays a broader surface than it should, it is
so exposed by a narrower slice than it should be lying upon it. The
fuiTow-slices should have their back and face parallel, and to discover this
propeity requii-es rather minute examination after the land has been plowed;
but it is easily ascertained at the time of plowing. The gi-ound, on being
plowed, should feel equally firm under the foot at all places, for slices in
a more upright position than they should be, not only feel hard and un-
steady, but will allow the seed-corn to fall down betw^een them and be-
come buried. Furrow-slices in too flat a state always yield considerably
to the pressure of the foot ; and they are then too much drawn, and afford
insufficient mould for the seed. FuiTow-slices should lie over at the same
angle, and it is demonstrable that the largest extent of surface exposed to
the action of the air is when they are laid over at an angle of 45^, thus
presenting crests in the best possible position for the action of the harrows.
Crowns of ridges formed by the meeting of opposite furrow-slices, should
neither be elevated nor depressed in regard to the rest of the ridge, al-
though plowmen often commit the error of raising the crowns too high
into a crest, the fault being easily committed by not giving the feered fur-
row-slices sufficient room to meet, and thereby pressing them upon one
another. The furrow-brows should have slices uniform with the rest of
the ridge, but plowmen are very apt to miscalculate the width of the slices
near the sides of the ridges, for if the specific number of furrow-slices into
which the whole ridge should be plowed are too narrow, the last slice of
the furrow-brow will be too broad, and will therefore lie over too flat ; and
should this too broad space be divided into two furrows, each. slice will be
too narrow and stand too upright. When the fuiTow-brows are ill made,
(781) "^ ° .
398 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
the mould-furrows cannot be proportionately plowed out ; because, if the
space between the furrow-brows is too wide, the mould-furrows must be
made too deep to fill up all the space, and rice versa. If the furrow-slices
are laid too flat, the mould-furrows will be apt to throw too much earth
upon their edges next the open-fuirow, and there make them too high.
When the furrow-brows of adjoining ridges are not plowed alike, one sidd
of the open-fun-ow will require a deeper mould-furrow than the other,
(924.) You thus see that many particulars have to be attended to in
plowing land into a ridge of the most perfect form. Plowmen differ
much in bestowing attention on these particulars ; some can never make
a gof>d crown, others a good furrow-brow and open-funow, while others
will make them all in a passable, but still objectionable manner. This last
class of plowmen, however, is preferable to the other, because the injuiious
fffects of the bad plowing of the former are obvious ; whereas the effects
of mediocre compared with first-rate plowing are not easy to ascertain,
though no doubt the difference of their effects must be considerable in
many respects. '* It is well known," observes Sir John Sinclair, " that the
horses of a good plowman suffer less from the work than those intnisted
to an awkward and unskillf il hand, and that a mateiial difference will be
found in the crops of those ridges tilled by a bad plowman, when compared
to any pai^t of the field where the operation has been judiciously per-
formed."* Marshall contends that want of good tillage incurs a loss of
as much as \ of the crops throughout the kingdom,! which may be an ap-
proximation to the truth in his day ; hut plowing is certainly now hetter
performed in Scotland than it was, ihougli it must be owned that by fai-
the greatest part of the process is yet of a mediocre description, and the
reasons for the mediocrity of the work are not difficult to find.
(925.) Plou-men cannot learn their profession at a veiy early age, when
every profession ought to be acquired to attain a high degree of perfec-
tion in it, because plowing requires a considerable amount of physical
power, even from the most expert plowmen, and it exacts the greatest ex-
ertion of strength by comparison from the youngest in years and the least
initiated in the art; and after young men possess sufficient strength to hold
the plow, they arc left to acquire a knowledge of plowing more through
sheer experience than by any tuition given them by those who are better
ac(]uainted with the art ; and as excellence acquired in it cannot be be-
queathed to the rising generation, its knowledge must be acquired ab initio
by every generation. For exam])le, to teach fjoi/s to plow it has been
recommended " to put a cross-bar between the cheeks of the bridle, so as
to keep them precisely at the same distance from each other, and then set-
ting up a pole at the end of a furrow, exactly measured to the same line as
that from which he starts, fixes his eye steadily upon it, and carries tlie
plow in a direction precisely to that point. "J To do all this implies thau
the Aoyhas sufficient strength to hold a plow, which if he have, he will have
come the length of a stout lad ; and to " fix the eye steadily " upon a
pole at a distance, wliilo holding the plow with a staggering gait, and un-
able for want of breath to speak even a word to the hoi-ses, far less to
guide them with the reins, is much beyond the power of any lad, instead
of a hot/ ; for it would require a very expert ])lowman to do that, for all
that is nothing short of feering, and none but the expertest of the plow-
men on a farm is intinisted to feer land ; and, besides, no single pole al-
ways before the spectator can possibly guide any one in a straight line, for
he may imagine he is moving by it in a straight line, while all the while
' SinrlHii's Code of Agriculture. f Msrshall's Glouccatcrshire, vol. i.
t Rritii>h Husbandry, vol. ii.
(782)
PLOWING STUBBLE AND LEA GROUND.
399
he may be de^^ating very widely from it. The truth is, the young man
who is desirous of becoming a plowman in a short time should be taught
day by day by an experienced plowman to temper the irons, and guide
his plow according to his strength and talents. Very few young men have
or are permitted to have such opportunities of learning, and the conse-
quence is, that, as my obsei"vation confirms, the best plowmen are gene-
rally those who have been taught directly by their fathers, and work con-
stantly upon their fathers' farms.
(926.) Were all the particulars of good plowing mentioned above (923)
constantly attended to, there would be no high croicned ridges as at a, fig.
204, by bringing the two feering or the two open fun-ows too close to-
Fig. 204.
AN' EXAMPLE OF BAD PLOWING.
gether, thereby causing the corn soaati upon it to slip down both sides, and
leave a space bare of seed on the best land of the ridge. There would be
no lean flanks as at b, by making the furrow-slices there broader than they
should be, with a view to plowing the ridge as fast as possible, and there-
by constituting a hollow which becomes a receptacle for surface-water that
sours the land; or when the soil is strong, it becomes so ■ consolidated,
that it is almost sure to resist the action of the haiTOws, especially when
passed across the ridge ; or in light soil it is filled up with the loose soil
drawn by the harrows fi'om the suiTounding bights. There would be no
proud furroio-brows as at c, by setting up the fun-ow-slices there more up-
right than they should be, to the risk of being drawn wholly into the open
fuiTows when the haiTows catch them too forcibly on leaving the ridge
when cross-harrowed. And there would be no xinequal open-fuiTOWS, as
at d, by turning over a flatter mould-furrow on the one side than the other,
which cannot fail to retain the greater quantity of seed. To extend this
lengthened catalogue of ills accompanying bad plowing, I may mention
that every sort of crop grows unequally on an ill-plowed ridge, because
the soil is more kindly on the better plowed parts ; but the evils of bad
plowing are not confined to the season in which it is perfonned, as it ren-
ders land unequal when broken up again, and the thinner and harder por-
tions cannot yield so abundantly as the deeper and more kindly. The line
d e, fig. 204, shows the position of the surface before the land was plowed,
and the fuiTow-slices, in relation to that line, show the unequal manner in
which the ridge had been plowed.
(927.) It seems to be a prevalent opinion among agricultural writers,*
that land when plowed receives a curvature of surface ; whereas, coirect
plowing, that is, making the fiirrow-slices on the same ridge all alike, can-
not possibly give the surface any othei for)7i than it had before it was
plowed. If the former surface were cui-ved, then the newly plowed sur-
' Low's Elements of Practical Agriculture, and British Husbandry, toI. ii.
(783) •
400 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
face would also be cuiveil ; but if it were flat, the new surface will be flat
also. No iloubt, in gathering up a ridge, tlie earth displaced by the plow
occupies a smaller area than it did before, but as the displacement only
elevates it above its former level, the act of elevating it does not necessa-
rily impart any cui->ature to it. It is quite true, however, that a lidge on
being cross-harrowed, becomes curved, inasmuch as it becomes highest at
the crown, because the harrows, in crossing, have a tendency to draw the
soil toward the open sides of the ridge, that is, into the open furrows,
where the least resistance is presented, and which will alter the uniformity
of surface left by the plow ; but this effi-ct has no connection with the
plowing. Seeing this external effect produced without knowing its cause,
it is equally true that most plowmen endeavf)r to give the ridge a curva-
ture, and this they accomplish by what I would designate bad plowing ;
that is, they give a slight cresting to the crown, which they support with a
bout or two of well-proportioned furrow-slices ; they th«'n plow the flanks
with nanow and rather deep slices set up a little high, to maintain the
curvature, for about four bouts more, giving the last of these bouts rather
less depth and hight than the rest, and the remaining three bouts next the
furrow are gradually flattened toward the open furrows, which are endeav-
ored to be finished off" to the desired curved foirn by the mould-furrows.
This artfulness produces a ridge of pleasing enough curvature, though it
is exercised by the plowman with no intention to deceive ; ho, on the con-
trary, conceives all the while that he is displaying great skill in his art by
so doing, and if he is not instructed better he will continue to practice it
as an accomplishment. Such a device, however, sacrifices correct plow-
ing to a fancied superiority of external appearance, as much as the crested
forrow formerly spoken of (590), fig. 109. A thoroughly good plowman,
and I have known a few, but only a few, of such valuable men, avoids so
objectionable a practice, and plows always a true sound furrow, making it
larger or smaller as the particular state of the work may require.
(928.) Witlioat pulling much value on the informaiion. il may serve as a facl lo refer to, in oase
it should be wanted, to state the weight of earth turned over in plowing. If 10 inches are taken
as a fair breadth for a furrow-slice, there will he 18 such slices across a ridge of l."> feet in breadth ;
and, taking 7 inches as a proper depth for such a furrow-slice, a crcsa section of the slice will
have 70 square inches. A cubic foot of earth is thus turned over in every 24^ inches and a little
more of length of such a slice ; and taking 2.7 as the specific gravity of ordinary soil, every 24 J
inches and a fraction more of such a slice will weigh 12 stones 1 lb. imperial.*
(929.) The usual speed of horses at the plow may he ascertained in this way. A ridge of 5
yards in breadth will require a length of 9C8 yards to contain an imperial acre ; and lo plow
which at 9 bouts, of 10-inch breadth of furrow-slice, counting no stoppages, will make the horses
walk 9j miles, which in 10 hours gives a speed of 1742J yards per hour. But as ridges are not
made of 968 yards in length, and as horses cannot draw a plow that distance without being af-
fected in their wind, and as allowance must be made for time lost in turning at the ends of the
ridges, as well as for affording rest to the horses, that speed will have to be consiilerably increased
to do that quantity of work in the time. By experiment it has been found that I hour 19 m'n-
Qtes, out nf 8 hours, arc lost by turnings wliile plowing an acre on ridges of 274 yards in length.
with an 8 inch furrow-slice.t Hence, in plowing an acre on ridges of 2.')0 vards in length, which
ia the lenslh of ridge I recommended as the best for liorses in draught, when speaking of ii>clo-
sures (4.'')6), in 10 hours, with a 10 inch furrow-slice, the time lost by turnings is 1 hour 22 minutes.
I presume that the experiment alluded to does not include the necessary stoppages for rest to the
horses, but which should be included ; for however easy the length of ridge may be made for
draught, horses cannot go on walking in the plow for .'« hours together (one yoking) without taking
occasional rest.s. Now 2S0 yards of length of ridge give nearly 4 ridtjcs to the acre, or :»> bouts;
and allowing a rest of one minute in every other bout. 18 minutes will have to bo added to the 1
hour 22 minutes lost, or verj- nearly IJ hours of loss of time, out of the 10 hours, for turnings and
rest. Thus 16,000 yards will be plowed in 8^ hours, or at the rate of 1 mile 422 yards per hour.
I think this result is near the truth in regard to the plowin- of lea in spring ; it is loo little in
plowing red land in summer, and perhaps too much in plowintr slubble lain! in ■winter; but, as
lea plowinur is the criterion by which all others are estimated, this result may be taken as a near
approximation to the tr\ith.
(930.) The comparative time lost in turning at the ends of long and short ridges may be seen
from the following table, constructed from data furnished by the experiment above alluded to :
* ProbHbly meaning U lb. to the stone.— £^. F. L. \ Sinclaii-'s Code of Agriculture.
(784)
PLOWING STUBBLE AND LEA GROUND.
401
Length of ridge.
Breadth of" lurrovv-
slice.
Time lost in turning.
Time devoted to
plowing.
Hours of work.
Yards.
Inches.
H. M.
H. M.
H.
78
10
5 11
4 4
10
149
2 44
7 16
000
2 1
7 59
,.
212
.-
1 561
8 31
..
274
-
1 28
8 33
--
Thus it appears that a ridge of no more than 78 yards in length requires 5 hours 11 minutes of
lime to turn at the landings, to plow an acre in 10 hours, with a lOincli furrow-slice ; whereas a
ridge of 274 yards in length only requires 1 hour 28 minutes for the same purpose, making a dif-
ference of 3 hours 43 minutes in favor of the long ridge in regard to saving of time. Conse-
quently, in the case of the shortest ridge, only 4 hours 4'J minutes out of the 10 can be appropri-
ated to plowing, whereas in that of the long ridge, 8 hours 32 minutes may be devoted to the
purpose. Hence .so very short ridges require double the time of long ones to plow, and are thus
a decided loss to the farmer. This is a subject well worth your experimentinar on. by ascertain-
ing the time usually taken in plowing and turning and resting on ridges of different lengths, in
the different seasons, and in different soils. A watch with a good seconds-hand to mark the time
will be re()uired. and the observations should be made unknown to the plowmen, at their usual
rate of work ; for if jou be constantly in the presence of the men, more than the usual work will
be done, and less than the usual rests taken.
(931.) There is another circumstance, on some farms, which also greatly affects the speed of
horses at work, 1 mean the frreal steepness of the ground ; and it is not unusual to see the ridgea
traversing such steeps straight up and down. Ridges in such a position are laborious to plow to
cart upon, to manure, and for every operation connected with farming. The water runs down
the furrows when the land is under the plow, and can-ies to the bottom of the declivity the finest
portion of the soil. In such a position a ridge of S.'iO yards is much too long to plow without
breathing the horses. But although the general rule of making the ridges run N. and S. is the
correct one, yet in .such a situation as a steep acclivity, they sliould be made to slope along the
face oi the hill in.stead of running right up and down the acclivity, and the slope will not only be
easier to labor in every respect, but the soil will be saved being washed so much away in the fur-
rows ; but the direction of the slope should not be made at random : it should go away to the
right hand in looking up the acclivity, becau.se the plow will then lay the furrow-slice down the
hiil when it is in the act of climbing the steep, and on coming down the hill the horses will be
the better able to lay the slice even against the inclination of the ground. What the exact length
oi the ridges on such an acclivity should be, even with the assistance of the slope, I cannot posi-
tively say, but should imagine that 100 or 1.50 yards would be sufficient for the horses ; but, at all
events, there can be no doubt that it would be much better for the labor of the farm, as well as
for the soil, that there .should be 2 fields 100 yards broad each, one higher up than the other, than
that the whole ground should be in one field 200 yards in breadth. I have all along been refer-
ring to very steep ascents.
(932.) There is still another arrangement of ridges which may materially affect the time re-
quired to labor them ; I mean that where, by rea.son of irregularities in the' fences or surface of
the ground, ridges from opposite directions meet in a common line in the same field ; and the
question \s, Whether the ridges should meet in an imaginary line or at a common head-ridge ?
Professor Low, when alluding to such an arrangement of ridge-s, says, that " the part where the
opposite sets of furrows meet, may be made an open furrow, or a raised-up ridge or head-land,
as circumstances may require."* When ridges meet from opposite directions, it is clear that
they cannot be plowed at the same time without the ri.sk of the horses encountering one another
even upon a head-ridge ; and where there is no head-ridge, should one set of ridges be plowed
before the other, in the plowing of the second set. the end of the plowed land of the first will be
completely trampled down. At the least, therefore, there should be one head-ridge betwixt two
sets of ridgo.s, that one .set may be plowed before the other. But the most independent way in
all respects with such a form of surface, is to treat it as if each set of ridges belonged to separate
fields, and let each have a head-ridge of its own.
(933.) When horses are driven in the plow beyond their step, they draw very unequally to-
gether, and, of course, the plow is then held unsteadily. In that case, the plow has a tendency
to take too much land ; to obviate which the plowman leans the plow over to the left, in which
position it raises a thin broad furrow-slice, and lays it over at too low an angle. On the other
hand, when the plowman allows the horses to move at too slow a pace, he is apt to forget what
he is about, and the furrow-slices most probably will then be made both too narrow and too shal-
low, and though they may be laid over at the proper angle, and the work appear externally well
enough executed, yet there will be a want of mould in the plowed soil.
(934.) [The whole value of plowing, .scieutilically speaking, depends upon its having the effect
of loosetiing the texture of the soil, and thus permitting a free circulation of air and moisture
through its interstices, for the double purpose of increasing the rapidity of the disintegration of its
stony portions, and of re-reducing to powder what had formerly been pulverized, but which,
from the joint action of pressure, and the binding effect of root-fibres, had become aijelutinated
together "°
(935.) Sufficient has already been said to draw your attention to the point of pulverizing the
eoil ; in it lies one of the most important secrets of good farming. However well you may ma-
nure your land, however thoroughly you may drain it, you will never obtain the crops it is capa-
ble of yielding, unless you pulverize it ; nay, so important did .lethro TuU think this, that he felt
firmly persuaded that if you pulverized your soil well, you need not manure at all. I need hardly
* Low's Elements of Practical Agriculture.
(785) 36
402 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
tell von llial we sUrII prove hereafter .TetliroTull to have carried bis conclusions loo far ; but still
so direct and wnqualifii-d n Htatcmcnt, from oiioh a writer, should have its full influence u[)on all
who wish to learn thoroushly the art of Aericulturc. Always bear in mind that the impalpahle
poirdfr 18 the active part of noil, and that no other portion has any direct influence upon vcireta-
Hon, and you will then, at all times, be sufficiently impressed with the necessity of tlioroueh-
plowing. harrowing, ice. ; indeed, you may rest assured that, except upon some few verj- light
sands, you cannot pulverize tbe soil too much — ecouomy alone must fix the limit of this 'useful
operation.
(936.) But were I to stop here, you mieht naturally snppo.ee that any scapon of the year would
do equally well for plowine, provided it was before seed-time, and that tbe fixing of the time was
regulated entirely with a view to economize labor. It is certainly true that, to a considerable
extent, the time of |)Iowinir may be varied ; but you may rest a.ssured that, as a treneral rule, the
sooner you plow after the removal of the crop, the belter condition will your soil be in at the com-
mencement of spriner.
(937.) Several chemical processes of considerable consequence as respects the fertility of soil,
occur after it has been plowed, which either take place very slowly, or not at all, while it lies
unstirred ; and, moreover, some of these take place to the preatest advantace durintr winter.
(938.) This is especially the case with the disintegration of mmeral masses, nothing tending so
powerf^ully to reduce even the hardest stones to povvder as sudden changes of temperature, com-
bined with the presence of much moisture. During rain or thaw after snow all the flods of earth
and the pores of the more loosely agirregated stones become filled with water, which, of course,
freezes, if the temperature is sufficiently reduced : and from its expansion during solidification, a
peculiar property possessed in a marked degree bj- water, the particles of earth or stone, as the
case may be, are pushed so far asunder that, when the thaw returns, it crumbles into fragments,
which are again and a?ain act«d on until reduced to the state of soil.
(939.) This crumblinff by frost is of the greatest importance in the ca.se of stiff clays, for two
reasons: 1st, because they are thus reduced much more ca.sy to work : and, 2d. which is of far
greater consequence, they are enabled to srive up their alkalies more readily to water ; and clayey
minerals are fortunately the quickest to di.sintcgrato, or rather to derotnpose by the action of the
weather; and hence, every means that facilitates that process is valuable, because as we have
already seen that those most valuable ingredients of soil, pota.«s and soda, are of no use to plants
unless they are soluble in water, and that they do not obtain this property until the mineral witli
which they have been a.ssociated becomes completely decomposed. — H. R. M.]
(9-10.) [In the previous remarks on the plow were embraced its construction, its principles of
action, the principles on whi-h its draught is exertei, and the resi.stance which it presents to the
draught, as also some remarks on the system of plowing that each of the three leading varieties
of plows have given rise to ; and on this last branch of the subject I feel constrained to offer
some farther remarks.
(941.) In treating of the form of the furrow-slice I have sufficiently evinced the preference that
I give to the rectanarular slice ; and this I do on the broad principle that ilerp ploiciii^ ought to be
the nile, and any other practice the rxccption. The exception may apply ui a variety of c-ises,
so well known to practical farmers that it would be presumptuous in me to point them out ; but
our " Book of the Fann " being peculiarly addressed to young famiers, the pointing out of a few
of these cases of exception becomes more in place.
(9-12.) Shallow plowintr, then, maybe admissible in the case of a field that has been depastured
with sheep, and to be simply turned up for a seed-furrow. The reason usually as.si£rned for this,
that tbe droppings of the sheep forming only a top-dressing, has given ri.sc to the notion that a
deep furrow would bary the manure to a depth at which its beneficial effects could not be reached
by the plants of the crop that may be so«ii upon this field. While I allow that this is an admis-
sible case, the rationale o{ \.\\<i reasons assigned for it by practical men. may, on verj- fairgrounds,
be called in question. Thus, it is well known that the roots of vegetables in general push 'hem-
selves out in pursuit of their nutriment, and wiili an instinctive perseverance they will pass over
or through media which afford little or no nutriment, in order to reach a medium in which they
can luxuriate at will. With the larger vegetable productions this is remarkably the ca.-^e ; and
though, among those plants which the farmer cultivates, the ni'cessity of huntiiiL', as it were, for
food cannot occur to a eroat extent, yet we arc well aware that the roots of the cereal grasses
may extend from 6 to 12 or more inches; and there is good rea.«on to believe that their length
depends upon the depth of the penetrable soil, and that the luxuriance of growth in the plant will
in general be jiroportioned to that depth, soil and climate being the same.
(943.) Another case of exception to deep plowing, is in some of the courses of fallow plowing.
where a deep furrow might be injurious ; these occurring in the later courses. And a third is that
of a seed furrow, though in many cases this last is of doubtful rt-commendution.
(944.) In some of the clay disirict.s. a system of shallow and nan-ow plowing is practiced, under
the impression that the exposure of the soil, thus cut up in thin slices, tends more to its ameliora-
tion tlian a system ot deep and broad plowinff could effect. This supposition may. to a certain
extent, be true, as a certain portion of the soil thus treated will undergo a stage of improvement ;
but allowing that it does so, the imj)rovement is but a half measure. S)ils of this kind are fre-
quently deep, and. tlmuL'h apjiarently poor, they aflbrd the stamina out of which may be formed
the best artificial soils — the clay loam — which may be brought about by the due application of
manure, and a pii)pcr. well dircrted. and continued system of plowing. " On lands of this kind,
the system of deep plowing will he always atteniled with beneficial effects; and in.stead of the
apparently thin and huiii:ry soil which the shallow system is more likely to perpetuate, the result
might be a deep and strong clay loam. To ellect tbi.s. iiowever. there must be no sparing of ex-
pense or of labor, the draining niu.st be efficient, and the manurinir. especially with those sub-
stances that will tend to sharpen and yield jiorosity to the clay, must be abundantly supplied.
(945.) Thi; most extensive suite of cases where a departure from the rule is admissible, are
those lands where a naturally thin soil rests ou a subsoil of saud or gravel variously impregnated
(786)
PLOWING STUBBLE AND LEA GROUND. 403
with oxides of iron. To plow deep at once in such situations would run the risk of serious in-
jury to the sparing quantity of soil naturally existing. But it is to be observed of soils of this
kind, that the subsoil has always a tendency to pan, and if such do e.xist, the deep system should
again come into requisition in the form of subsoil plowing, which, by destroying the pan —
that frequent cause of sterility in soils of this kind — opens a way to the amelioration of both soil
and subsoil.
(946.) There appears, in short, every reason for inculcating the system of deep plowing, not
only where existing circumstance.? admit of its adoption, but where its ultimate effects are likely
to induce a gradual improvement on the soil and all its products, admitting always that a varia-
tion in depth is proper and necessary under the varying circumstances of crops and seasons.
(947.) Though the Scotch swing plow has afforded the principal subject of what has been here
given on this implement, it must not be lost sight of thaf numerous varieties of this important im-
plement are to be found in other parts of the kingdom, many of which possess a high degree of
excellence ; and England is especially remarkable for these varieties. It has been already noticed
(487) that the germ of improvement in the Scotch implements appears to have been obtained
through England; but, like many other importations from that quarter, the necessities arising
from circumstances of chmate, of soil, and, perhaps not the least important, the paucity of pecu-
niary means, obliged the Scottish agriculturist to husband all his resources, and to call forth all
his energies, in making the best and most economical use of his new acquisitions, so as in the
end to outstrip his more favored brethren of the south. This will be found to have occurred,
not only in the plow, but in the introduction of the turhip, of bone manure, and many other simi-
lar acquisitions.
(948.) It is remarkable, too, that the decided step taken in Scotland in regard to the rapid ex-
tension of the u.se of the improved plow, was long in retracing its steps back to England, and that
the retrograde movement was gradual from the northern counties southward. In nearly half a
century, this retrogression appears to have made very slow progress ; and, like many other im-
provements which linger until some master-mind takes them in hand, the extension of the use of
an improved plow met with little encouragement. In due time this subject was taken up by the
Messrs. Ransome, of Ipswich ; and, through their exertions, such changes have been produced in
the plow as place the English agriculturi.st in possession of a command of these implements in
such a variety of forms that no other country can boast of from the hands of one maker.
(949.) The numerous varieties (amounting to at least 100) of the plows constructed by the Messrs.
Uausome seem to be chiefly adapted to the soils of England, and to the practice of her agricultur-
ists ; for we do not find that, when brought into Scotland, and placed in direct competition with
the Scotch plow, that they ever gain a preference. There can be no question, however, that some
of the varieties of these plows perform well, exhibiting work, when conducted by a skillful hand,
that for its usefulness may compare with that of any implement now employed. The system of
plowing in England being generally of the shallow character, and the modern plow for the most
part of a light construction, adapted to the practice, it has been found that these plows were una-
ble to fesist the force required where the deep-plowing system is followed, as in many parts of
Scotland. But a more .serious objection to the introduction of these plows into Scotland lies in
the frequent application to them of wheels. No plowman who has been able to wield the swing-
plow will ever suffer himself to be incommoded with the addition of wheels to his plow (for he
will always consider wheels an inconvenience), and this he does not from a conviction that wheels
increase the labor of his horses, but because to himself they appear a source of annoyance ; and
here it may be farther remarked, as regards wheel-plows, that, since the wheels must always'have
a tendency to increase the draught (636), and on that account are objectionable, so also, if a plow
can be wielded with equal and perhaps better effect without wheels than with them, the excuse
that a wheel-plow may be wielded by a man of inferior qualifications is of small value. Any man
may be trained to handle a plow, though every man will not be equally succes.sful ; and since in
the whole of Scotland not a wheel-plow is to be found, except as a curiosity, while her plowing
is at least not inferior to that of any part of the kingdom, and as the chances are surely equal that
the plowmen are not all equally good, it is evident that plowing nan be satisfactorily performed
without wheels. If plowing can thus be performed over one part of the kingdom with an imple-
ment of the simplest fonn, and in a satisfactory and economical manner, there can be no necessity
for using a more complicated and more expensive macl^jne to perform the same work in another
part of the kingdom, where it is at least not f^effer done or done at less expense.
(950.) Having adverted to the plows of England, and particularly to those of the Messrs. Ransome,
and though still impressed with the opinion that the simple Scotch swing-plow is preferable as an
implement to the wheel-plows in their most improved form, and perhaps even to the swing^-plowa
of England, it is proper to describe generally at least one example out of the many.
(951.) The example cho.sen for the purpose of illustration is Ransome's F F or Bedfordshire
plow, represented in fig. 205. This plow has attained a high character for its general usefulness,
and may be considered as the most perfect of modern English plows.
(952.) Without going into such a minute detail of its parts as has been done in the case of the
three leading Scotch plows, I cannot avoid giving a short description of it. Like the greater part
of modern E nglish plosvs, it is constructed partly of wood and partly of iron. The body is of cast-
iron, and is ingeniously formed for the attachment of the beam and handles. These are simply
bolted to the body — a practice which leaves the parts in possession of their full strength instead
of being weakened by the mortising, as is the case in the joining of the beam and left handle of
the Scotch wooden plow. The body-frame rises from the middle of the sole-bar to the full hight
of the upper edge of the beam, and the two are bolted together— the body being applied to the
land-side of the beam, where it.? upper edge is .seen at a b- The land-sides'of the beam and of the
body lie, therefore, in one plane behind ; but the beam, at the point, lies 1^ inches to the right of
the body-plane. The handles are bolted to a vertical flange that projects from the hind part of the
body ; and, as an additiooal security to the right handle, a bar of cast iron, extending from a to c,
is laid upon the right-hand side of the beam, as seen in the figure, and fixed by the same bolts that
(787) ° ^
404
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
connect the beam and the body. The hind part of this bar \a also formed to enibmce the root of
the rielit handle, and i» aljo secured by bolta. A farther security ia effected by the application of
the iron May-bar de, tying the beam and bandies together. When the land-side ol the plow ia
Fig. 205.
RANSOMK S r F, OR BEDFORDSHIRE PLOW.
vertical, the left handle h stands 10 inches to the left of the line of the land-side, and the width be-
tween the handles k i is 26 inches. Following the same rule as has been adopted in giving the
details of the Scotcb plows, we have the zero of the FF. figs. 121 and 122, Plate XII.. at 27 inches
behind the point of ibe share n, and the heel p, \\ inches behind the zero. The extremity of the
handles is 4 feet 3 inches behind, and the point of the beam 4 feet ."J inches before the zero, mak-
ing the horizontal length of the plow only 8 feet 8 inches. The hight of the handles above the
base-line is 2 feet 10 inches : the bight of the body, at the junction h of the beam and handles, is
14 inches: the bight of the beam at the coulter-box is 17 inches, and at the point 16 inches : these
higbts beine all as measured to the upper edge of the beam. The bridle k of this plow is similar
to many others of this much-varied member, but differs in the material of which it is composed,
being formed of cast-iron. In fig. 148, the plow is represented with two wheels f and e, which
are mounted on stems r s ; these move vertically in separate boxes, one on each side of the beam,
and are held in position by clamp-screws. The lareer wheel / runs in the furrow, and bears
against the land, thus regulating the landing of the plow, while the wheel g runs upon the land,
and regulates the earthing of the plow.
(Q.'SS.) The active parts of the plow are al.so peculiar. The mould-board / m has been already
given in detail in Plate XII.. figs. 121 and 122 : it is only necessarj- to add that its form indicates
a medium of the convex and concave surfaces, and that its hielit points out its inapplicabilitj' to
deep plowine. The share n, as in a larire proportion of all plows made by the Messrs. Ransome, is
of cast-iron, but is very judiciously hardened at the point and along the edge of the feather on the
lower surface only, which has the effect of throwing all the wear of the metal on the upper sur-
face, thereby keeping' the edge sharp below eo long as the share lasts. This share has great
breadth, being seldom under 7 inches at tlie broadest part. In the clays and chalky soils of Eng-
land, the ca-st-iron share is boili convenient and economical, though it is doubtful how thev might
answer in gravellj- and stony .soils, especially in the latter. The price of a cast-iron share is about
Is. 2d., and an allowance is made for them when worn out and returned of about 6d. ; their dura-
tion may be taken at from 4 to 14 days, depending much on the texture of the soil. The coulter o
in this plow, as in most others of the cla.«s, is fixed in a metal box bolted in the land-side of the
beam. The land-side plane of the coulter, therefore, instead of cro.ssing that of the plow's body,
as in the Lanarkshire and other t^cotch plows, is parallel to it, ami stands altogether to landward
of the land-side plane of the plow from top to bottom, and in some cases forms a small angle from
the point landward. The body is frequently left entirely open on the land-side, except in so far
as it is covered by the land-.side flange of the sole-shoe, wliith is not more than 2 inches high, and
it stands 1} inches to landward of the body-frame, which last arrangement virtually brings the
land-side plane of the body and of the fore part of the beam to coincide.
(9.')4.) Having in a general way described the construction of the frame-work and the acting
parts of this plow, there remains for mc to say a few words on the wheels with which it is fur-
nished. I have already '6,36-638| adverted to wheels, as they appear to me to affect the draught
of plows, and have expressed myself in sufficiently distinct language to show that, in my opinion,
they must in all caw's be injurious, and tend to increa.«e the resistance of the plow to which they
are appended, whether they be applied within the body, or under the front, or any other part of
the beam. That wheels may be of advantace for the working of a plow in the hands of an nn-
skillful plowman may bo trni- : but if this advantage is acquired by a certain additional expendi-
ture of horse power, which, however much the proprietor of the team may blind himself to, will
ultimately, thousrh probably unhei-d. d. tell on his profit and loss account." there will be no gain.
but an ultimate loss. It must be admitted, evt-n bv the advocates of the wheel-plow, that though
they may be handled with perfect regularity in plowing nlonz ridges, whether the holder be an
experienced plowman or not. yet in rrotf plowing they cannot by any means be brought so hand-
ily to follow tne undulations of the surface In leavine one ridge, the share will pass Voo shallow,
and. in entering on the brow of the next, it will go too deep, or at least deeper than the average
of the plowing. There is also the element of time, which in all farming operations is an important
one ; and here wheel-plows are found to come short by about 25 per cent as compared with
(788)
PLOWING STUBBLE AND LEA GROUND. 405
swing-plowg. Mr. Pusey. in his paper on the draught of plows, incidentally observes: "While
the work of our plowing teams is at best but j of an acre upon strong ground (and sometimes as
much as I acre upon the lightest), the daily task performed by two Scotch horses upon strong land
is Ij acres."* This deficiency of effect cannot be attributed. lo want of power in the horses, for
English hor.ses are at least not inferior to those emp oyed in Scotland for agricultural purposes;
neither can it be from unskillfulness in the plowmen, for even the most skillful seem to come short
in this respect, by not being able to plow more than j of an acre in a day, while with the swing-
plow almost anyplowman Xvill turn over his acre a day. From the remarks of the same writer,!
it is to be inferred that a Scotch swing-plovy was incapable of being drawn through a certain clay
soil by two horses, while the wheel-plows -were found to perform the work with tolerable ease,
though still a heavy draught. There may be such cases ; but from the conditions of this particular
case, where the draught that baffled the horses in the swing plo\y seems not to have exceeded 52
stones, there is an ambiguity in the matter that leads to doubts of the accurac)^ on the part of the
observers of the experiment. We know well that in working the Scotch swing-plow in an 8 or
9-inch furrow on stiff land, the draught is not unfrequently as high as 7 cwt. or fiti stones ; but two
good horses never shrink from the task; and how a less draught, whatever be the soil, should
have baffled the exertions of two good horses in a swing-plow, even in the Oxlbrd clay, requires
some farther investigation to be satisfactory.
(9.10.) Under all the circumstances, then — whether we take expenditure of horse power com-
pared with the small saving in the pay of an inferior workman ; the disadvantages attending the
more complicated operation of plowing, compared with the celerity with which the swing-plow
can be made to accommodate itself to all irregularities of ground ; the loss of time, which is equiv-
alent with capital, in plowing a given surface, when compared with the extent turned over by
the swing-plow ; and the probability that even the solitary instance of an apparent superiority in
^ wheel-plow may rest upon some oversight in observation — all seem to conspire to produce a
conviction that a superiority exists in the swing-plow which is in some mea.sure due to its deserv-
ing that appellation from an absence of wheels. And certainly, whatever be the merits of the
modern improvements on English plows, they may be ascribed to any other cause than their pos-
sessing wheels, in whatever position thej' may be placed in the plow.
(956.) The plow under consideration is furnished with two wheels, see again fig. 205. The
land-side wheel is 1'2 inches diameter, with a rim not exceeding 1 inch in breadth. The only
purpose to which this wheel is applied is to regulate the depth of the furrow, for which purpose
it runs upon the solid land. The furrow-wheel is 18 inches in diameter, with a breadth of rim
equal to the former ; its object is twofold, serving in some measure to regulate the depth, by run-
ning on the bottom of the previouslj' formed furrow, but its chief duty is, by bearing against the
edge of the furrow slice that is about to be raised, to regulate the breadth of the slice, at the de-
sired hight, b_\ means of pinching-screws.
(957.) It is evident that both wheels perform a duty that either of them alone could do with per-
haps equal effect, namely, the regulation of the depth ; but the furrow-wheel performs a second
office, regulating the breadth, which it can also do without interfering with its other duty. It
would appear, therefore, that the land-side wheel may be set aside without impairing the efficiency
of the plow ; and we find, accordingly, that these plows are frequently used with only one wheel,
which in itself performs both duties.
(958.) The consideration of these wheels, and their effects on the plow, suggests a fartiier ob-
jection to their utility in respect of the increased resistance they produce to the draught. If the.se
\vheels are to produce anj' effect at all, the plow-irons and yoke must be set so as to give the
plow a bias both to earth and land. If the plow has not this, then whether it swim evenly, or
have a hvAS, from both earth and land, in either case the wheels are inetlective, as they will nei-
ther bear upon the sole nor the ed?e of the furrow, but let the plow have the bias as proposed to
both earth and land, the wheels will then both bear, and exert their efforts by reaction to coun-
teract the tendency of the plow ; on the one hand to sink deeper in the furrow, and on the other
to cut a broader slice ; and since " action and reaction are alike and in opposite directions,'' these
antagonist forces will be in constant operation to a greater or less amount. Such effects will
thereby increase the friction and consequent resistance in proportion to the amount of bias which
has been given to the plow; and hence the conclusion is strengthened, that in all cases wheels
are incumbrances and sources of increa.sed resistance to the plow.
(959.) Among the numerous makers of plows in England whose works have come under our
observation, besides those of Messrs. Ransome, I cannot omit to notice the names of Hart, of King,
of Parker, and of Crosskill, all of whom take a high standing as plow-makers after the English
fashions, and many of their productions are mounted with wheels. It is unnecessarj- to repeat
any of the observations on that head, but should the preceding remarks come under the observa-
tion of any of the makers referred to, or of any other person who maj' take an interest in the sub-
ject, it will be gratifying to find that they endeavor to show how wheel-plows can be rendered
more advantageous than swing-plows, and in doing so either practically or demonstrativeU', in a
satisfactory manner. I shall be open to conviction, and ready to yield up that sy.stem which ap-
pears to me at present as the only tenable one ; but it would, of course, be still more satisfactory
to learn that these very humble efforts shall be of any use in satisfying those who take the trouble
to inquire, that an extended application of the swing-plow practice might either be of individual
or general importance.
(960.) Among the other numerous varieties, I cannot pass over the t.ico-fnrroto pl-ow. which,
though seldom, if ever, seen in the hands of a Scotch farmer, is now rather exten.sively employed
in some of the eastern counties of England, but more especially in Lincolnshire. These plows
are constructed of a very effective and convenient form by Ransome and others, and are held to
be very economical in point of draught, a pair of good horses being capable of working a two-
furrow plow, or in cases of heavier soil three horses ; the saving of labor in the one case being
• Journal of the Hoyal Agricultural Society of England, vol. i. t Ibid , vol. i.
(789) J s "<
406 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
one-half, in the other one-fourth. They are also mounted with wheels, and in ihe disiricia where
they are employed, and tlic plowman accustomed to ihc iniplument. tlicy make very (iiir work,
the two furrows hcinpr in general laid very nearly alike. It must be conceiled. however, lliat in
the district."* where these plows are used, the work is done with a very sliallow furrow, seldom
exceeding 3 or 4 inches, which may allow of '.2 lior.sos takini; the driiui;hl. W'licrc the deep-
plowinir system is fallowed, a twofurmw plow could not be drawn by fewer ilian 4 horses, wliicn,
as it would artbrd no suvini^, but rather the contrary, can never be expedient, or in any way ad-
vantageoij.s ; for thouijh it may be ur-jed. that when a li^lit furrow only was re<|uired the two-
furrow plow might otfer some advantage, yet if it couM not be ai»plicable in every case, ilic in-
ference 18, that two seta of plows, double and single furrow, must be retained — a practice which
cannot, under any circumstances, be recommended. The conclusion to be drawn from these re-
marks is, that though expedients, such as the two-furrow plow, may be very advantageously em-
ployed under a particular climate and soil, the practice cannot be held up as one of general ap-
plication, or that couhi be rendered economical and advantageous under all circumstances. — J. S.]
(!»fil.) This seem.H to me a befitting place to sav a few words on phm-itr^ vin/rlits. I believe it
admits of no doubt that, since the in.stitution of plowing matches throughout the country, the char-
acter of our farm-servants as plowmen has risen to considerable celebrity, not but that individual
plowmen could have been found before the practice of matches existed as dexterous as any of the
present day, but the general diffusion of good plowing must be obvious to every one who has
oeen in the' habit of observing the plowed surface of the country. This improvement is not to be
ascribed to the institution of plowing matches alone, becau.se superior construction ol implements,
better kept, better matched, and superior race of horses ; and superior judgment and tasie in field
labor in the farmer himself are too important element.s in influencing the conduct of piowmeu to
be overlooked in a consideration of this question.
(962.) But be the primarj- motive for improvement in the most important branch of field labor aa
it may, there cannot be a doubt that a properly regulated emulation among workmen of any class,
proves a strong incentive to the production of superior workmanship, and the more generally the
inducement is extended, the improvement arising from it may he expected to be the more gen-
erally difiused ; and on this account the plow vnihils of the Highland and Agricultural Society of
Scotland being open for competition to all parts of Scotland every year, have perhaps excited a
spirit of emulation among plowmen, by rewarding those who excel, beyond anything to be seen
in any other country. Wherever 15 plows can be gathered together for competition at any time
and place, there the plowman who obtains the first premium offered by tliose interested in the ex-
hibition, is entitled to receive, over and above, the Society's plow medal of silver, bearing a suita-
ble inscription, with the gainer's name. About 40 applications aie made for the medals every
year, so that at lea.st fiOO plowmen annually compete i()r them ; but the actual number far exceeds
that number -, as, in many instances, matches ccmiprchend from 40 to 70 plows, instead of the
minimum number of l.*). The matches are usually occasioned by the welcome which his neigh-
bors are desirous of giving an incoming tenant to his farm, and its heartiness is shown in the ex-
tent of the a.ssislance they give him in plowing a field or fields at a time when he has not yet col-
lected a working stock sufficient for the purpo.se.
(963.) Plowing matches are generally very fairly conducted in Scotland. They usually take
place on lea ground, the plowing of whi(-h is considered the best test of a plowman's skill, tlieugh
I hold that drilling is much more difficult to execute correctly. The best part ol'ihc field is usu-
ally .selected for the purpose, if there be such, and the same extent of ground, usually from -i to 4
ridges, according to the length, is allotted to each portion of ground to be plowed. A i>in. bear-
ing a number, is pushed into the ground at the end of each lot, of which there are as many marked
off as there are plows entered in competition. Numbers corresponding to those on the pins are
drawn by the competing plowmen, who take possession of the lots as they are drawn. Ample
time is allowed to liui.>^li the lot, and in this part of the arrangements I am of ofiinion that too much
time is usually allowed, to the annoyance of the spectators. Although shortness of time in exe-
cuting the same <'xtcnt of work is not to bo compared to excellency of execution, yet it should
enter as an important element into the decision of the i)ue.stion of excellence!. Kvery competitor
is obliged to feer his own lot, guide his own horses, and do every other thing connected with the
work, such as a8.sorting his hor.-ies, ami trimming his plow-irons, without the least as.sistance.
(964.) The judges, who have been brought from a distance, and have no i)er8onal interest in the
exhibition, are requested to inspect the ground after all the plows have been removed, having
been kept away from the scene during the time the j)lows were engaged. Now, this appears to
me a very objectionable part of the arrangennMit.'*, and it is made on the plea, that were the judges
to see the plows at work, some i>articular ones might be recognized by them as belonging to
friends, and their minds might thereby be bia.^ed by the circumstance. Such a plea |)ay8 bat a
poor compliment to the integrity of the juilge ; and any farmer who acccjits of the responsible
and honored office of judge, who would allow himself to he influenced by so pitiful a considera-
tion, woulil deserve not oidy not to be em|doyed in a similar arbitration again, but to be scouted
out of society. One conseipience of the exaction of this rule is. that the spectators evince impa-
tience— the spectators, not the plowmen who have bt-en competitors, for ihey are busily and hap-
pily occupied at the time in repleni>;liing the inner man with rations of cheest' and bread and
ale provided to them hj' the possessor of the field who is to enjoy the profits of their labor — while
the judges are takini; no more than the oroper time for deciding the plowing of it may be, a large
extent of ground. The judges ought. lher<;li)re. to \>c present during the whole time devoted to
the competition, when they could i:almlv and certainly ascertain the natun» and depth of the fur-
row-slices, and have h-isure to mature their thoughts on points which may turn the scale against
first impressions. That the bare ins]iection of the finished surface cannot inform them, in a satis-
factory manner. v\ hetlier the land has been rorrectly plowed or not, which can only be done by
comparison of the soles of the furrows while the land is plowing, I shall endeavor to make clear
to you by figures in a supposed case.
(96.^).! You have seen the action of different plows, which may be all employed in the same
PLOWING STUBBLE AND LEA GROUND. 407
match ; and yon have seen that the East-Lothian form of plow lays over a slice of one form, as in
fig. 108, and that the Lanarkshire plow lays over a slice of another form, as in fig. 109, and _para-
graph (591) acquaints you, that the latter form of slice, namely, that with the high crest and ser-
rated furrow-sole, contains 1-7 less earth than the other. Now, were the surface work only to be
judged of, which must be the case when judges are prohibited seeing the work done in the course
of execution, the serrated extent of the furrow-sole cannot be ascertained by removing portions
of the plowed ground here and there, so well as by constant inspection. As equal plowing con-
sists in turning over equal portions of soil in the same extent of ground, other things being equal,
a comparison of the quantity of earth turned over by these two plows may be made in this way:
Suppose a space of 1 square yard, turned over by each of the two kinds of plows specified, taking
a furrow-slice in both cases of 10 inches in breadth and 7 inches in depth, and taking the specific
gravity of soil at 2-7, the weight of earth turned over by the East-Lothian would be 63 stones,
while the Lanarkshire plow would only turn over 54 stones, making a difference of 9 stones of 14
lbs. in the small area of one square yard. In these circumstances, is it fair to say, that the horses
yoked to the East-Lothian plow have done no more work than tho.se yoked to the Lanarkshire,
or that the crop for which the land has been plowed will receive the same quantity of loosened
mould to grow in in both these cases? The prohibitory rule against the judges making their in-
spection during the plowing has been relaxed in several instances ; but 1 fear more from the cir-
cumstance of the spectators losing their patience, while waiting for the decision after the excite
ment of the competition is over, than from regard to the justness of the principle. Thus far is the
obvious view of the question regarding the mode in which plowing-matches are usually conduct-
ed; but in what follows will be found a more important view as affecting the integrity of good
plowing.
(966.) [The primary objects of the institution of plowing-matches must have been to produce
the best examples of plowmanship — and by the best, must be understood that kind of plowing
which shall not only appear to be w^ell done, but must be thoroughly and essenScally mbH done.
In other words, the award should be given to the plow that produces not only work of a proper
surface fini.sh, but which will exhibit, along with the first, the property of having turned up the
greatest quantity of soil and in the best manner. That this combination of qualities has ceased to
be the object of reward, is now sufficiently apparent to any one that will examine for him.self the
productions and rewards of recent plowing matches, and the causes of such dereliction are these:
(967.) The introduction by Wilkie of the Lanarkshire plow gave rise, as is supposed, to the
high-crested furrow-slice. It cannot be denied that the plows made on that principle produce
■work on lea land that is highly satisfactory to the eye of a plowman, or to any person, indeed,
whose ej-e can appreciate regularity of form; and, as there are many minds who can dwell with
pleasure on the beauty of form, but \\ ho do not combine \\'ith that idea its adaptation to u.sefulnes.s,
it is no wonder that plows which could thus affect the mind through the sense of sight, .should be-
come favorites. While the crested system of plowing kept within bounils, it was all very good
but in course of time the taste for this practice became excessive ; and lo.sing sight of the useful,
a depraved ta.ste, of its kind, sacrificed utility to the beautiful, in so far as plowing can be said to
produce that impression. This taste came gradually to spread itself over certain districts, and
plow-makers came to vie with each other in producing machines that should excel in that par-
ticular point of cresting. A keen spirit of emulation among plowmen kept up the taste among
their own class, and very frequently the sons of farmers became successful competitors in the
matches, which circumstance gave the taste a higher step in the social .scale. Thus, by degrees,
the taste for this mode of plowing spread wider and wider, until, in certain districts, it came to
pervade all classes of agriculturists. At plowing matches in those districts, the criterion of good
plowing became generally to be taken entirely from the appearance of the surface ; furrow-slices
possessing the highe.st degree of parallelism, exposiug- faces of equal breadth, and, above all, a
high crest, carried off" the palm of victory. I have .seen a quorumof plow judges •' plodding their
weary way " for two hours together over a field, measuring the breadth of faces, and scanning
the parallelism of slices, but who never seemed to consider the underground work of any im-
portau..e, in enabling them to come to a decision. Under such a system, it is not surprising that
plowmen devote their energies to produce work that might .satisfy this depraved taste, and that
plow-makers find it their interest to minister to those desires, by going more and more into that
construction of parts of the plow that would yield the so mnch desired results. Thus have those
valuable institutions of plowing matches, in the districts alluded to, been unwittingly brought to
engender a practice which, though beautiful as an object of sight, and, when within due bounds,
also of utility, has induced a deterioration in the really useful effects of the plow.
(968.) But it is not yet too late to retrieve what has been lost. Let the Highland and Agricul-
tural Society of Scotland, and all local Agricultural As.sociations, take up the subject, and institute
a code of riles by which the judges of plowing matches shall be guided in delivering their
awards. Let these rules direct attention to what is truly beneficial to the land, as well as what
may be satisfactory to sight in plowing. When such rules shall have been promulgated from
competent authority, we may hope to see plowing matches restored to their pristine intcifrity —
doing good to all who are concerned in them, and restoring that confidence in their usefulness
■which is at present on the wane, but distrust in which has only arisen from an accidental misdi-
rection of their main objects.
(969.) In connection with that part of the subject which has given rise to the foregoing remarks
on plowing matches, it is not a little curious to find, that instead of the high-crested furrow being
a modern innovation, it is as old as the days of Blith in 1652 -. and he. like the moderns, had en-
tertained the same false notions of its advantages. In his curious work, under ths .section " How
to plow as it may yeeld most mould." he. in his quaint style says : •' As for your ordinary seasons
of plo ving, your land being in good tillage, any well ordered and truly compas.sod plow will do,
you may help your.self sufficiently in the makiiig of your irons, if you would have the edge of
your lying furrow lye up higher, which will yeeld most mould, then set your sharophin the shal-
lower, an<l yet your plow the broader, and hold it the more ashore, the plowman going upon the
{79i>
408 THE BOOK OF THE FARM ^WINTER.
land, and it will lay it with a Hharp cd(^c, whicli is a gallant 4>08tarc for almost any land, e«
pecially for the lay turf beyond compare."*
(970.) The setting- of the sharcphiu (feather) aa here described, is precisely what is done in
the modern plows to make tliein produce the Iii:»h-cre8ted furrow (."iDO). Blith seems to consider
that holding: the plow " ashore" (to landwani), aids the cfTect ; it will make a slice thinner at one
edge, but not more acute in the crest. — J. ti-]
28. TRENCH AND SUBSOIL PLOWING, AND MOOR-BAND PAN.
"If deep you wish to go, or if the soil
Be slirt" Hnd hard, or not yet cloHred of stones.
The t^cotti8h plow, drnwn by a loHm four strong,
Your purpose best will suit ; "
Gbaham.
(971.) Trenching of land with the spade has been a favorite operation
in gardening for many ages ; and since the plow became the substitute
for the spade in field culture, it has been employed for the same purpose,
of deepening the friable portion of the soil, and affording to the roots of
plants a wider range in which to search for food. It is highly pro])able,
however, that the plow could not have closely imitated the trenching of
g^-ound with the spade until after the introduction of the mould-board,
which, comparatively speaking, is of very recent date, the ancient plow
retaining its primitive simplicity of form until within a few centuries. In-
deed, until the mould-board was added, it was scarcely in the power of
the plow to trench the soil, that is, to reverse the position of the furrow-
slice and mix the upper and lower soils together. When it was added,
may now be difficult to asceitain ; but fully two centuries ago, Hartlib,
in his Legacie, intimates the practice of very deej) plowing, with the
mould-board in use, when he says : " There is an ingenious yeoman in
Kent who hath two plows fastened together very finely, by the which he
ploweth two fuiTows at once, one under the other, and so stiireth up the
land 12 or 1-1 inches deep, which in deep land is good." This is essen-
tially ti-ench-plowing.
(972.) Within a very recent date, it has been recommended to plow land
as deep as trenching, but so as to retain the stirred soil below the surface.
Mr. Smith, Deanston, by the invention of his subsoil-plow, has been the
means of directing the attention of agricultuiists to this peculiar and ap-
parently new process, which has obtained the appellation of A7//>soil-plow-
mg. A figure and description of his subsoil -plow is given below. After
the introduction of the mould-board, subsoil-plowing could not have been
practiced ; but prior to that improvement it is not improbable that the
process was known and practiced, and so long ago even as by the Romans.
It is unceilain wliat was the depth of the furrow usually made by the Ro-
man plow, some commentators supposing, from a particular phrase tised
by Pliny, that it was as much as 9 inches, but at all events he designates
a depth of furrow of 3 iuches as a mere scarificatioti of the soil. There
is no doubt, however, from a passage of Columella, that the Roman far-
mers occasionally gave a deep fiirrow to good deep land, when he says :
" Nor ought we to content ourselves with viewing the surface, but the
qual'Ui/ of the matter below should be dilisreiitly intjuired into, whether or
no it is of earth. It is sufficient for corn if the land is equally good 2 feet
deep." If they imagined that corn received benefit from the soil at the
Blilh'8 Improver Improved, p, 21t>, edition 1652.
(792)
TRENCH ANP SUBSOIL PLOWING. 409
distance of 2 feet below the surface, they would consider it as an advan-
tage to plow as deep as their cattle were capable of, and their plow could
go.* As the Roman plow had no mould-board, any ^ety^-plowing effected
by it would partake much more of the character of a subsoil than of a
trench-plowing.
(973.) The effect of subsoil-plowing being merely to stir the subsoil
without affecting its relative position, the best way of performing the
operation is, as I conceive, in the following manner : and it may be exe-
cuted either in winter or in summer according as it is made to form a part
of the spring or summer's operations. It is best executed across the ridges ;
let, therefore, a feering of 30 yards in width be taken across them with
the common plow from the upper fence of the field ; and this is most
easily effected by opening out feering furrow-slices parallel with and close
to the fence, if it be straight, and another at 30 paces distant, and let the
subsoil-plow follow in both the open feerings. The plow then closes the
feerings, and so plows from one feering to another until the open furrow
is formed in the middle of the feered space between them, followed im-
plicitly all the time by the subsoil plow, which is held by one man, and the
horses are driven by another. Feering after feering is thus made and
plowed with the common plow, and followed by the subsoil until the
whole field is gone over, with the exception of about the breadth of a ridge
at each side of the field, upon which the horses had turned, and the ne-
glect of which is probably of no gi-eat importance. Fig. 206 is given as
Fia. 206.
THE TRENCH OR SUBSOIL PLOWING.
a representation of the operation, where the plows and horses appear in
black, and where the common plow with 2 horses precedes the subsoil one
with 4. The depth taken by the plow is the usual one of 7 inches in stub-
ble, which is seen as the upper furrow, succeeded by the subsoil-plow,
which takes usually 9 inches in such a position, and whose furrow is seen
in section below that of the other plow, making both furrows 16 inches
deep. Care should be specially taken not to allow the subsoil-plow to ap-
proach within 2 inches of the covering of any drain, otherwise the drain
will be torn up and materially injured. The drains in the figure are sup-
posed to be 36 inches deep, filled 12 inches with tile and sole and small
stones, and placed in every open furrow at 15 feet asunder, the curved
form of the ground between them representing the ridges. This figure is
not meant to give the exactly relative proportions of the different objects
composing it.
(974.) The immediate effect of subsoil-plowing being to deepen the fri-
able portion of the soil, it is evident that where the subsoil-plowed soil
rests upon impervious or even retentive matter, that the operation will in-
crease the depth, and, of course, the capacity of the soil for holding water,
and on this account, in so far as respects itself, the operation after wet
weather would do more injury than good to the crops growing upon it.-^
This is a very important fact in regard to the effects of subsoil-plowing,
* Dickson's Husbandry of the Ancients, vol. i.
(793)
410 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
considered in itself, and demands your serious consideration, because a
misconception and disbelief of it continues to exist in some parts of the
country, especially in England, and injury may thereby be inflicted on land
which will require a considerable time to recover. But if injurious effects
accompany cubsoil-plowing, when it occasions excess of water, it is evident
that were drains formed to give the water an opportunity to escape, it
would do no injury to plow land to any depth. The misconception which
I have alluded to ius existing may not be easily dispelled, a.s the unusual
depth to which subsoil-plowing is executed operates in the first instance
as a drier of the surface of the ground, even when there has been no pre-
vious draining, and it also renders drained ground drier ; and these imme-
diate effects are regarded by improvers of land as all that are required to
be eff'ected by the operation, and, consecjuently, when it is easily ascer-
tained that subsoil-plowing is a much cheaper operation than draining and
seems to be equally efficacious, they are content to abide by it alone. I
have no doubt that much of the land that has been subsoil-plowed in Eng-
land has been so in consequence of the adoption of this opinion by far-
mers, upon whose attention the great comparative economy attending the
process was so earnestly pressed some years ago by people of influence.
They, however, who understood the nature and capability of subsoil-plow-
ing, and Mr. Smith himself at their head, both published and publicly stated
that to employ the subsoil-plow upon land having a retentive subsoil, with-
out draining it in the first instance, would only aggravate the evil they
wished to avoid. It is true that the subsoil-plow might penetrate through
the retentive matter to an open substratum through which the water would
escape; but the chance of meeting with such a rare arrangement of strata,
forming the exception to the general structure of clayey subsoil, cannot
afford a sufficient excuse for an indiscriminate use jf the subsoil-plow.
(975.) It should, therefore, be laid down as a general rule, that no land
ought to be subsoil-plowed unless it has been previously drained ; for,
where the subsoil is so porous naturally as not to require draining, neither
will it require subsoil-])lovving. After being thoroughly diaincd, any sort
of land may be subsoil-plowed with sai'cty — that is, no harm will accrue
from it; but all sorts of land will not derive equal advantage from the op-
eration. Taking it, therefore, for 'granted that draining should })recede
the subsoil-plow, the interesting intjuiry arises — In what quality of subsoil
does subsoil-plowing confer the greatest (if any) benefit to land ? — the cor-
rect answer to which can alone determine the extent to which this opera-
tion should be carried. In the first place, in pure plastic clay, any open-
ing made by the subsoil-plow passing through it would probably soon col-
lapse together behind the imjilcmont. Through such a clay, in a dry state,
the operation would be performed with great difficulty, if not prove im-
practicable. In what is usually called till — that is, clay containing sand
veins, small stones, or small boulders — the subsoil-plow will pass sufficiently
well, though slowly, and it will displace even pretty large stones, and the
clay be afterward kept oj)on for a time. Hardened masses of gravelly clay
may be entirely broken up by this operati«»n. I believe experience has
established the effect of the subsoil-plow in these respects. It thus appears
that the sphere of the subsoil-plow, as an operation of jiermanent utility,
is limited to the breakinir up of hard, gravelly subsoils ; because it is
scarcely supposable that it can keep ])ure clay always open, and it cer
tainly admits of doubt that it will keeji a tilly bottom constantly open, as
experience has proved that percolation of water through a somewhat po-
rous clay renders it more firm, by the well-known fact that such a soil, re-
turned above a drain, soon becomes as firm as any other part of the field.
(794)
TRENCH AND SUBSOIL PLOWING. 411
Hard, chalky, gravelly matter, and moor-band pan, are the only subsoils
on which one would feel confident that subsoil-plowing would confer per-
manent benefit. I say i^ermanent benefit ; for I believe it is acknowledged
that the process confers an immediate benefit in almost every case in which
it has been tried ; and on this account its tkeener advocates have claimed
for it much of, if not the entire, advantages deiived from its precursor, thor-
ough-draining ; and there seems some ground for the claim, inasmuch as
subsoil-plowing is executed so soon after thorough-draining that it would
be impossible to assert the superior claims of draining, were it not for its
occurrence being more common without than with subsoil-plowing ;
whereas, when the latter is taken by itself, it cuts but a soiTy figure. In
vindication of his own invention, Mr. Smith endeavors to explain in gen-
eral terms why indurated subsoil, when drained, should preserve the fria-
bility imparted to it by subsoil-plowing. " When drains have been some
time executed," he says, " innumerable small fissures will be found in the
subsoil, extending from drain to drain ; these are caused by the contrac-
tion of the substance of the soil arising from its drier state. The contrac-
tion being greatest in the stiffest clays, the operation of the subsoil-plow
admitting the air to a gi-eater depth, the fissures take place under its oper-
ations, and generally reach to the level of the bottom of the drains." This
is a natural enough explanation of the almost immediate effect of draining
wet subsoils, and also of the almost immediate extension of its effects by a
subsequent subsoil-plowing. " These fissures," he continues, " will get
more or less silted or glutted up, from time to time, by the minute alluvial
particles carried down and left in filtration by the rain-water," which is
also a natural effect ; but he adds, " the constant expansion and contrac-
tion of the unremoved subsoil, by the alternations of wet and dry, has a
perpetual tendency to renew them ;" and it is this effect which I question,
because, before such expansion and contraction can be kept up, it must be
assumed that the subsoil, after being subsoil-plowed, has no tendency to
consolidate into its original state, whether of strong clay or any other sub-
stance ; and yet the conviction, as [ conceive, of all drainers must be, that
every sort of subsoil, except hard rock, consolidates, however well it may
have been stined, though perhaps not to the degree of impermeability it
may have possessed before ; but, at all events, the more friable it becomes
in its condition, it will be the less affected by the " alternations of wet and
dry."*
(976.) It is allowed by all who have used the subsoil-plow that it requires
much greater exertion from the horses to work it than the common plow,
and that horses do not work well together in it for some time. With re-
gard to the quantity of ground which a plow will subsoil in a day, in a long
day in summer, 1 imperial acre may be calculated on being accomplished
in favorable circumstances ; but should obstructions occur, such as large
boulder stones, |- of an acre is a very good day's work ; and in winter \ is
a good day's work without obstructions.
(977.) The great force required to work even the lightest of the Deans-
ton subsoil-plows, which weighs ISi stones — the heaviest weighing 28^
stones of 14 lbs. — and the insuperable bar which this circumstance places
against its employment on farms working less than 3 pairs of horses, have
induced people to contrive what they designate subsoil-plows, to be used
as a substitute for the Deanston one ; but, in every modification which I
have seen pi-oposed, their effect is quite different from what Mr. Smith
proposes that his should produce. The Deanston subsoil-plow not only
» Smitb'8 Remarks on Thorough Draining.
412 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
penetrates the subsoil to a determinate depth, but, by the simple cojitriv
ance of the feather, the subsoil is not only stirred, but pushed a little aside,
and thereby jiartially mixed with the jioitlon adjoininpf it. In douit; this,
there is little doubt that it is the action <tt' the feather which causes tlie
princij»al weitjht of the draught cwmplained of in this plow. To avoid this
redundancy of drauijht, as it is supposed to be, a feather is discarded, and
simply a larj^e tine bent forward at the point, as in the case of (Jabell's
subsoil-plow,* or a small scarifier, as in the case of the Charlbury one,t is
substituted as its principal feature — a furrow being opened by the com-
mon ])low preceding, as in the ca.se of the subsoil one. But, as the sub-
soil plow makes a demand on the horse.s of the farm for a common plow
as well as itself, it is proposed in the Charlbury one to have a small plow
ittached to the beam to lay over the furrow-slice, in oi'der to ]>iepare it
or the tine or scarifier to pa.ss along. But although a lightness of draught
r.as been attained in both these instances, and a pair of horses have been
i,aid to be able to work Gabell's to the depth of 18 inches, it requires 4
horses to work the Charlbury to 12 inches — which, as a saving of labor, is
of no great importance, except as regards the employment of the common
plow in preparing the way; for the difference in the nature of the work
performed by them differs so widely from that of the l)ean.ston plow, that
they cannot lie said to be its substitutes, inasmuch as they only make ruts
in the subsoil at the distance of the breadth of a furrow-slice from one an-
other— namely, 8 inches at the least, most probably 9 inches, and not im-
probably 10 inches — and which, of course, leave ribs of hard land standing
untouched in the subsoil. It is acknowledged by the proposers of these
substitutes that the Dcanston is more efficient than either ; and, as Mr.
Smith's opinion is that the heaviest of his plows does the most satisfactory
work, it is clear that they can never be a substitute for his, provided he is
coirect in his views regarding the utility of thoroniili subsoil-plowing,
which these substitutes certainly do not even profess to perfoim. The con-
clusion I would draw from the inefficiency of these modifications and sub-
stittites for the Deanston subsoil-plow is, that none of them are Hkeiy to
be used on farms employing less than 3 pairs of horses, such employment
being the only object their contrivers had in offering them to public notice.
(978.) A modification has been proposed and practiced in the use of Mr.
Smith's own subsoil-plow, which is, tliat instead of passing it in every ^fur-
row of the preceding small plow, it should pass in every other furrow. —
The advantages said to be derived from this plan are. that it is cheaper,
speedier, and the subsoil is not so much broken, though broken enough to
allow the water to escape to the drains ; but it is obvious that it is this very
defective mode of operation which constitutes the gieat objection to the
English substitution of the Deanston ])low.
(979.) Instances are not wanting to prove that benefits have been de-
rived from the conjoint operations of thorough-draining and subsoil-plow-
ing ;| but, as in almost every recorded ca.se the combined efVects of both,
operations are reported, it is impossible to ascertain the advantages derived
from each. In a memorandum which I made some time ago, but now for-
get where the circumstance hapjiened, 1 find it stated that a field of lea
was drained in 1838, and the crop of oats from it in 1839 did not exceed
13 bushels per acre imperial ; whereas, after it was subsoil-plowed, an-
other crop of oats in 1840 gave 32 bushels per acre. It is well understood
that the first crop of oats from lea newly thorough-drained never yields an
increase ; but, in this instance, I have no doubt that the second crop of oats
* Journal of the Roynl Acrriculturul .''ocicty of Ktiirland, vol. iL \ Tbid„ vol. i.
X JournHl of the Royal Agiicultural Society of England, vols. i. ii. and iii.
(796)
TRENCH AND SUBSOIL PLOWING. 413
would have been better than the first, without the use of the subsoil-plow,
especially if the lea were old. In Mr. Laing's experience on Campend,
Mid-Lothian, he has " found land to be more thoroughly dried after sub-
soil-plowing (especially when there was any approach to clay in the sub-
!8oil), with a drain in every alternate funow, than with a drain in every
•fuTTOw without it ; in fact, on a stiff clay subsoil I have seen drains of lit-
tle service, the Water for some time standing on the top of them till evap-
orated, while in the very next field, which had been subsoil-plowed, there
was an immense fl(jw of water in every drain, and not a drop to be seen
on the surface." Such an effect is not at all surprising, as it is well under-
stood that subsoil-plowing greatly assists thorough-draining at first in dry-
ing land ; and that effect appears the more striking when the land has not
been so well drained as it should have been, which it certainly would not
be with a drain in every alternate furrow, when it is so strong as that men-
tioned by Mr. Laing, where he says of a field of 10 acres that was subsoil-
plowed in November, 1836 — a wet season, certainly — that it " was at the
time, and during the whole operation, so saturated with rain that the horses'
feet sunk in the unplowed ground from 4 to 6 inches ; which showed,
though there was a drain in every alternate furrow, they had not drawn
the water from the stifli", retentive subsoil. This circumstance," continues
Mr. Laing, " convinced me the more of the necessity of persevering in
subsoil-plowing, which alone enabled me to accomplish my object of thor-
oughly drying the soil."* The conclusion come to is scarcely a fair infer-
ence from the premises, which should rather, in the first instance, have
brought conviction, from the nature and wet state of the soil, of the neces-
sity of persevering in thorough-draining, by making a drain in every, in-
stead of every alternate, furrow ; and it was after t/torougJi-drammg had
failed, that the drainer would be entitled to say that " subsoil-plowing is
an indispensable accompaniment to furrow-draining," " or that it alone en-
abled him to accomplish his object of thoroughly drying the soil." I can-
not refrain from making a passing remark here, that there is a strong pro-
pensity in farmers generally to laud the good properties of its auxiliaries
at the expense of thorough-draining ; and I can only account for the prev-
alence of the feeling, from the fact being well known to them that it is
cheaper to subsoil-plow land than to thorough-drain it, the amount of labor
to put it in the condition of being thoroughly dry depending upon its na-
ture.
(9S0.) Mr. Melvin, Ratho Mains, Mid-Lothian, says what will readily be
believed in Scotland, that " I have never seen any benefit from the use of
the subsoil-plow upon damp-bottomed land that had not been drained ; "
and after a fair trial in a particular field of deep, soft, damp soil, of both
operations conjointly, he expresses himself in terms which place the art of
subsoil plowing in nearly its proper position. " Much, no doubt, of the
improvement in the condition of this field, is to be attributed to draining,
still, the quick absorption of the water in the furrows between the drains
(the land being cast), the decided improvement of the drier part, and the
uniformly equal crop, sufficiently attest the merits of subsoil- plowing." I
have said that, in these remarks, Mr. Melvin has placed subsoil-plowing
in nearly, but as I conceive, not altogether its proper position ; because
the field was drained in the alternate furrows, and the drier part of it was
not drained at all. Now, had every furrow been drained, would not the
water have been quickly absorbed ; and had the drier part been drained,
would it have required subsoil plowing at alii
(OSL) With regard to the expense of subsoil-plowing, it may be fairly
* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agi-icuUural Society, vol. xii.
(797)
414 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
taken at the cost of 3 pairs of horses and 3 men, and wear and tear of im-
plements per day for every ^ of an acre imperial plowed ; and Mr. Pusey
instances a case of a farm of not GOO acres of cold clay, the subsoil-plow-
ing of which was estimated to cost <:£1,300, but how this sum was made
out does not appear * The returns of the grain crops seem to imply an
increase of 25 per cent, at most, and in regard to green crops, an instance
is given of a yield of tuniips oft' peaty soil, resting on stiff" clay and hard
sand and gravel at Drayton in Staft'ordshire, belonging to Sir Robert Peel,
of "four times the quantity in weight ever produced in the same field at
any previous time," the large crop alluded to being 27 tons per acre, in-
cluding tops.t
(982.) With regard to trenching the ground, it has long been practiced
by gardeners with the spade, and its object is to bury the exhausted soil
on the surface with all its seeds of weeds and eggs of insects, and bring
up to the surface a comparatively fresh and unexhausted soil, not so rich
in manure as the one buried down, but more capable, by its fresh proper-
ties, to make a better use of the manure put into it. Trenching with the
spade is also practiced on fai-ms on a large scale. From experience in
both ways, I can maintain that it is cheaper to trench rough, stony giound
with the spade than with the plow, giving consideration to the state of the
soil when left; by the two implements. The plow with 4 horses will turn
over and rip up a strong furrow, and where there are no stones and roots,
it will answer the purpose well enough ; but where stones, though small
but numerous, and if large, are encountered, the fuiTOW becomes very
uneven and unequal, the horses jaded, the men fatigued, the implement
broken, and the work very imperfectly done. It is the same case with the
roots of trees, and even of bushes, against which, when the plow comes,
horses pull with vehemence, so as either to injure themselves, or break
their tackling. At such work I had two valuable hoi-ses so much injured
in their wind as to become unfit for ordinary farm work ; and finding so I.
abandoned the plow for this purpose altogether. The same work, on the
other hand, can be much better done with the spade, and when it is un-
dertaken by a contractor who remains constantly with the spadesmen, it
will be your own fault in superintendence, if the work be ill executed.
(983.) I have found this plan succeed in making good trenching. Let
the ground to be trenched be laid off' in lots with pins ; and let the lots
contain equal areas of five yards in breadth. The trench to be 14 inches
in perpendicular depth in the solid ground on the average over the lot, the
surface being left even with the general inclination of the field that is to
be. The 14 inches out of the solid will give a depth of 16 inches in the
trenched part of the ground. The contractors should be obliged to re-
move all stones, large and small, all roots, large and small, and every other
thing that it likely to obstruct the future course of the plow, and lay them
upon the surface of the trenched ground ; and should large boulders be
found a little below the surface, these must either be blown to pieces by
gunpowder, and the fragments left on the surface, or farther sunk in the
earth so as to be out of the reach of the plow in future, according as you
find that you may have use for the stones fin* drains or foundations of fence
dykes. The trenching is begun at the utmost limit of the rough ground,
by each man rutting some breadths of 12 or 15 inches wide across his lot,
and making a trench of the required depth of 14 inches, gauged by a stick
kept constantly in his possession to guide him in the depth, that he may
not have the plea of ignorance to urge in extenuation of his cupidity. The
upper turf or spading is put on its back in the bottom of the trench ; the
* Journal of the RojhI Agricultural Society of Encland, vol i. 1 Ibid., vol. iil
(799)
TRENCH AND SUBSOIL PLOWING. 415
soil is then dug and thrown upon it, care being taken to make the new-
ground level and even ; and, lastly, shoveling the loose earth over the sur-
face, leaving no inequalities in the bottom of the nev^^ trench. After one
set of allotted spaces has been trenched in this way, another is ready
marked off by the contractor for the men to enter upon as they finish their
lots, and the second set should be marked off either along one end or one
side of the field, whichever is found most convenient for the future opera-
tions of removing the trenched-up materials to their destination, that a
whole piece of gi-ound maybe cleared for futui-e operations without inter-
fering with the pi'ogress of the trenching, the workmen employed in which
should be called upon to do nothing else than their appointed tasks.
(9S4.) Ground that has lain in this rough state for years will no doubt
require draining, and should be drained befoi'e or after being trenched, ac-
cording to circumstances. It should be examined beforehand, by pits sunk
here and there, whether the subsoil will afford a sufficient quantity of
stones to thorough-drain the ground. If it is supposed or certain that
it will, the ground should first be trenched to obtain the stones, and they
being on the spot, the drains will be easily filled with them. If the stones
be only to that amount as to form an ordinary covering to tiles, then tiles
and soles should be used as the principal materials, and, in this case as
well as the other, the ground should first be ti'enched. But if stones are
plentiful near at hand, though not in the particular field under improve-
ment, from a quarry hard by, for instance, then the drains should be
opened and filled to the requisite depth before the surface of the old
ground is broken up, that the cartage of the stones may first be borne by
it ; and the trenchers in that case should be obliged to cover the stones of
the drains with turf, and level the ground over them as they proceed with
the trenching.
(985.) The expense of trenching rough ground at 14 inches deep — and
it should never be shallower, in order to insure a good plow-fuiTow ever
after — is from lOd. to Is. per pole, according to the roughness of the
ground. I have had very rough ground, consisting of large roots of trees
in scattered wood, with brushwood of birch, alder, whin, and broom,
and containing as rnany stones as would have half-drained the ground,
trenched 14 inches deep for Is. per fall, Scotch measure, which is equal
to c£6 13s. 3d. the imperial acre, or rather more than Q-^^d. per pole, a large
sum, undoubtedly, independent of draining, clearing away rubbish, and
other horse and manual labor ; but then the ground was rendered at once
from a state of wilderness to one in which manure could be applied and
covered in with an ordinary furrow-slice of mould. If this is not the cheap-
est mode, in a pecuniary point of view, of rendering ground available to
cultivation, it is at all events the most pleasant to the feelings in the do-
ing, and the most satisfactory when done.
(986.) But there is a mode of trenching gi'ound which is best done v^dth
the plow, its object being to imitate the work of the spade by descending
deeper than the ordinary depth of furrow, and of commixing part of the
subsoil with the surface soil, which has been probably rendered effete by
overcropping. Ground can be trenched with the plow in two ways, ei-
ther with a lai-ge-sized common plow drawn by 4 horses in one of the
ways pointed out before, fig. 202, or with one plow going before and turn-
ing over an ordinary furi'ow-slice, and another following in the same fur-
row drawn by 2 or more, usually with 3 horses, or both plows drawn by
3 horses each. It is best performed across the ridges. In either of the
above ways tbe same effect is produced in similar soil, breaking up indu-
rated gravel, deepening thin clays, ameUorating stiff clays by exposure to
416 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WIiNTER.
the air, and mixing old and new soils together, the ultimate rfTect on all
bein^ to dft]>en that portion of the soil which is used by the cultivated crops.
(9b7.) In one respect trenching lias the same efiect as subsoil-plowing,
namely, the stirring of the ground to the same depth, the first plow turn-
ing over a furrow of 7 inches in depth, and the second going 8 or 9 inches
deeper, m:dving in all a furrow of 15 or 16 inches in depth ; but in another
respect the two operations leave the soil in veiy difiei-ent states — the sub-
soil-plow stirs the soil to the depth named, but brings none of it to the
surface, while the trench-plow does not altogether bring that which waa
undermost to the surface, but commixes the under and upper soils to-
gether. This latter practice has long been known in the midland counties
of England, but the former has only been presented to the notice of the
Scottish agriculturist since 1S29.
(988.) It has been made a question, which is the better mode, if l)Oth
are not aUke, of making the soil fertile ? the advocates of subsoil-plowing
alleging that it is better to ameliorate the subsoil while under the soil by
the admission to it of air and moistuae ; while those of the trench-plow
answer that, if the object of both operations is to ameliorate the subsoil,
it will become sooner so by being brought to the surface in contact with
atmospheric air and moisture. But, say the ])romoters of subsoil-plowing,
there are subsoils of so pernicious a nature, having the salts of iron and
of magnesia in them, that the upper soil would be much injured by its ad-
mixture with such substances. No doubt, answer the treuch-plowers, if
the subsoil that contained these noxious ingredients in a lar^e proportion
were brought up in quantity, when compared with the bulk of the upper
soil, injury would be done to it for a time, but they say it is not the abuse
but the proper use of trench-plo\\"ing: which they advocate ; and of svch a
subsoil, they would use the discretion to bring up only a little at a time,
which they have it in their power to do, until they accomplish their end,
namely, that of ameliorating the whole depth of subsoil. But they main-
tain that by far the greatest proportion of subsoils do not contain those
noxious ingredients ; and, besides, the very best and quickest way of get-
ting rid of even these is to bring them At once to the surface, for any of
the acids, or the salts of iron, are easily neutralized by the action of lime,
which is always applied to the surface ; and those of magnesia are most
easily reduced on free exposure to the air. And, moreover, they ask. If
subsoils shall be ameliorated by air and moisture when stirred by a sub-
soil, why should they not also be ameliorated when stirred by a trench-
plow ] And they ursfe farther, that trenching may be practiced more
safely without previous thorough-draining, than subsoil-plowing.
(989.) I have no hesitation in expressing my preference of trench to
subsoil-plowine ; and I cannot see a single instance, with the sole excep-
tion of tuniinsr up a very bad subsoil in large quantity, there is any advan-
tage attending subsoil that cannot be enjoyed by trench-plowing ; and for
this single drawback of a very bad subsoil, trenching has the advantage of
being performed in perfect safetv, where subsoil-plowing could not be
without previous draining. Mr. Mi-lvin. Katlio Mains, mentions an instance
of a field containing both damp and dry ground ; the dry was trench-plowed
in the autumn of 18,36, an inch or two of the sandy gravel being brought
up, and " was decidedly increased in fertility," both in the turnip and bar-
ley crops which followed.* I trench-])lowed a field of 25 acres of deep
black mould which had been worn out, with a 4-horse plow, taking and
clearing a furrow from 14 to 16 inches deep in the solid land, and bring-
ing up almost in evcrv' part a portion of the tilly subsoil, which was only
* Prire Essaje of the Highland and Agricultural Society, voL xii
(eoo;
TRENCH AND SUBSOIL PLOWING. 417
drained to the extent of a few roods put in the face of a slope exhibiting
spouts of water. The turnips that followed were excellent ; the barley
yielded upward of 50 bushels per acre imperial, and the year after a part
was measured otf and fenced, containing 6 acres, to stand for hay, which
yielded of good hay 1999 stones of 22 lb. Another field, the year after,
that was not drained, suffered injury after trench-plowing ; but that was
in consequence of having been caught with a premature fall of rain in the
autumn before the trenched land could be ridged up, and it lay in the
trenched furrow all winter. It is stated that Mr. Scott, Craiglockait, Mid-
Lothian, " trench-plowed in the winter of 1833-4, with one common plow
following another, a field of 20 acres, every two alternate ridges, and he
has never observed on any of the crops the slightest difference."* This
is, as I conceive, an unsatisfactory mode of testing the value of any sort
of plowing land, as it is possible that the untrenched ridges derived a cer-
tain and it might be a sufficient advantage, in regard to drying, from the
adjoining trenched ridges.
(990.) But while giving a preference to trench-plowing over subsoil, I
am of opinion that it should not be generally attempted under any circum-
stances, however favorable, without previous thorough-draining, any more
than subsoil-plowing, but when so drained there is no mode of manage-
ment, in my opinion, that will render land so soon amenable to the means
of putting it in a high degree of fertility as ti-ench-plowing. Mr. Smith
himself acknowledges the necessity of trench-plowing land in a rotation
or so after the subsoil has been subsoil-plowed, in order to insure to it the
greatest degree of fertility.! The experience in trench-plowing after
thorough-draining of the Marquis of Tweeddale at Yester, East Lothian,
may with great confidence be adduced in favor of the system. I have seen
a field on Yester farm under the operation of draining which did not caiTy
a single useful pasture plant, but which afterward admitted of the turnips
being drilled across the face of inclining ground, and of presenting to sheep
in winter as dry a bed as they could desire ; and no farther gone than the
spring of 1841, after the Swedish turnip-seed had been sown, a field was
trench-plowed with 3 powerful horses in each plow, bringing up white and
yellow tilly subsoil as unpromising in appearance as possible. The weather
being very dry, this till became so hard that part of the field had to be
rolled four times before they were reduced to powder, and after all the
operations, there was apparently no sap left in the ground. White turnips
were sown, came away, one-half being eaten off by sheep ; and when the
land was plowed up in spring 1842, it turned up to appearance a fine rich
dark mould, rising in friable clods, and not a particle of till to be seen. No
one need be afraid to bring up subsoil of any kind on thorough-drained
land after the experience at Yester.
(991.) The advocates of subsoil-plowing seem to lay great stress on the
laying of ground quite flat after that operation has followed thorough-
draining, and of showing no open furrows in the field ; because a uni-
form sui-face is the best for absorbing the rain, and transmitting it in the
purest state to the drains. All this, however, is not peculiar to subsoil-
plowing, for trenched land can be so treated if desired. But as to dispens-
ing with open-furrows, the plan savors more of conceit than of possessing
real utility. There is no way that has been contrived of plowing land so
conveniently as in ridges, a portion of gi'ound being allotted to each plow-
man, who is responsible for his own work ; and the operations of sowing
and reaping are easily marked off in equal distances to the work-people ;
* Prize Essays of the Highland and Auricnltural Society, vol. xii.
t Smith's Remarks on Thorough Drainine.
(801) »r
418 THE BOOK O" THE FARM WINTER.
and if in conducting all these operations few open-furrows seem desirable,
there is tlu' mode of plowing by two-out-and-two-in, fiij. 138, which only
leaves one open-furrow in every four ridges, and the ground as flat as you
please. But the truth is, that a field cannot be plowed without making an
open-furrow, but with either one plow making a feering in the middle and
turning over the whole ground ; or, if more than one plow is employed,
they must follow one another in adjoining furrows — a plan inimical to good
plowing, inasmuch as no plowman can hold so steady a furrow as when
following up his own method of plowincr, and few plows are exactly of the
same guage on the funow-sole ; or the land must be plowed with a turn-
wrest plow, becrinning at one end and finisliing at the other of the field
plowing the whole of it itself, or followed by othei-s of the same sort ; but
where such plows are used for such a purpose, other common plows must
be provided on the same farm, as land for turnips or potatoes cannot be
drilled up with the turn-wrest plows, as you will learn by-and-by.
(992.) The nature of moor-hand pan is given below, and as to its de-
struction, although I have not had much experience of its obduracy, any
case within my experience not exceeding 2 or 3 inches in thickness, which
were easily ripped up with the 4-horse plow, and as easily mouldered
down to dust on exposure to the winter's frost ; yet there are places, such
as in Aberdeenshire and Morayshire, where it is so deep and hard that ex-
traordinary- means are required to break it up. A remarkable and exten-
sive band of this substance was encountered by Mr. Roderick Gray, Peter-
head, when improving a part of the property of the Governors of the
Merchants' Maiden Hospital of Edinburgh in that neighborhood. The
moory surface was plowed with 4 horses. " At first the plow ran upon
the pan, which it seemed impossible to penetrate ; various trials were
made, and the plan which ultimately succeeded was to have 4 men em-
ployed at the plow, and these were engaged as follows : One with a pick
and spade made a hole when necessary, until it reached below the pan,
and entered the plow at this hole ; another held the plow ; the third held
do\%Ti the beam, and kept the plow below the pan ; and the fourth took
care of the horses. In this way the upper stratum and pan were broken,
and afterward they were brought into a sort of mould by the grubber and
hari'ows."* However obdurate this substance may be to break up, it will
yield to the air and moulder down into an innocuous powder of sand and
gravel ; but T should suppose that, after the plow was fairly entered below
the crust it would not require to be held down.
(993 ) [In describiii£» the simple construction of the subsoil-plow, I shall not po to any length
into its histon-. The implement, as now used, is pencrally know as Smith's subsoil-plow, having
been brought into the present form bj- Mr. Smith. Dcanston Works, who. in the year 1829, exhib-
ited this plow at the Highland and Agricultural .Society's Show al Dumfries, and obtained a pre-
mium from the .•society for his invention and application of this useful implement.t
(994 ) There is no doubt that plows, actini; on the principle of Mr. Smith's, penetrating into,
breaking, and stirring up the subsoil, without hriniring it to the surface or mixing it in tiie first
instance with the incumbent soil, have been long known. Mr. Holt, in his View of the Asricul-
ture of the County of Lancaster, rendered in 1794 to the Board of Agriculture, when treating of
the plows of that county, says : " Another instrument has been lately introduced, which Mr. Ec-
cleston with propriety calls the Miner, which is a plow-share fixed in a strong beam, without
mould boards, and drawn by four or more horses, and follows in the furrow the plow (the com-
mon plow) has just made; and. without turniiiir up the substratum, penetrates into and loostMis
from 8 to 12 inches deeper than the plow has liefore gone ; which operation, besides drainiuii the
land, causes the water to carry along with it any vitinolic or other noxious matter by the substra-
tum thus loosened. The roots of plants may penetrate deeper ; and, in course of time, that which
is but a barren suKstance may become fertile soil." This is truly the subsod-plow of Mr. Smitli,
invented, laid aside, and forpotten for a period of S."! years.
(995.) Recent experience points out the reason why the earlier introduction of the snb.soil-plow
did not meet with the success which has attended Mr. Smith's, which, from the above description
appears to be the Bamu implement, for they appear in the essential parts to be almost exactly
Prize Essays of the Highland and Agriculiural Society, vol viiL t II id., toL viiL
(802)
TRENCH AND SUBSOIL PLOWING.
419
alike; yet the one has been lost sight of, while the other has come into all that notice which it
deserves. The reason is now^ obvious : Without the necessary improvement of thorough-drain-
ing, subsoil-plowing is thrown away ; and though thorough, or at least furrow draining, has been
practiced in England for a long period,* the idea of combining the two seems not to have oc-
curred to the agriculturists of that day. To Mr. Smith, therefore, is still due the merit of having
brought these two powerful auxiliaries of Agriculture into effective cooperation.
(996.) Since its first appearance in 1829, Mr. Smith's plow has undergone various slight altera-
tions, not affecting, however, its essential character, but chiefly in lightening its construction. The
imploment at first was made of enormous weight, sometimes so much as 5 cwt., but a few years'
experience served to show that all its objects could be achieved with a plow of little more than
lialf that weight ; they are accordingly now generally made from 2 to 3 cwt. Fig. 207 represents
Fig. 307.
THE DEANSTON SUBSOIL-PLOW.
one of the modifications of the subsoil plow as now manufactured by James Slight & Co., Edin-
burgh. It retains all the acting parts of Mr. Smith's without material change, except in weight,
thouijh ill other respects it deviates slightly from the original. The beam, which is from 3 to 3 J
inches deep at the fore sheath or slot, a, and 1 to I3 inches thick, extends from b to c, a length of
7 feet 4 inches; at c, the point, it is diminished to 2^ by J inches, and at b to about the same
dimensions. The two handles, extending from d to c, are 6 feet 9 inches in length. They are
thinned off at e, and bolted, one on each side, to the beam ; the depth of the handles is 2 to 2^
inches, and aro ^ to | inch thick, worked into sockets at d in the usual manner for the reception
of a wooden helve. The beam and handles are farther connected by stretcher tubes and bolts,
the latter passing through all three at I, and binding them firmly together ; the handles are also
farther supported by the stretcher-bolts and bow, / and g. .The beam is mounted at c with the
bridle, which is at least 2 inches by J inch, bolted on the point of the beam, being first formed into
an oblong loop of 8 inches in length, standing at right angles to the beam, and having the opening
vertical. To the front part of the loop is fitted a stout clasp, the two arms of which embrace the
loop above and below, and admit of the slot k h to pass at once through them and the loop. The
clasp and slot together have a motion along the loop right and left, and the slot itself has a motion
vertically. The chain-bar i, is attached to the beam at k, and passes through an eye in the lower
end of the slot k ; to the chain-bar is then attached the draught-hook /, to which the yoke is ap-
plied. The motion above described of the slot^, and consequently of the chain-bar and draught-
hook, afford ready means of adjusting the earthing and landing of the plow, and the position is
retained by means of the pinching-screw »«, which, by being screwed into the clasp, acts against
the outside of the loop, drawing the slot and the loop into firm contact. Tlie body consists of the
two slots a and n, the first about 3 inches broad, the last about 2^ inches, and each | inch thick ;
they are welded to a sole bar 2 inches square, and 30 inches long, flush on the land-side. The
head of the slots is worked into a kneed palm, which is strongly bolted to the beam, and the di-
agonal brace o is fitted in to resist the strain that tends to derange the form of the body. The
coulter-bar jo is 3 inches broad, 5 inch thick at the back in the upper parts, becoming thinner
downward, and is finished with a blunt edge and point; it is simply held in its place by being
tongued into the beam, the fore-slot and the share. The share q is made after the same form as
that of the common plow, having a feather to the furrow-side, and is spear-pointed. The length
of the share is from 14 to 16 inclies, and the breadth over the feather about 6 inches. It is fitted
upon the prolongation of the sole-bar, and its socket is usually furnished with a short ear, by
which it is fixed to the sole-bar to prevent its falling ofl*; as the fixture of the coulter depends upon
the share keeping its place. The feather ?• is a thin-edged bar, 3 inches deep and about ^ inch
thick, thinned off on the upper edge ; it is tapered off at the fore end where it joins the share, and
is held in contact by being notched into it; but its chief supports are two palms, by which it is
bolted to the sole-bar; and a sole-shoe of cast-iron, having a flange rising 6 inches on the land-
side, completes the subsoil plow, which, with the exception of the sole-.shoe, is constructed en-
tirely of malleable iron. The length of the plow over all is about 13 feet ; the length of the sole
3 feet 3 inches ; the hight of the handles 3 feet 6 inches ; and at the point of the beam 2 feet 4
inches. — J. S.]
(997.) [Not much need be said regarding the etficacy of subsoil-plowing. After what I have
stated of the immense value of a mixture of impalpable matter, and larger particle.«, in the fcrm
of a porous mass, I need scarcely say that anything capable of increasing the depth to which this
porosity extends, must of necessity be advantageous. This, however, does not show any differ-
* See Sir James Graham's observations on the subject in vol. i. of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural
Society of England.
(803)
420 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
ence between subsoil and trench plowing — in my opinion, the latter is the best in most instancCB,
and this for the following reasons: All subsoils require ameliorating by exposure to air, before
they are capable of acting beneficially to plants. This is owing to certain chemical changes
which are produced by the joint action of air and water, and it is very evident that all these murt
take place much more rapidly when the subsoil, as in trench-plowing, is laid upon Ihexvjfaceof
the field, and freely exposedlhroughout the winter, than when the air is merely admitted more
freely by the subsoil being broken w^ while it still remains under the surface. It may be averred
that the trench-plow does not ^o so deep into the soil as the subsoil-plow ; but still I camiot help
thinking that notwithstanding this disadvantage (if any such exists), it is in most cases the most
advi.<able of the two methods, if employed for deepening the soil. Not so. however, if used to
assist in draining the xubsoil. To prove its value for this puri)ose, 1 would earnestly direct your
attention to the following valuable remarks of Professor Johnston : "The subsoil-plow is an aux-
iliary to the drain ; in very stiff clay subsoils it is most advantageous in loosening the under lay-
ers of clay, and allowing the water'to find a ready escape downward, and to either side until it
reach the'drains. It is well known that if a piece of stiff clav be cut into the shape of a brick,
and then allowed to dry, it will contract and harden — cut up trhile wet, it will only be divided
into so many pieces, each of which will harden when dn,-. or the whole of which will again attach
themselves," and stick together if exposed to pressure. But tear it a.sunder irhen dry, and it wiU
fall into many pieces, will more or less crumble, and will readily admit the air into its inner parts.
So it is with "a clay subsoil. After the land is provided with drains, the subsoil being verj' reten-
tive, the subsoil-plow is used to open it up — to let out the water, and to let in the air. If this is
not done, the stiff under-clay will contract and bake an it drie.i. but it will neither sufficiently ad-
roit the air "—nor let out the water — " nor open a free passage for the roots. But let this opera-
tion be performed when the clay is still too wet, a good effect will follow in the first instance ;
but after a while the cut clay will again cohere, and the farmer will pronounce subsoiling to be a
useless expense upon ht.<i land. Defer the use of the sub.soil plow till the clay is dry — it will then
tear and break instead of cutting, and the openness will remain. Once give the air free access,
and it, after a time, so modifies the drained clay, that it has no longer an equal tendency to co-
here. Mr. Smith of Deanston verj- judiciously recommends that the subsoil-plow should never be
used till at least a year after the land has been thoroughly drained. To attain those benefits
which attend the adoption of improved methods of culture, ... let the practical man make his
trial in the ways and with the precautions recommended by the author of the method, before be
pronounce its condemnation."* Thus yon perceive that subsoil-plowmg, when pmperly per-
formed, will always be found useful in assi.sting the action of drains, but cannot be considered
equal to deep or trench plowina-, if an alteration is desired in the depth of the soil.
(998.) Another alleged advaniase of subsoiling is the breaking in pieces the moorland pan. I
will therefore now^ say a few words respecting this enemy to good farmers. This ferruginoos
deposit which so frequently occurs in particular localities between the soil and subsoil is e.xtremely
hard and compact, and almost completely impermeable to water. Very much has been w^ritten
concerning this substance, by persons who have but little knowledge of chemistry, and in their
endeavors to prove the manner in which the deposit had been produced, and likewise the caase
of its injurious action upon vegetation when newly brought to the surface, have made so many
chemical errors that the whole subject appear.^ at first siirht wrapped in doubt,»whereas, we be-
lieve that for all practical pnrpo.ses its nature is already sufficiently well known.
(999.) Moor-band pan belongs to a cla.ssof bodies known to chemists under the name of ochrey
depo^if<!. These deposits, which so frequently occur in the beds of chalybeate springs, were
carefully examined by Berzelins in 1?32. and were found to consist of the two oxides of iron i i
chemical combination with two new organic acids, which he denominated the crenic and apo-
crenic acids. Feeling certain from various circumstances, that moor-band pan belontred to this
class, I undertook ari analysis to a.<certain whether it contained these acids, and find that in each
of two specimens of pan, sent to me for the purpose, there exists a large proportion of crenic
acid, in one apocrenic also, and in the other Itumic acid .- there can therefore be no longer any
doubt about itie composition of this substance : and. instead of attemptin? to prove iLs injurious
effects by relating the difference between the protoxide and peroxide of iron, and the fact of the
peroxide being generally combined with water formincr hydrate, none of which facts throw the
least li^'ht upon the subject, -.ve can readily explain all by reference to the chemical properties
of the compounds of these two aciils with iron. It is well known that iron in solution acts inju-
riously ipon vecetation ; and Berzelius has .shown that the crenafe and apocrenate of the protox-
ide of iron are l)oth soluble in water ; and that the same salts of the peroxide, although of them-
selves insoluble, are easily rendered so by ammonia, which substance is always produced in fer-
tile soil : it foUow.s. therefore, that moor-band pan must continue injurious to vegetation so long
as the cretia'rs and aporrenates of iron remain undecomposed. In the course of time, various
chemical changes are effected by the joint action of air and moisture, which decompose these com-
pounds, and give rise to new ones having no injurious effect upon vegetation. — H. R. M.l
* Johnston's Elements of Agricalmral Chemistry.
(804)
DRAWING AND STORING TURNIPS. 423
29. DRAWING AND STORING TURNIPS, MANGEL-WURZEL, CABBAGE,
CARROTS AND PARSNIPS.*
" Beneath dread Winter's level sheets of snow.
The sweet nutiitioua Turnip deigns to grow."
Bi-OOMFIELD.
(1000.) The treatment of live-stock receives early attention among the
farm operations of winter ; and whether they or land get the precedence
depends entirely on the circumstance of the harvest having been completed
late or early. If the harvest have been got through early, there is ample
time to plow a large portion of stubble-land, in preparation of gieen crops
in spring, before winter quarters are required to be provided for stock ;
but should it occupy all hands until a late period — that is, until the pas-
[* There are those who think, or affect to think, tliat nothing of practical Agriculture is to be
learned, forsooth, by reading ; while another class would maintain that it is all foolishness to read
anything relating to the subject, except what may have a direct, immediate bearing on the objects
and course of culture in which the reader is himself personally engaged. Such men treat as ridic-
ulous the idea that a farmer should indulge in any curiosity about the crops which serve to make
up the wealth, and the course of husbandry that constitutes the field practice of other States of
tbeir own countrj-, much more those of foreign countries. Now we confess not to be, or to feel
any ambition to be, a member of either of these classes. We confess to being well persuaded
that to hooks we owe the creation and the spread of knowledge ; and that the farmer who enter
tains right notions of his own respectabilit}-, and true position in societj-, will surely desire to be
familiar with the natural and commercial history of all the great, staples that serve to employ the
industry of mankind, not only in his own but in all countries. There is no reason, that is not in-
sulting and derogatory, why the agriculturist should not pos.sess as general information as he of
any other business or pursuit; and, if even there were, it does not follow that he should not pos-
sess information as to all the great branches and products of his own profession, even though some
of tliem may never come within the range of his own cultivation, and may even be forbidden, by
considerations of climate or other circumstances, from being produced in his own State or country.
Take, for example, this chapter on Turnips, and the uses made of them in England. Every
one at all acquainted with agricultural literature knows of how comparatively recent date is the
introduction of them, especially in ajield crop in England, even as late as the end of the seven-
teenth century ; yet he who has any pretensions to familiarity with the industrial resources of the
nation from which we sprung, and with which we have the most extensive and important rela-
tions, must know that the spread of this single root has had an influence beyond calculation, on
the wealth and industry and power of Great Britain. With no great degree of exageeration it
has been said that her national power has its root in the turnip ! Now suppose an American
traveler, especially an agricultural one, through England, to return without having made any
observation as to the culture and uses of a crop thus influencing'the destiny of a great nation !
What would be said of such a dolt ? Since, then, all cannot travel who may desire it, is it not the
great province of letters— o[ books — to take the next place, and do the office of traveling ? Too
well do we know that there are those who will argue that because we do not and cannot rely on
turnips, as the English do, to rear and fatten sheep and cattle — that climate, deamess of labor,
want of capital to manure tlie land sufficiently, and want of the moisture indispensable to bring
forward this crop, as w^ell as the possession of Indian com and other crops better adapted to our
climate and purposes, all forbid its culture to an extent sufficient to render it a great national ob-
ject, all .going to interdict turnip culture ; therefore it is out of place to admit a full exposition of
this branch of English husbandry into an American work devoted to American Agriculture.
The same cavilers might object that because turnips may never be with us a great staple crop,
therefore it was superfluous and ill judged to occupy, in the last number, the little space which
served to inform the reader that a good crop of English turnips, say twenty tons to the acre,
(805)
422 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
tures have failed to supply stock with the requisite quantity of food — pro-
vision for their support should be made in the Steading in preference to
plowinp^ land. The usual occurrence is, that the harvest is entirely com-
pleted before the failure of the pasture ; and, accordinj^ly, I have described
the methods of plowing the land before taking up the subject of wintel
treatment of live-stock ; and in doing so, have included the plowing of
lea after that of stubble-gi'ound, in order to keep all the particulars of win-
ter-plowing together, although the usual occunence is, that the live-stock
are snugly housed in the steading, and the stubble nearly all turned over,
before the plowing of lea is commenced, unless there happen to be an old
piece of lea to plow on strf»ng land, in which case it should be turned over
before the setting in of the winter's fiost.
(1001.) Sheep always occupying the fields, according to the practice of
this country, the only varieties of stock requiring accommodation in the
steading in winter are cattle and honses. The horses consist chiefly of
those employed in draught, which have their stable always at hand, and
any young horses besides that are reared on the farm. Of the cattle, the
cows are housed in the byre at night for some time before the rest of the
would extract and carry off 4,500 ponnds of starch and sngar, 540 pounds of gluten, and 45 of
oil. We are altogether — with all due deference to such wise and practical men — of a different
opinion ; and the question is, to which of the classes we have named does the reader belong ?
In this matter we go in for the " largest liberty." We would open wide to the mind of the young
agriculturist the whole Jield of practical Agriculture in every country. If he is denied the
pleasure and benefit of traveling, in person, to enlarge his mind by enlarged observation, there is
the greater reason that he should travel in books. For what else was that enlightened observer,
Mr. CoLMAN, invited to visit and give us his "Personal Observations of European Agriculture,"
we would like to know ? And what reader of anj- taste or ambition for knowledge would not
rejoice as he reads them, to have been his compaf^non de voyage I These are the views under
which we have published, and shall continue to publish, much that may never be put in practice,
or that is not practicable in our country exactly in the way, cither in detail or extent, that it is
done in others. We even think that although a man might not make a pound or a barrel more,
for example, of apples, or beets, or barley, or sugar, yet that if our country schools were patron-
ized and conducted as they ought to be. and provided with ma.sters as enlightened, because as
well paid and as much honored, us professors of the military art, not a boy would leave school
without some knowledge of the native country and the constituent qualities and habits of these
and of all other plants and animals. A little insight gained when young, would plant in him an
appetite that would prompt to farther inquiry all his life, and the love of reading and research
would take the place of sensuality and dis.sipation that idleness and even leisure moments al-
ways engender in men whose vacant minds are insensible to all thirst for knowledge or intel-
lectual recreation. After all, there is one consideration from which we may take some comfort,
even under the mortification of differing from wiser heads, whom we would fain not only please
but oblige in all things. No one is obliged to read that for which he has no taste, and from
which he may think no advantage (money 1 ) is to be derived ; and so. in this ca.«c, he who has
no curiosity to know how the great branches of turnip and sheep husbandry are connected and
carried on, where both constitnte great items in the resources of our great and powerful mother
country, may pass over all that follows on these subjects, to The Monthly Journai, of Agri-
culture, where fifty pages of matter await him, in such variety as that he must be hard to please
if he cannot find something sufficiently practical and enlightened, were it even on sheep, in the
able letters of otir friend Mr. Randall, which promise to make readers the least familiar an cou-
.rant of that subject.
After all. we should be perfectly willing to leave it to the decision of any enlightened and lib-
eral minded reader to say whether even this chapter on turnips and sheep feeding does not pos-
sess much intrinsic value and ronvey information both interesting and practically useful for all
agricultural inquirers, except those erreat would-be monopolists of knowledge, who conceit them-
selves to be, in the agricultural, what the sun is in the natural world, the great fountain of light
from which alone the least ray of information is to be derived.
With these explanations we shall be content for the future. Ed. Farm. Lih.\
(806)
DRAWING AND STORING TURNIPS. 423
cattle are brought into the steading, in case the coldness of the autumnal
dews and frosts should injure their milking propeities ; so that it is only
the younger and feeding cattle that have to be accommodated, and of
these the feeding are generally housed before the younger stock, which
usually get leave to wander about the fields as long as they can pick up
any food. I am only here describing what is the common practice, with-
out remarking whether it is a good or bad one, as the whole subject of the
treatment of cattle will very soon engage our attention.
(1002.) By the time the cattle are ready to occupy the steading, turnips
should be provided for them as their ordinary food, and the supply at all
times sufficient ; and it should be provided in this way : The lambs of last
spring, and the ewes which have been drafted from the flock as being too
okl or otherwise unfit to breed from any longer, are fed on turnips on the
ground in winter, to be sold off fat in spring. The portion of the turaip-
ground allotted sheep is prepared for their reception in a peculiar manner,
by being draicn or stripped, that is, a certain proportion of the turnips is
left on the ground for the use of the sheep, and the other is carried away
to the steading to be consumed by the cattle. The reason for stripping
turnips is to supply food to the sheep in the most convenient form, and, at
the same time, enrich the ground for the succeeding crops by their dung,
which is applied in such quantity as to prevent the ground being manured
beyond what would be proper for the perfect development of the future
crops ; for it has been found that, were an entire good crop of turnips
consumed on the ground, the yield of corn would be scanty and ill-filled.
The usual proportion drawn, if a good crop, is ^, but should the soil be in
low condition, ^ only is taken away, and should it be in fine condition, ^
or even ^ may be drawn ; but, on the other hand, the quantity drawn is
dependent upon the bulk of the crop. If the crop is very large, and the
gi'ound in very fine condition, |- may be drawn, but it is rarely the case
that the soil is so rich and the crop so large as to make ^ too great a pro-
portion to be left to be consumed. If the crop is poor, -g- only should be.
drawn, and a very poor crop should be wholly eaten on, whatever condi-
tion the soil may be in. There is another consideration which materially
affects the quantity to be left on the ground, which is the occurrence of a
poor crop of turnips over the whole farm. Hitherto I have only been
speaking of that part of the crop of turnips which is to be appropriated
to the use of the sheep, but when the entire crop is bad, that is, insufficient
to maintain all the stock fully, then the proportion to be consumed by the
sheep and cattle respectively, should be determined at the commencement
and maintained throughout the season, that neither class of stock may re-
ceive undue advantage. In such a case, it is evident that neither the sheep
nor cattle can be fattened on turnips ; and other expedients must be re-
sorted to to fatten them, such as either the sheep or cattle should get as
many turnips as will feed them, and the other be fed on extraneous mat-
ter, or both classes of stock be left in lean condition. When foreign
matters for feeding — such as oil-cake — can be procured, the cattle should
get the largest quantity of them, and the sheep the largest portion of the
turnips ; because oil-cake can be more easily administered at the steading
than turnips, and sheep, saving the trouble of manuring the ground aftei'-
ward, can more easily be supplied with turnips. Thus, then, considera-
tions of the state of soil and crop are required to determine the proportion
of the turnip crop that should be drawn ; but the standard proportion is
^, and when that is deviated fi-om it should only be from very urgent cir-
cumstances, such as those alluded to above.
(1003.) Fig. 208 shows how turnips are stripped in the various propor-
(807)
424
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
tions noticed above. When ^ is drawn, it can be done in vanous ways,
but each not alike beneficial to the land ; for example, it can be done bj
l(!aving 2 drills a and taking away 2 drills b; or by taking away 3 drills e
find leaving 3 drillsy'; or l)y taking away 6 drills i and leaving 6 drills A;
Fig. 208.
THE METHODS OF STRIPPING THE GROU.VD OF TURNIPS IN ANY GIVEN PROPORTIONS.
or by taking away 1 drill I and leaving 1 drill k ; and so on in every other
proportion. Though the same result is attained in all these different way.s,
in so far as the turnips are concerned, there are cogent reasons against
them all except the one which leaves 2 drills a and takes away 2 drills b ;
because, when 1 drill only is left, as at /, the sheep have not room to stand
and lie down with ease between k and m, without interfering with the tur-
nips, and, beside, sufficient room is not left for horses and cart to pass
along I, without injuring the turnips on cither side of the horses' feet or
the cart-wheels ; whereas, when 2 or more drills are pulled, as at b, and
only 2 left, as at a, the sheep have room to stand and eat on either side of
the turnips, and the cart can pass easily along b without injuring the tur-
nips ; that is, the horse walks up the center hollow of the drills, and a
wheel occupies a hollow on each side. Again, when 3 drills are left, as at
f, and 3 taken away, as at e, the sheep injure the turnips of the two out-
side rows to reach the middle one at jf; and much more will tlioy injure
those at h, when 6 drills are left ; and there is, besides, this si-rious objec-
tion to this latter mode, that when practiced on light soils it is observed
that the succeeding grain crop is never so good on the ground that has
been cleared as where the turnips are left. When other proportions are
determined on, ^ may be easily left, by pulling 2 drills, as at b, and leaving
1, as at c ; or \ may be left, by pulling 3 drills, as at c, and leaving 1, as
at c ; or 1^ may be left, by pulling 2, as at p, and leaving 3, as at /I There
are thus various ways in which the same and different proportions of
turnips may be pulled and left on the ground; but in whatever propor-
tion they may be taken, the rule of leaving 2 empty drills for the horses
and carts to pass along without injury to the turnips, should never be
violated.
(808)
DRAWING AND STORING TURNIPS.
425
(1004.) But the convenience and propriety of the plan of leaving 2 and
taking 2 drills, when the ^ of the crop is to be eaten on, will be best ap-
preciated in witnessing the mode of doing it, as shown in fig. 209, where
the drills are represented on a larger scale than in the preceding figure. —
One field-worker, being a woman, clears the 2 drills at a, and another
simultaneously the other 2 at Z> ; and in clearing these 4 drills, the turnips
are thrown into heaps at regular distances, as at c and d, among the stand-
ing turnips of the 2 drills e andyj to the right of one woman and to the
left of the other ; and thus every alternate 2 drills lefi; unpulled become
the receptacle of the tuinips pulled by every 2 women. The cart then
passes along a or h, without touching the turnips either in e or g on the
one hand, or in f and h on the othei', and it clears away the heaps in the
line of c d. In the cut the turnips are represented thinner on the ground
THE METHOD OF PULLING TURNIPS IN PREPARATION FOR STORING.
than they usually are, but the size of the bulb in proporMon to the width
of the drills is preserved both in the drills and in the heaps. The seats
of the pulled turnips are shown upon the bared drills.
(1005.) The usual state in which turnips are thus placed in these tem-
porfiry heaps, c and d, is with their tops on, but the tails are generally taken
away. The most cleanly state, however, for the turnips themselves, and
the most nutritious for cattle, is to deprive them of both tops and taiU. —
Many, and indeed I may say most farmers are impressed with the idea
ttiat tops of turnips make good feeding at the beginning of the season and
especially for young beasts. The notion is quite a mistaken one, in regard
to the feeding qualities of tops at any season, for there js really no such
property in them. No doubt at that season they contain a large quantity
of watery juice, which makes cattle devour them with avidity on coming
into the steading off bare pasture, and they will even be eaten off before
the turnips themselves are touched, when both are presented together ;
but observation and experience confirm me in the opinion that the time
(809) ^
426 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
bestowed by cattle in consuming the turnip-tops is worse than so much
valuable time thrown away ; inasmuch as, in their cleanest state, tops are
apt to produce a looseness in the bowels, arising partly, perhaps, from the
sudden chano-e of food from grass to such a succulent vegetable ; and the
complaint is much aggravated by the dirty, wetted, or frosted state in
which they are usually given to beasts. This looseness never fails to bring
down the condition of cattle so much that a considerable part of the win-
ter passes away before they entirely recover from the shock which tlieir
system has thus received. Like my neighbors, I was impressed with the
economic idea of using turnip-t()})s — and 1 believe it is solely as regards
economy, rather than a conviction of their utility, that prompts farmers to
continue their use — but their weakening effects upon cattle, especially
young ones, caused me to desist from their use ; and fortunate was the
resolution, for ever aftei their abKudonment my cattle throve better and
the tops, after all, were not thrown away, as they served to assist the ma-
nuring of the field on which they had grown. I have no hesitation, there-
fore, in recommending you to deprive the turnips of both tops and tails
before carrying them to the steading for the use of cattle. Sheep are not
60 easily injured by them as cattle, on account, perhaps, of their costive
habit ; and perhaps in spring, when turnips are naturally less juicy, tops
might be of service to them as a gentle aperient, but then, when they
might be most useful, they are the most scanty and fibrous.
(1006.) The tops and tails of turnips are easily removed by means of a
very simple instrument. Figs. 210 and 211 Fig. 210.
represent these instruments, fig. 210 being
formed from a portion of an old scythe reap-
ing-hook, with a piece of the point liroken off.
This is a light instrument, and answers the
purpose pretty well; but fig. 211 is still bet-
ter. It is made of the point of a worn patent
scythe, the very point being broken oft', and instrument for top
the i,o„ hack ,„ wl,ich ,l,c blade i. rivete.! is JJ-'r^^c^'H"'.""?.::,,""
driven into a helve, provided with a terule
around the end next the blade. This is Fig. sih
rather heavier than the other instniment,
and on that account removes the top more
easily. anothkr instrument for the
(1007.) The mode of using these instru- same riRrosK, made of a piece
ments in the removal of the tops and tails or old patent .scythe.
of turnips is this. The field-worker moves along between the two
drills of turnips which are to be drawn, as from r/, ficf. 209, and pull-
ing a turnip with the left hand by the top from either drill, holds the bulb
in a horizontal position, as represented in fig. 212, over and between the
drills e and/ fig. 209, and with the hook or knife described above (1006),
first takes off' the root at h with a small stroke, and then cuts off" the top at
a, between the turnip and the hand, with a sharper one. on which the tur-
nip falls down into the heap c or ih whichever is i'urniing at the time.
Thus, pulling «)fie or two tuniips from one drill, and then as many from
the other, the two drills are cleared to the extent desired. Another field-
worker acts a* a companion to this one. by ffoincf iij) h, pulling the turnips
from the drills on either side of her, and dni]»ping them, topped and tailed,
into the same heaps as her companion. The to]>s are scattered over the
cleared ground. A left and a right-handed field-worker get on best to-
gether at this work.
(1008.) Due care is requisite, on removing the tops and tails, that none
(810J
)prisG axd
DRAWING AND STORING TURNIPS.
427
of the bulb be cut by the instrument, as the juice of the turnip will exude
through the incision. Of course, when turnips are to be consumed imme-
diately, this precaution is less necessary ; but the habit of slicing off a part
or hacking the skin of the bulb indicates carelessness, and should be
avoided at all times.
Fig. 212.
MODE OF TOPPING AND TAILING TURNIPS.
(1009.) When f of the turnips are drawn and 1 left, the field-worker
goes up at b, fig. 208, and, pulling the 2 drills there, drops the prepared
turnips between c and d, beyond the drill c that is left. When |- are pulled,
as at c, and i left on the ground, as at c, the turnips may still be dropped
in the same place between c and d, the field-worker pulling all the 3 drills
herself, and the horse walking along from e when taking them away.
When 3 drills are pulled, as at e, and 3 left, as at /^ which is not so good
a plan of leaving the ^ as the 2 and 2 I have described before (1003), the
same field- worker pulls all the 3 drills, and drops the turnips along the
outside row next herself of those that are left. When ^ are left, as aty)
and 1^ pulled, as at g, the field-worker goes up, pulling the 2 drills there,
and dropping the turnips between the two rows next her of /! When 6
drills are pulled, as at i, which is not a good plan for leaving the ^, 3 wo-
men work abreast, each pulling 2 drills, and all three drop the turnips into
the same heap before the woman in the middle. This plan has the sole
advantage of collecting a large quantity of tui'nips in one place and causing
little carting upon the land. When the field is intended to be entirely
cleared of turnips, the cleai-ance is begun at the side nearest the gate, and
carried regularly on from top to bottom of the field, the nearest part of the
crop being taken when the weather is least favorable and the farthest when
most so.
(1010.) These last remarks remind me of mentioning that when a field
is begun to be stripped for sheep, that part should be chosen which will
afford them shelter whenever the weather proves inauspicious. A plan-
tation, a good hedge, a bank sloping to the south, or one in the direction
opposite to that from which winds most prevail in the locality, or any
marked inequality in the form of the ground, will afford shelter to sheep
in case of necessity. On the sheep clearing this part first, it will always
be ready for a place of refuge should it be required for protection against
a storm. The utility of such shelter you shall be made acquainted with
very soon.
(1011.) On removing prepared turnips from the land, the carts should
De filled by the field- workers, as many beinsr employed as to keep the carts
(811) • - J o i' J
428 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
going, that is, to have one filled by the time another approaches the place
of work, in the field. If there are mf)re field-woikers than will he re-
quired to do this, the remainder should be cmj)l()yed in toppinj; and tail-
ing. The topped and tailed tun)ij)s should be thrown into the carts by the
hand, and not pricked by means of forks or graips ; the cart should be
placed alongside the drill near two or more heaps ; and the carter should
manage the horses and assist in the filling, until the turnips rise so high in
the cart as to recjuire from him a little adjustment in heaping, to prevent
their falling oft" in the journey.
(1012.) As it is scarcely probable that your field-workers will be so nu-
merous as to top and tail and assist in filling at the same tune, so as to
keep even 2 carts at work, it will be necessary for them to begin the pull-
ing so much sooner, whether one yoking, or a whole day, or two days, but
80 much sooner, according to the bulk of the crop, as to keep the carts
going when they begin to drive away the turnips ; for it at all times im-
plies bad management to let horses wait longer in the field than the time
occupied in filling the cart. And yet how common an occurrence it is to
see horses waiting until the turnips are pulled and tailed and thrown into
the cart by perhaps only 2 women, the carter building them up not as fast
as he can get them, but as slow as he can induce the women to give them !
The driving away should not commence at all until there is sufficient
quantity of turnips prepared to employ at least two carts one yoking ;
and, on the other hand, care should be taken not to allow more turnips
than will employ that number of carts for that time to lie upon the ground
before being carried away, in case frost or rain should prevent the carts
entering the field as .long as to endanger the quality of the turnip.
(1013.) Dry weather should be chosen for the pulling of turnips, not
only for the sake of cleanliness to the turnips themselves, but for the sake
of the land, which should be cut up and poached by cart-wheels and liorses'
feet as little as possible; because, when land is much cut up in canying
away turnips, sheep have a veiy uncomfortable lair, the ruts forming ready
receptacles for water, and are not soon emptied. No doubt thorough-
draining assists to make land proof against such a condititm ; but let the
land be ever so well drained, its nature cannot thereby be entirely changed
— clay will always have a tendency to retain water on its surface and soil
everything that touches it, when wetted by recent rains ; and deep loam
and black mould will still be penetrated by horses' hoofs, and rise in large
masses with wheels immediately after rain. No turnips should therefore
be led oft* fields consisting of these sorts of soils, however well drained,
immediately after or during severe rain ; nor should they be pulled at all,
until the ground has again become consolidated.
(1014.) In commencing the pulling of turnips, one of the fields intended
to sup])<)rt sheep should first be taken, in order to prepare space for them ;
and this is done while all the stock are engaged on ])asture, which should
not be bared too much, in case the sheep that are to be fed oft' on turnips
fall off" in condition upon it.
(1015.) Should the weather prove unfavorable at the beginning of the
season — that is, too wet or too frosty — there should no more turnips be
pulled and canied than will suffice for the daily consumption of the cattle
in the steading ; but whenever the ground is dry and firm and the air
fresh, no o])j)ortunity should be neglected except from other more impor-
tant operations — siich as the wheat-seed — of storing as large a quantity as
the time will permit, to be used when the weather proves inteiruptive to
field operations. This is a very important matter, and, as I conceive, much
neglected by most farmers, who too frequently place their cattle fi-om
(812)
DRAWING AND STORING TURNIPS. 429
hand to mouth for food. A very common practice is to employ one or two
carts an afternoon's yoking, to bring In as many turnips as will serve the
cattle for two or three days at most, and these are brought in with the
tops on, after much time has been spent in the field In waiting for the pull-
ing and tailing of the turnips. This slovenly mode of providing provender
for cattle should be abandoned. It should be considered a work of the
first importance in winter to provide cattle with turnips in the very best
condition, independent of the vicissitudes of the weather ; and this can
only be done by storing a considerable quantity of them in good weather,
to be used when the weather changes to a worse state. When a store is
once made, the mind becomes easy under the certainty of having, let the
weather prove ever so unpropitious, plenty of good food provided at home
for the cattle, and having such a provision does not prevent you taking
supplies from the field as long as the weather permits the ground to be
carted upon with impunity, to be immediately consumed or to augment
the store. How much better for all parties — for yourself, for men, horses
and cattle — to be always provided with plenty of turnips, instead of being
obliged to go to the field for every day's supply, and perhaps under the
most uncomfortable circumstances ! I believe few farmers Avould refuse
their assent to this truth ; and yet, how many violate it in their own prac-
tice ! The excuses usually made for pursuing the ordinary practice are,
that there is no time to store turnips when the potato-land should be
plowed up and sown with wheat ; that the beasts are yet doing well
enough upon the pasture ; and that it is a pity to pull the turnips while
they continue to grow. It is proper to bestow all the time required to plow
and sow the potato-land; and, after a late hai'vest, these may have to be
done after the pasture has failed ; but such an occunence as the last being
the exception to the usual condition of the crops and seasons, ought not
to be adduced as an excuse applicable at all times ; and as to the other
excuses, founded upon the growing state of the turnips and the rough state
of the pastures, they are of no force when adduced in compensation for
the risk of loss likely to be incuiTed by a low condition in the stock.
Rather than incur such a risk, give up the rough pasture to the sheep, or
delay the working and sowing of the potato-land, or sacrifice a portion of
the weight of a small part of the turnip crop by pulling it before reach-
ing entire maturity. As for sheep, they are never at a loss for food, being
constantly surrounded with turnips as long as the ground is bare.
(1016.) The storing of turnips is very well done in this way : Let a
piece of lea ground, convenient of access to cai'ts, be chosen near the
steading for the site of the store, and. if that be in an adjoining field, on a
15-feet ridge, so much the better, provided the ridge runs N. and S. Fig.
213 represents the form of the tm'nip-store. The cart with the topped and
tailed turnips is backed to the spot of the ridge chosen to begin the store,
and there emptied of its contents. The ridge being 15 feet wide, the store
should not exceed 10 feet wide at the bottom, to allow a space of at least
2^ feet on each side toward the open fun-ow of the ridge, for the fall and
conveyance of water. The turnips may be pijed up to the hight of 4 feet,
but will not easily lie to 5 feet on that width of base. In this vs^ay, the
store may be formed of any length ; but it is more desirable to make two
or three stores on adjoining ridges than a very long one on the same ridge,
as its farthest end may be too far removed for using a wheel-barrow to re-
move the stored turnips. Assorted straw, that is, drawn out lengthwise,
is put from 4 to 6 inches thick above the turnips for thatch, and kept down
by means of straw-ropes, arranged lozenge-shaped, and fastened to pegs
driven in a slanting direction in the ground, along the base of the straw,
430
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
as may be distinctly seen in the figure. Or a spading of earth, taken out
of the furrow, may be placed up<jn the ends of the ropes to keep them
down. The straw' is not intended to keep out either rain or air — for both
are requisite to preserve the turnips fresh — but to protect them from frost,
Fig. 213.
THE TKIASGULAR TUR.V1P-3T0RE.
which causes rottenness, and from drouth, which shrivels turnips. To
avoid frost the end, and not the side, of the store should be presented to
the north, whence frost may be expected to come. If the ground chosen
is so flat, and the open fiirrows are so nearly on a level with the ridges as
that a dash of rain would overflow the bottom of the store, a furrow-slice
should, in that case, be taken out of the open furrows of the ridges with
tbe plow, or a gaw-cut made with the spade, and the earth used to keep
down the ropes.
(1017.) When the turnips are to be used from the store, the straw on
the south end is removed, as seen in fig. 213, and a cart, or the cattle-man's
capacious, light wheel-barrow, backed to it; and, after the requisite quan-
tity for the day has been taken out, it should be replaced over the mouth
of the store.
(1018.) Some people evince a desire to place the turnip-store in the
stack-yard, on account, perhaps, of the straw ; but there is not likely to
be sufficient room, especially at the beginning of winter, for the turning
of carts in an ordinary-sized stack-yard. I have seen turnips stored up be-
tween two stacks, in the early part of the season, but only as a tempo-
rary expedient, when there was a scarcity of straw.
(1019.)This is not the only form of store that will preserve turnips fresh
and good for a considerable time. I have seen turnips heaped about 3
feet in hight, quite flat on tlie top, and covered with loose straw, keep
very well. Other ])lans have been devised and tried, such as to pull them
from the field in which they have grown, and sot them upright with their
tops on in another field, in a furrow made with the plow, and then cover
the bulbs with the next furrow-slice; and another plan is to pull the tur-
nips as in the former case, and carry them to a bare or lea field, and set
them upright beside one another, as close as they can stand, with their
tops and roots on. No doubt both these latter plans will kecj) turnips
fresh enough, and an area of 1 acre will, by these methods, contain the
growth of 4 or 5 acres of the field in which they had grown ; but turnips
are certainly not so secure from frost in those positions as in a store ; an^
after the trouble of lifting and carrying them has been incuned, it would
be as easy to take them to a proper store ^t once, where they would be
(814)
DRAWING AND STORING TURNIPS. 431
near at hand, and save the farther trouble of bringing them again from the
second field. And even if they were so set in a field adjoining the stead-
ing, they would occupy a much larger space than any store. Objection-
able as these plans are, compared to triangular or flat-topped stores, they
are better than storing turnips in houses, where they never fail to sprout
on the top and become rotten at the bottom of the bin. Piling them
against a high wall, and thatching them like a to-fall, preserves them very
little better than in an outhouse. Stored in close houses, turnips never
fail to rot at the bottom of the heap ; and the heat engendered thereby
not only endangers the rest of the heap, but superinduces on its surface a
premature vegetation, very exhausting to the substance of the bulbs. Tur-
nips put into pits dug in the ground, and covered with earth, have failed
to be preserved. A plan has been recommended to drive stakes 2^ feet
high into the ground, and wattle them together with brushwood, making
an inclosure of 3 sides, in the interior of which the turnips are packed,
and piled up to a point, and thatched, like the store in fig. 213; and the
turnips are represented as keeping fresh in such a structure until June ;
and one advantage attending this plan is said to be, that " where room is
rather limited in the rick-yard, one pile of this description will contain 3
times as much as one of those placed on the ground of a triangular shape ;
and the saving of thatcn is also considerable."* But, as it appears to me,
the providing of stakes and the trouble of wattling around an inclosure
will far more than counterbalance any advantage of space or saving of
straw for thatch, compared with the mode I have described in fig. 213 ;
and besides all these inconveniences attending the plan, there is no neces-
sity whatever for having a turnip-store in a rick-yard.
(1020.) With regard to storing mangel-icurzel, this plan seems unexcep
tioiiable. " It should be stored early in November. The best and cheap-
est mode is to build it up against some high wall, contiguous to your
beasts' sheds, not more than 7 or 8 feet deep, can-ied up square to a cer-
tain hight, and then tapering in a roof to the top of the wall ; protect the
sides with thatched hurdles, leaving an interval between the roots and the
hurdles, which fill up with dry stubble (straw) ; cover the roof with about
1 foot of the same, and then thatch it, so as to conduct all moisture well
over the hurdles placed as a protection to the sides. In pulling the plants,
care should be taken that as little injury be inflicted upon them as possi-
ble. Cleansing with a knife should on no account be permitted, and it is
safer to leave some of the leaf on, than, by cutting it too close to impair
the crown of the root. The drier the season is for storing the better ;
although I have never found the roots decayed in the heap by the earth,
which, in wet weather, has been brought from the field adhering to them."t
Carrots may be stored exactly in the same manner, and so may parsnips.
Cabbages are stored by being soughed into the soil, or hung up by the
stems, with the heads downward, in a shed. As cabbages are very ex-
hausting to the soil, the plants should be pulled up by the roots when they
are gathered, and the stems not merely cut over with a hook or knife, be-
cause they will sprout again.
(1021.) All these modes of storing turnips apply to all the varieties of
the root usually caltivated, and which are much more numerous than ne-
cessary. Mr. Lawson enumerates and describes no fewer than 46 varie-
ties cultivated in the field ; namely, 11 of Swedes, 17 of yellow, and 18
of white,.| the color names being derived as much from the color of the
flesh as that of the skin. One kind from each of these classes seems al-
• Journal of the Royal Asricultural Society of En!?Iand, vol. ii. t Ibid., vol. ii.
+ Lawsou's Agriculturista' Manual, and Supplement.
(815) ^^
432 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
most requisite to be cultivated on every farm, although the yellow is omit-
ted in some districts, and the Swedes in others. Where Swedes are omit-
ted, they have never been cultivated, and where the yellow is the favorite,
the Swedes are unknown; for where they are kno\%Ti their culture is never
relinquished, and their extension is treading hard upon the yellow, and
even curtailing the boundary of the white. The white varieties come eai*-
liest into use, and will always be esteemed on account of their rapid growth
and early maturity, though unable to withstand the severest effects of frost.
It is they which first support both cattle and sheep, being ready for use as
soon as the pasture fails; and in storing them, only such a quantity should
be prepared as will last to the end of the year. The yellows then follow,
and last for about 2 months, that is, to the end of February or thereabout;
and the same nile of storing a quantity for a specified time is followed in
regard to them as with the whites. Then the Swedes finish the course,
and should last until the grass is able to support the cattle, that is, to the
end of May, or beginning of June, to which time they will continue fresh
in store, if stored in proper time and in the manner recommended above ;
and the most proper time for storing them is before any vegetation makes
its appearance on them in spring, which is generally about the end of
March or beginning of April.
(1022.) Of all the 18 varieties of white turnips, I should say that the
White Globe (Brassica rapa, deprcssa, alba, of De CandoUe) a, fig. 214,
Fig. 214.
THE WHITE GLOBE TURNIP. THE PURPLE TOP SWEDISH THE ABERnEEN?HinE YELLOW
TURNIP. BULLOCK TURNIP.
is the best for early maturity, sweetness, juiciness, size of root, weight of
crop, and elegance of form. Its form is nearly globular, as its name indi-
cates ; skin smooth, somewhat oily, fine, and perfectly white ; neck of the
top and tap-root small ; leaves long (frequently 18 inches), upright, and
luxuriant. Though the root does not feel particularly heavy in the hand,
it does not emit a hollow sound when struck ; its flesh is somewhat firm,
fine-grained, though distinctly exhibiting fibres radiating from the center ;
the juice ea.-^ily exudes, and the rind is thin. Its specific gravity wa.s de-
termined by Dr. Skene Keith at 0-840 ; and its nutritive properties by Sir
Humphry Davy, at 42 parts in 1,000; of which were, of mucilage 7, of
sugar 2\, and of albumen or gluten 1.* Mr. Sinclair mentions this re-
markable fact in regard to the white turnip, that the quantity of nutritive
matter contained in different roots of the same variety varies according to
the size and texture of their substances. Thus, a root of the white-loaf
turnip, measuring 7 inches in diameter, afforded only 72^ grains ; while
the same (]uantity of a root which measured only 4 inches, aflV)rded SO
grains." So he forms this important conclusion, that " the middle-sized
roots of the common tumip are therefore the most nutritious."!
(1023.) I suspect that our crops of white globe turnip ordinarily consist
• Davy's Agricultural Chemistry. «-<lilion of 1^39.
t Sinclair's Hornis Gramineus WobJimensis, edition of 1824.
(81fi)
DRAWING AND STORING TURNIPS. 433
of middle-sized bulbs, or they contain many blanks, as the following state-
ment tends to show. Taking the distance between the turnips at 9 inches
— being that at which white turnips are usually thinned out — and taking
the distance between the drills at 27 inches — the usual one — these dis-
tances embrace an area of 243 square inches of ground, for each turnip.
On each turnip occnpying that area, there should be 25,813 turnips per
acre imperial ; and taking 30 tons per acre as a fair crop, each turnip will
weigh nearly 1 lb. 1 oz. ! Now, in an ordinary crop of white-globe tur-
nips it is not beyond the truth to take them at 6 inches in diameter over-
head ; and having the specific gravity of white turnip as mentioned above,
a 6-inch turnip should weigh 6 lbs., and the crop of course be, per acre,
69 tons 2 cwt., instead of 30 tons. The inevitable conclusion is, either
that blanks, to the enormous extent of being able to contain 39 tons 2 cwt.
of tuiTiips per acre, occur in the ordinary crops of white globes — that is,
the number on the acre is only 9,445 turnips, instead of 25,813 ; or the
average distance between the turnips may be 20 inches instead of 9.
When actual results fall so very far short of anticipation, the important and
interesting inquiry arises. Whether the great deficiency is occasioned by
the death of plants after the singling process has been completed ] or the
average size and weight of each turnip are much less than we imagine ?
or the distance left by the singling is greater than we desire "? — or from all
these causes combined 1 From whichever of these causes, singly or com-
bined, the result arises, it is worthy of serious investigation by the farmer ;
for the bulk of the crop may really depend more on these less obvious
circumstances than on the mode of culture. Let us see.
(1024.) Weights and sizes of turnips have already been ascertained
with sufficient accuracy. The white globes exhibited at the Show of the
Highland and Agricultural Society at Inverness in October, 1839, gave a
girth varying 28^ to 34 inches, and a weight varying still more— from 8
lbs. to 15^ lbs. each root ; so that 3 roots of the same girth of 30^ inches,
varied in weight respectively 8 lbs., d^ lbs., and 14^ lbs.* After the state-
ment of these facts, our surprise at realization falling so far short of ex-
pectation may be moderated ; for we see crops, of appai'ently the same
bulk, weigh differently •, and turnips growing on the same field exhibit
different fattening properties ; and different localities produce turnips of
different bulk. Whence arise these various results ] These weights are
by no means the utmost to which this turnip attains, examples occurring
in some seasons of weights from 18 lbs. to 23 lbs. ;t and I have pulled one
from among Swedes, weighing 29 lbs., including the top.| From 30 to 40
tons per imperial acre is a good crop of this kind of turnip.
(1025.) Of the yellow turnip, Mr. Lawson has described 17 varieties, of
which perhaps the greatest favorite is the green-top Aberdeen Yellow
Bullock ( Brassica rapa, dcpressa, Jlavcscens, of De Candolle). This is a
good turnip, of the form of an oblate spheroid, as seen at c, fig. 214 ; color
of the skin below the ground, as well as of the flesh, a deep yellow or-
ange, and that of the top bright green. The leaves are about 1 foot lono-,
dark green, rather soft, spreading over the bulb, and collected into a small
girth at the top of the turnip ; the tap-root small. Its specific gravity, as
determined by Dr. Keith, is 0-940 ; and its nutritive property, according
to Sinclair, is 44 in 1,000 parts, of which 4f are of mucilage, 37f of sugar,
and l\ of bitter extract or saline matters. This root feels firm and heavy
I '?v^'"v^'^''^ Journal of Agriculture, vol. x. t Lawson'a Agriculturist's Manual.
D 1 5;°''"'"^" Mercury, of July. 1841, makes mention of a turnip— a white one, we presume— exhibited
at Pakenham market, and sent from Van Diemen's Land in strong brine, which weiahed 8-1 lbs., having a
girth of o teet 2 inches. It is said to have weighed 92 lbs. when pulled.
(S65) «8 . ° ^
434 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
in the haiul, with a Bkin smooth and fine, flesh firm, but not so juicy, noi
the rind so thin as the globe.
(1026.) Selected specimens exhibit a circumference of the larger diame-
ter of fi-om 27 to 30 inches, which vary in weight from 6 lbs. to 8i lbs.
each, but specimens may be found weighing as much as from 9 to 1 1 lbs.,
and those of the same diameter sometimes show a difference of 1 lb. in
weight : yellow turnips seldom yield so heavy a crop as either the globe
or Swedes, 30 tons the imperial acre being a good crop ; but their power
of fattening is greater than tliat of white tuniips. In some parts of the
kingdom, they are grown in preference to Swedes, especially where light
soils predominate ; but from my own experience in raising Swedes on the
driest gi-avelly soil, of a superior description to the yellow, I believe that
if Swedes always received the sort of culture they require, they would in
every soil exceed the yellows in weight and nutrition ; and a strong proof
of the soundness of this opinion may be found in the rapid inroads which
they have of late years made, and are making, upon the confines of the
yellows.
(1027.) Of the IS varieties of the Swedish turnip described by Mr.
Lawson, the Purple-Top (Brassica camj^cstris, najw-hrassica, rutahaga, of
De Candolle,) has long obtained the preference, and certainly if weight
of crop, nutritious property, and durability of texture are valuable proper-
ties in a turnip, none can exceed the Swedes. They are of an oblong
form, as seen at b, in fig. 214, having the color under ground and of the
flesh a deep yellow orange, and the upper part above the ground a dusky
purple. The leaves are about 1 foot long, standing nearly upright, of a
bluish green color, and gi'owing out of a firm conical base, which forms
the neck of the bulb. The skin is somewhat rough, the rind thicker than
either of the two former sorts of turnip, and the flesh firm. This turnip
feels heavy and very hard in the hand. According to Dr. Keith, the spe-
cific gravity of the yellow Swede is 1,035, and of the white 1,022, and Sir
Humphry Davy estimates its nutritive property at 64 in 1,000 parts, of
which 9 are starch, 51 sugar, 2 gluten, and 2 extract. Dr. Keith states
that he found the Swedish tuniip heaviest in April, at the shooting out of
the new leaves, and that after its flower stem is fairly shot in June, the
specific gravity of the root decreases to 0*94, that exactly of the yellow tur-
nip. This fact shows the relative values of those turnips, and also of the
time in spring, namely, before April, for storing the Swedes, after \\hich
they should not remain in the ground in a growing state. As Sir Hum-
phry experimented on Swedish turnips gi'own in the neighborhood of
London, whore they are confessedly inferior to those in the northern coun
ties, his results as to their nutritive properties may be considered below
the true mark.
(1028.) Picked specimens have exhibited a girth of from 25 to 28
inches, varying in weight from 7 lbs. to 9^ lbs., but the weight of this, like
all other turnips, is not in proportion to the bulk, as a 25-inch one gave a
weight of 9^ lbs., while one that measured 26 inclies only weighed 7 lbs.
It is not an uncommon thing, however, to see tiicm from 8 lbs. to 10^ lbs.
A crop of from 16 to 20 tons may be obtained by very ordinary culture,
but in the neighborhood of large towns, such as Etiinburgh, from 28 to
34 tons are obtained on the imperial acre I have heard of 50 or 60 tons
boasted of, but suspect that such weights had been calculated for the
whole field from very limited and selected spots ; nevertheless, a large
and equal crop will sometimes be obtained, under favorable circumstances,
for I remember seeing a crop of 50 acres within the policy of "Wedder-
burn, Berwickshire, in 1815, then farmed by Mr. Joseph Tod, Whitelaw,
(866)
DRAWING AND STORING TURNIPS. 435
on traversing which I could not detect a single turnip of less apparent size
than a man's head. The crop was in no part weighed, but it was let to
be consumed by cattle and sheep, the half being eaten off by wether sheep
at 6d. a head per week, and realized c€21 per imperial acre ! Taking a
man's head at 7 inches in diameter, and the specific gravity of a Swedish
turnip at 1-035, the weight of each turnip should have been Hi lbs., and
taking 19,360 tuniips per acre, at 12 inches apart, the distance at which
Swedish turnips are singled, and 27 inches wide in the diill, the weight of
the crop should have been 99 tons 7 cwt. Taking the calculation in
another form, let us see the result of =£21 at 6d. a head per week. That
gives 32 sheep to the acre, and taking Mr. Curwen's estimate of a sheep
eating 24 lbs. a day, exclusive of 4 lbs. a day of waste, for 180 days, oi
half a year, the weight of crop by this method should have been 61 tons
14 cwt. Statements, however, regarding the quantity of turnips eaten by
sheep are various. One given by Sir John Sinclair is a consumption of
21 acres of 44 tons each, by 300 sheep in 180 days, or half a year, which
gives 38 lbs. a day for each sheep.* If we take this allowance of 38 lbs.
the crop mentioned above should have weighed 85 tons 1 cwt. to have
paid c£21 per acre ! The usual allowance is 16 young sheep to the or-
dinary acre of 30 tons, which is 23^ lbs. a day to each, and 10 old sheep,
which is 37^ lbs. to each, and both are probably near the truth ; but the
exact consumption of food by live-stock is a subject worthy of experi-
mental investigation.
(1029.) The proportion of the top to the root is less in the Swedish than
in other sorts of turnips, as evinced in the experiments of Mr. Isaac Ev-
erett, South Creake, Norfolk, which, on a crop of Swedes gi'own at 18
inches, and 27 inches apart in the rows, of an average of 17 tons 9 cwt.,
gave 3 tons 3 cwt. of tops, on the 15th December, after which they were
not worth weighing ; and while mentioning this experiment, I may advert
to a fact derivable from it, that tops are lighter in a crop raised on drills
than one in rows on the flat surface ; that is, while, in the above case, 28
tons 8 cwt. of topped and tailed turnips afforded only 5 tons 10 cwt. of tops
from the drilled land, those from the rows on the flat surface yielded 6
tons 16 cwt. from a crop very little heavier, namely, 28 tons 16 cwt.
(1030.) The yellow turnip will continue fresh in the store until late in
spring, but the Swedes have a superiority in this respect to all other tur-
nips. The most remarkable instance I remember of Swedes keepino- in
the store, in a fresh state, was in Berwickshire, on the farm of Whitsome
Hill, when in the possession of Mr. George Brown, where a field of 25
acres of excellent Swedes was pulled, rooted, and topped, and stored in
the manner already described, in fine dry weather in November. This ex-
tensive storing was undertaken to have the field sown with wheat. The
store was opened in February, and the cattle partook of the turnips and
continued to like them until the middle of June, when they were sold fat
the turnips being then only a little sprouted, and somewhat shriveled, but
exceedingly sweet to the taste. There is a property possessed by the
Swedish turnip which stamps a great value upon it as a root for feeding
stock, which is, the larger it gi-ows the greater quantity of nutritive matter
it contains. According to Sinclair, 1,728 grains of large-sized Swedes con-
tained 110 grains of nutritive matter, whereas small-sized ones only yield-
ed 99 grains,! affording a sufficient stimulus to the farmer to raise this
valuable root to the largest size attainable.
(1031.) A comparative view of the specific gi-avity and nutritive proper-
* Sinclair's Arcount of the Husbandly of Scot' and, vol. ii., Aopendix.
t Sinclair's Honua Gramineus W-jburnensis.
(867)
436
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
ties of the turnips just descrihorl may prnve to you both an interesting
statement and a memorandum of facts, as far as at present known.
Specific gravity of yellow Pwedieh turnip in December 1-035
It is hcavicdt in Apri!. aboat the shooting of tlie new leaves, and in Jane, after ibc
development of iho flower Bialk, it is 0940
Specific gravity of wliito ditto , 1022
yellow bullock 0 940
white globe 0 840
carrot '0018
Grains.
Mucilngp, or
Swrcb.
Sacchitrinc
matter.
(iluien.
Extract or
saline
manor.
ToihI soluble
or nutritive
mailer.
1,000 of Swedish turnip contain
yellow bullock
9
7
13
2.'>J
17}
41
3
2
9
51
37J
34
119
106J
126J
24
95
98
90
2
1
4
li
H
8
2
n
less than 1
1
i
1
64
44
42
136
135
146)
73
98J
105
60
99t
mangel-wurzel
(1032.) A summary of tlie foreq-oing results may here be given, thus : A
7-inch diameter of white turnip attords 72^ grains, whereas a 4-inch turnip
yields 80 grains of nutiitive matter in the same bulk. On the contrary', a
large Swedish turnip affords 110 grains, and a small one only 99 grains of
nutritive matter in the same bulk. Swedi.sh turnip is superior to cabbage
in nutritive matterin the proportion of 110 to 107^; the white turnip in-
ferior in the propoition of 80 to 1071 ; and can-ots superior in the propor-
tion of 187 to 107^. A good crop of Swedes weighs from 30 to 35 tons,
of yellow from 30 to 32 tons, and of white globe from 30 to 40 tons the
imperial acre. A bushel of tumijis weighs from 3 stones to 3 stones 3
lbs. of 14 lbs. to the stone, that is, from 42 to 45 lbs. the bushel. A young
sheep eats about 18 lbs., and an old one about 24 lbs. of turnips eveiy day;f
or, by another authority, a young sheep eats 23 lbs., and an old one 37 lbs.
a day. The usual allowance to an ordinary crop of turnips is 20 young
Black-faced, or 16 Leicester, and 1(3 old Black-faced and 10 Leicester, or
1 three-year-old ox. to the imperial acre ; that is, a yountj Black-faced will
consume about 126 lbs., an old one 168 lbs. ; a young Leice.^ter 161 lbs.,
an old one 259 lbs., and an ox about 1 ton of turnips every week. For
sheej) a crop of turnips of 30 tons will he required, and one of 26 tons
will suffice for an ox during ISO days. In makijig this last estimate, the
state of the crop should be taken into consideration, a crop of small yel
low or white tuniips, if regular, takes longer time to consume in propor-
tion to the bulk than a crop of larger tuniijvs, but a crop of large Swedi.sh
tuniips, though ajiparently thin on the ground, takes a much longer time
to be consumed than a thicker crop of small roots. There is no rcrtaivty
in these calculations ; at the same time, they are perhaps near enough the
truth to enable you to lay on to turnips such a lot of sheep or cattle as
■will about consume a crop in a given time.
(1033.) The ])rices of turnips depend almost entirely t)n the demand of
the locality. In the neighborhood of towns they are always high pnced,
•where an ordinary crop of white will fetch .£10, of yellow c£12, and of
Swedes -£16 an imperial acre. They are chiefly purchased by milkmen,
or cow-feedei-s, as they are usually called in Scotland. In the country,
• Keith's Acriculmrn! Koiiorl of Ahrrdconshire.
t Journal of the Koyai A-,'riiuIiiiral Society of KneUnd, vol. ii. ; Sinclair"!! Hortus Graminens Wobumen
sis; Davy's Agricuiiura! Chemistry. J Curwen's Agricultural Hints.
(868)
DRAWING AND STORING TURNIPS. 437
about <£5 10s. for white, and =£8 for Swedish turnips, to be carried off the
land, are given ; and, when consumed on the gi'ound by sheep, =£3 to o£5
an acre are considered a fair price ; and, when on the premises by cattle,
J£5 for white, and from =£5 to £7 per acre for Swedes, with straw. A
fairer plan for both the raiser and consumer of turnips is to let them by
the week at so much a head of stock put on to consume them. At the
usual price of 3d. per head per week for young sheep, f ^r the ordinary
period of 26 weeks, makes a cost for keep of 6s. 6d. for the season ; and,
if it take 16 sheep to consume an acre, the turnips will realize about £5
5s. per acre For old sheep, 6d. per head per week is given, which is just
double the cost for the season of the other — namely, 13s. — which, for 10
sheep, will realize c£6 10s. per acre. For cattle, 5s. per head per week
are given, with straw ; and, if an ox take 26 weeks to eat an acre, the tur-
nips will realize c£6 10s. Thus, an acre of turnips that will support 10
old sheep for the season is worth more than one that will support 16 young
sheep ; but why old sheep should cost more to keep them than young does
not appear ; it would be fairer for the owner of the sheep to make the rate
of keep exactly proportionate between the young and old. In plentiful
years 2d., and in scarce years 4d. per head are given for young sheep, and
other stock in proportion.
(1034.) These three kinds of turnip seem to possess all the properties
desiderated by the farmer, and more than these, in my opinion, need not
be cultivated; for although, in peculiar seasons, it is possible that, in a
particular locality, some other variety may attain greater perfection and
prolificacy, yet I believe that, in the long run, these will bear comparison
with any variety that has yet been introduced into cultivation, provided
they are of pure kinds.
(1035.) There are one or two hybrids of turnips worth mentioning, and
which are so named, although it is probable that most of the varieties of
turnips in use are natural hybrids. One is called Dale's Hybrid, being a
cross betwixt the green-topped Swede and the globe, but whether the
white or green-topped globe I do not know. It possesses more of the
properties of the yellow turnip than of either of its progenitors ; and it has
the advantage of arriving sooner at maturity, and may therefore be sown
later than the ordinary yellow turnip. The other hybrid is called the
Lawtown Hybrid, being a cross between the green-topped Swede and the
green-topped globe, the result of which is a heart-shaped, white-fleshed,
green-topped turnip, considerably harder than the globes, with its leaves
set on like those of the Swedes. The results of these two crosses are — a
yellow turnip. Dale's, which arrives sooner at maturity than the older va-
rieties, and a white globe, the Lawtown, which is more hardy th in any
other variety of white.
(1036.) With regard to the crop afforded by these hybrids, in an exper-
iment made, in 1835, by Mr. John Gow, Fettercairn, Kincardineshire, the
Dale attained to 28 inches in girth, and yielded 23 tons, and the Lawtown
to 32 inches in girth, and yielded 27 tons the imperial acre.*
(1037.) Although storing is the proper method of securing turnips for
use during a storm of rain or snow, when the turnip-field should not be
entered by a cart, yet it is necessary that you should be provided with ex-
pedients for obtaining food for your cattle should you be overtaken by a
storm, with a scantiness of provision in hand. As both rain and snow ex-
hibit prognostics of their approach, and should these indicate a serious fall
or storm, send all the field-workers and plowmen to the tumip-field, and
* Lawson's Agriculturist's Manual.
(669)
438 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
pull the turni])s in the form in whifh the laud is in the course of being
stripped; and, removing oidy the tails, throw the tuniips into heaps of
from 3 to 6 cart-loads each, according to the tliickness of the crop, taking
care to place the tops of the uppermost tuniips an the heap upon the out-
side, in order to protect the bull)s from frost, should it come suddenly and
unaccompanied with snow. To these heaps rain will do no harm, and
they will sene to point out where they are, should snow cover them and
the ground. As the turnips gathered in frost or snow should be immedi-
ately consumed and not stored, they may be thrown into the cart with a
fork or graip, and their tops taken oft' at the steading, where this process
can be done in the severest weather, when women could not stand out in
the field to do it.
(1038.) I have given fig. 215 to show you what I conceive to be an ill-
fnrmed turnip, and also one which stands so much out of the ground as to
Fig. 215.
AN ILL-SHAPED TURNIP. THE TANKARD TURNIP.
be liable to injury from frost — where a is an ill-formed turnip, inasmuch
as the upper part of it around the top being hollow, rain, snow or rime
may lodge there, and find their way into the heart, and conupt it, as is
actually found to take place. All white turnips, when allowed to remain
on the ground after they have attained maturity, become soft and spongy,
of inferior quality in the heart, and susceptible of putrefaction, which fre-
quently overtakes them in sudden changes from frost to thaw, and reduces
them into a saponaceous pulp. This fact supplies a strong reason for stor-
ing white turnips after they come to maturity, which state is indicated by
the leaves losing their green color and becoming flaccid. There are some
sorts of white turnips tliat become spongy in the heart early in the season,
and among these I would pronounce the Tankard-shaped, such as is rep-
resented by h in fig. 21.'); as are also a flat-shaped red-topped, and a small
flattish white turnip, both, much cultivated among small farmers, because,
being small, they are supposed to require little manure to bring them to
maturity, and this class of people are apt to spread manure as thin as pos-
sible upon th(! land, to make it go the farther. I iummI scarcely tell you
that thrift attends the cultivation of only the best varieties of turnip. The
dotted line in figs. 21 1 and 21.'5 represents the surface of the ground, by
which will be seen the relative depths to which these kinds of turnips de-
scend into the soil when growing.
(103!).) I think it useful to ^ivc you a tabular view of tlic nnnibcr of turnips tliore should be on
i\n imperial arre. at triven dlKtanreH between the drills, and between tlic plants in the drills, and
of the weii,'ht of the crop at speciHod weights of each turnip, that you may compare actual receipta
with defined data, and endeavor to ascertain whether differences in the crop in these respects
arise from deficiency of weight in the tuniip itself, or loo much thinning out of the plants. The
distance between the drills is taken at the usual width of 27 inches: the distance between the
plants is what is allowed to the dilTerent sorts of turnips; and the imperial acre coDtains 6,272 640
(870J
DRAWING AND STORING TURNIPS.
439
square inches. On altering the width between the drills, a calculation from these data can easily
be made of what ought to be the weight of crop at these given weights of turnips. On comparing
a usual crop of 20 tons of Swedes with these data, and keeping in view the distance of 12 inches
aimed at between the plants, the inevitable conclusion is that the average weight of each turnip
in that crop must be less than 3 lbs., or the distance between the turnips greater than 12 inches. —
In the one case your skill in raising a crop is almost rendered abortive, and in the other your neg-
ligence in wasting space by too much thinning out appears conspicuous. An amendment in both
particulars is therefore requisite, and fortunatelj' is attainable in both ; for, as you perceive that
but a slight difference in either of these particulars makes a great difference in the weight of the
crop, your endeavor should be both to make the turnip heavy, and to maintain the desired dis-
tance between the plants inviolate. For example, 5lb. turnips, at 9 inches asunder, give a crop
of 57 tons, 12 cwt.; whereas the same weight of turnip at 11 inches apart gives a crop of 10 tons
less. Now, how easy is it for careless people to thin out the plants to 11 instead of 9 inches; and
yet, by so doing, a difference of no less than 10 ton.s, or 18 per cent, on a crop, is sacrificed. And
again, a difference of only 1 lb. on the turnip — from 4 lbs. to 5 lbs. — at 9 inches asunder, makes a
difference of 11 tons, or 25 per cent, per acre on the crop ! So that a difference of only 1 lb. in
each turnip, and 2 inches in the distance between them, makes the enormous difference of 21 tons
on the whole crop ! "Who will say, after this, that these particulars do not require the most seri-
ous consideration in the treatment of the turnip crop ?
UsuhI distance
between the
drills.
Usual distances
between the plants.
Area occupied
by each plant.
Number of turnips
there should be
per imperial acre.
Weight of each
turnip.
Weight which
the crop should
be per imp. acre.
Inches.
Inches.
Square inches.
Lbs.
ri
2
3
Tons. Cwt.
11 10
23 0
34 11
27
9
between the plants
of white turnips.
243
25,313
.
4
I
Is
2
3
46 0
57 12
69 2
85 2
92 0
10 7
20 14
31 1
27
10
between the plants
of yellow turnips.
270
23,232
■
4
5
6
7
,8
41 8
51 15
62 2
72 9
82 16
27
11
297
21.120
-i
ri
2
3
4
5
6
7
^8
ri
2
3
9 8
18 16
28 5
37 13
47 3
56 11
66 0
75 8
8 13
17 6
25 19
27
12
between the plants
of Swedes.
324
19,360
4
5
6
7
8
4 12
43 5
51 18
60 11
69 4
(1040.) On comparing the amount of what the crop should be with instances given in the news-
papers of what are considered great crops, it will be seen that these, after all. are no more than
what they should be ; and they are only the result of what misht be expected to be attained by
combined skill and care in culture. In the in,stances adduced in the Mark-Lane Express in 1840,
crops were considered heavy which ranged from 40 to 60 tons per acre ; and the Leinster Ex-
press of the same year mentions tumijis having been raised on Lord Charleville's property in Ire-
land to a still greater amount— namely, of yellow Aberdeen, 49 tons, 13 cwt.; of yellow tancred,
60 tons, 10 cwt. ; of Swedish. 60 tons, 10 cwt. ; and of white Tancred, 79 tons, 18 cwt. Such
statements prove one of two things— ekher that large crops of turnips are more ea.sily rai.sed than
farmers deem practicable, or great errors have been committed in making out these results. It is
quite po8s:.ble for great errors to be committed in m.aking returns from any other mode of ascer-
tainmg the amount of a crop of turnips, than by topping and tailing a whole field, and weitrhing
every cart-load separately. Tor example : Suppo.se that 1 square yard is measured in a field of
turnips in this way— that is, if the distance of 1 yard is measured from a himip fsce fig. 208) along
a drill, then the yard will embrace 5 turnips of white and 4 of Swedes ; whereas, if the measure-
ment is begun between tieo turnips, the same measure will oiilv embrace 4 turnips of white and 3
of Swedes— making, in the former case, a difference in amount of 1 turnip out of every 5, and in
(871) ^
440
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
the latter, 1 oat of every 4 ; and, if the weight of a statute acre han been calculated on sacb-Hka
data, the crop will, in the case of the white turnips, be returned 15, and in that of the Swede* J
beyond the truth. Ai^ain, if the yan) is placed acrosx tiro drillf, their produce will be included
within the yard, the distance between them being onlv 27 inches; but, if the yard be placed
across one drill only, then its produce alone will be included, as the yard will not reach to the
drill on either side; and, if the produce of the whole field is calculated on such data, the resnlt,
in the latter mode of mcaf<urenient, will just pive half the amount of the other. Such ways of as-
certaining the weight of a crop, when thus plainly stated) appear ridiculous enough ; but it is an
error which country people, who are not aware of the effects of the powers of numbers when
squared, are verj- liable to fall into. The part of the field, too, from which the data are taken, may
make a ver\- great difference in the result over the whole : as. even nn true tuniip-.>ioil, how dif-
ferent will the size and number of turnips be on a rising knoll and a hollow ! The difference ia
not verj- obvious on looking upon the tops alone, but it is made verj- apparent after sheep have
eaten off the leaves, and just begun to break upon tlie bulbs. The plan, too, of filling one cart-load
or so and weighing it, and tilling the rest of the cart loads to a similar extent, without weighing
them, is a fallacious one, when the fact is, as shown above, that turnips grown on the same field
differ in weight, and therefore a few more or le.ss in a small cart-load will make a considerable
difference in the amount over the whole field. I question much whether any person ever weighed
every cart load of turnips as they were brought out of a field, or ever measured many places of
the same field, to ascertain the number and weight of turnips in them ; and. unless some plan ap-
proaching to either or both of tliese is adopted, the results obtained will never prove satL-^factory.
When tlie trouble of weighins; every cart load is wi.shed to be avoided, the smallest and the larg-
est and tlie middle-sized turnips should be pulled, topped and tailed, and chosen from every part
of the field where a difference of size and number is found to occur, such as in hollows, on knolls,
OD sloping and level ground, at the top and bottom of the field ; and each turnip weigheil, and the
tops weighed too, separately if desired, and then the averaiie weight of the turnip may be relied
on. A convenient machine for such a purpose is one of Salter's spring steelyards, with a basin
suspended from it by chains, in which a turnip may be placed with ease and celerity. Besides
doing this, the distance from center to center of the tops of the turnips, before they are pulled,
should be measured and noted down, and the average distance from turnip to turnip would then
be a.«certained. Having thus obtained correct data of the weight and number of turnips within
the given limits of a field, the amount of the crop would then lie so a.«certained as to insure confi-
dence in the result. The average girth of the turnips could be ascertained at the same time if de-
sired ; but this is not an essential element in determining the weight of the crop.
(1041.) It may prove interesting to you to know the periods at which the various kinds of tur-
nips in culture were introduced. According to the name given to the plant in this country, the
Swedes are natives of Sweden ; the Italian name Savoni de Loponia intimates an origin in Lap-
land ; and the French names, Chou de Lnpone, Chou de Hircde. would indicate an uncertain oii-
^in. Sir John Sinclair says: " I am informed that the Swedes were first introduced into Scotland
m anno 1781-2, on the recommendation of Mr. Kno.x, a native of East Lothian, who had settled
at Gottenburg, whence he sent some of the seeds to Dr Hamilton."* There is no doubt they
were first introduced into Scotland from Sweden, but I believe their introduction w.is prior to the
date mentioned. The late Mr. Airth, Mains of Dunn, Forfar.shire, informed me that his father was
the first farmer vs-ho cultivated Swedes in Scotland, from seeds sent him by his eldest son then
settled in Gottenburg, when my infomiant, the youngest son of a large family, was a boy of al>out
10 years of age. This would make the date of their introduction 17T7 ; and this date is corrobo-
rated by the silence preserved by Mr. Wight regarding the culture of such a crop by Mr. Airih's
father, when he undertook the survey of the state of husbandn,- in Scotland, in 1773. at the request
of the Commissioners of the Annexed Estates, and when he would not have failed to report .-o re-
markable a circumstance as the culture of the Swede. Mr. Airth sowed the first portion of seed
he received in beds in tlie garden, and transplanted the plants in rows in the field, and thus suc-
ceeded in raising good crops for some years, before sov^ ing the seed directly in the li»-lils. I have
not been able to trace the history of the yellow turnip ; but it is probable that it originated, as ia
supposed by Professor Low, in a cross between a white and the Sweiie ;t and, as it.-* name im-
plies, this may have been in Aberdeenshire. All the white varieties of field turnips obtained at
first the name of the '• Norfolk whites." from the circum.stance of their having been first cultivated
in that county, to any extent, by Lord Townshend, who. on coming home from being ambassador
to the StatesGeneral, in 1730. paid great attention to their culture, and for which good service he
obtained the ai)pellation of "Turnip Townshend." It is rather remarkable that no turnips should
have been raised in this countrj- in the fields until the end of the 17tli centurj-. when it was lauded
as a field-root as long ago as Columella, and in his time even the Gauls fed tlieir cattle on iliein in
winter. The Uomans were so well aciiuaintcd with tuniips that Pliny mentions bavins raised
them 40 lbs. weight.t Turnips were cultivated in the gardens in England in the time o? Henry
VIII. II Dale's hybrid originated in a few ounces of a hybridal seed being sent, in 1822 or 1823,
by the late Mr. Sherriff, of Bastleridge, Berwickshir*-, to Mr. Robert Dale. Libberton West Mains,
near Edinburgh, who, by repeated selection and inipreirnation. bmught it to what it is. a good
yellow turnip, and now pretty extensively cultivated. $ The Lawtown hybrid originated about-8
or 10 years ago. by CapL Wright, of Lawtown. in Forfarshire, crossing the green-topped white
with the green topped Swede, to harden the white; which object proved successful, but its cul-
Uire has not been pushed. By sowing the Swede beside the vs bite Lawtown. the latter has been
converted into a yellow turnip, possessing the properties of the Swede; and. were the cross still
farther pushed, I have no doubt tliat a distinct variety of the Swede would be obtained. A vari-
ety of Swedes was brought into notice, about 4 or 5 years ago, by Mr. Laing, Duddo, Northom-
• Sinclair's Account of the Husbandry of Scotland, vol. i., noU.
t Low's Elements of Pnictical Aericulture. J Dickson's Husbandry of the Apcients, vol. iL
H Phillips's History of Cultivated Vcgctablei, vol. iL § Laweon'« Agriculturist's ManuaL
(872)
DRAWING AND STORING TURNIPS. 441
berland. wlio found it among his ordinary Swedes, and observed it by its remarkably elegant
form of leaf which is much notched near the base. It is getting into use, and possesses the valu-
able propertj' of resisting the effects of spring for at least a fortnight longer than the common va-
rieties, as I had a favorable opportunity of observing in Berwickshire late in spring 1841, and on
this account may be stored and kept in a fresh state to a very late period of the season.
(1042.) As ctibbnscea are considered good food for cows giving milk, it may be desirable to .say a
few words as to their use. The varieties of cabbage most suited for field culture are the Drum-
head fBraxxicn oh'racca, capitata, deprexxaj, and the great round Scotch or white Strasburg,
from v^liich the German sour-krout is chiefly made (Brassica oleraccn, capitatn, spherica alba of
De Caudolle). Of these two, the drum-head is the most productive, and the Scotch stands the
winter best. It is alleged by Sinclair that, for the purposes of the dairy, 1 acre of cabbages is
wortli 3 of turnips ; but wherein tl)is advantage consists is not .stated, which it ought to have been,
as he mentions that the nutritive matter contained in Swedi.sli turnips is superior lo that in the cab-
bage, in the ratio of 110 to 107^. There is no doubt, however, thai the taste of milk is less tainted
by cabbages than turnips, and I believe more milk may be derived from them ; but there is con-
siderable difference of opinion with re.specl to the effects of cabbage on butter and milk, and there
is no doubt that a decayed leaf or two in a head of cabbage will impart both to butter and milk a
strong, disasreeable taste. " This," says Sinclair. " I have long had an opportunity of proving."*
If planted in drills usually made for turnips, these two kinds of cabbage will require to be placed
in good soil, 18 inches asunder at least, which will give 12,907 plants to the acre. and. at 24 inches
apart, the number of plants will be 9,834 ; and if they at all attain to the weight that cabbages
.sometimes do — that is, from 18 lbs. to 23 lbs. each — the lowest number, 18, will give a crop of 78
tons; but the usual crop is from 35 to 40 tons per acre. Their uses are to feed milch cows, to fat-
ten o.xen. and sheep are very fond of them. It is questionable how far their culture .«hould be
preferred to turnips, excepting on soil too strong for turnips, as they require a fine. deep, strong
soil, and a large quantity of manure — means too valuable to be expended on cabbages, as an eco-
nomical crop, in Scotland. I have no experience of the cabbage as a food for milch covn's or feed-
ing cattle, but know they are much relished by ewes at the season of lambing.
(1043. 1 The turnip-rooted cabbase fBrasnica compeitris, napo-brasgica, cnmiminix of De Can-
dollel is little known in English culture, though it is cultivated in the fields in France. Its root
is either white or red, and its neck and petioles greenish or purplish. It has a woody, short stem,
produced by the formation and decay of the leaves ; and, as new leaves are formed by the central
bud of the stem, the lower leaves drop off, and thus the top of the bulb assumes the appearance
of a stem ; and Dr. Neill observes it has a root under ground as sweet as a Swedish turnip. In
both these respects it is very similar to our Swedi.sh tuniip. but whether it could be made to as-
sume the form of, or has given origin to, that valuable root, I must leave to be determined by the
botanical physiologist.
(1044.) Tlie cow-cabbage or Cesarean kale fBraxaica oleracea, acephola, arhnrexcenx of De Can-
dolle), which created such a noise a few years ago. deserves only a passing notice. " This plant,"
says Don, " is almost similar in habit to the palm kale, but the stem rises to the bight of from 10 to
16 feet, the leaves are not so puckered nor rolled inward at the edges, nor do they bans down so
much. The stem is naked and simple, crowned by a head of leaves like a palm-tree. Sixty
plants of this variety are said to afford sufficient provender for one cow for a year : and. as the
side leaves are only to be used, it lasts four years without fresh planting. In La Vendee it is said
to attain the bight of 12 or 16 feet. In Jersey this plant is sufficiently hardy, and where it grows
from 4 to 12 feet The little farmers there feed their cows with the leaves, plucking them from
the stem as they grow, leaving the crown at the top. The stems, being stronc, are also used by
them for roofing small outhouses. When the gathering of the leaves is finished, at the end of the
year, the terminating bud or crown is boiled, and is said to be particularly sweet. It is not suflB-
ciently hardy to stand the climate of Britain, unless planted in a very sheltered situation. "t
(104.5.) There is still another variety of the cabbage tribe which deserves notice — the turnip-
stemmed cabbage or kohlrabi (Braxsica nJerncea. cn.uln-ropa, alba of De Candolle). The varie-
ties of this plant are numerous, but the best suited for field culture are the large red and green
sorts. It is a native of Germany, where it is much cultivated, as it also is in the low countries
and the north of France, where it is chiefly given to milch cows, for which it is well adapted on
account of its possessing little of that acridity which is found in the turnip to affect butter and
milk. It is taken up before the frost sets in. and stored like potatoes or turnips for winter use.
Its habits and produce are similar to the Ssvedish turnip, the part of the plant re«emblini: which
is a swollen bulb at the top of the stem, which, when divested of leaves, may readily be mi.staken
for a Swedish turnip. Hares are so fond of it, that on farms where they abound, its culture is
found to be impracticable. Sir Thomas Tyrwhitt first introduced it into Emrhind from Germany^
(1046.) Although the parsnip (PaMinncea safiva ednlia of De Candolloi is too tender a root for
general cultivation in this country, it deserves notice on account of its fattening properties when
given to all domesticated animals. " The parsnip," says Don. "has been partially introduced of
late years as a field-plant, and is nearlj^ equal to the carrot in its product of saccharine and nutri-
tive matter. Its culture as a field-plant has chiefly been confined to the island of Jersey, where
it attains a large size, and is much esteemed for fattening cattle and pigs. It is considered rather
more hardy than the carrot, and its produce is said to be greater. . . . The variety best suited
for the field is the lar^e Jersey. ... In the fattening of cattle, it is found equal, if not superior,
to the carrot, performing the business with as much expedition, and affording meat of exquisite
flavor, and a highly juicy quality. The animals eat it with much greediness. It is reckoned that
30 perches, where the crop is good, will be sufficient to fatten an ox 3 or 4 years, old, when per-
fectly lean, in the course of 3 months. They are given in the proportion of about 30 lbs. weight
* Sinclair's Hortus Graminens Wobumensis.
t Don's Oeneral Dictionary of Botany and Gardening, vol. i.
X Sinclair's Hortua Gramineue Wobumensis ; and Lawson's Aari-iculturiBt'B ManuaL
(873)
442 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
morning, noon and night, the large oneH being split in 3 or 4 piece*, and a little hay sapplied in
the intervalH of those poriodn. And when given to milch cowa with a little hay, in the winter
season, the butter itt found to be of as fine a color and ao exceili-nt a Havor ajt when fpcdioL' in the
best pastures. Indeed, the result of experiment ban kIiowh that not only in neat cattle, but in the
fattening ol hogs and poultry', the animals become fat much sooner, and arc more healthy, Uian
when fed with any other root or vegetable ; and that, besides, the meat is more sweet and deli-
cious. The parsnip-leaves being more bulky than those of carrots, mav be mown off" before
taking up the roots, and given to cows, oxen, or borsies, bv whom they will be greedily eaten."*
The leaves may be erreeiiily eaten when no other green )t)od is presented as a clxjice to cattle ,
but I have no doubt that cattle will make very little progress toward condition when using
them. The weight of the largest parsnips grown in gardens in Scotland, varies from 10 ounces
to 2 lbs. each.t
(1047.; The carrot (Dacut carrot a ttativa of Do Candolle) is raised in the fields in several parts
of this counirj-. The varieties most suited for field-culture are the large orange, Altringham, long
red, and green-top while. In giving a detailed statement of the general treatment of the rnnt>t,
Mr. Burrows .^ays, in regard to their use in winter: " 1 take up. in the last week of October,
willi 3i)ronged graips, a sufficient quantity to have a store to last me out any considerable frost
or snow th.ii may happen in the winter months. The rest of the crop I leave in the ground, pre-
ferring them fresh out of the earth for both horses and bullocks. The carrots keep best in the
ground nor can the severest frosts do them any material injun.-. The first week in March, it is
necessarj- to have the remaining part of the crop taken up, and the land cleared for barley. Tl>e
carrots can either be laid in a heap, with a small c|uaniity of straw covered over them, or they
may be laid in some empty outhou.se or bam, in heaps of many hundred bushels, provided they
are" put togctlier drj-. This latter circumstance it is indispensable to attend to ; for if laid lOKetlier
in large heaps when wet, they will certainly sustain much injury. Such as I want to keep for
the use of my horses until the months of May and June, in drawing over the heaps (which is ne-
cessary to be done the latter end of April, when the carrot begins to sprout at the crown very
fast), I throw aside the healthy and most perfect roots, and have their crowns cut completely off
and laid by themselves. By this means, carrots may be kept the month of June out in a hit;h
state of perfection."} When the ground is desired to be cleared for wheat, carrots should be
taken up in autumn, and stored in the manner described for manirel-wurzel (1020), in a rfry state,
though wiili fewer precautions against the fro.st. Arthur Young gives the average produce of an
acre of carrots in Suffolk at 3.">b bushels; but Mr. Burrow's crops averaged upward of 800
bushels, which, taking the bu.ehel at 42 lbs., will make the former crop 6 tons 11 cwt., and the
latter l.*) tons exactly. In the fields in Scotland, the Altringham carrot has been grown to 1^ lbs.
and in gardens to •2\ lbs. ; and a crop of the large orange carrot, manured with night-soil, has been
raised by Mr. S|iier.«. of Calcreuch. at the rate of 9 tons the acre — probably the Scotch acre —
which is equal to 7 tons 1 cwt. the imperial. $
(1048.) Varieties of the common potato (Solntnim tuberosum) are al.so used in the feeding of
cattle, but as the crop is of more importance as human food, I shall re.«erve the description of
storing them until the proper season, in autumn, when they are removed from the ground. Mean-
time, I may mention that the varieties raised exclusively for cattle are the common yam, red yam.
and oX'Doble.
30. FEEDING SHEEP ON TURNIPS IN WINTER.
" Now, shepherds, to your helpless charge be kind.
Baffle ihc ra^ng year, nnd till their pens
Wiih food at will ; lodge them below th'o storm.
And watch them strict ; for, from the bellowing East,
In this dire PCBSon, oft the whirlwind's wing
.•Sweeps U|i ihf burden of whole wintiy plains
At one wide wafl. and o'er the hapless tlocko.
Hid in the hollow of two neighboring bills.
The billowy tempest whelms."
Thomson.
(1049.) Having prepared room on the turnip land for the sheep intended
to be fattened iijxin tiirnip.s, l>y reniovinsj the projiortion of the crop in the
manner dcscrilxMl above, that is, by drawinu 2 rows and leaving 2 rows
alternately, and liaving prepared that part of the field to be first occupied
by the sheep, which will afl'ord them shelter in case of need, the first thing
to be afterward done is to carry on carts the articles to the field requisite
to form a temporary inclosure to confine the sheep within the ground al-
lotted them. It is the duty of the shepherd to erect temporary inclosures,
* Don's General Dictionary of Botany nnd Gardeninft, vol. i. ♦ Lawson's Agriculrurisl's Manual.
J CommunicatioDB to the Board of Agriculture, vol. vii. § Lawson's Agriculturi£t'a Manual
(874)
FEEDING SHEEP ON TURNIPS.
443
and as, in doing this, he requires but little assistance from other laborers,
he bestows as much time daily upon it until finished as his avocations will
allow.
(1050.) There are two means usually employed to inclose sheep upon
turnips, namely, by hurdles made of wood, and by w<?/.? of twine. Of these
I shall first speak of the hurdle ox Jlahe. Fig. 216 represents 2 hurdles set
Fis. 216.
HURnLES OR FLAKES SET FOR CONFINING SHEEP ON TURNIPS.
as they should be. The mode of setting them is this ; but in doing it, the
shepherd requires the assistance of another pci^son, — a field-worker will
serve the purpose : The flakes are set down with the lower ends of their
posts in the line of the intended fence. The first flake is then raised up
by its upper rail, and the ends of the posts are sunk a little into the gi-ound
with a spade, to give them a fi: m hold. The second flake is then i-aised
up and let into the ground in the same way, both being held in that posi-
tion by the assistant. One end of a stay^' is then placed between theflakes
near the tops of their posts, and these and the stay are made fast together
by the insertion, through the holes in them, of the peg h. The peg i is
then inserted through near the bottom of the same posts. The flakes are
then inclined backward away fi-ora the ground fenced, until their upper
rail shall be 3 feet 9 inches above the ground. The stake c is driven into
the ground by the wooden mallet, fig. 218, at such a point as, where the
stay / is stretched out from the flakes at the above inclination, that a peo
shall fasten stake and stay together, as seen at g. After the first two flakes
are thus set, the operation is easier for the next, as flake is raised after
flake, and fastened to the last standing one in the manner desciibed, until
the entire line is completed.
(1051.) Various objections can be urged against the use of flakes, the
first being the inconvenience of carrying them from one part of a field to
another in carts, and of their liability to breakage in consequence ; as also
the shepherd himself cannot set them up well and speedily without assist-
ance, and even with that they require a good deal of time in setting up.
They are also easily upset by a high wind blowing behind them ; and,
when in use they require almost constant repair and replacing of pegs,
stays and stakes ; though, when repaired and set carefully by at the end
of the season, they will last several years. The mode of making flakes,
and their price, are mentioned below,
(1052.) The other method of inclosing sheep on turnips is with nets
made of twine of the requisite strength. These nets having square meshes
when stretched upon the stakes, usually extend to 50 yards in length, and
stand 3^ feet in hight. They are furnished with a rope along both sides
passing through the outer meshes, which are called the " top " and " bot-
tom rope " as the position of either may be at the time. These ropes are
wound round the stakes by a peculiar sort of knot called the " shepherd's
knot." The stakes are best formed of thinnings of ash-trees that have
(875)
444
rnr. l'.ofM< OF THE FARM WINTER.
been planted vpiy tliirk i(iq;otlier and irrown up Umg and small, and they
should he 3 inches i'.i diameter and 4 feet 9 inches lout? ; allowin;; 9 inches
of a hold in the ground, 3 inches l>etween the gi-ound and the bottom of
Fig. 217.
)Ox
SHEK.r XKT si:t K'Hi roxKiNiNo sUKK.r ox TUKNirs.
the net, and 3 inches from the top of tlie net to the top of the stake ; or
they may be made of larch wccdings, 4 inches in diameter and 4 feet 9
iiicl es long ; but every kind of wood of w hich they may be made should
be >easoned with the bark tm before being cut into stakes. They arc
poiited at one end with the ax, and that end slioukl be chosen to be
poii.ted which will make the stake stand in the same position as when it
was growing in the tree, for its bark, it has been found, is then in the best
state for re[>clling rain.
(1053.) A net is set in this way : If the ground is in its usual soft state,
the stakes may simply be driven into the grountl with a hard-wood mallet,
Fig. 218.
Fi-. 21<'.
THE SHEPHEIId's WOOD MAr.I.ET.
TUB DRIVER.
fig. 218, in the line fixed on fi)r setting the net, at distances of 3 paces
asunder. The wood of the apple-tree makes the best mallet, as not being
apt to split. Should the soil be thin and the subsoil moderately hard, a
hole sufficiently lar'j;e for a stake may be made in the subsoil with the
tramp-pick, fig. 37 ; but should the subsoil be so very hard as to require a
larger hole to be made than wiiat can easily be formed by the tramp-pick,
or should the ground be so dry and hard as to require the use of any in-
strument at all, the most efficient one for the puqiose is one called a dri-
ver, fig. 219. It is formed of a piece of pointed hard-wood, strongly shod
with iron, and its upper end is protected by a strong ferule of iron to pre-
vent its splitting by the strokes of the mallet. The stakes being thus
(876)
FEEDING SlIKEi* Oi\ TUKMPS. 445
driven so tliat their tops may not be less llioii 4 icet liigh, along as many
sides ')t" the inclosiire as are required at the place to form a complete
fence.
(10r)4.) A net is set in this manner: Being in a bundle, having been
rolled up on the arms and fastened togolher by the spare ends of the top
and bottom ropes, these are unloosened and tied to the stake that has been
driven close to the fence, whatever that may be, and then the net is run
out in hand toward the right as far as it will extend in a loose manner', on
the side of t!ie stakes facing the ground the sheep are to occupy. On
coming to the next stake from the commencement, the bottom rope gets a
turn to the left round the stake, and tlie top rope above it a similar turn
round the same stake, so as to keep the leading coil of the rope upper-
most. The bottom rope is then fastened with the shepherd's knot to the
stake, 3 inches from the ground, and the top rope is fastened with a simi-
lar knot near the top of the stake, stretching the net even and upward ;
and in this way the net is fastened to one stake after another until the
whole of it is set up, as it is called, care being taken to make the top of
the net lun uniformly thi'oughout its entire length.
(lOoo.) The shepherd's knot is made in this way : Let a, fig. 220, be
the continuation of the rope which is fastened to the ^.^ 22^
first stake, then press the second stake with the hand
toward a or the fastened end, and at the same time
tighten the turn round the stake with the other hand
by taking a hold of the loose end of the rope d, and <t
moving it so as to cause it to pass under a at c, and
screwing it round the stake to L, where the elastic
force of the stake will secure it tight under a at b
when the stake is let go. The bottom rope is fast-
ened first, to keep the net at the proper distance from"^"^ shepherds knot, bt
. '- ,1, , '^ f I. -, , WHICH A NET IS FASTENED
the ground, and then the top rope is fastened to the ^g j^ staks.
same stake in the same manner. Proceed in this
manner at each successive stake until the whole net is set up. A net may
be thus set up either toward the right or the left as the starting point may
be situate, but in proceeding in either direction caie must be taken to pass
the top and bottom ropes round the stakes, so as the leading coil of the
rope is always uppermost toward the direction in which the net is to be
set up. Thus, in fig- 2:20, the rope d was uppermost until it was passed
under a, because the setting of the net in this case is from right to left,
and it continues to be uppermost until it reach the next stake to the left.
If both the cord and stake are dry, the knot may slip as soim as made,
but if the part of the stake at b where the knot is fastened is wetted
a little, it will make the rope keep its hold until the cord has acquired
the set of the knot. With a new rope that is greasy, and a smooth
stake, it is difficult for the knot to retain its hold even with the assistance
of water.
(1056.) There are some precautions required in setting a net beside this
of the ropes. If the net is new, the cords may be stretched as tight as you
please, because they will stretch considerably ; but if old, the least damp
or rain afterward will stretch them so as to cause them to break. If the
net is at all in a damp state, it should be set very tight, because rain can-
not make it tighter ; and if not set very tight, the first dry weather will so
slacken the cords as to loosen all the knots, and make the net slip down
the stakes ; but even if it should not be slackened to that extent, it will be
so slackened as to shake about with the wind, and bag down and touch the
ground. Such an occurrence will create the trouble to the shepherd of
(877j
446 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
re-setting the whole net, and the best way of avoiding this trouMe is to
have the nets in a dry slate when they are set. In wet weather sliej)lierd3
take the opportunity of a dry moment of setting a dry net in anti'Mpaiion
along a new break of turnips, and they also hang up wet nets to dry on
the outside of the stakes away from the sheej). Nets shr>uld never be
wound up in a wet state, even for a short time, as they will soon mould
and rot.
(1057.) On commencing the setting of another net, its top and bottom
ropes are fastened to those of the last net, and the ends of the nets them-
selves are brought together by interlacing the meshes of both witli a piece
of string, as at a, fig. 217. Here the knots in the top and bottom ropes
are seen, and the twine interlacing the meshes are made to appear stronger
than that of the net only to let it be perceived. Thus one net is set after
another, until the whole intended area is inclosed. AVhere there is a turn
in the line of nets in going from one side of the inclosure to another, as
seen on the right side of fig. 226, if there is much of the net left at the
turn, it should be brought down the next side ; in which case the stake at
the comer should be driven very securely down, as there will be a consid-
ei-able strain upon it fiom the nets pulling from different directions, and
this will especially be the case in damp weather. But the safer and per-
haps belter plan is to take a fresh net at the turn and fasten it to a stake,
and nin on the other net in its own line until it is suspended either in set-
ting or coiling it around the top of a stake. All surplus ends of nets should
be carefully hung upon the back of the stakes when wet, to dry and get
the air. Part of the nets will thus cross ridges, and pait will nan along a
ridge. WTiere they cross ridges that have been but once gathered-up, or
plowed crown-and-furrow, the bottom of the nets will be nearly close to
the open-fuiTows, but where they cross a gaw-cut in rather strong land, a
stake or two should be made to lie upon the bottom rope to keep it down,
for some sheep have a trick of creeping under the net, when they find a
suitable opening ; and where nets cross ridges which have been twice
gathered-up, one stake should be driven at one side of the open-fu'Tow,
and another at the crown of the ridge, and the bottom rope will then run
nearly parallel to the surface of the ground.
(1058.) In setting nets, in whatever position, care should be taken to
keep each side of the inclosure in the same plane — that is, each side ex-
actly in a straight line, and the surface of its nets pei-pendicular ; and
the different lines should meet at right angles to one another, so that
every break of turnips occupied by the sheep should either be a rectangle
or a square ; because the strain upoji the ends will then be equalized
over the entire cords and stakes of each side, and no undue pressure
exerted on any one stake. A shepherd who knows his business so as to
pay attention to these particulars, will presei"ve his nets and stakes a
much lonfjer lime in a serviceable state, than one who is ignorant or care-
less about them.
(1059.) The shepherd should ahvays be provided with net-twine to mend
any holes that may be made in the nets ; and where they happen to be set
across hare-roads, the hares will invariably keep their iTins open ; which
being the case, it is much better to allow them to remain open, than in
filling them up to have them cut lhrouc[h daily.
(1060.) When flakes or nets have been set round the first break, the
ground may be considered in a proper state for the reception of sheep ;
and the ground should be so prepared before the gi-ass fails, that the sheep
to be fattened may not in any deari'ee lose the condition they have ac-
quired on the grass ; for you should always bear in mind that it is much
(876)
FEEDING SHEEP ON TURNIPS. 447
easier to improve the condition of lean sheep that have never been fatter
than to regain the condition of those that have lost it. Much rather leave
pastures a little rough, than risk the condition of sheep for the sake of eat-
ino- it down. The rough pasture will be serviceable to the portion of the
sheep-stock that are not to be fattened, such as ewes in lamb and aged
tups. Let sheep, therefore, intended to be fattened, be put on turnips as
early as will maintain the condition they have acquired on the grass. By
a break of turnips is meant that part of the crop which is being consumed
by the sheep.
(1061.) As the tops of white turnips are long and luxuriant at the com-
mencement of the season, the first break or inclosure should be made
smaller than those which succeed, that the sheep may not have too many
tops at first on a change of food from grass to turnips, and which they will
readily eat to excess, on account of their freshness and juiciness. Let the
sheep fill themselves with turnips pretty well before taking them to the
next break. The second break may be a little larger than the first, and
the third may be of the proper size — that is, contain a week's consumption
of food. These considerations Avill cause the shepherd some trouble for
two or three weeks in the beginning of the season ; but they are trifling
compared with the advantage derived from it by the sheep. Rather let
him have the assistance of a field-worker to shift the nets, than neglect
the precautions. When the tops wither in the course of the season,
and one night of sharp frost may effect that, or after the sheep have been
accustomed to the turnip, the danger is over. The danger to be appre-
hended is diaiThcea or severe looseness of the bowels, which is an unnatural
state in regard to sheep, and they soon become emaciated by it ; many
sink under it, and none recover from such a relaxation of their system un-
til after a considerable lapse of time.
(1062.) Another precaution to be used on this head is, to avoid putting
sheep on turnips for the first time in the early part of the day when they
are hungry. The danger may be apprehended with tops in a dry state,
but when they are wet by rain or snow, or half-melted rime, they are most
likely to do the harm. The afternoon, then, when they are full of gi-ass,
should be chosen to put the sheep on turnips, and they will immediately
begin to pick the tops, but will not have time to injure themselves. Should
the weather prove wet at first, and the ground be either somewhat too
clayey or soft, and the sheep thereby find an uncomfortable lair, it would
be advisable to allow them to rest in an adjoining gi-ass field for a few
nights until the ground becomes consolidated (which will soon take place)
by their constant and repeated tramplings.
(1063.) Sheep when put on turnips are selected for the purpose. Ewes
being at this season with young, whether as a flying or standing flock, are
never, in Scotland, put on turnips in winter, but continue to occupy the
pastures, part of which, if left on purpose in a rough state, will suffice to
support them as long as the ground is free of snow. The reason why
great ewes, as ewes in lamb are called, are never put on turnips, is the
chance of getting too fat, which if they do, they will produce small lambs
and run great risk of being attacked by inflammatory complaints at the
lambing time. Tups are most frequently put on turnips, especially tup
hoggs, but they are never folded in the same part of the field as the feed-
ing sheep, having a snug comer somewhere to themselves, or else the tur-
nips are led to them in a sheltered part of a grass field. Young sheep,
that is, lambs of the same year, are always put on turnips, whether with
the view of feeding them fat at once, or enlarging the size of their bone.
Every year a certain number of old ewes, unfit for farther breeding from
(879)
448 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
want of teeth, or means of supplying milk, are drafted out of the standing
flock to make room for the Bume number of young females into the ewe
flock, and are fattened off' upon turnips. It sometimes happens that the
castrated male lambs of last year, inst»,'ad of being sold, have been grazed
during the summer, and are fattened (jff* the second season on turnips. All
these classes of sheep, of different ages, may be mixed together and occu-
py the same break of turnips. It is seldom that the last class, namely, the
lambs of last vear, are kept on to the second year, but the draft ewes are
always fed along with the young sheep, and they prove useful in break-
ing the turnips and eating up the picked shells. A mixture of old and
young sheep are less useful to one another when turnips are cut by ma-
chines.
(1064.) Since I have had occasion to mention some of the classes of
sheep, it may not be out of place here to make you acquainted with the
technical names which they receive in respect of age and sex, and which I
shall always employ when speaking of them in future. A new-bom sheep
is called a lamb, and retains that name until it is weaned from its mother
and able to support itself. The name is modified according to the sex and
condition of the animal : when a female, it is a cice-lamb, when a male, a
tup-lamb, and the last name is changed to hogg-lamb when the creature
undergoes emasculation. After a lamb has been weaned, until the first
fleece is shorn from its back, it receives the name of hogg, which cogno-
men, like that of lamb, is modified according to the sex and condition of
the animal ; namely, a female is called a ewe-hogg, a male a tup-liogg, and
a castrated male a wether-hogg. After the first fleece has been shorn, an-
other change is made in the nomenclature ; the ewe-hogg then becomes a
gimmcr, the tup-hogg a dinmont or shearling-tup, and the wether-hogg a
difimont, and these names are retained until the fleece is shorn the second
time. After this operation another change is effected in all the names, the
gimmer being then called a etre if she is in lamb, but if she has failed be-
ing in lamb she is said to be a tup-eill ginwicr or barren gimjner, and if she
has never been put to the ram she gets the name of i/ield gimmer. If a
ewe who has borne lambs fails again to be in lamb, she is called a tvp-cill
ewe or barren ewe. After the ewe has ceased to give milk, or become dry,
she is said to be a yield etre. The shearling-tup is called a 2-shear tup
when the fleece has been taken off" him the second time, and the dinmont
commonly a wether, but more correctly a 2-shear wether. After a ewe has
been shorn three times she is called a twinter ewe, that is, a two-winter ewe ;
a tup that has been so treated is called a 3-shear tup ; and a wether still a
toether, or more correctly a 3-shear wether, which is an uncommon name
among Leicester sheep, as the castrated sheep of that breed are rarely
kept to so great an age. A ewe that has been four times shorn gets the
name of a three-winter ewe or aged ewe ; a tup is called an aged tup, a
name which he retains ever after, whatever his age, but they are seldom,
except for special reasons, kept beyond this age ; and the wethrt" is now a
wether properly so called. A tup and ra7n are synonymous tcirns. A ewe
when she is removed from the breeding flock is called a draft ewe, what-
ever her age may be, and gimmers that are put aside as unfit for breeding
from are called draft giminers, and the lambs, dinmonts, or wethers, that
are drafted out of the fat stock are called the sheddingx, or tails, or drafts.
In England a somewhat different nomenclature prevails. There sheep
bear the name of lamb until S months old, after which they are called ewe
and wether tegsrsMutW once clipped. Gimmers are called thearcs until they
bear the first lamb, when they are named eices qfi-teeth, next year ewes of
6-<ccM, and the year ^her full-mouthed ewes. Dinmonts are called shear
(880)
FEEDING SHEEP ON TURNIPS.
449
hosss until clipped, when they are 2-sJicar wethers, and ever after they are
called ic ethers.
(1065.) When sheep are on turnips they are invariably supplied with
dry fodder, hay or straw — hay being the most nutritious, though most ex
pensive ; but sweet, fresh oat-straw answers the purpose very wel . Th(»
fodder is supplied to them in racks. There are various forms of straw-
racks for sheep — so7'ne being placed so high that sheep can with diffic ;!'\-
reach the fodder, and others are mounted high on wheels. The form rep
resented, in fig. 221 I have found convenient, containing as much straw ai
at
Fisr. 221.
THE SHEEP STRAW OR HAY RACK.
a time as should be given, admitting the straw easily into it, being easily
moved about, of easy access to the sheep, and being so near the ground as
to form an excellent shelter. It is made of wood, is 9 feet in length, 4^
feet in bight, and 3 feet in width, having a sparred rack with a double face
below, which is covered with an angled roof of boards to throw off the
rain. The rack is supported on 2 triangular-shaped tressels h, shod with
iron at the points, which are pushed iijto the ground, and act as stays
against the effects of the wind fi'om either side. The billet c, fixed on the
under or acute edge of the rack, rests upon the ground, and, in common
with the feet, supports it from bending down in the middle. The lid a is
opened on hinges when the fodder is put into the rack. There should at
least be 2 such racks in use ; because, when set at an angle to each other
against the weather point, the space embraced between them forms an ex-
cellent shelter for a considerable number of sheep. (Fig. 226.) Such a
rack is easily moved about by 2 persons, and their position should be
changed according to a change of wind indicative of storm.
(1066.) It is the duty f the shepherd to supply these racks with fodder,
and one or all of them may require replenishment daily. Thi"^ he effects
by carrying a bundle of fodder at any time he visits the sheep. When carts
are removing turnips direct from the field, they cany out the bundles ; but
it is the duty of the shepherd to have them ready for the carters in the
straw-barn or hay-house. For shelter alone the racks should be kept full
of fodder. Fodder is required more at one time than another ; in keen,
sharp weather, the sheep eat it greedily, and when turnips are frozen they
will have recourse to it to satisfy hunger, and after eating succulent tops
they like dry fodder. In rainy, or in soft, muggy weather, sheep eat fod-
der with little relish ; but it has been remarked that they eat it steadily
and late, and seek shelter near the racks prior to a coming storm of wind
and rain or snow ; in fine weather, on the other hand, they select a lair in
the more exposed part of their break.
(1067.) Until of late years sheep were allowed to help themselves to tur-
(881) 39
450
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
Fig 222.
nips in the early part of the season ; and in consuming them the t()j)s were
fii-st eaten, and then tlie bulbs were scooped out as far as the ground would
permit. When a large proportion of the
turnips of the break were thus eaten, the
shells, as the bottom part fast in the ground
is called, were picked out of the ground with
an instrument made for the purpose. Its
name is a tiirnip-pickcr, and the mode of
using it may be seen in fig. 222. Its handle
is 4 feet long, and blade 10 inches, including
the eye for the handle. By its mode of ac-
tion, you will see that the tap-root of the
turnip is cut through and the shell separated
from the giound at one stroke. A very com-
mon form of these pickers is with the mouth
cleft in two, between which cleft the tap-root
•is embraced, and the shell and root are
pulled up together. It is found, however,
that the tap-root contains an acrid juice detrimental to the stomach of
sheep, so that the better plan is to cut it off and leave it on the giound to
rot. The best form of blade may be seen in fig. 223, and fig. 224 shows
the objectionable form of the same instrument.
THE TURNirriCKKB IN THE ACT OF CUT-
TING OFF THE TAP-KOOT AND FVLMNO
UP THE SHELL OF THE TURNIP.
Fig. 223.
Fig. 224.
THE BEST FORM OF TURNIP-PICKER.
OBJECTIONABLE FORM OF TURNIP-PICKER
(1068.) Only half of the ground occupied by the shells should be picked
up at one time, by removing every alternate double row of them, in order
to make the sheep spread over a greater space while consuming them. —
When the ground is dry, the shells should be pretty clean eaten up before
a new break of tuniips is foi-med ; but, a fe^v being left, the sheep will
come over the ground again and eat them up, though in a shriveled
state, especially in frost, when they are sweeter and softer than turnips.
(1069.) But the more recent and better plan of serving turnips to sheep
— and it should be universally adopted — is to cut them into small pieces
with a turnlp-slicer into troughs conveniently placed for use, while at the
same time the sheep have liberty to eat the turnips themselves. A conve-
nient and expeditious form of turnip-slicer is described below at fig. 252,
which description you should peruse at once ; and a simple form of tuniip-
Fig. 22.').
THE TURNIP-TROUGH FUR SHF.EP-FEEDING.
trough is here represented by fig. 225. It is 8 feet long, and made acute
(882)
FEEDING SHEEP ON TURNIPS.
451
at the bottom, for the more easy seizure of the pieces of turnip by the
mouths of the sheep, by nailing two boards together upon the two trian-
gular-shaped ends, and placing it upon billets for feet. The troughs are
set in a line along the outside 2 rows of turnips about to be pulled. The
turnip-cutter is wheeled to each trough successively by the field-v/orker,
who works the handle, and its hopper is filled by another worker, who tops
and tails the turnips. The sheep range themselves on either side of the
trough.
(1070.) I have constructed fig. 226 to give you a bird's-eye view of the
manner in which a turnip-field should be fitted up for sheep. There are,
Fig. 226.
1^ % i "% -i *♦«.
« « ■* i: -4 * *
pn % ■^ ft •»
^ * t -4 »
'* ^ i -i- ifc «
* ^ * '
M
THE MODE OF OCCUPYING TURNIP-LAND WITH SHEEP.
in the first place, the turnips themselves a, of which half have been drawn
by pulling 2 drills and leaving 2 alternately. The ground upon which
they are growing is represented partly bare, because they are supposed to
have been pulled up in the progress of the turaip-cutter advancing from
one side of the break to the other ; and it constitutes the break. As mat-
ters are represented, the turnip-slicer b is proceeding up beside the 2 drills
c, and depositing the cut turnips into one of the small troughs d, out of
another of which some of the sheep are eating, while others are helping
themselves fi-om the bulbs in the drills c. The sheep are represented scat-
tered over the ground as they are usually seen, some following one an-
other in a string f toward the place where their food is preparing for
them, while others, g, are lying resting, regardless of food. Some, k, are
standing, as if meditating what next to do, and others, /, examining the
structure of the nets. Some nibble at the diy fodder in the racks r, while
k,a. group, he under their shelter. The field-worker I is slicing the turnips
with the machine. Such are the usual occupations of sheep when they
have abundance of food at their command. The nets m are represented
as inclosing two sides of the break, the other two sides being supposed to
be composed of the fences of the field, and not represented. The turnips
n, to the right of the nets, appear undrawn, while those o, above the nets,
are stripped, indicating that the progress of the breaks at this time is up-
ward toward the top of the field, in a line with the direction of the drills,
(883)
452 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
and, of course, with that of the ridges ; and this part of the plan is not a
matter of indifference, because the breaks should so succeed one another
in their passage across the field, as that the land, when cleared of turnips,
may be plowed from end to end and ridsjed up, if desired. In a large
field, which engages the sheep for a considerable part of the season, the
land is plowed as each stretch of breaks is cleared, in older to preser>'e
the virtue of the manure ; and this is of more importance in a large than
in a small field, over which a large number of sheep will soon pass.
In plowing up land, however, with this intent, care should be taken not to
deprive the sheep of any natural shelter they have enjoyed ; and to secure
this to them as long as practicable, the breaks should be so airanged as to
make those first formed along the lowest and most sheltered part of the
field, so that the sheep could resort at the bottom of the set of breaks they
are occupying, after the first set had been given up and plowed to the top
of the field, and so on in succession. Such an arrangement requires more
consideration than at first sight may appear, and its neglect may much in-
convenience the sheep for want of shelter; and shelter to sheep in winter
does not merely imply protection from unusual inclemency of the weather
for a night or two, but also presenation of the fleece, and comfort to the
flock throughout the season. The remainder of the net along the upper
part of the break is represented coiled round the top of a stake at p, and
there also the mallet and driver await their use.
(1071.) I have already stated that tujjs or rams are fed on turnips in a
separate division from the feeding sheep. Some apportion them in a space
in the same, while others give them a break in another field ; but I would
prefer giving tups turnips in a small grass paddock, and cutting them with
the small lever tumip-slicer represented in fig. 246, and described minutely
below. Where the lot of tups is large, say 40 or 50, it may create, it is
true, more trouble to fetch their turnips to them than to inclose them on
turnips ; but this consideration should be always borne in mind, in regard
to tups, that whenever they and female sheep become aware of the pres-
ence of each other in the same field, and even in contiguous fields, neither
party will rest to feed. The air will carry the scent of their bodies to each
other, and, whenever any of the females show a tendency toward coming
into season, the scent of the males confirms it, and, becoming restless them-
selves, they have a tendency to render the rest of the flock so also. And
if tups are in a separate fold by themselves, away from the rest of the
sheep, they cause as much trouble to the shepherd in visiting them there
as a larger flock ; whereas, were they near home in a grass paddock, he
could visit them frequently in going and coming to his house at his hours
of repEist.
(1072.) Sheep are sometimes assisted in their feeding on tuniips with
other substances, such as oil-cake and com. Either of them is adminis-
tered in a covered box, to protect it from injury from weather. Such a
box is represented in fig. 227, the construction of which requires no expla-
nation. 1 have never had any experience of feeding sheep on oil-cake or
com, ha\"ing mostly farmed turnip-land, upon which sheep never failed to
become abundnntly fat without any adventitious aid. On deaf and clay
soils, however, oil-cake may prove beneficial ; and it may be presented in
these boxes to sheep on jrrass in winter as their entire food. Oil-cake has
the effect of keeping the dung of sheep in a moist state. It is supplied
them in a bruised state, partly in powder, and partly in bits, as it falls
from the oil-cake crusher — a convenient machine, the construction and op-
eration of which will be described when treating of the feeding of cattle.
I believe there is little use of measuring the quantity of oil-cake to sheep,
(884J
FEEDING SHEEP ON TURNIPS.
453
even when on turnips, as they will eat it when inclined, and some sheep
eat it more heartily than others. The discriminating choice of food mani-
fested by sheep is a valuable hint, in fattening them, to supply them with
Fig. 227.
THE OIL-CAKE OR CORN BOX FOR FEEDING SHEEP.
different kinds of food, such as oil-cake, corn, hay, straw, and turnips, at
one and the same time, that every sheep may take his choice daily ; but,
in case such a mode of feeding may be costly, it is worth while to try ex-
periments on the subject, in order to ascertain whether, when a number
of articles are presented at the same time to sheep for their choice, less of
the most costly kind is not proportionally consumed than when supplied
separately. On this principle, corn may be put in one box, and oil-cake
in another, and so of other substances ; and, although it is an indubitable
fact that sheep will feed quite fat upon turnips alone with fodder on tur-
nip-soil, yet they may become sooner ripe upon mixed than simple food ;
and the time thus gained may more than compensate (or at least compen-
sate) for the cost of the various materials employed in feeding.
(1073.) Salt has been frequently given to sheep on turnips, but with
what advantage I have never satisfactorily learned. I have given them it,
and the eagerness with which they followed the shepherd when he came
at the stated hour to lay down small quantities here and there over the
break, upon flat stones, and the relish with which they enjoyed it, was very
remarkable ; yet the great desire for it continued but a short time, and
then every day they took so little that it appeared as if they were trifling
with it ; and hence I could perceive no benefit they derived from its use.
Perhaps the cultivator who paid the greatest attention to the use of salt to
animals was the late Mr. Curwen, of Workington Hall, Cumberland, who
used to give from 2 to 4 ounces per week to sheep, if fed on dry pastures ;
but, if feeding on turnips or rape, they were supplied without stint. " It
is, in fact, indisputably proved,''' says Mr. Cuthbert W. Johnson, " that if
sheep are allowed free access to salt, they will never be subject to the disease
called the rot. Is not this a fact worthy of a farmer's earliest, most zeal-
ous attention 1 Some recent experiments also lead me even to hope that
I shall one day or other be able to prove it to be a cure for this devastat-
ing disease. I have room but for one fact : Mr. Rusher, of Stanley, in
Gloucestershire, in the autumn of 1828, purchased, for a mei'e trifle, 20
sheep, decidedly rotten, and gave each of them, for some weeks, 1 ounce
of salt every morning. 2 only died during the winter ; the surviving 18
were cured, and have now, says my informant, lambs by their sides."*
(1074.) There are some inconveniences attending the. feeding of sheep
on turnips m winter, which necessarily you should be made aware of. A
heavy rain may fall for some days, and render the land quite soft and
poachy, though it had been previously thoroughly drained, or even natu-
rally dry. As the wet will, in such a case, soon subside, the removal of the
* Johnson's Observations on the Employment of Salt.
(885)
454 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
sheep for a night and day to an old grass-field will g^ve the land time to
become firm ; and a small quantity of oil-cake will suffice to support the
sheep all the time they will be in the grass-field. A very heaN-y i-ain may
fall in a day, and inundate the lower end of the field with water, which
may take some days to subside. The best way of preventing the sheep
approaching the inundated part is to fence it off with a net. A fall of
snow, accompanied with wind, may cover the sheltered part of the field,
and leave the turnips bare only in the most exposed. In this case, the
sheej) must feed in the exposed part, and the racks placed there for shel-
ter. Eut the snow may fill heavily, and lie deep over the whole field, and
cover every turnip out of reach. Two expedients only present themselves
in such a case ; the one is to cast the snow from the drills containing the
turnips, and pile it upon those which have l)een stripped. This task can-
not be performed by the shepherd alone, or by the field-workers. The
plowmen must bring their stable-shovels, fig. 149 or fig. 176, and clear the
turnips ; but, in doing this in severe frost, too many turnips should not be
exposed at one time, in case they become frosted, which they are apt to
be when exposed suddenly to frost from under snow. The advantage of
casting the snow is that it gives the sheep an immediate access to the tur-
nips ; but a disadvantage attends it when the snow lies for a considerable
time, all the manure being left by the sheep in the channels cut out of the
snow, and, of course, none in those parts upon which the^snow has been
piled. The best plan to pursue at first, under the circumstances, is, in my
opinion, to adopt the other expedient alluded to above — namely, to give
the sheep oil-cake in the troughs, fig. 227, for a time, in a sheltered place
of the field, until it is seen whether the snow is likely soon to disappear;
and, should it lie longer than afibrd time to consume the turnips, then the
first expedient of casting oflT the snow may be resorted to at once, and its
disadvantages submitted to. In the great fall of snow, in spring 1823, my
turnip-field was covered over 4 feet deep. Having no oil-cake, and find-
ing it impossible to remove the sheep, the snow was cast in trenches, in
which they soon learned to accommodate one another, and all throve
apace. A fresh fall of snow a few days after came from the opposite quar-
ter, and covered up the trenches, which had to be cleared out again. The
snow continued upon the ground until the end of April, and as there was
no time after that to put manure on the land which had been covered with
piled-up snow — and, indeed, its soft state rendered the operation imprac-
ticable— the succeeding crop of barley grew in strips conesponding to the
trenches. Even a supply of oil-cake would not, in this case, have super-
seded the trenching of the snow, to get the turnips eaten in time for the
barlcy-secd.
(107/).) While young sheep and tups are thus provided with turnips
during winter, the ewes in lamb find food on the older grass, which, for
their sakcs, should not be eaten too bare in autumn. Where pastures are
very bare, or when snow covers the ground, they should either have a few
turnips thrown down to them upon the snow, or, what is better, clover-
hay given them in a sheltered situation. The best hay for this purpose is
of broad or red clover, and next meadow-hay ; but as you can only give
the kind you happen to have, much rather give them turnips than hay
that has been heated or wetted, or is moulded, as in either of those states
it has a strong tendency to engender diseases in sheep, such as consump-
tion of the lungs and rot of the liver ; and in regard to great ewes, it is
apt to make them cast lamb. If turnips cannot be had, and the hay bad,
give them sheaves of oats, or clean oats in troughs, or oil-cake ; but what-
ever extraneous food is given, do not supply it in such quantity as to fat-
(886)
FEEDING SHEEP ON TURNIPS. 455
ten the ewes, but only to keep them in fair condition. In the severe snow-
storm of 1823, I put my ewes into an old Scots-fir plantation, into which
only a small quantity of snow had penetrated, and there supplied them
with hay laid on the snow around each tree. A precaution is requisite in
using a Scots-fir plantation in snow for sheep ; its branches intercepting
the snow in its fall to the gi-ound are apt to be broken by its weight, and
fall upon the sheep and kill them ; and in my case, a ewe was killed on
the spot by this cause. The branches should therefore be cleared of the
snow around where the sheep are to lodge by shaking them with poles or
long forks, assisted by ladders if the case require it. In driving ewes
heavy with lamb, through deep snow to a place of shelter, plenty of time
should be given them to creep along, in case they should overreach them-
selves, and the exertion thereby cause them to cast lamb.
(1076.) In some parts of Scotland, and more generally in England, rape
as well as turnips is grown for winter food for sheep. The rape (Brassica
rapus oleifcra of De Candolle) cultivated in this country, is distinguished
from the colsat of the Continent by the smoothness of its leaves. It has
been cultivated for the fattening of sheep in Av-inter from time immemorial.
The green leaves, as food for sheep, are scarcely surpassed by any other
vegetable, in so far as respects its nutritious properties ; but in quantity it
is inferior both to turnips and cabbages. Its haulm may be used as hay
with nearly as much avidity as cut straw.* The consumption of rape by
sheep should be conducted in exactly the same manner as that of turnips.
In England, that intended for sheep is souni broadcast and very thick, in
which state it is certainly very suitable for them. In Scotland, it is raised
in drills like tuniips ; and although not so conveniently placed for sheep
as the broadcast, the top leaves being somewhat beyond their reach
from the bottom of the diill, yet this form permits every cleansing process
of the land during summer, and thus renders the culture of rape as ame-
liorating a crop for land as any other green crops raised for the purpose.
It is acknowledged on all hands that, for raising seed for oil, the drill form
of culture is far the best.
(1077.) Every kind of sheep, of whatever breed, when kept in the low country, should be treat-
ed in winter in the way described above, thouorh the remarks there are meant to apply to the pe-
culiar management of Leicester sheep, which is the usual breed cultivated where sheep form an
integral part of the mixed husbandrj-. Where a Leicester flock is so kept, the ewes are regarded
as a standins fli^ck ; that is, they have themselves been bred upon the farm npon which they are
supported, and are used as breeders, until considered no longer profitable, when they are fed oif.
But on many lowland farms, the mixed husbandry is only practiced to a partial extent, no flock
of pwes being kept for breeding, and only wethers intended to fatten on turnips are bought in
on purpose. Some farmers, instead of wethers, buy old ewes, dinmonts, or lambs. When'weth-
ers are bought, the breeds generally selected for the purpose are Cheviots and Black-faced from
the mountains, where they are bred, and where large standing flocks of ewes are kept for the
purpose of supplying the demand for lambs. Turnip-sheep are thus easily obtained at fairs in
autumn ; but where certain stocks have acquired a good name, purchasers go to the spot and buy
them direct from the breeders.
(1078.) Sheep on turnips have little shelter afforded them but what the fences of the field can
give. In some cases, this is quite sufficient; but in others, it is inadequate. Of late years, the
subject of shelter has attracted attention, and artificial means have been suggested, consisting of
various devices involving different degrees of cost, not merely for protection against sudden out-
breaks of weather, but with the view of gradually improving" the condition of sheep, both in car-
cass and wool. It is a natural expectation that a fat carcass should produce more wool, and con-
Btant shelter improve its quality.
(1079.) One plan for shelter and comfort, a slight remove from the usual practice, was first tried
by Mr. Hunter of Tynefield. in East-Lothian, in 1809, by littering the break occupied by the sheep
in the field with straw, and supplying them with turnips upon it. In this way he littered 300
sheep upon 25 acres of turnips, which afforded 36 tons the acre, with the straw of 60 acres of
wheat, weighing 1 ton the acre imperial. The sheep were thus treat<;d 5 months on the ground,
and fetched 2s. a head more than those treated in the usual manner. This increase of price is an
advantage ; but it is not all advantage, as the trouble of leading, at intervals, 60 tons of straw to
the field ; of leading the same, in the shape of manure, from that field to another : and of carrj-ing
the turnips from the drills to tlie fold, shouhl be deducted from it. "When turnips are laid upon
■» Don's General Dictionary of Botany and Gitrdcninc, vol. i.
(687) ^
456
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
straw, sheep cannot bite them easily ; and tills is an objection to laying down whole tarnips tc
■heep on grass, instead ot rutting tiiini with a turiiiiiKlicer ; and among damp litter, sheep al-
most invariably contract foolrot, as T of Mr. Hunter's did.*
(lOeo ) Another plan of affording shelter to sheep on turnips is that of movable sheds to lie in.
Tig. 8VB gives a floor plan of such a shed, 15 feet long, 7 feet wide, with an opening of j of as
Fig. 228.
EZIl
THE FLOOR OF A MOVABLE SHED FOn SHEEP OS TOR.NIPS.
inch between the floor-deaLs. The floor-frame rests on 2 axles of iron supported upon 4 iron
wheels, 1 foot diameter, which raise it 6 inches above the ground. Fig. 229 gives a side eleva-
Fig 229.
THE SIDE-ELEVATION OF A BJOVABLE SHED FOll SHEEP OS TUR.NIPS.
Fig. 230.
tion of the shed, with the form of the roof, made of deals, lapping over each other, and elevated
5 feet above the floor ; and fig. 230 is an end ele-
vation of the same. One .side and both ends, when
the shed is in use, could be boarded in the quarter
from wiiich the wind comes ; and if the boards are
fastened dead, the shed .•<hould be wheeled round to
suit the wind ; but if boarding is considered too ex-
pensive a mode of fitting up such sheds, hurdles
clad with thin slubs, or wattled with straw or wil-
low against the ends and side, might answer the
same purpose. A horse is required to wheel such
a shed to any distance. A shed of the above dimen-
sions might accommodate about a score of sheep,
and its cost is said to be £4. But should this con-
Btmclion be considered too unwieldy, the shed
could be made of two pieces of half the size, which
would easily be moved about by people, and when
placed together on end. would form an entire shed
of the proper dimensions. Thus, fig. 231 represents
two short floors placed together on 8 wheels ; and
fig. 232 a siile-elevation and roof of two half . •sheds,
mounted on wheels set together. The scale at-
tached to fig. 232 gives the n-lntive proponions of
every part. The cost of 2 half-sheds will of course
be more than a whole one. Whether any one will incur the cost of sheltering sheep on tnmipa
THE END ELEVATION OF A MOVABLI SHED
FOR SHEEP ON TURNIPS.
* Sinclsir'B Account of the Husbandry of Scotland, voL iL, Appendix.
(868^
FEEDING SHEEP ON TURRIPS.
457
in Bncli sheds is, I conceive, questiouable ; and it might be some time ere sheep would be in-
dsced to enter them.*
Fig. 231.
THE FLOOR OF TWO SHORT MOVABLE SHEDS FOR SHEEP O.N' TL'R.SIPS.
(1081.) A third plan is to erect sheds and courts at the steading, to be littered vi-hen required
and the sheep daily supplied with cut turnips. This plan, as I conceive, would afford more
shelter and protection thau by putting down litter, or erecting movable sheda ia the field. I re-
Fig. 132.
Scale of Feet. 5 . 10 ^
THE SIDE-ELEVATION OF TWO SHORT MOVABLE SHEDS FOR SHEEP OV TURNIPS.
member of seeing, more than 20 years ago, the courts and sheds erected at his steading by the late
Mr. Webster of Balruddery, Foifarshire ; so that the recent practice and suggestions on the sub-
jeok by English sheep feeders possess at least no novelty. The results of Mr. Webster's experi-
ments, I believe, were not very encouraging. Mr. Childers. M. P. for Malton. fed 40 Leicester
wetherhoggs on turnips, 20 in the field and iO in a shed. The shed consisted of a thatched erec-
tion of rough deals, having a Hoor of slabs raised 18 inches above the ground, with a small court
belonging to it. The boarded tloor was swept every day, and fresh straw put over the court after
every shower of rain. The sheep were divided into as equal lots as could be drawn, the score
to be fed in the shed weighing 183 stones 3 lbs., and those in the field 184 stones 4 lbs. Each lot
pot as many cut turnips as they could eat, which amounted to 27 stones every day ; 10 lbs. of lin-
seed cake, or \ lb. to each sheep, per day ; | pint of barley to each sheep ; and a little hay. and a
constant supply of salt. They were fed frou 1st .lanuary to 1st April ; and, on the fourth week,
the hoggs in the shed ate 3 stones fewer turnips every day ; in the ninth week, 2 stones still fewer
uiid of linseed -cake 3 lbs. per day The results were these :
Date.
20 sherl-h"g£?.
Increase.
■M noia-hi )•:;;*.
111. 1, a.«e.
t=t8. lbs.
183 3
205 0
215 10
239 9
Sis. lbs.
21 11
10 10
9t! 1'
.-Jis. lbs.
1 .^'4 4
199 8
208 2
220 12
15 4
8 8
lo in
March 1
April 1
Total increase
56 6
36 8
Quarterly Journal o Agriculture, vol. xL
(889)
458
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
" Coosequenily," says Mr. Childers, "the sheep in the bhed, though they consumed nearly 1-5 leaa
food, have made J iL'reater progress."* Thus, in 4 months, the shedfed hof^gs gained about 1
stone a head more than UiO!<e in tl)e field, and were worth (*8. a head more. This experiment of
shed-feeding corroborates the oniinary oxpcrience in the progress of fattening sheep : namely,
that the greatest progress is made at Uie beginning and end of the season. In the beginning, the
fat is laid on in tlic inside, to till up ; and at the end it is laid on on the outside, after the acquire
ment of muscle in the intermediate period.
(1082.) Lord Westenj pursues the plan of shed-feeding his Anglo-Merino sheop, to tlie extent
of confining them all the year round. His foldinir-yards are spacious, and surrounded bj' sheds,
which are only 10 feet wide, and 6 or 7 feet high — built, in the cheapest manner, of timber that
would otherwise be burnt. The j-ards are well littered, and to a considerable depth, and they
never heat After three years' experience, his lordship is "decidedly of opinion that tlie fatting
stock thrive quicker, and the sheep with their lambs also do better than out of doors." Turnips,
cabbages and salt constitute their tbod.t
(10il!3.; Similar experiments have been tried in Scotland with succe.'ss. Mr. Wilkin, Tinwald
Downs. Dumfriesshire, fed 20 cross-bred Cheviot and Leicester hoggs in courts and sher% on
turnips, grass and oilcake, and their increased value over others in the field was estimated at
from 22s. to 25s. ; and Mr. John MacBryde, Belkar, fed both Leicester and Cheviot wt-thers in
$talh on turnips, rice, sago, sugar, and linseed-oil, and realized Ts. a head more tlian from those
fed in the field.{ But, in estimating the advantages derived from shed-feeding, the trouble occa-
sioned in bringing the turnips from, and taking the manure to the field, should always be home
in mind. But should the plan leave no profit, yet if it improve the quality of the wool in its most
essential particulars, it is worthy o*" consideration.
(10i?4.) Sheep are not fed on turnips oii every kind of farm. Carse-farms are unsuitcd to thia
kind of stock ; and, where turnips can be raised on them, cattle would be more conveniently fed.
There being, however, abundance of straw on clay-farms, sheep might be fed in small courts and
sheds at the steading on oil-cake, or any other succedaneum for turnips.
(1085.) On farms in the neighborhood of lar^ towns, whence a supply of manure is obtained
at all times, turnips are not eaten off with sheep ; but on those near small towns they are so em-
ployed to manure the land. They are bought in for the purpose, and consist of Cheviot or Black
faced wetliers, or Leicester hoggs, or draft-ewes, which, if young, feed more quickly than weth
ers of the same age.
(1086 ) On dairy-farms there is as little use for sheep as near towns, except a few wethers to
eat off part of the turnips that may have been raised with bone-dust, or any other specific manure,
in lieu of farm-yard dung.
(1087.) On pa>toral farms, sheep are not fattened on turnips ; but their treatment in winter pos-
sesses excitine interest There are two kinds of pastoral farms, and as this is the first opportu-
nity 1 have had of considering the peculiarities of uieir management, 1 shall here make some gen
eral remarks on their con.stitution and fitness for rearing sheep.
(1088.) The first thing that strikes you on examining a pastoral countrj- is the entire tcaut of
shelter. After being accustomed to see inclo.«ed and protected fields in the low country, the wind
ing valleys and round-backed hills of a pa.storal one appear, by comparison, naked and bleak. —
You are not surprised to find bare mountain-tops and exposed slopes in an alpine country, be-
cause you scarcely conceive it practicable for man to inclose and shelter elevated mountains ; but
among green hills and narrow glens, where no natural obstacles to the formation of shelter seem
to exist, but, on the contrary, whose beautiful outlines indicate sites for plantations that would de-
light llie eye of taste, independent of their utility as shelter to their owner's habitation ; and he,
having experienced their utility in that respect, could not refuse similar comfort to the dumb and
patient creatures dependent on his bounty. Hence, the hurricane that a planter arroiJis in its pro-
gress toward his own dwelling, ceases at the same time to annoy the peace of his fiocks and
herds. The chief difficulty of forming shelter by planting is the expense of inclosing it; for. as
to the value of trees from a nursery, it is a trifie compared to the advantage derived fi-om the shel-
ter where they grow ; and yet, in a mountainous country, there is no want of materials for inclos-
ing, no want of rock to produce stones for building roui:h but substantial stone-dykes ; labor is but
required to remove and put them together ; and, as a simple means of their removal, it is surpris-
ing what a quantity a couple of men will quarry, and a couple of single-horse carts will convey,
in the course of a summer. The carriage, too. in every instance, could be made down-hill, fresh
rock being acce.ssible at a higher elevation as the building proceeds npw^ard.
(1089.) Suppose a hill-farm containing 4 square miles, or 2,.^60 acres, were inclosed with a ring-
fence of planting of at least 60 yards in width, the ground occupied by it will amount to 174 acres.
A fi-feet stone wall round the inside of the planting will extend to 13.600 roods of 6 yards, which,
at 6s. 6d. per rood, will cost i.612. But the sheltered 2.386 acres will be worth more to the ten-
ant, and of course to the landlord, than the entire 2,560 acres unsheltered would ever have been,
while the proprietor will have the value of tlie wood for the co.st of fencing. Besides, it should
be borne in mind by the pniprietor that planting, as a ring-fence to one farm, shelters one side of
4 other farms of the same size, which is an inducement to extend the benefits of shelter ; and
these, moreover, can be afforded on a larije scale at a cheaper cost than on a small — so much so
that, were neighboring proprietor.'* to undmake simultaneously the sheltering of their farms on a
systematic plan, not only would warmth be imparted over a wide extent of country, but eflScient
fencine would be accomplished alons march fence-i ai half the cost to each proprietor.
(1090.) Low pastoral farms shoulil be stocked wii'i Chrri"!, and liiu'h with the more hardy
Black-fared, sometimes called the Heath and Mountain Sheep; and, although the general treat-
ment of both breeds is nearlv alike, yet their n^spcctive farms are laid out in a differrnt manner.
A Cheviot sheep-farm contains from 500 to 2,000 sheep ; that which maintains from .^OO to 1,000
* Jonnal of the Rojal AcricuUunU Society of Knclnr.d, vol. L
I Mark-Lnne Express, 16th Dec. 1839. \ Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, toL xi.
(890)
FEEDING SHEEP ON TURNIPS. 459
is perhaps the highest rented, beiusr within the reach of the capital of many farmers ; and one that
maintains from 1,000 to 2,000 is perhaps the most pleasant to possess, and, if it have arable land
attached to it, will afford pretty good employment to the farmer, though, with good shepherds
under him, and no arable farm, he could manage the concerns of 6,000 sheep as easily as those of
500. A shepherd to every 600 Cheviot sheep is considered a fair allowance, where the ground
is not very difficult to traverse, and it may be held as a fair stent to put 1,000 sheep on every 1,200
acres imperial.''
(1091.) Everj- Cheviot sheep-farm should have arable land within it, to supply turnips and hay
to the stock, aiid provision to the people who inhabit it. It is trae that all the necessaries, as well
as the luxuries, of lite may be purchased ; but no dweller in the country will hesitate a moment
to choose the alternative of raising the necessaries of life and having them at command, to going
perhaps many miles to purchase the most trivial article of domestic use. It is not easy to deter-
mine the proportion which arable land should bear to pastoral, to supply the requisite articles of
provision ; but perhaps 2 acres arable to every 20 breeding-ewes the pasture maintains may sup-
ply all necessaries. Taking this ratio as a basis of calculation, a pastoral farm maintaining 1,000
ewes, a medium number, would require 100 acres of arable land, which would be labored by 2
pair of horses, on a 4-course shift; becau.se, pasture not being required on the arable portion of
the farm, new grass will be its substitute. The farm will thus bo divided into 25 acres of green
crops, 25 acres of corn after them, 25 acres of sown grasses, and 25 acres of oats after the grass. —
Manure will be required for 25 acres of green crop, which will partly be supplied by the 100
acres of straw, by bone-dust, and by sheep on turnips after bone-dust. To render the straw into
manure there are" 4 hor.ses; cows of the fanner, the shepherd, and plowmen ; with perhaps a few
stirks. the offspring of the cows, and a youns colt or two. in the farm-yard. The arable land should
have a ring-fence of thorn, if the situation will admit of growth or of stone.
(1092.) The steadinsr for such a farm may be of the form of fig. 2S, containing a 4horse thresh-
ing-mill, driven by v>'atcr if possible, by horses by necessity ; a corn-barn, straw-bam, chaff-house,
stable, byre, cart-.shed, wool-room, and implement-room for the shepherd's stores.
(1093.) The pasture division of the farm should be subdivided into different lots, varying in
number and dimension according to the age and kind of the stock to be reared upon each. The
nature of the land determines the age and kind of stock to be reared upon it ; for it is found that
some land will not suit breeding-ewes, and others are unsuitable for hoggs. If the pasture con-
sist chiefly of soft, rough land, hoggs are best adapted for it; but. if short and bare, ewes will
thrive best upon it. That farm is best which contains both conditions of pasture, to maintain both
breeding and rearing stock. In subdividing a farm into lots, each should, as much as possible,
contain within itself the same quality of pasture, whether rough or short ; for, should fine and
coarse grass be included within the same lot. the stock will remain almost constantly upon the
fine, to the risk of even reducing their condition. To the extent of 1-5 of coarse to fine may be
permitted within the same lot, without apprehending much detriment to stock. Should a large
space of inferior soil lie contiguous to what is much better, they should be divided by a fence, and.
if requisite, a different breed of sheep reared upon each. By the.se arrangements, not only a
greater number of sheep may be maintained upon a farm, but the larger number will always be
in better condition. t
(1094.) The draining of pastoral farms is an operation of great importance, as a .superior class
of plants will thereby be encouraged to grow in places occupied by coar.se herbage, nourished by
superabundant and stagnant water. A plan of laying out hill-drains may be seen in fig. 145. —
Their collected waters may be convened away to a contiguous rivulet or hollow in open main-
drains, like that in fig. 1 46. A spouty swamp, of whatever e.xtent. and wherever occurring, should
be drained by coupled stone-drains, like fig. 159, cut to the bottom of under water; and the ordi-
nary drains for conveying the water in the branches should be formed with a cover, like fig. 147.
The arable portion of the fiirni should, of course, be drained bj- parallel drains, as represented in
fig. 186. of the form of coupled drains, like fig. 159; and, if tiles are near as well as stones, like fig.
185. One means of keeping part of the surface dry is to have the channel of every rivulet, how
ever tiny, that runs through the farm, scoured every year in those parts where accumulated gravel
causes the water, in rainy weatler or at the breaking up of a storm, to overflow its banks; be
cause the overflowed water, acting as a sort of irrigation, sets up a fresh vegetation, which is ea-
gerly devoured by sheep in spring, to the risk of their health ; and the sand carried by it is left
on the grass on the subsidence of the water, much to the injury of the teeth and stomachs of the
sheep. The confinement of water within its channels alsj prevents it leaving the land, where in-
undated, unduly wet.
(1095.) In recommending a connection of arable with a pasture farm, my object is simply to in-
sure an abundant supply of^ provision for sheep in winter. Were our winters so mild as to allow
sheep to range over the hills in plenty and safety, no such connection need be formed — or, at
least, to a greater e.xtent than would supply provisions to its inhabitants, when situated far from a
market. But when we are aware that severe storms at times almost overwhelm a whole flock,
and protracted snows and frosts debar the u.se of the ground for \veek8 together, it is necessary
that provision be made for the support of stock in those calamitous circumstances ; and, surely,
there is no better or more legitimate mode of supporting them than of raising provision for them
upon their own ground. I am quite aware of the folly of trusting to corn in a high district for
rent, and am. also aware that stock alone must provide that ; and I have seen too many instances
of failure in trusting to corn and neglecting stock ; nevertheless, it catinot be denied that the more
stock are provided with food and shelter in winter, the less loss will be incurred during the most
inclement season. Let one instance, out of many that could be adduced, suffice to show the com-
* Little's Practical Observations on Mountain Sheep.
t A Lammermuir Farmer's Treatise on Sheep in High Disti-icts. The Laramermuir Farmer was the late
Mr. John Fairbaim, Hallyburton, a man of good sense and an e-Kcellent farmer, and whose acquaintance I
was happv to cultivate.
(891)
460 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
pararive immunity from loss enjoyed, by food and Rholtcr beinir provided for sheep in winter. In
the wet and told winitTH ot lftl6 and Ihim, tlie extra — that in, the more than usual — loss of sheep
aod lambs on the (arm of Crosscleuch, Selkirkshire, was us follows:
In 1818,
In 1816 \ '^ '"""bs. at 8s. each £80
' X 40 old sheep, at SOs. each 40
£120
200 lambs, at 8s. each £S0
30 old sheep, at 208. each 30
£110
Value of total extra loss £230
whereas, on the farm of Bowcrhope. bclonein!» to the same farmer and on which \ more sheep
arc kept, the extra loss in those years was as follows :
Tn iPifi S~^ lambs, at Ss. each £28
' I 10 old sheep, at 20a each 10
£38
.50 Iambs, at Ss. each £20
8
£28
In 1818, I g ^,j sheep, at 20s. each
Value of total extra loss £66
Deduct loss on Crossclcuch 230
Value saved on farm of Bowerhope £16-1*
n096.) Food and shelter beinp both neces.sarj* for the proper treatment of sheep in winter on
paHtoral farms, the means of supplying them demand the most serious attention of the store-farmer.
During winter, sheep occupy the lower part of the farm. Hoggs are netted on turnips in the
early part of the .season, and ewes and other sheep subsist on the grass as long as it is green. The
division allotted to green crop in the arable part of the farm contains O.') acres, and, allowing 3
acres for potatoes for the use of the farmer and his [jcople, there remain 22 acres for turnips; and
as land among the hills is generally dry. turnips trrow well upon it; so that 30 double-horse cart-
loads to the ."icrc, of 1.5 cwt. each, may be calculutcd on for a crop. It is judiciously rerommend-
eJ by Mr. Fairbairn to carry off; about the end of October or beginning of November, if the
•weather is open — that is, fresh — before the gi-ass fails. 4-5 of the turnips, and store them in heaps,
as in fig. 213, and as described in (1016) ; and allow the cire-Jioirfrs, retained to maintain the nnm
ber of tlie ewe-flock after the draft-ewes have been disposed of to eat the remaining l-.l oft the
pround, with whatever small turnips left when the others were pulled ; and, to strip the land in
that proportion. 1 drill should be left and 4 caiTied off". This is. as I conceive, an excellent sug-
gestion for adoption on every hill-farm, especially a.s it secures the turnips from frost, and, at the
same time, gives the entire conmiand of them whenever they arc required in a storm.
(1097.) It is found that ho'ssf fall off" in condition on turnips in sprins. in a high district, if con-
fined exclusively upon turnip-land; not certain^j' for want of food, but probably from too much
exposure to cold from want of shelter. They are, therefore, always removed from the turnips in
tlie afternoon to their pasture, where they remain all night, and again brought back lo the turnips
in the following morning. It is obvious that this ncccs.>;ary treatment, under the circumstances,
deprives the lanri of much of the manure derivable fmm the turnips ; and hence farm-dung .should
be put on the land befor' the sowing of the following grain crop, where the previous turnips had
been raised with bono-dust. The hogg.s continue their daily visit to the land until all the turnips
are consumed; which, amounting in all to 4i acres, may last, under the peculiar treatment, 17
score of lioggs — the number kept for refreshing the ewe-stock — about 6 or 7 weeks. After the
land has been cleared of the turnips, the hoi.';:s should be daily supjilied from the store on their
pasture with 1 double cartload to every 8 scores, which will be consumed in about 4 hours; and,
after i.hat, they depend on the grass for the remainder of the dav. Round turnips, having no hold
of the ground, nive way to the upward bite of the sheep witfi the lower jaw teeth, and prove
troublesome to them when laid down upon gra.ss. When taken out of a store, they should there-
fore always he cut with a slicer. HogL's are treated in this way until March, or longer if the
weather is bleak ; and the advantages of it are that they are maintained in their condition, and
become pnxif against the many dis(;ascs which poverty engenders; and their fleece weichs 1 lb.
more at clippingtime. The cost of 8 acres of turnips given to hosss. valued at £3 an acre in a
high district, is 17d. each, which is so far countorbalariced by the additional pound of wool which
the cost iiwure.s, and which is worth from lOd. to Is. per lb. The balance of .Id. ;o 7d. a head,
which is the true cost of the keep of the sheep, is a trifle compared to the advantage of bringing
them through the winter in a healthy state and in fair condition.
(1098.) As to the older sheep, they must partly depend, in frost and snow, upon the 14 acres of
turnips yet in store, and upon hay, and. of course, upon pasture in fresh weather. The hay is ob-
tained from the 2.') acres of new grass, which may Ije all made into hay ; but allowing 5 acres
for cutting-grass given in suppers to horses and cows, there remain 20 acres for hay, whicli. at 120
hay-stonea (of 22 lbs. to the stone) per acre, civc 2,400 hay-stones, or 3.771 stones imperial. The
1,000 ewes will eat 1^ Ib.s. and the hoijgs \ lb. each every day. besides the two cart-loads of tur-
nips among the lot. .\\. this rate, the hay will last 31 days, which is a shorter time than many
storms continue ; but if the whole 2.> acres of new grass were made into hay, it would last 40
days. But the rale should be lo begin with a full hand of hay at the commencement of farming,
' Napier's Treatise oo Practical Store-Farming.
(892)
FEEDING SHEEP ON TURNIPS. 461
and preserve wliat may be left over in a favorable season, and mix it with the new of the follow-
ing season, for any subsequent unusual continuance of storm.
(1099.) But in storm, their provender cannot be given to sheep upon snow, safely and con-
venientl}', as ground-drift may blow and cover both ; and no place is so suitable for the purpose
as a 5<e//, a term, according to Dr. Jamieson, literally signifying a covert or shelter. There
still many store-farmers skeptical of the utility of stells, if we may judge of their opinions h
their practice ; but I presume no great sagacitj- is required to discover the fact, that stock si ■
much more comfortably lodged in a drifting storm within a high inclosure than upon an oj
heath. A stell may be formed of planting or high stonewall. Either will afford shelter ; but ti-
former most, though most costly, as it should be fenced by a stone -wall. Of this class I conceiv,.
the form represented by fig. 233 a good one, and which may be characterized an outside stell. It
Fig. 233.
THE OUTSIDE STELL SHELTERED BY PLANTING
has been erected by Dr. Howison, of Crossbuvn House, Lanarkshire, and proved for 30 years.
The circumscribing strong black line is a stone-wall 6 feet high ; the dark ground within is cov-
ered ■with trees. Its 4 rounded projections shelter a corre.-^ponding number of recesses embraced
between them, so that, let the wind blow from whatever quarter it may, two of the recesses will
always be sheltered from the storm. The size of this stell is regulated by the number of the sheep
kept; but this rule may be remembered in regard to its accommodation for stock, that each re-
cess occupies about J part of the space comprehended between the extremities of the 4 projec-
tions ; so that, in a stell covering 4 acres — which is perhaps the leaxf. size they should be — every
recess will contain ^ an acre. " But, indeed," as Dr. Howison observes, and which ob.servation
applies to the general benefit derived from every species of .shelter, " were it not from motives of
economy, I know no other circumstance that .=hould set bounds to the size of the stells; as a
small addition of walls adds so greatly to the number of the trees, that they become the more val-
uable as a plantation ; and the droppings of the sheep or cattle increase the value of the pasture
to a considerable distance around in a tenfold degree."*
(1100.) As a modified improvement of this form of stell. Dr. Howison proposes the one in fig.
234, which consists in giving shelter in its interior as well as on the outside, and may therefore
be denominated a double stell. This form has never yet been tried ; but if made on an adequate
scale, I have no doubt of its efficiency. Instead of one opening into its interior at a. I think it
should have one at the head of each recess at b, for the purpose of facilitating the shifting of the
sheep from the outside into the interior chambers c. on a daneerous change of the wind. The
hay-stack will be conveniently placed in the center of the stell at d. This stell should scarcely
occupy less ground than 7 acres to be really useful ; thus, 1 acre in each of tlie projections,
making 4 acres, divided into \ an acre for each interior chamber c, and \ an acre of wood around
it ; and each recess h. with the one at a. occupying J of an acre, make other 3 acres, or 7 acres
in all. But it would be better to occupy even more ground. The dark line circumscribing both
the interior and exterior is a wall-fence, which would no doubt make this form of stell somewhat
expensive, but it would have the great advantage of accommodating a large proportion of the
flock tor a long time at one placed Stells of this construction, besides affm-ding shelter, would
form embellishments to a pastoral country, and mieht. moreover, make a fence betwixt one farm
and another. For instance, if it were desired to divide a 4-.square-mile farm into one of 2 square
miles, which had been fenced with a ring-fence planting, a few of the.se stells, placed in a row-
down the middle of the farm, with a single dyke from stell to stell, would not only divide the
• Prize Essays of the Highland and Agrictatural Society, vol. Xii.
(893)
462 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
large farm into two Rinall ones, but provide stells for both ; and being doable, half the number of
ordinary oni-g would nulHce.
(1101.) In makiui; Biells of planting. I think it would be dcnirable to have the outside row of
Boch trees aa do not vioject brunches from their tops: branches, in such a place, only serve to
drop water upon the sheep lying in the outside recesses or inside chambers ; and the droppintr 18
eo far injurious to the sheep as to chill them with cold, or entangle their wool with icicle*, before
they get up at daybreak to shake tliemselves free of the wet. This form of tree is found in the
spruce, which atibrds, moreover, excellent shelter by its evergreen leaves and closeness of sprays,
descending to the very ground. It should be employed to back the inside as well as the outM'le
'walls ; and the space between them to be filled with t>cots fir, larch, or such hard-wood trees aa
will grovf at the elevation. It must, however, be borne in mind, that aa every aoil does not floit
Fig. 234.
THE DOUBLE STELL SHELTERED BT PLANTING.
Bprnce, it is impossible to follow this rule implicitly. Larch grows best among the debris of
rocks and on the sides of ravines: Scots fir on thin dry soils, however near the rock they may be ;
and the spruce in deep, moist soil.s.
(1102.) With regard to the number of stellsor stone fcnceson a farm. Lord Napier recommends
the establishment of what he calls a " system of siells," which would place o.ne in the '• particular
haunt " of every division of the flock. In this view, he considers tliat 24 stells would be required
on a farm maintaining 1.000 sheep ; that is, 1 to little more than every 40 sheep.* However de-
sirable it may be to afford full protection and shelter to stock, it is possible to overdo the thing —
that is, incur more trouble and expense than necessary in accomplishing the object. On a farm
where the practice is for the whole hirsel to graze together, it will almo.'^t be impracticable to di-
vide them into lots of 40, one lot for each stell ; and even if the division were accomplished, it
would be with great waste of time, much bodily fatigue to the shepherd and his dog, and con-
siderable heating to the sheep. I rather agree in opinion with Mr. William Hogg, shepherd at
Stobohope, that stells should easily contain 200 sheep, or even 300 should be put into one on
emergency ; because, in the bustle necessarily occasioned by the dread of a coming storm, a large
lot of 200 could easily be shed off from the rest, and accommodated in the recesses of a stell like
fig. 233, which are accessible from all quarters ; and 5 such stells would accommodate the whole
hirs<-l of 1.000 sheep.
(1103.) Suppose, then, that 5 such stells were erected at convenient places, not near any
natural means of shelter, such as a crag, ravine, or deep hollow, but on an open rising plain, over
which the drift sweeps unobstructed, and on which, of course, it remains in less quantitj- tlian on
any other place. With a stack of hay inside and a store of turnips out.^ide, everything would be
ready for the emergency. On a sudden blast coming, the whole hirsel might "be safely lodged
for ilie night in the leeward outsiiie recesses of even one or two of the .stells. and. should prognos-
tics threaten a /v'lff' »''"''". next day. all the stells coul<l be iiiliabiieii in a short time. Such a
stell as fig. 234. tilled outside and in, could hold the whole hirsel at one time. Lord Napier recom-
mends a stack of hay to be placed clo.se to the outside of every small circular stell ; but these,
I conceive, would be a great means of arresting the drift which would otherwise pass on.
(1104.) Mr. Fairbairn recommends a form of stell soniethine like fig. 233, without the planting,
having 4 concave-sides, and a wall running out from each salient angle, as in fig. 235; each stell
•Napier's Treatise on Practical Store-Farmuig.
(894)
FEEDING SHEEP ON TURNIPS.
463
to occapy J an acre of ground, to be fenced with a stone-wall 6 feet high, if done by the landlord;
but if by the tenant, 3 feet of the wall to be built with stone, and coped other 3 feet with turf;
which last construction, if done by contract, would not cost more than 2b. per rood of 6 yards.
Fig. 235.
THE FORM OF STELL RECOMMENDED BY MR. FAIRBAIRN.
An objection to this form of stell without a planting is, when the wind strikes into any of the re-
cesses, it is arrested in its progress by coming against the perpendicular face of the wall, from
which it strikes upward, and then throws down the snow immediately beyond it ; where, in this
particular form, the drift would be deposited in the inside of the stell ; and hence it is, I presume,
that Mr. Fairbairn objects to sheep being lodged in the inside of a stall* This form, though af-
fording more shelter, seems open to the same objections as may be urged against the forms of the
ancient stells, a, b, or c, fig. 236, the remains of many of which may be observed among the hills,
and might yet screen sheep from a boisterous blast in summer.
Fig. 236.
THE ANCIENT STELLS.
(1105.) There is much difference of opinion regarding the utility o^ sheep-cots on a store-farm. — '
These are rudely-formed houses in which sheep are put under cover in wet weather, especially at
lambing time. Lord Napier recommends one to be erected beside every stell, to contain the hay
in winter, if necessary ; and Mr. Little even advises them to be built to" contain the whole hirsel
of sheep in wet weather. It seems a chimerical project to house a large flock of sheep for days,
and perhaps weeks; and, if even practicable, it could not he done but at great cost. 1 agree with
those who object to sheep-cots in high farms, because, when inhabited in winter, even for one
night, by as many sheep as would fill them, an unnatural bight of temperature is occasioned. —
Cots may be serviceable at night when a ewe becomes sick at lambing, or when a lamb has to be
mothered upon a ewe that has lost her own lamb, because, these cases being few at a time, the
cot never becomes overheated.
(U06.) In an unsheltered store-farm it is found requisite to have 2 paddocks, and the number is
sufficient to contain all the invalid sheep, tups, and twin lambs, until strong enough to join the
hirsel. Hay should be stacked within, and the turnips stored around the outside vvalls, or in the
planting of the stells. Tups may graze with the hirsel in the early part of the summer ; but, as
no ordinary dyke will confine them in autumn, they should be penned in one of the stells, on hay
or turnips, until put to the ewes.
(1107.) Where a rivulet passes through an important part of the farm, it will be advisable to
throw bridges across it at convenient places for sheep to pass along without danger, either to bet-
ter pasture or better .shelter on the opposite bank. Bridges are best constructed of stone, and,
though rough, if put together on correct principles, will be strong ; but, if stones cannot be found
fit for arches, they may do for buttresses, and, across these, trees may be laid close, and held to-
gether by transverse pieces 6 feet long, which, when covered with tough turf, will form a broail
and safe roadway.
(1108 ) These are all the remarks that occur to me in reference to the management of a low
pastoral farm in winter ; and, although many of them are equally applicable to a high store-farm,
yet their circumstances are so far different as to warrant modifications of management. There is
one circumstance which obviously renders modifications in manacement necessary, and that is the
difference in habit betwixt the Black-faced and Cheviot breeds of sheep, the former being the beet
suited for a high farm. Some of the hill-farms extend to the highest points of our mountain ranges,
to 4.000 feet above the level of the sea, and embracing many thousand acres; and, as land at that
* A Laramermuir Farmer's Treatise on Sheep in High Districts.
(895) ^ ^
464 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
elevation cannot be expected to yield much nutritious vegetation, many acres in some places are
required to support a single sheep, so that a farm containing 1,000 shot-p may retjuire from 2,000
to 5,000 acres ; but there are lew hill-farmers who possess only 1,000 sheej). The circumstance
of elevation and seclusion fn)rn roads also imposes modifications in the feedini; fn)m that pursued
in the lower country. The store-farmers of the lower country wll what lambs they can spare,
after retaining as many as will keep their ewe-stock fresh. They thus dispose of all their wcther-
boggs, the smaller ewe-hoggs, and draft-ewe.s — which, if parted with at an early age, say 3 year^
become more easily fattened on turnips in the low country than wethers of the same ape. Sap-
pose that 1,000 ewes wean 1,000 lambs, 'MO of these will be wether and .'iOO ewe-hoggs; of which
fatter 17 si-ore, or .1-10, will be retained, and the remaining ICO disposed of It is the practice of
the hill store-fanner, on the other hand, to purcha.se these lambs — rear them until fit, as wethera,
to go to the low country to be fed fat on turnips — and. being a purchaser of lambs, keeps fewer
breeding-ewes than wethers.
(1109.) It -seems impracticable to have arable land on a hill-farm — at least, hill-farmers are un-
willing to admit that turnips are the best food for their stock in winter. Whatever may prompt
them to oliject to any arable culture on their farms, it would require very cogent reasons to prove
that Black faced sheep would not thrive well on turnips in the hills, if these could be raised in
sufficient (juaiitity upon the spot. Doubtless on many farms, far removed from the great thorough-
fares of the country, it would be \cry difficult to bring even a favorable spot into culture, and es-
pecially to raise green crops upon ihera as they should be ; but, on the other hand, there are many
glens among the hills, not far removed from tolerable roads, in which culture nuLrbt be practiced
to great advantage, the produce of which would assist to maintain the condition of the flock through
a stormy period of 6 weeks or 2 months.
(IIIO.) As a corroborative proof of the ntility of some culture on hill-farms, it is the practice of
many hill-farmers to take either turnips or a rough grazing for their stock in the lower part of the
country, as nearly adjacent to their homes as food can be procured ; and many lowland -farmers,
•who possess hill-farms besides, bring down their young sheep to the low country in winter, and
put them on turnips. When turnips, however, are taken for this purpose, a considerable expense
18 incurre<i, and a rough pa.sture. though less efficacious than turnips, may bring the stock through
the dreary part of winter tolerably well ; but the conveniences of home are wanting here, and
when snow falls deep, and covers the ground for weeks together, little provision has been made
to get at the turnips in the fields ; and then whins and bushes afTord the only food where there is
no hay. but where there is, it is of course given them : but then, in this case, there was no use of
iticurring the expen.se and enduring the fatiirue of the flock going from home, when hay could be
given them in their own haunts. Hence the necessity, wherever turnips are, of storing a large
proportion to be n.sed in emergencies. Where a Scots-fir plantation is near a haunt of sheep, they
need not starve; for a daily supply of branches, fre.sh cut from the trees, will not only support
them, but make them thrive as heartily as upon hay alone ; and. if a small quantity of hay is given
along with the fir-leaves, they will thrive better than on hay alone.*
(1111.) One inducement may make some hill-farmers send their stock to a lower country in
winter — namely, the want of adequate shelter at home. Their hills arc bare of wood, the few^
trees being confined to the glens, and of course sheej) can find no shelter in their usual grounds;
and it is surpri-sing how susceptible of cold even Black-faced sheep are when the atmosphere is
becoming moist. They will cover down, creep into corners and beside the smallest bushes for
• shelter, or stand hanging their heads and grinding their teeth, having no appetite for food. If a
piercing bla.st of wind follows such a cold day, the chances arc that not a few of them perish in
the night; and, if thick snow-drift comes on, they drive before it, apparently regardless of conse-
quences, and get into .some hollow, where they are overwhelmed. Thus the ntility of stells be-
comes apparent, and many hearty wishes are no doubt expressed for them by the farmer and his
shepherd, when too late to save the flock.
(1112.) Much diversity of opinion exists ia regard to the best form of stell for high pastures,
where wood seldom grows. At such a bight the spruce will not thrive; and the larch, being a
deciduous tree, alTords but little shelter with its spear-pointed top. There is no tree but the ever-
green Scots-fir fit for the purpose ; and, when surrounding a circular >tell, such as is represented
by fig. 2.'!7, it aftbrds very acceptable shelter to a largo number of sheep. In reference to this
particular form of stell, it consists of 2 concentric circles of wall, represented by the dark lines in
the figure, inclosini; a planting of Scots-fir. and having a circular space a in the center for sheep,
which cat' be inaiie as largo as to contain any number. This may be denomiinited an inxiilr stell,
in contradistinction to that in fig. 233, and has been proved efficient by the experience of Dr. How-
ison. Its entrance, however, is erroneously made wider at the mouth than next the interior circle
a. which has the effect of increasing the velocity of the wind into the circle, or of squeezing the
sheep when thev enter the passage in numbers. Were the pa.ssage parallel it would be better,
but if wider at tlie inner end it would be of still better construction.
(1113.) But. where trees cannot be planted with any prosi»cct of success, stells may be formed
•without them, and indeed usually are ; and. of all the forms that have been tried, the circular ha.s
obtaine<t the preference on hill farms; hut the diflicully of determining their size as the best is
atill a matter of dispute among hill-farmers. Lord Napier thinks that 7 yards diameter is a good
size, and that the largest should not exceed 10 yards, inside measure ; while Mr. William Hogg
approves of li* yards. I am inclined to agree with Mr. Hogg. In the first place, the circular form
ie better than a square, a parallelogram, or a cross ; because the wind striking against a curved
surface, on coming Irom any quarter, is divided into two column-^, each weaker than the undivided
ma.ss; whereas, on striking au'ainst a straight surface, though its velocity is somewhat checked, it
is still undivided, and its force still great, when it rebounds upward with increased force, and,
curling over the top of the wall, throws down the snow a few yards only beyond it — that is, into
the interior of the figure. Any one \n ho has noticed the position of drifts of snow on each side
Little's Practical Observations on Mountain Sheep.
(696)
FEEDING SHEEP ON TURNIPS.
465
of a straight stoncdykc, will vemetnber that the leeward-side of the dyke is completely filled up.
and that on the windward a hollow is left often clear to the ground between the snow and the
dyke. Every form of stall, therefore, that presents a straight face to the drift, will be filled up be-
THE INSIDE CIRCULAR STELI. SURROUNDED WITH PLANTING.
hind the front wall, and can be no protection to sheep against being blown over with snow 0(
two curves, that which has the larger diameter will, it is obvious, divide the drift the farther asun-
der. A stell of small diameter, such as 7 yards, dividing a mass of drift, the current of air imme-
diately over the stell is suddenly cut in two, but to so small a hight that the snow from the air
above falls between them into the stell. When, on the other hand, a stell of large diameter, as
of 18 yards, divides a column of air, this is so much deflected on each side that the current above
the stell is widely divided to a considerable hight, and, long before it regains its former state, it
hag passed over the stell. where it deposits its snow ; and hence, near such a stell the snow \s
found to accumulate in a triangular shape, with its apex away from the stell quite to leeward of
the most distant part of the wall, and of course leaves the interior free of snow. Fig. 238 repre-
THK CIRCULAR STELL FITTED UP WITH HAY-RACKS.
sents one of 18 yards diameter inside, surrounded by a wall of 6 feet high, the first 3 feet of which
nmy be of stone, and the other 3 feet of turf, and will cost 2s. 4d. per rood of 6 yards, if erected by
the tenant, but if by the landlord, and wholly of stone and coped, will cost 7s. per rood : this size
gives 9^ roods, which at 7s. makes its cost £3 5s. 4d., including the quarrying and carriage of the
stones — a trifling outlay compared to the permanent advantage derived' from it on a bill-farm. —
The opening into the stell should be from the side toward the rising ground, and its width 3 feet,
and of the whole hight of the wall, as .seen in the figure; or it is sometimes a square of 3 or 4 feet,
on a level with the ground, in which case the stell is entered by stile-steps over the wall. Such a
structure should supersede the use of every antiquated form that has been tried, such as the single
crescent a, fig. 236, double crescent b, or double T c; and it will easily contain 10 score of sheep
for weeks, and even 15 or 16 score may be put into it for a night without being too much crowded
together.
(897) 30
466 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
(1114.) Stclls slioald be fitted up with hai/mcJcit all roand llie inside, as Jn ficr. 238, not in the
expensive fomi of the circle, but of a many-sided regular polypoD. It is a bad plan to make sheep
eat hay by rotation, aa recommended by Lord Napior and Mr. Little, but condemned by Mr.
Fairbaira, for the timid and weak will be kept constantly back, and suHor much i>rivation for
days at a time. Let all liave room and liberty to eat at one time, and a.< often as they choose.
The hay-stack should be built in the center of the stell, as in fip. O.TP, where it should be placed
on a basement of stone, raised 6 inches above the croond. A small stack. 5 yards in diameter at
the baae, 6 feet hiph in tlie stem, with a top of 6 feet in hicrht, will contain alxiut •l.')0 hay ."tones
of hay. which will last 200 sheep 33 days, about the averace duration of a long storm ; but upon
the same base a much greater quantity of hay could be built. The interior circumference of the
Btell measures ICO feet round the hay-racks, and if 8 or 9 six-feet flukes were put round the stack,
at once to protect the hay and serve as additional hay-racks, that would give 47 feet more, which
together afford 1 foot of standing room to each of 200 sheep at one time, and supersede the objec-
tionable i>lan of feeding them in rotation.
(111.').) Stells fonu an excellent and indispensable shelter for sheep in a snow storm, when de-
prived of their pasture ; but it has occaiTed to me that, in want of stoncstell.-', very good stells or
chambers might be made of snow of any form or size desired. Even around the space occupied
bj' sheep, after a heavy fall of snow, a stell might bo constructed of the snow itself taken from ita
interior and piled into walls as wide and high as required. Such a construction would remain
as long as the storm endured, a new storm could be nia<ie available for repairs, and even after
the grt)uud was again clear, the enow-walls would remain as screens for some time after. A
small drain or two, in case of a thaw, would convoy away the water as the snow melted. As
long as the ground continues green, natural shelter is as requisite as stells ; these con.sist of rocks,
crags, braes, bushes, heather, and such like. To render the.«e as available to sheep as practicable,
the ground should be cleared of all obstmctions around them, and bushes planted in places most
suited to tlieir growth, such as the whin (Ulex europtraj. in poor thin clay, and it is a favorite
food of sheep in winter; the broom (Genisf a ncoparia J, on rich light soil; the juniper fjunipcrns
communis J, in sandy soil ; the common elder { Sombiicns nisraj. in any soil, and it grows well
in exposed, windy situations; the mountain ash fPi/rna avcvparia ), a hardy grower in any soil;
and the birch when bushy (Bettila alba), grows in any .soil, and forms excellent clumps or hedges
for shelter, as well as the hazel fCoryhis avcUana), and the common heaths (Erica riUgaris aad
tetralijcj, when they get leave to grow in patches to their natural bight in peaty earth.
(1116.) Since hay is the principal food given to sheep in snow or in black frost, it is matter of
importance to procure them this valuable provender in the best state and of the best description.
It has long been known that irrigation promotes, in an extraordinary degree, the growth of the
natural grasses ; and perhaps there are few localities which possess greater facilities for irriga-
tion, though on a limited scale, tlian the Highland glens of Scotland. Rivulets meander there
through haughs of richest alluvium, which bear the finest description of natnnil pasture plants,
and j-et irrigation is entirely neglected in those regions. Were the rivulets in winter subdivided
into irrigating rills, the produce of these haughs might be multi[>lied many fold. It is not my
purpose here to describe the management of irrigating meadows — that 1 will do ere all the
winter operations terminate ; nor is it my intention to describe the best mode of converting
natural grass into hay, for that will form part of our occupation in the summer season : all that is
requisite to be said in this place on the subject of irrigated meadows is, that, as they might
be formed with great advantage to stock in many places where they arc at present neglected,
I cannot too earnestly draw the attention of hill-farmers to their utility ; and although the locali-
ties in which they can be constructed are limited in extent, they will not be the less valuable on
that account. One obstruction to their formation is the neces.sary fencing required around them,
to prevent the trespass of .stook while the gra.ss is growing for hay. Besides places for irrigation,
there are rough patches of pasture frequently found in the hills, probably stimulated to growth
by latent water performing a sort of under-irrigation to the roots of the plants, which should be
mown for hay ; and to save farther trouble, thin hay should be ricked on the spot, and surrounded
by small hurdles, through which the sheep could feed in fro.sty weather from the rick, and keep
themselves in fair condition. They would assemble round the stacks at stated hours, and, after
filling tljemselves with dry food, again wander over, it may be. the bare but green sward for the
remainder of the day, until severe black frost make them frequent the stacks; and when snowr
come-s, the stells would be their place of refuse and support. As the hay in the stacks is eaten
in, the flukes should be drawn closer around them, to allow it to approach again within reach of
the sheep.
(1117.1 [Sheep-flakes or hurdles. — Flakes arc constructed in two different forms. The one rep-
resented by fig. 21G is the strongest and most durable, but is also the most expensive in fir.'*! cost.
The fiffure exhibits 2 flakes joined and supported, in the way they are jilacrd, to form a tence.
Each flake of this construction, with its fi.Mures, consists of 14 pieces, viz. 2 side-i)osts ^.4 rails ft,
and 3 braces cdd. which go to lorm the sinsrie Hake ; and 1 stay/, 1 stake e ore, and 3 pegs h or
t, which are required for the fixing up of each flake. The scantling of the parts are the side-posts
4J feet long, 4 inches by 2 inches. The rails 9 leet lontr. 3i inches broad by 1 inch thick. The
braces, 2 diagonals ."> feet 2 inches lonu', 2i inches broad by J inch thick, and 1 upright 4 feet lone,
and of like breadth and thickness. The stay is 4i feet long, 4 inches broad, and 2 inches thick,
and bored at both ends for the pegs; the stake IJ leet long, pointed and bored. The pegs 1 foot
long, 1^ inch diameter.
(1118.) The preparation of the parts consists in mortising tlie side posts, tlie mortises being
nsuall}' left round in the ends, and they are bored at equal distances from the joining and stay
pegs. The ends of the rails are roughly roundeil on the eiiccs, which completes the preparation
of the parts; and when the flake is completed, its dimensions are 9 feet in length, and 3 feet 4
inches in breadth over the rails ; the bottom rail being 9 inches from lbs foot of the po.st, and the
apper rail ."> inches from the head.
(1119.) The other form of flake, which is by far more extensively employed, though by no
(898)
FEEDING SHEEP ON TURNIPS.
467
means the best, consists of the same parts, except that it has always five rails, and the only mate-
rial difference in the scantling is, that the rails are all 1| inches square. An essential difference
also occurs in the preparation or manufacture of this kind of flake. The ends of the rails are all
turned round by machinery, and the side-posts are bored for their reception, as well as for the
pegs by like machinery. The five rails in the flake are divided in hight as follows : The bottom
rail 9 inches from the foot of the posts ; the spaces between the first and second and the second
and third rails, are each 7 inches, and the two upper spaces are respectively 8 and 9 inches leav-
ing, as before, 5 inches of the post above the upper rail.
(1120.) Flakes of this last description are extensively manufactured in Perthshire, where young
larches are abundant, for of that wood they are generally made. Their price, when sold in re-
tail by fifties or hundreds, is Is. 9d. to 2s. each flake, including all the parts, sold in pieces ; the
expense of putting the parts together is usually 2d. each flake, including nails. The bar-flake
first described is not generally to be found in the market, and is chiefly made to order; the price
about 2s. 6d. each flake, with fixtures. — J. S.]
■■(1121.) As hurdles in England are somewhat diflPerently put together, as well as made of a dif-
ferent sort of wood ; and as the folding of sheep on turnips is diftereutly managed in that coun-
try from what is given above, it seems proper to advert for a little to both these subjects; and
first as to the .structure of hurdles.
(1122.) Where the common crack-willow ( Salix fragilii;) will grow, every farmer may have
poles enough every year for making 2 or 3 dozen hurdles to keep up his stock. To establish a
plantation, large cuttings 9 or 10 feet long should be pushed, not driven, into moist soil, and on
being fenced from cattle, will soon shoot both in the roots and head, the latter being fit to be cut
every seventh year. Where soil for a willow-plantation does not naturally exist, the farmer can
buy his hurdles readj'-made at 16s. the dozen ; when made at home they cost 4d. each, and when
the shepherd makes them they cost only his time. Hurdle-makers go the round of the country
and make at 4d. and mend at 2d. each, finding their own tools.
(1123.) " A hurdle-maker's tools," says Mr. Main, "are a hand-saw, light hatchet, draw-shave
flamard. a center-bit and stock, a tomahawk, and gimlet. He has also a rending-frame, which ill
a common tressel a, fig. 239, on which 2 strong poles, b, are laid, leaning and connected by a
Fig. 239.
THE RENDING-FRAME IN HURDLE-MAKING.
piece, c, called a brid.ge. Besides this, he has a contrivance for shaving the poles, tec. In doing
this, 2 auger-holes are bored in a post, to admit 2 stout square iron stubs, having ears to assist
in withdrawmg them when done with. The stubs project from the surface of the post about 6
inches, let in about 3 feet from the ground, and 8 inches from each other, though not exactly hori-
zontally, the one nearest the workman being higher than the other, as seen at a, fig. 240. The
Fig. 240.
THE POSITION OP THESTUBS AND STANDARD IN HURDLE-MAKINO.
use of these Stubs is to hold the poles while they are shaved ; being at the same time supported
by a standard, b, about 3 feet from the post, and" having a sharp short spike on the top to steady
Oie pole c under the action of the draw-shave. In the same post a square staple, a, fig. 241, la
driven, to hold the feet of the heads while they are mortised, assisted by a low stool, b.
(899) •' > J '
468
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
(1124.) " All ibeic things beini:; roady. the j)olc8 arc jirupared for the difTercnt purposes to whidi
they can be converted. The buii-ond of the polo is Hrsi sawed off; 4 J feel lengilia make a pair
Fig. au.
P 0
THE SQU.^KE ST.\rLE A.NO STuoL l.V HUUDI.K-M AKI.SC.
of beads, n, fig. 242 ; 9feet lengths make a pair of slots, b ; 5-feet lengths make a pair of stay-slot4
c: and 3i-feet lengths make a pair of uprights, d.
o Fig. 242.
Kig. 213.
THE HURDLE.
(1125.) "The next proceeding is rending the different pieces, which is done at the rending.
fraiiDC. fig. 239. The piece is put over the bridge c, with llie butt-end upward. The flamard a,
fie. 243 — an edge-tool of iron, with a wooden handle — is
pfaccd across the pith, and driven down with a wooden
baton b. When entered down 1 or 2 feet, the polo is
broaght up to bear upon the bridtje. and at the same time
on the under side of the lop of the tre.ssel. The polo being
kejit down by the left hand, while the tlamard is guided
by the right, by bending and turning the [lole. the cleavage
is performed from end to end with great c.xartnc.ss. They
next undergo a little chopping or hewing with the hatchet,
to cut oil' the knobs on the outside, keeping the inside as
sqaare as i)o.ssible. The next operation is shaving off the
bark and all irregularities, and giving each mombur of the
hurdle its proi)er form.
(1126.) '• The maker next proceeds to form the hurdle;
4 low stumps are driven into the ground to mark the length,
and 4 other to mark the distance between the upper and
lower slots ; a pair of heads, one at each end. arc laid down
in their '■ight position, the flat or pith side upward ; the fi
slots are then laid at due distances upon the heads, and the
latter are xrribed to the size of each slot, to regulate the mortises. The hurdle-maker uses no foot-
rale in his operation*, he having rods cut to the different lengths of the respective pieces: and
the entire distances between the slots arc arranged by the eve. the lower ones being gradually
closer together, as seen i:i tig. 242 ; and the strongest pair of slots are usually chosen lor the high-
est and lowest of the hurdle. One of the heads is then placed on the staple a. fig. 241, and rest-
ing on the top of the mortisinL'-stool /;, to which it is fixed in an opening bj- a wedge The cen-
ter-bit and stock drills out a hole at each end of the mortises, and al.<o one for the diagoiialbracc
Blot, about 2 inches below the lowest slot, and a little out of the line of the mortises above. It
will be ob.servcd that mortises made by a center-bit leave an intenncdiate piece between the ap-
ertures, which is taken out by the tomahawk c, fig. 2-13, a tool made for the purpose. One end is
a sharp stflutpoiuted knife, which cuts t.-acli side of the middle piece left in the moni.se. and the
Other end hooks out the piece not dislodged by the knife. The mortising, which with a mallet
(900j
THE FI.AMARP, BATON, AND TOMA-
HAWK, I.N HI.IIDLE-MAKI.NO.
d
FEEDING SHEEP ON TURNIPS. 469
and chisel would take up 1 Iioui*, is done with the center-bit and hawk in 5 minutes. This head
is now hammered on to the slots, and the other head is prepared and hammered on in the same
way. The top and bottom slots are next nailed to the heads, and then the upright slot exactly in
ihe middle. The 2 stay-slots are cut with a bend at the bottom, and rather sharply pointed ; the
points are driven throuc^h these oblique mortises, and their heads bronpht up to bear on the top
of the upright, and nailed to each slot from top to bottom. The hurdle is then raised on its feet,
»nd the nails clenched, which finishes the business. The gimlet is used for every nail, and a small
block of wood placed under each slot while the nail is driven. The nails used are of the best iron,
and what are caMcd Jine-drawn — not square, but rather flattened, to facilitate clenching, on which
much of the strength of the hurdle depends ; the head of the nail is somewhat large. Their price
is fid. per lb.; 100 poles at 18s. make 36 hurdles, which, including nails and workmanship, cost
£l lis. 6d., or 10s. 6d. per dozen. Although the horizontal slots are cut 9 feet long, the hurdle,
when finished, is only somevs^hat more than 8 feet, the slot-ends going through the heads 1 or 2
inches ; 2 hurdles to 1 rod of 16 feet, or 8 to 1 chain of 22 yards, are the usual allowance."
(1127.) A larger kind of hurdle, called park hiirdlex, worth 2s. eacli, is made for subdividing
meadows or pastures, and are a sufficient fence for cattle. From all this it is obvious that, when
the small hurdles are used for sheep, the larger class must be obtained to fence cattle ; whereas
the Scotch flake described above (1117), and in fig. 216, answer both purposes at once, and are
therefore niore economical.
(1128.) " The hurdles being carted to the field," continues Mr. Main, "are laid down flat, end to
end, with their heads next to, but clear of, the line in which they are to be set. A right handed
man generally works with the row of hurdles on his left. Having made a hole in the hedge, or
close to the dyke, for the foot of the first hurdle, with the fold-pifcher, fig. 244 — which
is a large iron dibber, 4 feet long, having a well-pointed, flattened bit, in shape simi-
lar to the feet of the hurdles— he marks on the ground the place where the other foot
is to be inserted, and there with his dibber he makes the second hole, which, like all
tlie others, is made 9 inches deep. With the left hand the hurdle is put into its place,
and held upright while lightly pressed down by the left foot on the lowest slot. This
being done, the third hole is made opposite to, and about 6 inches from, the last. The
dibber is then put out of hand, by being stuck in the ground near where the next hole
is to be made -, the second hurdle is next placed in position, one foot on the open hole,
and the other foot marks the place for the next hole, and .so on throughout the whole
row. When the place of the second foot of a hurdle is mnrked on the ground, the
hurdle itself is moved out of the way by the left hand, while the hole is made by both
hands. When the whole row is set, it is usual to go back over it, giving each head a
slight rap with the dibber, to regulate their hight. and give them a firmer hold of the
ground. To secure the hurdles steady against the rubbing of the sheep, couplings,
or, as they are commonly called, copses, are put over the heads of each pair where the foi,d-
they meet, which is a sufficient security. These couplings are made of the twigs of pitcher m
willow, hoUj', beech, or any other tough shoots of trees, wound in a wreath of about hurdle-
5 inches diameter. setting.
(1129.) " The number of hurdles required for feeding sheep on turnips is one row the whole
length of the ridges of an inclosed field, and as many more as will reach twice across 2 eight-step
lands or ridges, or 4 four-step lands — that is, 48 feet, or 3 or 4 ridges of 15 feet. This number,
whatever it may be, is sufficient for a whole quadrangular field, whatever nnmber of acres it may
contain. The daily portions are given more or less in length, according to the number of the flock.
Two of these portions are first set, the sheep being let in on the first or corner piece. Next day
they are turned into the second piece, and the cros,s-hurdles that inclosed them in the first are car-
ried forward, and set to form the third piece. These removes are continued daily till the bottom
of the field is reached ; both the cross-rows are then to spare, and are carried and set to begin a
new long-row. close to the off-side of a furrow, and the daily folding carried back over 2 or 4 lands
as at first. It is always proper to begin at the top of a fiehl, if there be any difference of the level,
in order that the flock may have the driest lair to retire to in wet weather.
(1130.) " When there is a mi.xed flock — that is, couples, fattening and store sheep — two folds or
pens are always being fed off at the same time, which only require an extra cross-row of hurdles.
The couples have the fresh pens, while the lambs are allowed to roam over the unfolded turnips,
by placing the feet of the hurdles, here and there, far enough apart, or by lamb hurdles made with
open panels *br the purpose. The fattening sheep follow the couples, and have the bulbs picked
up for them by a boy. The stores follow behind and eat up the shells."* It is never the practice
IB Scotland to put ewes with their lambs upon turnips, as new grass is considered much better
for them, but the only ewe and lamb that can be seen on turnips in winter are of the peculiar
breed of Dorsetshire. The .store-sheep in Scotlund — that is, the ewe-hoggs — are always fed as
fully as the wether-hoggs which are intended to be fattened. In England the entire turnip stock
— ewes, lambs and wethers — are all intended for the butcher, and even, if possible, sold before
the turnips are ended. The whole have hay or trough-meat, either in the field or in the nheep-
house, on wet or stormy nights. An acre of good turnips maintains 5 score of sheep for 1 week.
(1131.) Nets, by which sheep are confined on turnips in winter, are made of good hempen
twine, and the finer the quality of the material, and superior the workmanship be.stowed on the
manufacture of the twine, the longer will nets last. Being, however, necessarily much exposed
to the weather, they soon decay, and. if guided carelessly, can scarcely be tru ted more than a
season. No treatment destroys them so rapidly as laying them by for the season in a damp state ;
and if rolled up wet, even for a few days, they become mildewed, after being affected with which
nothing can prevent them rotting. They should never be laid by either damp or dirty, but washed
and thoroughly dried in the open air before being rolled up and stowed away. It 'is alleged by
shepherds that nets decay faster in drouth and exposure to dews and light in summer, than in
* Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. iii.
(901)
470
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
h
winter. Several expeilicntfl liave l>ci-n tried to j»n*«crve nets from decay — among others, tanning,
in imitation of fifthcrnu'n ; but, liowi-v.-r well tliat process nmy suit nets used in the sea, it raakea
them too hard for the sliepherd's use in lying the knots* around the makes. Perhaps a stooping in
Kyan's solution mijjht render them durable, and preserve their pliability, at liie same time. The
Company's charge is Ss. per cwt. for nets and cordage. It should be kept in mind that nets made
of twine bleached by acids, or oilier chemical process, should not be submitted to Kyan's eola-
tion.
(1132.) Shrep-netx arc wrought by hand, at least I have never heard of machinery being yet
applied to their manufacture. They are simply made of dead !wt/in^, as it is lechBically called,
which cousisLs of plain work in regular rows, and is wrought by women as well as men. A shep-
herd ought to know how to make nets as well as mend them, which he will not do well nulesshe
understand, in the first place, how to make them.
(113.1.) All the instruments required in this sort of net making are a needie and spool. " Needles
are of two kinds — those made alike at each en<l with open forks, and those made with an eye and
tongue at one end and a fork at the other. In both needles the twine is wound ou them nearly in
the same manner — namely, by passing it alternaiely between the fork at each end, in the first
case, or between the fork at the lower end and round the tongue at the upper end, in the second
■:ase ; so that the turns of the string may lie parallel to the length of the needle, and be kept on
by the tongue an«l fork. The tongue and eye needle is preferable both for niaking and mending
nets, inasmuch as it is not so liable to be hitched into the adjoining ineshes in working; but some
neltcrs prefer the other kind, as being capable of holding more twine in proportion to their size."
An 8inch needle does for making nets, but a 4 inch one is more convenient for mending them. —
Spools, being made as broad as the length of the side of the mesh, are of ditferent breadths. Tbey
'•consist of a flat piece of wood of any given width — of .5/01// wood, so as not to warp — with a por-
tion cut away at one end, to admit the finger and thumb of the left hand to grasp it conveniently.
The twine in netting embraces the spool across the width ; and, each time that a loop is pulled
taut, half a mesh is completed. Large meshes may be made on small spools, by giving the
twine two or more turns round them, as occasion may require.'' " In charging your needle, take
the twine from the hutidc of the ball. This prevents tangling, which is at once recommendation
enough. When you charge the needle with double twine, draw from 2 separate balls."* It is
almost impossible to describe the art of netting by words, so as to render it intelligible, and I shall
not therefore attempt it ; but it may be learned from any shepherd. In joining the ends oitvine
together — which, in mending, is necessary to be done — tlie lend or iccarer's knot is used ; and in
joining top and bottom ropes together, in setting nets, the reef-knot is best, as the tighter it is
drawn the firmer it holds.
(1134.) Sheep-nets run about 50 yards in length when set. and weigh about 14 lbs. Hogg-nets
Bland 3| feet in hight, and dinmonts 3 feet 3 inches, and both are set 3 inches above the ground.
Sukes, to have a hold of 9 inches of the ground, bear the net 3 inches from the ground, and be 3
inches above the net-cord, .should be 4 J feet in length for the dinmont, and 4 feet 9 inches for the
hogg-net. The mesh of the hogg-nct is 3^ inches in the side, and of the dinmont i\ inches; the
former requires 9\ meshes in the hight, the latter 8J. The twine for the hogg-net is rather smaller
than tliat for the diumont, but the tup and bottom rope of both are alike strong. A hogg-net costs
12s., or under 3d. per yard ; a dinmont lO.*., or under 2id. per yard, on the Border, as at Berwick-
npon-Twced and Coldstream; but they are now sol<l in the jiristin of Edinburgh, being the work
of the prisoners, at 7s. Gd., or under 2d' per yard ; while in London the charge is 4jd. per yard.
(113.j| It is generally imagined that nets are not suitable for confining Black laced sheep on
tumip.s, chiefly because they are liable to be entangled in them by their horns ; but this objection
against the use of nets, is not insuperable, as the following circumstance will show. A farmer, a
very extensive feeder of Black-faced sheep, on seeing my Leicester hoggs on turnips confined
by nets, expressed a willingness to try the same method of confining his own sheep, adducing the
great expense of hurilles as a reason for desiring a change. After getting a pattern net from me
to stand 4 feet high, he got others made like it ; and so successful was his experiment the first
season, that he ever after incloscil a large proportion of his Black-faced sheep by nets. There
occurred a few cases of entanglement for some days at first, but as his shepherd was constantly
employed among his large flock, and having none else to attend to, no harm arose either to sheep
or net, and in a short time tlie sheep became aware of the trap and avoided it. They never at-
tempted to overleap the nets, though they would never have hesitated to do so over a much higher
wall.
(1136.) [Turnip- Slicer/t for Sherp. — Machines for slicing roots, and particularly for the turnip,
are constructed in a great variety of form.s, but may be classed under two leading groups — those
that cut the turnip simply into circular disk.s as generally adopted for the feeding of cattle, and
those that cut at one operation into oblong rectangular pieces or parallelopipedons, commonly
practiced for feeding sheep ; forming a somewhat more complicated class of machine. This last
class, as coming first in the order of application, I shall first describe. Turnip .slicers for sheep
may be again subdivided into lever and revolving machines: and of the many varieties under
these forms, there are the stationary, the portable, the wheelbarrow, and what may be called the
locomotive machine. This last being rendered so bv its attachment to a cart, and by its own mo-
tion thus communicated, performs the operation of slicing while it travels over llie field.
(1137.; The first introduction of the tumip-slicer is. like many other equally us«?ful inventions,
lost in obscurity, but it is most probable that, like the cultivation of the rcKit itself, it originated in
England ; and it is likewise probable that the first attempt was th<,' simple chopper still used to
chop turnip for cattle. It appears uncertain whether the lever or the revolving slicer came first
into use, as does also the time of their introduction. But we have an authentic record of a pre-
mium having been off'ered in lt<06 by the Boanl of Trustees for the Encouragement of Arts and
Manufactures in Scotland, for a revolving tumip-slicer. This was awarded to John Blaikie car-
* Batburst's Notes on Nets.
(9021
FEEDING SHEEP ON TURNIPS.
471
penter to the late Lord Polwarth, then Mr. Scott of Harden, which is believed to have been tho
earliest application of that form of the machine in Scotland.
(1138.) Lever TurnipSlicer for Sheep. — The first of the sheep turnip-cutters that I shall no-
tice, is one of the lever form, but in its mechanical construction may be very aptly called the
gridiroa turnip-cutter, and is represented in an entire form in fig. 245, which is a perspective view
Fig 245.
THE LETER TURNIP-3LICEH FOR SHEEP.
of the machine. It consists of a wooden frame supporting a trough, together with the cutting ap-
paratus. The frame is formed of the four posts a, a, a, a. which are 2^ inches square. The front
pair stand 15 inches in width, over all at top. the hind pair 19 inches : in both they spread a little
below, and are separated to a di.«tance of about 34 niches. Each pair is connected by cross-rails
b, b. and they are connected londtudinally bv the bars d, d, il feet long, which form also the
handles of the wheelbarrow ; being bolted to the posts at a suitable bight for that purpose ; their
Bcantling is 2 by Ij inches. A pair of wheels, c c, of cast-iron. 9 to 12 inches diameter, fitted to
an iron axle, which is bolted to the front posts, gives it the conveniency of a wheelbarrow. The
trough e, into which the turnips are laid for cutting, is 4 inches deep, and Z\ feet long, besides the
sloping continuation of it in front of the cutters, for throwing off the sliced turnips. The cutting
apparatus consists of a grooved frame of iron f, in which the compound cutter moves up and
down by means of the lever handle "-. A forked support, h, is bolted by a palm lo the farther
Bide of tiie wooden frame, and at the extremity, i. of the fork, a .swing link is jointed. The lower
end of the link is jointed to the extremity of" the lever, which is likewise forked, forming its ful-
crum ; and the gridiron-cutter, k I, is also"jointed by its top-bar to the lever at /. While the point
I. therefore, of the cutter moves in a parallel line by its confinement in the grooves of tlie frame/,
the fulcrum is allowed to vibrate on the joint / of the swing: link— thus allowing an easy vertical
motion to the cutter through the full range of its stroke. For the better illustration of the cutting
apparatus the following figures are given on a larger scale. Fig. 246 is a front view of the cutter-
frame, and fig. 217 a horizontal .section of the same, including that of the grooved frame./'. In fig.
247, a ft e is a section of the grooved frame, with the cutter-frame set in the grooves. The grooves
are \ inch wide, and the cheeks of the frame 1^ inches by \ inch, makini? the parts ah c\\ inches
square ; a d a is the bottom bar of the ciitting-frame, 1 inch broad, and | inch thick, kneed at the
ends to receive the lower ends of the cuttinc-frame : e is the ed^e view of the slicing-knife, as
fixed in the cutter-frame, 4 inches broad by I inch thick, and t'fffff are the vertical or cross
cutting-knives, also as seen from above. In fie. 246, d again marks the bottom bar of the cutter-
frame, e is the slicing-knife, and ffffff the shanks of the cross cutting-knives— these are rivet-
ed at top into e, and at boUom into d; o- o- are the side bars of the cutter-frame, J inch by J inch,
into which the knife e is riveted, and to which the bar d is attached by screw-nuts. The top bar
h welded to g sr swells out in the middle, where it is perforated for the joint-bolt of the lever, as
seen at / in fig. 245. and forms as a whole the sfridiron-cutter.
(1139.) Figs. 248 and 249 are views of the knives on a still larger scale. In the first fig., 248, to-
gether with the portion /broken off, a a h is a. cross section of the slicing-knife. and ^rf e/a cross
cutting-knife, with its shank; here a d \s the cuttina: edse, c being the body, and t'J the shank ot
the knife. The length of the cutting edse n d mav varv from J to 1 inch, accordine to the prac-
tice of the feeder, the shank ef bein- about \ inch broad, and the whole ^ inch thick, except tha
catling edge, that alone being sharpened and steeled, as well as the edge of the slicing-knUe.
(903)
472
THE DOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
The second fig., 249, i« a section of a cross cutting knife on the line x J of fig. 248. together with ■
jiart of the shaok i:
(1140.) The v^hole length of the cutter frame, fi^'. 046, is about 00 inches, apportioned thus: from
the bottom bar, d, to the edpe of tlic (iliciiigknile. 10 inclicH ; breadth of the knife. a« before. 4
inches; and from the back of the knife to ihu top of the frame, 4 inches. The width o( the framo
Fig. 246.
Fig. 249.
Fig. 248.
V^
-.-
-^
Fig. 247.
,d
THE rRO.VT AND SIDE VIEWS OF THE CUTTERS l)F THE LEVEIl TURNIP-SLICEll.
orer all may be 9 inches, and the cros.scntters set at from 1 to IJ inches apart. The grooved
frame must of course be construc'cd to receive and admit of the range of stroke of the cutter-
frame. It is to be remarked that the slicing and cross-cutting is performed with this machine by
one operation, the slicing edge being onlj' J inch in advance of the cro.«s-cutters, as at h in fig. 048.
(1141.) In operating with this machine, the trough is filled with turnips, and the operator lays
hold of the lever p. fig. 245, with the richt hand, while in his left he holds a short baton. Having
raised the lever, and with it the cutlerfriime, he pushes a tuniip with the baton against the grid-
iron, and bringing down the Icvi-r. the knives cut ofl' a slice, and divide it into oblong pieces;
these mav partly remain between the backs of the cross-cutters, until the succeeding stroke is ef-
fected, wlicn the several portions of this slice will discharge those of the first, and so on.
(1140.) The principle of the gridiron slicer is not confined to tliis particular mode of constnic-
tion, nor even to a rcciprocntine action. Its application to a revolving disk machine was brought
forward some years ago by Mr. Hay ; but owing probably to its greater expense, has been bat
partially adopted.
(1143.) The gridiron has also been applied in combination with a revolving crank motion ; the
gridiron reciprocatinir. and that in a horizontal position. This modification appears to have ori-
ginated in Roxburu'ht'hire. and appears to possess some advantai.'es, the chief of which is, that,
as the roots lie directly upon the gridiron, they are more likely to be regularly sliced than in those
machines machines where the roots lie only nn""">'' the cutters, aw in the common vertical disk
machines. This macliinc is <'s.«eiitially a gridiron turnipslicer, with a reciprocating motion, do.
rived from a rotary motion. The latter is produced by turning a winch handle, the axle of which
carries a fly-wheel and two crank levers, or, more properly, the crank of the winch serves for
both ; the throw of the handle being 15 inches, while that of the crank is only 7 inches from the
(904)
FEEDING SHEEP ON TURNIPS.
473
axis. A connecting-rod on each side of the machine connects the cranks with the gridiron-cut-
ter, producing the reciprocating motion, which is in the horizontal direction ; and to render the
motion as easy as possible, the frame of the gridiron moves upon slide-rods. From the cirtum-
stance of the motion of the cutter being horizontal, and the turnips lying directly upon the grid-
iron, it can be easily constructed to cut both ways, that is, with the out as well as the in stroke;
the gridiron for this purpose being furnished at both ends with the slicing-knife and the crosu-
cuttingknives, as described in (1138) fig. 246. The machinery here described is mounted on a
wooden frame, 4 feet 6 inches long. 22 inches wide, and 34 inches high, and over the gridiron is
placed a square hopper of wood or of sheet iron, into which the turnips are thrown by an as.sist-
ant, the machine being driven by a man. A bar of division is placed across in the middle
of the hopper, serving as the point of resistance against which the turnips are pressed while
tlie slice is being made ; and as the turnips lie on the bars of the gridiron with their full
•weight, tliey will for the mo.st part be in a position to secure a slice of uniform thickness being
removed. A siight modification has been made on this machine by placing the gridiron on ra-
dius bars, making the cutter move in an arc of about two feet radius, instead of moving in a slide
as above described. The radius bars produce a lighter motion, but have no effect on the cutting
principle.
(1144.) With a view to economy, the regular slicing of turnips is of more importance than many
farmers are aware of. When a part of the turnip is cut into very thin, and even into fragments
of slices, a very considerable proportion of it goes to waste. In choosing a tumip-slicer, therefore,
one of its points should always be, that it should cut as far as possible to a uniform size, whatever
that size may be, and not pass a large proportion of the sliced turnips iu thin-edged slices, or thin
and small fratjments of slices.
(1145.) Wheel Turnipsticer for Sheep. — This machine, alluded to in (1136), has, since its intro-
duction, undergone many modifications. From being made entirely of wood, it came to be made
entirely of iron ; but this last being less convenient for moving about, has induced the more gen-
eral introduction of a disk of cast-iron, carrying the cutters, mounted on a wooden frame, which is
generally again mounted on wheels like a wheelbarrow. Fig. 250 is a perspective of this ma-
Fig. 250.
THE WHEELBARROW TURNIP-6LICER FOR SHEEP.
chine ; the wooden frame, which is 36 inches long and 15 inches wide over the posts at toj btit
Rpreads a little wider below, is formed with four posts, a a a a, one of whiqh is only partially seen
in the figure; they are 2j inches square, and stand about 32 inches in hight. The posts an- con-
jected on the sides by top rails b b, and two brace- rails c c below, one of which serves to sc pport
the spout d, which discharges the sliced turnips. The sides of the frame thus formed are co>inect-
ed by cross-rails above and below, ee e, and is there furnished with the handle-bars ff, bolted to
tht! posts, and projecting a convenient length beyond them at one end. The barrow-wheels g g,
of '2 inches diameter, are fitted to an iron axle, which is bolted to the posts in front. The hopper
h is fixed upon the top-rail by means of a cast-iron sole bolted upon the rail, and is farther sup-
ported by a wooden bracket at each side, as seen at i, and by the iron stay k. The slicing-wheel
(905)
474
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
Z is a disk of cast-iron, carryinor three sou of cutters. The disk is monnted on an axle passing
throuj^h its center, where it is fixed, ami \% liich is supported on bennDRs placed on the top rails,
and, when worked, it is turned by the winch handle m, fixed upon the axle. Fig. 251 is a section
Fig. 251.
[the section of the disk and hopper of the WHEKLBARROW TCRNIP-3LICER.
of part of this machine, cutting it thronph the hopper, and the disk, Ac, to exhibit some of the
parts more in di'tail. a a are parts of two of the posts, h b the top-rails, and c one of tjie end-rails
of the frame, covered by the boarding d of the spout, /is one of the pillow-block l)i'arinf.'8 of the
axlo, the other heint,' kept out of view by the hopper, and the winch-handle is applied at c. g g
is the disk .shown also in section. The sole of the hopper is represented at h ; it has a flange be-
tween h and f/. hy which it is bolted to the top-rail b ; and the sole itself is a cylindrico-concave
plate of I'J incju-s in lemjth at the bottom of the concavity, 9 inches in breadth, and is placed at
an angle of 4.")^. It is al.so furni.shcd will) a flange at each side, whereby the sides / of the hopper
are attached to ihc sole A- is tlu; foot of one- of the brackets referred to in fig. a.^O, rising in the
position of tlir iloited lines, for supportiiii,' the hopper;, and i is a light ticbar,"cut by tjie section,
which is applied also to bind the sides of the hopper.
_ (IHii.l Till- disk ()r wheel tr -r is a plate of cast iron, 32 inches in diameter and J inch thick, en-
circled by .t heavy rinir of the same metal, to eive it momentum
when in action. The face of the disk is divided into three seg- F'6- 252.
mental conipartmcnls around a |)lain and central j)ortion, which
is 9 inches dianieier. This central part lies in the treneral plane
of the disk, while the segmental portions diverge from the plane
in the direction of the circle, causing them to take the form of
portions of three separate heli.-al or sjiiral surfaces of 9 inches
m breadth. Their clivergence from the plane of the di.sk does
not, however, excei'd j of an inch at the termination of a seg-
ment, or such other space as may be determined upon for the
thickness of the slices. By this construction, three slits are
formed in the disk, passing oblirpiely throuirb, one at the term-
ination of each wginent ; and iIh' steel slicin^'■knife. 12 inches
in length and IJ inches in brcjidlh. is H.xed by bolts, so as to
ibrm the entering edgt'of each segment, as seen in fig. '2M — the
flat face of the knife Ivimr in the peneral plane of the disk.— thk cross-cutters of the disk of
The terminal edge of each .seu-ment lies exactly behind the lead- "'*= «"EEi-BAiiBow tuhmp-slickb.
in^ edge of the next, so that, when the slicing-knife is afKxed to a heading edge, the edge of the
kmfe covers li inches of the length of the preceding segment. Into the border, which is thiu
(900)
FEEDING SHEEP ON TURNIPS. 475
covered by the slicingknife, are placed from 6 to 10 lancet shaftcvuters, their length being just
eqaal to the width of the slit, and their distance apart proportioned to the number employed, or
the breadth at which the turnips are required to be cross-cut The cross-cutters are formed as
represented in fie:. 252, where a is an edge, and b a side view of a cutter, with its tail and screw-
nut, by which it is fixed into the disk.
(1147.) It will be seen that the action of those compound cutters is very similar to that of the
gridiron, the slicing and cross-cutting knives acting together, though the slicing-knife is here also
about { inch in advance of the cross cutters ; and from the construction of the disk, and arrange-
ment of the feeding-hoppers, the turnip is applied with great regularity, and in close contact with
the spiral surface of the segments of the disk. The slope of the sole-plate in the hoppers gives
the turnip a constant tendencj- to keep in contact with the surface and the cutters, thereby secur-
insr regular and good performance by the machine.
(1148 ) The wheel turnipslicer has been applied in a variety of forms, such as cutting on a hori-
zontal direction, the turnips being placed in a hopper right above the disk ; and both vertically
and horizontally it has been adopted on the locomotive principle, attached iu various modes to a
cart. Perhaps the most successful of these modes is that produced at the late Show of Imple-
ments at Edinburgh, under the auspices of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, by
Mr. Kirkwood, Tranent. It is a common slicing disk, mounted on a carriage with two wheels,
from the axle of which, and by their own resistance, motion is communicated to the disk by means
of a beveled gearing. The carriage is simply hooked on to a cart which conveys the turnips. —
The cutting process can be stopped at pleasure by means of the common clutch and lever ; and
the whole machine, being constructed of iron, will be very durable.
(1149.) Ci/Under Turnip-Slicens. — Turnipslicers for sheep have been also constructed in a va-
riety of forms with the cutters set in the surface of a cylinder, and been in use for many years. —
In Roxburghshire it has been long and successfully employed in the locomotive principle — not
driven by anj- machinery from the cart to which it is attached, but, being simply hooked to the
cart, is drawn forward ; and the machine being of some weight, and moving upon wheels of 3 feet
or more in diameter, armed with spikes on their tires to prevent them sliding over the surface of
the ground, these give motion to the cutting cylinder ; while a boy, sitting on the cart which con-
tains the turnips that are to be cut, throws them into the hopper of the machine, from which they
are dropped over the surface of the grass on which the sheep are feeding.
(1150.) A modification of the cj-linder-slicer was patented in 1839 by Mr. Gardner, Banbury ;
the principle of the patent lies in the fonn and arrangement of the cutters, which are set in three
divisions upon the surface of the cylinder. The arranirement of the cutters is peculiar, and difB-
cult to describe without the aid of a figure. The cylinder on wliich the cutters are placed is 15
inches in diameter and 12 inches long. Its periphery is divided into 3 compartments, each form-
ing a portion of a spiral, so that the commencement of one and the termination of the next leaves
a slit across the periphery, corresponding in some degree with that described on the disk of the
wheel turnip-cutter. The origifial cylindrical slicers had the slicing-knife extending in an un-
broken edge across the surface of the cylinder, and the cros.s cutters placed under and behind it.
The improvement on which the patent is based may be described as cutting the slicing-knife into
a number of sections, say of 1 inch each in length. The two extreme sections remain in the orig-
inal position on the cylinder. The section ue.xt to that on each side is removed backward upon
the surface of the cylinder, say \\ inches, and there fixed. The .section on each side next to those
ia in like manner set back, and so on till the whole are placed on the surface of the cylinder. By
this arrangement, the slicing-cutters form two converging lines, en ccltcUen. and this is repeated
three times on the periphery of the cylinder. The cross-cutters ar^; formed by a part of the sliciug-
cutter beinff bent to a right angle with the former.
(1151.) This cylinder machine, by reason of the cutters acting in succession from their position,
en. echellen, works with great ease and cuts regularly, but, withal, makes the slices too small, and
has a tendency to produce waste, though this fault could be easily rectified by enlarging the sec-
tions of the knife, and leugthoninar the cross-cutters. The cylinder is mounted iu a wooden frame,
and the hopper is so arranged that the turnip, while being cut, tends always to apply itself to the
surface of the cylinder. — J. S.]
(1152.) There is a mode of preserving corn for sheep on turnips which has been tried with suc-
cess in Fife. It consists of a box like a hay-rack, as in fig. 253, in which the corn is at all times
kept closely shut up. except when sheep wish to eat it, and then they get to it by a simple con-
trivance. The bo.K a b contains the corn, into which it is poured through the small hinged lid y.
The cover c d, concealing the corn, is also hinged, and when elevated the sheep have access to
the corn. Its elevation is effected by the pressure of the sheep's forefeet upon the platform ef,
which, moving as a lever, acts upon the lower ends of the upright rods s; and h, raises them up,
and elevates the cover c d, under which their heads then find admittance into the box. A similar
apparatus gives them access to the other side of the box. The whole machine can be moved
about to convenient places by means of 4 wheels. The con.struction of the interior of the box be-
ing somewhat peculiar, another, fig. 254. is given as a vertical section of it, where b is the hinged
lid by which the corn is put into the bo.x. whence it is at once received into the hopper d, the bot-
tom of which bein? open, and brought near that of the bo.x, a siaall space only is left for the com
to pass into the box, the hopper formins^ the corn-.store ; a is the cover of the box raised on its
hinges by the rod /, acted upon by the platform e f, fig. 253 ; and. when iq this position, the sheep
put their heads below a at c, and eat the corn at i. Machines of similar construction to this have
also been devised to serve poultry with com at will.* It is a .safer receptacle for corn in the field
than the open oilcake trough, fig". 230 ; but animals require to be made acquainted with it before
they will use it with confidence.
(1153.) It is not my purpose to dilate fully on the dixeasea of animals, the symptoms and treat-
in nt of which you will find satisfactorily described in the published works of veterinarians ; bu^
• Prize Essays of the Highland and Agriculttiral Society, vol. vii.
(907)
476
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
nevertncless, ii in iiorcsiiurv you i<liould know something of the various diseases animals are liable
to, when subjccteil to the usual treatment of the farm. Were you not warned of tlie consequences
of tbiii. you would not know how to check the progress of diseaac, but allow it tu proceed, until
Fig. 2o3.
Fig. 254.
.:^
THE VKRTICAL SECTION OF THE
I.NTERIOR OK THE COKS-BOX.
THE CORS-BOX FOR SHEEP O.V TURNIPS.
the life of the animal were endiinpered. It is, however, not desirable that vou should conBider
yourself as a veteriiiari.in, because, not being a professional man, your practical knowledge will
necessarily be confined to the ca«>s arisini; fi-om the casualties of your own stock, and hence your
experience will never enable you to become so well acquainted with any disease, nor «> many,
as the profcs.-jional man, while you would rely so much upon your own knowledge, crude as it
must be. as to undertake the treatment of every case of illness that occurred on your own farm ;
and thus be prompted to try experiment;? which may prove dangerous to the safety of the animal,
but it is very desirable, because much conducive to your own interest that you should be ac-
quainted with the most easily recognized symptoms of the commonest disea.'ses incidental to do-
mesticated animals, and with the general princii)les of their treatment. If you but knew how tc
distinguish between local and general affections, and to apply the proper preliminary treatment,
you would place ilie afflicted animal in such a state of safety until the arrival of the veterinary
surgeon, as the <iisea.se might be easily overcome by him. and your animal restored to health in a
short time. Farther than this you have no right to aspire as an amateur veterinarian ; f<ir it can-
not be too strondy impressed upon you that, before you can be competent to learn the art of
healing, you must have an accurate knowledge of the anatomical structure and the physiology of
the domestic animals. At the same time, as a branch of general knowledge, veterinary science
ought to have your regard, and more especially as your profession places you in a position to oc-
cupy the field which affords the mo.sl numerous, varied, and interesting cases for veterinary prac-
tice. And besides, you should have " some insight," as Professor Dick suggests, "into a subject
with which all wl-io have any pretension to a knowledge of horseflesh oiisht In hove some ac-
quaintance. And if you bear in mind that, in a compendious view of the principles upon which
alone the discasi-s of domestic animals can be properly treated, you will find an antidote to the
quackery by which many valuable animals arc sacrificed, and serious expense and vexation oc-
casioned."*
(1154.) On this 8ugt:cstion, 1 would notice the complaints of sheep, with the view of letting yoa
see their interesting ii.iture, and of the expediency of your beeojniiig acquainted \vith their prin-
ciples. The first which presents itself on sheep, in the low country in winter, \8 puri^ini^. occa-
sioned by eatini; t(X) henrtily of the top.s, when fir.«t confined on turnips. At first, the complaint
is not alarming, and the pliysicing may do good ultimately ; but should it increase, or continue
beyond the existence of tlie exciting cause, it may pass into diarrhn-a. causing prostration of
strength, and at last terminate in dysentery. When the purging is moderate, the pain is incon-
siderable; but wIkmi aL'gravated. the mucous membrane, whicli is the sea/ of the di.s«>:i.se. ac-
quires a tend<Micy to inlliimmation, and grijiing an<l coliey pains are the con.sequence. The dis-
ease should not he th<)Ui;ht liyhtly of, but sneedily checked. When the preen food, as in this
caj»e, is obviously at fault, the sheep should be removed to dry pasture until the .symptoms disap-
pear. One year. I remember, the white turnip tops erew so lu.xuriantly that when Leicester
noggs were putoii in October, they were very soon seized with purging, and the symptoms were
much aggravated by alternate fulls of rain and raw frosts. The sheep were removed to a rough,
moory pasture, whieh had been reserved for the ewes; and while there, I caused the field-work-
ers to switch off the turnip tops with sickles, and thus got rid of the cause nl complaint. In a
short time, the hogps were restored to the turnips, and throve apace; thouu'h the wool behind
was much injured by the fa'eal discharge And this is one of the losses incuired by such a com-
plaint ; anil at a sea.son. ttni. when it would be improper to clip the soiled wool away, to the risk
of making the sheep too hare below to lie with comfort upon the cold ground.
(115.').) Sheep are som("timcs infested with a species of /o'/.«c. the Trtchodeclei; uphtrroccphalxts,
characterized by Mr. Denny as having the head nearly orbicular, the clypeus rugulose and cili-
ated with stiffhairs, and the third joint of the antenme lonccst and clavate.
(llo6.) This animal is perhajis induced to make its appearance by an increase of condition after
a considerable period of poverty. It is st^ldom seen on Leicester sheep. becau.«e, perhaps, they
■re seldom in the state to induce it ; b>it hill-shccp arc not unfrequcutly infested by it, and when
* Dick's Manual of Veterinary Scii nee, Preface.
(908)
FEEDING SHEEP ON TURNIPS. 477
so, it is amazing what numbers of the vermin may be seen npon a single sheep, its powers of re-
production seeming prodigious. It lodges chiefly upon and below the neck, where it is most ef-
fectually destroyed by mercurial ointment, which should not, however, be applied, in quantity,
in very cold or in very wet weather ; and in these circumstances, tobacco-juice and spirit of tar
may be safely used. A quart bottle of decoction of tobacco-leaf, containing a wine glass of spirit
of tar, is a useful lotion, for many purposes, tor a shepherd to have constantly in his pos.session.
Professor Dick says that, in slight visitations of the louse, a single dressing of olive-oil will cause
its disappearance.
(1157.) Another disease to which sheep are subject on passing from a state of poverty to im-
proved condition is »cab, and hoggs are most susce|)tible of it. This disease indicates its exist-
ence by causing sheep to appear uneasy and wander about without any apparent object ; to draw
out locks of wool with its mouth from the affected parts, as the disease increases; and, lastly, to
rub its sides and buttocks against everj- p.orainent object it can find, such as a stone, a tree, a
gate post, the nets, and such like. Mr. Youatt says that it arises from an insect, a species of aca-
rus ;* but whether this be the case or not, one remedy is efficacious, namely, mercurial ointment ;
a weak one of 1 part of the ointment with 5 of lard for the first stage, and the other a stronger, of
1 part of ointment and 3 of lard, fur an aggravated ca.se. The ichorous matter from the pustules
adheres to and dries upon the wool, and gets the name of sci/rf, which should first be washed off
with soap and water before applying the ointment. The scab is a very infectious disease, the
whole flock soon becoming coutarainaied ; but the infection seems to spread not so much by di-
rect contact as by toucliing the objects the animals infected have rubbed against. Its direct ef-
fects are deterioration of condition, arising from a restlessness preventing the animal feeding, and
loss of wool, large portions not only falling off; but the remainder of the broken fleece becoming
almost valueless ; and its indirect effects are propai:ation of the disease constitutionally, and hence
the loss to the owner in having a scabbed flock, for no one will purchase from one to breed from
that is known to be. or to have been, affected by scab. With regard to the very existence of this
disease, it is held disgraceful to a shepherd not to be able to detect its existence at a very early
stage, and more so to allow it to make head in his Hock, however unobservant he may have been
of its outbreak. When it breaks out in a standing flock, it must have been latent in its constitu-
tion or in the ground, when the shepherd took charge of it, for some shepherds have only the skill
to suppress, not eradicate it ; but it is his duty to examine every sheep of his new charge, and of
every one newly purcha.sed ; before they are allowed to take to their hirsel, and also to make in
quiry regarding the previous state of the ground.
(1158.) On .soft ground sheep are liable to be affected whh foot-rot, when on turnips. The first
symptom is a slight lameness in one of the fore-feet, then in both, and at length the sheep is
obliged to go down, and even creep on its knees, to get to its food. The hoof, in every case, first
becomes softened, when it grows misshaped, occasioning an undue pressure on a particular part;
this sets up inflammation, and causes a slight separation of the hoof from the coronet; then ulcers
are formed below where the hoof is worn away, and then at length comes a discharge of fetid
matter, if neglected, the hoof will slough off", and the whole foot rot oft"; which would be a dis-
tressing termination with even only one sheep, but the alarming thing is, that the whole flock may
be similarly affected, and this circumstance has led to the belief that the disease is very conta-
gious. There is, however, much difference of opinion among store farmers and shepherds on this
point, though the opinion of contagion preponderates. For my jiart, I never believed it to be so,
and there never would have been such a belief had the disease been confined to a few sheep at a
time ; but though numbers are affected at one time, the fact can be explained from the circum-
stance of all the sheep being similarly situate ; and as it is the nature of the situation which is the
cause of the disease, the wonder is that any escape affection, rather than that so many are affect-
ed. The first treatment for cure is to wash the ii)ot clean with .soap and water, then pare away
all superfluous hoof dressing the diseased surface with some caustic, the spirit of tar and blue
vitriol being most in vogue, but Professor Dick recommends butter of antimony as the best : the
aff"ected part being bound round with a rag. to prevent dirt getting into it asain ; and removing
the sheep to harder ground, upon bare pasture, and there supplying ihem with cut turnips. The
cure indicates the prevention of the disease, which is careful examination of every hoof before
putting sheep upon red land, and paring away all extraneous horn ; and should their turnips for
the season be upon soft, moist ground, let them be entirely sliced, and let the sheep be confined
Bpon a small break at a time, and thus supersede the necessity of their walking almost at all upon
it for food. I may mention that sheep accustomed to hard ground, when brought upon that which
is comparatively much softer, are most liable to foot-rot, and hence the necessity of frequent in-
spection of the hoof when on soft ground ; and as some farms contain a large proportion of this
state of land, frequent inspection should constitute a prominent duty of the shepherd.
(1159.) Erysipelatous complaints occur in winter among sheep. " Wildfire, it is said," remarks
Professor Dick, -'generally shows itself at the beginning of winter, and' first attacks the breast
and belly. The skin inflames and rises into blisters, containing a reddish fluid, which escapes
and forms a dark scab. The animal sometimes fevers. Venesection (blood-letting) should be
used, the skin should be washed with a solution of sugar of lead, or with lime-water, and physic
given, such as salts and sulphur ; afterward a few doses of nitre."*
(1160.) There is. perhaps, no circumstance upon which an argument could be better founded in
favor of arable land being attached to a hill-farm, for the purpose of raising food to be consumed
in stormy weather, than on the fatality of the disea.se commonly called braxy. It affects young
sheep, and chiefly those of the Black-faced breed, which subsist upon the most elevated pasture.
Indigestion is its primary cause, exciting constipation, which .sets up acute inflammation of the
bowels, and death ensues. The indigestion is occasioned by a sudden change from succulent to
dry food, and the suddenness of the change is impo.sed by the sudden occurrence of frcst and
enow, the latter concealing the green herbage which the sheep have been eating ; and obliging
* Youatt on Cheep. f Dick's Manual of Veterinary Science.
(909j '
478 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
them to subftiflt upon the tops of old heather, and twig* and leaven of bushes that o\*ertop the
snow. By lliis account of the orifjin of the disease, it is obvious that, wore stells provided for
shelter, and lumips for fiwd, the brnxy would never atrect jounf; hill-Hheep, at least under the
circumstances which usually pive rise "to it. The Kttrick Sliepherd thus describes its sj-mptoms :
" The loss of cud is the first token. As the distemper advanci-s, the afroiiy which the animal Is
Buttering becomes more and more visible. When it etunds, it brings all its four feet into the com-
pass of a foot ; and sometimes it continues to rise and lie down iilternately every two or thn-c
minutes. The eyes are heavy and <lull. and <leeply expres.sive of its distress. The ears hai'g
down, and. when more narrowly inspected, the mouth and tongue are dry and parched, and the
white of the eve inflamed. . . . The belly is prodigiously swelled, even so much tliat it sometimes
bursts. All the dillerent apartments of the stomach are inflamed in some degree."* Violent in-
flammation succeeds, with a tendency to mortificaiion and sinking, so that, after speedy death, the
touch of the viscera, and even of the carca.'ss, is intolerable. Its eflecls are .o sndden, that a bogg
apparently well in the evening will be found dead in the morning. Cure thus seems almost una-
vailable, and vet it may be effected, provided the sym|iloms of the disease arc observed in time ;
when, if blood" is drawn freely from any part of the bodj'. such as by notches made across the un-
der side of the tail, from the vein under the eye, and that behind the fcrearm, and a dose of salts
administered in warm water, the animal will most probably recovcr.t But the grand object is
prevention of the di.siiase by a timely supply of succulent food ; and if tnrnips cannot bcobtjiined,
U may be worth the storcma.>iter'8 consideration whether oil cake should not be given to the sheep
along" with bay, during a storm. The laxative property of oil cake is well established, and
its carriage to the remotest hill-farm comparatively easy. Mr. Fairbairn recommends salt to be
given to young sheej), when shifted suddenly from fresh to dry food ; and no doubt, as a condi-
ment in support of the healthy action of the stomach, it would prove useful ; and more especially
in the case of cattle and sheep, the structure of whose digestive organs renders them peculiarly
liable to the eflecls of indigestion ; and on this account it would be a valuable asi<istant to the
more nutritious oil-cake. And instead of entirely acquiescing in the Ettrick Shepherd's recom-
mendation '• to pasture the young and old of the flocks all together," as has been done in Peebles-
shire, to the eradication, it is said, of the braxy — as being in manj' cases impracticable and at-
tended with no profit, Sir. Fairbairn rather observes, " Let the pasture for a hirsel, as was ob-
served before, be as nearly as possible of one soil. To overlook tliis is a mighty error, and the
surest means of making the flock unequal. The heath should also be regularly burned, and the
sheep never allowed to pasture to7ifr vpon xofl praxK." And as a lust resource in an attempt to
eradicate the disease everywhere, he would have the sheep put on turnips, as " an infallible anti-
dote against the progress of the malady ;" and which he has " inviiriably found gives a settling
stroke to the disease."! This last remedy doubtless being effective, I would recommend its adop-
tion rather as a preventive than a cure of the disease.
(1161.) The Ettrick Shepherd mentions the existence of 4 kinds of braxy — namely, the bovel
sickness, the xicktiess in the Jlcxh and blond, the dry braxy, and the water braxy — all originating
in the same cause, producing modified effects — namely, a sudden change of food from succulent
to dry, inducing constipation of the bowels and consequent inflammation ; and they are all a clasa
of diseases allied in their nature to hovcn in cattle, and flatulent colic or bolts in horses.
31. DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING SHEEP.
"Pierced by Roderick's ready blade,
Patient the sickenins victim eyed
The life-blood ibb in crimeon tide
Down his clo(;cc(i beard and slispgy limb,
1111 darkness glazed his eye-balls dim."
Scott.
(1162.) Althoitoh it is unusual for farmers who possess a xtayidlng flock
— and most farmers who practice the mixed husbandry have one — to dis-
pose of their fat sheep in winter — that is, before the turnips are all con-
sumed— yet as farmers, who, havincj no standing flock, purchase a flying
one every year, of sheep in forward condition, and in such numbers as to
consume the turnips allotted to them in a short time, do dispose of their
fat sheep in winter, it is proper that you should be made accjuainted here
with the driving of shicp upon roads, and tliti general practice of the mut-
ton-trade. The slieep most forward in condition in autumn are yeld ewes
and wethers, the tup-eill ewes being already fat and sold.
(1163.) Sheep are purchased from farmers both by dealers and butchers.
■* Hogg's Shepherd's Ouide. t Tim Moiininin Shepherd's Manual,
t A Lamniermuir Panner'B TrealUe oo Sheep in High Districts.
(910)
DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING SHEEP. 479
Dealers buy from farmers in wholesale, and sell to butchers in retail ; so
they constitute a sort of middle-men ; but, unlike most middle-men, their
avocation is fully as useful to both parties as to themselves, inasmuch as
they purchase at once the whole disposable stock of the farmer, and they
assort that stock, and present it at the markets which the different classes
of their customers, the butchers, are in the habit of frequenting, in the
most suitable form. They thus act the part which the wool-staplers do, in
assorting the different qualities of wool between the grower and the man-
ufacturer. They buy either at fairs, or on the farmer's own premises. In
the former case they pay ready money, and lift the stock immediately ; in
the latter they pay at the time the stock is lifted by agreement. In lifting
their bargains, they appoint one time among all the places they have pur-
chased, to make up their entire drove ; for it is less costly for their people
to drive a large one than a small. Dealers chiefly buy at the country fairs,
where they have ample choice, and only purchase on the farmer's prem-
ises when stock happens to be scarce, and prices likely to advance. Butch-
ers purchase chiefly in the market-towns in which they reside, though
they also attend fairs, and pick up a few fat lots which will not bear the
long journeys of the dealers ; and in this case they pay ready money and
lift immediately, as dealers do. But when they purchase on the farmer's
premises, they usually lift so many at a time, according to agreement, and
pay only for what they lift. Every farmer should avoid this practice, as
every time the butcher comes for his lot the sheep have to be gathered,
and the whole handled, that he may take away only those which suit his
present purpose ; and this commotion is made most probably every week,
the whole stock being disturbed by the shouting of men and the barking
of dogs, among whom those of the butcher are not the least noisy or the
least active. Farmers take their stock either to fairs or market-towns, and
there meet the respective sorts of purchasers, the dealers never appearing
as purchasers in towns, the butchers there ruling paramount.
(1164.) "When a dealer purchases on the farmer's premises, he lifts his
lot at any time of day that best suits his outi arrangements. He begins
to lift the first lot in the more distant part of the country, and, proceeding
on the road in the direction of their destination, he lifts lot after lot until
the whole are gathered, to the amount of many hundreds. In this way he
may lift a lot in the forenoon on one farm, and another in the afternoon on
another; and this is a much more satisfactory way for the farmer to dis-
pose of his stock than the one he allows the butcher to adopt. But when
a farmer is to drive his own sheep to market, he starts thein at a time when
the journey \vill do them the least injury. Sheep should not begin their
journey either when too full or too hungry ; in the former state they are
apt to purge on the road, in the latter they will lose strength at once. —
The sheep selected for market are the best conditioned at the time ; and,
to ascertain this, it is necessary to handle the whole lot, and shed the fat-
test from the rest ; and this is best done about midday, before the sheep
feed again in the afternoon. The selected ones are put into a field by
themselves, where they remain until the time appointed them to start. If
there be rough pasture to give them, they should be allowed to use it, and
get quit of some of the turnips in them. If there is no such pasture, a few
cut turnips on a lea-field will answer. Here all their hoofs should be care-
fully examined, and every unnecessary appendage removed, though the
firm portion of the horn should not be touched. Every clotted piece of
wool should also be removed with the shears. The sheep should also be
marked with keil, or ruddle, as it is called in England — the ochrey-red iron-
stone of mineralogists, which occurs in abundance near Platte, in Bohe-
(911)
480 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WJ.NTER.
mia.* The keil-mark is put on the wool, and on any part of the body you
choose — the purjiose being to identify your own sheep in case of any being
lost in the fair. The parts usually chosen for marking Leicester sheep are
top of shfdilder, back, rump, far and near ribs. The mark is made in thifl
way : Take hold of a small tuft of wool at any of the above parts with
the right-hand fingers, and seize it between the fore and middle fingers of
the left hand, with the palm upward ; then color it with the keil, which
requires to be wetted, if the wool itself is not damp. Short-wooled sheep
are usually marked on the head, neck, face and rump, or with a bar across
the shoulders, and generally too much keil is put upon them. The sheep
being thus prepared should have food early in the morning, and be started
on their journey about midday — the season, you will remember, l>eing win-
ter. Let them walk gently away ; and, as the road is new to them, they
will go too fast at first — to prevent which, the drover should go before
them, and let his dog bring up the rear. In a short distance they will
assume the proper speed, about 1 mile the hour. Should the road they
travel be a green one, the sheep will proceed nibbling their way onward
at the grass, along both sides ; but if a turnpike, especially a narrow one,
the drover will require all his attention in meeting and being passed by
every class of vehicle, to avoid injury to his charge. In this part of their
business, drovers generally make too much ado, both themselves and their,
dogs ; and the consequence is that the sheep are driven more from side to
side of the road than is requisite. On meeting a carriage, it would be
much better for the sheep were the drover to go forward, instead of send-
ing his dog, and point off, with his stick, the leading sheep to the nearest
side of the road ; and the rest will follow, as a matter of course, while the
dog walks behind the flock, and brings up the stragglers. Open gates to
fields are sources of great annoyance to drovers, the stock invariably mak-
ing an endeavor to go through them. On observing an open gate before,
the drover should send his dog behind him over the fence, to be ready to
meet the sheep at the gate. When the sheep incline to rest, let them lie
down. Before night-fall the drover should inquire of lodging for them for
the night, as in winter it is requisite to put them in a grass-field, and supply
them with a few turnips or a little hay, the road-sides being bare at that
season. If turnips or hay are laid down near the gate of the field they oc-
cupy, the sheep will be ready to take the road in the morning ; but, before
doing this, the drover should ascertain whether the road is infested with
stray dogs; if which be the case, the sheep should be taken to the safest
spot and watched. Many dogs thit live in the neijjhborhood of drove-
roads, and more especially village dogs, are in the habit of looking out for
sheep to worry, at some distance from their homes. The chief precaution
that can be used under such an apprehension is, for the drover to go fre-
quently through the flock with a light, and be late in retiring to rest, and
up again early in the morning. This apprehension regarding dogs is not
solely in rofjard to the loss sustained by worrj'ing, but, when sheep have
been disturbed by them, they \\'ill not settle again upon the road. The
first day's journey should be a short one, not exceeding 4 or 5 miles. —
Upon drove-roads, farms will be found at stated distances with food and
lodging for the drover and his flock, at a moderate charge. Allowing 8
miles a day for a winter-day's travel, and knowing tlie distance of your
market by the destined route, the sheep should start in good time, allow-
ance being made for unforeseen delays, and one day's rest near the
market.
JamcKon's Mineralogy, toL iii.
(913)
DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING SHEEP. 481
(1165.) The farmers' drover may either be his shepherd, or a profes-
sional drover hired for the occasion. The shepherd knowing the flock
makes their best drover, if he can be spared so long from home. A hired
drover gets 2s. 6d. a day of wages, besides traveling expenses, and he is
intrusted with cash to pay all the necessary dues incidental to the road and
markets, such as tolls, forage, ferries, and market custom. A drover of
sheep should always be provided with a dog, as the numbers and nimble-
ness of sheep render it impossible for one man to guide a capricious flock
along a road subject to many casualties ; not a young dog, who is apt to
work and bark a great deal more than necessary, much to the annoyance
of the sheep, but a knowing, cautious tyke. The drover should have a
walking-stick, a useful instrument at times in turning a sheep disposed to
break off" from the rest. A shepherd's plaid he will find to afford comfort-
able protection to his body from cold and wet, while the mode in which it
is worn leaves his limbs free for motion. He should carry provision with
him, such as bread, meat, cheese or butter, that he may take luncheon or
dinner quietly beside his flock while resting in a sequestered part of the
road, and he may slake his thirst in the first brook or spring he finds, or
purchase a bottle of ale at a roadside ale-house. Though exposed all day
to the air, and even though he feel cold, he should avoid drinking spirits,
which only produce temporary wai'mth, and for a long time after induce
chilliness and languor. ]\Iuch rather let him drink ale or porter during the
day, and reserve the allowance of spirits he gives himself until the evening,
when he can enjoy it in warm toddy beside a comfitrtable fire, before re-
tiring to rest for the night. The injunction to refrain from spirits during
the day I know will sound odd to the ear of a Highland di'over ; but though
a dram may do him good in his own mountain-air, and while taking active
exercise, it does not follow that it will produce equally good effects on a
drove-road in the low country in winter, in raw and foggy weather. I be-
lieve the use of raw spirits does more harm than good to all drovers who
indulge in the practice. He should also have a good knife, by which to
remove any portion of horn that may seem to annoy a sheep in its walk ;
and also a small bottle of a mixture of tobacco-liquor and spirit of tar, with
a little rag and twine, to enable him to smear and bandage a sheep's foot,
so as it may endure the journey. He should be able to draw a little blood
from a sheep in case of sickness. Should a sheep fail on the road, he
should be able to dispose of it to the best advantage ; or, becoming ill, he
should be able to judge whether a drink of gi'uel, or a handful of common
salt in warm water, may not recover it so as to proceed ; but, rather than
a lame or jaded sheep should spoil the appearance of the flock, it should
be disposed of before the flock is presented in the market.
(1166.) The many casualties incidental to sheep on travel, more espe-
cially in winter, require consideration from the farmer before undertaking
to send his stock to a distant market-town, in preference to taking them to
a fair, or accepting an offer for them at home. A long journey in winter
will cost at least Is. a head, and their jaded appearance may have the effect
of lowering their market price 2s. or 3s. a head more. Under any circum-
stances, when you have determined on sending your sheep to a market-
town, it is, I believe, the best plan, after the journey, to intrust them to a
salesman, rather than stand at market with them yourself, as you cannot
know the character of the buyers so well as he does, nor can you know
what class of purchasers your lot may best suit. The convenience attend-
ing the employment of a salesman is now generally felt, because it not
only saves the personal annoyance of attending a market, but your money
is remitted to you through a bank in the course of the day. The only pre-
(961) 31 J J e:
482 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
caution requisite in the matter is to become acquainted with a salesman
of judgment; for as to honesty, if lie have not tluit^ he is of course quite
worthless. In attending countrj' fairs, the case is otherwise ; there being
no salesman, you yourself must stand by y(iur lot. Before attending the
fair, you should make up your mind what to ask for your stock, in accord-
ance with the cunent market prices ; but, notwithstanding this, you may
come away with more or less cash than you anticipated, because the actual
state of that market will he regulated by the quality and quantity of the
stock brought forward, and by the paucity or numbers of buyers who may
appear. After your sheep are fairly placed, you should inquire of friends
of the state of prices before you sell, and on doing this you will frequently
find the market in a most perplexing state from various causes. Thus,
there may be too many sheep for the buyers, when the market will be dull,
and remain so all day. On the other hand, the stock may be scanty for
the buyers, when a briskness may start in the morning and continue even
till the whole stock are sold off. There may be briskness in the morning,
the buyers purchasing ; dullness at midday, buyers declining ; and brisk-
ness again in the afternoon, buyers again purchasing. There may be ex-
cessive dullness in the morning, occasioned by the buyers lying off and
beating down prices, and, finding they cannot succeed, buy briskly all the aft-
ernoon. There may be dullness in the morning, arising from the dealers
finding the condition of the stock below their expectation. The markets
are never better for the farmer than when they begin brisk early in the
morning, and the stock are all sold off early. These are the vicissitudes
of a market ; they are interesting, demand attention, and are woith exam-
ination. You will frequently obsene a trifling circumstance give a decided
tone to a market. A dealer, for instance, who generally buys largely, and
having bought for many years respectably in that particular fair, will mark
the prices of the day by his purchases ; so that other people, particularly
sellers, observing the prices given by him, will sell briskly and with confi-
dence- There is no use, at any time, of asking a much higher price than
the intrinsic value of your stock, or than you will willingly take ; for, al-
though your stock may be in particularly fine condition, and of good qual-
ity, and therefore worth more than the average price of the market, still
their value must conform to the rate of the market, be it high or low, and
it is not in your power to control it ; though, if prices dissatisfy you, you
have it in your power to take your stock home again. There is a common
saying applicable to all public markets, and is now received as a maxim,
because indicating the truth, that " the first oiler is the best," that is, the
first offer from a bona fiile buyer ; for there are people to be found in all
markets who, having no serious intention of buying at market price, make
a point of offering considerably below it, with the view of catching a bar-
gain from a greenhorn, or from one tried of standing longer in the fair,
and they sometimes succeed in their wishes ; but such people are easily
discovered, and therefore cannot deceive any but inexperienced sellers.
(1167.) There are certain rw/^'.v which, by tacit consent, govern the prin-
ciples upon which all public markets of stork are conducted, and they are
few and simple. There is a custom payable for all stock presented at fairs,
exigible by the lord of the manor, or other recognized authority. After
entering the field, your stock can take up any unoccuyiied position vou
choose, appointed for the particular kind of stock you have to show. No
one, on pretence of purchasing, has a right to interfere with a lot which is
under inspection by another party. Neither have you any right to show
your lot to more than one party at a time, imless each ]iarty consent to it.
Wlien a bargain is made, there is no necessity for striking hands, or ex-
(962)
DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING SHEEP. 483
changing money, as an earnest of it. When a bargain is made, a time
may be stipulated by the purchaser for lifting the stock ; and, until they
are delivered to him or his accredited agents, they continue at the risk of
the seller. When counted over before the purchaser, the price becomes
immediately due. When the money is paid, there is no obligation on the
seller to give a discount ofF'the price, or a luch-pcnny , as it is termed ; but
purchasers sometimes make offers in a way to humor the prejudices of the
seller — that is, they offer the price demanded, on condition of getting back
a cei-tain sum, or amount of luck-penny, to bring the price down to their
own ideas ; in such a case, when such an offer is accepted, the seller must
return the luck-penny conditioned for, when he receives the money. Some-
times, when parties cannot agree as to price, the offerer proposes to abide
by the decision of a third party ; but, in doing this, you virtually relinquish
your power over your own stock. Sometimes bills and bank-postbills are
tendered by dealers in part or entire payment of what they purchase ; but
it is in your power to refuse any form of cash but the legal tender of the
country, such as Bank of England notes, or gold, or silver. If a bill of
exchange or promissory note is proffered instead of ready money, you are
quite entitled to refuse the bargain ; for the usage of trade in a fair implies
the condition of ready money ;* or you may demand a higher price to cover
the risk of the bill being dishonored. The notes of any bank you know to
be good, you will, of course, not refuse. After the stock are delivered,
they are at the risk of the purchaser. Some dealers' top^s-men — that is,
the men who take charge of their master's lots after delivery — demand a
gratuity for their trouble, which you are at liberty to refuse. All these
rules, in as far as relates to money and the delivery of stock, apply to the
stock purchased by dealers on your own farm. When you purchase stock
at a fair, people will be found on the ground willing to render your drover
assistance in taking them out of it, and of setting them fairly on the road.
Such people are useful on such occasions, as it may happen, especially in
the case of sheep, that one or more may break away from their own flock
and mix with another, when there may not only be difficulty in shedding
them out, but those into whose lot yours have strayed may show unwilling-
ness to have their stock disturbed for your sake, though it is in your power
to follow your strayed stock, and claim it anywhere by the wool-mark.
(1168.) The way that fat is laid on sheep while on turnips, and the mode
of judging of a fat sheep, are these ; Hoggs, when put on turnips in win-
ter, are generally lean ; for although they had been in good condition as
lambs when weaned from their mothers in summer, their growth in stature
afterward is so rapid that their flesh is but little intermixed with fat. For
the first few weeks on turnips, even in the most favorable circumstances as
to quality of food, warmth of shelter, dryness of land, and pleasantness
of weather, they make no apparent advancement in condition ; nay, they
rather seem to fall off, and look clapped in the wool, and indicate a ten-
dency to delicacy, in consequence, I suppose, of the turnips operating
medicinally on their constitution as an alterative, if not as a laxative ; but
immediately after that trying period of young sheep, especially trying in
bad weather, is past, when the grass has completely passed through them,
and the stomach and intestines have become accustomed to the more solid
food of the turnip, their improvement is marked, the wool seeming longer
and fuller, the carcass filled out, the eyes clear and full, and the gait firm
and steady. They then thrive rapidly, and the more rapidly the drier the
weather.
The Farmer's Lawyer.
(963)
484 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
(1169.) The formatif)!! of fat in a sheep destined to be fattened, com-
mences in the inside, the nvt of fat which envelops the intestines being
first formed, and a little deposited around the kidneys. After that, fat is
seen on the outside, and first upon the end of the rump at tlie tail-head,
which continues to move on along the hack, on both sides of the spine or
back-bone to the bend of the ribs, to the neck. Then it is depcsited be-
tween the muscles, parallel with the cellular tissue. Meanwhile, it is cov-
ering the lower round of the ribs descending to the flanks, until the
two sides meet under the belly, whence it proceeds to the brisket or
breast in front, and the shaw or cod behind, filling up the inside of the
arm-pits and thighs. While all these depositions are proceeding on the
outside, the ])rogres3 in the inside is not checked, but rather increased, by
the fattening disposition encouraged by the acquired condition ; and hence,
simultaneously, the kidneys become entirely covered, and the space be-
tween the intestines and lumbar region or loin gradually filled up by the
net and kidney fat. By this time, the cellular spaces around each fibre of
muscle is receiving its share, and when fat is deposited there in quantity,
it gives to meat the term ?narblrd. These inter-fibrous spaces are the last
to receive a deposition of fat ; but after this has begun, every other part
simultaneously receives its due share, the back and kidneys receiving the
most, so much so that the former literally becomes rtichcd, as it is termed ;
that is, the fat is felt through the skin to be divided into two portions, from
the tail-head along the back to the top of the shoulder, the tail becoming
thick and stiff", the top of the neck broad, the lower part of each side of the
neck toward the breast full, and the hollows between the breast-bone and
the inside of the fore-legs, and between the cod and the inside of the hind
thighs, filled up. When all this has been accomplished, the sheep is said
to he fat or rij^e.
(1170.) When the body of a fat sheep is entirely overlaid with fat, it is
then in the most valuable state as mutton ; but few sheep lay on fat en-
tirely over their body, one laying the largest proportion on the rump, an-
other on the back ; one on the ribs, another on the flanks ; one on the
parts adjoining the fore-quarter, another on those of the hind-quai1er ; one
more on the inside, and another more on the outside. Taking so many
parts, and combining any two or more of them together, you may expect
to find, in a lot of fat sheep, a considerable variety of condition, and yet
any one is as ripe in its way as any other.
(1171.) Taking these data for your guide, you will be able to detect, by
handling, the state of a sbeej) in its progress toward ripeness. A ripe sheep,
however, is easily known by the vi/e, by the fullness exhibited in all the
external j)arts of the particular animal. It may exhibit wants in some
parts when compared with others, but you easily see that these parts would
never become so ripe as the others ; and this arises from some coristitu-
tional defect in the animal itself, because, if this were not so, there is no
reason why all the parts should not be alike ripe. Whence this defect
arises remains to be considered afterward. The state of a sheep that is
obviously not rijie cannot altog(>ther be ascertained by the eye; it must be
havdicd, that is, it must be subjected to the scrutiny of the hand. Now,
even in so palpable an act as handling discretion is requisite. A full-look-
ing sheep need hardly be handled on tlie nimp, for he would not seem so
full unless fat had been first deposited there. A thin-looking sheep, on
the other hand, should be handled on the rump, and if there be no fat
there, it is useless handling the rest of the body, for assuredly there will
not be so much as to deserve the name of fat. But between these two
extremes of condition there is every variety to be met with ; and on that
(964)
DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING SHEEP. 485
account examination by the hand is the rule, by the eye alone the excep-
tion ; but the hand is much assisted by the eye, whose acuteness detects
deficiencies and redundancies at once. In handling a sheep the points of
the fingers are chiefly employed, and the accurate knowledge conveyed by
them through practice of the true state of condition is truly surprising, and
settles a conviction in the mind that some intimate relation exists between
the external and internal state of an animal. And hence this practical
maxim in the judging of stock of all kinds, that no animal will appear r2^e
to the eye, unless as much fat had previously been laid on in the inside as
his constitutional habit will allow. The application of this rule is easy.
Thus, when you find the rump nicked on handling, you may expect to find
fat on the back ; when you find the back nicked, you would expect the fat
to have proceeded to the top of the shoulder and over the ribs ; and when
you find the top of the shoulder nicked, you would expect to find fat on
the under side of the belly. To ascertain its existence below, you will
have to turn him up, as it is termed ; that is, the sheep is set upon his
rump with his back down and his hind-feet pointing upward and outward.
In this position you see whether the breast and thighs are filled up. Still,
all these alone would not let you know the state of the inside of the sheep,
which should, moreover, be looked for in the thickness of the flank ; in the
fullness of the breast, that is, the space in front from shoulder to shoulder
toward the neck ; in the stiffness and thickness of the root of the tail, and
in the breadth of the back of the neck. All these latter parts, especially
with the fullness of the inside of the thighs, indicate a fullness of fat in
the inside ; that is, largeness of the mass of fat f>n the kidneys, thickness
of net, and thickness of layers between the abdominal muscles. Hence
the whole object of feeding sheep on turnips seems to be to lay fat upon
all the bundles of fleshy fibres, called muscles, that are capable of ac-
quiring that substance ; for as to bone and muscle, these increase in
weight and extent independently of fat, and fat only increases their mag-
nitude.
(1172.) I have spoken of the turning up of a fat sheep; it is done in this
way : Standing on the near side of the sheep, that is, at its left side, put
your left hand under its chin, and seize the wool there, if rough, or the
skin, if otherwise ; place your knees, still standing, against its ribs, then
bowing forward a little, extend your right arm over the far loin of the
sheep, and get a hold of its flank as far down as you can reach, and there
seize a large and firm hold of wool and skin. By this, lift the sheep fairly
off" the ground, and turning its body toward you upon your left knee under
its near ribs, place it upon its rump on the ground with its back to you,
and its hind feet sticking up and away from you. This is an act which
really requii-es strength, and if you cannot lift the sheep off" the ground,
you cannot turn it; but some people acquire a sleight in doing it, beyond
their physical powers. I believe the art consists in jerking the sheep off
its feet at once, before it suspects what you are going to do ; for if you let
it feel that you are about to lift it as a dead weight, the probability is, that
you will not be able to make it lose hold of the ground, as it is surpricii "
how dexterously sheep contrive, in the circumstances, to retain hol'^
the ground with the point of the hoof of the near hind-foot, which, if
cannot force away, you cannot turn the sheep, I remember seeing 4 t.
herds defeated in the attempt to turn 5 dinmonts belonging to the late
Edward Smith, Marledown, Northumberland. None of the shephei.
even the longest and strongest, could turn all the 5 sheep, and one of
them, a short though stout man, could not turn one of them, they were so
broad in the back, so round and heavy. The ability to turn a sheep is
(965J
480 TIIK HOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
not to be regarded as a feat in a shepherd, but a necessary act in connec-
tion with many important operations, as yon shall see afterward.
(1173.) Sheep are easily slaughtcrctl, and the operation is unattended
wiih cruelty. They recjuire some preparation before being deprived of
life, which consists of food being withheld from them for not less than 24
hours, according to the season. The rea.s«in f<u- fastnig sheep before
slaughtering, is to give time for the paunch and intestines to eni])ty them-
selves entirely of food, as it is found when an animal is killed wiih a full
stomach, the meat is more liable to putiely, and not so well flavored; and
as ruminants always retain a large quantity of food in their intestines, it is
reasonable they should fast somewhat longer to get cpiit of it than animals
with single stomachs. Sheep are placed on their side on a stool, called
a killing stool, to be slaughtered, and refjuiring no fastening with cords,
are deprived of life by a thrust of a straight knife through the neck, be-
tween its bone and the windpipe, severing the carotid artery and jugular vein
of both sides, from which the blood flows freely out, and the animal soon
dies. The skin, as far as it is covered with wool, is taken ofl', leaving that
on the legs and head, which are covered with hair, tlie legs being disjoint-
ed by the knee. The entrails are removed by an incision along the belly,
after the carcass has been hung up by the tendons of the houghs. The
net is carefully separated from the viscera, and rolled up by itself; but
the kidney fat is not then extracted. The intestines are jilaced on the in-
ner side of the skin until divided into the pluck, containing the heart,
lungs, and liver ; the hag, containing the stomach ; and the pvdilivgs, con-
sisting of the viscera or guts. The bag and guts are usually thrown away,
that is, buried in the dunghill, unless when the bag is retained and cleaned
for haggis. The pluck is either fiied or made into haggis. The skin is
hung over a rope or pole under cover, with the skin-side uppermost, to
dry in an airy place.*
[* By the Abbe Cornea, a man of great learning and observation, it was remarked that the
people of the United States possessed " iaco«-8tomachs." Their want of relish, not to say their
distaste — more especially females — for mntlon, is one of the obstacles to the extension of sheep hus-
bandry in the United States. An opinion generally prevails — borrowed, as many of our opinions
arc, from England — that mutton does not attain perfection in juiciness and flavor under four or
five years ; but we are disposed to believe, with an experienced victualer of our acquaintance,
and a good judge of mutton, alike in the field and the shambles, that this is a mistake, and that
well-fed and fatted mutton is never better than when it gets its full growth, in its second year;
nor can the farmer afford to keep it longer, unless the wool would pay for the keep. We have
not the epicures and men of wealth who would pay the butcher the extra price, which he must
have, that would enable him to pay a remunerating price to the grazier for keeping his sheep two
or three years over.
The common mistake in the msinagement of mutton in our country is that we eat it exncllt/ at
the wron/r time nfter it in killed. It should be eaten, as a fried chicken should, immediately after
being killed, and, if pos8il)le, before the meat has time to get cold ; or, if not, then it should be
kept a week or more — in tlie ice-house, if the weather require — until the time is just at hand when
the fibre passes the state of toughness which it takes on at first, and reaches that incipient or pre-
liminary point in its progress toward putrefaction when the fibres begin to give way and the meat
becomes tender.
We were gratified lately to see, in a large smokert/ of Mr. Clements, in Philadelphia, quite a
large number of corned lefr^ of mutton, which had been sent in from Ohio. If mutton can be
brought into vogue in that shape, it will be an additional induceni»-nt for rearing sheep in n)any
situations removed from availiible markets.
Who need complain, at a watering-place, if he can sticure for his breakfast or his dinner a good
mutton-chop, such as is to be had at Caldwell's White Sulphur Spring,s, peppered, and broiled,
and Bcrved up hot, icith no gravy but its own ? Can anything be more toothful — more whole-
some J Ed. Farm. Lib.]
(966)
DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING SHEEP.
487
(1174.) The carcass should hang 24 hours in a clean, cool, airy, dry
apartment, before it is cut down. 1 say cool and dnj, for if warm the meat
will not become firm, and if- damp a clamminess will cover it, and will
never feel dry, and have afresh, clean appearance. The carcass is divided
in two by being sawed right down the back-bone. The kidney-fat is then
taken out, being only attached to the peritoneum by the cellular mem-
bx'ane, and the kidney is extracted from the suet — the name given to sheep
tallow in an independent state.
(1175.) In almost every town there is a diffei'cnt way of cutting up a
carcass of mutton ; and, it being here impossible to advert to them all, I
shall select those of Edinburgh and London, and distinguish them as the
Scotch and English modes. Although the English mode is upon the whole
preferable, having been adopted to suit the tastes of a people long acquaint-
ed with domestic economy, it must nevertheless be admitted that meat is
cut up in Scotland in a cleanly and workmanlike manner ; but on the other
hand, it will not be denied by those who have observed for themselves,
that the beauty and cleanliness of meat, as exhibited in London, call forth
the admiration of every connaisseur. The Scotch mode is represented in
fig. 255, where, in the hind-quarter, a is the jigot and h the loin, and, in
the fore-quarter, c the back-ribs and d the breast. It will be observed that
the jigot is cut with a part of the haunch or rump, and the fore-quarter
right through the shoulder into 2 pieces. The English mode is represent-
ed in fig. 256, where, in the fore-quarter, a is the shoulder, b aiid b the
Fig. 255.
Fig. 256.
THE SCOTCH MODE OF CUTTING UP
A. CARCASS OF MUTTON.
THE ENGLISH MODE OF CUTTING UP
A CARCASS OF MUTTON.
neck, and c the breast after the shoulder is removed ; and, in the hind-
quarter, d is the loin and e the leg. The leg here is cut short, without any
of the haunch, like a hara ; and the shoulder is preserved whole.
(1176.) The jigot a, fig. 255, is the handsomest and most valuable part
of the carcass, and on that account fetches the hiahest price. It is either
(967; ^ '■
488 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
a r(5asting or a Itoiling piece. Of Hlack-faceJ mutton it makes a line roast,
and tlie piece of fat in it called the Pope's ei/e is considered a delicate mor-
ceau by epicures. A jigot of Leicester, Cheviot or South-Down mutton
makes a beautiful " boiled leg of mutton," which is jirized the more the
fatter it is, as this part of the carcass is never overloaded with fat. The
loin b is almost always roasted, the flap of the flank being skewered up,
and it is a juicy piece. For a small family, the Black-faced multim is
preferable; for a large, the South-Down and Cheviot. Many consider
this piece of Leicester mutton roasted as too rich, and, when warm, this
is probably the case ; but a cold roast loin is an excellent summer disli. —
The back-rib c is divided into two, and used for very difl^erent purposes.
The fore-part, the neck, is boiled, and makes sweet barley-broth ; and the
meat, when well boiled, or rather the whole pottage simmered for a con-
siderable time beside the fire, eats tenderly. The back-ribs make an ex-
cellent roast ; indeed, there is not a sweeter or metre varied one in the
carcass, having both ribs and shoulder. The shoulder-blade eats best cold,
and the ribs warm. The ribs make excellent chops. The Leicester and
South-Downs afford the best mutton-chops. The breast d is mostly a roast-
ing piece, consisting of rib and shoulder, and is pailicularly good wlien
cold. When the piece is large, as of South-Down or Cheviot, the gristly
part of the ribs may be divided from the true ribs, and helped separately.
The breast is an excellent piece in Black-faced mutton, and suitable to
small families ; the shoulder being eaten cold, while the ribs and brisket
are sweet and juicy when warm. This piece also boils well ; or, when
corned for 8 days, and served with onion sauce, with mashed turnip in it,
there are few more savoiy dishes at a farmer's table. The shoulder a, fig.
256, is separated before being dressed, and makes an excellent roast for
family use, and may be eaten warm or cold, or corned and dressed as the
breast mentioned above. The shoulder is best from a large carcass of
South-Down, Cheviot or Leicester, the Black-faced being too thin for the
purpose ; and it was, probably, because English mutton is usually large,
that the practice of removing it originated. The neck-piece b b is partly
laid bare by the removal of the shoulder, the fore-part being fitted for boil-
ing and making into broth, and the best end for roasting or broiling into
chops. On this account this is a good family piece, and in such request
among the tradesmen of London that they prefer it to any part of the hind-
quarter. Heavy mutton, such as the Leicester, South-Down and Cheviot,
supply the most thrifty neck-piece. The breast c is much the same sort
of piece as in the Scotch method, but the ribs are here left exposed at the
part from which the shoulder has been removed, and constitute what are
called the spare ribs, which may be roasted, or broiled, or corned. The
back end of the breast makes a good roast for ordinary use. The flap of
the loin left attached to this piece may be used in making broth. The
loin (/ is a favorite roast in a family; and when cut double, forming the
chine or saddle, it may grace the head of the table of any public dinnei-.
Any of the kinds of mutton is large enough for a saddle ; but the thicker
the meat, of course the larger the slice. The leg c is cut short and roasted.
When cut long, taking in the hook-bone, it is similar to a haunch of veni-
son, and roasted accordingly. A fat Black-facod wether yields a good
haunch.
(1177.) The different sorts of mutton in common use differ as well in
quality as in quantity. The flesh of the Leicester is large, though not
coarse-grained, of a lively red color, and the cellular tissue between the
fibres contains a considerable quantity of fat. When cooked it is tender
and juicy, yielding a red gravy, and having a sweet, rich taste ; but the fat
(968)
DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING SHEEP. 489
is rather too much and too rich for some people's tastes, and can be pu:
aside ; and it must be allowed that the lean of fat meat is far better than
lean meat that has never been fat. Leicester sheep generally attain to
heavy weights — ^hoggs reaching IS lbs. or 20 lbs., and dinmonts 30 lbs. per
quarter; but the 5 dinmonts which I mentioned before as having defeated
the shepherds in turning up, were 5o lbs. a quarter t)verhead, when killed
at Newcastle in November, a few weeks after they were shown.
(1178.) Cheviot mutton is smaller in the grain, not so bright of color,
with less fat, less juice, not so tender and sweet, but the flavor is higher
and the fat not so luscious. The weight attained by a hogg may be taken
at 14 lbs. or 15 lbs., and by a wether at 22 lbs. ; but Mr. Fairbairn men-
tions having fattened 5 wethers in 1818 which aA'eraged 30 lbs. a quar-
ter.*
(1179.) Black-faced mutton is still smaller in the grain, of a darker color,
with still less fat, but more tender than the Cheviot, and having the high-
est flavor of all. The ordinary weight of a fat wether is about 18 lbs. or
20 lbs. a quarter; but I remember seeing a lot of •5-year-old Black-faced
wethers, exhibited at the first Show of the Highland and Agricultural
Society at Perth, belonging to Lord Panmure, that averaged 40 lbs. a
quarter.
(1180.) The mutton of South-Downs is of medium fineness in grain,
color pleasant red, fat well intermixed with the meat, juicy, tenderer than
the Cheviot, and of pleasant though not of so high a flavor as the Black-
faced. The ordinary weight may be from 16 lbs. to 22 lbs. a quarter, but
3 wethers exhibited by Mr. Grantham, at the Show of the Smithfield Club
in 1835, weighed, on the average, 41^ lbs. a quarter.t
(1181.) Tup-mutton of any breed is always hard, of disagreeable flavor,
and in autumn not eatable. The mutton of old ewes is dry, hard and taste-
less, but of young well enough flavored, but still rather dry. Hogg-mut-
ton is sweet, juicy and tender, but flavorless. And wether-mutton is the
meat in perfection, according to its kind.
(1182.) The average quantity of fat afforded by each sheep of every
class, sold in any given market in Scotland, is perhaps not great. Li Glas-
gow, for example, where heavy animals of all sorts are generally sold, the
fat afforded by all the sheep — consisting chiefly, I presume, of Cheviot and
Black-faced — exclusive of lambs, amounting to 57,520 hend, sold in 1822,
was only, on the average, 4 lbs. 13 oz. per head.| From 8 lbs. to 12 lbs,
is the ordinary quantity obtained from Leicester sheep slaughtered on farms
of good land ; and in Edinburgh I find that 7 lbs. is considered an average
from Black-faced and Cheviot sheep, which shows that the quality of mut-
ton sold there is better than that in Glasgow.
(1183.) iVs you may frequently hear it remarked in the course of your
experience as a farmer, that 5-year-old mutton is the best, it is worth
while considering whether the case can be so. Two subjects of inquiry
immediately present themselves on heainng this remark : one, whether
sheep require 5 years to put them in condition for use 1 and the other is,
whether it is treating them properly to postpone putting them in condi-
tion for use until they shall attain the age of 5 years % If truth is implied
in the first inquiry, then that breed of sheep must be very unprofitable
Avhich takes five years to attain its best state ; but there is no breed of
sheep in Great Britain which requires 5 yocirs to bring it to perfection.
Therefore, if truth is implied in the second inquiry, then it must be folly
to restrain sheep coming to perfection until they have attained the age of
* A Lamtnermuir Farmer's Treatise on Sheep in High Districts. t Youatt on Sheep.
t Cleland'8 Account of the Highland and Agricultural Society's Show at Glasgow, in 1828.
(969)
490 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
5 years. It is not alleged hy the lovers of 5-year-old mutton that it be-
stows profit on the farmer, for the allegation only insists on its being best
at that age. But such an allegation involves one of two absurd conditiong
in Agriculture ; namely, the keeping a breed of sheep that cannot, or the
keeping (tf one that you should not allow to attain to perfection before it is
5 years. Either of these conditions makes it obvious that mutton cannot
be in its hist state at 5 years. The fact is, the idea of 5-year-old mutton
being super-excellent, is founded on a prejudice, which probably arose
from this circumstance : Jiefore winter foinl which could maintain the con-
dition on stock that had been accjuired in summer, was discovered, sheep
lost much of their summer-condition in winter, and of course an oscilla-
tion of condition occurred year after year until they attained the age of
5 years ; when their teeth beginning to fail, would cause them to lose
their condition the more rapidly. Hence, it was expedient to slaughter
them not exceeding 5 years of age ; and, no doubt, at that age mutton
would be high flavored that had been exclusively fed on natural pasture
and natural hay. But such treatment of sheep cannot now be justified on
the principles of modern practice ; because both reason and taste concur
in mutton being at its best whenever sheep attain their j)erfcct state of growth
and condition, not their largest and heaviest ; and as one breed attains its
perfect state at an earlier age than another, its mutton attains its best lie-
fore another breed attains its best state, although its sheep may be older ;
but taste alone prefers one mutton to another, even when both are in their
best state, from some peculiar property. The Black-faced sheep, for in-
stance, it is prefeiTed by many, because of the flavor of its mutton ; and
this property it has most probably actjuired from the heathy pasture upon
which it is brought up. But if flavor alone is to decide the point, the
Welch mutton is much the superior. So far as juiciness is concerned, a
Leicester hogg has more of it than any Black-faced sheep ; and the darkness
of the flesh of the latter arises solely from the breed, as it seems to fonn
the connecting link, in this country, between the sheep and the goat, the
latter of which always has dark-colored flesh. Judged by the scale of
perfection of growth, Leicester mutton is best in the dinmont ; and as it
may require five years to bring a Black-faced wether to that state when
constantly confined upon the hills, Black-faced mutton may then be con-
sidered in its best state, because it is 5-year-old, but so far from being in
the condition it would have attained had it been brought down to the low
country when a lamb and fed upon the best food, it would still be lean,
and, of course, not in a state of perfect growth ; whereas, in the low coun-
try, it would attain perfection of growth at 3 years, and then its mutton
must be at its brst ; for beyond that age — that is, if kept to 5 years on such
food — it would become too fat, and lose much of its delicacy. The cry for
5-year-old mutton is thus based on very untenable grounds.
(1184). Markets for sheep are held in all large towns, and the butchers
in the small ones sujiply themselves from the farmers. The Edinburgh
weekly market, on Wednesday, supplies the Black-faced mutton in perfec-
tion, and the Cheviot is also very good. In Morjieth, on Wednesdays, are
to be seen Leicesters in the higliest state of condition, which are brought
up with avidity for the colliers around Newca.stle. In London, on Mon-
days, the South-Downs are seen in great perfection, this being the favorite
mutton of the Capital;
(1185). A great trade in the transmission of live-stock and meat from the
east coast of Scotland to London, has arisen since the establishment of
steam navigation. From inquiry, I found that, in the year ending May
1837, there were shipped 4,221 old sheep, and 11,672 barrel-bulk of meat,
(970)
DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING SHEEP. 491
chiefly mutton, which, at 21 cwt. per harrel-bulk, give 29,1751 cwt* The
meat is sent by butchers at the different shipping ports, and the live-stock
by dealers, butchers and farmers. When you determine to send your stock
to London, you should, in the first place, establish a correspondence with
a live-stock salesman, who will pay all charges on board ship and at mar-
ket, and remit the balance in course of post. The charges consist of
freight, which for sheep is 3s. 6d. a herd, commission, hay or grass on
board, dues and wharfage, hay or grass on shore, and driving to market.
You will, of course, never ship meat, but you should, nevertheless, be well
acquainted with all the pieces into which a carcass of beef or mutton is
cut up, that you may know whether your stock is of the description to
supply the most valuable pieces of meat ; for, without this knowledge, un-
less, in short, you know the wants of a market, you cannot know whether
you are supplying its requirements, or whether your stock ought to realize
the top prices.
(1186.) On the supposition that you send sheep to London by steam on
your own account, they should be of the following description, to com-
mand the best prices, and unless they are so you had much rather dispose
of them at home. They should be ripe, compact, and of light weight;
caiTying a large proportion of lean on the back, loins, and shoulders, with
a full, round leg and handsome carcass. Such, from 14 lbs. to 20 lbs. a
quarter, will take readily, but they will draw the most money at from 16
lbs. to 18 lbs. The nearer in their form and quality they approach the
South-Downs, the more likely to command top prices. True-bred Cheviots
and the Black-faced Linton breed approach very near to the South-Down,
and command as high a price. Half-breds, between Leicester tups and
the above sorts of Cheviot and Black-faced ewes, form valuable sheep.
The old Black-faced breed are too tJiin, and therefore styled goaty in
Smithfield, and when only half-fat, or lialf-mcatcd, as the condition is there
termed, fetch middling prices, however good their flavor may be. Pure-
bred Leicesters are too fat, unless sent young, and not exceeding 20 lbs.
a quarter, but abeve that weight, fetch inferior prices, so much so that a
difference of only Id. per lb. may perhaps constitute all the difference be-
tween a profit and loss on their export. This last remark applies to every
other breed, and shows the expediency of only exporting the best form of
sheep.
(1187.) Never attempt to drive stock on foot on your own account to a
distant market, when you have steam-conveyance to the place of destina-
tion. A simple comparison of the results of the two methods of travelino-
will show you at once the advantage of steam-conveyance. It has been
ascertained that a journey of 400 miles on land causes a loss of 6 stones
out of 40 stones, or 12 per cent. ; whereas the loss by steam is only 2
stones out of 50. But besides this great difference in the loss itself, the
state in which the remainder of the flesh is left, it is worth 6d. a stone less
after land travel ; and when stock are sent to graze in that state, they re-
quire a month to take with the pasture, whereas the steam-carried will
thrive again at the end of a fortnight. Besides all these disadvantages of
land travel, the juices of the meat of fat stock never I'ecover their natural
state, while, by being carried by steam, they do. \Vere heavy and high-
conditioned stock to be traveled by land, they would inevitably sink under
the attempt, while by steam any degree of condition may be conveyed
* See an article on the preparation of live-stock and meat for exportation by steam, in vol. viii. of the
Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, drawn up by me on information derived from Mr. James Dickson, in
Orkney, who has had great ^perience in every matter relating to meat and live-stock ; and also from
other sources.
(971)
492
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
%vith comparative case. The time, too, spent on a land journey is of
consideration, when a more expeditious mode of traveling is in your op-
tion.
(use.) With regard to the relative weights of o&'al and meat afforded by sheep, there are
recorded instances of their proportions, and of a fat South-Down wether they were these,
namely :
Live tceiehJ, 13 $1., 10 lit.
Meat. Lbs. Oz.
Fore quarter 29 0
do 28 12
Hbd-quarter 33 8
do 32 0
Ofpau Lb*. Oz.
Blood and entrails 13 0
Caul and loose fat 21 4
Headand pluck 8 12
Pelt 15 12
Total 58 12 Total 113 4*
I mav mention that the carcn$t consists of the entire useable meat of the body, which, when
e^we'd down the middle of die backbone, is divided into two xiWc*, which, when again divided
bv tl)e 5th rib. mak(.-.'< tlie carcass to consist of 4 quarlers. The remainder of the animal consists
of offal — namoly, of fat, entrails, head and skin. In purcliasinar fat livestock, the butcher is sup-
posed to pay the market value of the carcass, bone and meal to the farmer, reserving the offal to
himself for his profit and risk. The relative proportions of mutton and offal have probably never
been absolutely a.«certained. as they must differ in diflerent breeds nf sheep; but there is little
doubt that, in the Leicester breed, the meat bears a liiahcr proportion to tlie offal than in any other
breed. In the above case, the meat is about 3 and oHal i of the whole weight ; or. more nearly,
the meat is as 12.TJ : 182. and the offal as 58J : 182. And in the same breed it has been said that
the proportion of bone is as low as 1 oz. to 1 lb. flc.«h ; but I much doubt this, because Mr. Dono-
van found in a leg' of mutton, which is the most fleshy part of the carcass in proportion to the bone
in it, weiching 9i lbs., 16 oz. of bone ; another of 9 lbs. 6 oz., 15 oz. ; and a leg of small Scotch
mutton, of only 6 lbs. weight, afforded lOJ oz. of bone.
(1189.) There is a rule mentioned by Mr. EUman. of Glyndc, in Sussex, bv which the age of
mutton may be a-scertained by certain marks on the carcass, and it i.« an infallible one. He saj-e:
" Observe the color of the breaai-bone when a sheep is dre.«sod — that is, where the breastbone is
separated — which, in a lamb, or before it is 1 year old, will be quite red ; from 1 to 2 years old,
the upper and lower bone will be changing to white, and a small circle of white will appear round
tlie edires of the other bones, and the middle part of the breast bone will yet continue red ; at 3
years old, a vcn,- small streak of red will be seen in the middle of the 4 middle bones, aad tlie oth-
ers will be white ; and at 4 years, all the breast-bone will be of a white or gristly color.'*t
(1190.) The experiments of Mr. Donovan prove that meat of all kinds loses a considerable pro-
portion of weight on being cooked. His results on mutton were : The average loss on boiling
legs of mutton is 10 per cent.; so that, if the butchers' price were fid. per lb., the boiled mutton
would cost 7jd. The average loss of roaslim: legs of mutton is 27 7-10 per cent. ; so that, at the
butcher's price of 6d. per lb., the roasted mutton would cost 83d. per lb. The average loss of
roa.stin^ shoulders of mutton is 28 per cent. ; and, were the butcher's price 5d. per lb., the roasted
shoulder would cost fi 9-10il. per lb. Tlie average lo.«s, therefore, in boiling mutton is 10 per cent.,
and in roasting it 27 85100 per cent These results differ considerably from tliose obtained by
Professor Wallace, who, in the case ofboilirtfr 100 lbs. of mutton, delected a loss of 21 J per cent.,
instead of 10 per cent.; and in that o( roafting 100 lbs., the loss was 31 J instead of 28 per cent. —
These discrepancies miirlit, perhaps, be easily explained were we acquainted with everj- partic-
ular connected with both sets of experiments, such as the state of the meat before and after being
cotiked. In these respects, in his own experiments. Mr. Donovan says: " I used meat of suffi-
cient but not unprofitable fatness, such as is preferred by families ; the meat was, in all cases, a
little rare at its center, and the results were determined with the uinio.st care.'J
(1191.1 Good ham may be made of any part of a carcass of mutton, though the leg is preferred,
and for this purjiose it is cnt in the English fashion. It should be rubbed all over ^v^lh good Liv-
erpool salt, and a little saltpetre, for 10 minutes, and then laid in a dish and covered with a cloth
for 8 or 10 days. After that it should be rubbed again slightly for about 5 minutes, and then hung
op in a dry place, say the roof of the kitchen, until used. "VVether mutton is used for hams, be-
cause it is fat, and it may be cured any time from November to May ; but tup mutton makes the
large.'-t and highest flavored ham, provided it be cured in spring, because it is out of season in
autumn.
(1192.) There is an economical way of using fat mutton well adapted for the laboring people of
a farm. The only time Scotch farm-ser%-ant8 indulge in butcher-meat is when a sheep falh. as it
is termed — that is, when it is killed before being affected with an unwholesome disoa»e, and the
mutton is ft lid at a reduced price. Shred down the suet small, removing any flesh or cellular
membrane adhering to it ; then mix among it intimately \ oz. of salt and a tea-spoonful of pepper
to even,- pound of suet : put the mixture into an earthen jar, and tie up tightly with bladder. One
table-spoonful of seasoned suqj will, at any time, make good barley-broth or potato soup for two
persons. The lean of the mutton may be shred down small, and seasoned in a similar manner,
and used when required ; or it may be conied with salt, and used as a joint
(1193.) Where Leicester sheep are bred, and the farmer kills his own mutton, suet will accu-
mulate beyond what can be used for domestic purposes. As long as it is fre.sh it should be rynd-
ed or rendered, as it is termed — that is, prepared for preservation — because the fibrous and fleshy
matter mixed with it soon promotes putrefaction. It should be cnt in small pieces, removing only
fleshy matter. It is then put in an earthem jar, which is placed within a pot containing warm
* Sussex Agricultural Report. t British Husbandry, rdl iL | Donovan's Domestic Economy, vol ii.
(972)
DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING SHEEP. 493
water, at the side of the fire, merely to simmer, and not to boil. As every portion put in is melt
ed. another succeeds, until the whole is melted ; and the melted mass should be very frequently
stirred. Suet melts at from 98^ to 104^ Fahr. After being fused a considerable time, the mem-
braueous matter comes to the lop, and is taken off; and when obtained in quantity, and squeezed,
this scum constitutes the cracklhisrs which are sometimes used for feedinir dogs. The purified
suet may then be poured through a cullender, into a dish containing a little water, upon which it
consolidates into a cake ; and the cakes are either sold to the candle-makers or candles taken in
exchange. " Many plans for purifying fats,'' says Ure, '• have been proposed. One of the best
is to mix 2 per cent, of strong sulphuric acid with a quantity of water, in which the tallow is heat-
ed for some time with much stirring, to allow the materials to cool, to take off the supernatant fat,
and re-melt it with abundance of hot water. More tallow will thus be obtained, and that consid-
erably whiter and harder than is usually procured bj- the melters."* Some people melt suet in
a potover the fire, where it is apt to be burnt ; and some even fry it in a frj-ing-pan, which may
answer for culinary purposes, but cannot, of course, be disposed of to the candle-makers.
(1194.) Mutton suet consists of about 77 parts of stearine and 23 of oleine in every 100 parts. —
The former is solid, the latter fluid. The specific gravity of suet is 0936. When a piece of solid
suet is bix)ken, innumerable minute granules separate from the mass; and these, when examined
by the microscope, exhibit definite forms, being polyhedral, bounded within the limits of a sphere,
or oblong, of very firm consistence, and. when measured, give dimensions varying in length from
1 400 to 1-900, and in breadth from 1-200 to 1-.500 part of an iuch.t The constituent parts of suet,
according to Chevreul, are carbon 78 996, hydrogen 11-700. and oxygen 9-304.|
(1195.) Fat is very generalh* distributed in the animal frame. It is " abundant under the skin,
in what is called the cellular membrane, round the kidneys, in the folds of the omentum, at the
base of the heart, in the mediastinum, the mesenteric web, as well as upon the surface of the in-
testines, and among manj- of the muscles. It varies in consistence, color and smell, according to
the animal from which it is obtained. Thus, it is generally fluid in the cetaceous tribes, soft and
rank-flavored in the carnivorous, solid and nearly scentless in the ruminants ; usually white and
copious in well-fed young animals, yellowish and more scant}- in the old. Its consistence varies
also according to the organ of its production, being firmer under the skin and in the neighborhood
of the kidneys than among the movable viscera. Fat forms 1-20 of the weight of a healthy ani-
mal ; but as taken out bj' the butcher it is not pure, for, being of a ve.sicular structure, it is always
inclosed in membranes, mixed with blood, blood-ves.sels. lymphatics, <5cc.''||
(1196.) Sheep is one of the mo.st useful, and therefore one of the most valuable, of onr domestic
animals ; it not only supports our life by its nutritious ilesli, but clothes our bodies with its com-
fortable wool. All writers on diet have agreed in de.scribinc: mutton as the most valuable of the
articles of.huraan food. "Pork maybe more stimulating, beef perhaps more nutritious, when the
digestive povvers are strong; but. while there is in mutton sufficient nutriment, there is also that
degree of consistency and readine.^s of assimilation which renders it most congenial to the human
stomach, most easy of digestion, and most coutributable to he-dlth Of it, almost alone,
can it be said that it is our food in sickness as well as in health; its broth is the first thing that an
invalid is permitted to taste, the first thing that he relishes, and is his natural preparation for a re-
turn to his common aliment.^ In the same circumstances, it appears that fresh mutton, broiled or
boiled, takes 3 hours to digest ; fre.sh mutton, roasted, 3^ hours ; and mutton-suet, boiled, 4J
hours.H
(1197.) But the products of sheep are not merely useful to man, they also promote his luxuries.
The skin of sheep is made into leather, and. when .so manufactured with the fleece on, makes
comfortable mats for the doors of our rooms, and rugs for our carriages. For this purpose the best
skins are selected, and such as are covered with the longest and most beautiful fleece. Tanned
sheepskin is used in coarse book-binding. White sheep-.skin. which is not tanned, but so manu-
factured by a peculiar process, is used as aprons by many classes of artisans, and, in Agriculture,
as gloves in harvest : and, when cut into strips, as twine for sewing together the leathern cover-
ings and stuffings of horse-collars. Morocco leather is made of sheep skins as well as of croats, and
the bright-red color is given to it by cochineal. Russia leather is also made of .sheep-skins, the
peculiar odor of which repels insects from its vicinity, and resists the mould arising from damp —
the odor being imparted to it in curry inq-, by the empyreumatic oil of the bark of the birch tree.
Besides soft leather, sheep-skins are made into a fine, flexible, thin substance, known by the name
of parchment ; and, thousfh the skins of all animals might be converted into writing materials, only
those of the sheep and she-goat are used for parchment. The finer quality of the substance called
vellum is made of the skins of ki<ls and dead-born lambs, and for the manufacture of which the
town of Strasburgh has long been celebrated.
(1198.) Mutton-suet is used in the manufacture of common candlex, whh a proportion of ox-tal-
low. Minced suet, subjected to the action of high-pressure steam in a digester at 2.50^ or 260^
Fahr., becomes so hard as to be sonorous when struck, whiter, and capable, when made into can-
dles, of giving verj- superior light. Stearic candles, the late invention of the celebrated Guy-Lu.s-
sac, are manufactured .solely from mutton suet.
(1199.) Besides the fat, the intestines of sheep are manufactured into various articles of luxury
and utility, which pass under the absurd name of catgut. "All the intestines of sheep," says Mr.
Youatt, "are composed of 4 coats or layers, as in the horse and cattle. The outer or periloncal
one is formed of that membrane by which every portion of the belly and its contents is invested,
and confined in its natural and proper situation. It is highly smooth and polished, and it secretes
a watery fluid which contributes to preserve that smoothness, and to prevent all friction and con-
cussion during the diSereut motions of the animals. The second is the muxciilar coat, by means
* Ure's Dictionary of the Ana, art. Fat. t Raspail's Organic Chemistry,
t Liebig's Animal Chemistry. || Ure's Dictionar}- of the Arts, art. Fai.
§_ Edinburgh Encyclopfeclia, art. Aliments, as quoted by Youatt on Sheep.
T[ Combe on Digestion and Dietetics.
(973)
494
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
of which the contenta of the intestines are gradually,' propelled from the stomach to the rectam,
thence to be expelled when all the useful nutriment is extracted. The muscles, as in all the other
intestines, are disposed in two layers, the fibres of the outer coat taking a longitudinal direction,
and the inner layer being circular ; an arrangement diHcreut from that of the muBclcs of the (rso-
phagus, and in both l)eautilully adapted to the n-epcctive functions of the tube. The submucous
coat comes next. It is composed of numerous glands, surrounded by cellular tissue, and by w liich
the inner coat is lubricated, so that there may be no obstruction to the passage of the food. The
mucous coat is the soft villous one lining the intestinal cavity. In its healuiy state, it is always
covered with mucus ; and when the glands beneath are stimulated — as under the action of pin >.c
— the quantity of mucus is increased ; it becomes of a more watery character ; the contents of ilu^
intestines are softened and dissolved by it ; and by means of t)ie increased action of the muscular
coat, which, as well as the mucous one, feels the stimulus of the physic, the fajces are hurried on
more rapidly ami discharged."* In the manufacture of some sorts of cords from the intestines of
Bheep, the outer peritoneal coat is taken oiTand manufactured into a thread to sew intestines, and
make the cords of rackets and battledores. Future washings cleanse the guts, which are then
twisted into diftbrentsizi'd cords for various purposes. Some of the best known of those purposes
are whip-cords, hatters' cords for bow-strings, clock-makers' cord, bands for spinning-wneels
(which have now almost become obsolete), and fiddle and harp strings. Of this last class of cords
— the source of one of our highest pleasures — it has long been subject of regret that those manu-
factured in England should be so inferior in goodness and sireiiv'ih to those of Italy ; and the rea-
son assigned is that the sheep of Italy are both smaller niid leaner than those of this country. —
The difficulty lies, it seems, in making the treble strings from the fine peritoneal coat, their chief
fault being weakness, whence the smaller ones are hardly able to bear the stretch retjuired for
the higher notes in concert-pitch — maintaining, at the same time, in their form and construction,
that tenuity or smallness of diameter which is required to produce a brilliant and clear tone.t —
However contemptible this subject may appear in the estimation of some, it is worth attending to
by those interested in enhancing the profits of our native products, and more especially when it
is considered that harp-strings sell as high as from 6d. to 28. apiece.
(1200.) While adverting to the uses of the skin of the sheep, it may be useful to give an idea
of its physical structure, a knowledge of \\ hich being requisite for an acquaintance of the ration-
ale of its di.sea.ses. " It is composed of 3 textures. Extenially is the aiticic or scarf-skin, which
is thin, tough, devoid of feeling, and pierced by innumerable minute holes, tlirough which pass
the fibres of the wool and the insensible perspiration. It seems to be of a scaly texture ; but this
is not so evident in the sheep as in many other animals, on account of a peculiar substance, the
yolk, which is placed on it to nourish and protect the roots of the wool. It is, however, plainly
enough to be seen in the scab and other cutaneous eruptions to which the sheep is liable. Below
tliis is the rete niiicosum, a soft .structure, its fibres having scarcely more consistence than mucil-
age, and being with great difficulty separated from the skin beneath. This seems to be placed as
a defence to the termination of the bloodvessels and nerves of the skin, and these are in a manner
enveloped and covered by it. The color of the skin, and probably that of the hair or wool also, is
determined by the re/c miicosiim, or at least the hair and wool are of the same color as this sub-
stance. Beneath is the cii/ix or true skin, composed of innumerable minute fibres crossing each
other in every direction — highly elastic, in order to fit clo.sely to the parts beneath, and to yield to
the various motions of the body ; and dense and firm in its .structure, that it may resist external
injury. Blood-vessels and nerves, countless in number, pierce it, and appear on its surface under
the form of pnpiUfC, or minute eminences; while, through thousands of orifices, the exhalant ab-
sorbents pour out the superfluous or redundant fluid. The true skin is composed principally or
almost entirely of gelatine ; so that, although it may be dissolved by long continued boiling, it is
insoluble in water at the common temperature. This organization seems to have been given to it
not only for the sake of its preservation, while on the living animal, but that it may become after-
ward useful to man." It would appear that there are cireum.stances which materially limit the
action of the power of excretion and absorption in the skin of the sheep. It is surrounded by a
peculiar secretion, adhesive and impenetrable to moisture, the yolk, destined chiefly to preserve
the wool in a soft, pliable and healthy state. On this account there can be little perspiration go-
ing forward from the skin, and hence few diseases are referable to change in that excretion. Al.so,
there is little radiation of animal heat, both on account of the interposition of the yolk, and of the
non conducting power of the wool. The caloric disengaged from a sheep is only 1-7 part of that
froin man. though the weight of the animal is \ of that of man — that is, only half the animal heat
radiates from a sheep, from a given surface, that does from a man. This it is which enables the
ewe and its lamb to endure the colds of spring without detriment; and also, when sheep are
crowded together in an open fold, no unnatural or diuigerous state of heat is tliereby produced.^
* Youatt on .''hccp.
t Ure's DicliouHiy of tho Arts, art. Calgut ; nleo, Leather, Parchment. J Youatt on Sheep.
(974)
REARING AND FEEDING CATTLE ON TURNIPS. 495
32. REARING AND FEEDING CATTLE ON TURNIPS IN WINTER.
" The cattle from th' untasted fields retura,
And ask, with meaning low, their wonted Btalls,
Or ruminate in the contiguous shade."
Thomson.
(1201.) The first thing to be done with the courts in the steading, before
being taken possession of by the cattle, is to have them littered plentifnlly
with straw. The first Uttering should be abundant, as a thin layer of straw
upon the bai'e ground makes an uncomfortable bed ; whereas a thick one
is not only comfortable in itself, but the lower part of it acts as a drainer
to the heap of manure above it. There is more of comfoit for cattle in-
volved in this little affair than most farmers seem to be aware of; for it is
obvious that the first layer of litter, when thin, will soon get trampled
down, and in rainy weather soon become poached — that is, saturated with
wet and pierced with holes by the cattle's feet — so that any small quantity
of litter that is afterward laid upon it will but absorb the moisture below
it, and never afford a dry laii to the cattle. On the other hand, when the
first layer is thick, it is not poached even in wet weather, because it is
with difficulty pierced through by feet, and it instantly drains the moisture
that falls upon it, and of course keeps the bedding comparatively dry.
(1202.) There is, however, sometimes a difficulty of obtaining sufficient
straw at this season, from various causes, among which may be mentioned
a dislike in farmers to thresh a stack or two of the new crop at so early a
period, even when there is no old straw or old stack of com to thresh ; but
however recently formed the stacks may be, and inconvenient to thresh
their produce at the time, it should be done rather than stint the cattle of
bedding ; and should bad weather immediately set in — an event not un-
likely to happen — the cattle may be so chilled in their ill-littered quarters
as not entirely to recover from it during the winter ; and hence may arise
a serious reduction of profit.
(1203.) It may happen, on the other hand, with plenty of old stacks,
there may be want of water to drive the threshing-machine ; and this is
no uncommon predicament at the commencement of winter on many farms
which depend upon surface-water for their supply ; and a windmill is in
no better plight in want of wind. Where such contingencies may happen,
a sufficient quantity of litter should be provided for in good time, and
there are various ways of doing this. Those who still use the flail may
employ it at any season; and those having horse threshing-mills are
equally independent. Access to bog-land gives the command of making
coarse hei'bage into hay during summer ; but in regard to the use of other
products of bog-land for litter, precaution is requisite, for the turfy mattp^^
on the top on being used as a bottoming for courts, with the view of
sorbing their moisture, will inevitably become as a sponge of watei a
the first fall of rain, and the cattle will soon render the whole beddir
poached mass. I once tried the experiment under the most favorable
cumstances of getting the turf well dried, and yet could not get rid of
inconvenience of poaching until the courts were entirely cleared of tl
contents. Those who are annoyed with ferns in their pastures should
them down and won them for fitter, and a most excellent foundation t
(975)
496 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
make for straw. Those who can cut grass, or gather dry leaves in woods,
should do so in summer, or immediately after harvest, for a day or two,
with the harvest people. By attending to one or all of these provident
measures, a comfortable lied may be j)r<jvided for cattle at the commence-
ment of the season, under the most unfavorable circumstances in regard to
a coremand of straw.
(1204.) Suj)pose, then, that all the courts and hammcls are plentifully
littered f(»r the reception of tiie cattle, the next step is to arrange the dif-
ferent classes of cattle in their respective places. The different classes of
cattle are cows, calves of the year, 1-year-olds, 2-year-olds, bulls, heifers
in' calf, and any extra cattle.
(12Uo.) Cou-s occupy the byre Q, fig. 3, Plate III. (42.) Each should al-
ways occupy the stall she has been accustomed to, and all will then go and
come into their stalls without interfering with one another. They- thus
learn to become very quiet in the stall, both to the cattle-man who feeds
them, and the dairy-maid who milks them. Each stall should have a
manger c, fig. 10 (47), elevated 20 inches above the floor, lined with wood
or stone, and having an edging of plank 8 inches in depth, t(» keep in the
food. The usual plan is to place the mangers of byres on a level with the
floor, down to which the cow has to stretch her neck to get to the turnip,
or other food, and in doing this she is obliged to suppcut herself almost
wholly on one leg. This awkwardness of position is itself a certain proof
that the animal is ill at ease while eating. There should be as much room
behind the manger to the gutter as to allow the cow to lie at ease, whatever
be her size, like a horse in a stall with a low hay-rack. Each stall should
have a travis-board to separate it from the next (149), Some people are
gi-eat advocates for double stalls, both in byres and stables, to hold a pair
of animals each. In a byre, that plan is objectionable for several reasons ;
a cow is a capricious creature, and not always friendly to her neighbor,
and one of them, in that case, must be bound to the stake on the same
side as she is milked from ; to avoid which inconvenience to the dairy-maid,
the cow must be put aside nearer her neighbor in the same stall, which
may prove unpleasant to both parties, or her neighbor in the adjoining
stall be put aside nearer her neighbor, which may prove equally inconve-
nient. Neither is it a matter of indifference to the cow fnmi which side
she is milked, for many will not let down their milk if the milk-maid sits
down to the unaccustomed side. The safest plan, therefore, in every re-
spect, is for each cow to' have her own stall. The floor of the stall should
be causewayed only as far as shown at ?n, fig. 10, and the remainder at J"
should be of beaten earth, and this plan is intended to save the fore-
knees of cows from injury. Cattle lie down and rise up by resting on the
fore-knees, and when they have to do so on a hard pavement, injury will
likely arise to the knees, if the pavement is not always covered with litter.
I remember seeing a valuable Short-Horn cow, in Ireland, get injured in
the knees from this cause ; they swelled so much and continued so long in
a tender state that she would not lie down at all ; and all the while her
owner was not aware of the cause until I suggested it. On the removal of
the pavement, and proper treatment of the parts aflected, they recovered.
Cows are bound to the stake ?i, fig. 10, either by seal c il, fig. 11, or Laikie,
e k g, fig. 12, and either secures the animal suftiriently. The seal is made
entirely of iron chain, and slides up and down the inclined stake // by
means of the iron ring d ; the baikie is made partly of wood e, and partly
of rope 1c and g. Of the two modes of ligature I jircfer the seal, because
its construction permits the animal turning its head so much round as to
be able to lick herself as far as the loin, whereas the baikie only admits of
REARING AND FEEDING CATTLE ON TURNIPS. 497
a constrainetl up and clown motion along a perpendicular stake (48) ; and,
besides, it is an impracticable mode of binding in connection with the use
of a manger, because it prevents the animal stepping back to avoid it.
(1206.) Calves of the year should occupy court K, fig. 3, Plate III. (62. ^
In such receptacles they are put together male and female, strong and weak,
but having plenty of trough room around two of the walls, they can all be
amply provided with food at the same time, without the danger of the
stronger buffeting about the weaker. The openings into the shed in
which they take up their abode at night is at D, and in the center of the
court stands the straw-rack o, formed like fig. 19 where straw is scarce, as
on gi-avelly soils, or like figs. 20 and 21 where it is plenty. The troughs
for the tuniips are fitted up as in fig. 18, which is there represented as a
short one, to show the finishings of the ends, but which, of course, may be
extended to any length, as may be seen hy z in K, fig. 4, Plate IV. There
is a water-trough w in the same court, it being essential for young stock to
have water at will, and especially when they do not get as many turnips as
they can eat. When they do, cattle do not feel the want of water, the
juice of the turnip supplying them with sufficient liquid. In the same
Plate IV. may be seen the shed D, under the granary, connected with the
court K, having a straw-rack h' fitted up at one end. The tuniip-store for
this court is at g ; and x is the mouth of the liquid-manure drain, to carry
off any superfluous watei". In the calves of the year occupying this court
K, where there is a good deal of traffic in going to and from the corn-baiTt
C, the young creatures will become familiarized with the people, and have
a chance of getting pickings of com from the bam.
(1207.) The court I is fitted up precisely with the same conveniences of
feeding-troughs z, water-trough w, straw-racks h' and o, and turnip-store ?,
as the other court for the 1-year-olds. It will be observed that the shed
D, in both courts, has two entrances, which is the usual plan ; but, in my
opinion, the comfort of the cattle is more secured with only one entrance,
inasmuch as all draft is prevented ; and although the object of two en-
trances is a laudable one in affording a means of escape to a beast that may
be ill-used by the rest, that advantage to one is dearly bought at the sacri-
fice of comfort to the others, and after all it is doubtful whether the contin-
gency can be avoided in this way.
(1208.) As I have said before (62), I prefer hammels to large courts, for
young beasts ; because the heifers could be separated from the steers, and
each of the classes subdivided to suit color, strength, age, temper, or any
other point in which a few agree, and differ from the rest ; and it is sur-
prising how much better the same beasts look when assorted. In a large
court, all are put together, and, if there be plenty of room for every one
to do as it likes, no harm may accrue ; but where too many are croWded
together, which is almost always the case on farms where winterings are
bought, some will be knocked about and kept back from their meat, and
obliged to eat it at untimeous hours ; and in either plight will be stinted
in their growth and condition. Only one beast so used makes a serious
drawback on the value of the lot, for it must be drafted from the rest and
sold separately, at a reduced price, to the vexation of the owner, whin too
late to retiieve the loss. Now, no such occurrence can take place in ham-
mels, where every difference in character, age, and strength of animals,
can be nicely assorted ; and this is the more requisite in beasts that hare
been bought in to be fed, than those brought up together at home.
(1209.) The 2-7/^ar-oM5, intended to he fattened for the butcher, occupy
the hammels M, where are inner sheds at M, feedinor-trouo-hs c, liquid-
rams x, in the courts, and where fodder is supplied in the mside
(977) 3* ^^
498 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
of the sheds, in racks, in three of the comers, and tlie tuniip-stores of
which are at e andy^ The sheds being 14 feet wide and IS feet long, and
the courts 30 feet long Ity IS feet in width, each hammel will accommo-
date 4 steers, not merely at the beginning of the feeding seastjn, but at its
end, when tlicy shall have attained the weight of at least 70 stones each
imperial.
(1210.) Occasionally the cow stock requires to be renewed, one or two
at time, by i/oung hcij'crs ; and as these, when in calf, should not of course
be fattened, they not be put in the hammels of the feeding-stock of their
own age, namely, the 2-year-()lds, but have hammels to themselves at N,
which are tilted up in precisely the same manner as at M, with feeding-
troughs r, straw-racks in the corner of the sheds, liquid-manure drains x,
and turnip-stores y> and q. Their size, inside the shed, is 17 feet long by
14 feet wide, and the court 20 feet long by 17 feet wide, so that each can ac-
commodate 3 heifers in calf. The old cuus which these heifers are intend-
ed to supersede have to be fattened, and they can be accommodated with
one of the hammels at N.
(1211.) The servants' coivs are accommodated in the byre Y, fitted up in
the same manner as the other byre Q, having an outer court r, water-trough
w, li(|uid-manure drain x, and turnip-store //.
(1212.) When oxen are fattened in byres instead of hammels, they are
accommodated in the same manner as the cows are in either Q or Y ; but
instead of each having a stall, they are usually bound up in pairs in double
stalls, with a partition in the turiiip-ti-ough, placed on the ground, and a
travis between every pair. Stalls of this construction are often as narrow
as 7 feet, but S feet is the more common width. I have already con-
demned the crowded state in which oxen, fed in byres, are usually placed
(49), and shall not again advert to the subject here. When cattle are bound
to the stake for the first time, for the season, they are apt to be restless un-
til reconciled to their confinement, which they will be ere long, if provided
with plenty of food.
(1213.) Bulls occupy the hammels X, which are fitted up with feed-
ing-troughs z, water-troughs w, liquid-manure drains x, and racks in the
corners of the sheds X. More than one Inill-calf may be put together ;
but more than one bull that have served cows are never intrusted to-
gether.
(1214.) Having thus accommodated all the cattle, according to their
kinds and ages, in their respective places in the t.teading, for the winter, let
us now attend to the treatment which each class should daily receive dur-
ing their confinement.
(1215.) And to begin with the coivs. The first piece of work connect-
ed with the treatment of cows in winter, is to milk them at day-break,
which cannot be at a very early hour this season. On farms on which cows
are bred, they are heavy in calf in winter ; so most of them will be diy,
and those still yielding milk, being the latest to calve, will give but a
scanty supply. It is, therefore, not as ini/t/i-cn\vs they are treated at this
season. After milking is finished by the dairy-maid, the usual practice is
to give the cows, though heavy in calf, a feed of cold turnips, on an empty
stomach, which I have always considered an injudicious practice ; and its
injudiciousness is evinced by the fact of the fdotus .showing unequivocal
symi)toms of its existence in the womb, in the same manner as after a
drink of cold water in the morning. I would, therefore, give them a
mouthfuU of fresh oat-sti"aw, to prepare the stomach for the turnips.
While amusing themselves with this fodder, the cattle-man, whose duty it
is to take charge of all the cattle in the steading in winter, cleans out the
(978J
REARING AND FEEDING . CATTLE ON TURNIPS.
499
byre of its litter and dung with the graip, fig. 257, and shovel (fig. 149),
and wheelbarrow, and spreads it equally over the couit, sweep the gutter
and causeway clean with a birch or broom-besom. Having
shut the byre-door and left the half-door into the court ^'g- 257.
open for fresh air, the cattle-man leaves the cows until he has
supplied the fattening and young beasts with turnips, which
having done, he returns to the cow-byre, bringing litter-straw
with him, and gives them their allowance of turnips for the first
meal. Cows in calf never get as many turnips as they can
eat, the object being not to fatten, but support them in a fair
condition for calving ; for were they fed fat, they Avould run
the risk of life at calving through inflammation, and the calves
would be small. It is not easy to specify the number or
weight of turnips that should be given to cows ; but I con-
ceive that ^ of what a feeding ox would consume will suffice.
(1216.) There are three ways of supplying cows with tur-
nips, either thi'ough the openings of the wall at their heads,
as at 0, fig. 10, and through the dooi", fig. 9, fi'om the store in
the shed s, into the trough c ; or with basketfulls, carried by
the stall ; or with barrow-loads, wheeled along a passage at
their head, as described in (45), and emptied into the same
trough c from the same store s, as seen in plan at /«, fig. 4,
Plate IV., by the back-door into the byre.
(1217.) With the willow-basket or skull, is the most com-
mon way of serving cows or cattle in byres with tuniips. It
is about 2 feet in diameter, with holes wi'ought into each side,
under the rim, for handles, and costs about Is. 6d. ; but they the graip.
are apt to become rotten or broken after the natural sap is
dried out of the willows, which is generally in a few months' time, and
then they become very brittle. In short, a skull seldom lasts more than a
year or two ; and as a number of them are required about a steading
where a variety of beasts are fed on turnips, their cost, though individually
trifling, becomes in the aggregate so considerable as to make its avoidance
desirable. A basket of wire or small iron rods has been substituted in
some places. A wire basket is represented by fig. 258, where the rim a b
c, which forms its mouth, is a flat slip of iron about | of an inch in breadth,
and the keel or bottom a d c'\& of the same dimensions and materials. Holes
are punched through them, at about 3 inches apart from each other. The
small iron rods are inserted through
them, receiving a bend to suit the
form of the basket, and the ends of
those attached to the rim a b c are
shouldered below, and made fast
with a counter-sink rivet above. '
The spaces left at the ends of the
keel, under the rim, at a and c, form
the handles. The cost is about 2s.
6d. each, and with due care — such
as the replacement of a rod now and
then, when broken — will last from 5
to 10 years. Were the keel made straight at d, the basket would stand
steadier to be filled.*
(1218.) Before the turnips are put into the troughs, the remains of the
THK WIRE TURNir-BASKET.
Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. xi.
(979!
500 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
fodder given in the morning should be strewed down for litter, and the
troughs cleaned out. The turiiijjs should always be put into the troughs
in a regular order, beginning at the same end of the byre, and finishing at
the other , and after the turnips have been given, the rows should be per-
mitted to eat them in quiet, for nothing initates animals more than to be
handled and worked about when feeding. The turnips consumed, and
the stalls comfortably littered with straw, the cows will lie down and chew
the cud until mid-day, when they should be turned into the court to enjoy
the fresh air, lick themselves and one another, drink water from the trough,
and bask in the sun. They should go out a while every day, in all weath-
ers, until they calve, except perhaps in a very cold, wet day. One hour
may be long enough at a time. In loosening cows from their stalls, a plan
requires to be pursued to prevent confusion. In the first place, every cow,
in the beginning of the season, should be put in the stall she has occupied
since she first became an inmate of the byre ; aud she will always go to
it, and no other, avoiding the least collision with the rest. In loosening
them from the stalls, they should be so one by one, always beginning at
the same end of the byre, and finishing at the other, and not indiscrimi-
nately. This will prevent collision on the floor and jamming in the door-
way on going out — accidents ijijuriousto animals with young. After their
return, they should also be bound in the same regular order from one end
of the byre to the other, and this will prevent any one being forgotten to
be bound , and to remove every temptation from even a greedy cow run-
ning up into another one's stall for the sake of snatching a little of her
food, n(j food should be lying in the troughs when they return to their
stalls ; and no food that they like — such as tuniips, mangel-wurzel, and
the like — should be given them immediately on returning to the byre, be-
cause the expectation of receiving it will not only render them impatient
to leave the court, but make them restless in the stall until they receive it.
This plan, contrary to usual practice, will, it is obvious, suppress all anx-
iety, and thereby prevent violation of discipline, and, of course, necessity
for correction. When subjected to this regular form of discipline, they
will soon obey it, and make no confusion, but conduct themselves peace-
ably. On their return to the byre, let a little fodder be given ; and after a
lapse of time, say at 3 P. M., give them their evening meal of turnips, after
which they should be littered for the night.
(1219.) The treatment o^ o.ren in a byre is different from that of cows;
they get as many turnijis as they can eat, and are not permitted to leave
their stalls until sold off fat. As it is not usual for oxen to be fed in byi'es
and hammcls on the same faiTn, what I have to say in regard to feeding in
the byre should be considered in lieu of the plan of what I shall have to
say on feeding them in hammels. After the cow-byre doors have been
opened, and the stalls cleared into the gutter of any dung that might annoy
the dairy-maid, the cattle-man goes to the feeding-byre, and, fii-st removing
any fodder that may have been left from the previous niLrht, and any re-
fuse of turnips or other dirt, from the troughs, gives the cattle a leed of tur-
nips at once. The quantity to be given at this time should be ^ of what
they can eat during the day ; for they should be fed 3 times a day — in the
morning, at noon, and at sunset ; and in distributing the food, the same regu-
larity should be observed as in the case of the cows, that is, the same ox
should always be the first supplied, and the same ox the last to receive his
portion. When cattle find their food given them in regular order, they
never become impatient for their turn. It is a good plan to begin
serving at the farthest end of the byre, because then the cattle-man has no
occasion to pass and disturb those which have been served ; and in the case
'980)
REARING AND FEEDING CATTLE ON TURNIPS. 501
of what is called a douhle-lieaded byre, in which cattle stand on both sides,
tail to tail, both sides should be served simultaneously by alternate beasts,
thus still leaving those which have been served undisturbed. With the
half-door left open for the admission of fresh air, and the expulsion of
heated air through the ventilators (fig. 8), the cattle-man leaves them to
enjoy their meal in quietness.
(1220.) Much has been said on the expediency of wisping and cuiTying
cows and fattening-beasts in the byre ; and no doubt many satisfactory
reasons could be urged in favor of the practice, when they are entirely
confined. But, as it occurs to me, animals that are allowed to be at lib-
erty at one part of the day do not require — or at least to a much smaller
degree — any artificial dressing, inasmuch as they can dress their own skin,
when at liberty, much better than any cattle-man. Nevertheless, where
cattle are constantly confi.ned in the byre, as is the case of all beasts fat-
tened in a byre, it seems indispensable for their good health to rub their
skin every day by some process; and I believe there are no better instru-
ments for the purpose than a simple cuiTy-comb and a wisp of straw. In
performing this operation, however, it should only be done when the cat-
tle are not at food ; and you should see to this, for there is a strong pro-
pensity in people who have charge of animals to dress and fondle vritYi
them when at food ; from no desire, I am sure, of tormenting them, but
the contrary. Still it is a habit which has a tendency to iiritate all animals
unnecessai-ily, and should be prevented ; for any one may soon satisfy him-
self, from obsers-ation, that an animal is never more jealous of being ap-
proached than when eating his food — as witness the grumble from a dog
or the scowl from a horse.
(1221.) Whenever the cattle have eaten their turnips the byre should be
completely cleared of the dung and dirty litter with the graip, shovel, be-
som and baiTow belonging to the byre. A fresh foddering and a fresh lit-
tering being given, they should be left to themselves to rest and chew the
cud, until the next time of feeding, which should be about mid-day, when
another \ of turnips is given to each ox ; after finishing which more fod-
der should be supplied, and what dung may prove annoying, drawn into
the gutter. In the afternoon, before daylight goes, the dung should again
be cleared out, and the last supply of turnips for the day, another ^, o:iven
to each ox ; and before leaving them for the night, and after the turnips are
eaten up, a fresh foddering should be given, and the litter shaken up and
augmented where requisite. After eating a little fodder the cattle lie
down and rest until visited at night.
(1222.) Where cattle are fattened wiliammels, a somewhat different pro-
cedure is adopted. While the dairy-maid is milking the cows in the byre,
the cattle-man cleans the troughs of the haramels with an old shovel, and
gives the first supply of turnips for the day to the cattle ; and in doing this
he should adopt the same rule as to regularity as with the cows in the byre,
always beginning with the same hammel
(1223.) It is now well understood that sliced turnips afford great facili-
ties to cattle in filling their stomachs with food with the least trouble ; and
the insti-uments used for this purpose are much simpler than those which
have been described for sheep in (1138) and (1145). Not an uncommon
instrument for the purpose is an old sharp spade, with which turnips are
broken in as many pieces as desired ; but it is objectionable, in as far as
it breaks them into unequal pieces, the round turnips rolling away from its
strokes, and it scatters the hard ones in splinters. ^Iuch better instruments
will be found in the two hand turnip-choppers described below, figs. 263
and 264. A single perpendicular stroke with either of these instruments
(981)
502 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
cuts a turnip into a certain niimber of pieces ; but in using fig. 263 a little
dexterity is recjuired to save its cutting edges from being injured against
the bottom of the trough. The de.xterity consists in first getting a hold of
the turnip with the instniment by a gentle tap, and then lift up the turnip,
striking it against the bottom of the trough with a smart stroke, when it
will fall into pieces before the knives touch the trough ; but the constant
exercise of dexterity is scarcely to be looked for in an ordinary cattle-
man, and, therefore, fig. 264 may be pronounced the more useful instru-
ment of the two, for the studs serve to guard the cutting surface from in-
jury. But where a cattle-man has charge of a large number of cattle re-
ceiving cut turnips, a more expeditious j)rocess of slicing them is required,
and this will be obtained by the use of the lever tuniip-slicer, described
below in fig. 259. This machine is placed beside the turnip-store, where
it slices the turnips into the skull placed under it, and, being light, can
easily be carried from store to store, unless where the distance is great, when
another machine should be provided. It will be observed that all these im-
plements cut turnips into large pieces, which are sufficiently small for cat-
tle, sheep requiring theirs cut into long narrow slips, to suit the form of
their mouth.
(1224.) Cattle naturally feeling more appetized in the morning than
during the dav, their morning meal should be large, and while employed
at it the cattle -man should furnish their racks with fresh oat-straw, to which
they will repair from the tuniips, and lie down in the open court or with-
in the shed, according to the state of the weather, and chew their cud
with composure. At mid-day their troughs should again be replenished
with turnips, and again before daylight is gone. The quantity given at
the evening meal partly depends upon the state of the moon ; for cattle,
as well as sheep, will always feed during the night in moonlight, a habit
which I have frequently obsened in both animals ; and from this fact I
conclude that if light were placed beside cattle in the byre, they would
also feed during the long winter nights, and, of course, fatten quicker.*
The last foddering of straw is given after the evening meal of turnips ;
and, during the day, whenever the shed or court requires litter, the refuse
straw of the foddering may be spread abroad, and in rainy weather it
should be brought direct from the straw-barn.
(1225.) The younger cattle in the courts next receive their turnips, and
of these the calves should have the precedence, as they take longer time
to finish their meal than their older compeers. They occupying the court
K, fig. 4, Plate IV., the turnips are wheeled from the store g to the
troughs, and there broken with one of the hand turnip-choppers, fig. 263
or 264, or sliced in the store with the lever-slicer, fig. 259. Their fodder
is put both in the open straw-rack o and that under the shed at h' , and
their litter strewed after the young beasts in the other large court have
been served with turnips.
(1226.) Immediately after the calves, the year-olds in the court I are
served with turnips, fodder and litter, in the same order. All young
beasts should get as many turnips as they can eat ; but should the crop
prove insuflicient for this, let the calves have their full share, and the year-
olds rather put on short allowance ; but in a case of this kind occurring,
the most prudent plan, perhaps, would be to purchase oil-cake for the fat-
tening beasts, to be given along with some turnips, and let all the young
* That hiphly-prizpd bird in Frunce, the ortolRn. feeds at dawn, and when confined for the purpose ot
being fattoiied, an aniScial dawn is produced every three hours during the night by artificial light, when
it eats its food, and thereby becomes much sooner fat.
(982)
REARING AND FEEDING CATTLE ON TURNIPS. 503
beasts have their full share of turnips. To insure them still farther with
this, the cows might also have oil-cake.
(1227.) The young heifers in the hammels N, and the bulls in the ham-
mels X, next receive their turnips, and as neither of them get as many as
they can eat, their proportion is divided into two small meals, one served
after all the rest in the morning, and the other before the rest in the even-
ing. Both these classes depending much upon fodder for food, it should
be of the sweetest and fi-esfiest straw, and supplied at least 3 times a day,
morning, noon and evening ; and having water at command, and liberty
to move about, they will maintain a fair condition. The heifers are sup-
plied from their own turnip-stores p or q, and the bulls from that belong-
ing to the servants' cow-byre h.
(1228.) With regard to the supply of turnips to the servants' cows,
much depends on the terms of the agreement made with the servants.
Where a specified number of cart-loads are given, the servant may choose to
give them to his cow during the earlier part of the winter or not, because,
when she is dry, it is not usual to give her turnips ; but if in milk, the
servant's family may give what they choose from their own store. On
the other hand, if the farmer has agreed to treat the servants' cows in the
same manner as his own, then the cattle-man takes charge of them in the
manner I have already described (1215).
(1229.) From the beginning of the season until the end of the year,
white turnips alone are used, after which, to the end of the winter season,
the yellows are brought into requisition, or Swedes where these are not
cultivated. When turnips are brought fi'ora the field in a very dirty state,
which will inevitably be the case in wet weather from clayey soil, they
ought to be washed in tubs of water, and when they are so as long as the
earth is fresh, they will be the more easily cleansed ; and this is not so
troublesome and expensive a business as may at first sight appear. A
large tub of water, placed at a store when about to be filled with turnips,
a field-worker, taking a small fork, picks up a turnip with it, and dashing
it about in the water for an instant, pulls it off against the edge of the
store or barrow ; and in this way cleanses a great number in a short time,
much faster than the cattle-man can wheel them away and serve and break
them to the beasts. A friend of mine used a very curious mode to wash
tui-nips. Whenever any of the fields of his farm, along which was the
lead that conducted the water from the dam to the threshing-mill, were in
turnips, he filled the lead pretty full of water, by keeping down the sluice
at the mill. He then topped and tailed the turnips in the field, and
emptied them into the lead, from a cart when the distance to the turnips
was considerable, and from a hand-barrow, carried by field-workers, when
they were near. The sluice at the mill was then opened a little, and the
gentle current thereby created in the water floated the turnips to the
steading, where they were taken out and carried to the stores in barrows.
When the turnips were very dirty, they were washed in the lead by a per-
son pushing them about with a pole. That some provision for cleaning
turnips is sometimes necessary, is obvious to me, for 1 have seen very fine
cattle getting turnips to eat in such a state that the dirt actually bedaubed
them to the very eyes, the tops being left on to make the matter worse.
Surely no one will say that filth, in any shape, is beneficial to cattle ; not
that they dislike to lick earth, but then they do so only when they feel
they require it to rectify acidity in the stomach.
(1230.) When turnips have not been stored, and are brought from the
field as required, it is highly probable that they will be in a frozen state
at times, when, even if broken by the instruments in use, they will be
(933)
504 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
masticated by cattle with ilifficulty, besides the danger they run of being
chilled by them ; for cattle always have a staring coat after eating frozen
turnips. This being the case, means should be taken to thaw them, and
the most available is to put them in tubs of cold water for some hours
before being given to the cattle. Such cx])edient8, to avoid greater evils,
of course always incur expense, and it will be much greater than the
comparatively trifling one of storing the same quantity of turnips at the
proper season, which, when done, every such petty source of vexation
will be removed.
(1231.) It is suppo.sed that a fattening ox, which will attain 70 stones
imperial at the end of the season, consumes on an average, during the
season, a double horse load of turnips per week, and, as carts are usually
loaded in field work in winter, their weight may be estimated at about 12
cwt. ; so each ox will consume about Ij cwt. or 14 stones a day, or 4^
stones of each 3 meals, and about IG tons during the season of 2G weeks.
The calves may consume i or 7 stones, and the 2-year-olds -J, or 10^
stones a day. These comparative statements are given from no authen-
ticated data, for I suppose that no c()mj)arative trials with different ages
of cattle have ever been made, but only fntm what I imagine to be near
the truth ; and some such estimate, at the beginning of the season, is use-
ful to be made, that you may know whether your turnips will answer the
stock. It has been correctly ascertained, however, by Mr. Stephenson,
Whitelaw, East Lothian, in a careful experiment of 17 weeks, that an ox,
yielding under 30 stones of beef, consumes 1 cwt., or 8 stones every
day ;* and if cattle consume food somewhat in proportion to their live
weight, in similar circumstances, as is believed, the above ratios may be
pretty connect. And yet Mr. Boswell of Kingcausie's four 2-year-olds,
fed entirely on turnips, and which increased in live weight, in four months,
from 40 to 45 cwt., only consumed a little more than 27 tons of yellow
bullock turnips, or 8^ stones each day.t So that Mr. Boswell's cattle, of
from 45 to 50 stones each, consumed only a very few more turnips than
Mr. Stephenson's, of 28 stones each. Such discrepancies show how little
we can yet anticipate when we undertake to fatten cattle. But there is
this that may be said in explanation of this difference, which is, however,
merely conjectural, that Mr. Stephenson's lightest lot experimented on
may have been West Highlanders, Mr. Boswell's Aberdeenshires, and my
supposition is made in reference to well-bred Short-Horns. It will be ob-
served that cows receiving ^ of oxen, namely, 4^ stones a day, each skull-
ful will contain rather more than 32 lb.
(1232.) The most personally laborious part of the duty of a cattle-man
in winter is carnjing straw in large hundlcs on his hack to ever if part of
the steading. A convenient means of carrying it is with a soft rope about
the thickness of a finger, and 3 yards in length, furnished at one end with
an iron ring through which the other end slips easily along until it is tight
enough to retain the bundle, when a simple loop-knot keeps good what it
has got. Provided with 3 or 4 such ropes, he can bundle the straw at his
leisure in the barn, and have them ready to lift when required. The iron
ring permits the rope to free itself readily from the straw when the bun-
dle is loosened.
(1233.) The dress of a cattle-man is worth attending to, in regard to its
appropriateness for his business. Having so much straw to carry on his
back, a bonnet or low-crowned hat is most convenient for him ; but what
is of moi-e importance, when he has charge of a bull, is to have the color
• Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, Yil. xii. t Ibid., toI. xl.
(984)
REARING AND FEEDING CATTLE ON TURNIPS. 505
of his clothes of a sombre hue, free of all gaudy or strongly-contrasted
colors, especially red, because that color from some cause is peculiarly
offensive to bulls. It is with red cloth that the bulls in Sj^ain are irritated
at their celebrated bull-baits. Instances are in remembrance of bulls turn-
ing upon their keepers, not perhaps because they were habited in red
clothes, but probably because there was some red color about them, or
that they contrasted strongly with what their keepers usually wore. It
was stated at the time, that the keeper of the celebrated bull' Sirius, be-
longing to the late Mr. Robertson of Ladykirk, had on a red night-cap
when he was killed by him. One day, when walking with a lady across
a field, for a short cut to a road, my own bull, the one represented in the
plate of the Short-Horn bull, than which a more gentle and generous crea-
ture of his kind never existed, made toward us, and seemed unusually
excited. This conduct did not arise from the circumstance of a strano-er
being in the field, for many strangers, both male and female, visited him
in the field. I could asci-ibe his extraordinary excitement to no other
cause than to the red shawl worn by the lady ; for when she left the field
he resumed his wonted quietness of conduct. I remember observino- him
more than usually excited, on another occasion, in his hammel, when his
keeper, an aged man who had attended him for years, was beside him on
a Sunday afternoon, I ascribed his excited state to the new red night-
cap, instead of the usual black hat, which his keeper wore on the occa-
sion ; and on my desiring him to throw it away, the animal became again
quite quiet. Be the rationale of the thing what it may, it is prudential in
a cattle-va?ii\ to be always habited in a sober suit of clothes.
(1234.) Regularity in regard to time is the chief secret in the successful
treatment of cattle. Cattle, dumb creatures though they be, soon under-
stand your plans in regard to what affects themselves, and there is none
with which they reconcile themselves more quickly than regularity in the
time of feeding; and none on the violation of which they will more readily
show their discontent. No cattle-man can keep regular time without a
watch ; and if he has not one of his otrn, lend him one that will keep time
well. His day's work in winter may be divided thus : Let him be astir
and have his breakfast over by daybreak, which cannot be very early
at that season. The first thing he should do is to go to the cow-byre, and
remove with the graip. into the gutter, any dung that would immediately
interfere with the dairy-maid in milking the cows. She should be at the
byre in time for this purpose. Leaving her there, he goes to the fattenino-
beasts in the hammels, and first cleans out the same trough, always begin-
ning at the same end, of all refuse, with his shovel; and immediately as
he cleans one trough he replenishes it with turnips from the store at hand,
and breaks them with any of the instruments used. He thus proceeds
from one hammel to another until the six are gone over, or as many as
are occupied. It is not an easy matter to say exactly how long time this
should take in doing, but say half an hour, 30 minutes. He then proceeds
immediately to the calves in the large court, cleans out the dirt from the
troughs, replenishes them with fresh turnips from the store, and breaks
them ; and he does this, having long troughs and fewer turnips, say in 15
minutes. He next goes to the 2-year-old court, and does the same in it ;
and, having a few more turnips to wheel out of the store and break, he
will take a little more time, say 20 minutes. The bulls in the hammels
may take 10 minutes to clean out their troughs and supply them with their
small quantity of tui'nips. And the same time, 10 minutes, may suffice to
give the heifers a little fresh fodder, for they should not get cold turnips
on empty stomachs, more than cows ; with another 10 minutes to supply-
(985)
o06 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
ing the old cows, or extra beasts, with turnips. Having thus given all the
cattle that are at liberty something to do for some time, he returns to the
cow-byre with a bundle of fodder of fresh oat-straw, which he distributes
among the cows, and which they ])ick during the time he is clearing the
byre of litter and dung ; and to do all this may require 30 minutes.
Shutting the princij)al door of the byre, and leaving the half-door to the
court open for air, he leaves the cows with the fodder, and cleans out the
servants' cow-byre, and fodders the cows, which may take other 30 minutes.
Taking then a bundle of litter, he goes again to the byre, and spreading
any refuse fodder as litter, and cleaning out the troughs, he su])plies the
cows with tliiir allowance of turnips, and shaking up the straw which he
has just broutflit as litter, he leaves them again to eat and rest awhile. All
this may rc(|uire otiier 30 minutes; and 10 minutes may suffice to give the
heifers their small (juantity of turnips, and the old cows their foddei , and
10 minutes more to litter the servants' cows, the servants themselves hav-
ing su])j)lied the turni})s as they choose. All the cattle having now been
once fed, brings the time to 25 minutes past 10 A. M., if the operations
began at 7 o'clock. The next step to be taken is to supply those which
get as many turnips as they can eat, with fodder and litter, and for this
purpose he takes the fodder fresh from the straw-barn, and fills all the
straw-racks in the large courts, whether in the open air or under the shed.
The old fodder should be pulled out before the fresh is put in ; but this is
seldom attended to. He then strews the open courts and sheds with litter
where it is chiefly required ; namely, along the side of the troughs where
the beasts stand to eat the turnips, and where they have lain under the
sheds. The hammels are then supplied with fodder and litter, the refuse
fodder probably being sufficient for the latter purpose, as long as the
weather in dry. The l)ulls and heifers should also have fodder and litter.
All this business with the straw, and making it up into bundles for the af-
ternoon, may take up /JO minutes, and bring the time to 1 past 11 A. M.
What with cleaning out the troughs and supplying the hammels and courts
again with turnips of the midday meal, and letting out all the cows — in-
cluding those of the servants — into their respective courts, 12 o'clock will
have arrived, which is the lutur of dinner for all the work-people. The
people have an hour to themselves, to 1 P. M., to refresh and rest. At 1
JP. M. the cattle-man resumes his labors by bunching up tciyulllngs of straw,
which are .small Imndles having a twisted form, of 10 lbs. weight or more
each, for each of the cows' sujiper, and also larger bundles in the ropes for
fodder. Having prepared these just now or at any other leisure moment,
he takes a bundle of fodder to the byre, supplies the troughs, and brings
the cows in from the court, and ties them to their stakes. He does the
same with the servants' cows. He then replenishes the straw-racks in the
courts and hammels with what little fodder is required. He then litters
the sheds comfortalily for the night. He lays the windlings of straw in a
corner of the servants' cow-byre for the night's supjiering, and he does the
same in the other byre ; and the reason he does this in preference to let-
ting them remain in the straw-barn is, to avoid the dantjer of taking a light
into the straw-barn when the windlings are to be used. By the time al'
this business with the straw has been done, it is time to give the cows
their second meal of turnips, so that they may have them eaten up before
the milk-maid comes again at dusk to niilk them. The feeding beasts in
the hammels are then supj)lied with turnips broken for them, then the
calves, then the young beasts in the other court, and then the bulls and
heifers, in the same order as formerly. He then litters the servants'
cows for the night, by which time it will be time for the other cows
(986)
REARING AND FEEDING CATTLE ON TURNIPS. 507
to be milked ; immediately after which they are littered for the night,
and the doors closed upon them, and thus the labors of the day are
finished.
(1235.) In thus minutely detailing the duties of the cattle-man, my ob-
ject has been to show you rather how the turnips and fodder should be
distributed relatively than absolutely; but at whatever hour and minute
the cattle-man finds, from experience, he can devote to each division of
his work, you should see that he performs the same operation at the same
hour and minute every day. By paying strict attention to time, the cattle
will be i-eady for and expect their wonted meals at the appointed times,
and will not complain until they arrive. Complaints from his stock
should be distressing to a farmer's ears ; for, he may depend vipon it, they
will not complain until they feel hunger; and if allowed to hunger, they
are not only losing condition, but rendering themselves, by discontent, less
capable of acquiring it, even should their food happen to be regularly
given them for the future. Whenever, therefore, you hear petitioning
and impatient lowings from cattle at any steading, you may safely con-
clude that matters there, in so far as regards the cattle, at least, are con-
ducted in a very irregular manner. The rule, then, simply is. Feed and
fodder cattle at fixed times, and disj^ense their food and fodder in a fixed
routine. I had a striking instance of the bad effects of irregular attention
to cattle. An old staid laborer who was appointed to take charge of the
cattle, was quite able and very willing to undertake the task. He was al-
lowed to take his own way at first ; for I had observed that many laboring
men display great ingenuity in arranging their work. Lowings from the
stock were heard in all quarters, both in and out of doors ; and they inti-
mated that my ancient cattle-man was not endowed with the organ of or-
der, while I observed that the poor creature himself was constantly in a
state of perspiration. To put an end to tliis disorderly state of things, I
apportioned his whole day's work by his own watch ; and on his implicitly
following the plan, he was not only soon able to satisfy the wants of every
creature committed to his charge, but had abundant leisure besides to lend
a hand at anything else that required temporary assistance. His heart
overflowed with gratitude when he found he could easily make all the ob-
jects of his charge happy ; and his kindness to them all was so sincere,
that they would have done whatever he liked. A man better suited for
this occupation I never saw.
(1236.) Now, you may consider that all these minute details regarding
the treatment of cattle are frivolous and unnecessary. But the matter is
really not so ; and it is of importance for your own interests to tell you so,
for you will admit that where a number of minutiae have to be attended
to, unless taken in some order, they are apt either to be forgotten alto-
gether, or attended to in a hasty manner ; and none of these conditions,
you will also admit, are conducive to correct management. Observe,
then, the number of minute things the cattle-man has to attend to. He
has various classes of cattle under his charge — cows, fattening beasts,
young steers, calves, heifers, bulls, and perhaps extra beasts besides ; and
he has to keep all these clean in their various places of abode, and supply
them all with food and fodder 3 times in a short winter's day of 7 or 8
hours. Is it possible to attend to all these particulars,, as they should be,
without a matured plan of operations 1 The cattle-man requires a plan for
his own sake, for were he to do one thing just when the idea struck him,
his mind, being guided by no fixed rule, would be as apt to forget as to
remember anything he had to do. And besides, the injurious effects which
irregularity of attendance tends to produce upon the condition of animals,
(987,
608 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
seem to rentier a plan f»f operations absolutely necessary to be adopted,
Before you can see the full force of this ol»servation,you require to be told
that food given to cattle in an irregular manner — such as too much at one
time and too little at another, fretjuently one day and seldom in another —
and the same with fodder and litter, thus surfeiting tliem at one time, hun-
gering them at another, and keeping them neither clean nor dirty, never
ffuls to prevent them acquiring that fine condition which better manage-
ment insures. And still farther to show you its force, you may not be
sensible of any deficiency of condition ujider the most inegular manage-
ment, from the want of the means of comparing your beasts with others ;
but an appeal to figures will show you the risk of loss you are uncon-
sciously incurring. Suppose you have 3 sets of beasts, of different ages,
which should get as many turnips as they can eat, and each set to contain
20 beasts ; that is, 60 beasts in all. Suppose, more<jver, that, by iiregular
management, each of these beasts acquires only ^ lb. less of bve weight
every day than they would under proper management, this would make a
loss of 30 lbs. a day of live weight, which, over ISO days, the duration of
the fattening season, will make 5,400 lbs. of live weight, or (according to
the common rules of computation) 3,240 lbs., or 231 stones of beef, which,
at 6s. the stone (not a high price), show a deterioration of c£69 6s. in the
value of the whole herd at the end of the season. The question, then, re-
solves itself into this. Whether it is more for your interest to lose this sum
annually, or make your cattle-man attend to your beasts according to a
regular plan, any form of which it is in your own power to adopt and
pursue ]
(1237.) What I have narrated above applies to the ordinary mode of
feeding cattle, but extraordinary means are sometimes applied to attain a
particular object. You may have, for instance, a pair of very fine oxen
which you are desirous of exhibiting at a particular show, not altogether
for the sake of gaining the premium offered, but partly for the honor of
carrying off the prize from contemporaries. In this case they should
have a hammel comfortably fitted up for themselves ; that is, possessing
all the means of satisfying their wants, both of food and shelter. Your
ingenuity should be taxed to devise means that will anticipate every de-
sire ; and this you will be the better able to do after you have determined
on the sort of food you wish to support them upon. If, regardless of ex-
pense, you will present a choice of food, there should be a trough for
sliced Swedish turnips — a manger for bean-meal — another for bruised
oats — a third for broken oil-cake* — a rack for hay — and a trough for wa-
[* The parta of this disquisition on rearing and feeding cattle on turnips which may seem not
to possess nraotical information or value for the American husbandman, may yet be read with
entertainment as affording a familiar view of the details of the most important branch of agricul-
tnral economy in a country famed for its advancement in the arts as well of tillage as of mana-
facturo.
Few problems can be of more consequence to a great number of farmers, than the cheapest and
best mode of fattening stock. There is a sufficient number of our farmers engaged in it render it
a matter of national importance. It opens, as observed by an able writer and practical fanner, a
wide field for calculation and inquirj* as to the cost per pound, of putting on weight according to
the food the animal is fed on.
There is, no doubt, a vast difference in the action of food, in producing increased weight, de>
pending upon its quality and description, the mode in which it is administered, the temper and
breed of the animal, and, above all, whether the creature is placed in a cold, damp, and exposed
situation, (to which many of our farmers give little or no attention.) or in nice, comfortable, dry
and warm quarters.
On this subject we particularly recommend the reader to be on the look-out for, and to read
(988)
REARING AND FEEDING CATTLE ON TURNIPS. 509
ter ; for water at will I conceive essential when so much dry food is ad-
ministered. Then there should be abundance of straw for litter and
warmth, and a regular dressing of the skin every day, to keep it both
clean and healthy, as Jat oxen can reach but very few parts of their bodies
with their tongue. So much for winter treatment. In summer they should
get cut clover in lieu of the turnips and hay, and all the other auxiliaries
to the dry materials and straw, as already stated. But all these will not
avail to attain your object, if constant attention be not given, and every-
thing conducted with the utmost regularity in regard to time. True, they
get as much as they can eat, but then what they eat should be adminis
tered with judgment. It will not suffice to set an adequate portion of
each sort of food daily before them, to be taken at will ; one or more
kinds should be given at stated times, that each may possess the freshness
of novelty and variety — not all at one time, but every one at such a time
as one or both the animals may incline most to have. All these considera-
tions demand attention, and afford exercise to the judgment. Oxen, when
thus fattened, cannot travel any distance on foot ; they must be conveyed
on carriages built for the pui-pose, and even on these, if the distance is
gi-eat, they will fall off in condition, as the confinement in, and motion of,
the carriage proving irksome, prevent animals taking their food so heartily
as they would do at home. I knew a 3-year-old-off' bull that lost 30 stones
live weight on being carried partly by steam-ship and partly by railway to
a show.
(1238.) The names given to cattle at their various ages are these : A
new-born animal of the ox tribe is called a calf, a male being a bull-calf,
and a female a quey-calf, heifer-calf, or cow-calf, and a castrated male gets
the name of stot-calf or more commonly, simply a calf. The term calf is
applied tci all young cattle until they attain a year old, when they are
called year-olds or yearlings, saying year-old bull, year-old quey or heifer,
year-old stot ; stirk is applied to both a young ox and quey, and stot in
some places means a bull of any age. In another year they are named
2-year-old bull, 2-year-old quey or heifer, 2-year-old stot or steer. In Eng-
land females are called stirks from calves to 2-year-old, and the males
steers. The next year they are called 2-year-old bull ; females, in Eng-
land, from 2 to 3-year-old, heifers, in Scotland 'i-year-old queys, and when
they are kept for breeding, and bear a calf at that age, they get the name
of cows, the same as in England, and the males 3-ycar-old stots or steers.
Next year the bulls are aged, the coios retain that name ever aftei", and the
stots or steers are oxen, which they continue to be to any age they are kept.
A cow or quey that has been served by the bull is said to be bulled, and
are then in calf and from that cii"cumstance are called in England in calvers.
attentively, a Pkize Essay on Fat and Muscle, that we shall g^ive in an early number, perhaps
in our next, which will be the last of the Second Volume.
An important point of the question, says the writer referred to, and one to ■which Mr. Stephens
does not seem to have adverted, is the comparative worth of the manvre from the various materi-
als used for feeding'. It seems to be admitted, that there is a well grounded preference for that
from richly fed animals, and we doubt not that in the farther progress of the application of science
to the .subject, we shall have an accurately graduated scale of the intrinsic value of manures, from
every kind of food, vegetable and animal — from dry wheat straw to oil cake, and from fish to fat
mutton.
The extent to which oil cake is used as food for beasts in England is entirely justified on the
ground of the additional value it imparts to the manure. This is one of the resources for feeding
our animals and our land that American Farmers seem as yet not to have .studied or understood
WTth the care we may suppose it deserves from the extent to which it is practiced in other
countries. Ed. Farm. Lib.\
'989\
510 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
A cow that has either missed being in calf, or has slipped calf, is said to be
eill ; and one that has gone dry of milk is called a ycld-corc. A cow giv-
ing milk is a milch cow. When 2 calves are bora at one birth, they are
twins ; if three, trins. A twin bull and quey calf are called free 7nartins,
in which case the quey never produces young, but has no marks of a
hybrid or mule. Cattle, black cattle, horned-cattle, and neat-cattle, are all
generic names for the ox tribe, and the term beast is used as a synonym.
An ox that has no horns is said to be doddcd or humbled. An aged bull
that is castrated is called a segg ; and a quey that has had the ovaries ob-
literated, to prevent her breeding, is called a spayed heifer or quey.
(1230.) Cows are kept on everj' epecios of farm, thougli for very different purposes. On carae
and pos/ortil farms thev are merely useful in supplying milk to the farmer and his servants. On
dairy farms, they afford butter and cheese for sale. On eovac farms near large loirnn, they chiefly
supply milk for sale. And on farms of mixed husbandry , ihey are kept for the purpose of breed
inp young stock.
(l"j40.) On carse and pastoral farms, cows receive only a few turnips in winter, when they
are dry. and are kcjit on from year to year ; but where the farmer supplies milk to his work people,
as a part of wages, they are disposed of in the yeld stale, and others in milk, or at the calving,
bought in to supply llioir place, and these receive a large allowance of turnips, with perhaps a
little hay. On these farms, little regard is paid to the breed of the cow, the fact of being a good
milker being the only criterion of excellence.
(1241.) On true dairy farms, the winter season is not a favorable one for making butter and cheese
for sale ; for do what you like to neutralize the effect of the usual rooted green crops on these pro-
ducts}, and especially butter, they remain unpalatable to the taste. The cows are therefore in
calf during tliis season, and receive the treatment described above until the period of calving in
spring.
(1242.) In and near large towns, the dairy-man must always have milk to supply his customers,
and it is his interest to render the milk as palatable as possible. For the purpose of maintaining
the supph-, he buj-s cows at all seasons, just calved or about to calve. He disposes of the
calves, without attempting to fatten them; and to render the milk he sells palatable, he cooks all
the food partaken of by the cows. When tlie cows run dry, they are fattened for the butcher,
and not allowed to breed again.
(1243.) The cosvs in the public dairies in Edinburgh are supported in winter on a variety of
substances, namely, turnips, brewers' and distillers' grains called draff, dreg, malt comins,. barley,
oats, hayseeds, chaff, cut hay. One or more of these substances, with turnips, are cooked to-
gether, and the usual process in doing this and administering the cooked food, is as follows: —
Turnips, deprived of tops and tails, and washed clean, arc put into the bottom of a boiler, and
covered near its top with a quantitj- of malt comins. cut hay, hay-seeds, chaff, or barley, or more
than one of these, as the articles can be procured. Water is then poured into the boiler sufficient
to boil them, and a lid placed upon it. After being thoroughly boiled and simmered, the mess is
put into tubs, when a little pounded rock-salt is strewed over it, and chopped into a mash with a
spade. As much dreg is then poureii upon the mash as to make it lukcw arm, and of such a con-
sistence as a cow may drink up. From 1 to IJ siable-pailfuUs of this mixture — from 40 to CO
pints imperial — according to the known appetite of the cow, is then poured into the trough be-
longing to each. The trough is afterward removed and cleaned, and the manger is ready for the
reception of fodder — hay or straw. This mc.ss is given 3 times a day, after the cows have been
milke<l, for dairy-men understand that animals should not be disturbed while eating their food.
The limes of milking are 6 A. M., 12 noon, ami 7 P, M. The sweet milk and ci"eam obtained by
these means, and received direct from the dairy, are i>retty good. The former sells in Edinburgh
at Id., and the latter at Is. the imperial pint. Dr. Cleland states the price of sweet milk in Glas-
gow at IJd. the imperial pint.
(1244.) It will be ob.sorved that none of the articles usually given to cows are so expensive as
oil-cake, cabbages, kohl-rabi, or cole-seed. These products were cmi>loycd by the late Mr. Cur-
wen in his e.xperiments to ascertain thecost of raising milk for supplying the poor, and the results
show they left him very little profit."
(124.').) There is litile milk in winter on a farm which supports cows for breeding stock, being
only derived from one or two cows that are latest of calving in spring. All the spare milk may
probably be eagerly bought by cotters who have no cows; but should that not be the case, a little
butter may he made once in ten days or a foi'tnight, w liich if not jialatable for the table may be
used in making paste, and other culinary purposes. A little saltpetre, dissolved in water, certainly
modifies the rank taste of turnips in both butter and milk.
(124ti.) Cattle are fed nn otlier substances than turnips, either with themselves or in conjunc-
tion with turnips. Oil cake and potatoes are the most common substances used for this purpose.
Linseed-oil and linseed have been recommended, and many arc fed at distilleries on draff wai
dreg, as the refuse of distillation are termed ; and these' are sold to the farmers for the pur-
no.se of feeding. Oats, barley-meal, and bean-meal, have al.so been pressed into the service of
feeding cattle.
(1247.) The potatoes used in feeding cattle are either the common kinds known in human food,
or others rai.sed on purpose, such as the yam and ox-noble ; and they are given either alter-
nately witli turnips, or together. In feeding cattle with potatoes of any kind, and in any way,
Curwen's Agricultural Hinu.
(990)
REARING AND FEEDING CATTLE ON TURNIPS.
511
there is considerable risk of flatulency and choking. To prevent the latter, the potatoes should
be smashed with a hammer, or with an instrument like a pavior's rammer, and though juice
should come out in the operation, no loss is incurred, as it is considered of no service in feeding.
To prevent flatulence from potatoes is no easy matter; but a friend of mine used a plan which
completely answered the purpose, which was. mixing cut straw with the broken potatoes. The
straw obliging the cattle to chew every mouthfull before being swallowed, may prevent such 4
large quantity of gas being generated in the paunch as bruised potatoes alone would do, and it
is this gas which occasions that distressing complaint called hoven. A farm-steward, who had con-
siderable experience in feeding cattle on potatoes on a led-farm, always placed as many potatoes,
whole, before cattle as they could consume, and they never swelled on eating them, because, as he
conjectured, and perhaps rightly, they do not eat them so greedily when in their power to take them
at will, as when doled out in small quantities. This fact confirms the propriety of mixing cut
straw among potatoes that are given in small quantities, in order to satisfying the appetite, and
filling the paunch with unfermentable matter. The only precaution required in giving a full
supply of potatoes is to give only a few and frequently at first, and gradually to increase the
quantity.
(1248.) Oilcake has been long and much employed in England for the feeding of cattle, and it
is making its way in that respect into Scotland It consists of the compressed husks of linseed
after the oil has been expressed from it, and is formed into thin oblong cakes. The cakes are
broken into pieces by a machine described in fig. 264. Cattle are never entirely fed on oil-cake,
bLit in conjanciion with other sub^tan^es, as turnips, potatoes, cuthay, or cut straw. When given
with cut hay or straw, an ox will eat from 7 to 9 lbs. of cake aday, and the hay or straw induces
rumination, which the cake itself is not likely to do. When given with other substances, as tur-
nips or potatoes, 3 lbs. or 4 lbs. a-day will suffice. A mixture of oil cake and cut meadow-hay
Fig. 259.
THE LEVER TURNIP-SLICER FOR CATTLE.
forms a very palatable and nutritious food for oxen, and is a favorite one in England. Oil-cake
costs from £7 to £10 a ton.
(1249.) [Turnip-dicers for Cattle. In the description formerly givenof machines for cutting tur
nips tor sheep, that described in (1145) may be again adverted to, fig. 250, the wheel turnip cutter.
Ihis machine is equally well adapted to slice for cattle as for sheep, and is frequently fitted up to
slice tor cattle only. More frequently it is fiui.shed as described with the cross-cutters, fig. 258,
and when wanted to slice for cattle, the croxR-cntters are removed. This is easily accomplished,
by hrst Utting the slicing-knives from the disk of fig. 250, then unscrewinijall the nuts of the cross-
cutters, and removing them from their places. The slicing-knives are then as-ain placed as be-
tore, and the machine is prepared to cut the turning into plain .slices. This machine costs from £4.
48. to £5.
(991)
512
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
Fig. 260
(1250.) Lever Tttrnip-tlicer. One of the cheapest and most efficient turnip-slicers Is represent-
ed in fifj- 2."i9. It was brou^fht before the Higliland and Agricultural Society of Scotland by Mr
Wallace of Kirkcoiinell. as an iaiprovcment on a prei-xistinf^ machine of the same kind.' It haa
since undergone some farther improvements in the hands of James Slight and Company, Edin-
bargh ; and for the purpose of regular and perfect slicing of turnips, it niaj' be held as as the beat
and cheapest now employed. The machine as produced by Mr. Wallace, is represented in fig.
259 ; where a h is the stock or sole of the machine, about 34 inches long. 6 inches broad, and 2
inches in thickness. The sole is in 2 pieces, connected by an iron bar or strap a c, whioh is
repeated on the opposite side, and the whole bolted together, as in the fisiure. The 2 pieces
forming the sole are separated longitudinally from each other, so as, with the two side-straps of
iron, to form a rectangular opening of 9 inches by 6 inches, bounded on the two ends by the part*
of the sole, and on the two sides by llie side straps, which, to the extent of the openinc, are
thinned off to a sharp edge, and thus liurra the two exterior cutters d. c, as seen in tig. 260, whick
is a transverse section through the cradle of the machine. The sole is supported at a hight of 2
feet upon 4 legs, tig. 2.')9, and the lever d e is jointed at d by means of a bolt passing through it and
the ears of the side-straps, as seen at (/. The lever is 4 feet in length, its breadth and thickneaa
equal to that of the sole, but is reduced at the end c to a convenient size for the hand. Two cut-
ter blocks /'and y are appended to the sole by mortice and tenon, and
farther secured by the bolts which pass through the side-strap at that
place. Into these blocks the remaining cutters h k and i i, fig. 260, are in-
serted in correspon<ling pairs, and also secured by bolts ; the cutters thus
arranged form a cradle-shaped receptacle, into which the turnip is laid *
to be sliced. The lever d c is armed with a block of wood m, loosely
fitted to the cradle ; and its lower face is studded with iron knobs, the
better to prevent the turnip sliding from under it. The transverse sec-
tion d e f f, fig. 2t)0. .shows the position of six cutters d e, h h, and j i,
as inserted in the wooden block d e ff; and k I is the lever, seen in
section, with the block m attached.
(12.il.) The late improvement by Me.ssr-s. Slight and Companj' con-
sists in the application of ca.st-iron knife-blocks, which give greater
strength to the machine, and a more ready and secure fixture of the '^f,
interior knives, and of introducing 8 cutters instead of 6, which makes
a more convenient size of slice. Fig. 261 is a section of the cradle, as
it appears with the cast-rron knife-block ; a is the body of the block
which is attached to the sole through the medium of a flange behind,
and fixed by bolts. The external cutters A b are a part of the side
straps, as before ; and the interior cutters are fixed in pairs, c c, d d,
and c e, by their respective bolts passing through the cutters and the
block.
(1252.) In using this machine, the workman takes hold of the lever
at e, fig. 259, with the right hand, and having raised it sufficiently high,
he. with the left hand, throws a turnip into the cradle. The lever is transverse section
now brought down by the right hand, which, with a moderate ini- showing the positiok
petus, and by meansof the block m, sends the turnip down upon the cut- of the cutters.
ters, through the openings of which it pa.sses while the cutters are di-
viding it. and the whole falls away in perfectly uniform slices. In most cases, it is found
more convenient to have u boy to throw in the turnips,
and this will .somewhat expedite the work. One advantage
of this turnip-slicer — and it is an important one — is that, with
unerring certainty, it cuts every slice of uniform thickness ;
the slab-slices, indeed, may of course vary, but all are free
of the smallest portion of waste. Its cheapness also is of im-
portance, especially when it is considered that, in a given
lime, it will slice weight for weight of turnips with the most
elaborate machine in use, the power applied being also equal.
The price is 28s. to 30s. It is also extremely portable, and
can be carried about by one person. An objection has
been urged to this 8licer,'namely, f]u.t the turnips must all be
put into it one by one ; and it is p^haps unnecessary to re-
mark that this olijeciion applies to all turnii> slicers. For
though the hopper of some may be capable of containing a
number of turnips at one time, yet that number may be con-
sidered as having been deposited there individually. The
price of the lever turnip slicer for sheep, as in fig. 245, is £3 108.
(1253.) Crofx Tiirnipciiltrr. There is another verj' simple and useful turnip-cutter, which is
frequently used when thin slicing is thoutiht of less importance, but is more especially useful
where the cooking system is adopted for either cows or horses, thin slicing being in such cases
not called for. This'instrument is represented in fig. 262. The cutting part of it consists of 2
steel-edged blades, 8 inches in length and 4 inches in depth. They are slit halfandhalf at their
middle point, so as to penetrate each other, standing at right angle«, forming the crossrxt/er. a a
m a. They are then embraced in a four-split palm, and riveted. The |),ilm ternnnates in a short
shank c, which is again inserted into the hooped end of a wooden handle /'. 3 feet in length,
which is finished with a cros-shcad c. The price of this instrument is 8s. 6d. The mode of using
it is obvious. It is held by the hand iu a vcitical position ; and when ]>laced upon a turnip, one
Fig. 261.
THE SECTli
IN OK THE IMPROVED
CRAIM.E.
Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society.
(992)
REARING AND FEEDING CATTLE ON TURNIPS.
513
rnip
Fig. 263.
portions.
Fig. 263.
ihrast downward cuts it into quarters. This instrument is also varied in its construction, being
sometimes made with .3 and even with 4 blades, dividing the turnip into 6 or into 8 portions.
(125-1.) Another individual form of the same spe-
cies is represented by fi^r. 263. It has two blades
a a; but they, instead of crossing^, stand parallel to
each other, and therefore divide the turnips into
three portions, resembling slices, ot' considerable
thickness, the middle one being 1^ inches thick. In
the construction of this cutter, a blunted stud is
formed at the extremities of each blade, and there
projects below the cutting edge about i inch, serv-
ing as guards to save the cutting edges from re-
ceiving injury when they have passed through the
turnip, or otherwise striking any hard surface.
These guards, it may be remarked, would form a
useful addition to all this class of cutters. The arms
b of the blades rise to a hight of 9 inches, widening
upward to 3| inches, to give freedom to the midille
slice to fall out. The two arms coalesce above, and
are then formed into the socket c, to receive the han-
dle, which — as in the cross cutter, fig. 262 — termi-
nates in a crosshead.
(12,i5.) Oil-cake Breaker. — Machines for prepar-
ing oil cake for more easy mastication by cattle or
sheep are made in a variety of forms. One of those
forms is similar in principle to that of the early bone-
crtjshing machines ; namely, a revolving axle, arm-
ed with several series of teeth, whicli are so ar-
ranged as to pass in succession through the intersti-
ces of a line of strong teeth or prong.?, against which
the cakes lies, and is reduced to fragments by the
successive action of the revolving teeth. Of this
form there are various modifications, all serving the
same purpose with nearly equal success.
(1256.) A different form of the machine, and which
is held superior in the principle of its construction, >-
is here exhibited in fig. 264, which is a view of the -:
machine in perspective, wherein a, a. a, a, are the
four posts of a wooden frame, on which the ma-
chinery is supported. The frame is 39 inches in
length and 20 inches in width over the posts at top,
the hight being 33 inches, b b are two top-rails,
34 inches in length, and the scantling of their timbers should not be less than 2j inches square.
The posts are supported toward the bottom by the four stay-rails c,c,c; and the top-rails
are held in position by cross-rails d, one only of which is seen in the figure. Of the machinery,
the acting parts consist of 2 rollers, studded all over with pyramidal knobs or teeth. These
are arranged in zones upon each roller, and having a smooth "space or zone between each of
ibejinobbod zones; the knobs of the one roller corresponding to the smooth space in the other.
The rollers e and/ are constructed with an axle or shaft, that of the first e being 25 inches long,
and of the second/23 inches, and each l^ inches square. Journals are formed upon these shafts,
to run in the bearings which are placed on the top-rails b b, as afterward described. In this
figure, e-g- are two pinching screw.s, which serve to regulate the distance at which the rollers are
to work and, consequently, the degree of coarseness to which the cake is to be broken. The
wheel //, of 20 int:he.s diameter, is placed upon the .shaft of the roller e, and the pinion i, of 3 in-
ches diameter, with its shaft, and the winch-handle k. act upon the wheel h, giving a very consid-
erable mechanical advantage to the power which is jipplied to the machine. The fly-wheel I is
likewise placed upon the shaft of the pinion i, and is requisitejn this machine to enable the pow-
er to overcome the unequal resistance of the work. On thewther end of the shaft of each of
tlie rollers, there is mounted a wheel of 4i inches diameter, for the purpose of carrying both roll-
ers at the same speed. These wheels, one of which is seen at m, are formed witli long teeth, to
admit ol the roller/ approat;hing to or receding from the other, which is stationary in place. A
feeding hopper n is placed over the line of division of the two rollers; it is 16^ inches long, 3 in-
ches wide, and 14 inches deep. In torming the hopper, two upright nieces. 3 inches by 2 in-
ches, are boiled to the inside of the top-rail, their position being between the .shafts of the 2 rollers,
and these form the ends of the hopper. They are then boarded on each side, which completes
the machmo. The hopper is here represented in section, the near portion of it bemg supposed
entirely removed, in order to exhibit more distinctly the construction of the rollers.
_ (1257.) Fig 265 is a farther illustration of the construction of the rollers being a transverse sec-
tion of the two, a a are the shafts, the shaded part b one of the plain disks which §o to form the
smooth zones on the body of the roller ; it is 4 inches diameter and 1 inch thick ; c is one of the
knobbed disks, its body being of the same diameter and thickness as the fonuer ; but having the
4-sided pyramidal knobs set around it, the diameter, measuring to the apex of the knobs, is ex-
tended to 6 inches. One roller for the machine here described requires 5 plain and 6 knobbed
disks, beginning and ending with a knobbed disk. In the other the arrangement is reversed,
bringing out the alternation of the plain and knobbed zones before alluded to as more distinctly
represented in fig. 266, which is a plan of part of the rollers, c c being two of the knobbed disks,
and bb b three of the plain.
(993) 33
THE HAND TURNIP- THE HAND TURNIP-
CHOPPER, WITH CROSS CHOPPER, WITH
BLADES. PARALLEL BLADES.
614
THE DOOK OF THE FARM. — WINTER.
(1258.) Fip. 267 represenU one of thn bearings or filummer blocks for the joamnls of the rollera,
a is the bed of the plummer block, b aixi c the bra».i bushes, and d the cover. The bush b, which
corresponds to tlie roller e, tig. 264. is uiways stationary, while c, which is acted upon by ibe
Fig. 264.
THE OIL-CAKE BREAKER.
■crew, is advanced tov,-ard, or withdrawn from, h, as the size to which the cake is to be broken
may require. These plummerblocks are bolted down to the top-rails of the frame, to which also
the separate bearings of the pinig^^tft are likewise bolted.
Fig. 265. Fig. 266.
,\/ .
THE TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE ROf.LEns.
THE PLAN OF TAUT OF A ROLLER.
11959.1 It may be proper to remark here that the machine now described is of a good mediam
size, and with a man to drive and a boy to fond in the cakes, it will break about half a ton in an
hour. The price is from £i to i.'4 10s. The amount of its performance can be augmented or
diminished to only a small extent, for as its feed in noresHarily confined to one cake at a lime, the
only chanpe that can be made on it.s production mu.«it depend upon tlio celerity of its motions.
Hence it is one of those machines that cannot easily be adapted to lar^c and to smail establish-
(994)
REARING AND FEEDING CATTLE ON TURNIPS.
515
ments with any view, in this latter case, to amelioration of form ; for the almost only means of
doing so must be by giving it a quicker or slower motion, which can only affect the expense of
construction to a very small amount, so small as hardly to be appreciable. In addition to what is
Fig. 267.
1
_ei
■T^r-
"C^
PART OF THE TOP-RAIL, WITH PLUMMER BLOCK.
shown of this machine in fig. 264, the rollers are frequently covered with a movable wooden
case, which gives a more tidy appearance to it, and, moreover, it is always desirable that the
frame below should contain a shoot formed of light boarding, that will receive the broken cake
from the rollers, and deliver it at one side of the machine into a basket or other utensil in which
it can be removed to the feeding stations. — J. S.]
(1260.) Mr. Brodie, Abbey Mains, East Lothian, made an experiment on feeding cattle, from
October, 1836, to June, 1837, on different kinds of food. There were 4 lots of cattle, consisting
sf 5 each. The first lot was fed on turnips and straw, which, being the usual treatment, formed
the standard of comparison. The second lot had half the weight of turnips and 30 lbs. of oil-cake
a day. A third lot was fed on the last quantity of turnips and bean-meal and bruised oats. And
the fourth had distillery grains and ground beans. The value of the cattle, when put up to feed,
was jCl 1 a piece, and tliey were of the Aberdeenshire polled breed. This is a summary of the
cost of feeding :
Lot 1. White turnips at 8s. 4d., Swedes at 128. 6d. per ton, cost £53 9 10
Average cost of each beast per week 0 6 3
Lot 2. Turnips as above, oil-cake, £7 15.s. per ton. cost £48 16 0
Average cost of each beast per week 0 5 9
Lot 3. Turnips as above, bean-meal 5s., bruised oats 3s. 6d per bushel, cost £58 8 1
Average cost of each beast per week 0 6 8
Lot 4. Turnips and bean-meal, as above, draff 4s. 6d. per quarter, dreg Ss. 6d. per
puncheon, cost £63 3 2
Average cost of each beast per week 0 7 2
The ultimate results are as follows :
Lots.
Live weight.
Beef.
Tallow.
Hide.
sts.
sts. lbs.
sts. lbs.
sts lbs.
1.
536
283 3
36 10
27 13
2.
552
295 10
41 6
29 6
3.
517
280 7
37 2
26 13
4.
545
280 0
36 11
25 7
" Upon the whole," concludes Mr. Brodie, " it is evident, by these experiments, that feeding with
turnips as an auxiliary has been the most advantageous mode of using turnips, as, by the above
statement, it is apparent that if the cattle of the first lot had only been allowed half the quantity
of turnips which they consumed, and had got oil-cake in lieu of the other half, as was given to
the second lot, the expense of their keep would have been lessened £4 13s., and from superior
quality of beef, their value would have been increased £10, making together £14 ISs."* Three
remarks occur to me to make on the progress of this expdl^ent ; the first is, that if the cattle
had been sold on the 7th April, 1837, when they were adjudged by competent farmers, they
would not have repaid the teeder his expenses, as the prime cost of lot first, with the cost of
feeding to that time, amounted to £95 Is. 8d., and they were only valued at £82 ; lot second cost
£90 128., and they were valued at £88 10s. ; lot third cost £93 48., and were valued at £77 ;
and lot fourth cost £97 4s. 5d., and their value was only £81 10s. And this is almost always the
result of feeding cattle, because ripeness only exhibits itself toward the end of the feeding sea-
son, and it is only after that state of condition is indicated that the quality of the meat improves
80 rapidly as to enhance its value so as to leave a profit. As with sheep so with cattle ; with
good beasts the inside is first filled up before the outside indicates fineness. Another remark is,
that this result should be a useful hint to you to weigh well every consideration before disposing
of your fattening bea.sts in the middle of the feeding season. The last remark I have to make is,
that the cattle of lot first, continuing to receive the same sorts of food they had alwaj's been
accustomed to, throve more rapidly at first than the beasts in the other lots, but afterward lost
their advantage ; thereby corroborating the usual experience of stock not gaining condition im-
mediately on a change of food, even of a better kind, such as from turnips to grass.
(1261.) Mr. Mowbray of Cambus, in Clackmannanshire, made experiments in the winter of
1839-40 on feeding cattle with other than the ordinary produce of the farm, but as the cattle wers
* Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. viii.
(995)
616 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
not all sold at the same lime I need not relate tlic (h-tails ; and I mention ilic experiments for the
■ake of some of the roncluHituiA that maybe deduced from them. It would appear that cattle
maybe fed on tnrnips and hay as cheaply as on turnips and straw, for this reaixin, that whftn
straw is piven as fodder, more turnips are consumed, and. therefore, when turnips arc .scarce, hay
mav be used with ailvantage. It also appears that cattle may be fed cheaper on lii.-'tillerv refuse
of ilraff and drei; than on tnrnips and straw, but then the food obtained from the di.stillery
requires more time to bring cattle to the same condition, which in some circumstances may be an
inconvenience."
(1262.) Linnerd oil has been successfully employed to feed cattle by Mr. Curtis of West Rud-
ham, in Norfolk. The mode of using the oil is this : First ascertain how much cut straw the oxen,
intended to be fed, will consume a week, then sprinkle the oil, layer upon layer, on the cut straw,
at the rate of 1 callon per week per ox. The mixture, on beini? turned over frequently, is kept
2 days before beine us».'d, when a slight fermentation takes jilace, and then the oil will scarcely
be discerned, having been entirely ab.'iorbed by the straw, which should of courst? be the best
oat straw. This mixture, when compared with oil-cake, has stood its ground. The co.n of the
oil is not great, its averaire price being about 348. the cwt. of 12i gallons, a gallon of fine oil
weighing 9.:) Ih.. which makes the feeding of an ox cost only '.Js. lOd. per week.t
(1263.1 Mr. Curtis has fed cattle for upward of 20 years upon what he calls ereen mall, which
consists of steeping light barley •• for 48 hours in soft water, when the water is let off and the
barley is thrown into a round heap, in a conical form, till it gets warm and begins to sprout freely.
It is then s[iread out and turned over repeatedly as it grows. The only care required is, that the
sprout or future blade does not get cut off, as the malt will then lose much of its nutritious qual-
ity." He finds this substance, which costs with its labor Is. a stone, preferable to oats at lOd. in
their natural stale.J
(1264.) A method of feeding cattle has been adopted by Mr. Wames, Jr.. Triminaham, Nor-
folk, which, in a manner, combines both the substances used by Mr. Curtis, and deserves atten-
tion. The substances consist of linseed-meal and crashed barley. The barley may either be
nsed malted, that is. in a state of '• green malt," as designated by Mr. Curtis, or rrusiied flat by
braising cjlinders. Crushed oaLs, boiled peas and bean flour may all be substituted for the bar-
ley, and used with the lin.seed nioal. The mode of making this compound is thus recommended
by Mr. Warnes : " Put 168 lbs. of water into an iron cauldron or copper or boiler, and as soon as
it boils, not before, stir in 21 lbs. of linseeii meal ; continue stirring it for 5 minutes; then let 63
lbs. of the ci-ushed barley be sprinkled bv the hand or one person upon the boiling mucilage,
while another rapidly stirs and crams it in. After the whole has been carefully incorporated,
which will not occupy more than 5 minutes, cover it closely down and throw the furnace door
open. Should there be ranch fire, put it out. The mass will continue to simmer, from the heat
of the cauldron, till the barley has entirely absorbed the mucilage. The work is then complete,
and the food may be used on the following day. When remove<l into tubs, it must be rammed
down to exclude the air, and to prevent its turning rancid. It will be seen that these proportions
consist of 3 parts of barley to one of lin.seed. and of 2 parts of water to 1 of barley and linseed
included. Al.'^o, that the weight of the whole is 13 stones when put into the cauldron ; but after
it has been made into compound and become cold, it will be found in general reduced to some-
thing less than 15 stone.s, which will afford 1 bullock for a fortnight 1 stone per day, containing
11 lbs. of lin.seed. It will keep a long time if properly prepared. The consistency ought to be
like that of clay when formed for bricks." In regard to the nutritive properties of this com{iound
Mr. Warnes testifies thus: •' The last of my experimental bullocks for 1841 was disposed of at
Christmas at 8s. 6d. per stone. He weighed 60 stones 5 lbs., of 14 lbs. to the stone, and cost
£l 178. fid. thirteen months previously ; so that he paid £11 10s. for little more than one year's
keeping?. His common food was turnips or grass; 14 lbs. a da\- of barley or peas compound were
given him for 48 weeks, and an unlimited quantity the last 5 weeks; when, considering the
shortness of that time, his progress was perfectly astonishing, not only to myself, a constant sb-
server, but to many graziers and butchers who had occasional opportunities of examining him.
Altogether the weight of compound did not exceed 2 tons 4 cwts., at a cost of only .£3 168 per
ton."||
(1265.) This successful result obtained by Mr. Warnes shows that cattle may be prnfilnhly fed
on prepared food, though the result.* of several experiments which have been made by farmers
in Scotland lead to an opposite conclusion ; yet Mr. Warnes's statement contains no comparison,
for it is quite possible that the ^Hkious materials eniployeil by him. namely, linseed-meal and
bruised barley, would have fed aOHDck equally well in their naturally cold .state as when cold,
after being cooked warm. As to the expediency of cooking fooil for cattle, Mr. Warnes goes so
far in opinion as to .say that " neither oil nor linseed should be used in a crude state, but formed
into mucilage by being boiled in water ;" but this opinion was evidently given when the
results obtained by Mr. Curtis on feeding cattle with lin.seed-oil in a crude state, were unknown
to him ; for although he admits " that linseed-oil will fatten bullocks, experience has placed
beyond a doubt. Amonp the fattest beasts ever sent to the London market from Norfolk was
a lot of Scotch heifers, grazed (?) on linseed-oil and hay." Yet he adds : " But the quantity given
per day, the cost per head, or anything relative to profit or loss, I never hcanl." I should
therefore like to sec a conipari.son instituted between the nutritive properties of linseed- meal and
bruised barley, or peas or bean-meal, in their ordinary state, and after they had been boiled and
administered either in a hot or cold state, and also between the profits arising from both. Until
this information is obtained, we may rest content with the results obtained by some verj- accurate
experiments, conducted by emitjent farmers, on the same food administered in a warm and in a
cold state, and which go to prove that food is M«/>ro^/nW^ administered to cattle in a cooked
state. I shall now lay some statements corroborative of this conclusion before j'ou.
* Prize Essays of the Highland and Afrricultural Society, vol. xiv. t Ibid., vol. xiv. J Ibid., vol. tAw.
y Wamcs's Suggestion! un Fattening Cattle.
(996)
REARING AND FEEDING CATTLE ON TURNIPS.
517
(1266.) The first I shall notice, though not in detail, are the experiments of Mr. Walker, Per-
rygate, East Lothian. He .selected, in February, 1833, 6 heifers of a cross between country cows
and a Short-Horn bull, that had been on turnip.?, and were advancing in condition, and divided
them into 2 lots of 3 heifers each, and put one lot on raw food and the other on steamed, and fed
them three times a day — at daybreak, noon and an hour before sun.set. The food consisted of as
many Swedes as they could eat, with 3 lbs. of bruised beans and 20 lbs. of potatoes, | stone of
Btraw and 2 ounces of salt to each beast. The three ingredients were mixed together in a tub
E laced over a boiler of water, and cooked by steaming, and the bruised beans were given to the
)t on raw food at noon, and one half of the potatoes in the morning and another half in the after-
noon. It was soon discovered that the lot on the cooked food consumed more turnips than the
other, the consumption being exactly 37 cwt. 16 lbs., while, when eaten raw, it was only 2.5 cwte.
1 qr. 14 lbs., the difference being 55 lbs. every day, which continued during the progress of the
experiment for 3 months.
(1267.) Steers were experimented on as well as heifers, there being 2 lots of 2 each. They
also got as many Swedish turnips as they could eat, but had 30 lbs. of potatoes and 4^ lbs. bruised
beans, 2 ounces of salt, and | stone of straw each, every day.
(1268.) The cost of feeding the heifers was as follows :
' heifers on steamed food : Cwts. qrs. lbs.
Consumed of Swedish turnips, 37 0 16, at 4d. per cwt £0 12 4J
.. Potatoes 3 3 0, at Is. 3d 0 4 8
.. Beans, 1 bushel.. 0 2 7 0 3 0
.. Salt 0 0 Oj
Coals and extra labor 0 2 0
Cost of 3 heifers 1 week, or 78. 4|d. per week each X,l 2
3 heifers on raw food : Cwts. qrs. lbs.
Consumed of Swedish turnips, 25 1 14, at 4d. per cwt £0 8
.- Potatoes, beans and salt, as above 0 7
Cost of 3 heifers 1 week, or 5s. 5d. each per week XO 16 3
fl slots on steamed food : Cwts. qrs. lbs.
Consumed of Swedish turnips, 28 2 0, at 4d. per cwt £0 7 10
.. Potatoes 3 3 0, at Is. 3d 0 4 8
.. Beans 0 2 7 0 3 0
. . Salt 0 0 0 J
Coals and extra labor 0 1 6
Cost of 2 slots for 1 week, or 8s. 6|d. each per week £0 16 OJ
2 etots on raw food : Cwts. qrs. lbs.
Consumed of Swedish turnips, 17 2 0, at 4d. per cwt £0 5 10
.. Potatoes, beans and salt, as above 0 7 8^
Cost of 2 stots for 1 week, or 6s. 9^d. each per week £0 13 6 J
(1269.) The following table shows the progress of condition made by the heifers and stots :
Cattle.
Heifers on
steamed food
Heifers on
raw food.
Slots on
steamed food,
Stots on
raw food.
.1
Average live
weight of 3 at
commence-
ment of
feeding.
iSts.
74
84
90
Average
live weight
of 3 at end
of feeding.
St8. lbs.
90 0
89 3
103 4
106 5
Average in
crease of
live weight
in 3
months.
Sts. lbs.
16 0
15 0
19 0
15 0
Average
dead
weight of
beef.
Sis. lbs.
50 0
50 1
56 19
58 6
Average
weight of
tallow.
Sts. lbs.
7 11
Average
weight of
hide.
St8. lbs,
3 12
4 4
5 12
5 4
Average
weiirht of
offal.
Sis.
lbs.
26
9
26
10
28
3
30
4
(1270.) The comparative profits on cooked and raw food stand thus :
Live weight of heifers, when put to feed on steamed food, 74 sts.^42 sts. 4 lbs. beef, at 5s. 6d. per
stone, sinking ofFal £ll 12 7
Cost of keep 12 weeks 5 days, at 7s. 4^ d. per week 4 19 0
Total cost £16 11 7~
Live weight of the same heifers, when finished feeding on steamed food, 90 sts.=50
sts. 9 lbs., at 6s. 6d. per stone, sinking offal 16 9 \\
Loss on steamed food on each heifer £0 2 6j
Live weight of 1 heifer, when put to feed on raw food, 74 sts.=42 st.s. 4 lbs. beef, at
5fl. 6d. per stone, sinking oftal £11 12 7
Cost of keep 12 weeks 5 days, at 5s. 5d. per week 3 8 lOj
Total cost £15 1 5i
Live weight of the snme heifer when finished feeding on raw food, 89 sts. 3 lbs.=:50
sts. 1 lbs., at 6s. 6d. per stone, sinking ofl!al 16 5 ^
Profit on raw food on each heifer £14 0
(997)
518 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
Live weight of 1 slot \\ hen pot up to feed on tUamed food, 84 Bta.^50 sts. 4 lbs., at
5s. 6a. per stone, sinking offal £13 4 0
Cost of keep \-2 weeks 5 days, at Ss. ejd. per week 5 8 4^
Total cost XIS 12 4':
Live weight of the same stot after being feed on steamed food, 104 sis. 7 lbB.^56 sta.
10 lbs., at 68. tid. per slone, sinking offal 18 8 TJ
Profit on each stot on steamed food £0 3 8|
Live weight of 1 stot when put on rair food, 90 8tfl.=51 sts. 6 lbs., at Ss. 6d. per stone,
sinking the offal Xl4 2 lOj
Cost of 1 -2 weeks 5 days' keep, at 68. 9id. per week 4 6 1
Total cost X18 8 UJ
Live weight of the same stot after being fed on raw food, 106 sts. 7 lbs.=58 sts. 6 lbs.,
at 68. 6d. per stone, sinking offal 18 19 9J
Profit on each stot on raw food £0 10 10
(1271.) The facts, brought out in thi.s experiment, are theee: It appears that tnmips lose
weight on being steamed. For example. '> Ions 8 cwts. only weighed 4 tons 4 cwts. 3 qrs. 16 lbs.
after being steamed, having lost 1 ton 3 cwts. 12 lbs. or 1-6 of weight : and they also lost 1-5 of bulk
when pulled fresh io February ; but on bemg pulled in April the lo.ss of weight in steaming de-
creased to 1-6. Potatoes did not lose above 1-50 of their weight by steaming, and none of their
bulk. The heifers on steamed food not only consumed a greater weight of fresh turnips, in the
ratio of 37 to 25, but after allowine for the loss of steaming, they consnmcd more of tlie steamed
tamips. Thus, after deducting 1 5 from 37 cwt-s. 16 lbs. — the weiirht lost in steaming them— the
balance, 29 cwts. 2 qrs. 17 lbs., is more than the 25 cwts. 1 qr. 14 lbs. of raw turnips consumed, by 4
cwts. 1 qr. 3 Ib.s. All the cattle, both on the steamed and raw food, relished salt ; so much so, that
when it was withheld, they would not eat their food with the avidity they did when it was
returned to them.
(1272.) Steamed food should always be given in a fresh state — that is, new made ; for, if old, it
becomes .sour, when cattle will scarcely touch it, and the sourer it is they dislike it the more.
" In short," says Mr. Walker. " the quantity they would consume might have been made to agree
to the fresh or sour state of the food when presented to them. . . . We are quite aware that
to have done a large quantity at one steaming would have lessened the expense of coal and labor,
and, also, by getting sour before being used, saved a great quantity of food ; but we are equally
well aware that, by so doing, we never could have fattened our cattle on steamed food."
(1273.) An inspection of the above table will show that both heifers and slots increased more
in live-weight on steamed than on raw food ; the larger protit derived from the raw food arising
solely from the extra expense incurred in cooking the food. It appears, however, that a greater
increase of tallow is derived from raw food. The results appear nearly alike with heifers and
Blots of the same age -, but if the slots were of a breed posses.«ing less fattening properties than
cross-bred heifers — and Mr. Walker does not mention their breed — then they would seem to ac-
quire greater weitfht than heifers, which I believe is the usual experience. The conclusion come
to by Mr. Walker is this : " We have no hesitation in saying that, in every respect, the advantage
is in favor of feedincr with raw food. But it is worthy of remark that the difference in the con-
sumption of food arises on the turnips alone. We would therefore recommend everj- person
wishing to feed cattle on steamed food to use potatoes, or any other food that would not lose
bulk and weight in the steaming process, as there is no question but. in doing t-o, they would
be brought much nearer to each other in the article of expense of keep. . . . Upon the
whole, we freely give it as our opinion that steaming food for cattle will never be attended with
beneficial results under any circumstances whatever, because it requires a more watchful and
vigilant superintendence during the whole process than can ever be delegated to the common
run of servants, to bring the cattle on steamed food even upon a footing of equality, far less a
iui>eriority. to tho.sc fed on raw food."*
(1274.) One of the slots that had been fed on raw and another on steamed food were kept and
put to grass. In their external condition no one was capable of judging how they had been fed.
They were put to excellent grass on the 20th May, and the slot on raw food gained condition
until 20th July, when, perhaps, the pasture may have heirun to fail. That on steamed food fell
off to that time 3 stones live weignt. On 20ili August both were put on cut grass, and both
improved, especially the one that had been on steamed food, until the 18th October, when both
were put on turnips, on which both became alike by the lOlh November, relatively to what they
were at the beginnins of the season ; that is, the slot that had been on raw food mcreased from
108 to 120 stones, anii the other from 106 to 118 stones, live weight
(1275.) Similar results as to profit were obtained by the experimenls of Mr. Howden. Law-
heaii, East Lothian. "To me," he says, "it has been most dccidrdly shown that jirepuring fbod
in this way [by sti-aming] is anything but profitable. Local advantages — such as fuel and water
being at hand — may enable some others to steam at less expense ; but in such a situation as
mine, I am satisfied that there will be an expense of lOs. a head upon cattle incurred, by the
practice. A single horse-load of coals, carriage included, costs me 10s. ; and exactly 6 cartloads
were required and used in preparinir the fooil for cattle, equal to 68. 8d. each, and probably as much
more would not be an over-estimate for the additional labor in the 3 months." A few facta,
worthy of attention, have been broupht to light by Mr. Howden's experiment. It seems that raw
potatoes and water will make cattle fat — a point which has been questioned by some of our best
farmers. Potatoes, beans and oats, taken together, will feed cheaper, in reference to time, than
turnips or potatoes separately ; and from this fact may be deduced these, namely, that potatoes,
when used alone, to pay their expense, would require the beef fed by them to fetch 4d. per lb. ;
* 1 r.z" Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. x.
(ai^8)
REARING AND FEEDING CATTLE ON TURNIPS. 519
turnips alone, Sjd. ; and potatoes and com together, 3d., and at the same time yielding beef of finer
quality. There is a curious fact to be observed in the table given by Mr. Howden. Of 6 heifers,
1 in a lot of 3 weighed 1022 lbs. ; and another, in another lot of 3, weighed al.so 1022 lbs., on 5th
March, when both were put up to be experimented on ; and on the 5th June following both were
of the same weight, namely, 1176 lbs., both showing exactly an increase of 154 lbs.; both being
supplied with the same weight of food, namely, 140 lbs. of turnips, to the one given raw, to the
other cooked. This is a remarkable coincidence ; but here it ends, and the superiority of cooked
food becomes apparent; for the beef of the heifer fed on raw^ turnips weighed 5 sts. 12 lbs. and its
tallow 5 sts. 10 lbs. ; whereas, the beef of the one fed on steamed turnips weighed 44 sts. 4 lbs.,
and its tallow 6 sts. 22 lbs. How is this to be accounted for ? Partly, no doubt, in the cooking of
the food ; but partly, I should suppose, from the state of the animal indicated by its hide, the
the thinner one of the heifer fed on steamed turnips weighing 3 sts. 10 lbs., showing a greater
disposition to fatten — that is. to lay on more rapidly the valuable constituents of beef and tallow^ —
than the thicker hide of the other heifer fed on raw turnips, which weighed 4 sts. 4 lbs. It is but
justice, however, to the raw turnips to mention a fact to which Mr. Howden adverts. The tur-
nips appropriated to the experiment were, it seems, stored against a wall, one store having a
northern and the other a western aspect; but whether from aspect, or dampness, or other cause,
tliose intended to be eaten raiu had fermented iu the store awhile before being observed, and
thus, becoming unpalatable, of the 18 tons 15 cwts. stored, about 2i tons were left uncon.sunied ;
so that, in fact, the heifers upon raw turnips did not receive so much food, or in so palatable a
state as those on the steamed. It seems steaming renders tainted turnips somewhat palatable,
while it has a contrary effect on tainted potatoes, the cattle preferring these raw. Turnips re-
quire a longer time to steam, and according to Mr. Howdeii's experience, they lose \ or 1-10
more of iheir weight than potatoes.* You may observe, from the state of the turnips in the store,
the injudicioasness of storing them agoinst a wall, as I have before observed (1019).
(1276.J Mr. Boswell of Kingcausie, in Kincardineshire, comes to the same conclusion in regard
to the unprofitableness of feeding cattle on cooked food. He says, " It appears that it is not
worth the trouble and expense of preparation to feed cattle on boiled or steamed food ; as, al-
though there is a saving in food, it is counterbalanced by the cost of fuel and labor, and could only
be gone into profitably where food is very high in price and coal very low." His experiments
were made on 10 dun Aberdeenshire homed cattle, very like one another, and their food consisted
of the Aberdeen yellow bullock-turnips and Perthshire red potatoes. The 5 put on raw food
weighed alive 228 stones 11 lbs., and the other 5 on cooked food 224 stones 6 lbs. imperial. When
slaughtered, the butcher considered both beef and tallow " to be perfectly alike." Those fed on
raw food co.st X32 2s. Id., and those on cooked £Zi 5s. lud., leaving a balance of expense of £2
38. 9d. in favor of the former. The opinions of feeders of cattle are not alike on all points. Thus,
Mr. Boswell says, " The lot on raw consumed much more food than those on steamed," a fact di-
rectly the reverse of that stated by Mr. Walker in (1266). •' Twice a week, on fixed days," he
continues, " both lots got a small quantity of the tops of common heath, which acted in the way
of preventing any scouring ; in fact, turnip-cattle seem very fond of heather as a condiment." . . .
" The dung of the steamed lot was from first to last in the best state, without the least appearance
of purging, and was free of that abominable smell which is observed when cattle are fed on raw
potatoes, or even when a portion of their food consists of that article. Another fact was observed,
that after the steamed lot had taken to their food, they had their allowance finished sooner than
the raw lot, anil were therefore sooner able to lie down and ruminate." There is a curious fact
mentioned by Mr. Boswell regarding a preference and dislike shown by cattle for turnips in dif-
ferent states. " When raw turnips and potatoes were put into the stall at the same time, the po-
tatoes were always eaten up before a turnip was ta.sted ; while, on the other hand, steamed tur
nips were eaten in preference to steamed potatoes."!
(1277.) Some curious and interesting facts have been arrived at by Mr. Stephenson, Whitelaw,
East Lothian, in his experience of feeding cattle. They are detailed by him in a paper on feed-
ing different lots of cattle, not with cooked and raw food, but with different sorts of food in a raw
state. He divided a number of cattle into 3 lots, containing 6 in each lot, and fed one on oil cake,
bruised beans, and bruised oats, in addition to whatever quantity of turnips they could eat, and
potatoes for the last few days of the experiment; another lot received the same sort of food,
with the exception of the oilcake ; and the third lot was fed entirelv on turnips. The live weights
of the lots varied considerably from 486 to 346| imperial stone.s. i need not detail tlie particulars
of the experiment, which was conducted from November, 1834, to March, 1835, for 17 weeks, as
they present nothing remarkable ; but their results are worthy of your attention.
(1278.) Each beast in the lot that got oil-cake cost, in 17 weeks, £5 2s. 7d., or 6.s. per week;
in the lot fed on corn, £3 17s., or 4s. 6d. per week ; and in that fed etitirely on turnips, £1 18s.'
7Jd., or 2s. 3d. a week. Estimating the value of the fed beef at 6s. 6d. per imperial stone, there
was a loss of 12J per cent, sustained on the lot fed on oil-cake ; a gain of 8^ per cent, on tliat fed
on corn ; and a gain of 22 per cent, on that fed entirely on turnips.
(1279.) This was the cost incurred for producing every 1 lb. of increase of live weight, the lot
fed on oil cake increasing from 486 to 594 stones; that on corn from 443 to 544 stones; and that
on turnips from 346i to 395^ stones.
The oil-cake cost 4 9-10 pence to produce 1 lb. of live weight
.. corn .. 3 9-10
.. turnips .. 4 4-10 ., .. .. . .
It thus appears that the joint agency of com and turnips produces 1 lb. of live weight at the
cheapest rate of the three modes adopted.
• Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. x. t Ibid., vol. x.
520 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
(1280.) Another conclusion come to from the data Bupplied by this experiment is, that it took —
90 lbs. of lurnips to produce 1 lb. of live weight.
40 11)8. of potatoes
8 'i 10 lbs. of com
21 8-10 lbs. of oilcake ..
And the cost of doing this was aa follows:
90 lbs. of turnips, at 4d. per cwt 3 2-lOd. per 1 lb. of live weight.
40 lbs. of potatoes, at 1h. 6d. per cwt 6 4-lOd.
8 7-10 lbs. of corn at 38. 3d. per bushel of 60 lbs 5 7 lOd.
21 8-10 lb.s. of oilcake, at Jd.per lb. or X~ per ton 16 3-lOd.
Could these results be proved to be altsolu/cli/ correct, there would be no difficulty of assigning
the degree of profit to be derived from employing any of these subs anccs in the feeding of cattle.
Is not the infjiiiry, however, of as much importance, even in a national point of view, as to de-
serve investigation at some sacrifice of both cost ami trouble ?
(1281.) You should not suppose that cattle consume food of any sort in a uniform ratio ; for see
actual results. The lot that v^as fed entirely on turnips increased in the first 32 days of the ex-
periment only 8 stones, whereas the same beasts, in 40 days immediately preceding lho.«e on
which the e.x'periment began, increased 48J stones; and in one 8 days of tlie 46 they con.sumed
160 8-10 lbs. each of while globe turnips every day, and increased 1 lb. of live weight for every
65 4-10 lbs. of lurnips consumed. The DO lbs. taken above as the quantity of turnips required to
produce 1 lb. of live weight is therefore not ab.solute, but a.«sumed as a medium ijuantity, for it
will happen that 1,000 lbs. will not produce 1 lb. of live weight What the circumstances are
which regulate the tendencies of catile to fatten, are yet unknown. The fact is, cattle consume
very different (juantilies of lurnips in different stales of condition, consuming more wiien lean, in
proportion to their weight, than when fat. A lean bea.st will eat twice, or perhaps thrice, as ma-
ny turnips as a fat one, and will devour as much as I part of his own weight every day, while a
very fat one will not consume 1-10. 1 had a strikini; e,\ainple of this one year, when I bought a
very lean 2-ycarold steer, a cross betwixt a Short-Horn bull and Angus cow, for i6 in April ;
and he was a large-boned, thriving creature, but his bones were cutting ihc skin. He was im-
mediately put on Swedish turnips ; and the few weeks he was on them, before being turned to
grass, he could hardly be satisfied, eating three times as much as the fat beasts in the same ham-
mel. He was grazed in summer, and fed off on turnips and sold in April following for 17
guineas. Some slots of Mr. Stephenson's, in November, eat 2 7-10 lbs. for every stone of live
weight they weighed; the year after the quantity decreased to 1 9-10 lbs., and after the experi-
ment was included, when their live weights were nearly doubled, they consumed only 1 5-10 lbs.
(1282.) The object which Mr. Stephenson had in conducting the experiment the results of which
arc narrated above, were fourfold : 1. To compare cattle fed partly on oil-cake with those which
had none ; 2. To compare those fed partly on corn with those which had none ; and 3. To com-
pare those fed solely on turnips with those which had different sorts of food. The results were,
that oil cake is an unprofitable food for cattle, that corn yields a small profit, that turnips are
profitable, and that when potatoes can be sold at Is. Cil. per cwt. thej- are also unprofitable.
•'When any other food than turnips," ob.serves Mr. Stephenson, ' is desired for feeding cattle,
we would recommend bruised beans as being the most efficient and least expensive ; on this ac-
count we would prefer bruised beans alone to distillery offal. As regards linseed-cake, or even
potatoes, they are not to be compared to beans." . . . '-We give it as our opinion, that whoever
feeds cattle on turnips alone will have no reason, on ihc score of pro/it, to regret their not having
employed more expensive auxiliaries to ha.sien the fattening process. This opinion has not been
rashly adopted, but has been confirmed by a more extended and varied experience in the feed-
ing of cattle than has fallen to the lot of most men." 4. Another object he had in these experi-
ments was, to ascertain whether the opinion is correct or oth»;rwi6e, that cattle consume food in
proportion to their weights. On this subject Mr. Stephenson says " that cattle consume food
something nearly in proportion to their weights, we have very little doubt, provided they have
previuiis/i/ beet: fed in the simc viaiiner, and are nearly alike in condition. Age, sex, and kind
nave little inHuence in this respect, as the quantity of food consumed depends much on the length
of time the beast has been fed. and the degree ot maturity the animal has arrived at — hence the
great difficulty of seleciing animals to be experim'.'nied ui)on. To explain our meaning by an
example, we would say that 2 cattle of the same weight, and which had been previously kept
for a considerable time on similar food, would con.sume about the same quantity. But, on the
contrary, should 2 beasts of the same weight be taken, the one fat and the other lean, the lean
beast would perha|is cat twice, or perhaps thrice, as much as the fat one — more especially if the
fat one had been for some time previously fed on the same food, as cattle eat gradually less
food until they arrive at maturity, when they become stationary in their appetite." . . . •• We
shall conclude," he says, "by relating a singular fact," and a remarkable one it is, and worth re-
membering, "that nheep on lurnips will consume nearly in proportion to cattle, weight for weight,
that is, 10 sheep of 14 lbs. a (piarler, or 40 stones in all, will eat nearly the same ijuanlity of tur-
nips as an ox of 40 stones ; but turn the ox to grass, and 6 sheep will be found to consume an
equal quantity. This great difference may perhaps," says Mr. Stephenson, and 1 think truly, " be
accounted for by the practice of sheep cropping tlie grass much clo.serand oftener than cattle, and
which, of course, prevents its growing so rapidly with them as with cattle."*
(1283.) Slill another iiuestion remains to be considered in reference to the feeding of cattle in
winter, which is, whether they thrive best in hamtne/s or in hi/re.i at the stake? The determina-
tion of this question would settle the t'uiurc construction of steadings; for, of course, if more profit
were certainly yielded to the farmer to feed his cattle in hammels than in byres, not only would
* Prize Riisayg of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xii.
(1000)
REARING AND FEEDING CATTLE ON TURNIPS. 521
■ _
no more byres be erected, but those in use convened into liammcls; and tliis circumstance would
so materially change the form of steadings, as to throw open tlie confined courts, embraced within
<iuailraugles, to tlie influence of the sun, at the only season these receptacles are required, namely,
in winter. Some facts have already been decided regarding the comparative effects of hammels
and byres upon cattle. Cattle are much cleaner in their persons in hammels than in byres. No
doubt they can be kept clean in byres, but not being so. there must be some difficulty "incidental
to byre-management, and it consists, I presume, in the cattle man finding it more laborious \o
keep the beasts clean in a byre, than in hammels ; otherwise the fact is not easily to be accounted
for, for he takes no spccinl care to keep beasts in hammels clean. Perhaps when cattle have lib-
erty to lie down where they please they may choose the driest, becau.se the most comfortable
spot; whereas, in a byre, they must lie down upon what they cannot see behind them. There
is another advantage derived from hammels ; the hair of cattle never .scalds off the skin, and never
becomes short and smooth, but remains long and mossy, and all licked over, and wa.slied clean
by rain, until it is naturally ca.si in spring, and this advantage is felt by cattle when sent to mar-
ket in winter, where thej' can with.stand much more wet and cold than tho.se which have been
fed in byres. A third advantage is, that cattle from hammels can travel the road without injury
to their feet, being accustomed to be so much upon their feet, and to move about. It has been
alle.cred in favor of byres, that they accommodate more cattle on the same space of ground, and
are less expensive to erect at first than hammels. That in a given space more beast-s are accom-
modated in byres there is no doubt, and there is as little doubt that more bea-sts are put in a byre
than should be ; but I have great doubts that it will cost more monej- to accommodate a given
number of cattle in the hammel than in the byre system; because hammels can bo constructed
in a temporary form of wood and straw, and make beasts very comfortable at a moderate charge,
whereas byres ca,nnot be formed in that fashion ; and even in the more costly form of roofs and
walls, the shedding of hammels requires, comparatively to a byre, but a small stretch of roof ; and
it is well knoun that it is the roof and not the bare masonry of the walls that constitute the most
costly part of a steading. 1 have seen a .set of hammels, having stone and lime walls, and feed-
ing troughs, and a temporary roof, ei'ected for £\ for every beast it could accommodate, and no
form of byre could be built at that cost. But all these advantages of hammels would be of trifling
import, if it can be proved by experience that cattle afford larger profits on being fed in byres;
and unless this superiority is established in regard to either, the other is undeserving of prefer-
ence. How then, stands the fact? Has experiment ever tried the comparative effects of
both on anything like fair terms? Mr. Boswell of Balmuto, in Fifeshire, and of Kingcausie,
in Kincardineshiie, has done it; and it shall now be my duty to make you acquainted with the
results.
(1284.) To give as much variety to this experiment as the circumstances would admit, it was
conducted both at Balmuto and Kingcausie, and the beasts selected for it were of different ages,
namely, 2 and 3-year-olds. At Balmuto 4 three-year olds were put in close byres, and 4 in open
hammels, and the same number of 2-year-olds were accommodated in a .similar manner at King-
causie. Those at Kingcausie received turnips only, and of course straw ; at Balmuto a few pota-
toes were given at the end of the season, in addition to the turnips. The season of experiment
extended from 17th October, 1834 to 19th February, 1835. The results were these : —
St. lb.
The 4 hammel-fed 2 year olds at Kingcausie gained of live weight 45 g
.. 4 .. .. 3-year-olds at Balmuto .. .. .. 45 o
4 byre-fed 2-year-olds at Kingcausie gained of live
weight, 32 7
4 .. 3-year-olds at Balmuto .. .. 36 0
91 8
68 7
Gain of live weight by the hammel-fed, 23 1
This is, however, not all gain, for the hammel-fed consumed more turnips, the Aberdeen yellow
bullock, than the byre-fed.
Tons. cwts. qrs. lbs.
Those at Kingcausie consumed more by 17 2 6
And those at Balmuto .. .. 2 4 3 22
Total more consumed, ~3 ig o 0
In a pecuniary point of view, the gain upon the hammel-fed was this :— 23 stones 1 lb. live
weight, = .'3J stones beef, at 6s. per stone, gives £4 2s.. from which deduct the value of the tur-
nips, at 4d. per cwt., £\ 4s. 2d., leaving a lance of £2 7s. lOd.
(1285.) It is a prevalent opinion among farmers, that young cattle do not lay on weipht .so fast,
as old. But this experiment contradicts it; for the 2 year-olds in the hammels at Kingcausie
gained 44 stones 22 lbs., on their united weights of 320 stones 7 lbs., in the same time that the 3-
year-olds in the hammels at Balmuto, weighing together 350 stones, were of gaining 46 .stones. Be-
sides, the young beasts in the hammels at Kingcausie gained over those in the byre 12 stones 15
lbs., while the older cattle in the hammels at Balmuto gained over those in the byre only 10 stones.
.So that, in tuber way. the young cattle had the advantage over the older. ' "
(1286.) Mr. Boswell observes that " hammels ought never to bo used unless when the climate
IS good, and the accommodation of courts drv and well sheltered ; and, above all, unless when
there is a very large quantity of litter to keep the cattle constantly clean and dry." Shelter is
essential for all sorts of stock in any situation, and the more expo.sed the general condition of the
farm is, the more need there is of shelter; but be the situation what it may, it is. in my opinion,
quite possible to render any hammel sheltered enough for stock, not by the distribution of plant-
ing, but by temporary erections against its weather-side ; and these means will be the more
(1057)
522 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
efibctaal when the haaimel ia placed facing the meritlian aan. which it slioald be in cvety caae
If these particulars arc attentled to. and a rain water spout placed along the cave in front to pre
vent the rain from lliu roof falling into the court, and an open drain, with convenient gratings, con
nected with all the courts, is properly made, the quantity of straw required will not bo inordinate
as I have myself experienced when farming dry turnip-soil. Mr. Boswell's testimony in favor of
hammels is most satisfactory: it is this. " From the result of my own experiment, as well as thf
unauimous o|>iuion of every agriculturist with whom I have conversed on the subject, I feel con-
vinced that there is no poiiit more clearly eistablislied than that cattle improve quicker, or, in othci
words, tlirire bcttiT m opt a hamme's than in close byres."*
(1287.) 1 have dwelt the longer on the subject of leediug cattle, because of its great import-
ance to the farmer, and because of the uncertainty sometimes attending its practice to a proKiable
issue: aiid there is no doubt that whether it leaves a profit or not depends entirely on the mode
in which is pro.secuted. Many are content to taiieu tlieir cattle in any way, or because others do
so, provided they know tlicy are not actually losing money by it, but if they do not make their
cattle in the ripest state they are capable of being made, they are, in fact, losing part of their
value. But how are they you may ask, beet to be made ripe ? There lies the ditticulty of
the case, and it must be attended with much difficulty before a man of the extensive experience
in fattening cattle as Mr. Stephenson, would express himself in these words : " We have had
great experience in feeding stock, and have conducted iiuinbcra of cj-perimrnts on that subject
with all possible care, both iu weighing the cattle alive, and ilie w hole food administered to
theui and in every experiment we maile in- discotcred sumtthais' ncir. Hut we have seen enough
to convince us that, were the art <if feeding better understood, a great deal more beef and mutton
might be produced from the same quantil y of food than is generally done." So fur should such a
declaration deter you from fattening (tattle, it should rather be a proof of the wideuess of the field
that is still open for you to experiment in.
(128S.) There are but few aixeases incidental to cattle in a slate of confinement in winter, these
being chiefly confined to the skin, such as tlie aHection of lice, and to accidents in the administra-
tion of food, as hoven and obstruction of the gullet may be termed.
(1289.) I. ice. When it is known that almost every species of quadruped found in the countrj-,
and la a state of nature, is inhabited by one or more pediculida;, sonietimcg peculiar to one kind
of animal, at other times ranging over many, it will not excite surprise that they should als^o occur
on our donie.-'tic ox. Indeed, domestication and the consequences it entails, such as confinement,
transition from a low to a higher condition, high feeding, and an occasional deviation from a
strictly natural kind of food, seem peculiarly favorable to the increase of these parasites. Their
occurrence is well known to the breeder of cattle, and to the feeder of fat cattle ; and they are
not unfrecjuentl}' a source of no small annoyance to him. Unless when they prevailed to a great
extent, they are probably not the cause of any po.sitive evil to the animal, but, as their attacks are
attended with loss of hair, an unhealthy appearance of the skin, and their presence is always more
or less unsightly, and a source of personal annoyance to cattle, they may much impair the ani-
mal's look, which, when it is designed to be exhibited in the market, is a matter of no small conse-
quence. As an acquaintance with the appearance and habits of these creatures must jirecede the
discoveri' and application of any judicious method of removing or destroying them. I Miall describe
the species now which are the most common and no.xious to the ox. and afterward to the other do-
mestic animals of the farm. They may be diviiled into two sections, according to a peculiarity of
structure, which detenuines the mode in which they attack an animal, namely, those provided
with a mouth formed for sucking, and such as have a mouth with two jaws formed for gnaw-
ing. Of the former there are 3 species, which are very common, attacking the ox, the sow, and
the ass.
(1290.) Oxlousc /'Htetnatopinus suri/itfernuxj, fig. 268. It is about 1 or IJ lines in length, aa
Been by the line below the figure, the head somewhat triangular, and of a chesnui color,
the eyes pale brown, antenna; pale ochre-yellow, thorax darker dies-
nut than the head, with a spiracle or breathing-hole on each side, and a
deep furrow on each side anteriorly ; the shape ucarlv sijuare, the an-
terior line concave, abdomen broadly ovate, grayisli-white, or very
slightly tinged with yellow, with 4 longiludinous rows of dusky horny
excrescences, widi 2 black curved marks on the last segment; legs
long anil stroiii:. particularly the 2 fore-pairs, the color chesnut ; claws
Strong and hhick. This may be called the common louse that infests
cattle. It is most apt to abound on them wlu-n tied to the stall for win-
ter feeding ; and a notion prevails in England that its increa.-ic is owing
to the cattle feeding on straw. The fact probably is, that it becomes
more plentiful when the animal is tied up, in conse<iucnce of its being
then less able to rub and lick itself, and the creature is left to propagate,
which it does with ^reat rapidity, comparatively undisturbed. It gen-
erally concentrates its forces on the mane and shoulders. As the jiara- I
site is suctorial, if it is at all the means of causing the hair to fall off. it *
can only be by depriving it of the juices by which is nourished, which ^"''- "X-t.ousE, H£MA-
we can conceive to be the case when the sucker is in.'serled at the root Topinus stJRTSTERNUS.
of the hair ; but it is more |)robahle that the hair is rubbed off by the cattle themselves, or is shorn
off by another louse to be just noticed. The egg or nit is pear shaped, and may be seen attsfbed
to the hairs.
(1291.) OxlovxefTrickodec/egfcalarifJ.fig. 269. — This parasite is minute, the length Beldoni
exceeding j a line. The head and thorax are of a light ru.st color, the former of a somewhat ob-
cordate sliape, with two dusky sjuUs in front : the third joint of the untenns longi.'.st, and spindle-
shaped (in the horse-louse, Trichodectes eijni, that joint is clavate; ; abdomen pale, tawny, pabes-
* Prize EUsays of the Ilighland and Agricultural Society, vol. xL
(1058)
REARING AND FEEDING CATTLE ON TURNIPS.
523
Fig. 296.
''^
THE OX-LOUSE,
TRICHODECTES
SCALARIS.
Fig. 270.
Fig. 27]
9
cent, the first 6 segments with a transvere dusky or rust-colored stripe on the upper half, a narrow
stripe of the same color along- each side, and a large spot at the hhuier extremity ; legs, pale taw-
ny. Plentiful on cattle ; commonly found about the mane, forehead, and
rump, near the tail-head. It is provided with strong mandibles, with two
teeth at the apex, and by means of these it cuts the hairs near the roots
with facility. Both these vermin are destroyed by the same means as the
sheep-louse (1156).
(1292.| Choking-. — \\''hen cattle are feeding on turnips or potatoes, it oc-
casionally happens that a piece larger than will enter the gullet easily, is
attempted to be swallowed, and obstructed in its passage. The accident
chiefly occurs to cattle receiving a limited supply of turnips, and young
beasts are more subject to it than old. When a number of young beasts
in the same court only get a specified quantity of turnips or potatoes
once or twice a day, each becomes apprehensive, when the food is distrib-
uted, that will not get its own share, and therefore eats what it can with
much apparent greediness, and not taking sufficient time to masticate, swal-
lows its food hastily. A large piece of turnip, or a small potato, thus easily
escapes beyond the power of the tongue, and, assisted as it is by the saliva, is
sent to the top of the gullet, where it remains. Cattle that project their mouths
forward in eating, are most liable to choke. When turnips are sliced and
potatoes are broken, there is less danger of the accident occurring even among
young cattle. The sight of the obstruction, its consequent effects, and reme-
dial measures for its removal, are thus described by Professor Dick. " The
obstruction usually occurs at the bottom of the pharynx and commencement
of the gullet, not far from the lower part of the larynx, which we have seen
mistaken for the foreign body. The accident is much more serious in ruminating animals than in
others, as it immediately induces a suspension of that necessary process, and of indigestion, fol
lowed by a fermentation of the food, the evolution of gases, and all those frightful symptoms whicli
will be noticed under the disease hoveii. The difficulty in breath-
ing, and the general uneasiness of the animal, usually direct at
once to the nature of the accident, which examination brings un-
der the cognizance of the eye and hand. No time must he lost in
endeavorina: to afford relief ; and the ,^rs^ thing to be tried is, by
gentle friction and pressure of the hand upward and downward,
to see and rid the animal of the morsel. Failing in this, we
mention first the great virtue we have frequently found in the use
of mild lubricating Huids, such as warm water and oil. well boiled
gruel, &c. The gruel is grateful to the animal, which frequently
tried to gulp it, and often succeeds. Whether this is owing to
the lubrication of the parts, or the natural action superinduced, it
is unneces.sary to inquire ; but the fact we know, that a few pints
of warm gruel have often proved successful in removing the ob-
struction. If this remedy should he ineffectual, the foreign body
may perhaps be within the reach of the small hand which a kind
dairy-maid may skillfully lend for the purpose. If this good service
cannot be procured, the common probang must be used, the cup-
end being employed. Other and more complicated instruments
have been invented, acting upon various principles — some, for
example, on that of bruising the obstructing body ; and the use of
these requires con.siderable skill. Disappointed in all, we must
finally have resource to the knife."* You may try all these rem-
edies, with the exception of the knife, with perfect confidence.
The friction, the gruel, the hand, and the probang, I have success-
fully tried ; but the use of the knife should be left to the practi-
cal skill of the veterinary surgeon.
(1293.) The conmjon probang is represented in fig. 271, a be-
ing the cup-end, which is so formed that it may partially lay hold
of the piece of turnip or potato, and not slip between it and the
gullet, to the risk of rupturing the latter, and being of larger di-
ameter than the usual state of the gullet, on pressing it forward
distends the gullet, and makes room for the obstructing body to
proceed to the stomach. Formerly the probang was covered
with cane, but is now with leather, which is more pliable. It is
used in this manner : Let the piece of wood, fig. 270, be placed
over the opened mouth of the animal as a bit. and the straps of ^jjj. mouth-piece
leather attached to it buckled tightly over the neck behind the „„„ „„„ nnnnA v/-
horns, to keep the bit steady m Us place. The use of the bit is,
not only to keep the mouth open without trouble, but to prevent the animal injuring the probang
with its teeth, and it offers the most direct passage for the probang toward the throat. Let a few
men seize the animal on both sides by the horns or otherways, and let its mouth be held project-
ing forward in an easy position, but no fingers introduced into the nostrils to obstruct the breath-
ing of the animal, nor the tongue forcibly pulled at the side of the mouth. Introduce now the
cap-end a of the probang, fig. 271, through the round hole b of the mouthpiece, fig. 270, and push
it gently toward the throat until you feel the piece of the turnip obstructing you; push then with
a firm and persevering hand, cautioning the men, previous to the push, to hold on firmly, for the
* Dick's Manual of Veterinary Science.
(1059)
THE PRO-
BANG-
524 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
pafwage of the instrument mny eive the animal a little pain, and rouse it to wince and even start
awav. The obstruction will now most likely give way, etipecially if the operation has been pcr-
fornieii before the parts around it began to swell ; but if not. the probaiit,' must be UKcd w ilh still
more force, while another person rubs with his hanils U[i and down upon the distended throat of
tlie beast. If these attempts fail, recourse must be liad to the knife, and a veterinary surgeon sent
for instantlv.
(li><)4.) lliwcn. — The hovcn in cattle is the corresponding di-^eas*; to the gripes or batts in horses.
Tlie direct cause; of the symptoms is umluc accumulation of ga.«es in tlie jiaunch or large stom-
ach, which, not finding a ready vent. caus<'s ;;reat pain and uneasiness to the unimnl. and, if not
removed in time, ruptures the paunch and death ensues. The cause of accumulation of the gases
is indigestion. '■ The structure of the digestive organs of cattle." sa\s Professor Dick, " ren-
ders them peculiarly liable to the complaint, while the sudden changes to which they are
exposed in feeding prove exciting causes. Thus, it is often witnessed in animals removed from
confinement and winter feeding to the luxuriance of the clover field ; and in house-fed cattle,
from the exhibition of rich food, such as peas meal and beans, often supplied to enrich their
milk. We have already mentioned that it sometimes proceeds from obstructed gullet. The
evmptoms bear so close a resemblance, both in their jirogress and termination in rupture
and death, to those so fully described above, that wc shall not repeat tiem. The treatment
mo-wtly corresponds, and it nui.«t be equally prompt. The mixture of the oils of lin.seed and
turpentine is nearly a specific.'* The recipe is, linseed-oil, raw, 1 lb. ; oil of turpentine, from
2 to 3 oz. ; laudanum, from 1 to 2 oz.. for one dose. Or hartshorn, from { to 1 oz., in 'J |)int8 im-
perial of tei)iil water. In cases of pressing urgency, from 1 to 2 oz. of tar nuiy be added to \ pint
of spirits, and given diluted, with great prospect of advantage. These medicines are particularly
effective in the early stage ol the disease, and should therefore be tried on the first discovery of
the animal being affected with it. Should they not give immediate relief, the probang may be
introduced into the stomach, and be the means of conveying away the gas as fast as it is gene-
rated ; and I have seen it successful when the complaint was produced both by potatoes and clo-
ver; but I never saw an instance of hoven from turnips, except from obstruction of the gullet.
The trial of the probang is useful to show whether the conijilaint ari.ses from obstruction or other-
wi.se, for should it pass easily down the throat, and the conijjlaint continue, of course the case is a
decided one of hoven. Placing an in.strument, such as in fig. 270, across the mouth, to keep it
open, is an American cure which is said never to have failed. But the gas may be generated so
rapidly that neither medicines nor the probang may be able to jireventor convey away, in which
case tiie apparently des[)erate remedy of />""«c/H«i?' must be had recourse to. " The place for
puncturing the paunch," directs Professor Dick, '-is on the left side, in the central point between
the lateral [irocesses of the lumbar vertebra, the spine of the ileum, and the last rib. Here the
trochnr may be introduced without fear. If air escape rapidly, all is well. The canula may re-
main in for a day or two, and, on withdrawal, little or no inconvenience will usually manifest
itself. If no gas escape, wc mu.st enlarge the opening freely, till the hand can be introduced
into the i)aunch, and its contents removed, as we have sometimes seen, in prodigious <|uantitie8.
This done, we should close the wound in the divided paunch with 2 or '.i stitches of fine catgut,
and carefully approximate and retain the sides of the external wound, and with rest, w ait for a
cure, which is often as complete as it is speedy. "t To strengthen your confidence in the per-
formance of this operation, I may quote a medical authority on its safe effects, in the human sub-
ject, even to the extent of exposing the inti'stincs as they lay in the abdomen. " I should expect
no immediately dangerous effects from opening the abdominal cavity. Dr. Blundell has stated
that he has never, in his experiments upon the rabbit, ob.<erved any marked collapse when the
peritoneum was laid open, although in full expectation of it. The great danger to be apprehend-
ed is from inffammation, and the surgeon, of course, will do all in his power to guard against it. "J
I once used the trochar with success in the case of a Skiho slot which had been put on potatoes
from turnips, and as he was in very high condition, took a little blood from him. and he recovered
very rapidly. In another year I lost a fine 1 year old Short Horn quey by hoven, occasioned by
potatoes. Oil and tur|>entine were u.sed, hut as the complaint had
remained too long, before it was noticed by myself, late at night,
the medicine bad no efli-'cL The i>robang went down easily,
proving there was no obstruction. The trochar v\as then ibrnst in,
but 8<3on proved ineffectual, and as I had not the courage to use
the knife to tuilarge the opening the trochar had made, and with-
draw the conti'iits of the paunch with the hand, the animal sank
and was immediately slaughtered. The remedies cannot be too
soon applied in the case of hoven.
(129.1.) Tlu! trochar is represented in fig. 272. It consists of a
round rod of iron a. 5 inches in length, terminating at one end in a
triangular, pyramidal-shaped point, and furnished with a wooden
handle at the other. The rod is slieathed in a cylindrical cover
or case /', calleil the canula, which is open at one end, permitting
its point to project, and furnished at the other with a broad, circu-
lar flange. The canula is kept tight on the rod by means of a slit the trochar.
at its end nearest the point of the rod, which, beiiiL: somt'what
larger in diameter than its own body, expands the slit end of the canula until it meets the body,
when the slit collapses to its ordinary size, and the canula is kept secure behind the enlarged
point as at c. On using the trochar, in the state as seen by c, it is forced with a thrust into the
place pointed out above, through the skiu into the paunch; and on withdrawing the rod by its
* Dick's Manual of Veterinary Science. t Ibid.
\ Stcjihcns on Obstructed and Inflamed Ilemia.
(1060)
DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING CATTLE. 525
handle — which is easily done, notwithstanding the contrivance to keep it on — the canula is left
in the opening, to permit the gas to escape through its channel. On account of the distended
state of the skin, the trochar may rebound from the throat; and in such an event, a considerable
force must be used to penetrate the skin.
(1296.) The fardlcbonnd of cattle and sheep is nothing more than a modification of the disease
in hor-ses called stomach-staggers, which is caused by an enormous distension of the stomach. "In
this variet}', it has been ascertained," says Professor Dick, " that the matiiplies are most involved,
its secretions are suspended, and its contents become dry, hard, and caked into one solid mass.
Though the constipation is great, yet there is .sometimes the appearance of a slight purging, which
may deceive the practitioner."" The remedial measures are, first, to relieve the stomach by large
drenches of warm water, by the use of the stomach-pump. Searching and stimulating laxatives
are then given, assisted by clj'sters, and then cordials.
(1297.) IVarts and angle-berries are not uncommon excrescences upon cattle. They are chiefly
confined to the groin and belly. I have frequently removed them by ligature with waxed silk
thread. Escharotics have great efficacy in removing them — such as alum, bluestone, corrosive
sublimate.
(1298.) Encysted tumors sometimes appear on cattle, and may be removed by simple incision,
having no decided root or adhesion. I had a 2-year-old Short-Horn quey that had a large one
upon the front of a hind foot, immediatelj' above the coronet, which was removed by simple in-
cision by a veterinary surgeon. ^Vhat the true cause of its appearance may have been, I cannot
say ; but the quey, when a calf, was seen to kick a .straw-rack violently w ith the foot affected,
and was lame in consequence for a few days ; after which, a small swelling made its appearance
upon the place, which, gradually enlarging, became the loose and unsightly tumor which was
removed.
(1299.) A gray-colored scabby eruption, vulgarly called the ticker, sometimes comes out on
young cattle on the naked skin around the eye-lids, and upon the nose between and above the
nostrils. It is considered a sign of thriving, and no doubt it makes its appearance most likely on
beasts that are improving from a low state of condition. It may be removed by a few applica-
tions of sulphur ointment.
(1300.) In winter, when cows are heavy in calf some are troubled with a complaint commonly
called a coming doicn of the calf-bed. A part of the womb is seen to protrude through the va-
ginal passage when the cow lies down, and disappears when she stands up again. It is sup-
posed to originate after a very severe labor. Bandages have been recommended, but. in the case
of the cow, they would be troublesome, and indeed are unnecessary ; for if the litter is made firm
and higher at the back than the front part of the stall, so as the hind-quarter of the cow shall be
higher than the fore when lying, the protrusion will not occur. I had a cow that was troubled
with this inconvenience every year, and as she had no case of severe labor in mv possession, I
did not know whether, in her case, it was occasioned by such a circumstance ; but it seemed to
give her no uneasiness, when the above preventive remedy was resorted to.
(1301.) It not unfrequently happens to cattle in large courts, and more especially to those in the
court nearest the corn-barn, that an oat-chafFgets into one of their eyes in a windy day. An irri-
tation immediately takes place, causing copious watering from the eye, and, if the chaff is not re-
moved, a considerable inflammation and consequent pain soon en.sue, depriving the sufferer of
the desire for food. To have it removed, let the animal be firmly held by a number of men, and
as beasts are particularly jealous of having anything done to their eyes, a young beast even will
require a number of men to hold it fast. The fore-finger should then be gently introduced under
the ej-e-lid, pushed in as far as it can go, and being moved round along the surface of the eye-ball,
is brought round to its original position, and then carefully withdrawn and examined, to see if
the chaff has been removed along with it, which it most likely will be ; but if not, repeated at-
tempts will succeed. A thin handkerchief around the finger will secure the extraction at the first
attempt. Fine salt or snuff have been recommended to be blown into the eye when so affected,
that the consequent increased discharge of tears may float away the irritating substance ; but the
assistance of the finger is less painful to the animal, and sooner over, and, as it is an operation I
have frequently performed with undeviating success, I can attest its eSicacy and safety.
33. DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING CATTLE.
"Frisk, dance and leap, like full-fed beasts, and even
Turn up their wanton heels against the Heaven ;
Not understanding that this pleasant life
Serves but to tit them for the butcher's knife."
FI.AVEL.
(1302.) It is requisite that cattle which have been disposed of to the
dealer or butcher, or are intended to be driven to market, should undergo
a preparation for the journey. If they were immediately put to the road
to travel, from feeding on grass or turnips, when their bowels are full ol*
* Dick's Manual of Veterinary Science.
(1061)
526 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
indigested vegetable matter, a scouring might ensue, which would render
them unfit to pursue their journey; and this complaint is the more likely
to be brought on from the strong propensity which cattle have to take
violent exercise on feeling themselves at liberty from a long confinement.
They in fact become light -head id whenever they leave the hammel or
byre, so much so that they actually "frisk, dance and leap," and their
antics would be highly amusing, were it not for the apprehension they
may hurt themselves against some opposing object, as they seem to regard
nothing before them. I remember seeing a dodded Angus stot let out of
a byre running so recklessly about that at length he came at full speed
with his head against the wall of the steading, and was instantly felled to
the ground. Before any one could run to his assistance he sprang upon his
feet and made off again at full speed, holding his head high and tail on end,
as if he felt proud of having d«)ne a feat which no one else could imitate.
With distended nostrils and heaving flanks he appeared dreadfully excited ;
but on being put into his byre he soon calmed down. On being let out
for the first time cattle should be put awhile into a large court, or on a
road well fenced with inclosures, and guarded by men, to romp about.
Two or three times of such liVierty will make them quiet ; and, in the
mean time, to lighten their weight of carcass, they should get hay for a
large proportion of their food. These precautions are absolutely neces-
sary for cattle confined in byres, otherwise accidents may befall them on
the road, where they will at once break loose. Even at home serious
accidents sometimes overtake them, such as the breaking down of a horn,
casting off a hoof, spraining a tendon, bruising ribs, and beating the whole
body violently ; and, of course, when any such ill luck befalls, the animal
affected must be left behind, and become a di-awback upon the value of
the rest, unless kept on for some time longer.
(1303.) Having been prepared for the road, the drover — who may be
your own shepherd, or a hired professional drover — takes the road very
slowly for the first two days, not exceeding 7 or 8 miles a day. At night,
in winter, they should be put into an open court and supplied with hay
and water and a very few turnips ; for if the turnips are suddenly with-
drawn from them, their bellies will become what is termed dinged, that is,
shrunk up into smaller dimensions — a state very much against a favorable
appearance in a market. After the first two days they may proceed faster,
say 12 or 13 miles a day if very fat, and 15 if moderately so. When
the journey is long and the beaats get faint in travel, they should get
corn to support them. In frosty weather, when the roads become very
hard, they are apt to become shoulder-ahdkcn, an effect of founder; and if
sleet falls during the day, and becomes iVozen upon them at night, they
may become so chilled as to refuse; food, and shrink rapidly away. 1 had
a lot of 12 Angus oxen so afl'ected on their road to tilasgow, when over-
taken in an unexpected storm in May, that I could scarcely recognize them
in the market. Cattle should, if possible, arrive the day before in the
neighborho(»d of a distant market, and be sujiplied with a good feed of
turnips and hay, or grass, to make them look fresh and fill them up again ;
but if the fair is only a short dislance, they caji tiavel to it early in the
morning.
(130 I.) In driving cattle the drover shoulil have no dog, which will only
annoy them. He should walk either before or behind, as he sees them
''lisposed to proceed too fast or loiter on the road; and in ]iassing car-
riages the leatling ox, after a little experience, will make way for the rest.
In other respects their management on the road is much the same as that
of sheep, though the rate of tjaveling is quicker. Accommodation will
(10t)2)
DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING CATTLE. 527
be found at night at stated distances along the road. On putting oxen in
a ferry-boat the shipping of the first one only is attended with much
trouble. A man on each side should take hold of a horn, or of a halter
made of any piece of rope, should the beast be hornless, and other two
men, one on each side, should push him up behind with a piece of rope
held between them as a breaching, and conduct him along the plank into
the boat, which, if it have low gunwales, a man will require to remain
beside him until one or two more of the cattle follow their companion,
which they will most readily do. In neglecting this precaution in small
ferry-boats, I have seen the first beast leap into the water, and then it was
difficult to prevent some of the rest doing the same thing fi-om the quay.
(1305.) Whatever time a lot of cattle may take to go to a market, they
should never be overdriven. There is great difference in management in
this respect among drovers. Some like to proceed on the road quietly,
slowly, but surely, and to enter the market in a placid, cool state. Others,
again, drive smartly along for some distance and rest to cool awhile, when
the beasts will probably get chilled and have a staring coat when they
enter the market ; while others like to enter the market with their beasts
in an excited state, imagining them then to look gay ; but distended nos-
trils, loose bowels and reeking bodies, the ordinary consequences of excite-
ment, are no recommendations to a purchaser. Good judges are shy of
purchasing cattle in a heated state, because they do not know how long
they may have been in it, and, to cover any risk, will give c£l a head be-
low what they would have bid for them in a cool state. Some drovers
»ave a habit of thumping at the hindmost beast of the lot with his stick
'hile on the road. This is a reprehensible practice, as the flesh, where
lUmped, will bear a red mark after the animal has been slaughtered, the
mark getting the appi-opriate name of hlood-hur7i, and the flesh so affected
will not take on salt, and is apt to putrefy. A touch upon the shank, or
any tendonous part, when correction is necessary, is all that is required ;
but the voice, in most cases, will answer as well. The flesh of overdriven
cattle, when slaughtered, never becomes properly firm, and their tallow
has a soft, melted appearance.
(1306.) A few large oxen in a lot look best in a market on a position
rather above the eye of the spectator. When a large lot is nearly alike
in size and appearance, they look best and most level on a flat piece of
ground. Very large fat oxen never look better than on ground on the
same level with the spectator. An ox, to look well, should hold his head
in a line with the body, with lively ears, clear eye, dewy nose, a well-licked
hide, and stand firmly on the ground on all his feet. These are all symp-
toms of high health and good condition. Whenever you see an ox shift-
ing his standing from one foot to another, he i?, foot-sore, and has been far
driven. When you observe him hanging his head and his eyes watering
he feels ill at ease inwardly. When his coat stares he has been over-
heated some time, and got a subsequent chill. All these latter symptoms
will be much aggravated in cattle that have been fed in a byre. You may
discover when a beast has been fed at the stake with the seal or baikie, by
observing a fretted and callous mark on the top of the neck immediately
behind the ears ; by the hoofs being rather overgrowTi at the points ; by
marks of dung, or at least much resting, upon the outside of the hams ;
and very frequently by the remains of lice upon the tail-head and top of
shoulder, their scurf remaining, or the hair shorn off" altogether.
(1307.) In all customs relating to jnarkcts it is the same with cattle as
with sheep (1167). And an ox puts on fat precisely in the same manner
as a sheep (1169).
(1063)
628
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
(1308.) In judging cattle the jnocedure is somewhat different from that
of sheep, inasmuch as the liair of cattle not hiding their form so effectually
as wool does that of sheep, the eye is more used than the hand ; indeed,
in the case of ripe fed cattle, the eye alone is consulted. The hand as well
as the eye is brought into use in judging of Jean cattle to lay on to grass or
to fatten on turnips ; and when we come to consider that matter in summer
and autumn, 1 shall let you know the use of the hand \n determining the
qualities essential to a good han beast. Meantime our business is with
fat beasts ; and although judging them by the eye is not a difficult thing
in itself, it is rather difficult to describe in words. With the assistance,
however, of the accompanying figures, I hope you will obtain some useful
hints toward acquiring a knowledge of the art. WTien you look at the
near side of a ripe ox in profile — and this is the side usually chosen to be-
gin with — whatever be its size, imagine its body to be embraced within a
rectangled parallelogram, as in fig. 273 ; and if the ox is filled up in all
Fig. 273.
THE SIDE TIEW OF A WELL FILLED-UP FAT OX.
points, his carcass will occupy the parallelogram a J c J as fully as in the
figure ; but, in most cases, there will be deficiencies in various parts — not
that all the deficiencies will occur in the same animal, but different ones
in different animals. The flank e, for instance, may be shrunk up, and
leave a space there to the line ; or the brisket^ may descend much farther
down than is represented ; or the rump c may be elevated much above the
line of the back; or the middle of the back g may be much hollowed be-
low the line ; or the top of the shoulder h may be much elevated above
it ; or a large space may be left unfilled in the hams above d. Then a
similar survey should be made behind the animal ; the imaginary line
should inscribe it also within it the perimeter of a rectangled parallelo-
gram, though of different form from the other, as represented in fig. 274,
where the breadth of the hook-bones, a and b, is maintained as low as the
points c and d ; and the closing between the legs at e is also well filled up.
This figure gives a somewhat exaggercXted view of the appearance of a
fat ox behind ; but still it gives the form of the outline which it should
have. Then go in front of the ox, and there imagine the outline of the
body at the shoulder, inscribed within a rectangled parallelogram abed,
fig. 27.5, of exactly the same dimensions as the one in fig. 274. The
shoulder, from a to i, is apparently of the same breadth as across the
hook-bones, from a to b, fig. 274. The off-side of the animal may of
course be expected to be similar in outline to the near side. Having thus
(1064)
DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING CATTLE.
529
obtained an idea of the outline which a fat ox should have, let us now at-
tend to the filling up of the area of the parallelogram.
Fig. 274.
Fig. 275.
THE HIND VIEW uF A
WELL FILLED-UP FAT OX.
THE FRONT VIEW
WELL FILLED-UP FAT
(1309.) On looking again at the near-side view, fig. 271, observe whether
the ribs below and on each side of g are rounded, and nearly fill up the
space between the more projecting points h and k, that is, between the
shoulders and the hook. Observe also whether the shoulder h is flat, some-
what in the same plane as g, or more rounded and prominent ; and whe-
ther the space behind the shoulder, at i, is hollow or filled up. Observe,
again, whether the shoulder-point I is projecting and sharp, or rounded
off; and whether the neck, between a and I, is flat and sunk, or sweeps
fineV in with the shoulder. Obsei've yet more, whether the muscles atw
are thin and flat, or full and rounded ; and whether the hook-bone k pro-
jects or sinks in, or appears to connect itself easily with the rump c on the
one hand, and with the ribs g on the other. With all these alternative
particulars before you, they should be arranged in the following manner,
to constitute points in perfection.
(1310.) The line from the shoulder to the hook, from Ji to h, fig. 273,
should be parallel to the back-bone. The space on each side of g, along
the ribs from g to li, and along the loin from g to k, does not fall in with
the line h and k, but should be a little nearer, and almost as high as the
back-bone, with a rounding fall of the ribs down the side of the animal.
The loin, from k to g, should be perfectly flat above, on the same level as
the back-bone, and drop down on this side, in connection with the utmost
rounding of the ribs. The point of the hook k should just be seen to pro-
ject, and no more ; and the space between it and the rump c should grad-
ually sweep round to the narrower breadth of the pelvis, as seen from a
to c or i to r in fig. 276. i is placed at the utmost bend of the ribs, along
which a straight line should touch every point through i, from the front of
the shoulder to the buttock. The triangular space comprehended within
a h I should gradually taper from the shoulder-point to the head. A straight
line from I, the shoulder-point, should touch every spot fi-om it to m. The
line of the back should bo straight from a to c ; the tail should drop per-
pendicularly from CX.O d; and the belly should sweep level, not high at e
nor dropping aty^ There are thus three straight lines along the side of a
fat ox, from a to c, one through i, and from I to 7n. Proceeding behind the
animal to fig. 274, the space between the hooks, from a to Z», should be level,
but a little rounded off at both ends, and the bone at the top of the tail
only being allowed to project a little upward. The muscles on each side
(1065) 34
530
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
below the hooks, at g aiuiyi when fuller than the hooks, is no dfforimty,
but should they he no fuller, they are right. The muscles at c and d,
down the side of the hams, are allowed to sweep gradually toward the
hock joints of the lep^s. The closing at c should be well filled up to furnish
the rounds fully, but freely, ft tv parked rounds prevent easy motion of the
hind legs. Sometimes the tail is hid in a channel left by the muscles l>e-
tween c am\f, but this is not usually the case. On going to the front view,
fig. 275, the shoulder-top between a and b should be filled out with a na-
tural round, and the muscles below it upon the shoulder-bhules should
always project farther than the breadth of the shoulder-top, and in this re-
spect the fore-quarter differs from the hind, where the muscles below the
hooks seldom project beyond them. The shoulder-points c and/should
not be prominent, but round off with the muscles of the neck toward g
where the round of the front of the neck falls from the head to the breast
where the upper part of the brisket h meets it, and projecting a little in
front, is rounded below and forms the lowest part of the body of a fat ox,
and should be well filled out in breadth to spread the fore-legs asundei".
The fore-legs are usually farther apart than the hind, but the hind at
times, when the sJiaw or cod is large and fat, is as much and even more
apart.
(1311.) The objectionable deviations from these points are as follows :
In fig. 273, a hollow back at g is bad, showing weakness of the back-bone.
A high shoulder-crest at /i is always attended with a sharp thin shoulder,
and has the effect of bringing the shoulder-tops a and b, fig. 275, too close
together. A long distance between g and k makes the loins hollow, and
gives to a beast what is called a u-ashi/ appearance, and is always attended
with a liability to looseness in the bowels. This washiness is generally
attended with an inordinate breadth of hooks, from a to h, fig. 274, and
causes them to project much beyond the muscles below. A sharp project-
ing hook is always accompanied with flat ribs at g,
fig. 273, and ribs when flat give the animal a hollow
side, which bears little flesh, the viscera being thrown
down into the cavity of the belly, which droops con-
siderably below the line ; but in the event of the mus-
cles of the abdomen having a greater weight to bear,
they become thicker and stronger, and, accordingly,
the flesh there becomes less valuable, and it has also
the effect of thinning away the thick flank e. Flat-
ness of rib is also indicative of hollowness of the
space behind the shoulder, so much so, indeed, that
the animal seems as if it had been gripped in too
firmly there. As the flesh is taken away from the
shoulder-blade by a sharp shoulder and hollow ribs, so
the shoulder-joint I projects the more, and causes a
thinness of the neck between a and /. The rump-
bone, at c, frequently rises upward, thereby spoiling
the fine straight line of the back ; and whenever this
happens, the rump betw(^en J< and c wants flesh and even
becomes hollow, thereby much deteriorating the value
of the hind-quarter. A projecting hook /.• also thins
away the muscles about /«, and behind it to the rounds ;
and this again is followed by an enlargement of the
openings at the closing e, fig. 274. Wlienever the shoulder becomes thin
and narrow, when viewed in front, as in fig. 275, the shoulder-points c and
/"are wider than from a to h, and while this effect is produced above, the
(1066^
Fig. 276.
THE BACK VIEW OK A
WELL-FILLED FAT OX.
DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING CATTLE. 531
brisket k below becomes less fat, and permits the fore-legs to stand nearer
each r)ther. A greatly commendatory point of a fat ox is a level broad back
from rump to shouldei', because all the flesh seen from this position, as is
endeavored to be represented by fig. 27G, is of the most valuable descrip-
rion ; where the triangular space included between «, h, c, is the rump ;
the triangular space between a, h, d, the loin ; and the space between cl
and e, deflecting on both sides toward ^and^, the ribs, the value of all
which parts are enhanced the more nearly they all are on a level with
each other. All that I have endeavored to describe, in these paragraphs,
of the points of a fat ox, can be judged of alone by the eye, and most
judges never think of employing any other means ; but the assistance
derived from the hand is important, and in a beginner cannot be dispensed
with.
(1312.) The first point usually handJcd is the end of the rump at the
tail-head, at c, fig. 273, although any fat here is very obvious, and sometimes
attains to an enormous size, amounting even to deformity. The hook-bone
k gets a touch, and when well covered, is right ; but should the bone be
easily distinguished, the rump between k and c and the loin from k to g
may be suspected, and, on handling these places, the probability is that
they will both be hard, and deficient of flesh. To the hand, or rather to
the points of the fingers of the right hand, when laid upon the ribs g, the
flesli should feel soft and thick and the form be round when all is right,
but if the ribs are flat the flesh will feel hard and thin, from want of fat.
The skin, too, on a rounded rib, will feel soft and mobile, the hair deep
and mossy, both indicative of a kindly disposition to lay on flesh. The
hand then grasps the flank e, and finds it thick, when the existence of in-
ternal tallow is indicated. The cod is also fat and large, and on looking
at it from behind seems to force the hind legs more asunder than they
would naturally be. The palm of the hand laid along the line of the back
from c to h will point out any objectionable liard piece on it, but if all is
soft and pleasant, then the shoulder-top is good. A hoUowness behind the
shoulder at i is a very common occurrence ; but when it is filled up with
a layer of fat. the flesh of all the fore-quarter is thereby rendered very much
more valuable. You would scarcely believe that such a diflerence could
exist in the flesh between a lean and a fat shoulder. A high narrow shoul-
der is frequently attended with a ridged back-bone, and low-set narrow
hooks, a form which gets the appropriate name of razor-hack, with which
will always be found a deficiency of flesh in all the upper part of the ani-
mal, where the best flesh always is. If the shoulder-point Z is covered, and
feels soft like the point of the hook-bone, it is good, and indicates a well-
filled neck-vein, which runs from that point to the side of the head. The
shoulder-point, however, is often bare and prominent. When the neck-
vein is so firmly filled up as not to permit the points of the fingers into the
inside of the shoulder-point, indicates a well tallowed animal ; as also does
the filling-up between the brisket and inside of the fore-legs, as well as a
full, projecting, well-covered brisket in front. When the flesh comes down
heavy upon the thighs, making a sort of double thigh, somewhat like the
shape at d and e, fig. 274, it is called lyary, and indicates a tendency of
the flesh to grow on the lower instead of the upper part of the body.
These are all the points that require touching tchen the hand is used ; and
in a high-conditioned ox, they may be gone over very rapidly.
(1313.) Cattle are made to fast before being slaughtered, as well as
sheep. The time they should stand depends on the state of the animal on
its arrival at the shambles. If it has been driven a considerable distance
in a proper manner, the bowels will be in a tolerably empty state, so that
(1067)
532 THE BOOK OK THE FARM WINTER.
12 hours may sullicn . but if full and just off its food, 24 hours will be re-
quired. Ucasls that have been overdriven, or much struck with sticks, or
are in any degree infuriated — or raised, as it is termed — should not be
immediately slaughtered, but allowed to stand on dry food, such as hay,
until the symj)toni.s disappear. While such precautions are reilaiiily ne-
cessary to iireserve meat in the best state, we can scarcely credit the loss
there must be incurred every year in Smitlifield market in London, by the
injuries sustained by the animals being driven through the streets of an
immensely peopled metropolis. The state of many of the animals in the
market t)n a Monday morning is truly ])iliable. " The loss to the grazier,"
says a writer who advocates the removal of the market to the suburbs, "is
in the difference in value of his sheep or cattle, when ihey arrive in the
neighborhood of the metropolis, and when offered for sale in Smithfield
after intense suffering from hard blows, driving over the stones, from hun-
ger, thirst, fright, and the compressed state in which tliey are constrained
to be packed ; the sheep and beasts the whole time, from their raised tem-
perature, clouding the atmosphere of Smithfield with dense exhalations
from their bodies. The London butcher, canying on a respectable trade,
will at all times, when he enters the market, reject such cattle or sheep as
are what is termed in a mess ; that is, depresse<J, after excitation by being
overlaid or overdriven, or such as have been more than usually trouble-
some in getting into the market, and, consequently, will be in a more wor-
ried and exhausted condition. It is to be observed that all animals brought
into Smithfield, especially on the Monday's market-day, are more or less
in the condition above described." He goes on to state that " a calcula-
tion has been made, that 512,000 serious and extensive oedematous bruises
are, in the course of one year, discovered on cattle after they are slaugh-
tered. The pain these bruises must occasion to the cattle, and the loss t«
the butcher or the public, is exclusive of those parts of the animal which
suffer most from the conduct of the drovers, namely, the head, especially
the nasal organs, and concussions of the brain by blows on the horns, be-
sides the more acute suffering from blows on the hocks." The beef con-
sumed iii Lcmdon, in 1S36, amounted to 9^ millions of stones, which, at
68. a stone, gives a total value of c£2,S.50,000 ; and if its deterioration is
taken only at half a farthing per pound, the annual loss sustained by the
bruises of cattle alone will amount to c£()0.270 16s.*
(1314.) Cattle are slaughtered in a different manner from sheep, and
the mode diffci-s in different countries. In the great abbatoirs at Mont-
martre, in Paris, they are slaughtered by bisecting the spinal cord of the
cervical vertebrae ; and this is accf)m]ilishcd by the driving of a sharp-
pointed chisel between the second and third vertebra, with a smart stroke
of a mallet, while the animal is standing, when it drops, and death or in-
sensibility instantly ensues, and the blood is let out immediately by open-
ing the blood-vessels of the neck. The plan ])ursued in this country is,
first to bring the ox down on his knees, and place his uniltM-jaw upim the
ground, by means of ropes fastened to his liea<l and passed through an
iron ring in the floor of the slausjhter-house. He is then stunned with a
few blows from an iron ax made for the purpose, on the forehead, the bone
of which is usually driven into the brain. The animal then falls on its
side, and the blood let out by the neck. Of the two modes the French is
apparently less cruel ; for some oxen require many blows to make them
fall ; 1 once witnessed an ox receive nine blows before he fell. I have
beard it alleged by butchera that the separation of the spinal cord pro-
* The Question of the Smithfield Market Fully Considered.
(1068)
DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING CATTLE. 533
fliicing a general nervous convulsion throughout the body, prevents the
blood flowing so rapidly and entirely out of it as when the ox is stunned
in the forehead. The skin is then taken off to the knees, when the legs
are disjointed, and also off the head. The carcass is then hung up by the
tendons of the hough, on a stretcher, by a block and tackle, worked by a
small winch, which keeps good what rope it winds up by a wheel and
rachet.
(1315.) Every farm on which sheep are killed should have a proper
slaughter-house, such as is seen at fig. 1, Plate I. at ;/, the ground-plan of
which may be seen in fig. 2, plate II., where it is represented to be 10
feet by 9 feet, a space too small when cattle are slaughtered, but it is very
rare that an ox is slaughtered on a farm, except when one is so that is
likely to be lost by some acute disease, in which contingency the animal
is slaughtered in the straw-barn and hung up by the baluks ; but it is quite
easy, when the slaughter-house is fitting up, to have a block and tackle
and small winch, erected at a convenient corner, to be used on such occa-
sions. The floor should be laid with clean-droved pavement, and have a
decided slope to the side at which the drain is made to take away the
dirty water occasioned by cleaning, which it should always be thoroughly.
The walls should also be plastered, and a ventilator placed on the roof,
to maintain a draft of air. The site chosen for the slaughter-house
should be in a cool place, away fix)m the sun's influence in summer, for
in a heated apartment meat never becomes firm. A locked closet is use-
ful to hold the knives, steel, and stretchers, and the outer door provided
with a- good thumb-latch and lock and key; the key, of course, always to
remain in the farm-house until needed.
(1316.) It is the shepherd's duty to act the part of butcher on a farm.
He should learn to slaughter gently, dress the carcass neatly and cleanly,
in as plain a manner as possible, without flourishes, as the figures incised
on the membraneous skin are called, and separate the valuable from the
worthless portion of the entrails, keeping the loose fat by itself, and hang
up the skin in a suitable place to diy. It is his duty also to keep the
slaughter-house neat and clean.
(1317.) After the carcass has hung 24 houi-s, it shiiuld be cut down by
the back-bone, or chine, into two sides. This is done either with the sav/
or chopper ; the saw making the neatest ]ob in the hands of an inexperi-
enced butcher, though it is the most laborious, and with the cliopper is
the quickest, but by no means the neatest plan, especially in the hands of
a careless fellow. In London the chine is equally divided between both
sides, while in Scotland one side of a carcass of beef has a great deal more
bone than the other, all the spijious processes of the vertebra being left on
it. The bony is called the lying side of the meat. In London the divided
processes in the fore-quarter are broken in the middle when warm, and
chopped back with the flat side of the chopper, and this has the effect of
thickening the fore and middle ribs considerably when cut up. The
London butcher also cuts the joint above the hind knee, and, by making
some incisions with a shai-p knife, cuts the tendons there, and drops the
flesh of the hind-quarter on the flanks and loins, which causes it to cut up
thicker than in the Scotch mode. In opening the hind-quarter he also cuts
the aitch-bone or pelvis through the center, which makes the rump look
better. Some butchers in the north country score the fat of the closing of
the hind-quarter, which has the effect of making that part of both heifer
and ox look like the udder of an old cow. There is far too much of this
scoring practiced in Scotland, and ought to be abandoned, and let the
pieces have more their natural appearance,
(1069)
534
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
(131S.) In cutting up a carcass of beef tlie London Imtcher displays
great exj)crtness ; lie not only disciiniinatcs between the qualities of its
different parts, but can cut out any piece to gratify the taste of his custom-
ers. In tliis way he makes the best use of the carcass, realizes the lai'gest,
value for it, while he gratifies the taste of every grade of customers. A.
figure of the Scotch and English modes of cutting up a carcass of beef
will at once show you their difference, and on being informed where the
valuable pieces lie, you will be enabled to judge whether the oxen you
are breeding or feeding possess the properties that will enable you to de-
mand the highest price for them.
(1319.) The Scotch mode of cutting up a carcass of beef is represented
Fig. 277.
THB SCOTCH MODE OF CUTTING UFA CARCASS OF BEEF.
in fig. 277, and these are the names of the different pieces of meat :
In the hind-quarter.
In the fare-quarter
"l
The sirloin, or back sey.
*,
The spare rib or fore sey.
b,
r.
.. hook-bone.
.. buttock, ) .,
.. lar^e round (">«™™P-
m
:: ^nno::;^"^-'^'^-^"
d,
n.
.. nineholes.
e.
.- tliick Hank.
0,
. . brisket.
f,
.. thin flank.
P<
.. shoulder-lyar.
fr.
.. small round.
9'
. . nap or shin.
h.
.. hough.
r,
. . neck.
1,
. . tail.
t,
. . sticking piece.
a the siirloin is the principal roasting-piece, making a very handsome dish,
and is a univcrsnl favorite. It consists of two portions, the Scotch and
English sides, the fonner is the one above the lumbar bones, and is some-
what hard in ill-fed oxen ; the latter consists of the muscles under these
bones, and are generally covered with fine fat, and are exceedingly ten-
der. The better the beast is fed the larger is the under muscle, better
covered with fat, and more tender to eat ; b the hook-bone and c the but-
tock are cut up for steaks, beef-steak pie, or minced collops, and both these,
along with the sirloin, fetch the highest price ; d is the large round, and c
the small round, both well known as excellent pieces for salting and boil-
ing, and are eaten cold with great relish ; // the hough is peculiarly suited
for boiling dt»wn for sotij), having a large proportion of gelatinous matter.
Brown soup is the jirin(i])al dish ma<le of the hough, but its decoction
forms an excellent .stock for various dishes, and will keep in a state of
jelly for a considerable time. The synovial fat. skimmed off in boiling
this piece, and poureil upon oatmeal, seas(»ned with pepper and salt, con-
stitutes the fanioiisy<// hrosc fur which Scotland has long been celebrated.
In the making, this brose should not be much stiired, and the oatmeal left
among the fat gnivy in small, dry lumps. It was of this piece that the old
favorite soup of Scotland, called skinh, was made, e is the thick and f
the thin flank both excellent pieces for salting and boiling ; i is the tail,
(1070J
DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING CATTLE.
535
and insignificant as it may seem, it makes a soup of very fine flavor. Ho-
tel-keepers have a trick of seasoning brown soup, or rather beef-tea, with
a few joints of tail, and passing it off for genuine ox-tail soup. These are
all the pieces which constitute the hind-quarter, and it will be seen that
they are valuable both for roasting and boiling, not containing a single
coarse piece. In the fore-quarter is k, the spare rib or fore-sey, the six
ribs of the back end of which make an excellent roast, and when taken
from the side opposite to the lying one, being free of the bones of the
spine, makes a large one ; and it also makes excellent beef-steaks and
beef-steak pie. I and m are the two runners, and n the nine-holes, make
salting and boiling pieces ; but of these, the nine-holes is much the best,
as it consists of layers of fat and lean without any bone ; whereas the
fore parts of the runners have a piece of the shoulder-blade in them, and
every piece connected with that bone is more or less coarse-grained ; o the
brisket eats very well boiled fresh in broth, and may be corned and eaten
with boiled greens or carrots ; p the shoulder-lyar is a coarse piece, and fit
only for boiling fresh to make into broth or beef-tea; q the nap or shin, is
analogous to the hough of the hind-leg, but not so rich and fine, there be-
ing much less gelatine in it ; r the neck makes good broth, and the stick-
ing-piece .? is a great favorite with some epicures, on account of the pieces
of rich fat in it. It makes an excellent stew, as also sweet bai-ley broth,
and the meat eats well when boiled in it. These are all the pieces of the
fore-quarter, and it will be seen that they consist chiefly of boiling-pieces,
and some of them none of the finest, the roa.sting-piece being confined to
the six ribs of the spare-rib k, and the finest boiling-piece, corned, only to
be found in the nine-holes n.
(1320.) In some of the largest to'WTis of Scotland a difference of Id. per
lb. may be made between the roasting and boiling pieces, but in most
towns, and in the country villages, all the pieces realize the same prices,
and even the houghs and shins fetch 3d. per lb.
(1321.) In the English mode the pieces are cut up somewhat differently,
Fig. 276.
THE ENGLISH MODE OF CUTTING UP A CARCASS OF BEEF
especially in the fore-quarter.
of the following pieces :
t,
(1071)
In the hind-quarter.
The loin,
rump,
aitch-bone,
buttock,
hock.
thick flank
thin flank,
shin,
tail.
Fig. 278 shows this mode, and it consist*
In the fore-quarter.
Jc, The fore rib.
middle rib.
chuck rib.
clod, and sticking, and neck.
brisket.
p, .. leg-of-mutton piece.
q, ..' shin.
636 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
a, the loin, is the principal roasting piece; Z», the rump, is the favorite
steak-piece ; c, the aitch-l)one, the favorite stew ; d, the buttock, f, the
thick flank, and g, the thin flank, are all excellent hoilinp; pieces when
corned ; c, the hock, and h, the shin, make soup, and aftord stork for vari-
ous purposes in the culinary ait ; and / is the tail for ox-tail stmp — a favor-
ite English luncheon. In the curious case of assessing damages against
the Bank of England for removing the famous Cock eating-house in
Threadneedle-street, it was produced in evidence, that, in the 3 years
1837-8-9, there had been l^,3o9 ox-tails used for soup; and as 3G tails
make 10 gallons of soup, there had been served up 59,369 basins, at lid.
the basin, making the large amount of c€2,720 13s. 4d. for this article
alone.* These are all the pieces in the hind-quarter, and it will be seen
they are valuable of their respective kinds. In the fore-quarter, k, the
fore rib, I, middle rib, and m, chuck rib, are all roasting j)icces, not alike
good; but in removing the part of the shoulder-blade in the middle rib,
the spare-ribs below make a good broil or roast ; n, the neck, makes soup,
being used fresh, boiled, and the back end of the brisket o is boiled
corned, or stewed ; p, the leg-of-mutton piece, is coarse, but is as fre-
quently stewed as boiled ; q, the shin, is put to the same uses as the shin
and hock of the hind-quarter. On comparing the two modes of cutting
up, it will be observed that in the English there are more roasting pieces
than in the Scotch, a large proportion of the fore-quarter being used in
that way. The plan, too, of cutting the line between b and c, the rump
and aitch-bone in the hind-quarter, lays open the steak-pieces to better
advantage than in the Scotch buttock, c, fig. 277. Extending the compar-
ison from one part of the carcass to the other, in both methods, it will be
seen that the most valuable pieces — the roasting — occupy its upper, and
the less valuable — the boiling — its lower part. Every beast, therefore,
that lays on beef more upon the upper parts of its body is more valuable
than one that lays the same quantity of flesh on its lower parts.
(1322.) The relative values of the pieces ditt'er much more in London
than in Scotland. The rumps, loin and fore ribs fetch the highest ])rice ;
then come the thick flank, buttock and middle rib ; then the aitch-bone,
thin flank, chuck-rib, brisket and leg-of-mutton piece ; then the clod, stick-
ing and neck ; and last of all the legs and shins. In actual pecuniary
value, the last may bear a proportion of only one-fourth of the highest
price.
(1323.) Of the qualities of beef obtained from different breeds of cattle,
I believe there is no better meat than from the West Highland breed for
fineness of grain, and cutting up into convenient j)ieces fitr family use.
The Galloways and Angus, when fattened in the English pastures, are
great favorites in the London market. The Short-Horns afford excellent
steaks, being thick of flesh, and the slice deep, large and juicy, and their
corned flanks and ninehol«*s are always thick, juicy and well mixed. The
Herefords are somewhat similar to the Short-Horns, and the Devons may
pernaps be classed amonsj the Galloways and Angus, while the Welsh can-
not be compared to the West Highland. So that, taking the breeds of Scot-
land as sujjpliers of good beef, they seem to be more valuable for the table
than those of England. Any beef that I have seen of Irish beasts is infe-
rior, but the cattle derived from Hritain, fed on the pastures of Ireland,
afford excellent meat. Shetland beef is the finest grained of all, but the
pieces are very small.
(1324.) In regard to tlie proportion of beef and tallow generally obtained from catt)e. Dr. Cle-
land states thai of 14,566 head of cattle sold in the Glasgow market in 1822. averaging exactly
* John Bull, Ifitb January, 1841.
(1072)
DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING CATTLE.
537
44 stones imperial, each yielded .')| stones, which is exactly ^ of the weight of beef* From 4 of
:he oxen experimented on by Mr. Stephenson, and which were slaughtered at the same time
those results were obtained :
Cattle.
I,ive weight.
Beef.
Tallow.
Hide.
Other
ortiils.
Nos.
Sts.
St9. lbs.
Sts. lbs.
Sts. lbs.
Sts.
lbs.
1.
112
66 2
8 10
5 11
32
5
2.
100
58 6
7 7
4 12
29
3
3.
108
62 3
9 0
4 12
26
13
'■ 1
109
62 4
9 4
5 12
31
8
The proportion of tallow to beef is here nearer 1-7 than | over the whole beasts; and tliere is
another result worth attendine; to, \\hich is that of Nos. 2 and 3, which had the same weight of
hide, namely, 4 sts. 12 lbs. ; No. 3 must have had the finest skin and touch, for its superiority in
every respect is apparent, both in weight of tallow, which was 9 sts. to 7 sts. 7 lbs. ; in weight of
beef, which was as 62 sts. 3 lbs. to 58 sts. 6 lbs. ; and in lightness of other offals, which were as
26 sts. 13 lbs. is to 29 sts. 3 lbs. Besides ditferenee in quality of the same weight of hide, a
lighter hide, under similar circumstances, will produce the .same results as tho.so above. For ex-
ample: of two of the heifers fed by Mr. Howden on raw and steamed food, which afforded the
same live weight when put up to feed, namely, 1022 lbs., and the same live weight after the ex-
periment was concluded, namely, 1176 lbs., one had a light hide, that is, 52 Ibe. weight, and the
other a heavier one, 60 lbs., and the light one was accompanied with 620 lbs. of beef and 96 lbs.
of tallow, while the heavier hide was associated with only 572 Ib.s. of beef and 80 lbs. of tallow.
All these proportions very nearly indicate the tallow at 1-7 of the beef; but .sometimes the pro-
portion of tallow is very much greater and much less. I had a young Short-Horn cow which
slipped her .second calf and was fed when she became dry, which was in November, and in May
following was sold to the late Mr. Robert Small, fiesher, Dundee, when she yielded 72J .stones of
beef and 27 stones of tallow, being in the ratio of 2| to I. On the other hand. Lord Kinlore's
large o.x that was exhibited at the Highland and Agricultural Society's Show at Aberdeen in
1834 only yielded 16 sts. 7 lbs. of tallow, from 173 sts. 4 lbs of beef; being in the ratio of 10^ to
l.t There are, perhaps, not sufficient data in existence to determine the true proportion of offal
of all kinds to the beef of any given fat ox ; but approximations have been made which may
serve the purpose until the matter is investigated by direct experiment, under various circum-
stances. The dead weight bears to the live weigiit a ratio varying between .571 and .605 to 1 ;
and on applying one or other multiple to the cases of the live weight, you will find a pretty
correct approximation. The tallow is supposed to be 8-100 of the live weight, so that the multiple
is the decimal of .08. The hide is supposed to be 5-100 of the live weight, so, to obtain its weight,
a multiple of .05 should be used. The other offals are supposed to bear a ratio of about I of the
live weight, so that the multiple of .28 is as near as can be proposed under existing expe-
rience |
(1325.) Beef is the staple animal food of this country, and it is used in various states — fre.sh, salt-
ed, smoked, roasted, and boiled. When intended to be eaten fresh, " the ril/n will keep the best.
and with care will keep 5 or 6 days in summer, and in winter 10 days. The middle of the loin
is the next best, and the nnnp the next. The roiaid will not keep long.unless salted. The bris-
ket is the worst, and will not keep longer than 3 days in summer, and a week in winter."|| In
cooking, a piece of beef, consisting of four of the largest ribs, and weighing 11 lbs. 1 oz., was sub-
jected to roa.sting by Mr. Donovan, and it lost during the process 2 lbs. 6 oz., of which 10 oz.
were fat. and 1 lb. 12 oz. water dissipated by evaporation. On dissection, the bone weighed 16
oz., so that the weight of meat fit for the table was only 7 lbs. 11 oz. out of 11 lbs. 1 oz. It ap-
pears that when the butchers' price of ribs is 8^d. per lb., the cost of the meat when duly roasted
IS Hid. per lb., aud the average loss arising from liquefaction of fa' and evaporation of water is
18 percent. With sirloin.s, at the price of Sjd. per lb., the meat cost, when roasted. Is. 1 l-6d.
per lb., at a loss of 20^ per cent. A lo.ss of 18 per cent, was also sustained on boiling salted bris-
kets ; and on salted flanks at 6d. per lb. the meat cost 7fd. per lb., at a loss of 13 1-5 per cent.fi
In regard to the power of the stomach to digest beef that which is eaten boiled with salt only is
digested in 2 hours 45 minutes. Beef fresh, lean, and rarely roasted, and a beefsteak broiled,
lakes 3 hours to digest: that fresh and dry-roasted, and boiled, eaten with mustard, is difrested
in 3 hours and 30 minutes. Lean fresh beef fried takes 4 hours to digest, and old hard salted beef
boiled does not di,'est in less than 4 hours 15 minutes. Fresh beef-suet boiled takes 5 hours 30
minutes to digest. 1[
(1326.) The usual mode of preserving beef is by saKmsr; and when intended to keep a long
time, such as for the use of .shipping, it is always salted with brine : but for family use it .should
be .silted dry with good Liverpool salt, without saltpetre ; for brine dispels the juice of the meat,
and saltpetre only serves to make the meat dry, and give it a disagreeable and unnatural red color.
Various experiments have been made to cure beef, with salt otherwise than by hand-rubbing, and
ill a short space of time; and also to preserve it from putrefaction by other means than salt.
Those of Messrs. Payne and Ellmore, of Loudon, consist in putting meat in a copper which is
rendered air-tight, and an air-pump then creates a vacuum within it, thereby extracting all the
air out of the meat; then brine is pumped in by pres.sure, which entering into every pore of the
meat formerly occupied by the air, is said to place it in a state of preservation in a few minutes.
M. Gannal, of France, preserved the carcass of an ox from putrefaction for 2 years by injecting
* Cleland's Account of the Hichland and Agricultural Show at Glasgow in 1828.
1 Quarterly Journal of Asricuiturc, vol. vii.
t Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xii.
|] The fJxperipnced Butcher. § Donovan's Domestic Economy, vol. ii.
^ Combe on Digestion and Dietetics.
(1073)
538
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
4 lb». of Halinc mixtaro into the carotid arierj-. Whcllicr any such contrivauce can be made arail-
ablefor faniilv purposes Bccmn doubtful. Up to the 10th October, \>*ii, salted beef iraportod wa«
subject to a (5uty of 128. per cwu ; since that date both raited and fresh jmy a duty of ?». pcrcwu
from fon-ign countries, and 28. from Urilish possesttions. Up to tiiat period the importation of
live stock was prohibited, by the snnie act ; bulls and oxen can now be imported fn)m forei^
countries at XI each, and from Hritish po.«flOMion«, 10s. : cows, l.ls. and 7». Cd. ; calves. 10». and
58.; slietp, 38. ami Is. 6d.. and lambs, 2s. and Is. each.* Salted beef cured with wood smoke
is converted into a ham, and very hitilily relislied. The tierce of salted beef for the navy contains
300 lbs., consisting of 38 pieces of i^ lbs. each.
(1327.) Cattle are useful to man in various other ways than affording food from their flesh, their
oflals of tallow, hides, and horns, forming extensive articles of connnerce. Of the futlr. the char-
acteristics of a good one for strong purposes are strength in its middle or biUt. as i; is called, and
light on the edges or oj'a/. A bad liide is the oppo.site of this, thick in the edges and thin in the
middle. A good hide has a firm texture, a bad one loose and soft A hide improves as the sum-
mer advances, and it continues to impmve after the new coat of hair in autumn until Xovember
or December, when the coat gets routrh from the coldness of the season, and the hide is then in
its best state. It is 8uri)rising how a hide improves in thickness after the cold weather has set in.
The sort of food does not seem to affect the (|uality of the hide ; but the better it is, and the better
cattle hiive been fed, and the longer they have been well fed. even from a calf, the better the hide.
From what has been said of the effect of weather upon the hide, it seems a natural conclusion that
a hide is better from an ox that has been fed in the open air than from one fed in a byre. Dirt ad-
hering to a hide injures it, particularly in byrefed animals; and anythine that punctures a hide,
such as u-arhles arising from certain insects, is also injurious. The In-st hides are obtained from
the West Highland breed of cattle. The Short-Homs produce the thinnest hides, the Aberdeen-
shire the next, and then the Angus. Of the same breed, the ox affords the strongest hide ; but
as hides are applied to various uses, the cows, provided it be larpe. may be as valuable as an ox's
The bull's hide is the least valuable. Hides are imported from Russia and South America; and
the number imported in 1838 was 301,890. The duty on hides, by the new Tariff", is 6d. per cwL
for dried and 3d. for wet.
(1328.) Hides, when deprived of their hair, are converted into leather by infusion of the astrin-
gent property of bark. The old plan of tanning used to occupy a long tmie : but such was the
value of the process, that the old tanners u.«ed to pride themselves in producing a substantial arti-
cle. More recent discoveries have prompted tanners to hasten the process, much to the injury of
the article produced. Strong infusions of bark make leather brittle; 100 lbs. of skin, quickly
tanned in a strong infu.sion, produce 137 lbs. of leather; while a weak infusion produces only
117|, the additional 191 lbs. serving only to deteriorate the leather, and cause it to contain much
h'ss textile animal solid. Leather thus highly charged with tannin is so spongy as to allow
moisture to pa.«s readily through its pores, to the great discomfort and danger of persons who
wear shoes made of it. The proper mode of tanning lasts a year or a year and half", according to
the quality of the leather wanted, and the nature of the hides. A perfect leather is recognized by
its section, which should have a glistening marbled appearance, without any white streaks in the
middlc.t Leather is applied to many irtiportant purposes, being made into harness for agricul
tural and other uses. It is used to line the powder magazines of ships of war ; to make carding-
machines for cotton and other mills; belts to drive macliinery ; to make soles of shoes ; and, when
japanned, to cover carriages. Calves' leather is used in bookbinding. The duty on tanned hides
is now fixed at £10 per jtlOO value. The hair taken off" hides in tanning is employed to mix with
plaster, and is surreptitiously put into a hairmatlrcsses. The duty imposed on foreign cattle hair
is Cd. per cwt.
(1329.) '-The principal substances of which give is made." says Dr. Ure, " are the paring of ox
and other thick hide.s, which form the strongest article ; the refuse of the lcather-dro.s.-<T; both af-
ford from if) to 55 per cent, of glue. The tendons, and manj- other offals of slaughter houses, also
aff'ord materials, though of an inferior quality, for the purpose. The refuse of tanneries — such as
the ears of oxen, calves, sheep, <V.c. — arc better articles: but parintrs of parchment, old gloves, and
in fact animal skins in any form, uncombined with tanning, niav be made into glue."f
(1330.) Ox-talloir is of great importance in the arts. Candles and soap are made of it. and il
enters largely into the dressing of leather and the use of machinerj-. Large quantities ai>: annual-
ly imported from Rti.ssia. Of the exports from St. Petersburgh, consisting of 4^ millions rif poods,
at least ;5J millions are <-xporled to this country, at the value of i. 2,306, l.'iO. at X3."> per ;')ii.|| Of
the quantity imported in 1837, 1,294,000 cwis. were retained for home consumption. Ox tallow
consists of 7(i parts of stearine and 24 of oleine out of the 100. The duty on tallow by the new
Tariff is 3s. 2d. per cwt. from foreign countries, and 3d. per cwt. fmm the Colonies.
(1331.) The horns ofo.ven and sheep arc used for many purpo.ses. "The horn consists of two
parts : an outward honiy case, and an inward conical-shaped substance, sjimewhnt intermediate
Dolween indurated hair anil bone," called the J!inf of the horn. " The.se two parts arc .separated
by means of a blow on a block of wood. The horny exterior is then cut into three portions by
means of a framesaw. The lowest of these, next the root of the horn, after undergoing several
proces.sos by which it is rendered flat, is made into combs. The middle of the horn, alter beinjf
flattened by heal and its Iransjian-ncy improved by^il. is split into thin layers, and forms n substi-
tute for glass in lanterns of the commonest kind. The tip of the honi is used by the niakcrs of
knife-handles and of the tops of whips, and for other similar purposes. The interior, or core of
the horn, is boiled down in water. A lar^'e quantity of fst rises to the surface ; this is put aside,
and sold to the makers of yellow soap. The liquid itself is used as a kind of glue, and is pur-
chased by the cloth-dresser for stifl"ening. The bony substance which remains l^hind is then sent
* The Act to amend the Lrw» relatini; to the Cuitoms, Table A.
t Urf's Dictionnry of the Arto. art. I^Athtr Tanning. ^ Ibid., art. Glue.
y McCullorh's Dictionitry of Commerce, art. TaUtne.
(1074)
TREATMENT OF FARM-HORSES. 539
to the mill, and. being ground down, is sold to the farmers for manure. Besides these various
purposes to which the different parts of the horn are applied, the clippings which arise in comb-
making are sold to the farmers at about Is. per bushel. The shavings which form the refuse of
the lantern-makers are sold as manure."* Horn, as is well known, is easily rendered soft and
pliant in warm water; and by this, and the property of adhesion like glue, large plates of horn
c&D be made by cementing together the edges of small pieces rendered flat by a peculiar process,
as a substitute for glass. For this purpose, the horns of goats and sheep are preferred, being
whiter and more transparent than those of any other animal. Imitation of tortoise-shell can be
given to horn by the use of various metallic solutions. Horn, also, when softened, can be im-
printed with any pattern by means of dies.t The duty on horns is Is. per ton, and on hoofs £1
per £100 value.
34. TREATMENT OF FARM-HORSES IN WINTER.
" But loose betimes, and through the shallow pond
Drive the tired team, and bed them snug and warm ;
And with no stinting hand theii- toil reward."
Gkaham.
(1332.) "With the exception of a few weeks in summer, farm-horses oc-
cupy their stable all the year round. It is situate at O, fig. 3, Plate III.,
where it is seen with two doors and two windows in front, and surmount-
ed with two ventilators on the roof. Its plan may be seen at O, fig. 4,
Plate IV., where it is represented as containing 12 stalls. The fitting-up
of the stable in all its particulars of stalls, floor, and accommodation, hav-
ing already been fully dilated on when treating of the steading, from (23)
to (34), more seems unnecessary to be said in regard to these particulars
in this place.
(1333.) Farm-horses are under the immediate charge of the plowmen,
one of whom woi'ks a pair, and keeps possession of them generally during
the whole period of his engagement. This is a favoi-able arrangement for
the horses, as they work much more steadily under the guidance of the
same driver, than when changed into the hands of different ; and it is also
oetter for the plowman himself, as he will perform his work much more
satisfactorily to himself, as well as his employer, with horses familiarized
to him than strange ones. In fact, the man and his horses must become
acquainted before they can understand each other ; and when the pecu-
liarities of each party are mutually understood, work becomes more easy,
and of course greater attention can be bestowed upon it. Some horses
show great attachment to their driver, and will do whatever he desires
without hesitation ; others show no particular regard ; and the same differ-
ence may be remarked of plowmen toward their horses. Upon the whole,
however, there seems to be a very good understanding in this country be-
tween the plowman and his horses ; and, indeed, independently of this, I
believe there are few masters disposed to allow their horses to be ill treat
ed, because there is no occasion for it ; for horses which have been
brought up upon a farm, in going through the same routine of work
every year, become so well acquainted with what they have to do in
every department of work, that should a misimderstanding arise between
them and their driver, you may safely conclude that the driver is in the
wrong.
(1334.) The treatment which farm-horses usually receive in winter is
this : The plowmen, when single, get up and breakfast before daybreak,
and by that lime go to the stable, where the first thing they do is to take
* Babbage on the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures, t Ure's Dictionary of the Arts, art. Horn
(1075)
540 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
out tlie horses to the water.* While the horses are out of the pfable the
rest of the men take the opportunity of cleansing away the «lung and
soiled litter made during the night, into the adjoining court-yard K, fig. 3,
Plate III., with their shovels (fig. 149), wheelbarrow and besoms. While
the horses are absent usually one of the plowmen supplies each corn-box
with corn from the corn-chest. It is not an unusual })ractire to put the
harness on while the horses are engaged with the corn ; but this should by
no means be allowed. Let the ht»rses eni<»y their f(»od in peace, as many
of them, from sanguine temperament or greed, cannot divest themselves
of the feeling that they are about to be taken away from their corn, if
worked about during the time of feeding. The harness can be quickly
enough put on after the feed is eaten, as well as the horses curried and
brushed and the mane and tail combed. A veiy commcm practice, how-
ever, is to dress the horses while eating, which should not be allowed. A
better plan in all respects is to let the horses eat their corn undisturbed,
and then dress and harness them afterward, and it has the advantage of
allowirig them a little time between eating their corn and g(»ing out to
work, which, if of a violent nature, undeitaken with a full stomach, may
bring on an attack of halts or colic.t The ])lan which 1 have just de-
scribed is intended to apply to single men who live together, and who have
their own victuals to cooli. But should the plowmen be married men the
best arrangement for them is to go to the stable when they rise, water the
horses, clean the stable, corn the horses, bind them up, and, shutting the
door, leave them in quiet to eat their food as long as they themselves are
in taking their breakfast, which by that time should be made ready by
their wives. On returaing to the stable after breakfast the horses should
then be dressed, combed and harnessed, wlien they will come out quite
fresh and clean to go to yoke and after their feed has been a little time
in their stomachs.
[* It can nowhere, we trast, be unseasonable to exhort the farmer to give attention, habita-
aliy, to the treatment of all domestic animals, and more especially to those to whose labor be
owes the fruits and profits of his indastry. Common humanity, to say nothing of Christian benev-
olence, demands, and ihe more especially as all power of complaint is denied them, that every ani-
mal that works should be not only tuilably and ircllfed, but that it should be saved from suffering
by thirst ; that its skin be kept clean and in good condition, w hich a few minutes' use of the car-
rj'-comb and brush will effect, and that its eyes and fct't should be often examined and protected
from injury ; while a sore back or gall on any part of the body should be deemed a disgrace to
master as well as man. Trite and commonplace as this word in their favor may appear, we can-
not withhold it, in view of so much neglect in working animals as we see committed on many
farms that fall under our obscr%'ation ; for whether we speak of it or not, we never visit or pass
a farm wi'hout noticing these things. Those whose benevolence does not move them thus to care
for the feelings of the humblest beast in their employment should yet be prompted to look after their
comfort, a-s well in the stable as the field — whether in or out of harness — by the consideration that
a sufficiency of substantial food, personal care and kind treatment always beget proportionate will-
ingness and efficiency — as much or even more with the brute trian with the naman. For ourselves,
■we take the occasion to reiterate our persuasion that the almost universal preference for the horse
over the ox and mule, as a beast of labor and burden, has its origin, in a great measure, in — [alas I
not byiroiu:] ages of war and barbarism, which made power and flectness identical ; and that with a
vast saving of national wealth these more economical animals might and ought to be substituted
for the short lived and perishable horse. Ed. Farm. Lib ]
[t We well remember, when residing in Baltimore, to have been within on ace of killing one
of the best geldings we ever straddled, by giving him a brisk eight mile an-hour canter imme-
diately after he had swallowed his oats. As soon as he took the spur we knew there was some-
thing wrong ; and. turning back at the end of the first mile, scarcely got him in his stall before he
■was prostrate and swollen like an inflated bladder. By dint of hard rubbing and the prompt use
of enemas he was fortunately saved for some years more of gallant service. Ed. Farm. Lib.]
(1076)
TREATMENT OF FARM-HORSES. 541
(1335.) Men and horses continue at work until 12 noon, when they
come home, the horses to get a drink of water and a feed of corn and the
men their dinner. Some keep the harness on the horses during this short
interval, but it should be taken off to allow both horses and harness to
cool, and at any rate the horses will be much, more comfortable without
it, and it can be taken off and put on again in a few seconds ; and, besides,
the oftener the men are exercised in this way they will become the
more expert. When the work is in a distant field, rather than come home
between yokings, it is the practice of some farmers to feed the horses in
the field out of the nose-bags ; and the men to take their dinners with
them, or be carried to them in the field by their own people. This plan
may do for a day or two in good weather on a particular occasion ; but it
is by no means a good one for the horses, for no mode so effectual for giv-
ing them a chill could be contrived than to cause them to stand on a head
ridge for nearly an hour on a winter day, after working some hours. A
smart walk home can do them no harm, and if time is pressing for the
work to be done, let the horses remain a shorter time in the stable. The
men themselves will feel infinitely more comfortable to get dinner at home.
There is a practice in England connected with this subject that I think
highly objectionable, which is, doing a day's work in one yoking. For a
certain time horses, like men, will work with spirit, but if made to work
beyond that time they not only lose strength, but their very spirit is wrung
out of them, and in the latter part of the time will do their work in a care-
less manner. Horses thus kept for 7 or 8 hours upon the stretch at work
must be injured in their constitution, or, if able to withstand it, it must be
either at the expense of bad work executed at the latter part of the yoking,
or of curtailment of hours of a full day's work, or of extraordinary feed-
ing, either of which expedients is no compensation for bad management.
Common sense tells a man that it is much better for a horse to be \yorked
a few hours smartly, and have his hunger satisfied before feeling fatigue,
when he will again be able to proceed with fresh vigor, than to be worked
the same number of hours without feeding. I can see no possible objec-
tion that can be offered to horses receiving a little rest and food in the
middle of a long day's work, but I see many and serious ones to their
working all day long without rest and food. Suppose, then, that men and
horses come home at midday, the usual dinner-hour of agricultural labor-
ers, the first thing to be done is to give the horses a drink at the pond on
the way to the stable ; and there should then be no washing of legs.
From the water the horses proceed to the stable, where the harness is
taken off; and as the men then have nothing else to do, every man gets
the corn from the steward at the corn-chest for his own horses in nose-
bags, or in a small corn-trough or box which each man keeps for the pur-
pose. Of these two sorts of things for carrying the corn in the stable I
prefer the trough, as being most easily filled and emptied of coni. The
horses are bound up, the stable door shut, and the men go to their own
houses to dinner, which should be in readiness for them. After dinner
they proceed to the stable, when the horses will be found to have finished
their feed, and when a small quantity of fodder may be thrown before
them fresh from the straw-barn, for at this time of year farm-horses get
no hay. The men may have a few minutes to converse until 10 minutes
to 1 P. M., when they should give the horses a slight wisp down, put on
the harness, comb out their tails and manes, and be all ready to put on the
bridles the moment 1 o'clock arrives, which is announced by the steward.*
[* In our country, in the towns generally, the " ten-hour system," as it is called, prevails, while
in the country the practice is to be up by daylieht, winter and summer, and to labor until dark,
(1077)
542 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
(1336.) The afternoon yoking is short, not hiKlinir longer than sunset,
which at this season is before 4 P. M., when the liorses are loosened out
of yoke and brought home. After dnnking again at the pond they are
gently passed through it to wash off' any mud from their legs and feet,
which they can hardly escape collecting in winter. But in washing the
men should be prohibited wetting their horses above the knees, which
they are most ready to do should there be any mud upon the thighs and
belly ; and to render this prohibition effectual, I have expressly stated,
when speaking of the construction of a horse-pond (125), that it should
not be made deeper at any part than will take a horse to the knee. There
is danger of contracting inflammatitm of bowels or colic in washing the
bellies of horses in winter ; and to treat mares in foal — which they will
be at this time of year — in this way is little short of madness. If the feet
and shanks are cleared of mud, that is all that is required in the way of
washing in winter. On the horses entering the stable and having their
harness taken off", they are well strapped down by the men with a wisp
of straw. Usually two wisps are used, one in each hand ; but I am sure
the work is much better done with one, shifting the hand as occasion re-
quires, and directing the attention to one place at a time. A couple of
wisps may very properly be taken to rub down the legs and clean the pas-
terns, rendering them as dry as a modei-ate length of time will admit.
All this is done not quite in the dark, for there is still a glimmer of twi-
light in the vrestern horizon, but too much in the dark to allow its being
well done. After the horses are rubbed down, the men proceed to
the straw-barn and bundle each 4 windlings of fodder-straw, one to be
given to each horse just now, and the other two to be put above the stalls
across the small fillets p, fig. 7, which run along the stable for the purpose.
(1337.) When 8 P. M. arrives, the steward, provided with light in a lan-
tern, summons the men to the stable to give the horses a gi'ooming for the
night and their suppers. The sound of a horn, or nnging of a bell, are the
usual calls on the occasion, which the men are ready to obey. I may here
remark in passing, that the sound of a horn is pleasing in a calm winter
night, and I never hear it without its recalling to my mind the goatherds'
horns in Switzerland, pounng out their mellow and prayer-like strains at
sunset, the time for gathering the flocks together from the mountain sides,
on their way to the folds in the neighboring village. Lights are placed
at convenient distances in the stable to let the men see to gioom the horses.
The grooming consists first in currying the horse with the curry-comb, to
free him of all dirt that may have adhered to the skin during the day, and
which has now become dry and flies off". A wisping of straw removes the
roughest of the dirt loosened by the curry-comb. The legs ought to be
thoroughly wisped, not only to make them clean, but dry of any moisture
that may have been left in the evening, and at this time the feet should be
picked clear by the foot-])icker of any diit adhering around between the
shoe and the foot. The brush is then used to remove the remaining and
finer portions of dust, from which, in its tuni, it is cleared by a few rasps
of the curry-comb. The wisping and brushing, if done with some force
with the usual intervals for nicala. But while mechanics in town, under a vigilant boss, are at
work, they keep working all the time ; not so with men hired by the day at the public expense
to work and to vole ! In the country, too, if a stage drives along the rond, you will see a man
stop hif plow and a whole pang let fall their hoes or axes to look at the passer-b}', as if they had
never seen a stage or a horseman before.
In the South the slaves •' knock off" for two hours at midday in very hot weather, but being
almost universally talked, where the work will admit of it, they generally get through in less
than ten hours. Ed. Farm. Lib.}
(1078) '
TREATMENT OF FARM-HORSES.
543
Fig. 279.
Fig. 880.
and dexterity, with a combing of the tail and mane, should render the
horse pretty clean ; but there are moi'e ways than one of grooming a horse,
as may be witnessed by the skimming and careless way in which some
plowmen do it. It is true that the rough coat of a farm-horse is not easily
cleaned, and more especially in a work-stable where there is much dust
floating about and no horse-clothes in use ; but rough as it is, it may be
clean though not sleek ; and it is the duty of the steward to see that the
grooming is done in an efficient manner. A slap of the hand upon the
horse will soon let you know whether there is any loose dust in his hair.
Attendance at this time will give you an insight into the manner in which
farm-horses ought to be cleaned and generally treated in the stable. The
straw of the bedding is then shaken up with a fork such as in fig. 279.
This figure has rather longer prongs, and is too
sharp for a stable fork, which is most handy- for
shaking up straw when about 5 feet in length, and
least dangerous of injuring the legs of the horses
by puncture when blunt. The united prongs ter-
minate at their upper end in a sort of spike or
tine, which is diiven into a hooped ash shaft, as
better seen in fig. 280, which is a steel-pronged
fork of the form used in Lincolnshire, and is an
excellent instrument for working among straw.
This mode of mounting a fork is much better than
with socket and nail, which ai"e apt to become loose
and catch the straw. The horses then get their
feed of oats, after which the lights are removed
ond the stable-dottrs barred and locked by the stew-
ard, \vho is custodier of the key. In some stables
a bed is provided for a lad, that he may be present
to relieve any accident or illness that may befall
any of the horses ; but where the stalls are prop-
erly constructed, there is little chance of any horse
strangling himself with the collar, or any becoming
sick wliere a proper ventilation is established.
(133S.) In winter it is usual to 2;ive farm-horses a mash, once, at least,
and sometimes thrice a week. The mash consists of either steamed po-
tatoes, boiled barley or oats, mixed sometimes with bran, and sometimes
seasoned with salt. The articles are prepared in the boiler b' in the boil-
ing-house U, fig. 4, Plate IV., in the afternoon by the cattle-man or a field-
worker, or any other person appointed to do it, and put into tubs, into
which it is carried to the stable by the men, and dealt out in the troughs
used to carry the corn to the horses, with a shovel. It is warm enouo-h
when the hand can bear the heat. The (|uantity of corn put into the boiler
is usually as much as that given raw, and in preparation swells out consid-
erably, so that the mash acquires considerable bulk. The horses are ex-
ceedingly fnd of mash, and when the night arrives for its being dealt out,
show unequivocal symptoms of impatience until they receive it. The
quantity of raw oats given to farm-horses, when on full feed, is 3 lippies a
day, by measure and not by weight ; but taking horse-corn at almost the
highest figure of 60 lbs. per firlot, each feed will weigh 3f lbs., the daily
allowance amounting to 11-'- lbs. ; but the lippy-measure, when the corn is
dealt out, is most frequently not struck, but heaped, or at least hand-
waved, so that the full allowance will weigh even more than this. As horses
work only 7 or 8 hours a day in winter, their feeding is lessened to pojhaps
2 full feeds a day or 71 lbs., divided into three portions, namely, a full feed
(;079)
THE COMMON
FORK.
THE LINCOLN
SHIRE STEEL
FORK.
644 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
in the morning, ^ feed at midday, and ^ feed at niglit ; and on the nighta
the mash is given, the evening ^-feed of oats is saved. One season, as a
mash, I tried steamed potatoes, with salt alone, of which the horses were
excessively fond, and received three times a week, and on wliich they be-
came very sleek in the skin and fat, notwithstanding much heavy work ;
but in spring, when the long day field-work was resumed, they seemed to
me to be all affected with shortness of wind. Have cooked potatoes ne-
cessarily this effect upon horses'? I may mention that oats, when desired
to be cooked, must be boihJ, as steaming only burns the outside, and does
not penetrate into the interior, having somewhat the effect of kiln-diying.
Oats, in fact, and barley too, must be macerated to be cooked, and to do
this effectually uarm water must be used.
(1339.) I have often thought that the usual careless manner of placing
the lights in the stable in the evening is highly dangerous to the safety of
the building ; and yet, in the most crowded and dirty stables, no accidents
of fire almost ever happen. Sometimes the candle is stuck against a wall
by a bit of its own melted giease ; at other times it hangs by a string from
the roof in an open lantern, set apparently on purpose to light straws. A
good stable lantern is still a desideratum ; and it should be made to hold
a candle, and not an oil-lamp, as being the most cleanly mode of light for
carrying about ; and if the candle could be made to require no snuffing it
would be perfect. A common tin lantern, with a horn glass, is what is
commonly in use to carry the candle in the air ; but when it gets black-
ened with smoke in the inside, it is of little use to give light outside. I
have seen a globe lantern of glass made very strong for use on board of
ship, but it has an oil-lamp. I observe Messrs. Palmer and Company,
London, advertising a " weather cowJ/e-lamp for safeti/, and for use in
wind and rain, and which requires no snuffing." The candle costs 8^d. per
lb., tnd burns 5 hours for Id. I have not seen this lamp, but judging from
its figure, and if the glass is made strong enough, it would seem to answer
the purpose, and is certainly not dear. If safe, it might be taken into the
straw-barn, hammels, &c. at night.
(1340.) This is the usual routine of the treatment of fann-horses in win-
ter, and when followed with some discernment in regard to the state of
the weather, is capable of keeping them in health and condition. The
horses are themselves the better »of being out every day ; but the species
of work which they should do daily must be determined by the state of
the weather and the soil. In very wet, frosty, or snowy weather, the soil
cannot be touched ; but then threshing and canying corn to market may
be conducted to advantage, and fhe dung from the courts may be taken
out to the fields in which it is proposed to make dung-hills. This latter
piece of work is best done when the ground is frozen hard. When heavy
snow falls, nothing can be done out of doors with horses, except threshing
when the machine is impelled with horse-power. In a very rainy dav, the
horses should not go out, as everything about them, as well as the men,
become soaked; and before both or either can be again made comforta-
ble, the germs of serious disease may be laid in both. When it is fair
above, on the other hand, however cold the air or wet the soil, some of
the sorts of out-door work mentioned above may be done by the horses ;
and it is better for them to work only one yoking a day than to stand idle in
the stable. Work-horses soon show symptoms of impatience when con-
fined in the stable even for a day, on Sundays, for example; and when
the confinement is much prolonged, they even become troublesome. When
such occasions happen, which they do in continued snow-storms, with the
ground covered deep, the horses should be ridden out for some time every
(lOSO)
TREATMENT OF FAUM-MORSES. 545
day, and groomed as carefully as when at work. Exercise is necessary to
pie\ent thickening of the heels, a shot of grease, or a common cold. Fat
horses, when unaccustomed to exercise, are liable to molten grease.
(1341.) It is an advisable plan for a farmer to breed his own horses ;
and. on a farm which employs 6 pairs, two mares might easily bear foals
every year, and perform tlieir share of the work at the same time, without
injury to themselves. The advantage of breeding working stock at home
is, that, having been born and brought up upon the ground, they not only
become naturalized to the products of its particular soil, and thrive the
better upon them, but also become familiarized with every person and
every field upon it, and are broken into work without trouble or risk. The
two mares should work together, and be driven by a steady plowman ;
and their work should almost always be confined to plowing, particularly
in winter and spring, when they are big with young, for the shaking in the
shafts of a cart is nothing in their favor. In driving home turnips, and
leading out dung in winter, over most probably not the smoothest of roads,
mares in foal should not be employed, their driver rather plowing with
them, when that operation can be performed, or assisting the other men
at their carts with manual labor.
(1342.) Supposing, then, that one or two mares bear foals every year,
the young horses, their produce, consisting of foals, year-olds, and two-
year-olds, should be accommodated in the steading N, figs. 3 and 4, Plates
III. and IV., according to age, where there are more than one of the same
age, the older being apt to knock about the younger; but where one only
of every age is brought up, they may be placed together for the sake of
companionship, as horses are very social animals, and they learn to ac-
commodate themselves to one another's tempers. Where blood foals are
bred as well as draft, they should have separate hammels, the latter be-
ing too rough and ovei'bearing, but the bloods generally contrive to obtain
the mastery. Young horses never receive any grooming, and are even
seldom handled ; but they should all be accustomed to be led in a halter
from their youngest period.
(1343.) The food usually given to young horses in winter is oat-straw
for fodder, and a few oats ; and where they are wintered among the young
cattle in the large court K, they have the chance of a few pickings of
corn from the corn-barn, or the refuse of hay from the litter of the work-
horse stable, and then they seldom get corn. The fact is, young horses
are generally unjustly dealt with ; tljey are too much stinted of nourishing
food, and the consequences established by the treatment are a smallness of
bone which deprives them of requisite strength for their work, and a dull-
ness of spirits which render's their work a burden to them. I speak of
what I have seen of the way in which a large proportion of the farm-
horses of this country are brought up when young. Thsir treatment
seems to be derived from the opinion that very little nouiishiTig meat
should be given to young horses. Instead of this, they should receive a
stated allowance of corn — and if bruised, so much the better — according
to their ages ; and when a mash is given to the work -horses, the young
ones should always have a share. Should a mash be grudged as being too
extravagant for young horses, they should get Swedish turnips or potatoes
every day ; for some moist food is requisite with dry fodder and corn.
(1344.) The names usually given to the different states of the horse are
these : The new-born young is called a foal, a male one being a colt foal
and a female ?i filly foal. After being weaned, the foals are culled colt or
flly, according to the sex, which the male retains until broken in for
work, when he is a gelding or horse, which he retains all his life ; and tho
(1081) 35
546 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
filly is then clianged into marc. When the colt is not castrated, he is an
entire colt ; wliich name he retains until he serves marcs, when he is a
stallion or entire horse. A mare, when senerl, is said to be covered hy or
stinted to a particular stallion ; and after she has home a foal, then she is a
brood-mare, until she ceases to bear, when she is a barren mare or eill
marc ; and when dry of milk, she is said to be yeld. A mare, while bear-
ing a foal, is said to be in foal.*
(1345.) You liavc seen that Uiuugh catlle pain weight when fed on cooked food, compared to
others fed on the ^amc substances in a raw state; vol tlic expense of rooking- counterbalaucea
any advantage gained in weight, and it is therefore inexpedient to undertake the trouble of it.
These results might have been anticipated from the peculiar functions of the stomach of the ox ;
for he cheirx Ihf cud. tiiat is to say, he masticates the food, as he takes it into his mouth in a very
imperfect manner, rendering it only so small as lo he able to swallow it with some degree of
force, in which state it roaches the paunch or first stomach ; where, if it deeom[)08cs immediately
and generates gas, it produces the disease of the liinvii, which has been spoken of already {lii94).
But should it not decompose — which is the usual condition of the food — it is again brought up to
the moutli, and undergoes a thorough mastication, ufttr \\ hich it is swallowed and finds its way
to the stomach, which contains the gastric juice, there to be digested for the purpose of being as-
similated into the system. Now, all that we can do for the o.x in cooking his food, is to save him
the trouble of chewing the cud, and to put the food into that slate in which it is at once til lo be
acted upon by the gastric juice. In doing this, we attempt to imitate and enter into competition
with a complicated^natural process, and, as might be expected in the circumstances, exhibit our
inferiority. In the state, however, in which cooked food is presented to the ox. chewing the cud
is not allogelher saved him. as the 8tra%v which he chooses to eat undergoes ihat operation, and
therefore assists in keeping that important function in exercise. It is doubtful that the ox would
retain his wonted good health, were we able entirely to suspend the action of that function in
him; and it is therefore questionable policy to attempt it to a farther degree than to reduce his
food so small as to render it fit to enter the paunch, with still less mastication than he would have
to give it in its ordinary state.
(134(1.) The case, however, of the horse is very different. His is a single or simple storoach.
which mu.st be filled at once with well-masticated food, before the gastric juice can act upon it in
a proper manner ; and should any food which enters it in an insufRciently masticated state, escape
beyond the influence of the juice into the bowels, it may deconipo.se there, generate gas, and pro-
duce the analogous disease of hoveii in cattle, namely, Haiulent colic or battx. To render food in
such a state at first as shall save the horses the trouble of mastication, is, therefore, to do him a
good service ; and hence, cooked food is in a proper state for feeding a horse, and it has also
been proved to be economical. Still, the cooking will be carried to an injurious degree, if it shall,
by dint of ease of deglutition, prevent the flow of the suflicient (piantity of saliva into the stomach
which is necessary to comjilete digestion — " the (juantiiy of which," says Professor Dick. " is al-
most incredible to those who have not had an opportunity of ascertaining it, but vvhidi the fol-
lowing fact will testify. A black horse had received a wound in the jmroiid duct, which became
fistulous. When his jaws were in molioii in the act of ealiiig hay, I had the curiosity to collect
in a glass measure the (juantity which flowed during 1 minute, by a stop watch ; and it amounted
to nearly 2 drachms more than '2 oz. in that time. Now, if we calculate that the j)aroli(l gland on
the opposite cheek poured into the mouth the same quanlity in the same time, and allow that the
sublingual and sub-maxillary gland, on each side combined, pour into the mouth a quantity equal
to the two paroti<ls, we then have no less than 8 oz. of saliva passing into the mouth of a horse in
one minute, for the purpo.se of .softening the food and jn-eparing it for digestion. "t Yet it is im-
possible for any hor.se to swallow food in the most favorable stale it can be made for swallowing,
without moving his jaws to a certain degree, and this insures a certain quantity of saliva entering
his stomach.
(i:i47.l IJut more than this, cooked food may he presented in too nutritious a state for the stom-
ach ; and there may be. on the other hand, too little nutriment in the food given ; for, " the digest-
ive organs of the hor.se, like those of the ox." says Profcs.sor Dick, " are very capacious, and are
evidently inteiKied to t;ike in u lartie proportion of matter containing a small iiroportiim of nutri-
ment; and if the food upon which they are made to live is of too rich a <iuality, there is, by the
excitement produced, an increase of the peristaltic motion, in order to throw off the superabund-
ant quantity which has been taken into the stomach and bowels. It is necessary to .give, there-
fore, a certain quantity of Imlk, in mpnrnte. jtfrhapa, the ■partirhx of tuilrilioii.t malirr, that the
bowels iiiiiy be enabled to art upon it properly. A horse could not live so well on oats, if fed
entirely upon them, as when a portion of fodder is given ; with them a certain quantity is required.
But this may be carried too far, and the animal mnv have his bowels hxiih'd with too large a quan-
tity of unnutritious food ; " as witness the nature o( the xtcep hi^fore allude<i to ; " and nothing less
than such a mass as will render him incapable to perform any active exertion, will be sufficient
to aflbrd him even a scanty degree of nourishment. A horse living on straw in a straw-yard be-
[* Some use the foolish expression, out of such a horse or stallion, instead ofhy the stallion and
out of the marc ; and, again, they say " My horse was nhrd by Messenger," in.stead of got by
Messenger. As. John Uandolph once ob,scrved, they might as well say he was rfoww'rf by a par-
ticular mare. There are proprieties and technicalities belonging to every sort of business, which
should he learned at least by those who follow, or are immedi.ilely interest «d in it.
Ed. Farm. Lib.]
t Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. III.
(108-2)
TREATMENT OF FARM-HORSES. 547
comes pot-bellied. Hence it is, that a proper arrangement in the properties and proportions of
his food becomes a matter of important consideration."* These and the preceding remarks com-
prehend all the rationale of feeding both cattle and horses, and, if carefully considered, may con-
duct you to adopt such an appropriate mi.xture of materials in your possession as may serve to
maintain the strength, good health and condition of your horses, on the one hand, and to do so
economically on the other. Meantime, I shall enumerate a few of the attempts that have hitherto
been made of making mixtures of food for horses, with the view of ascertaining whether cooked
or raw food, in a prepared or natural state, maintains horses in the best order.
(1348.) The most careful set of experiments that have yet been recorded in supporting farm-
horses on boiled and rate grain, and on raw grain prepared and in a yiatural state, was made by
Mr. James Covvie. Halkerton Mains, Kincardineshire. He subjected no fewer than 12 horses to
the experiment, dividing them into 3 sets of 4 each, and keeping each set on a separate fare. The
horses were weighed on 1st March, when the experiment began, and their weights varied from
9 cwts. 3 qrs. to 12 cwts. 1 qr. 4 Ib.s. ; and they were again weighed on 1st May, at the end of the
experiment, and their weights then ranged from 9 cwts. 2 qrs. 23 lbs. to 12 cwts. 1 qr. 14 lbs.
Thus the range of weight did *ary much at both the periods, though the individual weights did.
Their ages ranged from 4 to 1 2 years.
(1349.) The facts brought out in this experiment were, that the horses fed on unbruised raw
and on hoi/ed grain, gave results so very nearly alike that it seems inexpedient to incur the expense
of cookinsi- food for horses, as that costs about l^d. on two feeds for each horse. This is a rather
remarkable result, for one should have expected that the boiled- grain would have had the advan-
tage. Bruised raw grain seems the most nourishing, and, in not requiring cooking, of course the
most economical, mode of feeding work-horses. For, all the horses that had been on boiled and
unbruiaed raw grain lo.st 70 lbs. each ; and that amount of loss in an animal of 10 cwts. or 12 cwts.
is considerable ; whereas those which had been on bruised grain, though given raw, either gained
weight or lost none. And as to the economy of using grain in this state, besides the cooking, it is
alleged that boiled whole grain passes through the horse undigested as well as raw grain when
whole, and that the quantity which thus escapes is equal to 1-6 of wh^t a horse consumes ; whereas,
the grain that is bruised undergoes a considerable degree of digestion at least, before passing
away. If the loss is taken at 1-6 on a horse which gets 12 lbs. daily of oats whole, a yearly sav-
ing might be effected of about 2 quarters of corn, by giving him 10 lbs. of bruised instead.
(1350.) Many economical forms of mixtures have been recommended for farm-horses, and these
are among them :
10 lbs. of chaffed straw, at £l per ton Id.
10 lbs. of oats, at 3s. per bushel 9
16 lbs. of turnips, at 10.s. per ton 1
Expense of cutting and chaffing OJ
Cost of one horse each day ll^d.
16 lbs. of hay, at 3s. 6d. per cwt 6d.
5 lbs. of oats, at 3s. per bushel 4^
16 lbs. of turnips, at lOs. per ton 1
Cost of one horse each day 11 ^d.
28 lbs. of steamed turnips 3 Jd.
7 lbs. of coals, at Is. per bushel 1
Expenses of steaming OJ
16 lbs. of straw, at £,\ per ton \\
Cost of one horse each day 6^d.
This last mixture, containing no corn of any kind, is said to " succeed remarkably well, and al-
though the horses perspired considerably while at work, they kept their condition exceedingly
well," and has been adopted hy some farmers in the South of England, and by Mr. Karkeek, the
veterinary surgeon, as having been "highly recommended by several practical farmers."! No
doubt, horses can live upon turnips, as well as upon grass, without corn, and they may be said to
work upon them ; but I quite agree with Mr. Stewart, when he observes : " What the owner
might call work is not known. In this country, grass alone will not produce workable horses,"
and the same may more truly be said of turnips and straw. " If food is not given," continues Mr,
Stewart, " work cannot be taken. Every man who has a hor.se has it in his power to starve the
animal ; but that, I should think, can afford little matter for exultation."! Turnips are frequently
given to farm-houses in the evening in lieu of a feed of corn, and even in lieu ofa hot mash at night;
and horse-s are very fond of Swedish turnips, which, on being washed, are generally set before
them whole, unless^some of the men take the trouble of cutting them into slices with their knives;
but the best way would be to have them sliced on purpose by Wallace's turnip-slicer, fig. 2.59,
which has been already described. Potatoes are given to horses in a raw state, in the same man-
ner as turnips, and they seemed to be relished by them, but not so fondly, in so far as I have ob-
served, as Swedish turnips. But of the sorts of food of the root kind, there is none which gives
horses so much delight as the carrot. It is a pity that this root can only be cultivated successfully
on very light soil, otherwise it would be worth while to rai.se as many, at least, as would support
the horses, m conjunction with com, all winter. Stewart says that " for slow-vvorking horses car-
rots may supply the place of corn quite well, at least for those employed on the farm."|| They
would get fat enough on 70 lbs. of carrots a day, but would want stamina without corn.$ Carrots
* Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. iii.
^ Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv.
J Stewart's Stable Economy. M jbjd.
An error has crept into (i031), where the specific gravity of the carrot is stated at 0 018 instead of ••810
(10 83)
At night.
548 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
are easily am] successfully ^Towri in lli<! iHlam) of GuornHcy ; but tliey aro not pivcn to liorscs on
account of an allctjation that ' ulien on iliii* fooil ilioir ri/e^ are injured." The name writer men-
tions a similar cflV-ct produced by tlie piirsiiip at a certain season of iho year. " To liorpes." he
aaye, "parsnips are frequently jjiven. and have the property ot niakini; them t-leek and (at; but in
working they are observed to sweat profusely. If new, and cut Kufhciently cnmll. no otlu-r ill ef-
fect results, except, indeed, at one period of the year, toward the clo.«c of February, when tho
root begins to shoot; if then given, both horses and horned cattle are subject, on this food, tn an
inflammation in the eye, and epiphora or watery eye ; in some subjects, perhaps, producing blind-
ness."* Hor.'H.'s are very fond of bread ; a piece of bread, and especially oat cake, will take a
horse in the field when a feeil of corn cannot. It is <piite common in Holland to see travelers at
a village inn, take a black loaf and slice it down with a bread-knife in a trough for their horse.
Upon the principle of economy, M. Longchamp lia.-i proposed to feed the cavalry of France with
a bread comj)Osed of J of of boiled potatoes and \ oalnnal, properly baked in an oven. The usual
allowance of oats for a horse, at 10 lbs. costs 1 3 sous ; but 10 lbs. of this bread will oidy cost 5 sous
(1351.) But independent of all succedanea, which may be given to horses at times as a treat,
and as affording a beneficial change of food, there should be a regular feed prepared for farm-
horse.s, \\ Inch should be administered every day, and any deviation from which should be regard-
ed as a reli.sh or treat. There are two formuliE which I shall give, which liave been found to
make excellent prepared food lor farm horses, and they may be prepared without much trouble,
provided the proper apparatus is erected for tlie purpose. The first is given in quantity of each
day for one horse :
T ., ( 31 lbs. of oat and bean meal, ?,.. i.
In the morning -s n n r v. i . ' > 14i lbs.
'^ ^11 lbs. of chopped straw, J '
A. ~;j i» , ^3 lbs. of oat and bean meal. ) .^
^'""^•^*y I 12 lbs. of chopped straw, T"^ ■-
I 1| lbs. of oat and bean meal, ^
^11 lbs. of steamed potatoes. /HJ --
( 2 lbs. of chopped straw, ) J^ y^^^
This quantity is quite sufficient for the strongest farm-horses, and less will be consumed by or-
dinary ones, but that can be regulated according to circumstances, by withdrawing a little meal
and straw, still retaining the proportions. The usual allowance of oats, as you have seen, weighs
11 i lbs. a day, when the grain is of the finest qualitj' ; but as horses seldom receive the finest oats,
and are usually supplied with what arc called common oats, which do not weigh so heavy, the
nsual allowance may be taken at 10 lbs. ; and ■when hay is given to the horses in spring they eat
at least \\ stones of 22 lbs.::=33 lbs. every day. This mixture, on the other hand, contains no hay,
and only 8 lbs. of oats and bean-meal, or 6 lbs. of barley-meal instead, if more convenient to be
given, and 11 lbs. of steamed potatoes, which cannot be estimated at much value on a farm
beyond the cost of steaniing.t The value of the ordinary and the prepared food can easily be
estimated, and it will be found that ihe ()vepared is the cheapest, and at the same time better for
the horses' health, and e(iuall}- well for thtuii as to condition and spirit. The mixture is made in
this \vay : The meal and chopped straw are i)ut and mixed tf)getli»'r in a tub, and a little salt
sprinkled over it. The steamed potiitoes arc then poured hot into tlu' tub over the straw, and
the whole is formed into a ma.-^h \\ itli a .shovel, and let stand awhile to aojuire an eijual tempera-
ture throughout, and to .swell tho meal into a pulpy state with the potatoes, before being divided
out to the horses.
(13.52.) A formula is given by Prof. Low, consisting of chopped straw, chopped hay. bruised or
coarsely-ground grain and .steamed potatoes by weight, in eqnal parts, with 2 oz. of salt; and of
this from 30 lbs. to 3.") lbs., or 32j lbs. on an averag'-, to be given to a horse every day.^ This
mixture, including hay, will be more expensive than the above; and I am doubtful that 35 lbs.
of it will satisfy a farm-horse ou active work in spring, when he can eat 33 lbs. of unchopped hay
a da)', without corn.
(13.'i3.| It appears at first sight soniewbat surjirisin? that the idea of preparing food for farm -
horses sliould only have been veceiuly iicted on ; but I have no doubt that the [iractice of the turf
and of the road, of maintaining horses on large (luantities of oats and dry ryegrass hay, has had
a jiowerlul influence in retaining il on farms. But now that a more natunil treatment has been
adopted by the owners of horses on fii.st work, fanners, having now the example of post-horses
standing tlii-ir work well on preparer! t'ooil. should ea-<ily be persuaded that, on plow work, the
same sort of food should li;ive even a innr.! salutary ellect on their horses. How prevalent was
the notion, at one time, that horses conlil not be expected to do work at all uiilfss there was hnrd
meal, in them! " Tliis is a very silly and erroneous idea, if we inquire into it." as Prof Dick
truly observes; " for whatever may he lh<; consistency of the Ihod when taken into the stomach,
it must, before the body can itossihjy ih-rivc any substantial support or benelii trom it. be converted
into cln/me — a pultacious mass; and litis, as it jiasses onward from the .«tomach into the intestinal
canal, is renderi;d still more fluid, by the admixturt! of the .secretions from the .stomach, the liver
and the pancreas, when it becomes of a niil'.;y ajipearance, an«i is called chyle. It is then taken
into the systiMU by the laeteals. ami in this Jhml, \\nn soft state — iDid in this xlolpoiili/ — mixes
with the blooil and passcH ihrouL'h the eirciilatiie: vessels for the nourishment of the system. "||
Actuated by the.se rational principles. Mr. .Inhn f'roall. a large coach proprietor in Edinburudi. now
supports his coachhorsi's en s lbs. of cho;.ped hay aixl Ifi lbs. of briiiseii oats ; so does Mr Isaac
Scott, a Postmaster, who gives 10 llm. or 12 Ib.s". of chopped bay and 16 lbs. of bruised oats to
large horses ; and to carry the principle still farther into practice, Captain Cheyne found his post-
* Qu»yle'« Agriculture of the Channel Ulands. t Quarterly JoumRl of Agriculture, vol. iv.
* Low's KlemenU of rniclicul .\griculturo. |{ Qunrtcily Journal of Agriculture, voL jii.
(1084)
TREATMENT OF FARM-HORSES. 549
horses work well on the following mixture, the proportions of which are given for each horse
every day ; and this constitutes the second of the formulae alluded to above :
^8 lbs. of bruised oats. f'i2 lbs. of steamed potatoes.
In the day .. ■? 3 lbs. of bruised beans. . ^ . i J 1 J lbs. of fine bavley-dust
^ 4 lbs. of chopped straw. ° " j 2 lbs. of chopped straw.
Yy\^ [ 2 ounces of salt.
25^ lbs.
Estimating the barley-dust at lOd. per stone ; chopped straw 6d. per stone : potatoes, steamed,
at 78. 6d. per cwt. ; and the oats and beans at ordinary prices, the cost of supper was 6d., and for
daily food Is. with cooking, in all Is. 6d. a horse each daj-.*
(1354.) {Hay and Strair-Cuttcrs. — Machines for chopping haj- and straw form now an import-
ant article in the class of iui|ilemeiits for preparing tbod for horses and cattle. In England the
straw-cutter or chaft'-cutter is held, very properly, in high estimation by the farmei*. and its value,
in an economical point of view, seems to be fully appreciated by all. In Scotland, with all its
boasted economy in the various walks of Agriculture, the straw cutter is but partially employed,
and it is chiefly among those farmers who, to a well-established experience superadd scientific
skill that the employment of the straw-cutter, together with the otlier members of the class of
food preparing machmes. are brought to bear upon the establishmonl in a systematic reform.
There can be no doubt that ere long the food-preparing system will become as universal among
farmers as the threshing-machine is alreadj', and straw-cutters, corn bruisers and steaming-appa-
ratus will be seen in every well-regulated steading. To the full development of such a system
there exists one especial obstacle, which is that defect, in the minds of many men, which pre-
vents their forming a systematic arrangement of any given subject, and from being indifferently
qaalified to draw conclusions from a series offsets, which individually appear isolated and loosely
connected, but which, in the aggregate, are capable of bringing out important results. For ex-
ample, there are many individuals who may have procured ihe requisite machinery to have ena-
bled them to follow the.system here alluded to. but, owing to the absence of properly organized
methods of procedure in the different processes, and losing sight of the advantages to be derived
from a proper combination of effects, by viewing only the results in detail, the well-intended
trial ends in disappointment, and the machinery set aside as unprofitable ; wherea.o, under proper
direction, it would certainly have achieved the object. In using machinery of this kind it should
always be borne in mind that the more constantly and regularly it is kept in operation, so much
the moi-e productive it will be in saving expense to its proprietor, provided such machinery be
of a kind that can be rendered available as a means of saving expense ; and, from the nature of
things, no machine will be continued in any practice after it has been ascertained to possess only
negative properties.
(1355.) Straw-cutters are of very various construction, rising in the perfection and complication
of parts, from the simple knife, jointed at one end to a table and wielded by the right hand, as a
lever of the second order, chopping the straw or hay that is presented to it by the left. From
this simple and primitive form they rise in gradation to a class of elaborate machines, too numer-
ous to be described individually, but out of which the following varieties are selected as appear-
ing most worthy of attention. I shall pass over some of the early machines, which, however
ingenious, were i;nnecessarily complicated ; such as those which enjoyed the advantage of a re-
volving web to carry forward the substance to be cut, and having also the means of moving the
substance, not uniformly, but by starts, the progressive action being performed iu the interval of
the strokes of the cutter, the substance, at the same time, being alternately compressed and re-
laxed, that is. compressed while the knife is cutting, and relaxed during the progressive stage.
Such mechanical appliances are now, for the most part, laid aside, and the machine is propor-
tionally siniplified.t
(1356.) The straw-cutting machines now in general use may be arranged under three varieties,
and in the order of seniority stand as follows : 1. Those having the cutting-knife or knives
attached on the disk of a fly-wheel. 2. Those having the knives placed upon the peripherj' of a
skeleton cylinder ; and 3. Those having numerous knives set round the surface of a small solid
cylinder. This last being the simplest form of the modern machine I shall place it first in the
order of description.
(1357.) The Canadian Strnw-Cuifer. — This machine, as the name implies, is an importation
from Canada, a description of it having been sent thence by Mr. Fergus.son of \\'"oodhull, now
of Fergus. Upper Canada, to the Highland and Agricultural Society, in whose Transactions it
was first published ;t but the present figure is taken from the machine as made by James Slight
and Company, who have greatly improved the construction of the cutting cj linder. Fig. 281 is
a view in perspective of this machine. It consists, first, of a wooden frame, of whicha a a a
are the four posts, 2| inches square, the front pair 43 inches in hight, and the back pair 36 inches.
These are connected by two side-rails, one of which is seen at b, and a cross-rail, c, which last
serves also to support the bottom of the feeding-spout. These rails are 2^ inches deep by IJ
[t Not to have it said that this great work had been impaired in any of its e.ssential parts, and
especially in such engravings as are emplo3-ed to illustrate it, we give all the cuts of machinery,
thoagh well aware that some of them have been well supplanted by more economical inventions
of our own ingenious countrj-men. The presentation of them will be acceptable, too, as we may
suppose, to the manufacturers and venders of implements, patrons of this work.
Ed. Farm. Lib.]
* Quarterly Journal of Atrriculture, vol. uL
1 Prize Essays of the Highland and A'TicuIIUMil Society, vol. xii.
(10851 ^^
'j£
650
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
The posu are farther connected by four light Btay rails below ; and th«
frame, when thus joined, measures iS inches in width at the
inches in thickness. ^ r - • l n
frame, when thus joined, measures 1.5 inches in width at the front, where the rollers are applied,
28 inches in width behind, and 40 inches in length at bottom, bat only 36 inches at the top-nU
Fig.28L
THE CANADIAN STRAW-CUTTER
measured over all. The feeding-spout, d, is 40 inches in length, 9 inches in width wiiliin, at the
feeding end. and 18 inches behind ; the depth is 4 to 6 inches.
(1358.) The acting parts of this straw-cutter consist of the cutting -cylinder c. which is 9 inches
in length and 6 J inches in diameter to the edge of the cutters. It is armed with '24 cutters or
knives; its axle run.'; in plummer-blocks, bolted upon the posts, and carries likewi.-H- the wheel/
of 9i inches in diameter. The pressure cylinder ^ is a plain cylinder of hardwood. b< ech or elm,
tnrned true upon an iron axle, which runs in plummer-blocks similar to the former. The length
of the pressure cylinder is 9 inches, and its diameter 7 to 8 inches: it carries no wheel, but re-
volves oy similar contact wi;h the cutting-cylinder. The pres>urecylinder is funiishcd with a
pair of adjusting screws at h li, which act upon the plummer blocks of the cylinder, and afford
the means of regulating the pressure of the oiic cylinder upon the other. The sl;afl /, which has
also its plummer-blocks, carries at one end a pinion of 3 J inches in diameter, which acts upon the
wheel /, while, at the other end.it carries the tly-w heel / of 34 inches diameter and 00 lbs.
weight. The winch handle m is also attached to the shaft »', and serves to put the machine in
motion.
(13.'>9.) Fig 282 is a transverse section of the cutting-cylinder, showing the position of the
entters and their insertion in<o grooves which are planed out of the solid cast-iron forming
the body of the cylinder ; a is the axle, and ii tlie body of the cylinder, which is 4 inches in diame-
ter, and has 24 cutlers inserted in its periphery. Fig. 283 is a longitudinal section of ilie same, for
the purpose of exhibitiny; the manner in which the cutters are secured in ilieir places, a is the
axle, and b the body as before, c c being t\\ o opposite cutlers. The body is 8 inches in length
but is furnished with two caps J d. which make it up to 9 inches. The caps are cupped out. so
that their edges eee e embrace the ends of the body, ami at the same time enter into notches cut
in each end of the cutters, as seen in fie. 284, which is a cutter detached, and drawn to a Urger
scale exhibiting the notch a a into which the edges of the cupped ends enter. By this arrange-
ment, the numerous cutters arc all held firnilv in their grooves: for so soon as the caps are ap-
plied, and fixed by the keys //, fig. 083. benig driven through the axle, the caps are pressed
home upon the bodv and the cutlers. On the other band, when it is found requisite to remove a
cutter, for sharpcnme or other purposes, it is only neces.-'ary to drive out one of the keys f, to
withdraw the cap. and the cutters can be lifted out of their grooves withoni trouble.
(1360.) As this machine acts entirely by direct pressure, it will readily be observed that, in
workine it, the straw being laid in a trough d, fig. 281, and brought in contact w ith the cutting-
(1086) /
TREATMENT OF FARM— HORSES.
551
cylinder and its antagonist, the hay or straw will be continuously drawn forvvard by means of
the two cylinders ; and when it has reached the line of centers of the two, it will be cut through
by the direct pressure of the cutting-edges of the one against the resisting surface of the other
Fig. 284.
SECTIONS OF THE CUTTING-CYLINDER.
cylinder, and the process goes on with great rapidity. The straw is cut in lengths of about J inch ,
and though it passes in a thin layer, yet the rapidity of its motion is such, that when driven by
hand, at the ordinary rate of 44 turns of the handle per minute, the number of cuts made by the
Fig. 285.
THE CYLINDER STRAW-CUTTER WITH STRAIGHT KNIVES.
cutting-cylinder in that time is 360 ; and the quantixy, compared by weight, will be three times, near
ly, what any other straw-cutter will produce, requiring the same force to work it, that is to say, a
man's power. There is one objection to this machine, which is, the wearing out of the resisting
cylinder but this balanced by the excess of work performed, and by the circumstance that the
wearing cylinder can be removed at an expense not exceeding 2s., and it will last from 3 to 6
months. The price of the Canadian straw-cutter is £6 lUs.
(1361.) Cylinder Straw-cutter, go named here from its havinsr the knives or cutters (generally
(1087) ^
552
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
two, bat soraetimes foar) placed on the poriphcn- of a skeleton cylinder, the knife lyin^ nearly in
the plane of revolution. Besides the cuttinu' cylinder, they necessarily have a pair of feeding-roU-
ern, which bring forward the substance to be cut, and also, from the velocity of ihtir motion, repn-
late the length of the cut. Two forms of the machine exist, the essential difference of which
ia that, in the one. the cutters are placed upon the cylinder with a large angle of obliquity to the axis,
generally about :i:> . and are therefore bent and twisted until their edges form an oblique section
of the cylinder, while the box. or the orifice through which the substance is protruded for being
cut. lies parallel U< the axis of the feedinir-rollers. In the other variety, the knives are placed
parallel lo the axis of the cylinder, and therefore straight in the edge, while the cutting box is
elongated into a nozzle, and is twisted to aii angle of 1.')^ with the axis of the feeding rollers. To
ihifi form of the machine I shall at present chiefly confine myself
'i.i62.) The cylinder straw-cutter with straight knives, as constructed by James Slight and Co.,
Edinburgh, at prices from £7 10s. to £8 lOs., is represented by fig. 285, being a view in perspec-
tive of the macnine, while fig. 286 is a section of tlic principal parts ; and in the two figures the
.«amc letters refer to the corresponding parts of each. The machine is made entirely of iron, chief-
ly cast iron. The two side-frames a a, are connected toijether, at a width of from 12 to 1.5 inches,
by the stretcher-bolts b h. two of which are seen in the right hand side of the figure, and a third
below on the left : a fourth is formed of the bedplate r, which is bolted to a projecting bracket,
:ind carries the cheeks or frame d of the feeding-rollers e and /". The lower roller e carries upon
its axle the driving-wheel g, and also the feedinewheel. indistinctly .seen in the figure, but which
works into its equal wheel f, fitted upon the axle of the upper roller f. In the machine, when
adapted for hand power, the rollers vary from 5 to 8 inche« in lenL'th, and are 3 J inches in diame-
ter, and fluted. In the apex of the side-frames, bearings are formed for the axle of the cutter-
wheels k, which form the skeleton cylinder, and whose axle carries also the driving-pinion /, act
ing upon the wheel g. The cutter-wheels are 11 inches diameter, and are set at from 10 to 13 in-
ches wide. Intermediate between the feeding-rollers and the cutter-wheels is placed the cutting-
box or nozzle m, bolted to the roller-frame in the position represented in fig. 286. On the farther
end of the cutter-wheel axle the fly-wheel n, of 4 feet diameter, ia fixed ; and on the near end of
Fis. 286.
A TR1NSVER3E SECTION, SHOWING THE RELATION OP THE PRINCIPAL PARTS.
the game, the winch-handle o. by which the machine is worked. The feeding-trough p is 4 feet in
length, from .I to 8 inches wide at the feeding end, and 18 inches behind. The depth is 6 iuchee,
and the trough is formed of J inch deal. It is hooked to the roller-frame at the mouth, and is sup-
ported by the jointed foot q. The cutters r r, from 10 lo 13 inches in length, and 3J to 4 inches in
breadth, are made of the finest steel, backed with iron. The cutters are fixed upon the cylinders,
each with two screw bolts, as seen at «, passing through the ring of the wheel, and "they are
placed slightly eccentric to it ; the cutting-edge teing about { inch more distant from the center
than the back. To secure the regular feed of the rollers, the lower one turns in fixed bearings ;
bnt the other is at liberty to rise and fall in the fork t of the roller frame. In order farther to se-
cure a uniform pressure on this roller, a bridge n is inserted on the fork /. resting on both jour-
nals of the roller. A compensation lever r, has iu forked fulcra in x throui.li the strap z z. a hich
ia hooked on to pins in the roller frame ; and it thus bears upon the bridge » at both sides by
means of the forked end, as seen at a' in fig. 28."). A weight ir is appended to the extremity of
the lever, which, thus arranged, keeps a uniform pressure on the upper roller, while "it i»
always at liberty to rise or fall according to the thickness of the feed ^yhich the rollers are re-
ceiving.
(1363.) Fig. 267 is a direct front view of the cutiing-box detached, on a scale of 2 inches to a
foot, a a are the ears by which it is bolted to the roller frame ; b c and d e axe the upper and
lower extreme edges of the nozzle, while/ g' A i is the baae, as applied to the roller-frame. The
(1088J
TREATMENT OF FARM-HORSES.
553
angle h g f or e i his. the obliquity which is given to tlie nozzle, and is about 15° with the hori-
zontal axis. Fig. 288 is a plan of the same, in which the same letters of reference ap|)ly to the
corresponding parts. / iT is the base, lying on the same plane with the ears a a. The curve lino
b c is the contour of the upper edge of the nozzle, and the dotted line b e reinesents the lower edee
deof fig. 287. ^
/ Fig. 287. ^
Fig. 288.
, THE CUTTING-KOX DETACHED.
{]3fi4.) The obliquity of the nozzle, as here represented, serves the purpose of causing the
knife to make a progressive cut. approaching to tlie ctiort of clipping; thereby preventing the
shock that would otlierwi.se arise, were the nozzle and the edu'e of the kuile parallel at the in.stant
when the cut commences. The action of the machine would perhaps be iSniprovcd by an in-
creased obliquity of nozzle, as the stroke of the knives would thus be still less felt; but this could
not ea.sily bo done unless the knife were placed obli(]uo also in the opposite direction. Hut this
involves a difficulty which the present machine was intended to obviate, namely, the preserving
a straight-edged knife, which, in the hands of an unskilled workman, is much easier adjusted than
a twisted one. And farther, a moderate degree of obliquity is preferable to an excc.ss ; in the
former, the intervals of the cuts are so considerable as to allow the fly-wheei to exert its natural
eil'ect of storing, as it were, a quantity of momentum or force, which it freely gives out to meet
the resistance of the next cut; when, '.m the contrary, the oblicjuity is very great, as is frequently
the case in the machines with twisted knives, and more especially when there are four cutters
applied to the cylinder, there may, in such cases, be no interval of action in the cutters, for be-
fore one has completed its cut, the ne.xt has commenced, and the advantages of a fly-wheel are, in
Buch cases, nearly, if not altogether, lost; hence we find that some of the machines with twisted
knives are extremely heavy to work.
(i;)65.) There is. liowever, another cause of increased labor in the working of some straw-cut-
ters, on the principle now before us. In many of the cylinder machines, the cutter wheels are of
a diameter so large as to render the operation of cutting with them one of great labor. This arises
from the circumstance of the action of the machine being a combination of the effects of the lever.
The winch-handle is a lever, say of 12 inches radius, and the radius of the cutter-wheel, measured
to the edge of the cutter, may be taken at 6 inches ; here there is a mechanical advantage of two
to one in favor of the power. Let the cutter-wheel be increa.sed to Hi inches, or a radius of 8 in-
ches, the proportion of the leverage is now materially changed, and the mechanical advantage in
favor of the power is only 1^ to 1. The power, therefore, suppose it exerts in the first case a
force of 30 lbs., it will require, in the second case, a force of 40 lbs., to overcome the same resist-
ance, and so on in that proportion. But the fly-wheel, under the like circumstance, lo.ses part of
its etFect, though not to the same amount; for, suppo.se its radius to the center of gyration to be
2 feet, the mechanical advantage of its momentum would be, in the first case, as 4 to 1, and in the
second, as 3 to 1. In the construction of all cylinder straw-cutters, therefore, it is of importance
to make the cutters of small diameter, that is to say, never to excred 11 inches. It were, per-
haps, better that they should be less than thi.s, but on no account should they exceed it, especially
for hand-machines. In the case of steam or water power, any small increase of resistance is less
important, provided that a countervailing object is to be attained by it, such as a machine already
made, or the like.
(136S.) While on the subject of fly-wheels, it may not be out of place to make a few remarks,
pomting out where those auxiliaries to machinery may with propriety be applied, and where
thej' oughf. not. In the first place, it may be asserted that in no case can a fly-wheel act as a
generator of power; and under a false impres.sion of this supposed function of fly-wheels, numer-
ous instances occur of their misapplication, or at least a misconception of their effects; and,second-
\y, the only available function of fly-wheels is their capabilitj' of acting as reitervoirs of that power
or force that is communicated to them while in motion. Thus a comparatively small force applied
to a heavy fly-wheel for a few seconds, will, on the principle of its absorbing and partially retain-
ing that power and force, accumulate a momentum that may, through the agency of mechanical
m.'ans, be discharged on a p.irticular point, and produce an instantaneous effect that the first
mover never could accomplish without such means. This is finely exemplified in the machine
for punching and cutting thick iron plates and bars; and the principle applies in all cases where
fly-wheels can be employed with advantage. The principle of action is this: Fly-wheels may
be employed with advantage in every case where the intensity of either iha power or the resist-
a:r-<- is variable ; and where both are variable, it becomes still more necessary. On the other hand,
■where both the power and the resistance are uniform, a fly-wheel may be held as an incumbrance,
and can only act as a load upon the first mover. In the .steam-engine, for example, of any form in
which a crank is used to communicate motion to machinery, the fly-wheel is indispensably neces-
sary; and such is the requisite governing power of fly to keep up steady motion, that its "momen-
tum is sufficient to compensate for considerable variation in the resistance of the machine or ma-
chinery upon which it operates. With water-wheels, however, the power is perfectly unitbrm, and
is the resistance is also uniform, as in gri.st-mills and even threshing-mills, fly-wheels would be
worse than useless ; but where the resistance is intermitting, such as rolling and tilt-mills, and punch-
ing machines, a heavy fly becomes necessary, in which the power of the first mover can be accumu-
lated for a short period and which will be expended during the succeedins: short period that the
(1089)
554 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
driven niachiue is in action. In cvcr>' case where manual labor is applied, fly-wheels are useful if
not essontial. This arises from the power itself beiu^ variable ; for the power of a man workinfj a
winch varies actoniiiiu' to the iliHeroiil positions whicli the winch occupies in the coarse of its rnvolu-
tion and has been ascertained to rnnce in the proportion of 30 lbs. and 00 lbs. The rationale of this
is rhatwhen he is in a position that restricta hisexertion to :)Olb»., he might not be able to overcome
the resistance unless at a very slow rale ; but in the position where he can exert a force of f.O lbs., he
can do more than overcome 'the resistance. And here it is that the fly wheel comes to his aid ; for
BUppose the ri>sistance requires an actual force of 45 lbs., while he is putting lorth 60 lbs., there is
a surplus of l.'i lbs. Th'u last quantity the ever ready fly wheel, whose velocity, from its inertia,
he is not able u'reatlv to increase; but it takes up, with a small increase of velocity, the surplus
force e.xeried by the" hand, and this is stored up in the mass of the wheel, to be delivered out
atrain at tlie next weak point in the revoluiii.n of the winch. Hence, a nearly equable force is
produced to act upon the machine to which the power of the man is directed. If this power is
directed upon an intcrmittins; machine, sucli as a straw-cutter, the demands upon the Hy-wheel
are very much increased ; but as the point of the machine to which the power is applied moves
at a much slower velocity than the center gyration in the fly, and as the intermissions of the resist-
ance are not likely to coincide exactly with the increments or decrements of the power, there
will be a mutual compensation goinsr'on among the forces to bring out a uniform result. There
is a possibility that a coincidence of the above circumstances may occur ; hence, it is some-
times of consequence to observe the placing of the winch, so as to counteract any defect of com-
(i:i67 ) The power of horses to impel the machinery being of nearly uniform intensity, requires
no regulaior in itself; but it comes under the general law, if the resistance is intermitting. Thus,
in the threshing machine, which is slightly variable in resistance, it would, if worked with horse-
power, be considerably improved by the addition of a well proportioned fly-wheel, of which more
m another place. In various other machines worked with horse power, where the resistance is
frequcnllv-intermitiing, such as blowing bellows, pumping, and the like, a fly is indispensa-
ble ; while in a malt or other mill, whose resistance is uniform, the fly would be an incumbrance.
Steam power applied to a threshing machine requires, as already observed, no additional fly-
wheel : but that of the steam-engine for such purpose, should be above the standard allowed for
ordinarj- purposes. _ rn,, i^ i-/- i
(lafifi.) The general theory of the application of fly-wheels may be repeated m a few words.
They arc usefully employed in all cases of intermitting resistance and of variable force, whether
in tlie first mover or in the re^sistance. Where the motion is uniform and not intermitting, the
first mover being also uniform, the fly-wheel is in almost every case unnecessary, and frequently
an ob.struction. , - ,- r, • . /• • • 1 1
(KJti'.i.) The determination of the weight of a fly-wheel for any given purpose, is a problem not
very definite in its results; but apinoxiinalions to it have been made by men of eminence.
AnioniT the.se, we find TredL'old .«tatinir a rule for the fly wheels of steam engines,* which, for
practical purposi-s, is convenic-nt, and comes near to the general practice ; though this is to bo
taken with considerable latitude, seeing that the practice of engineers difters considerably on this
point ; and the rule, though it applies to heavy fly wheels with tolerable exactness, does not agree
with practice in the case of flv wheels for ihe'hanci, and other small machines. But the following
approximation will be a tolerable gui.le in practice for the weight of small fly-wheels.
(1370.)Taking the average force tliat a man will exert in turning a winch of 12 inches radius at
23 lb.s.. when lie turns it 45 times per minute, the rule will be : ... .. . -
Rule.— Multiply iO times the loire in pounds cxeiicd on the winch by its radius in feet, and
divide this product by the cube of the radius of llie fly-wheel in feet, multiplied into the num-
ber of the revolutions per niiuute ; the result will be the area of a section of the rim of the fly,
in sciuare inches. . ,, . ,. /- , , , ■
E.VA.Mi I.K.— The force applied to the v, inch being 23 lbs., its radius 1 foot, and the revolutions
" per minute 45 ; required the section of the rim of a fly-wheel whose radius is 1^ feet, or 3
ieet diameter.
20X-aXl 460 .
=: =3 inches, the area of section of the rim nearly.
1-5' X 45 151 ....
(1371.) Thouu'h this formula will serve for small flywheels, whose velocities range from 40 to
80 revulitidiis j.er minute, it becomes necessary, in order to make it agree with practice, to change
the constant. Thus, for velocities ranging from ?0 to 150, the number 10 will be substituted for
20; and from l.'iO to 300, the number 5. In this last case, the fly-wheel cannot exceed 2 feet
diameter; and in the former, it is restricted to 5 lt.'et.
(137J.) T/ic Disk S/rairaitlrr.—Of the disk straw-cutter the varieties are very numerous, and
they form a very important order of this machine ; being that, al.«o, which isforthe most part, em-
ployed in Kiiuland, it is the most iiinneious of the clas-s. The principal feature, the cutting-knife,
fixed upon the fly-wheel, i.s invariable, except that it sometimes carries one, at other times two
knives. The machinery or details are exceedingly varied. In .some, it is a<lapted to cut of va-
rious lengths by means of ratchit wheels and lever" catches applied to the motion of the feeding-
rollers, and at the same time to move ihc sub.siance forward only in the intervals of the stroke of
the knif.- ; in others, the latter <|ualiHcation only is attended to ; in a third, a continous mo-
tion of the sub.stance is deemed sulKcient ; and these varieties ol motion are produced by other
and various arrangements of spur, hovel, and screw geering.s.
(1373.) The machine selected for illusiration is one in which two knives are employed, and
which gives to the substance to be cut a continuous motion forward. The figure here represent-
ing this, is taken from a machine manufactured by John Anderson and Son, founders, Leith Walk.
Treilcol^on Steam-Engine*.
(1090)
TREATMENT OF FARM-HORSES.
555
at a price of i;iO lOs. Fig. 289 is a view of this machine in perspective. The chief parts of the
frame-work are of cast-iron, consistins of a frame a a on each side of the machine, which are sup
ported transversely by the truss b. The front part of the side-frames extend upward and form
Fig. 289.
THE DISK STRAW-CUTTER WITH COiNVEX KNIVES.
the feeding-roller frame. The cutting-plate is attached in front of the latter portion of the frame-
work, and is dressed truly otf for the passage of the knife over its face. The feeding-trough e is
connected in the fore-part to the roller-frame, and along its bottom to the upper edge of the side-
frames. The back end of the trough is supported in a light wooden-frame. The principal shaft/ is
supported on two projecting brackets s and h, and upon it is mounted the single- thread screw i, and
the fly-wheel k ; on the extreme end also of the shaft, the wiuclihandle / is attached. A bracket
carries one end of a small shaft, on which the screw-wheel n, of 21 teeth, is mounted, and is turn-
ed by means of the screw, when the fly-wheel is put in motion. On the opposite end of the
small shaft n. a spur-wheel is also placed, and acts upon another of equal diameter placed on the
axle of the lower feeding-roller. This last, as well as the upper roller, are furnislied with the usual
long-toothed pinions, for admitting of the rise and fall of the upper roller. The upper roller ia
supported in a light frame that rises and falls in a slide of the roller-frame, and this is acted upon
by a lever and weight, of which the hook only is seen in the figure at o. The cutting-knife p is
18 inches in length, and 4 inches in breadth. It is firmly bolted upon the arm of the fly-wheel,
and its cutting-edge, which is convex, is so formed that every successive point, in passing the
edge of the cutting-plate, tbrms eijual angles with the edge of that plate. In many of the disk
machines, the cutting-edge of the knife is concave, formed on the same principle of equal angles,
and, in effect, is the better of the two.
(1374.) The dimensions of the principal partsof this machine areas follows. Width of the frames
14 inches; length of cast-iron fiaraes 30 inches, and hight 3 feet; length of feeding-rollers 12 in-
ches, and their diameter 4 1 inches; length of feeding-trough 5 feet, and width 12 inches. The
flv-wheel is 4 feet 3 inches diameter, and the hight to its center is 3 feet. From the entire weight
of the fly-wheel being supported at one angle of the frame, the spreading brackets q r are attach-
ed, to give the machine stability.
(IS?.!.) The S/eamiiig- Apparatus. — The means employed for cooking food for horses and cattle,
are either boiling or steaming. In the first, an open ves.sel is of course employed, in which the
roots or other substances are placed, with a sufficient quantity of vvatei". This method has been
found inconvenient in many respects; and when the establishment is extensive, the vessel is re-
quired to be incommodiously large, and is withal not economical.
(1376.) Steaming in a separate vessel has been adopted in preference to the former rnethod and
has been followed in a variety of forms, but these may be ranked under two distinct kind,s. The
first is an open vessel, a boiler generally of cast-iron, having a channel or groove of 1 inch wide
and 2 inches deep formed round its brim. The vessel is placed over a furnace properly construct-
(1091J
556
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
ed, and is partly filled with water. The proove is also filled with water. A sheet-iron cyliudri-
cal pan. of 3 to 4 liot in (ii-i>th. and of a dinnietor suitfd to pass into the proove of the water- ves-
sel (which is cc iieiiilly aliout :i fi-et diuinotcr), is also provi.lo.l. The pan has a i>crforatf<] l>ottom
to admit steam fiicl\ from tin- Iow«!r ves*-!. It is also furnislud with an iron bow hy which it
can be suspindid, and hy which it can be convcnionlly tilted while suspended. This is the steam-
ing pan ; and for the purpose ot'nuiviii!? it to ami from the iKiihr. u crane, mounted with wheel
and pinion and a chain, completes the apparatus. To put this in operation, the pan is fdled w ith the
substances to be steamed, ajid covered over either with a deal cover or with oUl canvas bau's. It is
then placed u|ion tlie boiler hy m<ans of the crane, and the fire beinir pretty stronely urged till
the water in the boiler gives oil' its steam, which, passim; up throi-iih the bottom of the pan, and
acting upon the contents, produces in a few hours all th<- results of boilinir. The water in the groove
of the boiler serves iis a si.'alini,' to j)revent the escape of steam without passing through the pan. But
notwithstanding this, it is evidi-nt that the steam can hardly ever reach the tem|>erature of '21i° ;
and hence, this apparatus is always found to be very tardy in its effects. When the contents of
the pan have been found sufficiently done, the whole is removed from the boiler by means of the
crane, and lilted into a large trough' to be thoroiiuhly mixed, anil thence served out to the stock.
A general complaint has been urged asainst this consiruciion of apparatus, arising from the slow-
ness of the process of cookincr by it. ami consoipient expense of fin<l. Hollers oi the form here
described are not uell calculated to absorb the maximum of caloric that may be afforded by a
given quantity of fuel, neither is the apparatus generally lb'- be^t a.iapiaiion for the application of
THE CLOSED-BOILER STEAMING APPARATUS.
Steam to the substances upon which the steam has to act. Such boilers, as already observed, can
never produce steam of a higher temperature than -Jia^. If thev did. the shallow water! urine,
formed by the marginal groove, would be at once thrown out by the steam pressure ; for it is well
known that the addition of P to the temperature of the steam mcreases its elasticity equal to the
resistance of a column of water about 7 inches high. A groove, therefore, of 7 inches in depth
(1092)
TREATMENT OF FARM-HORSES. 557
would be required to resist the pressure, which would even then be only 1-5 lb of pressure on
the square inch. Under such circumstances, the temperature in the steaming-pan will always be
under 212^. Hence the tedious nature of the process by using this apparatus.
(1377.) The apparatus which deserves the precedence of the above mode is here represented
in fig. 290. The principle of its construction is that of a closed boiler, in which the steam is pro-
duced under a small pressure of 3 to 4 lbs. on the inch. It is then delivered through a pipe to one
or more separate vessels containing the substances that are to be cooked ; and these vessels are so ar-
ranged as to be readily engaged or disengaged with the conducting steam-pipe. The outline abed
of the figure represents a section of the steaming-house, with the apparatus in due order of arrange-
ment, and of the extent that may be capable of supplying an establishment of from 10 to 16 horses.
The boiler e is of a cylindrical form, 20 inches in diameter and 4 feet in length. It is set in brick-work
f, overafurnaceof 14 inches in width, with firegrate and furnace-door. The brick building requires
to be 6 feet 6 inches in length, 4 feet 6 inches in breadth, and the hight about 3 feet 6 inches. The
furnace is built with a circulating flue, passing first to the farther end of the boiler, then, turning to
right or left according as the chimney may be situated, returns to the front of the boiler, and termi-
nates in the chimney on the side opposite to the first turning. The flues should be not less in
width at the upper part than one-fourth the diameter of the boiler ; and their hight will be about
one-third the diameter. The steam-pipe is attached to the boiler at its crown, takes a swan-neck
bend downward to within 12 inches of the floor at ^. and terminates aXp: it is furnished with a.s
many branch nozzles as there are intended to be steaming-vessels. The steam-pipe may be either
cast-iron or lead, and 2 inches diameter in the bore. The receptacles or steaming-vessels h h are
usually casks of from 50 to 100 gallons contents. They are mounted with 2 iron gudgeons or
pivots, placed a little above mid-higlit ; they are be.sides furnished with a false bottom, supported
about 3 inches above the true bottom ; the former being perforated with a plentiful number of
holes, to pass the steam which is introduced between the two bottoms. The connection between
the steam-pipe and the receptacle may be either by a stop-cock and coupling-screw — which is
the most perfect connection — or it may be by the simple insertion of the one nozzle within the
other, in the form of a spigot and faucet. In this latter case, the nozzle that leads from the steam-
pipe is stopped with a wooden plug, when the receptacle is disengaged. Besides the steam-pipe,
the boiler is furnished with a pipe i, placed in connection with a cistern of water k, the pipe en-
tering into it by the bottom, and its orifice closed by a valve opening upward, the lower extremi-
ty of the pipe passing within the' boiler to within 3 inches of its bottom. A slender rod I passes
also into the boiler through a small stuffing-box ; and to its lower end, within the boiler, is append-
ed a float, which rests upon the surface of the water within the boiler. The upper end of this rod
is jointed to a small lever which has its fulcrum supported on the edge of the cistern a little above
k ; the opposite end of the lever being jointed to a similar but shorter rod, rising from the valve in
the bottom of the cistern. This forms the feeding apparatus of the boiler, and is so adjusted by
weights that when the water in the boiler is at a proper hight, the float is buoyed up so as to shut
the valve in the cistern, preventing any farther supply of water to pass into the boiler, until, by
evaporation, the surface of the water has fallen so far as to leave the float unsupported, to such
extent as to form a counterpoise to the valve, which will then open, and admit water to descend
into the boiler, until it has again elevated the float to that extent that will shut the valve in the
cistern. By this arrangement, it will be perceived that the water in the boiler will be kept near-
ly at a uniform hight ; but to accomplish all this, the cistern must be placed at a certain fixed
hight above the water in the boiler, and this hight is regulated by the laws which govern the ex-
pansive power of steam. This law, without going into its mathematical details at present, in so
far as regards this point, may be stated in round numbers as follows : That the hight of the sur-
face of the water in the cistern must be raised above the surface of that in the boiler, 3 feet for
every pound-w'eight of pressure that the steam will exert on a square inch of surface in the
boiler. Thus, if it is estimated to work with steam of 1 lb. on the inch, the cistern must be raised
3 feet : if 2 inches, 6 feet ; 3 inches, 9 feet ; and so on. If the steam is by any chance raised higher
than the hight of the cistern provides for, the whole of the water in the boiler may be forced up
through the pipe into the cistern, or until the lower orifice of the pipe, within the boiler, is ex-
posed to the steam, which will then also be ejected through the pipe ; and the boiler may be left
dry. Such an accident, however, cannot occur to the extent here described, if the feeding-appa-
ratus is in proper working order ; and its occurrence to any extent is sufficiently guarded against
by a safety-valve.
(1378.) The safety-valve of the steam-boiler is usually a conical metal valve, and always open-
ing outward ; it ought always to be of a diameter large in proporiion to the size of the boiler and
steam-pipe, so as to insure the free egress of any rapid generation of steam. For a boiler of the .size
under consideration it should be 2 inches in diameter on its under surface — that being the surface
acted upon— this gives an area of fully 3 square inches; and if loaded directly, or without the in-
tervention of a lever, for steam of a pressure of 1 lb. on the inch, it will require 3 lbs. ; if 2 lbs. on
the inch, 6 lbs. ; if 3 lbs. on the inch, 9 lbs., and so on. With the.se adjustments, the steam, should
it rise above the proposed pressure, will, instead of forcing the water through the feed-pipe,
raise the safety-valve, and escape into the atmosphere until the pressure is reduced to the in-
tended equilibrium.
(1379.) Another precautionary measure in the use of the steam-Voileris the guage-cock, of which
there are usually two. but sometimes one, a two-way cock ; they are the common stop-cock, with
a lengthened tail passing downward, the one having its tail terminating. about \\ inches below the
proper water level iu the boiler, the other terminating IJ inches above that level, which allows a
range of 3 inches for the surface of the water to rise or fall. The first, or water-cock, then, when
opened, will throw out water by the pressure of the .steam upon its surface, until the surface has
sunk \\ inches below its proper level, when steam will be discharged, thus indicating the water in
the boiler to be too low, and that measures should be taken to increase the supply. When the
second or steam-cock is opened, it will always discharge steam alone, unless the water shall
have risen so high as to come above its orifice, in which case the cock will discharge u-aier, indi
(1093)
558 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
eating a too larpe supply of water to the boUer, and that it ehoold be reduced ; for this pnrpose,
the feed-pipe t is provided with a stop-cock m, whereby the admission of water can be entirely
prevented at the [ileasure of llie attendant.
(1380.) The foregoinf? dei*cription refers to a stcaminp-apparatus of the best description, and im-
phes that the water cistern can be supplied cither from a fountain head, or that water can be
pumped up to the cistern. But there may be cases where neither of these are easily attainable.
Under such circumstances the feed pipe may rise to the bight of 4 or 4J feet, and be surmounted
by a funnel, and under it a stop cock. In this case, also, a float with a wire stem, rising throogh
a stuffing-box on the top of the boiler, must be employed — the stem may rise a few inches above
the stuffing-box, in front of a graiiuated scale — having the zero in its middle point. When the
water is at the proper hight in the boiler, the top of tlieslem .should point at zero, and any rise or
fall in the water will be indicated accordingly by the position of the stem. To supply a boiler
mounted after this fashion, the first tiling to be attended to, before setting the fire, is to fill up the
boiler, through the funnel, to the proper level, which will be indicated by the float pointing to ze-
ro ; but it should be raised, in this case, two or three inches higher. In this stage, the gauge cocks
are noneffective ; but when the steam has been got up, they, as well as the float, must be con-
sulted frequently ; and should the water, by evaporation, fall so low as 3 inches below zero, a
supply must be introduced through the funnel. To eflbct a suppily, in these circumstances, the
steam must be allowed to fall rather low, and the funnel being filled, and the stop-cock opened,
the water in the former will sink down through the tube, provided the steam be sufficiently
low to admit its entrance, but the first portion of water that can be thus thrown in will go far to
eflect this, bv sinking the temperature. The sinking of the temperature by the addition of a large
quantity of "cold water, is the objection to this mode of feeding ; but this is obviated to some ex-
tent from the circumstance, that unless the steaming receptacles are large or numerous, the first
charge of water will generally serve to cook the mess, when a fresh charge can be put in for
the next.
(1381.) In using this eteaming-apparatus, it has been noticed that the casks are funiished with
gudgeons, which play in tlie posts n n ; these are kept in position by the collar-beam o to which
they are attached ; the casks being at liberty to be tilted upon these gudgeons. They are charged
when in the upright position, and the connection being formed with the steam-pipe, as described,
they are covered at top with a close lid or a thick cloth, and the process goes on. When the
substances are sufficiently cooked, the couplings r r are disengaged, the upper part of the cask ia
swung forward, and their contents discharged into a trough which is brought in front of them
for that purpose.
(1382.) The connections with the steam-pipe are sometimes, for cheapness, formed by a sliding
tuoe of copper or brass, about 4 inches in length, which, after the nozzle of the cask and that pro-
jecting from the steam-pipe are brought directly opposite to ea'^h other, is slid over the JTinction,
and as a moderate degree of tightness only is requisite in such joints, a strip of sacking wrapped
round the ends of the slider is found sufficient. On breaking the connection, and opening the exit
nozzles, the steam will of course flow out, but this is checked by a wooden plug, or even a potato
or slice of turnip, (hrust into the orifice, may be sufficient. It is advisable, however, that a
main stop-cock should be placed in the steam-pipe anywhere between the boiler and the first
receptacle. .
(1383.) The most perfect connection between the stcam-pipe and the receptacles is a stop-cock
and couplins-screv. These should be of IJ inches bore, they are more certain in their eflect, and
more conveiiient in their application, though attended with more expense in the first cost of the
apparatus. In this case no main-cock is required. The extremity of the steam-pipe should, in all
cases, be closed by a small stop-cock, for the purpose of draining off any water that may collect in
the pipe from condensation. A precaution to the same effect is requisite, in the bottom of each
cask, to draw off the water that condenses abundantly in it ; or a few small perforations in the
bottom will effect the purpose.
(1384.) It must be remarked, in regard to steaming, that in those establishments where grain
of any kind is given in food in a cooked state, drj' prain cannot be cooked, or at least boiled
to softness in dry steam, the only effect produced benig a species of parching ; and if steam of
high temperature isemployed, the parching is increased nearly to carbonization. If it is wished,
therefore, tolwii grain bv steam, it must be done by one of the two following methods: The
grain must either be soaked in water for a few hours, and then exposed to the direct action of the
Bteam in the receptacle; or it may be put into the receptacle with as much water as will cover it,
and then by attaching the recepiacle to the steam pipe, by the coupling stopcock, or in the ab-
sence of stop cocks, by passing a bent leaden pipe from the steam-pipe, over the upper edge of
the receptacle and descending aeain inside, to the space between the false and the true bottoms;
the steam discharged thus, by either niethoii, will shortly rai.«e the temperature of the water
to the boiling point, and produced the desired effect."
(1385.) The time required to prepare food in this way varies considerably, according to the state
of tlic apparatus, and the principle of its construction. With the ajijiaratus just described, pota-
toes can be steamed in casks of from 32 to .50 gallons contents, in 30 to 4."> minutes. In casks ex-
tending to 80 gallons, an hour or more may be required. Turnips require considerably longer
time to become fully rcadv, especially if subjected to the process in thick mas-^es, the time may
be stated at double "that of potatoes. When the apparatus is ill constructed, the time, in some
cases, required to cook turnips, extends to .■) hours. And, with reference to the apparatus first
described (1376), the time is seldom under 5 hours.
(1386.) The prices of steaming-apparaius vary accordingly to quality and extent; but, on an
average, the open boiler and jian apparatus, including a power crane, will range from £1 to XlO;
and the other, fig. 290, the price range.-* from i.8 to X16. The expense of building the furnace,
and supplying jnixing-tronghs, will add about i.2 lOs. toeach.
« See nn Hrticle by me in the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. vi
(1094)
TREATMENT OF FARM-HORSES.
659
(1387.) Corn-Bruisers. In following up an economical system of feeding, the braising of all
grain so applied forms an important branch of the system, and, as might be expected, numerous
are the varieties of machines applied to the purpose. These naturally arrange themselves under
three distinct kinds. 1st. Machines which act on a principle that partakes of cutting and bruieine
by means of grooved metal cylinders, and is applied to those chiefly driven by the hand. 2d. Ma-
chines adapted to bruise only by means of smooth cylinders ; this is applied exclusively to those
driven by steam, or other agency more powerful than the human hand. And, 3d, Breaking or
grinding by the common grain millstones, and of course, only worked by power.
(1388.) That variety of the first division which I shall particularly notice, is represented in per-
spective in fig. 291. It is con.structed almost entirely of cast-iron, except the hopper and dischargiu°--
spout; but its frame or standard may with propriety be formed of hard wood, when circumstances
render the adoption of that material desirable. In the figure, a a a \s the frame work, consisting
of two separate sides, connected by two stretcher bolts, the screw-nuts of which are only seen
near to a and a below. A case b b, formed of cast-iron plates, is bolted on the projecting ears at
the top of the frame, and contains the bruising cylinders. The cylinders are 4 inches in diameter,
and 6 inches in length, of cast-iron or of steel. They have an axle of malleable iron passing
through them, having turned journals, which run in bearings formed on the cast-iron side-plates
of the case, the bearings being accurately bored out to fit the journals. The spur-wheels c and d
are fitted upon the axle of the cylinders, c having 14 teeth, and d 24 teeth. The cylinder corres-
ponding to d is perfectly smooth, while that of c is grooved at a pitch of \ inch, and about 3-32
inch deep worked to sharp edges. The grooves lie obliquely on the face of the cylinder, being
at an angle of 10° with the axle. The winch-handle e is attached to the axle of the roller c
whose bearings are permanent, while those of d are movable, being formed in separate plates'
and fitted to slide to a small extent in a seat, for the adjustment of the cylinder to any desired grist!
Fig. 291.
THE HAND CORN-BRUISER.
This adjustment is effected by means of the screws f, which act upon the sliding-plates of the
bearings, g is one of the bearings of a feeding-roller, placed also within the case ; it is turn-
ed by means of a toothed-wheel fitted upon the farther end of its axle, and which is driven by an-
other wheel of 24 teeth on the axle of the cylinder d. The fly-wheel h is fitted upon the axle of
(1095)
560
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
the cylinder c, and is 3^ feet in diameter; < is the feeding-hopper, attached to the top of the caw
by two small hooks; aud k is a wooden spoat to convey the bruised grain from the caae.
(13fi9.J Fig '-'92 is a section of tlie case,
Fig. 29i
and the cylinders, detached from the
frame, b b arc the two ends of the case
cut by the section ; c is tlie grooved cylin-
der, d the smooth, and / is the rccding-
roUer, it is 3 J inches diameter, and has cy-
lindrical grooves formed on its surface to
convey tlie grain ; o is a cover of cast-iron
fixed upon the top of the case ; it has two
rounds ears n n, with eye-holes which
serve to steady the hopper, and to which
it is screwed by the hooks already men-
tioned. A hopper-shaped opening m is
formed in the cover ; it is six inches long,
3 inches wide ut top, and 1 inch at bottom,
and the edges fit closely ujion the feeding-
rollers. Two plate-iron sliders are fitted
upon the surlace of tlii.x little hopper,which
serve to enlarge or contract the opening
longitudinally, and are fixed by screw-
bolts in each plate ; the head of one of the bolts is seen at o. p p P p are ears by which the case
is bolted together, and q q are prolongations of the side-plate of the case ; r r are additional
plates of siieet-iron, to prevent the grain from being thrown over the cylinders unbruised.
(1390.) This is a very efficient machine for bruising either oats or beans ; the adjustment of the
plain cylinder to the requisite distance being easily accomplished by the adjusting-screws; and
Fig. 293.
TRANSVERSE SECTION, SHOWING THE RELATION
OF THE PRINCIPAL PARTS.
THE ELEVATION OF THE POWER CORN-BRUISER.
to prevent the abrasion of the grooved cylinder, by coming in too close contact with the other, a
stopper is applied on each side, to keep the slides from overreaching the due safety distance.
From the ditferent velocities of llie two cylinders, the grooved one being the fastest, it produces
a cutting as well as a bruising action, which renders its effects on the grain more perfect than
simple pressure. It ran be worked by one man, who will brui.se 4 bushels of oats in an houc
The price of the machine is £6 lOs. .,,,,., •, ,
(1391.) Various other forms of this machine are in use, some with both cylinders grooved, others
with only one grooved cylinder acting against a grooved plate; in this last state it is much used
for bruising beans.
(1096)
TREATMENT OF FARM-HORSES.
561
(1392.) Among the varieties of the bruising-machine of the 2d division, I may just notice one
that is found very efficient. It consists of two plain-edged wheels or pulleys, as they may be termed
usually about 6 inches broad on the rim or sole ; the one ranges from 2J feet to 4 feet in diameter'
and its fellow only half the diameter of the larger. They require to be truly turned on the rim',
and work in contact. The smaller one is always driven by the power, and the larger usually by
contact with the smaller. The smaller wheel makes, according to its diameter, from 150 to 200
revolutions per minute. Where plain cylinders are employed for bruising, and their surfacesmov-
ing with equal velocity, the effect is to press each grain into a flat, hard cake : but when one of the
surfaces is left at liberty to move by simple contact, it is found that the effect is different from the
above, for the grain passes, bruised indeed, though not into a hard cake, but has apparently un-
dergone a species of tearing, leaving it in a more open and friable state than as described above.
This machine, however, does not answer well for bruising beans, for here, again, they come
through in the form of a flat cake. If beans, therefore, are used in an e.stablishment where this
bruiser is adopted, a separate one, on the principle of fig. 291, is required for the beans alone ;
that machine though serviceable for a small establishment, being incapable, even with power, to
produce the quantity in a reasonable time that would be required in a large one.
(1393.) Plain Roller Cora-bruisers, for poicer. — A very efficient corn bruiser, adapted for pow-
er, is shown in figs. 293, 294, 295. The first being an elevation, the second a plan, and the third a
section of the machine ; the same letters apply to such corresponding parts as are seen in all the
three figures. In fig. 293 a a is one of the side-frames, of cast-iron, which are connected together
by stretcher-bolts b, and the frame so formed is bolted to a floor through the palms at c c. On the
top bar of the frames there are two strong snugs d d cast, sufficient^ to resist the pressure of the
rollers, and are formed also to receive the brass bushes in which the journals of the two rollers
are made to run. The two rollers e and / are respectively 8 and 9i inches diameter, and are 18
inches in length, fitted with malleable iron shafts 1| inches diameter; the roller / runs in perma-
nent bearings, but e has its bushes movable, for adjustment to the degree of bruising required, and
this adjustment is effected by the adjusting-screws , m, ,..,., ,. . ...
equal in diameter, which is nine inches. The
roller e has also upon its shaft the driving
The shaft of each roller carries a wheel h,
Fig. 294.
pulley i, which by means of a belt s s from any
shaft of a threshing-machine or other power
having a proper velocity, puts the rollers ni mo-
tion. The rollers are inclosed in a square wood-
en case k k, in the cover of which a narrow hop-
per-shaped opening I is formed to direct the
grain betweeu the rollers. A hopper in for re-
ceiving the grain is supported on the light
wooden frame-work n n, which also supports
the feeding-shoe o, jointed to the frame at p,
and suspended by the straps q, which last is ad-
justable by a screw sXq to regulate the quantity
of feed. A smooth-edged oblique wheel r, fig.
294, is mounted on the shaft of the roller/, and
by its oscillating revolutions, acting upon
a forked arm which descends from the shoe, a
vibratory motion is given to the latter, by which
a regular and continued supply of the grain is
delivered from the hopper to the rollers. After
passing the rollers the grain is received into a
spout, which either delivers it on the same
floor, or through a close spout in the floor below.
The velocity of the rollers, which are driven by "^"^ ^^^^ °^ '^^^ power corn-bruiser.
the belt s s, may be 250 revolutions per minute. The dimensions of the frame a are 30 in-
ches in length and 24 inches in hight ; the width over all being also 24 inches. The price of this
machine, as manufactured by James Slight and Co., is XlO.— J. S.
(1394.) The horse is an intelligent animal, and seems to delight in the society of man. It is re-
marked by those who have much to do with blood-horses, that, when at liberty, and seein" two
or more people standing conversing together, they wiU approach, and seem, as it were, to wish to
listen to the conversation. The farm horse will not do this ; but he is quite obedient to call and
distinguishes his name readily from that of his companion, and will not stir when desired to stand
until his own, name is pronounced. He distinguishes the various sorts of work he is put to and
will apply his strength and skill in the best way to effect his purpose, whether in the threshing-
mill, the cart, or the plow. He soon acquires a perfect sense of work. I have seen a horse walk
very steadily toward a feering-pole, and halt when his head had reached it. He seems also to
have a sense of time. I have heard another neigh almost daily about 10 minutes before the time
of loosening m the evening, whether in summer or winter. He is capable of distinguishing the
tones of the voice, whether spoken in anger or otherwise ; and can even distinguish between mu-
sical notes. There was a work horse of my own. which, even at his corn, would desist eating
and listen attentively, with pricked and moving ears, and steady eyes, the instant he heard the
note of losy (j- sounded, and would continue to listen as long as it was sustained ; and another,
that was similarly affected by a particular high note. The recognition of the sound of the bugle
by a trooper, and the excitement occasioned in the hunter when the pack give tongue, are familiar
mstances of the extraordinary effects of particular sounds on horses.
(1395.) When alluding to the names of horses, I may mention that they should be short and
emphatic, not exceeding two syllables in length, for longer words are difficuU of pronunciation,
and mconvenient to utter when quick or sharp action is required of the horse ; and a long name
IS ahnost always corrupted into a short one. For geldings, Tom, Brisk, Jolly, Tinker, Dragon,
562
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
Dobbin, seem verj- pood names ; for maree, Peg, Rose, Jeso. Molly. Beauty, Mettle. Fcem as go< d
and as to the name ol" stallions, they should be somewhat high-soundinp, as indicative of greater
importance of character, as Lofty, Farmer, Plowboy, Matchem, Diamond, Blaze, Kanison, Cham-
Fig. 295.
THE SECTION OF THE POWER CORV-BRUISER.
pion, are names which hare all distingviished first rate draught horses.
(1396.) This seems a befitting place to say a few words on the farmer's nding and h/irness
horses. Usually a young lad, or groom, ia hired to take charge of these, to go errands and to the
post-office, and otherwise make himself serviceable in the house. Sometimes the hedger or shep-
herd acts the part of groom. My shepherd acted as groom, and his art in grooming is so skillful
that many friends remarked to me that they would be glad to see their professed grooms tuni out
a saddle-horse or gij,' in so good a style as he did. Besides being useful in carrying the farmer to
market, or other short distaaces, a roadster is required to carry him over the farm when it is of
large extent, and when the work-people necessarily receive pretty constant attention in the im-
portant operations of seed-time and harvest. The harness-horse is useful to a family at all times,
as well as to the farmer himself, when he visits his friends ; and many farmers now prefer riding
to market in a gig or drosky, to horseback ; and it must be owned to be the pleasanter mode of
the two.
(1397.) I have said that the agricultural pupil should have no horse of his own at first, to tempt
him to leave home and neglect his own training. But to know how a riding-horse ought to be
kept by a groom, and to be able to correct him when he neglects his duty or performs it in an nn-
eatisfactory manner, I would advise him to undertake the charge of one himself for some time ;
not merely to superintend its keeping, but to clean it himself, to water and corn it at stated times
at morning, noon, and night, and to keep the saddle and bridle in proper order. I groomed a new-
broke-in blood filly for four months one winter, and cot more insight into its form, temper, and
manaeenient, and wants, than I could have obtained by observation alone in a much longer time.
On coming home at nia;ht from visiting a friend, I made it a point with myself to make my charge
comfortable for the night before thinking of my own rest.
(1398.) A saddle-horse is treated somewhat differently in the stable from a work horse. The
first thing to be done early in the morning is to shake up the litter nearest the strand with a fork,
removing the dung and soiled straw to a court-yard, and sweeping the floor clean. Then give
the horse a drink out of the pail \vhich is constantly kept full of water in tiie stable. The usual
practice is to offer the water immcdiatcty before giving the com ; but I conceive it more condu-
cive to the health of the horse to slake his thirst a while before giving him corn, the water by that
time having reached its destined place, and acquired the temperature of the body. Should the
horse have to undertake a longer journey than walking about the farm, a stinted allowance of wa-
ter before starting on the journey is requisite, say to 10 gluts ; but if he is to be at home, then he
may drink as much as he pleases. He is then groomed by being, in the first place, gently gone
over the whole body with the curry-comb, to loosen the mud that may possibly have been left ad-
hering upon the hair from the former night's grooming, and also to raise the scurf from the skia
(1098)
TREATMENT OF FARM-HORSES. 563
The whole body should be then wisped down with straw, to clear off all the dust and dirt that
the carry-comb may have raised to the surface. The brush follows, to clear the hair of its dust and
ecurf, the cuiTycomb being used to clean the brush. Of wisping and brushing, wisping is the
more beneficial to the legs, where the hair is short and the tendons and bones are but little cover-
ed, because it excites in them warmth, and cleans them sufficiently. Both wisping and brushing
should be begun at the head and terminated at the other end of the body, along the lie of the hair,
whichsoever way that may be, and which, notwithstanding its different swirls, all tends from the
upper to the lower part of the body. Many a groom rests content with the brushing just men-
tioned ; but it does not entirely remove the dust raised to the surface, and therefore a w isping is
required to do it. The wisp for this purpose is best made; of Russia mat, first wetted, and then
beaten to softness, and rolled up somewhat firmly into the form of a wisp sufficient to fill the hand.
A wisp of hair-cloth makes the skin clean, but in dry weather it is apt to excite such a degree of
electricity in the hair of the horse as to cause it to attract much dust toward it. On the horse be-
ing turned round in the stall, his head, neck, counter, and fore-legs, should be well rubbed down
with this wisp, and this done, he should again be turned to his former position, and the body,
quarters, and hind-legs, then rubbed down ; and when all this has been accomplished, the horse
may be considered clean. All this grooming implies the bestowal of much more labor than most
farmers' riding-horses receive. They are usually scuffled over in the morning with the curry-
comb, and then skimmed down with the brash, and with a hasty combing of the mane and tail,
the job is considered finished. The mane and tail ought to be carefully combed out, and wetted
over at the time of combing with a half-dry water-brush. The sheet should then be thrown over
the horse, and fastened (not too tightly) with the roller. On putting on the sheet, it should be
thrown more toward the head of the horse than where it is intended to remain, and thence drawn
gently down the hair with both hands, to its proper position, while standing behind the horse.
The litter is then neatly shaken up with a fork, taking care to raise the stra^v so far up the travis
on each side as to form a cushion for the side of the horse to rest against when he lies down. The
feed of corn is then given him, and a little hay thrown into the rack ; and on the stable-door be-
ing shut, he is permitted to enjoy his meal in peace. At mid-day, he should have another drink
of water from the pail, the dung removed, the litter shaken up. and another portion of oats given
him. At 8 o'clock at night, the sheet should again be taken off, the currj'-comb and brush used,
and the entire dressing finished again with a wisping of the Rus.sia mat. The sheet is thrown
over him as in the morning, the litter shaken up and augmented, water given, and the supper of
oats, or a mash, finishes the day's treatment of the saddle-horse.*
(L399.) The treatment just described is most strictly applicable to the horse remaining all day
in the stable ; but when he is ridden out, a somewhat different procedure is required. When he
comes home from a long and dirty ride, the first thing is to get clear of the mud on the belly and
legs. A very common practice is to wade the horse through the pond, as the farm-horses are, but
Buch should not be the course pursued with a saddle-horse, because wading through a pond cannot
thoroughly clear his legs of mud to the skin, he being clean-shanked and smooth-haired, and
there still remains the belly to be cleaned by other means than wading. The plan is, being that
adapted for winter, to bring the horse into the stable upon the pavement, and, on taking off the
saddle and bridle and putting on a halter, scrape all the mud as clean off the belly and legs as can
be done with a knife — a blunt table-knife answers the purpose well. Then, with a pailfull of
lukewarm water, wash down the legx, outside and inside, with a water-brush, and then each foot
separately, picking out the mud with the foot picker ; then wash the mud clean from the belly.
A scrape with the back of the knife, after the washing, will bring out all the superfluous water
from among the hair. On going into the stall the horse should be wisped firmly with straw, rub-
bing the belly first, and then both sides of each leg until they are all thoroughly dry. It is scarce-
ly possible to get the belly dry at once ; it should, therefore, get another good wisping with dry
clean straw after the legs are dry. On combing out the mane and tail, putting on the sheet, and
bedding plentifully with dry straw, the horse will be out of danger, and feel pretty comfortable
even for the night; but should be have arrived some time before the evening time for Rooming,
* In giving these details, and all which follow, we are aware that many of them are too minute,
and otherwise ill adapted to American life and management generally ; but then the reader must
reflect that there are also many patrons of The Farmers' Library who are wealthy men, living in
cities, who keep their carriage horses and pet nags for the saddle, with their superfluous grooms
and all necessary appliances, to follow out all these directions. And besides, a sensible man nev-
er objects to knowing how any department of industry or of pleasure is managed in the coun-
try, where such departments have been carried on, as those have in England, to the highest pitch
of perfection and refinement. And here we may relate an anecdote of a shrewd Massachusetts
man of the world, who was some years since on a tour in England, and on a visit to the Duke of
Buccleuch. After showing him many displays of the splendor and luxury of aristocratic living.
His Grace took him to his stables, where genius and wealth had combined, to see how much mon-
ey could be expended, and how much elegance displayed, on such an object. Our Yankee friend
perhaps supposing he was expected to be confounded and overcome with astonishment at all he
saw, instead of lifting up his eyes and exclaiming as did the aueen of Sheba when she visited
Solomon in all his glory, went peering under and about the troughs and stalls ; and, on being ask.
ed by the Duke if there was anything deficient in his stable appointment ; answered " There is
but one thing, your Grace, that is wanting to their completeness. I was looking for a silver pot
de chambre, for each of your Grace's hunters." \Ed. Farm. Lib.
(1099) ^
564
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
the curry-comb and wisp then applied will remove any moisture or dust that may have been over
.coked before.
(1400.) Considerable apprehension is felt in regard to wetting the abdomen of horses, and espe-
cially at night, and the apprehension is not ill founded, for if the wet is allowed to remain, even
to a 'small degree, quick evaporation ensues from the excited state of the body consequent on ex-
ercise, and rapidly reduces the temperature of the skin. The consequence of this coldness is ir-
ritation of the skin, and likely grease on the legs, and this is the danger of wetting the bellies of
farm-horses, and of any sort of horse, with cold water : for it-firm water cleans the hair and makes
it dry sooner, even that on the abdomen, which is generally much longer than that of the legs;
but, on the other hand, unless as much labor is bestowed as will dry the skin, and which is usual-
ly more than can be expected to be given by ordinary country grooms, it is safer for the horse
to remain in a somewhat dirty state, than to run the risk of any inflammation by neglected wet
limbs and abdomen. At the same lime, if the requi-site labor shall be bestowed to render the ekin
completely drj-, there is even less risk in wetting the belly than the legs, inasmuch as the legs, in
proportion to "their magnitude, expo.se a much larger surface for evaporation, and are not eo
near the source of animal heat as the body.
(1401.) Saddle-horses receive oats in proportion to the work they have to perform, but the
least quantity that is supposed will keep tliem in such condition as to enable them to do a good
day's work at any time, is three halffeeds a day, one in the morning, another at mid-day, and the
third at night When subjected to daili/ exercise, riding-horses require 3 feeds a-day, and an ex-
tra allowance for extra work, such as a long journey. A mash once a-week, even when on work
daily, is requisite ; but when comparatively idle, a part of the mash, whenever prepared for the
workhorses, may be administered with much advantage. I am no advocate of a bran-mash to a
horse in good health, as it serves only to loosen the bowels without bestowing any nourishment.
Boiled barley is far better. A riding-horse should have hay, and not straw, in winter ; and he
will eat from J to J of a stone of 22 lbs. every day.
(1402.) On cleaning harness there should be two pairs of girths in use with the saddle, when
the horse has much work to do, to allow each pair to be thoroughly cleaned and dried before be-
ing again used. The best way to clean girths is first to scrape off the mud with a knife, and
then to wash them in cold water, and hang them up so as to dry quickly. Warm water
makes them shrink rapidly, and so does long exposure to wet. If there is time, they should be
washed in the same day they have been dirtied ; but if not, on being scraped at night, they should
be washed in the following morning, and hung up in the air to dry, and if the air is damp, let them
be hung before the kitchen fire. Girths allowed to dry with the mud on soon become rotten and
unsafe. The stirrup leathers should be taken off and sponged clean of the mud, and dried with a
cloth. The stirrup-irons and bit should be first washed m water, and then rubbed dry with a
cloth immediately after being used. Fine sand and water, on a thick woolen rag, clean these
irons well, and a dry rub afterward with a cloth makes them bright. Some smear them with oil
on setting them past to prevent rust, but oil, on evaporation, leaves a resinous residuum to which
dust readily adheres, and is not easily taken oft" afterward. The curb-chain is best cleaned by wash-
ing in clean water, and then rubbed dry and bright by friction between the palms of both hands.
The saddle-flaps should be sponged clean of mud, and the seat sponged with a wrung sponge, and
rubbed dry with a clcth. Carriage-harness should be sponged clean of mud, kept soft and pliable
with fine oil, and, when not japanned, blackened with the best shoe black. There should be no
plating or brass on a farmer's harness ; plain iron japanned, or iron covered with leather, forming
the neatest, most easily kept, and sei-viceable mounting. Bright metallic mountings of every kind
soon assume the garb of the .shabby genteel in the hands of an ordinary rustic groom.
(1403.) In regard to the diseases of the horse, if we were to regard in a serious light the list
of frightful maladies incident to that animal, which every work on veterint^ry science contains, we
would never purchase a horse ; but fortunately for the farmer, his horses are exempt from a large
proportion of those maladies, as almost every one relating to the foot, and their consequences, are
unknown to them. Nevertheless, many serious and fatal disorders do overtake farm horses in their
usual work, with the symptoms of which you should be so far acquainted as to recognize the na-
ture of the di.sea.«e ; and a.s you should be able to perform some of the simpler operations to assist
the animal in serious cases until the arrival of the veterinary surgeon, a short account of these
operations may prove useful. One or more of them, when timely exercised, may have the eflect
ofsooi, removing the symptoms of less serious complaints. They consist of bleeding, giving
physic and drenches, applying fomentations, poultices, injections, and the like.
(1404.) Bleeding. — " In the horse and cattle, sheep and dog, bleeding, from its greater facility
and rapidity." says Professor Dick, "is best performed in the jugular or neck-vein, tliough it may
also be satisfactorily performed in the plate and saphena veins, the former coming from the inside
of the arm, and running up directly in front of it to the jugular ; the latter, or thigh-vein, running
across the inside of that limb. Either the fleam or lancet may be used. When blood is to be
drawn, the animal is blindfolded on the side to be operated upon, and the head held to the other
Bide; the hair is smoothed along the course of the vein by the moistened finger, the point selected
being about 2 inches below the angle of the jaw. The progress of the blood toward the heart is
to be obstructed, and the vein thus made sufficiently permanent and tense. A largebladed fleam
and a good-sized lancet are preferable, as the benefit of the operation is much increased by the
rapidity with which the blood is drawn. From 8 to 10 pints imperial is a moderate bleeding for
the horse and ox, regulated, in some degree by the size. From 12 to 16 or even 20 pints is a large
one : and sometimes in skillful hands, it is expedient to bleed till fainting is induced, and the ani-
mal drops down under the operation. The vessel in which the blood is received should be such
that the quantity can be readily ascertained. When this is sufficient, the edges of the wound are
to be brought accurately together, and kept 80 by a small sharp pin being passed through them,
and retained by a little tow. It is of importance, in closing the wound, to see it quite close, and
that no hairs or other foreign bodies interpose. For a time the head should be tied up, and cara
taken that the horse Joes not injure the part."
(IIOOJ
TREATMENT OF FARM-HORSES. 565
(1405.) The dangers arising from carelessness in blood-letting are not numerous; and "the first
of whicn, though it may alarm the inexperienced, is very trifling. It is a globular swelling,
thrombus, sometimes as large as the fist, arising immediately around the new-made incision. The
filtrating of the blood from the vein into the cellular membrane, which is the cause of the disease,
is rarely very copious. Gentle pressure may be used at first, and should be maintained with a
well-applied sponge and bandage, kept cool with cold lotion. Occasionally there is injlommalion
of' the Jugular from bleeding. . . . The cause is usually referred to the use of a foul fleam, or
from allowing hairs to interfere with the accurate adjustment of the edges of the wound. The
first appearance indicative of the disease is a separation of the cut edges of the integuments, which
become red and somewhat inverted. Suppuration soon follows, and the surrounding skin appears
tumefied, tight and hard, and the vein itself, above the orifice, feels like a hard cord. After this
the swelling of the neck increases, accompanied with extreme tenderness, and now there is con-
stitutional irritation, with tendency to inflammatory fever. . . . In the first stage we must try
to relieve by evaporating lotions or by fomentation. If these fail, and as soon as the disea.se be-
gins to spread in the vein, the appropriate remedy is to touch the spot with the actual cautery,
simply to sear the lips of the wound, and apply a blister over it, which may be repeated. Purga-
tives in full doses must be administered, and the neck, as much as possible, kept steady and
upright."
(1406.) Blistering: — "Blistering plasters are never applied to horses. Anointment is always
used, of which rather more than half is well rubbed into the part to be blistered, while the
remainder is thinly and equally spread over the part that has been rubbed. When there is any
danger of the ointment running and acting upon places that should not be blistered, they must be
covered with a stitF ointment made of hog's lard and beeswax, or kept wet with a little water.
. . . The horse's head must be secured in such a way that he cannot reach the blister with his
teeth. . . . When the blister has become quite dry the head may be freed. Sometimes it
remains itchy and the horse rubs it; in that case he must be tied up again. . . . When the
blister is quite dry put some sweet-oil on it, and repeat it every second day. Give time and no
work, otherwise the horse may be blemished by the process."
(1407.) Physicing. — " Physicing, which, in stable language, is the term used for purging, is em-
ployed for improving the condition when in indifferent health, and as a remedy for disease. The
medicines chiefly used are — for horses, Barbadoes aloes, dose from 3 to 9 drachms; croton bean,
from 1 scruple to ^ drachm, or cake, from ^ drachm to 1 drachm, to which may occasionally be
added calomel, from 1 to 1^ drachms. For cattle, aloes in doses somewhat larger than for the
horse; Epsom salts, or common salt, dose from 1 lb. to 1^ lbs., with some stimulus, as ginger,
anise or carraway-seed ; also linseed-oil, dose 1 lb., and croton-oil, 15 to 20 drops, or the bean or
cake, the same as in the horse. For dogs, jalap, dose 1 drachm, combined with 2 grains of calo-
mel ; croton oil, dose 2 drops ; bean, 5 grains ; and syrup of buckthorn, dose 1 oz. These, it will
be observed, are average doses for full-grown animals ; in the young and small they may be less,
in the large they may require to be greater; but much injury has often been done by too large
doses too frequently repeated. To the horse physic is usually administered in the form of a bolus
or ball ; to cattle by drinking or drenching, though for both either way may be employed. A
ball is conveniently made of linseed-meal, molasses and the active ingredient, whether purgative,
diuretic or cordial ; it should be softish, and about the size of a pullet's egg. In administering it
the operator stands before the horse, which is unbound and turned with its head out of the stall,
with a halter on it. An assistant stands on the left side to steady the horse's head and keep it
from rising too high ; sometimes he holds the mouth, and grooms generally need such aid. "The
operator seizes the horse's tongue in his left hand, draws it a little out and to one side, and places
his little finger fast upon the under jaw ; with his right hand he carries the ball smartly along the
roof of the mouth, and leaves it at the root of the tongue ; the mouth is closed and the head is
held till the ball is seen descending the gullet on the left side. When loth to swallow, a little
water may be oft'ered, and it will carry the ball before it. A hot, troublesome horse should be .sent
at once to a veterinary surgeon. Instruments should, if possible, be avoided, and adding croton
farina to the mash often answers the purpose." Drenches should be given with caution to either
horse or ox; " that no unnecessary force be used, that they be never given by the nostrils, and
especially that, if the slightest irritation is occasioned in the windpipe, the animal shall immedi-
ately be set at liberty, that, by coughing, he may free himself of the offending matter." " The
horse must undergo preparation for ■physic, which is done by gently relaxing the bowels.
During the day his food should be restncted to bran-mashes, a \ peck being sufficient for a feed,
and this, with his drink, should be given warm ; corn should be withheld and hajf restricted. He
may have walking and trotting exercise morning and evening. The physic is given on an empty
stomach early in the morning ; immediately after, a bran-mash is given ; that over, the horse goes
to exercise for perhaps an hour, and is watered when he returns. The water should be as warm
as he will take it ; and he should have as much as he pleases throughout the day ; bran mash
should be given as often as corn usually is, and better warm than cold ; if both are refused bran
may be tried, but no corn, and but little hay. Sometimes gentle exercise may be given in the
afternoon, and also next day. The physic usually begins to operate next morning, though it
rarely takes effect in 12 hours, frequently not for 30. When the ph3'sic begins to operate, the
horse should stand in the stable till it sets, which may be in 12 hours."* The stable should be
well littered behind the stall to receive the discharge. '• Many practitioners and horse-propri-
etors," says Mr. Youatt, " have a great objection to the administration of medicines in the form of
drinks. . . . There are some medicines, however, which must be given in the form of drink,
as in colic. . . . An ox-horn, the larger end being cut slantingly, is the usual and best instru-
ment for administering drinks. The noose of a haltei is introduced into the mouth, and then, by
means of a stable-fork, the head is elevated by an assistant considerably higher than for the deliv-
ery of a ball. The surgeon stands on a pail on the off-side of the horse and draws out the tongue
* Dick's Manual of Veterinary Science.
(1101)
666 THE BOOK OF THE FARM — WINTER.
with the left hand. He tlicn with the right hand introdaces the horn gently into the mouth and
over the longue, and. by a dexterous tuni of the horn, empties the whole of the lirink — not more
lliaii iibout t; oz. — into the back part of llie ukjiuIi. The liorn i» now quickly wiilidraw n and iJie
tongue loosened, and the greater portion of the iiuid will be swallowed. A portion of it, how-
ever, will ofit-n be obstinately held in the mouth for a long tinie, and the head niusi be kept up
until the whole is got rid of, whieh a (juick but violent slap on the muzzle will generally compel
the liorsc to do. The art of giving a drink consists in not putting too much in tlie bom at once,
introducing tlie horn far enough into the mouth, and quickly turning and withdrawing it wiiliout
bruising or wounding the mouth, the tongue being hxjsened at the same moment. A bottle is a
disgraceful instrument to use, except it be a Hat pint bottle with a long and thick neck."* The
near-side horn has the most handy twisi for adminisiering a drink wiili the right hand.
(1408.) Fovicntalionx. — " Cleiui water is the best fomenlation. It should be as hot as the hand
can bear it, yet not hot enough to pain the animal. In fomenting the horse the groom ha« rarely
enough water, and he docs not continue the bathing long enougli to do any good. If the leg is
to be fomented get a pailfull of water as hot as the band can bear it ; put the horse's foot into jt,
and, with a large sponge, lave the water well above the affected part, and keep it constantly
running down the whole limb. Foment for half an hour, and keep the water hot by adding
moi-e."
(1409. J Potiltices. — " Poultices should be formed of those materials which best maintain heat
and moisture, and they should be applied as warm as possible and can be safely borne. They
are usually made of bran-mash, turnips or oat-meal porridge. Linseed-meal alone makes the
best of poultices, and some of it should always be added to the other ingredients. Wet band-
ages act as poultices."
(1410.) Lotions. — "Of cW/Hir lotions cold water is tlie menstruum. It may be made colder
by the introduction of a little salt or ice. Sal-ammoniac and vinegar may be added for the same
purpose. The object is to reduce heat and promote evaporation. The addition of a little spirits
IS made with the same object."
(1411.) 7'Ae Pidae. — " Of the horse the natural pulse is from 35 to 45 beats in the minute ; un-
der fever it rises to 80, 90 and 100. The most convenient spot to examine it is at the edge of the
lower jaw. a little before the angle, where the maxillary comes from the neck to be distributed
over the face. The pulse is one of the most important indications in all serious disorders."
(1412.) Injections. — " Injections, though easily administered bj- means of the old ox-bladder
and pipe, are still more convenient!}- given with the syringe. For laxative clysters for the horse or
cow, from 1 gallon to 12 pints imperial of warm water or gruel, at the temperature of 96"^ Fahr.,
with a couple of haudfulls of salt or 2 oz. of soft soap, prove useful. Stronger ones may be ob-
tained by adding a few ounces of aloes to the mixture. In cases of diarrhsa or over-purging,
the injection should consist of a few pints of warm gruel, to which is added 1 oz. of cattcha
electuary, or from \ drachm to 1 drachm of powdered opium. The only art in administering a
clyster — where, however, there is often bungling, and even injury by wounding the rectum — is
to avoid frightening the animal, anointing the pipe well, and gently insinuating it before the Jluid
is forced tip."
(1413.) "In general, bran-mashes, carrots, green meat and hay form the sick horse's diet,
gruel and tepid water his drink. "t Of the diseases themselves, I shall only notice those at pres-
ent which usually aflect/or7« -horses in winter.
(1414.) Horse-Louse ( Trichodcclcs cqni). — The horse is infested by a louse as well as the ox,
and which is represented in fig. 296. Color of the head and thorax bright
chesnut, the former very large and somewhat square, the surface with a lon-
gitudinal black line toward each side, forming an angle near the middle ; an-
tenna; with the third joint longest; abdomen j)ale, tawny yellow, witli fine
pubescence, the first eight .segments having a dusky transverse band on the up-
per half, the lateral maiginsal-^o with a dusky band ; legs pale chesnut ; length
1 line. Common in tlie tail-head and neck of the horse, especially when
fresh from pasture in autumn. Found also on the ass. A little oil will de-
stroy this animal when first e.stablished ; but if allowed to remain on for
some time, mercurial ointment will be necessarj-, but in small quantities at a
time. The ass, however, has a lou.se peculiar to itself, the Himnlopinus
asini ; of a rusty red ; abdomen whitish, tinged with yellow, with a row of
dark horny excrescences on each side ; head long, with a deep sinuosity be-
hind the antenna ; length 1 to 1 J lines. It frequents the mane and neck,
and is common 4
(1415.) Bails. — One of the most common complaints among farm-horsea is
the flatulent colic, gripes or batts. It arises from indigestion, which again is
occasioned by various causes, sudi as hard work immediately after feeding,
drinking water largely after a feed of corn, bad stale of the food, fast eating, ^ horse-LOUSE,
and, in coiiseciuence, a paucity of saliva, an overloaded stomach, a sudden TRICHODECTES
change of food from soft to hard and dry, and more likely to occur altercating EQUI.
turnijis, potatoes, carrots and gras.s, than hay and oats, and after peas than barley. The indigestion
arist's in two forms ; the food either undergoing no change, or running rapidly to fermentation. In
the former case acute foul founder is apt to arise, and its treatment is purgatives, drenches and in-
jections. In the latter case the symjitoms are most alarming. The horse falls down, rolls over,
starts up, paws the ground witli bis forefoot, strikes his belly with the liind foot, perspiration
runs down and agony appears extreme. Relief may be obtained from this dose : Linseed-oil
raw, 1 lb. ; oil of turpentine from 2 to 3 oz. ; laudanum from 1 to 2 oz., or hartshorn from I oz. to
1 oz. The following tincture may be kept in readiness : In 2 lbs. of whisky, digest for 8 days, 3
* YouBtt on the Horse, edition of 1842. t Dick's Manual of Veterinary Science,
X Denny's Munograpbia Anoplururum BritanDis.
(U02)
TREATMENT OF FARM-HORSES. 567
or. of ginger, 3 oz. of cloves, and then add 4 oz. of sweet spirits of nitre. Half a pint imperial
of this tincture is a dose in a quart of warm water. The abdomen should be rubbed, the horse
walked slowly about and supplied with a good bed, and with room to roll about. If there is no
relief in half an hoar a second dose may be g^iven, and ere long, if still required, a third. Farm-
horses that have keen appetites and devour their food greedily, and when they have been long
in the j-oke, are most apt to take this disease.
(1416.) Infiammaiioii of the Barrels. — The sj-mptoms of the hatts are very similar, at first, te
those of inflammation of the bowels, and, if mistaken, serious mistakes may arise, as the treat-
ment of the two complaints is very different. The symptoms may be distinguished thus : la
batts, tlie pulse remains nearly unaltered, whereas in inflammation it is quickened ; all the
extremities, the ears and feet, feel cold in batts, hot in inflammation. Whenever inflammation
is apprehended, blood may be taken ; in batts this is not necessary ; but under such an appre-
hension, the assistance of the veterinarj' surgeon should be obtained as .speedilj' as possible. I
have cured many Iwrses of the hatts by administering stimulating drinks with a handy cow'a
horn. I remember of one liorse being seized with inflammation of the bowels, on its arrival home
from delivering com at the market-town -, and though the usual remedies of bleeding and blister-
ing were resorted to, they proved ineffectual, no doubt from being disproportioned to the exigen-
cies of the case, and the horse sunk in five days in excruciating agonj'. There was no veterinary
surgeon in the district at that time, which was many j-ears ago. No'w, however, thanks to the
Veterinary College of Edinburgh, througli tlie really practicallj' useful tuition of its indefatigable
Principal, Professor Dick, there is not a. p>opulous district of the countrj' in which a skillful veteri-
narian is not settled. To the surgeon, therefore, in a serious case such as this — and, indeed, in
all cases of extensive inflammation, and especially in the interior of the body — recourse should
immediately be had. I say immediately, for it is but fair to give the surgeon a chance of treat-
ing the case correctly from its commencement, and not to impose upon him the task of amending
your previous bungling. Inflammation of the lungs, as well as inflammation of the kidneys, both
of which the farm-horse is subject to, should alwaj's be treated by the veterinarian; but fortun-
ately, these formidable maladies may, almost with certainty, be evaded with well-timed working,
discrimination of work according to the state of the weather, and by good food, supplied with
regularity and in due quantity.
(1417.) Common colds frequently occur among farm-horses at the commencement of winter,
and when not entirely unheeded, but treated with due care, seldom leave serious effects. -'A cold
requires nothing more but confinement in a moderately warm stable for a few days, with clothing,
bran-mashes instead of com, and a little laxative and diuretic medicine." The evil lies not so
much iu the complaint itself as in its ordinary treatment ; it is seldom thought seriously of by
farmers — " it is only a cold," is the usual remark — and, in consequence, the hor.se goes out every
day, feels fatigued, gets wet, becomes worse, and then the lungs not unfrequeutly become affect-
ed, or a chronic discharge is established from one of tlie nostrils. One eea.sou 9 horses out of 12
in one stable were affected, one after another, by a catarrhal epidemic, which required bleeding,
poulticing, or blistering under tlie jaw, besides tlie medical remedies mentioned above. These
I was obliged to take charge of myself, tliere being no %'eterinarian in the distinct, and all fortun-
ately recovered. The remaining 3 were slightly affected afterward, and easily brought through ;
but had tlie cases been unheeded from the first, very serious loss might have been incurred by
death.
(1418.) Grease. — "The well-known and unsightly disease called grease," says Professor Dick,
"is a morbid secretion from the cutaneous pores ot tlie heels and neighboring parts, of a peculiar
greasy, offensive matter, attended with irritation and increased vascular action. It is most fre-
quently seen in coach and cart-horses, but often also in young colts which are badly cared for;
and it is most common in the hind-feet, but occurs in all. Its main cause seems to" be sudden
changes in the condition of the foot from dry to wet, and from heat to cold, greatly augmented,
of course, by evaporation." Hence the evil effects of washing the legs at night, without thoroughly
drying them afterward. "The first appearance of grease," continues the Professor, '• is a dry
state of the heels, with heat and itchiness. Swelling succeeds, with a tendency to lameness ; the
discharge augments in quantity, the hair begins to fall off. ... . In the early stage the parts
should be washed with soap and water, and a solution of sugar of lead and sulphate of zinc ap-
plied ; this may not be chemically scientific, but we have found it superior to anything else.
Even in old and aggravated cases it is very efficacious If the horse be strong and full of
flesh, laxatives should be given, followed by diuretics ; if weak, tonics may be added to these
last. The feeding, too. must be varied with the condition : green-meat and" carrots should be
given, and mashes frequently, as a substitute for corn. During convalescence, exercise should
be given, and bandages and pressure hasten the cure." I have no hesitation in saj'ing that it is
a disgrace for any steward, and in the want of such a functionary, it is so in the farmer himself,
to allow his horses to become greasj-. There is a complaint called a shot of grease, arising from
a different cause from the common grease. " In the horse, pletliora," says Professor Dick, " cre-
ates a strong disposition to inflammation of the eyes, feet and lungs, and sometimes to an erup-
tion which is called surfeit, or the nettle-raih. The hair falls off in patches, and the skin is raw
and pimpled. There is also a tendency to grease, and to what has been designated a weed or
i:hot of s^rease in the heavy draught-horse. One of the legs, generally a hind one, suddenly swells ,
the animal becomes lame ; there is pain in tlie inside of the thigh — increa.sed upon pressure ; and
fever supervenes We have seen it occur chiefly during continued rest after hard work
and exposure to weather, in animals which were highly fed. The best treatment is large blood-
letting, scarifying the limb, fomenting, and applying hay, straw, or flannel bandages, with purga-
tives and diuretics. The pressure of a bandage will expedite tlie reduction of the part to its
natural dimensions."
(1419.) Stom.ach-staggers. — "The most prominent symptoms of this disease are the horse's
hanging his head, or resting it on the manger, appearing drowsy, and refusing food : the mouth
and eyes being tinged with a yellowish color ; there is twitching of the muscles of the chest, and
(1103)
568
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
die forelegs appear suddenly to give way, though the horse seldom falls. Inflammation of langi
or bowels, or lockjaw, may supervene. Its cause is long fasting and overwork ; but iJie quality
of the food acts as a cause. Its treatment is relieniiK Uie stuuiach and bowels with searching
laxatives, such as croton, also aloes and calomel, with ginger. Clysters should also be given, and
afterward cordials. Ulood-letting from the jugular vein will be attended with advantage. Finally,
steady exercise and careful feeding will prevent a recurrence of the disorder."" I hml a year-
old draughtcolt that was affected with this disease. He was a foul-feeding animal, delighting to
cat the moistened litter from the stable and byre. He was bled and physiced by a veterinarian,
who had established himself in the neighborhood, and the front of his head blistered. He quite
recovered, and having been removed from the temptation of foul feeding, he was never again
similarly attected. The practice of kee[iing lu-i,'o(i(s in the stables of inns, and of those persona
who have extensive studs, is 8uppo.«ied, by llie common people, to act as a charm against the mad
staggers ; but, as Marshall judiciously observes, tlie practice may be explained on physiological
principles. •' The staggers are a nervous disorder," he says, " and as odors, in many cases, op-
orate beneficially on llie human nerves, so may the strong scent of tlie goat have a similar effect
on those of the horse. The subject," he adds, "is worthy of inquiry."! And he gives a striking
instance of tlie good effects of the practice.
( 14i;o.) Thrush and Corns. — I have said that the feet of the farm-horse are not liable to so many
diseases as those of horses subjected to high speed on hard roads. Farni-hnrses, however, are
liable to thrush and corns in the feet. The former is situate at the hind part of the cleft of the
frog, originating principally from continued application of moisture and dirt, and hence it may be
most expected to be seen in dirty stables, ot which there are not a few in the country. After be-
ing thoroughly cleaned out, the hollow may bo filled with calomel, which generally cures ; or
with pledgets of tow dipped in warm tar, or spirit of tar, applied at night, and retained during the
day. The general health of the horse should be attended to. Corns are usually the consequence
of the irregular pressure of the shoe on peculiarly formed hoofs; and are mere bruises, generally
produced by the heel of tlie shoe, and which, from the extravasated blood, assume a reddish or
dark color. They usmally occur only in the fore-feet ; and their site is almost invariably in the in-
ner (juarter between the bar and crust, at the heel. The obvious cure is removal of the pressure
of the shoe.
(1421.) Broken wind. — Besides natural complaints, farm-horses are liable, in the execution of
their work, to accidents which may produce serious complaints. Thus overwork, in a pe-
culiar state of condition, may produce broken tvind, which is the common phrase given to all dis-
organized affections of the lungs, though the term is defined by veterinarians to be " the rupture
of some of the air-cells of the lungs, whereby air-vesicles are produced on the surface, and the ex-
pulsion of the air is rendered less direct and easy. It is usually produced by animals being urged
to overexertion when in bad condition, though a horse may oeconie broken-winded in a straw-
yard." There are many degrees of broken wind, which receive appellations according to the
noise emitted by the horse ; and on this account, he is called a piper, trumpeter, whistler, wheezer,
roarer, higbblower, gruntcr, and with thick wind, and with broken wind. I had two uncom-
monly good horses affected in the wind by working much in the trocex of a four-horse plow, which
were employed to rip up old turf dykes intermixed with large stones, and to break up rough
ground. These serious effects of such work gave me the hint to relinquish it, and take to tlie
spade, wliii.'h I soon found did the work much better, and in the end clie«per. The horses got
gradually worse under the disease, and at length being unable to maintain their step with the
rest, were disposed of as broken-winded horses.
(142'.'.) Sprains. — " A sprain, or strain, is violence inflicted, with extension, often rupture and
displacement, upon the soft par's of a joint, including cellular menibane, tendons, ligaments, and
all otlier parts forming the articulation. The dislocation or disruption may be complete, or it may
be a mere bruise or stress; and innumerable are the shades of differences between these ex-
trenies. Effusion of the fluids is an attendant consequence. Parts of vital importance, as in the
neck or back, may be implicated, and the accident be immediately fatal, or wholly irremediable ;
on the contrary, they may be to that extent only, that, with time and ease, restoration may be ac-
complished. They constitute a serious cla-^s of cases. The marked sj-mptoms are, pain in the in
jured parts, and inability of motion, sometimes complete. The treatment is at fir.st rest, a regula-
tion of the local action and constitutional disturbance, according to circumstances, by venesection,
general and local, the antiphlogistic regimen, fomentation, bandages, and othersoothing remedies;
and when the sprain is of an older date, counter-irritation, friction, and gentle exercise." Farm-
borses are not unfrequently subject to strains, especially in doing work connected wiili building,
draining, and other heavy work ; and they are most apt to occur in autumn, when geldings are
generally in a weak state. For rough work of this kind, old seasoned horses are best adapted,
and such may often be procured for little money at sales of stock.
(142;i.) Sdddlcpitlh. — When young horses are first put to work, the parts covered by tlie sad-
dle and collar are apt to become tender, healed, an<l then inflamed, and if the inflammation is ne-
glected, the parts may break out into sores. Washing witli a strong solution of salt in water wiili
tincture of myrrh is a good lotion, while attention should be paid to the packing of both saddle and
collar, until iney assume the form of the horse intended to wear tliem. " Tumors, which some-
times result from the pressure of the saddle, go by the name oi warbles, to which when they ul-
cerate the name of sitfas/s is applied, from the callous skin which adheres to the center. Goulard
water may be used to disncrse the swelling ; a digestive ointment will remove tlie silfost ; and the
sore should be healed witli a solution of sulphate of zinc."
(1424.) Crib-biting and trindsucking. — These practices are said to increase the tendency to in-
digestion and colic, and to lower condition, rendering tlie horses which practice them unsound.
" A crib-biter derives his name from seizing the manger, or some other fixture, with his teeth,
arching his neck, and sucking in a quantity of air with a peculiar noise Wind-sucking
* Dick's Manual of Veterinary Science. t Marsball's Rural Economy of Gloucestershire, toL iL
(1104)
TREATMENT OP FARM-HORSES. 569
consists in swallowing air, without fixing the mouth. The horse presses his lip against some hard
boilv, arching his neck, and gathering together his feet." Both vices are said to be prevented by
fastening a strap round the neck, studded with one or more sharp points or prickles opposite the
lower jaw ; but this means will not avail in all cases, for I had a year-old colt, which first began
crib-biting in the field, by seizing the gate or any other object he could find. Being prevented
using the gate by a few thorns, he pressed his mouth against any object that would resist him,
even against the sides or rumps of his companions, and he then began to be a wind-sucker. A
strap of the above form was put on, recommended to me by an artillery officer ; but though it re-
mained upon the colt for more than a twelvemonth, night and day, and as tight as even to affect
his appearance, he continued to crib-bite or wind-suck in spite of it, even to the laceration of his
skin by the iron studs. Growing largely to the bone, though very thin, he was taken up to work
at the early age of two years, solely with the view of seeing if the yoke would drive him from the
practice, but it had no such effect. Whenever he came into the stable he set to with earnestness
to bite and suck with the strap on, until he would become puffed up as if to bursting, and pre-
ferred sucking wind to eating his corn. At length I was so disgusted with the brute that I sold
him to a carrier, to draw a heavy single cart, and got a fair price for him, though sold as a crib-
biter.
(1425.) Dust-hall. — Millers' horses are most liable to be affected with this disease. It is com-
posed of corn and barley dust, saved in grinding meal, and used as food, and occurs sometimes in
the stomach, but more frequently in the intestinal canal. " In an advanced stage no doubt can
remain as to the nature of the disorder. The countenance is haggard, the eye distressed, the
back up, the belly distended, the respiration becomes hurried, bowels habitually costive, and
sometimes the horse will sit like a dog on his haunches. Relief may frequently be afforded.
Strong purgatives and large injections must be given, and under their continued action the of-
fending body is sometimes removed." On using barley-dust as food for horses, it -would be ■well
lo mix it thoroughly with the other prepared ingredients, instead of using it in the dry state."
(1426.) Worms. — Farm-horses are sometimes affected with worms. These are of 3 kinds:
the round w^orm, teres ; the thread-worm, ascaris ; and the tape-worm, tcenia. " In the horse
the tenia is very rare ; in the dog exceedingly common. When the horse is underfed his bowels
are full of teres and ascaris ; and the appearance of his staring coat, want of flesh and voracious
appetite betoken it. They occasion gripes and diarrhcca, but the mischief they produce is not
great. The principal habitat of the ascaris is the ccecum, although they are sometimes found in
countless multitudes in the colon and rectum. Turpentine is a deadly poison to all these worms ;
but this medicine, so harmless in man. acts more disagreeably in the lower animals. Hence it
must not be given to them pure or in large quantities, but mixed in small proportion with other
oils, as linsetd, or in a pill ; and, with these precautions, it may be found at once safe and eflSca-
cious."
(1427.) Nebula or Specks in the Eye. — Farm-horses are not subject to the more violent dis-
eases of the eye ; but, being liable to accidents, the effects of inflammation — nebulae or specks —
do sometimes appear. " The former are superficial, the latter dip more deeply into the substance
of the part. Directly in the sphere of vision these, of course, impede it, and cause obscurity of
vision. Even here we must proceed gently. These blemishes are the pure consequences of in-
flammation, and this subdued, their tendency is to disappear. Time and nature will do much,
and the duty of the practitioner consists in helping forward the salutary process where necessary,
by gently stimulating washes, while irritating powders should be avoided."* With these sensi-
ble remarks of Professor Dick I shall conclude what I have to say of the diseases of the farm-
horse at this time.
(1428.) The offals of the horse are not of great value. His hide is of most value when free of
blemishes. It tans well and forms a good leather, which, on being japanned, is chiefly used for
covering carriages. I was informed by a friend who settled in Buenos Ayres as a merchant, that
he once bought a lot of horses, containing no fewer than 20,000, for the sake of their hides alone,
and that some of them would have fetched good prices in England. They were all captured
with the lasso.
(1429.) Horse-hair is used in the manufacture of damask-cloth for sofas and chair-bottoms. The
dyeing of it of various beautiful colors and the manufacture of the damask figures have been
much improved of late. Horse-hair is also used for making fish-lines, horse-tails for cavaliy caps
and stuffing for matresses, for which last purpose it is prepared by being wound up hard and
baked in an oven.
(1430.) " Hair, of all animal products, is the least liable to spontaneous change. It can be dis-
solved in water only at a temperature somewhat above 230° Fahr. in Papin's digester, but it ap-
pears to be partially decomposed by this heat, since some sulphureted hydrogen is disengaged
By dry distillation hair gives off several sulphureted gases, while the residuum contains sulphate
of lime, common salt, much silica, and some oxides of iron and manganese. It is a remarkable
fact that fair hair affords magnesia instead of these latter two oxides. Horse-hair yields about 12
per cent, of the phosphate of lime. Hair also yields a bituminous oil, ^vhich is black when the
hair is black, and yellowish when the hair is red."t
(1431.) •' Button-moulds are made of the bones of the horse, ox and sheep. The shavings, saw
dust and more minute fragments in making these moulds, are used by the manufacturers of cut-
lery and iron toys in the operation of case-hardening, so that not the smallest waste takes place. "t
The bones of all these animals, when reduced small, make the valuable manure — bone-dust —
now well known to every farmer.
* Dick's Manual of Veterinary Science. t Thomson's Animal Chemistry.
J Ure's Dictionary of the Arts, arts. Hair—BvUons.
(llOf^
END OF VOLUME I. OF BOOK OF THE FARM.
[7^ vhoU to he completed in two volumes.]
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THE
BOOK OF THE FARM :
DETAILING THE LABORS OF THE
FARMER, STEWARD, PLOWMAN, HEDGER, CATTLE-MAN,
SHEPHERD, FIELD-WORKER, AND DAIRYMAID.
BY HENRY STEPHENS.
WITH FOUR HUNDRED AND FIFTY ILLUSTRATIONS.
TO WHICH ARE ADDED
EXPLANATORY NOTES, REMARKS, ETC.
BY JOHN S. SKINNER,
EDITOR OF THE FARMERS' LIBRARY.
VOLUME XL
NEW YORK :
C. M. SAXTON, AGRICULTURAL BOOK PUBLISHER
1851.
THE
BOOK OF THE FARM
1. FATTENING, DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING SWINE.*
" Where oft the swine, from ambush warm and dry,
Bolt out, and scamper headlong to their sty."
Bloomfibld.
(1432.) That the youngest pigs may receive better treatment, the court
and shed at h, fig. 3, Plate III., the same as in the plan at b, in fig. 4,
Plate IV., and described in (68), are made purposely fiDr them. These
pigs consist, probably, of the last litters of the season of as many brood
sows as are kept. Here they should be provided daily with turnips as
their staple foocl, of the sort given for the time to the cattle, and sliced as
small as for sheep ; and they should, besides, have a portion of the warm
[* There are few subjects in regard to which we are in less need of being enlightened by the
experience of other countries tlian in the breeding and management of swine. If, as assuredly
it must be admitted, we are, over a large portion of the country, neglectful both as to improve-
ment of the breed and treatment of them in all stages of their growth and existence, it is not that
there is any great difficalty in understanding both the one and the other; but mismanagement iu
this, as in too many other cases, results from sheer listlessness and want of thought. The hog
may quickly be brought to the shape that we desire, and which best adapts him to the food at
command and the uses designed by the farmer ; and common sense tells every one that as the
sole purpose of rearing him is for meat, he should be kept ahcays in thriving condition by atten-
tion to the necessary warmth and safBciency of food, so that he may be kept always growing
apace, until finally to be fattened. The region of which Indian com is the staple, and where there
is most of it, is the natural habitat of the hog in our country ; nor could he be reared in the East-
em States with that economy which our countrymen there know so well how to practice, were
it not for the essential object which they keep constantly in view, and to which the hog is there
made largely subservient, to-wit : the manufacture of manure.
But conversant as we are with swine husbandry, there may yet be found in this chapter some
interesting remarks on the preparation and value of different kinds of food — a subject of import-
ance to every agriculturist who desires, as all should desire, to economize labor and materials in
the process of fattening. Useful, too, should be the lesson it teaches, to keep for fattening hogs a
constant supply of pure clean water, and to study cleanliness tliroughout, as far as practicable, in
a department where the general impression and practice agree that dirt without stint is tolera-
ble, if, indeed, it be not medicinal and useful ! The manner of fattening hogs, where Indian
corn is used for the purpose, as in the South and "West, is to '• put them up" in large open pens
on the ground, without litter and without shelter. Here they are left to burrow and sleep in mud
and mire, exposed to all weathers, consuming, probably, before they get '-ripe fat," one-third if
not one-half more than would be necessary were they sheltered in a warm pen, with clean litter
and with clean water and rich food in abundance at pleasure, free alike from exposure and ex-
citement. Experiment has abundantly proved the truth of Johnson's declaration, that " the
' gi-eater the difference between the temperature of the body and that of the atmosphere in which
' they live, the more food they require to 'feed the lamp of life.' " All this, however, is philo-
sophically and plainly described in our Monthly Journal of Agriculture. Ed. Farm. Lib.''
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
mash made for the horses, with such other pickings from the farm-house
which the kitchen affords. They should also be provided with a trough
of clean water and plenty of litter under the shed every day. The court-
yard should be cleaned out every day. Pigs are accused of dirty habits,
but the fact is otherwise, and the accusation applies more ti-uly to their
owners who keep them dirty, than to the natural habits of the animals
themselves. When constrained to lie among dirt and eat food fit only for
the dunghill, and even that dealt out with a grudging hand, how can they
exhibit other than dirty propensities 1 But let them have room, choice of
clean litter and plenty of food, and it will soon be observed that they
keep their litter clean, place their droppings in one corner of the court
and preserve their bodies free from dirt.
(1433.) The sties c, figs. 3 and 4, Plates III. and IV., are intended for
sows about to litter. Whenever the period of their confinement ap-
proaches each sow should be put into one of these and supplied with
food ; but the treatment of sows will better fall to be described in spring.
The form of door best suited for securing pigs in their sties may be seen
in fig. 23.
(1434.) By direct experiment, which will be found related below, it has
been ascertained that pigs fatten much better on cooked than on raw food.
This being the case it is only waste of time and materials, and also loss
of flesh, to attempt to fatten pigs on raw food of whatever kind ; for al-
though some sorts of food fatten better than others in the same state, yet
the same soit when cooked fattens much faster and better than in a
raw state. The question, however, simply is, what is the best sort of
food to cook for the purpose oi. fattenivg pigs 1 Roots and grains of all
kinds, when cooked, will fatten pigs. Potatoes, turnips, carrots, parsnips,
as roots ; and barley, oats, peas, beans, rice, Indian corn, as grain, will all
fatten them when prepared. Which, then, of all these ingi-edients should
be selected as the most nourishing and, at the same time, most econom-
ical? Carrots and parsnips, among roots, are not easily attainable in
this country, and therefore cannot be considered as economical food ; and
as to the other two sorts of roots, when cooked, potatoes doubtless con-
tain much more nourishment than turnips, even in proportion to their
price, for it is as easy to obtain 10s. for a ton of Swedish tuniips as 8s. for
a boll of 40 stones of potatoes ; and yet potatoes contain 4 times the nu-
tritive matter of Swedes, and 6 times of common turnips.* Steamed po-
tatoes, then, may form the staple ingredient of pig-feeding. As to grains,
I have never heard of wheat or wheat-flour being given to pigs ; it would
certainly not be economical; barley or oat-meal being usually employed.
Peas and beans, whether raw or cooked, are proverbially excellent food
for pigs. And as to rice and Indian corn, they will both fatten well, if
cooked. Amid all these ingredients for choice, regarding the question of
economy alone, it may be assumed that entire feeding on grain, of what-
ever kind, would be too expensive, so that, as steamed potatoes are of
themselves nourishing food, a proportion, with any of the grains, should
form a moderately-priced food which will insure fatness. It has been
ascertained in England that upon 2 pecks of steamed potatoes mixed with
0 lbs. of barley-meal and a little salt, given every day to a pig weighing
from 24 to 28 stones, will make it r\pe fat in 9 weeks. Taking this pro-
portion of food to weight of flesh as a basis of calculation, and assuming
that 2 months will fatten a pig sufliciently well, provided it has all along
received its food regularly and amply, I have no doubt that feeding with
* The Fanners' Almanac and Calendar for 1842,
(6)
FATTENING, DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING SWINE. 7
steamed potatoes and barley-meal, for the first month, and, in the second,
with steamed potatoes and peas-meal (both seasoned with a little salt), and
lukewarm water, with a little oat-meal stiiTed in it, given by itself twice a
day as a drink, will make any pig, from 15 to 30 stones, ripe fat for hams.
The food should be given at stated hours, 3 times a day, namely : in the
morning, at noon and at nightfall. One boiling of potatoes in the day, at
any of the feeding-hours that is found most convenient, will suffice ; and
at the other hours the boiled potatoes should be heated with a gniel made
of bai'ley or peas-meal and boiling water ; the mess being allowed to
stand awhile to incorporate and cool to blood-heat. It should not be
made so thin as to spill over the feeding-trough, or so thick as to choke
the animals ; but of that consistence which a little time will soon let the
feeder know the pigs relish best. Washing fattening pigs v^dth warm
water and soap rapidly promotes their fattening ; and, after the first trial,
they delight in the scrubbing. A convenient form of trough for fattening
pigs is described below in fig. 297. The swing-door, on being fastened
on the side nearest the pigs, serve the purpose of warding them off until
the trough is cleaned out or replenished with food. The trough should
be thoroughly cleaned eveiy day, and being subdivided into three parts,
more than one pig may be fattened in the same sty. But when only one
occupies a sty, — which is the least troublesome arrangement — one division
may be filled with one of the meals daily, thus giving a clean trough every
meal ; and all the divisions should be cleaned in the morning before sup-
plying the first meal. After every meal is supplied the swing-door is
fastened nearest the outside, thus giving the pigs access to their food, as
well as preventing them being disturbed at their meals. The quantity of
food given at any time should be apportioned to the appetite of the ani-
mals fed, which should be ascertained by the person who feeds them ; and
it will be found that less food, in proportion to the weight of the animal,
will be required as it becomes fatter. When pigs are fattening they lie
and rest and sleep a great deal, no other creature showing " love of ease"
so sti'ongly in all their motions ; and, in truth, it is this indolence which is
the best sign of their thiiving condition. The opposite effects of activity
and indolence on the condition of animals is thus contrasted by Liebig :
" Excess of carbon," says he, " in the form of fat, is never seen in the
Bedouin or in the Arab of the Desert, who exhibits with piide, to the
traveler, his lean, muscular, sinewy limbs, altogether free from fat. But
in prisons and jails it appears as a puffiness in the inmates, fed as they are
on a poor and scanty diet ; it appears in the sedentary females of Oriental
countries ; and, finally, it is produced under the well known conditions of
the fattening of domestic animals ;"* and among these last the pig may
be instanced as the most remarkable.
(1435.) The denominations received by pigs are the following : When
new-bom, they are called sucking pigs, or simply ^?^5 ; and the male is
called hoar pig, the female sow pig. A castrated male, after it is weaned,
IS named a [baiTow] shot or hog. Hog is the name mostly used by natural-
ists, and very frequently by ^vTiters on Agriculture ; but as it sounds so like
the name given to young sheep, I shall always use the term pig ands\%-ine,
for the sake of distinction. A spayed female is a cut sow pig. As long as
both sorts of cut pigs are small and young, they get the name of porkers or
jwrklings. A female that has not been cut, and before it bears young,
gets the name of an open sow ; and an entire male receives, and retains
ever after, the name of boar or brawn. A cut boar is a brawner [barrow],
* Liebig'8 Animal Chemistry. _
(7)
8 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
and the flesh of both boar and brawner is brawn. A female that has
taken the boar is said to be lined ; wlien bearing young she is called a
brood sow ; and when she has brought forth pigs, she is said to have lit-
tered ovfarrotced, and her family of pigs at one biith are called a litter or
farrow of pigs.
(1436.) Oi' judging of a fat pig, the back should be nearly straight; and
though arched a little from head to tail, it is no fault. The back should
be uniformly broad and rounded across along the whole body. The touch
all along the back should be firm but springy, the thinnest skin springing
most The shoulder, side, and haras should be deep up and down, and in
a straight line from shoulder to ham.* The closing behind should be filled
up ; the legs short, and bone small ; llie neck short, and thick, and deep ;
the cheeks rounded and well filled out ; the face straight, nose fine, eyes
bright, ears pricked, and the head small in projiortion to the body. A
curled tail is a favorite, because indicative of a strong back [and healthy,
thriving condition]. All these characters may be observed in the figure of
the brood-sow in one of the Plates ; though, of course, the sow is not in the
fattened state. A black colored pig is always black of skin, and a white
one white, and which latter color gives to the pig a cleaner appearance than
the black. A.Jat pig ought never to be driven, but carried in a cart when
desired to be transported from one place to another.
(1437.) As to the breed which shows the greatest disposition to fatten,
together with a due proportion of lean, I never saw one to equal that
wliich was originated by Lord Western, in Essex. I received a present
of a young boar and sow of that breed from Lord Panmure, and had the
breed for 10 years ; and such was the high condition constantly maintained
by the pigs on what they could pick up at the steading, besides the feed
of turnips supplied them daily, that one could be killed at any time for
the table as a porkling. They were exceedingly gentle, indisposed to tra-
vel far, not very prolific, however, but could attain, if kept on, to a great
weight ; and so compact in form, and small of bone and ofi'al, that they in-
variably yielded a gi'eater weight of pork than was judged of before being
slaughtered. Though the less valuable oflal was small, the proportion of
loose seam was always great, and more delicious ham was never cured in
Westphalia than they affbrded.t
["In the United States, where so large a proportion of tlie hogs slaughtered is made and cured
for bacon, and where the ham is much the most valuable part — length from the tail to the hips, or
08 they are called in cattle the pins, so as to throw their points well forward toward the shoulder
is a matter of importance in the formation of the hog ; as it insures a greater proportionate weight
in that part of the animal. The best bacon in the world, some would except the Westphalia, is
to be foun 1 in our Middle States, where corn is one of our chief staples, and where the hog is left
to run at large, and scuffle for his living, from the time he is weaned until put up finally to be
fattened on com, which is too generally throwrt in upon the ground and on the cob. True, where
there is a " gang " of turkeys, they are usually fattened on tlie wasting and leaving of the hog, as
the hog is the scavenger to clean up and fatten on the leavings of btillocks fed witli com, on tlie
cob, in open field.
However careless in other things, the salting and smoking of their pork generally commands
the close attention of the husbandman, and not unfreqnently of the good housewife. The standard
for the best hams, in tlie region to which we have referred, is where the whole hog weighs from
130 to 160 or 17.'> at most. Without subjecting them to the best of all tests, no one who never
compared them, can realize the difference between a Maryland ham of about twelve pounds,
properly smoked with hickory wood, and such as one sometimes meets with elsewhere, half smok-
ed and from a great fat beast of 300 pounds weight.
[t We should prefer the Mackey breed — if to be had under the sanction of Col. Jaques of Charles-
town, Mass. — as to its genuineness. Mr. Webster took great pains to procure, and had at Marsh-
FATTENING, DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING SWINE.
(1438.) [Piirx' -Troughs. — A very convenient trough for a piggery has been lontr manufrtctnred
by the Shots Iron Company, of which fig. 297 is a view in perspective from the interior of the
court. It is nearly all made of cast-iron, and possesses the great convenience of allowing the
troughs to be filled with food from the outside of the building, the feeder being at the same time
free from any annoyance from the inmate.s. Troughs of this kind are placed in proper sized open-
ings in the external wall of the piggery court, in the manner shown in the figure, where a marks
the wall on one side of the opening, that on the hither side being left out of the figure, in order to
exhibit the form of the trougli. The trough, part of which is seen at b, is 4 feet in length. 16 in-
ches wide at top, and 8 inches at bottom, and is 9 inches deep. ThS two ends c and d rise in a
triangular form to the bight of .TJ feet, and are connected at the top by the stretcher bolt e. The
lower part of each end extends inward tofg, making a breadth of 3 feet 4 inches when complete,
but this part of the end g in the figure is broken off, to show part of the trough b. Two interme-
diate divisions k h divide the trough into three compartments; these divisions extend to the same
length as the ends f g, and are all 21 inches in bight. By means of these divisions, each animal,
when there are more than one together, has its own stall, and can take its food undisturbed by its
neighbors. A swing-door i is jointed on the pivots Jc k, to complete the form by filling up the
opening of the wall. In the figure this door is thrown to the full extent outward, where it always
Fig. 297.
THE PIGS -TROUGH, WITH SUBDIVISION.?, TU .STAND IN AN OPENING OF THli OUTER VfUX.'L O-F
THK STY.
Stands daring the time the animals are feeding, and is fixed there by a slide-bolt on the outside.
When food is to be introduced the bolt is withdrawn, and the door moved from that position to I,
and there bolted until the compartments of the trough are cleaned and filled, when the door is
again swung back to its original position, and the food is placed before the aniuial.s. The door
has slits formed in it corresponding to the divisions h h, to allow of its swinging freely, and yet
have depth sufBcient to close the entire opening down to the outward edge of the trough. A
dowel or stud m is let into the wall at each end, to secure the upper part of the trough. On a
late visit to the Duke of Buccleuch's home-farm at Dalkeith Park, which is conducted by Mr
Black, I was much interested with the piggery, where the stock is of the finest quality, and,
field, some time since, the real Simon Pure of that race. But the best breed of hogs that we
have ever seen, according to our judgment, were sent into Maryland from England, in 1823, by
Mr. Wright, a brother-in-law of the late Mr. Champion, as a present to the then Editor of the
American Farmer. They were black hogs, of which an account may be seen, with a portrait of
the sow, in the old American Farmer, vol. 6. They got the name of " Skinner's breed," and some
traces of them may yet be found in Virginia. If they could be bred back to the form and quali-
ties of the original stock, they would deserve to be very highly prized. Any farmer, however,
of common sagacity and attention, may soon modify and shape a breed to suit his own locality
and views. From those who have not the spirit and true love of business to do even that, you
•will be sure to hear the common remark, " say what you will about breeds, but give me the corn
house breed." Men without energy or proper ambition are rarely withcuisome flucb easy resor^
in the way of self-excuse.]
'9) ♦
10
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
THE RING PIGS -TROUGH.
among other things of interest, saw what in very probably the oripinal of the trooch here de-
scribed. The irouphs in this piffircr^- are composed of wood, bat precisely on the Nime principle,
as here fi^'ured and described, and tfii-ir introduction there dates as far back as the time of the late
Duke Hcurj- of Buccleuch, whoso invention they are supposed to be, and which must be at least
of forty or more years' standinir.
(H39.) The king Pies' -Tronsh. — I have seen in Eng-land a very handsome pigs'-trough
adapted for standing in the middle of a court. It is formed also of cast-iron, but in one entire
piece, and is here represented in fig. 398. Ita external appearance when viewed as it stands on
the ground, approaches tc* that
of a hollow hemisphere ; but Fig. 296.
interiorly the bottom parts rise
up in the center, forming a cen-
tral pillar, thus converting the
hemisphere into an annular
trough, whose transverse sec-
tion is a semicircle, and tlie en-
tire section of the two troughs
forms two semicircles conjoin-
ed. The diameter a i of this
trough is 30 inches, the edge is
finished with a round baton,
serving both for strength and for
comfort to the animals which eat
out of it ; the depth is about 9 in-
ches, and it is divided into
eight compartments by the di-
visions c, which are formed
with a convexity on the upper
edge to prevent the food being
thrown from the one compartment into another. — J. 8.1
(1440.) In regard to the slaughtering of pips, they should be made to fast for nearly a day, to clear
their bowels of as much food as possible. The season best adapted for the purpose is in the cool
months of the year ; the flesh in the warm months not becoming sufficiently firm, and is then lia
ble to be fly-blown before it should be cured. For using fresh pork, the season of course does not
signify. VVhen you wish to make hams for your own use, Christmas is a good time for slaugh-
tering pigs, and, in doing it, great care should be taken that the animals receive no injury by
bruises before being killed, as the flesh, w^here bruised, will become bloodbumcd, and will not
take with ilie salt. When the time for slaughtering arrives, the animals should be taken out of
their sties gently one by one as slaughtered, and placed on their back on a considerable quantity
of straw, and held in that position by assistants, while a long knife is introduced with a firm hand
through the counter near the bottom of the neck, through the opening between the ribs at the
sternum into the heart, care being taken that the point of the knile does not miss the opening, and
go between the sloulder blade and the ribs. This error is frequently committed in slaughtering
pigs ; it is called shouldering, and has the eficct of collecting a mass of blood under the shoulder-
blade, where it coagulates, and prevents the whole shoulder from being cured. Before theslaugh
tering commences, a large quantity of boiling water should be provided, with which to scald off
the hair. This is effected either by pulling ilie carcass into a large tub of water, or, should there
not be a tub of sufficient size, the hot water can be poured on the carcass on the straw, and
scraped clean of the hair from every part of the body. The hoofs are taken off at tliis time. The
net fat and entrails are separated, and the carcass is dressed in the most simple manner, without
flourishes, and with only a single stretcher to keep apart the flaps of the belly.
(1141.) The carcass hangs in the slaughter-house unlil next day, when it is sawn up the back
bone into two sides. If it is intended for pickled pork, the sides are cut up in Scotland in the
same way as the Scotch mode of cutting up mutton (fig. 255), namely, a, fig. 299, is the leg, and'A
the loin, in the hind-quarter; c the ribs, and d the breast, in the fore-quarter. The leg a makes
an excellent leg of pickled pork, served with pea-pudding; and the loin b a juicy tresh roast.
The back-ribs of c are a fine roasting piece, and also for pork-chops, one of the most delicate
dishes of the hasty modes of dressing meat. The fore-end of c, and the whole of the breast d. are
fit for pickling. The head, split in two, is also pickled, and considered a delicacy, as the fat upon
the cheeks is gristly.
(1442.) The English mode of cutting up pork is different from what has just been described,
and, upon the whole, perhaps belter adapted for family use. Fig. 300 gives a representation of
it, where, in the fore-quarter, a is the spare-rib, so called because the flesh and fat are taken off
the ribs for salting ; and the ribs are then roasted, and make a savorj- dish : b is the hand or
shoulder, fit for pickling; c the belly or spring, also fit for [lickliup, or for roiling up, when well
seasoned and stuffed, for brawn, and eaten as a relish. In the hiiidquarter arc d the fore and e
the hind loin, both best when roasted, the fore one d also making excellent chops ; andy"the leg,
which is cut short for pickling. The neck is called a crop of pork, and. when divided into its ver-
tebra", are cut for chops, and called gnskint. The head, when divided in two, is again divided
at the jaw into an upper part caJled the/ace or cheek, and the lower part named the chop. Some
times the two chaps are not divided.
(1443.) According to Mr. Donovan, a hand of salt pork, weighing 4 lbs. 5 oz., lost in boiling 11
oz. The bone weighed 9 oz. ; the meat was 3 lbs. 1 oz. If the first cost of the pork was TJd.
per lb., the meat alone, when duly boiled, cost lOjd.. and wiih the bone nearly 9d. per lb. The
loss in boiling salt pork is consequently 15J per cent."
• Donovan's Domeatic Economy, vol. iL
(lOj
FATTENING, DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING SWINE.
11
(1444.) Of the time required for digesting pork dressed in various ways, pigs' feet soused and
boiled take 1 hour; sucking-pig roasted, 2^ hours; pork recently salted, raw or stewed, 3 hours;
pork-steak, and recently salted pork, broiled, 3^ hours; pork recently salted, fried, 4J hours; pork
recently salted, boiled, 4J hours; and pork, fat
Fig. 299.
Fig. 300.
and lean, roasted, 5^ hours.*
(1445.) Pickled pork derives its name from the
mode in which pork is cured in a strong brine
or pickle of salt and water. The flesh is first
rubbed with salt, then subjected to pressure, then
rubbed again, and packed in barrels, and strong
brine poured over it. Immense quantities of
pork are pickled, for home and foreign consump-
tion, by the pieces being simply placed in brine,
but is, of course, inferior to vi'hat is cured as above
described. The largest establishment for the
curing of pork I ever saw was in Belfast. A
carcass is cut up in a few seconds in this manner :
One man stands at the end of a large hacking-
block of wood, provided with a long-faced hatchet,
and two others stand on each side of the block.
A carcass, of whatever size, is placed on the
block, on its back, with its head toward the
hatchet ; a man then seizes each of the limbs, and
keeps the carcass open. With three or four
strokes of the hatchet, the carca.ss is divided into
two from snout to tail. One chop cuts off each
of the half heads, and one each of the legs. The
heads are thrown into one heap, and the legs into
another. The two men at the hind-quarter then
take their knives and cut off the hams, which
are put by themselves, and taken away and
rubbed with salt, and placed in rows on the
ground, with the Heshy side uppermost, covered
with dry .salt. The remainder of the carcass gets
two or three chops across the ribs, according to
its size, and the pieces are thrown into a large tub
of brine. The whole thing is done in far less time
than I have taken to describe it. For family
use, no pickle should be u.sed in curing pork, as it extracts the natural juices of the meat ; the
pieces, cut of a convenient size, should be rubbed with good dry, Liverpool salt, both on the
skinny and fleshy parts, and packed in a jar covered with a lid or cloth : and from eight days to
a fortnight, according to the size or thickness of the pieces, the pork will be ready for use. The
navy tierce of pork consists each of 80 pieces of 4 lbs.
(1446.) When the carcasses are meant for ham for family u.se, they are treated in this manner :
After being sawn asunder, the sides should be carefully handled, that the back-bone be not
broken, and placed on a table, when all the loose seam or tallow is taken out, and the kidneys
extracted out of it. The muscle lying along the back-bone under the loin is taken out, and, when
used fresh, makes an excellent coUop for sausages ; and the diaphragm or skirt is also cut off.
The tongue is cut out, the brains scooped out, the ears extracted by their sockets, the tail cut
away, and the four feet disjointed at the knees. Every loose and useless shred of fat, sinew,
nerve, flesh, and skin, should be carefully removed.
(1447.) The ne.XLt process is the sal'iiif^. Let the sides be placed with the skin side uppermost,
and all where there is skin let it be rubbed hard with the palm of the hands, by two persons, for
fully half an hour, in a warm place, with good dry salt, taken in indefinite quantity. Thin-skinned
uniformly fat pork will feel warm under the rubbing, and the skin become somewhat loose and
sweaty, which are the best signs that the flesh is taking in the salt. A hard-skinned side will not
exhibit these symptoms, nevertheless it will take in the salt too, though not so kindly. The ends
of the shanks should be well rubbed with salt. After this rubbing, the side is turned over, and 4
oz. of saltpetre, finely pounded, are strewed over the inside, and especially over all the fleshy
parts that have been cut with the knife, such as along the line of the back-bone, and the inside of
the ham. The use of the saltpetre is to give a uniformity to, and highten the color of, the flesh,
which, in pork, becomes red on being converted into ham. A layer of salt of about ^ of an inch
tliick is then laid on the side over the saltpetre. In this state the side is carried carefully, and
laid upon a board or wooden floor. Other sides are treated exactly in the same manner, one af-
ter the other, and laid upon one another, with the skinny sides downmost ; but perhaps 4 sides
are enough to form one heap, laid alternately, head and tail, to lie compactly. A board is then
laid above them, supporting a number of weights ; the whole being covered with a woolen cloth,
to keep oat the frost, should it arrive. In the course of a day or two, brine will run from the
heaps, which should be wiped up from the floor. In a fortnight the sides should again be laid on
tlie table, and the brine that may have collected on the ribs poured out, the loose wet salt re-
moved, and the skinny side again rubbed with dry salt for about a quarter of an hour. The loose
salt should then be all brushed off by the hand, and the skin wiped dry. To prevent flies blow-
ing the end of the shanks at the joints, a brown paper bag makes a close enough covering for
them ; and a wooden skewer being thrust through both shank and bag. and both tied firmly to
the leg with twine, the remainder of the twine is formed into a stout loop by which the side is
♦ Combe on Digestion and Dietetics.
(11)
12 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
■Dspendril from hooks. The in»ide 'i» then covered with a Dnifonn coating of barfey or peas-meaf,
poshing it well into cvrrj- crevice with the fiiifrer. The dHDipneiDi of the flesh will make the meal
Btick oit. hut there i« nwie pot on the »kiniiy side. The side i« then hune op from the roof of a
Warm, dry room, the kitclien being the most appropriate place ; and the kitchen roof thus par-
nished conveyn on idea of plenty and good cheer. 1 wnt thin recipe, through a friend, to a lady
■whom I undergtooil was at the time encaged on a work on the calinary art, and it may be fonnd
Bobstantially in the above shape in her valuable pages.
(1441*.) From experimenr. it was ascertained by Mr. Donovan that rf the irst cost of ham be
lOd. per lb., the meat dniy boiled, skinned and browned, will cost Is. 1 Jd. per lb. ; the loss there
by being conseqoentiv 33 per cent
(1449.) Hog's lard is rendered in exactly the same manner as mutton suet (1513) ; but as lard
ia liable to become rancid, yellow-colored, and acquire a strong smell when exposed to the air, h
is usually tied op in bladders. For this purpose it is allowed to cool a while, after it is melted,
and the bladder (a pig's or calf's) being made ready by being thoroughly cleaned and turned oat-
aide in, is filled with the lard bj- a funnel, and tied up. Lard '• melts completely at 99-* Fahr,
and then has the appearance of a transparent and nearly colorless fixed oil. A thermometer
placed in h sinks gradually to 80^. The lard then begins to congeal, and the thermometer re-
mains at HIT' all the time of congealing, which occapies several minates. It h clear from this
that 80- is the melting point of hog's lard. Its specific gravity at 100° is 0-9028 ; at 60°. it ia
0-9302 It cemsists of elain fi2 parts and of Btearine 38 parts out of the 100 parts When
aabjectcd to pre.ssnre between folds of blotting-paper, the elain is absorbed, while the stearine re-
anains."* For domestic purposes, hog's lard is better than even hotter for frj-ing fish ; but ia
quite unfit for pa.strj-, though much n.«ed in that way on the score of economy.
(1450.) Hog's skin is osoally thick, and, when tanned, its great tou>ihness renders it valnable
for the seats of riiling-saddles. Hog's bristles are formed into brushes for painters and artists, and
for numeroos domestic uses. Some of the offals of the pig make excellent domestic dishes, soch
as blood, mealy and sweet paddings -, and pork sausages, made of the tender muscle under the
lumbar vertebrse, are sweeter, higher flavored, and more delicious than those of beef If it were
not for taking up too moch room. I could give excellent recipes for making these puddings and
sausages; because 1 do not. think such matter foreign to the pages of a work which professes to
make yoti acquainted with what can be made available on a farm,
(14.51.) An experiment on the comparative advantages of feeding pigs on raw and boiled food
■was made in 1.''33 by Mr. John Dudgeon, Spylaw, Roxburghshire. He put up 6 he pigs in one
lot, and 5 xhe ones in another, and they were all carefully cut, and 9 weeks old. The he pigs
were put on boiled food, narmcly. potatoes and ha.ehed beans ; the she ones on raw of the same
Bort. The 6 he pigs increased in live-weight, from 2d July to 12th October, 38 stones 6 lbs. 4 oz.,
or 6 stones 5 lbs. 11 oz. each ; whereas the 5 she ones onlj- increased, in the same time, 17 stones
11 lbs. S oz., or 3 stones 7 lbs. 14 oz. each. Other 3 pigs were fed at the same time on boiled and
raw food indiscriminately, as it happened to be left over after serving the other two lots. The
facts brought out in this experiment are, that the pies " fed exclosively upon boiled meat did
thrive in a superior manner to the others, and even to those which had an occasional mixture of raw
and boiled meat ; thus sba^-ing that boiled meat is at all times more nutritive than raw-." The
" pigs were repeatedly washed with soap and water, which refreshed them greatly, and caused
them to reli-sh their food." Those "which got a mixture of food both prepared and raw. ap-
proached nearer to tho.«e which were fed on boiled to their feeding properties ; but they appeared
occasionally shy at having their meat so mixed. It is therefore better, in general, to continue for
some time only one description of food ; as, whatever the animals become accustomed to, they
begin to relish, and thrive upon it accordingly."!
(14.52. j Mr. Robert Walker, Ferrygale, East Lotliian, also made an experiment on the same
■object in the same year. He pnt 5 pigs on steamed potatoes and prepared broken barlev, and
other 5 on raw potatoes and raw broken barley. The pigs were 2 J months old. On tlie 4th
March, 1833, the live weight of the 5 pigs fed on raw food was 7 st.s. 10 lbs. ; on the 1st June fol-
lowing, it was 16 sts. 13 lbs., showing an increase of 8 sts. 3 lbs., or an increase in each pig of 1
et. 9 lb. On the 4th of March, the live weight of those fed on steamed food was 7 sts. 8 lbs., and
on the l.st June it was 19 sts. 13 lbs., show-ing an increase over the whole of 12 sts. 5 lbs., or an in-
crease on each pig of 2 sts. 6 J lbs. Tlie increase in the time was 67 lbs. more than double the ori-
ginal live weight of the pigs fed on steamed food ; whereas, in those fed on raw, the increase
was only 7 lbs. more than the double ; " so that there can be vcr>- little doubt," as Mr. 'U'alker
concludes, "that steamed food is more profitable for feeding pigs than raw food. In fact, I do not
think it possible to make pigs fat on raw potatoes, without other food, when confined to them
alone."!
(1453.) Dairj- farms are well suited for rearing pigs on the dairj- refuse in summer, but in win-
ter the roost that can be done is to keep the brood-sows in pig in fair condition for littering in
spring. On carse and pastoral farms, no more pigs can conveniently be reared than to eerre the
former's family. On mixed farms, pigs constitute a portion of the regular stock.
(1454.) With regard to the dixeafex o( swine, they are fortunately not nnmenms, as it is no easy
matter to administer medicine to them. The safest plan, in most cases, I believe, is to slaughter
them whenever any symptoms of internal disease show themselves. Swine are infested with a
\ouee ''Htrm a/ opin UK fuis), like all domesticated animals. It is represented in fitr. 301. Head
and thorax of a dull, rusty color, the former pear-shaped and narrow, with an angular black line
at the apex, and one on each side before the eyes; abdomen large, flat, and oval, of a bluish or
yellowish ash gray color, mo.st of the segments with a black homy prominence at each side, sur-
rounding a white breathing hole ; legs pale ochre-yellow, the thigh marked with dusky bands;
■* Thornton's Animal Chcmi«trT.
t Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Elociety, vol. x. % n>id.,ToI. x.
(12)
TREATMENT OF FOWLS. 13
length li to 1 J lines. This species is generally very plentiful on swiite, more particularly on
those fresh imported from Ireland. It appears to abound most on Lean animals. " In walking,"
savs Mr. Denny, " it uses tlie claw and tibial tooth with great facility (which act &« a finger and
thiimb), in taking hold of a. single hair ; tiie male is much smaller, sub-orbicalar, and the segment*
lobate. The egg or nit is j of a line in length, of a cream color, and ele-
gantly shagreened, oblong, and slightly acuminated, surrounded by a lid
which, when the yo«ng insect is ready to emerge, splits circularly — or,
as a botaoist would say, has a eircunacisile dehiscence.''* Oil in the first
stage, and mercurial ointment in after stages, will destroy this insect.t
(145.5.) Consmnption is a disease which affects pigs. It is brought on
by " neglect and exposure to cold and damp. The animal becomes thin,
the coat staring, the skin appearing as if glued to the ribs ; .obstinate
cough supervenes ; discharge is frequent from the nose, and glandular
swellings appear aboaX the ueek. On dissection, tlie lungs are studded
with tubercles." " It is in the early stage alone of tlie complaint," sajs
Professor Dick, " that anything can be done, and the prospect of cure is
but faint.| In alluding to the lungs, I may mention a remarkable in-
stance of their state I once observed in a sow of my<3wn. She had borne
several litters, and became asthmatic, which increasLug so as to apj>ear
distressing to the animal, she was killed ; and one lobe of the lungs was
found to be so completely ossified that its surface was converted into a _
shell nearly as hard ^s the crust of a crab, and it was filled with a tliick /
yellow tiuid. Having understood afterward that this was a remarkable ^^^ 60W-louse (,hj:
case, I regret that the k>be was not examined by a veterinarian. £ take matopisus suis).
this opportunity of suggesting to every farmer, who may happen to
meet with any instance of structural disorganization in any part of any animal he owns, to have
it examined by a competent veterinarian.
(1456.) Pigs are subject to a cutaneous disease called measles, which is supposed to render the
flesh unwholesome. •' The measles," says a writer, " are very prevalent, though seldom fatal ; and
if not cheeked, affect the grain of the meat, which may be commonly seen in the shops of a faded
color, and the flesh punctured, as it were, with small holes, or distensions of tiie fibre. Tlie com-
mencement of the disease appears in languor and decline of appetite, followed by email pustule*
in the throat together with red and purple eruptions, more distinct after death than during the
life of the animal ; but may, it is said, be removed in this stage by giving small quantities of levi-
gated crude antimony in the food. Grenerally speaking, even" if the animals be in heakb, a small
quantity of nitre and sulphur, occasionally mixed up with their food, besides stimulating their
appetite, will frequently prevent disease ; neither can we too much insist on cleanliness, nor upon
the punctual regularity of feeding at stated time«."|| The injunction contained in the last words,
if followed, will do more for the preservation of health in pigs, than the administration of any
specific after disease has once shown itself I can safely say that, with the simple means here es-
joined, I never had a pig that was in the least affected in the skin hy either disease or yenaiti.
2. TREATMENT OF FOWLS..
■" Thither the househeld feathery tribe crowd, "■
The crested cock, with all his female train,
Pensive and dripping ; "
Thomsok.
(1457.) Of all the animals reared on a farm, there are none so mucli
neglected by the farmer, both in regard to the selection of their kind,
and their quaUfications to fatten, as all the sorts of domesticated fowls found
in the farra-yard. Indeed, the very supposition that he would devote any
of his time to the consideration of poultry, is regarded as a positive affront
on his manhood. Women, in his estimation, may be fit enough for such a
charge, and doubtless they would do it well, provided they were not be-
grudged every particle of food bestowed upon those useful creatures. The
consequence is what might be expected in the circumstances, that go to
most farnisteads and the surprise will be to meet a single fowl of any de-
scription in good condition, that is to say, in such condition that it may be
* Dentsy's Monographia Anoplnrorura Britannite.
U fipd that the ox-louse (ffamatopinus eurystemus), fig. 26S. has been erroBeouflly printed oa
t Dick'g Manual of Vetednary Science. y Britiah Husbandrv, vol iL
(13;
14 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
killed at the instant in a fit state for the table, which it might be if it had
been treated as a fattening animal from its birth. The usual objection urged
against feeding fowls is that it does not pay, and no doubt the usual price
received for lean, stringy-fleshed, sinewy-legged fowls is far from remune-
rative; but whose fault is it but the rearer of them, that fowls are sent to
market in such a state, and why should purchasers give a high price for
any animal, be it fowl or beast, that is in under condition ? There would
be some excuse for the existence of lean fowls at a farmstead were there
any difficulty of fattening poultry of every kind at no great expense ; but
the idea of expense is a perfect bugbear; and this is one, like all others
that seize us through our fears, would vanish were a plan adopted for
rearing fowls more consonant to common sense than the one usually pur-
sued. To judge from common practice, the prevalent sentiment seems to
be, that fowls cannot be ill oif when they get leave to shift for themselves.
Such a principle is a grievous error in the rearing of any kind of live stock.
Better a man keep no stock at all than allow such a sentiment to influence
his conduct to them. Fowls maybe considered worthless stock, and so they
generally are, but are you sure that it is not your mode of managing them
that renders them so % But apart from every consideration of profit to be
derived from sales in market-towns, there is the superior one of the fanner
having it at all times in his power to eat a well-fed fowl at his own table ;
and there is no good i-eason why he should not be able to enjoy such a
luxury at any time he choses. There would be economy in it too, in the
long run, inasmuch as good poultry, at command, will keep him out of the
butcher market, into which he cannot go without cash in band, and cash
he cannot command except by realizing the money value of some com-
modity or other from the fann. Few farmers kill their own mutton, that
is to say, keep fine fat sheep for their own use ; lamb, they may kill in the
season ; but as to beef, it must be purchased ; so that, situate as the farmer
usually is, the produce of the poultry-yard and pig-sty constitute the prin-
cipal items of his board. And why should he not have these in the high-
est perfection 1
(1458.) Winter is a season in which no fowls are brought forth in Great
Britain. The climate is too severe for them ; the cold would either kill
chickens outright or prevent their growth so as to render it unprofit-
able to bestow the great attention which their reaiing would require.
None of the fowls usually lay eggs in winter. But notwithstanding this
natural barrier to the propagation of fowls in winter, both chickens and
eggs may, by good management, be obtained in that season.
(1459.) The ordinary fowls on a farm are the cock (PJiasianus gallus),
the turkey ( Meleagris galloparo), the goose (Anas anser), the duck
(Anas domestica), and the pigeon (Columha Uvia), the white-backed or
rock dove, which was long ago confounded with the blue-backed dove
f Columha <enas). In regard to all these 1 shall first state the condition
in which they are found on a farm in winter, and then describe the mode
in which food should be daily supplied them ; and as they may all be fed
with nearly the same ingredients, the mode of feeding to be described
will apply to all.
(1460.) And first, in regard to the condition of the hen. As hatchings
of chickens are brought out from April to September, there will be broods
of chickens of different ages in winter ; some as old as to be capable of
laying their first eggs, and others only mere chickens. The portion of
those breeds which should be taken for domestic use are the young cocks
and the older hens, there being a feeling of reluctance to kill young hens,
which will supply eggs largely in the following season. At all events,
TREATMENT OF FOWL 15
should any hen-chickens be used for the table, the most likely to become
good layers next season should be preserved. The marks of a chicken
likely to become a good hen ai-e a small head, bright eyes, tapering neck,
foil breast, straight back, plump ovoidal-shaped body, and moderate-
lengthed gray-colored legs. All the yellow-legged chickens should be
used, whether male or female, as their flesh never has so fine an appear-
ance as the others. As to the color of the feathers, that is not a matter
of much importance, some preferring to have them all white, others all
black ; but I believe there is none better for every useful purpose than
the mottled gray. Young fowls may either be roasted or boiled, the male
making the best roast and the female the neatest boil. The older birds
may be boiled by themselves and eaten with bacon, or assist in making
broth, or that once favorite wintei'-soup in Scotland — cockieleekie. A
chicken never eats more tenderly than when killed a short time before
being dressed ; but if not so soon used, it should hang in the larder for
3 or 4 days in winter. An old fowl will become the more tender on be-
ing kept for a week before being used. The criterion of a fat hen is a
plump breast, and the rump feeling thick, fat, firm, on being handled
laterally between the finger and thumb. A corroborative criterion is
thickness and fatness of the skin of the abdomen, and the existence of
fat under the wings. White flesh is always preferable, though poulterers
insist that a yeWow -shinned chicken makes the most delicate roast.
(1461.) Turkeys being hatched in May, will be full grown in stature by
winter, and, if they have been well fed in the interval, will be ready for
use. Indeed, the Christmas season never fails to create a large demand
for turkeys, and it must be owned there are few more delicate and beauti-
ful dishes presented at table, or a more acceptable present given to a
friend, than a fine turkey. Young cocks are selected for roasting, and
young hens for boiling, and both are most relished with a slice of ham or
of pickled ox-tongue. The varieties in common use are white, black and
mottled gray ; and of these the white yields the fairest and most tender
flesh. The criterion of a good turkey is fiillness of the muscles covering
the breast-bone, thickness of the rump and existence of fat under the
wings ; but the turkey does not yield much fat, its greatest property being
plenty of white flesh. Young turkeys attain to great weights. I have
had yearly young cocks weigliing, at Christmas, 18 lbs. each in their
feathers. Norfolk has long been noted for its turkeys, where they are fed
on buckwheat, and large droves are annually sent to the London market.
A turkey is deprived of life by cutting its throat, when it becomes com-
pletely bled. The barbarous practice of cutting out their tongues and
hanging them up by the feet to bleed slowly to death, for the alleged
purpose of securing whiteness of flesh, ought to be severely reprobated.
(1462.) Geese, having been hatched in the early part of summer, will
also be full grown and fit for use in wintpr. I believe there is very little
difference in flavor or appearance, as a dish, between the young male and
young female goose, though there may be some difference of size. The
criterion of a fat goose is plumpness of muscle over the breast, and thick-
ness of rump when alive ; and, when dead and plucked, the additional
one of a uniform covering of ivhite fat over the whole breast. It is a very
good young^ goose that weighs in its feathers 12 lbs. at Christmas. The
goose is as favorite a dish at Christmas as the turkey, but people tire of it
sooner, and in consequence it is not so frequently served at table. A
green goose at Michaelmas is, however, considered a greater delicacy in
England than a turkey-poult. Geese are always roasted ; and their flesh
is much hightened in flavor by a seasoning of onions as a stuffing, and
(15)
16 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
by being served up with apple-sauce. A goose should be kept a few days
before being used. It is bled to death by an incision across the back of
the head, which completely bleeds it. Large flocks of geese are reared
in Lincolnshire, and thence driven to the London market. It is rare to
see a graij gander, and as rare to meet a icliite goose. I remember seeing
large flocks of geese on the islands in the Elbe near Hamburg, which
were reared chiefly for their quills, their carcasses being salted and sent
to Holland. The invention of the steel-pen, however, has much injured
the quill-dressing trade, and, in consequence, good quills are now not easily
obtained ; aiid their deterioration still farther encourages the use of the
steel-pen. Geese have long been proverbially good watchers. I have
seen a gander announce the approach of beggars toward the kitchen-door
as lustily as any watch-dog.
(1463.) Ducks, being also early hatched, are in fine condition in winter
if they have been properly fed. Ducklings soon became fit for use, and
are much relished with green peas in summer. I believe there is no dif-
ference in flavor and delicacy between a young male and young female
duck. They are most frequently roasted and stuffed with sage and onions ;
though often stewed, and if smothered among onions, when stewed, there
are few more savory dishes that can be presented at a farmer's table. A
duck never eats better than when killed immediately before being dressed.
It is deprived of life by chopping off" the head with a cleaver, which com-
pletely bleeds it.
(1464.) Hens and turkeys are most easily caught on their roosts at
night with a light, which seems to stupefy them ; and geese and ducks
may be caught in any outhouse at any time they are dnven into it.
(1465.) As young pigeons alone are made use of, and as the pigeon does
not hatch in winter, they require no other notice at present than what re-
gards their feeding ; and to give you an idea of their gastronomic pow-
ers, of three rock-doves which were sent to Professor MacGillivray,
" The number of oat-seeds in the crop of the second amounted to 1,000
and odds, and the barley-seeds in that of another were 510. Now, sup-
posing," says he, '* there may be 5,000 wild pigeons in Shetland, or in
Fetlar, which fed on grain 6 months every year, and fill their crops once a
day, half of them with barley and half with oats, the number of seeds
picked up by them would be 229,500,000 grains of barley, and 450,000,000
grains of oats — a quantity which would gladden many poor families in a
season of scarcity, I am unable," he adds, " to estimate the number of
bushels, and must leave the task to the curious."* And the task I have
undertaken, and find the result to be 422 bushels of barley and 786 of
oats.t
(1466.) The prices of poultry in towns are pretty high. In Edinburgh,
for instance, in winter, a couple of chickens are 28. 6d. ; hens from Is. to
Is. 9d. each ; ducks 3s. per couple ; turkeys 3s. 6d. to 8s. apiece ; geese
Ss. 6d. to Ss. each ; and eggs are from Is. 2d. to Is. 8d. per dozen. In the
country towns the prices are fully one-third below these ; but the highest
prices in London are not more. In Russia fat turkeys are Is. lOd., geese
28., and fowls and ducks Is. 3d. per covple !\ In Ireland poultry of all
kinds are cheap ; but not so much so as in Russia.
(1467.) Farmers usually sell poultry alive, excepting in some parts of
* MacfiUlivrey'* Hiitory of British Bird*, toI. i.
t I ascertained the result by wci^'hi ; and as the ftirt« may b« worth recording, I may mention that in
an average of 3 drarhmo, ihfre wore ITi urains of chevalier barlt-y in each drachm of a sample weiching
56J lbs. per bushel ; and 97 grains of S^ibcrian early oat in 1 drachm of a sample ireichine 46 lbs. per
bushel. Of Cliiiiham white wheat, weighing 65 lbs. per bushel, there were 86 grains in Uie dnchm.
X Venables' Tour in Russia, Appendix.
16J
TREATMENT OF FOWLS. 17
the country, such as the Borders, where geese are killed and plucked for
the sake of" their feathers before being sent to market. Poulterers in
towns, on the other hand, kill and pluck every sort of fowl for sale, so
that the purchaser has it in his power to judge of the carcass; and if he
buys an inferior article at a high price it must be his own fault. It is
easy to judge of a plucked fowl, whether old or young, by the state of
the legs. If a hen's spur is hard, and the scales on the legs rough, she is
old, whether you see her head or no ; but the head will corroborate your
observation, if the under-bill is so stiff that you cannot bend it down, and
the comb thick and rough. A young hen has only the rudiments of spurs,
the scales on the legs smooth, glossy and fresh colored, whatever the color
may be, the claws tender and short, the under-bill soft, and the comb thin
and smooth. An old hen-turkey has rough scales on the legs, callosities on
the soles of the feet, and long, strong claws ; a young one the reverse of
all these marks. When the feathers are on, an old turkey-cock has a long
beard, a young one but a sprouting one ; and when they are off the
smooth scales on the legs decide the point, beside difference of size in the
wattles of the neck, and in the elastic snot upon the nose. An old goose,
when alive, is known by the roughness of the legs, the strength of the
wings, particularly at the pinions, the thickness and strength of the bill,
and the firmness and thickness of the feathers; and when plucked, by the
legs, pinions and bill, and the coarseness of the skin. Ducks are distin-
guished by the same means, but there is this difference, that a duckling's
bill is much longer in proportion to the breadth of its head than that of an
old duck. A young pigeon is easily discovered by its pale-colored,
smooth-scaled, tender, collapsed feet, and the yellow, long down inter-
spersed among the feathers. A pigeon that can fly has always red-colored
legs and no down, and is then too old for use.
(1^68.) The hen-houses are placed at d on the plan and view, figs. 3
and 4, Plates III. and IV. They are divided into 3 apartments, each hav
ing a giblet-check door to open outward, and all included within a court-
yard provided with an outer door and lock. The use of 3 apartments is to
devote one of them to the hens and turkeys, which roost high ; another to
the geese and ducks, which rest on the floor ; and the third to a hatching-
house to accommodate both. When geese are obliged to rest below hens
they are made uncomfortable and dirty by the droppings of those which
roost above them. The innermost apartment, being the largest, should be
occupied by the most numerous body of fowls, namely : the hens and tur-
keys ; the right-hand one by the geese and ducks ; and the left-hand one
in hatching, to which access is given by a trap-ladder and opening through
the wall at the road, to admit the laying hens. There should be an open-
ing with a sliding-shut in the outer door, as well as one in the doors of the
geese-house and hatching-house, to give admittance to the bii'ds when dis-
posed to go to rest in the afternoon ; and these shuts should be fastened
every night. In the accommodation thus appropriated to every class of
fowls, each apartment will be taken up by its own class. The usual prac-
tice is to put all kinds of fowls into the same apartment ; and the small
space occupied by even this single room seems to be grudged, as if any
sort of accommodation, however hampered or incommodious, were good
enough for poultry. How breeders and feeders of stock can reconcile
their minds to such indifference toward any class of their live-stock, while
possessing the desire of having a good fowl at their table, is more than I
can imagine, unless they believe that quite opposite modes of treatment
will produce similar results ! In very cold weather the inner apartment,
occupied by the hens and turkeys, could be kept sufficiently warm by
(17)
18 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
1
heaping the horse-dung from the work -stable under and upon the feeding-
trough in the court K, immediately liehiud the back wall of the hou-hduse,
as high up against it as is thought desirable ; and a quantity of straw could
be put on the slated roofs of all the apartments during a continued storm.
Snow forms a warm covering on a roof, but the heat from fowls roosting
under soon melts it ; so that it is better to remove the snow and put on
sti'aw, and allow the snow to fall upon the straw. Fowls thrive best
where there is a mild temperature, but not a great heat ; and such expe-
dients will supply them with a sufficiency of heat during the severity of a
winter storm.
(1469.) The pigeon-house is placed in the gable of the boiling-house U,
fig. 8, Plate 111., to receive warmth in winter from the fire usually kept in
that apartment. When pigeons are thus artificially supplied with heat,
they not only continue to hatch longer in autumn, but will recommence in
spring sooner than they would otherwise do. Indeed, by a little manage-
ment in this way, and taking care to keep the house always pretty full of
pigeons to retain heat among themselves, they might be encouraged to
hatch all the year, with the exception, perhaps, of two months in the
depth of winter, in December and January. Pigeons, like other birds, aie
most prolific when not too old ; and as old cocks are exceedingly tvran-
nical to the young ones, they should be destroyed as well as the oldest
hens. It is no easy matter to get hold of flying pigeons to kill them, as
they are always on the alert and make their escape ; but there are various
ways of destroying them, and a favorite one is shooting, but it is not the
best in this case, as young ones may be wounded while aiming at the old-
er birds. The safest plan is to mark the birds you wish to destroy daily
for some time, in order to recognize them readily, and the old cocks are
easily discernible by their forward manner, and the interruption they give
at the pigeon-holes to the entrance of others. These remarks apply spe-
cially to the recognition of old cocks, but are inapplicable to old hens, as
they never conduct themselves so. Other means must, therefore, be taken
to recognize them, and the same may be applied to the cocks ; and these
are those given above for the detection of dead old and young pigeons.
The marks are rough, scaly legs, callous soles of the feet, high red color
of the scales, strong bill, strong wings, thick covering of feathers, and
brightness of the play of colors upon the neck. All these marks are most
conspicuous in winter, the very season when the process of cocking a
pigeon-house, as it is termed, should be performed, as then there are no
young to be unknowingly deprived of their parents. The safest way of
doing it is to enter the pigeon-house gently, late of a dark night, with a
light. On enteiing with the light, and shutting the door, it will bewilder
the pigeons, and the first movements should be to stop up the holes to pre-
vent them escaping, which the old cocks will be the first to attempt ; and
should the holes be beyond the reach of the floor, a ladder should be
taken in to assist in effecting the purpose. Two persons arc required to
capture the pigeons, as they will endeavor to elude every attempt ; and
one to take special charge of the light, which, if taken out of the lantern —
and it should be so if the lantern is not of glass — to afford plenty of licrhr,
is apt to be blown out by the wind occasioned by the pigeons flying about.
Should this be the case, a lucifcr match should be in readiness to rekindle
it. A light landing net used by anglers is a convenient instrument for en-
trapping a pigeon, whether sitting or flying. Every bird that is caught
should be examined and recognized, and every one exhibiting signs of old
age should be destroyed, by |)ushing the point of the thumb with force
into the back of the head, and severing the cervical vertebras, or applying
(18)
TREATMENT OF FOWLS. 19
the teeth for that purpose ; but should these modes be disliked or imprac-
ticable, rather than torture the poor devoted animals by abortive attempts,
let their heads be cut off at once by a sharp table-knife. When this pro-
cess of tveeding is performing, it should be done effectually at once, and
not repeated in the same season, as a nocturnal visitation such as this can-
not fail to intimidate the whole flock. Nor should it be done in the sea-
son of hatching, though done w^ithout fail every year, and the consequence
will be that your pigeon-house will be stored with prolific birds, and re-
ceive no annoyance from birds which have become barren. Perhaps a
dozen of birds, male and female, so destroyed, may suffice at a time. On
removing the stopping from the holes, and the slain birds, and closing the
door, the creatures will be left in quietness.
(1470.) The daily treatment of fowls maybe conducted in this manner:
Some person should have special charge of them, and the dairy-maid is
perhaps the best qualified for it. As fowls are very early risers, she
should go to the hen-house in the morning, on her way to the byre, and let
out all the fowls, giving the hens and turkeys a feed of light corn and cold
boiled potatoes, strewed along at some convenient and established place
out of the way of the general passage of horses and carts ; such as be-
tween the hammels N, and the byre-court /, fig. 3, Plate III. The ducks
should get the same food either near the horse-pond, or where there is a
pond or trough of water, as they cannot swallow dry food without the as-
sistance of water. Geese thrive well upon sliced turnips, a little of which,
sliced small, should be left by the cattle-man for the dairy-maid at any of
the stores, and given at a place apart from the hens. When stated places
are thus established for feeding fowls at fixed hours, they will resort to
them at those hours ; at least the well-known call will bring the hour to
tneir recollection, and collect them together on the spot in a few seconds,
and the regular administration of food being as essential for their welfare
as that of other stock. Ducks pick up a good deal of what falls about the
stable, and near the corn-barn door, as well as in the straw-barn ; and
geese will help themselves to the turnips that may chance to fall from the
troughs of the cattle ; and they are also fond of raw potatoes. After her
own dinner, say 1 o'clock P. M., the dairy-maid takes a part of the pota-
toes that have been boiled at that time, and while a little warm, gives
them crumbled down, from their skins, with some light corn, to the tur-
keys and hens. At this time of the day, the spaces below the stathels of
the stacks in the stack-yard form excellent dry sheltered places for laying
down food, and the stack-yard is a very probable place for their resort af^
ter their morning meal, especially when it rains or snows. In laying down
food for the fowls, the pigeons should be remembered, as they will feed with
the hens, and on the same sort of food. Before sunset the fowls are all
collected together by a call, and put into the house, and which they will
readily enter ; and many will have taken up their abode in it already,
especially the turkeys, which go very soon to roost. The ducks are the
latest idlers. The floors of the different apartments should be littered
with a little fresh straw every day, sufficient to cover the dung, and the
vyhole cleaned out every week. Sawdust or sand, where they are ea-
sily obtained, form an excellent covering for the floor of hen-houses.
Troughs of water should be placed in the court-yard, and supplied fresh
and clean every day.
(1471.) This mode of daily treatment will maintain fowls in a condition
tor using at any time, and it cannot be said to involve much expense, for
the riddlings of potatoes boiled and light corn may be considered as the
offal of the farm ; but the truth is, food administered to these creatures at
(19)
20 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
irregular intervals, tlioupfli it be of the finest quality, will be comparatively
thrown away, when compared to the gOf)cl eHects of food of even inferior
nutriment given them at stated /luurx. This jilan contrasts favorably with
that which gives them large (juantities of food at long intei'vals, and in an
unpleasant state ; and also with that which permits fowls to shift for their
meat at the farmstead. Either of these ways will never fatten fowls; fc»r
food given in overal)undance at one time and restricted at another, can
never fatten any animal ; nor will they obtain sufficient food at all times
when made to shift for themselves, because fowls are like all other an-
imals, some can forage about most perseveringly, while others are indo-
lent, and some careless of Ibod when it is not placed before them. A
regular ])lan is recommended, which is, always supply them with a certain
quantitv of food, ascertained by experience, and dependent on the nature
of the flock ; when this is repeated daily at stated times, their condition
must increase, because it cannot decrease, the minimum quantity of food
being always sufficient to appease hunger ; and this want they can never
feel keenly when supplied with food at appointed times. Thus, in the
long run, more nutriment will be derived from inferior food regularly ad-
ministered, than from richer given iiregularly. Should it be desired, how-
ever, to be particularly indulgent to fowls intended for immediate use, the
following materials will render the respective sorts of fowls perfectly rijye
in a short time. Boiled potatoes, warm, and light wheat, for hens ; boiled
potatoes, warm, and firm oatmeal porridge, warm, for turkeys ; boiled po-
tatoes, warm, and oats, for geese ; and boiled potatoes, warm, and boiled
barley, warm, for ducks. The potatoes and porridge should be crumbled
down in small pieces. But immediate effiicts, even from superior food,
can only be expected on fowls that have been regularly fed as recom-
mended above, up to the time the superior food is indulged in. Let
starved fowls receive the same ingredients, and a long time will elapse ere
they exhibit symptoms of improved condition, besides the risk they run,
in the mean time, of receiving injury from surfeit and indigestion. No
doubt, superior feeding would incur cost, if persevered in throughout the
season ; but I am not disposed to deny that, were proper breeds of fowls
only cultivated, and the shortness of time taken into consideration in
which a pure breed will rijten upon it, that profit would be derived from
its use. The experiment has never been satisfactorily attempted by the
farmer, and all the accounts we know of superior feeding, apart from ex-
periments by men of science, are only derived from the establishments of
noblemen, whose object is not to obtain profit, but the possession of a su-
periorly fed animal.
(147l^) Other ingredients may be and are used for the feeding of fowls,
among which may be mentioned brank or buckwheat, rice, and Indian
Cora. Buckwheat is successfully grown in England ; not so in Scotland.
It is said to fatten poultry well, though not so well as grain. Rice may
be given either raw or boiled ; in the former state fowls will pick it as
readily as grain after feeding on boiled potatoes, and, when boiled, it will
fatten without the aid of potatoes, but, of course, it is more expensive, as
even good damaged rice can seldom be obtained under 16s. or 18s. per
cwt., which is nearly 2d. per lb., without the expense of cooking. Fine
barley, weighing CjQ lbs. per bushel, selling, as it is at present, at 3s. 6d.
per bushel, is only -^ of a })enny per lb. Indian corn is employed in
America, in the southern part.s of Germany, and in Lombardy, for feeding
poultry, and they become very fat upon it. It is too large to be swallowed
raw, like the horse-bean of this country, but when steeped in water, or
boiled, it is easily eaten. If sold at even 8s. per bushel, its cost would be
(20)
TREATMENT OF FOWLS. 21
under 2d. per lb. "From a desire to save expense," says Boswell, " the
bran of wheat, and sometimes pollard, or middlings, are given to fowls ;
but these bruised skins, where little if any of the farina of wheat remains,
appear to contain a very small portion of nourishment in proportion to
the cost price. M. Reamur found by experiment that it is little or no
saving to substitute bran for good grain in feeding poultry. Bran is not
given dry, but mixed with water to the consistence of paste. Some peo-
ple boil this ; but it does not increase the bulk, except in a very trilling
degree, and is, therefore, of small advantage. He found that 2 measures
of dry bran, mixed with water, were consumed by fowls in the same time
that they would have eaten a single measure of boiled barley, equivalent
to f of a measure of barley."* Bran of itself, therefore, it appears, is of
no use to fowls as food ; but it may be made the means of conveying
nourishing food to them, in the shape of fat, broth, and other rich liquids
from the kitchen, which they could not otherwise avail themselves of but
through such an absorbent. Fowls are very fond of bread, and even of
butcher-meat, cooked or raw ; and they will pick a rough bone very neatly.
They sometimes also display carnivorous propensities. Many a time have
I observed them watching for a mouse at the casting down of a stack in
the stack-yard ; and the moment one was seen to escape, away they would
run, cocks and hens together, in full chase after it ; and on mobbing it,
peck it not only to death, but to pieces, and then swallow it.
(1473.) I have said that eggs, and chickens too, maybe obtained in win-
ter by good management. The young hens of the first broods in April
will be old enough to lay eggs in winter. A few of these should be select-
ed for the purpose ; and when the period of laying approaches — which
may be ascertained by their chaunting a song and an increased redness of
the comb — they should be encouraged by better feeding and warmer
housing at night. The feeding consists of warm potato and firm oatmeal
porridge twice a day — at morning when they are let out, and in the after-
noon at 1 o'clock. To give them peace in feeding upon their more tempt-
ing fare, they may be fed by themselves in the court-yard of the hen-
houses, and the door shut upon them after the rest of the fowls have left
their night's quarters. And their more comfortable housing c(msists in
directing them into the hatching-house betimes every afternoon, and there-
in making for them a number of comfortable nests of clean oat-straw, to
choose among ; and when they have taken to the one each selects for her
own, leaving an old e^^^ in it for a nest-egg. These three or four young
hens will lay as many eggs every day ; and though they are not so large
as those of more matured fowls, being only pullets' eggs, still they will be
fresh ; and it is no small luxury to enjoy a new-laid eg^ at breakfast every
winter morning — a luxury which I enjoyed for as many years as I lived
in the countiy.
(1474.) With regai'd to young broods in winter, I believe few people
will impose upon themselves the trouble of setting hens on eggs so lalc! in
the season for the purpose of rearing chickens in winter; and yet it may
be done without difficulty ; but sometimes the task is imposed involunta-
rily upon one, inasmuch as some hens will secrete their nests in the fields,
among corn, or at a hedge-root, or other safe place, and bring out strong
broods of chickens on the eve of winter. In such an event, the little inno-
cents, brous^ht into a cold world, cannot be allowed to perish merely for want
of care. When such a brood makes its appearance, or is purposely brought
forth, it should be kept apart from the rest of the flock, in a warm and
* BoaweH'B Pouiti-y Yard.
(21)
22 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
sheltered place ; and where no better place presents itself, it may he com-
fortably housed in a comer of the boiling-house, (U, fig. 4, Plate IV.,)
where a hamper or basket, placed over mother and chickens, or a fence of
some kind, eroctt'd acn)83 a comer near the fire, will protect them from ex-
ternal danjjer. Thence they should l>e let out in the forenoon, to enjoy the
air and bask in the sun, and be returned to their shelter long before sun-
set. In rainy weather they should be conducted to a shed ; and in hard
frost they may l»e kept in the house altogether, as frost soon benumbs
their legs, and if they lose the power of which, they will soon droop and
die. A nest of straw, elevated some inches above the floor, to keep them
above the draft of air that sweeps along the floor, and having a broad
base to afford the chickens an easy access to their nest, should be formed,
for the hen to brood them on at night ; and when fresh litter is given them
ever)' evening, a little of the cleanest and warmest to be found under a
cow in the adjoining byre, where she has lain, will be most acceptable to
the tiny limbs of the active brood. Food should be given them from
morning to evening every three hours. It may consist of warm boiled
mealy potatoes crumbled down small, picks of oatmeal porridge, mealy
boiled potatoes warm, mixed with oatmeal, and a flat dish of clean water.
With a little vaiiety of food, daily attention, and temperate housing, they
will get on well, and by spring be as plump as parti idges and as valuable
as ortolans. I am surjjrised to observe Mr. Mowbray say that " to uttnnpt
to rear winter chickens in this climate, even in a caipeted room, and with
a constant fire, would in all probability be found abortive. I have repeat-
edly made the experiment," he adds, " with scores, without being able to
preserve an individual through the winter."* The diflficulty I consider
small, though the trouble may be unnecessary, but neither a " cai-peted
room," nor a " constant fire," will assist much in the rearing of chickens,
the whole secret of the art consisting of suitable food, moderate deg^'ee
of temperature, fresh air and constant attention.
(1475.) Such is the way I would recommend the feeding of poultry on
a farm. It is not an expensive mode in a pecuniar)' point of view, consist-
ing entirely of ordinary fare and regular attention ; and therein consists
the entire value of the plan. That the plan is valuable and woilhy of imi-
tation has been proved beyond doubt, by its supplying fowls of every kind
in their respective seasons, in high condition — at any period of the season
they were required — and without any previous formal preparation. Thus,
a chicken, a young cock, a hen, were at command throughout the year; a
ducklinir throughout the autumn; and a goose or a turkey from Michael-
mas to March ; and this not for one year, or only in a favorable season, but
year after year for fifteen years, as long as I had opportunity to practice
it. In sb-ort, a youns: fat fowl and a fresh GS!,% were never wanting, from
January to December; and there is a great deal of truth in Cobbett's
remark, where he says, " one thing about fowls ought always to be borne
in mind. They are never good for anything after they have attained their
full growth, unless they be capons or poullards."t
(1476.) In regard to the undue means used for pampering fowls to fat-
ness, I quite agree with Cobbett that " crammed fowls are very nasty
things;" and when we reflect on the worse than imprisonment practiced for
the purpose, by coopinir up fowls in the dark, and tyinij their feet together,
the means used to obtain the end become reprehensible. Liebig explains
the rationale of this latter practice. "Experience," he says, "teaches us
that in poultry the maximum of fat is obtained by tying the feet and by a
• Mowbray's Pnctical Treatise on Domeatic Poultry. t Cobbett's Cottage Economy.
(22)
TREATMENT OF FOWLS. 23
medium temperature. These animals, in such cii'cumstances, may be com-
pared to a plant possessing in the highest degree the power of converting
all food into parts of its own structure. The excess of the constituents of
blood form flesh and other organized tissues, while that of starch, suo-ar,
&c., is converted into fat. When animals are fed on food destitute of nitro-
gen, only parts of their structure increase in size. Thus, in a goose, fat-
tened in the method above alluded to, the liver becomes three or foui"
times larger than in the same animal when well fed with free motion,
while we cannot say that the organized structure of the liver is thereby
increased. The liver of a goose fed in the ordinary way is Jirf?i and elas-
tic ; that of the imprisoned animal soft and spongy. The difference con-
sists in a greater or less expansion of its cells, which are filled with fat."*
This practice appears to me the more reprehensible, in that its principal
effect is to increase the bulk of offal only.
(1477.) Peacocks may be treated in the same manner as turkeys; and as
to guinea-fowls, notwithstanding the deliciouSness of their eggs, they should
never be tolerated in a farm-yard, both on account of the horrid noise they
make, and of the strong propensity they always evince to annoy other fowls.
(1478.) The feathers of the vaiious sorts of fowls used are either dis-
posed of or converted into domestic use. The following directions on
sweetening and managing feathers are given by a notable housewife of
my acquaintance ; and as they very nearly accord with my own experi-
ence, I shall transcribe them in her own intelligent words. " Every one
is aware that the feathers of cocks and hens are very inferior to those of
geese and ducks for the purpose of filling beds and pillows ; and, conse-
quently, it is scarcely necessary to mention that the former should be kept
separate from those of the latter two fowls. As the birds are plucked, the
large feathers should be selected and placed asunder. Paper-bags are the
best recipients. The pinion feathers should be sti'ipped from the quill, and
added to the other feathers ; and, if great caution have not been used
in plucking the birds, they should be carefully looked over, that no part
of the skin has been toni and adhering to the base of the quills. The
bags of feathers should be placed in the bread-oven on the day after it has
been heated, and, after some hours, removed to a dry, airy place ; and this
ought to be done every week." On this part of the subject, I may mention
a less troublesome plan than the oven, where the adjoining apartment be-
hind the kitchen fire is not in constant use, which is that in such a situation
feathers may be hung up in bags against the wall behind the fire, and there
they will soon win. *' Notwithstanding," continues our instructress, " eveiy
apparent caution shall have been used, the feathers are fi'equently found
to be tainted, either from carelessness in plucking, or by neglecting to
attend to them afterward ; and no subsequent baking or picking will be
found available to restore them. In this case, the only method to render
them sweet is to boil them, which is to be effected in the folio wins: man-
ner : One or two large canvas or calico bags must be made, into which
the feathers from the small paper-bags must be emptied and tied up ; a
washing-copper must be nearly filled with rain-water, and made to boil.
The calico bags then, one at a time, are to be dipped, and, by means of a
stick, pushed about, and squeezed and kneaded for the space of four or five
minutes, then lifted out and taken out of doors, and being tied together and
the openings kept secure, that no feathers may escape, they must be hung
over a line and left to drain and diy. Several times a day the bags are to
be shaken up and turned over; and as soon as the feathers appear to be
* Liehiij's Animal Chemietry.
(23)
24 THE nOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
light and dryinir, which will not be the case for nearly a week, the Iwtrs
must be liuiijT uj) (liiriniT dry weather only, and taken in every niijht. In
about a fortnight the feathers will Ixu-ome perfectly sweet and ready for
use ; and the water in which they were boiled will sufficiently indicate
that this plan was not only necessary, but efficacious, in cleansing them
from impurities which would else have rendered them useless." As an
attestation of the practical efficacy of the plan, the lady adds, " having tried
the method ourselves, we can assure our readers of its eligibility."*
(1479.) In regard to the diseases of fowls, I can safely say that if fowls
are attended to in a systematic manner, with wholesome food prepared for
them every day, and their roosting place kept clean and airy, very few
diseases will affect them at any age.
[The reader will please remember that only Notes are promised to this "Book of the Farm,"
not dissertations. They are better placed in another part of this journal.
On the subject ui Poultry, when a country lad, not nnobscr\'ant of all such things, our experi-
ence covered the whole ground ; and who tlia' was thus reared does not retain in his memory,
through life, lively associations as connected with this department ot his juvenile sports and ppncu-
latious ? We have somewhere seen it said that Mr. Wkbsteu's first investment was in a Dom-
inica cock, which he carried under his arm in a smart journey on foot, stopping to fight him
against every cock that dared crow along the roadside ; and this, be it said en passant, is not the
only point in which the "Great Expounder" has evinced Southern propensities. On the sub-
ject of poultry management generally, our observation agrees, in the main, as to want of care and
system, with what is here said.
In this case, as in many others badly conducted, common sense dictates all that is necessary to
be borne in mind. In the first place, if the barn-yard, dung-hill and proper range of the poultry
do not afford sufficient food to keep them in good, healthy and thriving condition, the deficiency
should be supplied with regularity ; for in this, as in all other instances, it shiiuld be a cardinal
maxim with every farmer, that whatever is worthy of being kept at all is worthy of being irdl
kept. Be it a rule in regard to everything that engages your time and consumes your substance,
that it be either cared for or killed ! Then, again, as to poultry, vermin and e.xposure to heat and
cold are great obstacles to success in rearing them ; and of course too much attention cannot be
paid to cleanliness and equable temperature. Farthermore, not one in twenty of husbandmen
and hou.sewives keep in their head, or otherwise, a register of the age of their breeding-fowls.
Having allowed them to commence breeding, they are usually left to die of age and disease,
which must more or less infect the health of the whole flock. With poultry, as with sheep, to
keep them in sound condition, none should be allowed to survive a fixed age. When they have
passed the period of the highest capacity as breeding-stock, they should be fated for sale or con-
sumption ; instead of which, everything is left to chance, and thus some poultry yards that we
have seen, instead of presenting a lively, beautiful scene of varied and splendid plumage, rosy
gills, sparkling eyes, and all animate with health, gallantry and courage, are more like hospitals
dex intuilidcs, a drooping hen in one corner, and a sniffling cock in another. But, as we before
said, this is no place for a treatise on Roaring Poultry. There is one, however, on Rearing Ducks,
published in the June, 1846, number of this journal, written by a verj- learned clergyman of
Charleston, S C which every good housewife ought to have at her fingers' ends. In the matter
of different breeds of fowls, there is much room for indulging the imagination. It may be ranked
among the " fancy stocks." We have ourselves been fool enough to give S.'i for a hen of the
Ostrich breed that would weigh t> pounds as she sat on her roost ; but we agree in one thing
with MowDUAY, the author of a vcrj- cockney sort of a book on " Pigs and Poultry," that
" Small-honed, well-proportioned poultrj- greatly excel the large-boned, long-legged kind, in
color and fineness of fiesh and delicacy of fiavor ; for it is held pood that, of all animals of the do-
mestic kind, thos»! which have the sniullest, cleanest, finest bones, arc in general the be.'Jl propor-
tioned, and are covered vi ith the best and finest grained meat, besides being, in the opinion of
good judges, the most inclined to feed, and fatted with the smallest proportionable quantity of
food to the greatest comparative weight and size."
It is said that the Poland fowl, which is ratlier under size, jet black with top-knots, are the best
layers; but we should be disposed to rely on the true old " game breed." Mr. Colt ha.i this top-
* Quarterly Joumnl of Apriciilmrc, vol. x. There is a curious fact pivcn, in Ilrnd's Home Tour, of the
modes of plucking feathers otT fowls of TariouB kinds in a large poulterer's cstabhshment in Lincoln.
(24)
WHEAT AND FLOUR. 25
knot breed milk-white. We have no doubt of the truth of what the Author asserts, that " chick-
ens never eat more tenderly than when killed a &hort time before being dressed ; but if not so
soon used, they should hang in the larder for three or four daj's in winter" — or in the ice-house in
Slimmer, say we.
This suggestion of cooking immedialeli/ on being killed, is probably against the general im-
jiri'ssion, but is nevertheless correct, as we happen to know by experience; and we are confi-
dent the same may be said of butchers' meat. Cook immediately, or keep for some days. After
tlif animal gets dead cold, the first tendency of the fibre seems to be to get stringy and tough ;
the next to relax and break up. The best fried chickens to be met with — what in the Eastern
States they call, and esteem a great delicacy, " .«pring chickens " — are to be had at the old-fa.«hioned,
oniinarj-looking, but clean, well-kept turnpike-road tavern, 9 miles from Alexandria. D. C, on
the road to Fairfax Court-House, kept by Mr. Gooding ; and there the process is, when the stage
drives up to breakfast, the scullion counts noses, and away he runs to wring off chickens' heads
in a given proportion. They are then instantly scalded, picked and washed out clean in warm
water ; then quartered and thrown into a pan of ready boiling, clean lard ; and being in a min-
ute or two " done brown,'' are served up to the sharp-set passenger, hot and dry, not swimming
again, as in most taverns, in dirty grease. In this way the fowl never gets cold, and is truly " as
tender as a chicken." The traveler gets his penny-worth, rubs down his abdominals, and in half
an hour goes his way, rejoicing that we live in a land of democratic liberty and abundance, sur-
veying as he goes one of the most glorious and the most abused and neglected regions that the suu
shines upon.
Mr. Gooding, by the way, is esteemed a trump-card in his line, but in the majority of such
cases we have observed that though it be the landlord who is ever foremost to receive the traveler
and run away with all the " credit " as well as the change, the good housewife is usually more
than " half the battle." Ed. Farm. Lib.]
3. WHEAT AND FLOUR.*
(1480.) Systematic writers on Agriculture, and most others, when treating of the various plants
nsually cultivated on a farm, always describe their characteristics in botanical phraseology ; and
though this way of describing them seems a proper one, when different genera of plantshave to
be distinguished from each other ; yet when more varieties of the same species, and especially
when those varieties are numerous, have to be treated of a more natural method of des-
cribing or classifying them seems desirable, so as they may easily be distinguished by other peo-
ple than botanists. Thus, Professor Low, when treating of wheat, enumerates 11 different subdi-
visionst which are cultivated, all which doubtless, possess distinct botanical characteristics; but
the distinctions betwixt these are not likely to be apprehended, far less applied, by the majority
of farmers ; and much less likely still are they to discriminate, with botanical accuracy, betwixt
the very numerous varieties that are now cuhivated in diff"erent parts of the empire. Mr. Law-
son has described 83 varieties of wheat.t and Colonel Le Couteur mentions having in his posses-
sion, in 1836, no fewer than 150 varieties :|| and the Mu.seum of the Highland and Agricultural
Society in Edinburgh possesses 141 varieties.^ To distinguish between all these, with botanical
exactness, would puzzle any farmer.
(1481.) For this rea.son, it has occurred to me that some method should be established of re-
cognizing the diff'erent kinds of grain in use, by their external cliaracters in the ear and in the
grain. Colonel Le Couteur has given a classification of wheat involving the principle I have
[* It may be of some satisfaction to the reader as he proceeds in the perusal of what is here
said iu reference to grains which constitute important staples of oar own country, to have at hand
a memorandum of the amount of each produced in the United States.
Tlius, according to the Census of 1839, a very fallacious authority it is true, but the only one we
hi .-.Mhe crop of Wheat in all the United States was 84,823,272 bushels. The larges"t crop in
any .State was that of Ohio, being put down at 16,571,661 bushels. The second— Pennsylvania,
13,-Jl 3,077, and the third on the list is that of New-York, to wit: 12,286.418.
By a Census of the State of New- York, probably taken with more accuracy, under an Act of
Assembly passed 7th May, 1845. it appears that the whole number of bushels harvested in the
State that year was 13,391,757 bushels, from 595,013 acres, or something less than 14 bushels to
l^i« *<=''^' Ed. Farm. Lib.]
t Low's Elements of Practical Agriculture. + Lawson's Agiiculturisf s Manual.
II Le Couteur on Wheat. Dedication. § Catalogue of the Museum.
(^5)
26
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
mentioned, and he givca a similar reason for altemjilin^ it. when he says — " No one has done so*
ai4 a braiicli of AtTJculturt^. in tliosc plain Ifrni!* which may bo intrllifiblc. not to llie botanist or
■rieiilifio rciiiior only, but lo the u'real mass of fiirnnTtt." And the principal object he coll^^i(^er» to
tie held in view, in attempting surh a clasvilication. is. that the nature and real cjualilics of each
variety may be a.«certained as to their properties for mal'.uig bread."
(Hti-J.) In prosccutiiii? his ideas of a clai^silication. Co o' <l Le Coutenr divides all the varieties
of wheat into two classes, namely, beardlex* and benri1r<1. In «> far he imitates the modern bota-
niitA, who divide the cultivated varieties of wheat into ti'i- two AWimoii^cii bnrbalum and imbcrlf.
sisuifvin!^ the above characteri.'itica ; but, unfortunateK Uit the stability of this division, the dis-
tinction is immutable, for some bearded wheals lo.so tin ii beards on cultivation, and some beard-
less ones are apt to become bearded, when cultivated on jioor soils and expo.<ed situiitions. ."^ome
of the other grains imlicate a tendency tothissortof deireneracy. for even the poialooat assumes a
beard when sown a lonjr lime on the same ground in a poor slate. He then subdivides beardless
wheal inlo white, red, yellow, and livercoloied. smoo:h chaSed and velvet chaffed ; and the beard-
ed ho divides under the same color.*. Some varieties of wheat are, no doubt, decidedly dowiiv on
the chart', but oiIht.s apain, are .so little so that it is difF4ull to distinguish them from some of the
rouirhest varieties of smooth chaffed: and it is well known that the same wheat will he dillerent-
ly alfecled. in that respect, by the soil upon which it has been grown ; for a sharp soil has a ten-
dency to render the chattand straw smoolher anil hanler than a deaf ."oil, which has a tendency
to produce .soft and downy cliatt' and straw. This downiness, therefore, is not so fixed and im-
portant a character as to be adopted to rank one t'reat liivision of \\ heat under its denomination.
The associating together the characters of wheat in grain and in the ear. is also, in my opinion,
injudicious, inasmuch as neither character sejiarately can positively indicate the state of the other,
as I .-ihall soou show, and both are not requireil to itidicate the flouring properties of any variety
of wheat, in respect to its superiority in making bread. A baker will at once distinguish the
grain which will afford the flour best suited for bread, but he could indicate nothing of its propei-
lies by an ear of wheat Colonel Le Conteur puts down a liver-color».'d \vheat. as a distinctive
color.'along with others. I confess I cannot distinguish this color; for I never remember to have
seen wheat of a liver-brown color. 1 think all the colors of wheat may be classed under two of
the primary colors, yellow and red, for even the whitest wheat has a titige of yellow in it. and the
brownest wheal is deeply tin.ged with red ; but as rchile and red are tlie terms by which the co-
Fig. 302.
CLASSIFICATION OF WHEAT BT THE EAK. EAK OP KTE. '
lore of wheat have been longest known, these should be retained. The variety of wheat which
should form the standard of each color has never yet been .settled : but Jndtrincr from the colliciimi
of wheal in the Highland anil Agricultural Society's Museum, 1 should say that the Hunirarian
white wheat. <7, flg. 358, indicates the purest while, and the blood red wheat tlie purest red.
• Le Couteur on Wheat
(26)
WHEAT AND FLOUR.
27
(1433.) Were I to attempt to classify wheat by natural marks, I would make two classifica-
tions, oue by the ear and the other by the grain, so that each could be described by its own char-
acteristics, and, if desirable, either could be illustrated by the characteristics ol the other. In this
way confusion would be avoided between the characters of the ear and of the grain. The farm-
er who grows the wheat in the ear and sells it in the grain should be acquainted with both ; but
the baker, who is only acquainted with grain, knows nothing by the ear. Were he, however.
to receive an ear of each variety of grain he purcha.sed, he would be able to describe at once to
the farmer what particular variety afforded him the flour best suited for his purpose.
(1434.) Wkeat. — On examining the ean of wheat that have come under my notice, I think they
may be divided into the 3 classes as represented in fig. 302, and which may be distinguished
thus : rt is a clone or compact eared wheat, which is occasioned by the spikelets being set near each
other on the rachis or jointed stem, and this their position has a tendency to make the chaff short
and broad, and the spikelets are bo also. This figure, as well as the others, shows the ear half the
natural size. This specimen of the close eared wheat is Hickling's Prolific. The second class of
ears is seen at h, the spikelets being of medium length and breadth, and placed just so close
upon the rachis as to screen it from view. The ear is not so broad, but longer than a. The chaff
is of medium length and breadth. This specimen is the well known Hunter's white wheal. Tho
third class is seen at c, the spikelets of which are set open, or so far asunder as to permit the rachis
to be easily seen between them. The ear is about the same length as the last specimen, but is
much narrower. The chatf is long and narrow. This is a specimen of Le Coutcur's Believue
Talavera white wheat. These three classes of varieties constitute the Triticnm sativum im-
berbe of botani.sts, that is, all the varieties of the beardless cultivated wheat. Formerly they were
divided by botanists into Triticnm hybern'im or winter wheat, and Tri'icum a:<tivum or sum-
mer wheat; but experience has proved that the summer wiieat, so called, may be sown in win-
ter, and the winter wheat sown in summer, and both thrive. Paxton says that Triticum is de-
rived from •' tritum, rubbed ; in allusion to its being originally rubbed down to make it eatable.*
It is of the natural order Graminece. and of the third class Triandria, and second order Digt/nia,
of the Linn<Ban .system.
(1435.) In d, fig. 302, is represented a bearded wheat, to show the difference of appearance
which the beard gives to the ear. The bearded wheats are generally distinguished by the long
shape of the chaff and the open position of the spikelets, and therefore fall under the third class.
But cultivation has not only the effect of decreasing the strength of the beard, but of setting the
spikelets closer together, as in the specimen of the white Tuscany wheat, shown at d in the cut,
which is considered the most compact eared and improved varietj' of bearded wheat. Bearded
wheat constitutes the second division of cultivated wheat of the botanists, under the title of Tri-
ticum sn'ivum barbatum. The term bearded wheat is used synonymou.sly with spring wheat,
but erroneously, as some beardless wheat is as fit for sowing in spring as bearded, and some beard-
ed may be sown in winter. Figure e is a specimen oirye.
(1436.) In regard to classifying wheat by the grain, on observing a great variety of forms, I
think they, as well as the ears, may all be classed under 3 heads. The first class is shown at a,
fig. 303, where all the grains are
short, round, and plump, with the
bo.som distinctly enoush marked,
and well filled up. In the cut, the
grain to the left is seen with the me-
dian line along its bosom ; another,
belosv it, with the round or opposite
side lying undermost : and the third
and fourth show the germ and radi-
cal ends respectively. All fine vhite
wheats belong to this class, and they
are enclosed in short, round, and
generally white chaff, which, when
ripe, become so expanded as to en-
danger the falling out of the grain.
Very few red- wheats belong to this
class. In reference to the ear. this
class is found in short-chaffed and broad spikelets, which are generally compact. The specimen here
is Hungarian white wheat. The second class is represented b}- b, where the grains are long and
of medium size, that is, longer and larger than the grains of the first class. The chaff is also medium
sized. In reference to the ear, it is of the medium .standard, in respect to breadth and closeness
of spikelets, though medium sized srain is not confined to this sort of ear; for it is found in the
compact ear, as in Hickling's Prolific white and red wheat as well as in the open ear, such as
the red Dantzic creeping wheat. Most of the red wheats belong to this class of grain, though
ta?Lny oi\he whit^ medium sized — such as Hunter's white — also belong to it. This specimen is
the Cauca.sian red wheat, whose ear is bearded, and belongs to the open-spiked class c, fi?. 302,
The figure at c, fig. 303, represents the third form of grain, which is large and Ions to a greater
degree than the last class. Its chaff is long, and in reference to the ear, the spikelets are gener-
ally open, ti)ouu;h, in the case of this specimen, the Odessa long white wheat, the ear is medium-
sized, though the chaff is long as well as the grain. The three sorts of wheat in the cut are all
placed in similar positions, and are of the natural size.
(1437.) It will be seen from what has been stated, that no direct relation exists between the
ear and the grain ; that the compact ear does not always produce the round grain nor the white
wheat; that in the medium ear is not always found" the medium-sized grain: and that the
open ear does not always produce the large, long grain. But still, there exist coincidents which
* Paxton's Botanical Dictionary, TVitfcum. See also Hooker's Britieh Flora, Edition of 1831.
CLASSIFICATION OF -VTHEAT BY THE GRAIX.
28 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
connect the rA/»/f and llie firain. For example, the Ifngth of the ehnff mdxctXen the leneth of the
grain, upon w liatevor sort of ear it may ho loiiiid : and, pcnorsilly. the color of the chart' deter-
mines lliiit of th«' i;riiiii. As iiIhi. tlie of>eniiiL' Jiiiikt-lel hears pruin of ro,irwr c)U!ilily than the rom-
iiaet. On \s jshinu'. therefore, to determine the K)rt of ariiin which any number of earn of difjereut
kindtt of wlieat may contain, it ia the /V/rm and color of the chnff\.\\a\. detcrraiiiea tl)e point, and not
wliother the ear carries compact, medium, or open spikelets, or whether it be bearded or beard-
less, or whether it be wtKilly or smooth.
(l-li^f.| But a more important consideration than il« classification, in repard to wheat, is the
mode of jutlt:in'! it. to ascertain the purposes to which it may be best employed, in the partic-
ular coiiditKin in which it may he iieen. The^e purposes are, tor seed and and for the making of
flour: whether the tlour is to be employed in the manufacture of bread or of confections, or in
some of the arts, such aa starch-makmp. In its /«•»/ condition, all wheat, whether red or white,
small or larpo. lonp or round, should appear (dump within its skin, not in the least shriveled or
shnink. The skin should be fine and smooth, not in the least scaly or uneven in its surface. The
color, be what tint it may, should be bripht and lively and uniform, not in the least dull, bleached, or
parly-cohired. The grains should all be of the siime size and form, not short and lonp. round and
lone, small and larpe. The prains should he quite perfect : there should be no bruises, or holes,
or dried rootlets hancint: from the dimpled cm), or woolly ajipendape from the other end. If per-
fect in all these respects, wheat is tilted f.ir any purpo.se, and may be (lurchaficd by llie general
merchant. For jiarticular purposes additional properties may be reparded.
(N89.) When wheat is <|uite opaque, indicatinp not the least translucency. it is in the best state
for yieldiiiir tli«- finest Hour, such flour as confectioners us«' for pastry ; and in this state it will be
eacerly piMrli:i>eil by them at a larpe price. Wheat in this stale contains the largest proportion
of fecnla or sia; cli. ;iud is therefore best suited to the starch maker, as well as the confectioner. On
the other liariii, when wheat is translucent, [partially transparent.] secniinply hard and flinty, it is
besi suited to the common baker, as afibrdinp what is called stroma flour; that is. flour thai rises
bolilly with yeast into a sponpy douph: or in other words, the wheat then contains the largest
profiortion of gluten. Bilkers will, therefore, pive more for pood wheat in this state than in the
opa<|ue; but (c»r bread of first quality the flour should be fine as well as strong, and therefore
a mixture of the two conditutns of wheat is best suited for makinp the best quality of bread.
Baker.s, when they purcha.se their own wheat, arc in the habit of mixinp wheals that respectively
possess those qualities: and millers who are in the habit of supplying bakers with flour, mix such
wheats and grind them together for the special purpose. Some sorts of wheat, however carefully
they may have been preserved pure, naturally pos-sess huth these properties, and on tliat account
are great favorites with bakers, though not so with confectioners: and I presume, to this mixed
property is to bo ascribed ihe preat popularity which Hunter's white wheat has so long enjoyed.
We hear of '• A»p/t mixed" Dantzic wheal, which has been so mixed for the purpose, and is in
high repute among bakers. Generally speakinp, the lightest-colored white wheats indicate most
opacity, and of course yield the finest flour, and red wheats are mo.st flinty, and therelbrc yield
the stroniiest flour; for a translucent red wheat will yield stronger flour than a translucent white
wheat, and yet a red wheat never realizes so high a price in the market as white, because it con-
tains a larger proportion of refuse in grinding.
(1490.1 For KFcd, the dimpled end of the grain should be distinctly marked, and the site from
which the roollet-s issue should be rather prominent; and the end from which the blade springs
should be covered with a slight degree of woolincss or hairiness. The protuberances of the : oot-
lets and woolly ends should not have been rubbed off by anv process, such as sheeling, as the
grain is thereby rendered unfit for seed by being deprived of lis vitality. Nor shouKI the grain
have been kiln-dried, because that process may also deprive it of vitality, and its effects may
partly be delected in the undue hardness of the grain, and partly also from the smoky flavor
which the grain has acquired. But hardness alone is not a suiBcient criterion, as some wheats
become much harder in ordinary dryinp than others: and in some parts of ihe Continent, soch
as on the shores of the Mediterranean, some wheats are naturally so hard as to induce that iu the
ordinary state to be called soft. If no sinokiness can be detected in the flavor, the surest lest of
existing vitality, w hen time is allowed to apply it, is to germinate the wheat near the fire, is a
glass, amonp as much water as will swell the grains.
(HO 1.1 l)inii(i!!cd wheat may be detected in various ways. If it has been in sea-water, although
it may not be eiilarped by moisture, it can ni'ver lose the saline ta.sle ; and although it may have
been washed in fresh water and dried in a kiln, still the wa.shing gives it a bleached appearance,
and the .■luhsi quent drjinp may be detected by either the smell or the tasle. Wheat thai has been
sheeled, to make it look round and plump, may be detected by the appearance of the ends being
rubbed down. Wheat that has been heated in the stack, tliouph not affected in color, will taste
bitter on herns; chewed. Wheat that has been long in the granary appears dull and dirty, though
it may have been passt-d through the fanners; and although it may not have been injured, it
always conlracts a musty smell. Wheat is liable to tlie attacks of in'sei ts in the granary, which
breed w itliin its shell and eat the kernel. This mode of destruction, occasioned by the weevil, is
easily detected by the grain feelinp light in hand, and the holes may easily be seen from w hich
the perfect insect has ma>le its esca|»c. Germinated, swollen, burst, bruised grains, as well as the
admixture of <ither kinds of grain and seeds, are easily delected by the eye.
(H92.) difference of opinion exist in regard to the Itexl mode of preiterving wheat in granaries.
The usual practice is to shovel il»c heap over from the bottom everj- few weeks, accordinp to the
dryness or dampness of the air, or heal or coldness of the atmosphere. In this mode of treatment,
a free ventilation of the air is requisite in the pranary, and the worst stale of the atmosphere for the
grain is when moist and irarm. Extreme heat or extreme cold are preservatives of grain. The
practice of others is not to turn over their wheat at all, but to keep it in very tliick masses, reaching
from the floor to the ceiling, and quite in the dark. No doubt, if air eouldbe excluded effectually
from a pranary, the grain could be preserved in it without farther trouble ; and a pood plan of ex-
cluding the air entirely seems to be to heap the wheat as thick together as possible. There is as
(28)
WHEAT AND FLOUR. 29
little doubt, however, that wheat which has been kept long in heap ^^•ithout turning, retains its
cofor in a fresher state than that which is frequently turned ; and a good plan for preservinir
the color seems to be to keep wheat in the dai-k. The ancients used to preserve grain many
years, to scrs'e for food when years of famine overtook them. When Joseph was in Egypt, wheat
was preserved for seven years in the stores ; but this might not be a difficult matter in .<o dry a
climate as Egypt ; and in Sicily, Spain, and in the northern parts of Africa, pits were wont tobe
formed in the ground to preserve grain; and the Romans were so impressed with the necessity
of preserving grain, that they took great pains in the construction of their granaries, wliich are
related to have keep wheat for 50 and millet for 100 years.* But as to the farmer, the question
how wheat is best preserved in granaries should little affect him, as the best way of keeping his
wheat is in the straw in the stack ; and when the stacks are threshed for the straw, he should dis-
pose of his wheat immediately, and take the current market prices. In a series of years, during
tile currency of a lease, this is his safest practice ; and besides securing him, in the long run, of an
average price, it saves him a great deal of trouble in looking after the grain, and a great deal of
vexation when prices fall below their expected amount. Two friends of mine, farmers, were
both great losers by keeping wheat of their own growth on speculation. Thej' each stored three
years" crop, and though offered £6 a quarter for it, they kept it with the view of obtaining more,
but were never offered so much again ; and after prices dropped gradually to 6.5s. and were
not likely to rise immediately, they sold off the whole stock. Such is most likely lo be the
fate of mo.st farmers who speculate in wheat, even of their own growth ; but when tliey venture
on purchasing the wheat of others, they forego their proper profession, and become merchants,
and thence become involved in the intricacies of trade, of which they must be quite ignorant; and
probably only become sensible of their ignorance after feeling the effects of their tenieritv.
(149:!.) Wheat is prepared for the use of man by being ground into flour. The machinery
u.sed for grinding wheat, consists of a number of parts, each of which pertorms its separate work,
and they are all strongly constructed. The first process which wheat undergoes in grinding, is
in being put through the sheeling cylinder, which rubs off any extraneous matter belonging or
adhering to the outer skin of the grain, and separates everj- foreign matter from the wheat. In
this process the wheat is made shorter in length, brighter in color, and freed from every impurity.
The quantity of black, suffocating dust which flies off from the cylinder in the process of sheeling,
and the seeds and other substances which are .separated from the grain, are collected together,
surprise every one, who has never witnessed the process, how such impurities can have proceeded
from an appnrenfly clenti sample. After the sheeling, the prepared wheat is put into a large hop-
per, which conveys it to two milLstones of French burr, to be ground. t In the grinding, the wheat
is converted into flour, which still contains all the ingredients of the wheat, and has acquired a
high degree of temperature. In order to cool it, which should be done as quickly as possible, il
is imme<iiately carried to the well ventilated cooling-room, to be spread upon its wooden floor,
and turned frequently over with a wooden shovel, should the grist have been so large as to cause
it to be laid thick on the floor. After it has been thoroughly cooled, it is made to descend from
the cooling-room, by a hopper, into the boltinsr or dressius' cylinder, in which it is separated
into its respective parts by being brushed through w^ire-cloth of different sizes. These parts
usually v'onsist offirat.t. or fine flour ; of secoiids, v.t .second flour; of Ihirda, cr sharps ; of broad or
coarse bran, and o( fine bran. Sometimes the coarse bran only is taken from the flour, which is then
said to be ground overhead, and makes good coarse household bread. Sometimes the fine bran is
taken out from the overhead flour, and the coarse flour makes a sweet coarse bread. On the
other hand, a .smaller quantity of the fine is taken out of the bulk of flour, in order to make the
finest as fine as possible, and this is used for pastry and fancy bread ; and in this case, the seconds
flour becomes finer, and makes the .seconds loaf of superior quality. More or less of fine flour ia
taken out in dressing, by merely shifting a hinged board under the dressing cylinder, so as to em-
brace a larger or smaller space of the upper or finer portion of the wire-cloth of the cylinder.
When a large proportion of the bulk is made into first flour, this flour is not fine, and the "seconds
flour is thereby reduced in quantity, and made coarser. The sharps, or that portion which con-
sists of the heart of the grain, and which is broken and escapes from between the millstones, are
used by biscuit-bakers. The first or broad bran is used for bran-mashes, and mixing with horse-
corn, and the fine bran is employed to feed poultry and pigs. As you have seen that the butchers
of London cut up carcasses of meat in a greater number of pieces than those of this country ; so
the millers there dress the flour in a greater number — no less than seven distinct — sorts. These
sorts are thus divided from the flour of a quarter of wheat of 8 bushels :t
Fine tlour 5 bushels 3 pecks. Bran 3 bushels 0 pecks.
."econdi 0 .. 2 .. Twenty-penny 3 .. 0
Fine middlings 0 .. 1 .. Pollard 2 .. 0
Coarse middlings 0 .. OJ ..
Total 14 bushels 2i pecks.
So that grinding nearly doubles the bulk of flour and bran above that of the wheats
(1494.) Whether flour is properly ground, is judged of on being taken into the hand as it falls
[t Boussingault found as much as 38J per cent, of husk or bran on a Winter Wheat, grown
in the Botanic Garden of Paris. Three lots of good English Wheat, ground at Mr. Robson's mill,
in Durham, gave — per cent, respectively
Fine Flour 74-2 75-1 779
Borings OO 83 61
Sharps 58 66 5 6
Bran 78 7-0 69
Waste 3-2 30 35
Total lUO 100 100
Ed. Farm. Lib.]
* Dickson's Husbandry of the Ancients, vol. ii.
t See Ure'8 Dictionary of the Arts, art. Millstones, for an account of this remarkable substance.
(29)
30 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
from the spout leading from millstones. It is rubbed by the thamb against the side of the
fore-fiiiiier, aud if it lei-l ploasanlly limooth, witliout beiii^f fireany or rouirh. it in well. When the
outer edges of the millstones are set to<» close, the Hour feels f:reasy. because it has been loo moch
bruised — or killed, as it is termed — and it dot's not then easily ris«; u itli yeast in the niakinp of
bread. When the stones are set loo far asunder, the grain accumulates under the eye of the roilK
fltone, and is there broken, which breaking prevents the skin of the grain being separated from the
subsrancf, and the consequence is, that tlie bran feels thick, rough, and heavy, and there is much
■waste of substance. Whether Hour is properly drtfued, is ascertained in the same wa_\ . by rub-
bing the fine flour between the thumb and forefinger, and if it feel smooth and even, not in the
least rough or gritty, it is well. To judge still farther whether the flour has been perfectly dressed,
if, on being pressed with a polished article, such as the back of a plain gold or silver watch, or
the back of a silver spoon, the smooth-pressed surface present no minute brown spots of bran to a
good sight, it is clean dressed ; and if any such cannot be detected by a good mai-'nifying-glass, it
is as perfectly dressed as practicable with the present form of the machinery-. When the large
bran is inspected, and it is found to be entirely skin and no white substance of the wheat adher-
ing lo it. the grinding has been well e.xeculed ; and in this state the bran, on being thrown up-
ward, will fail lightly toward the ground, being in large, thin flakes. The small bran has alwa>8
a part of the substance of the wheat attached to it : because it is chiefly derived from the groove
which (brnis the bosom of the grain, and is only generated after the large bran has been sloughed
ofl', and a portion of the grain itself ground down to the level of the groove. There is no means
of juileing whether any parcel of flour will make good bread, the jUmr of the opaque and flinty
wlieaLs being undistingui.shahli! from one another, and it is i)erhap8 this difficulty which induces
bakers to buy wheat, and get it made in flour on their own account; otherwise the simplest plan
for them would be lo buy the sort of flour they want. On account of this practice of the bakers,
many of the flour millers in Scotland grind only on hire.
(1495.) Flour is ])ut up in what arc called aavks. of 280 lb.«.. or 20 stones [of 14 pounds] imperial.
It is rendered firm in the sack by the sack being occasionally beaten against the floor by means
of a fork-lever, when filling at the spout leading from the dreusingmaeliine. Of wheat weighing
about C4 lbs. per bu.shel. 4J or 5 bushels will be reijuired to n.ake a sack of fine flour. Of the
fine crop of 181.5, I remember of the late Mr. Brown. Whitsome Hill. Berwickshire, selling to
Mr. Macka\-,of Clarabud Mill, in the same county, 800 bolls, or 4,800 bushels of red Dantzic creeping
wheat, which weighed 27 stones per boll, or G:i lbs. per bushel, and yielded 24 stones of fine flour,
and only 3 stones of refuse — that is, only one-ninth of refuse of the entire weight.* I find the fine
white wheat used by the bakers of Edinburgh yields 13J stones of 14 lbs. of flour from 4 bushels,
weighing 18 sts.. and 2 stones of odd, seconds, parings, sharps, aud wa.'He. and 2J sts. of bran.
(1496.) Many devices are practiced to adulterate Jlovr. I remember a miller in Cornwall being
fined in very heavv penalties for adulterating his flour with the washed felspar obtained from the
disintegration of tlie granite of his neighborhood. Potato flour and bean flour are mixed w ith
wheat flour, and though not positively unwholesome, or yierhaps unlawful, are frauds wlien fo
u.sed, as being articles of inferior value to the flour of wheat. There are modes, however, of
detecting any kind of adulteration. "If potato tlour be added," save Dr. Ure, " which is fre-
quenily done in France, since a vessel which contains 1 lb. of wheat flour will contain \\ lbs. of
potato flour, the proportion of this adulteration may be easily estimated. If gypsum or ground
bones be mixed with flour, they will not only increase its density still more, but they will remain
after burning away the meal." "Bean or pea flour may be detected by pouring boiling water
upon it, which develops the peculiar smell of these two substances." '• Nitric acid has the prop-
erty of coloring wheat flour of a fine orange yellow, whereas it does not affect the color of potato
flour." •• Pure muriatic acid colors wheat flour of a deep violet, but dissolves potato fecula." " As
fecula absorbs less water than flour, this affords a ready means of detection." " Alum may be
delected in bread by treating the bread in water, and pouring a few dropi of nitrate or muriate
of barytes in it, when a heavy white precipitate will follow, indicating the presence of sulphuric
acid.'t " Guaiacum," says Dr. Thomson, " is rendered blue by various animal and vegetable
sub.<tance8. It becomes blue, according to Tadei, when rubbed in the state of powder with
gluten of wheat, or with the farina which it contains."^ If a little of this gum and water be
put among flour, it is a very eood and ea.sy test of its soundness when the flour becomes blue.
'• It has been found so difficult to detect the adulteration of flour," remarks Mr. Babbaee, " and
to measure its good (jualities, that, contrary to the ma.xim that Government can generally pur-
chase any article at a cheaper rate than that at which they can manufacture it, it has been consid-
ered more economical to build extensive flour mills, and to grind their own com, than to verify
ea<'h sack purcha.sed, and to employ persons in continually devising methods of detecting the
new modes of adulteration which might be resorted to "|)
(1497.) Any one may analyze flour in this way : " A ductile paste is to be made wiih 1 lb. of
flour and a sufficient quantity of water, ami left at rest for an hour; then having laid across a
howl a piece of silken sieve stuff" a little below the surface of the water in the bowl, the paste is
to be laiil on the sieve, on a level with the water, and kneaded tenderly with the hand, so as
merely to wa.sh the starchy particles out of it The water must be several times renewed,
until it ceases to become milky. The gluten remains on the sieve. "^
(1498.) The analysis of wheat and nour by the celebrated Vauquelin pave the following re-
sult.s. It may be observed, however, of the wheat and flour subjected lo this analysis, that they
were of fon-icn growth, and the results cannot be adopted for practical purposes iii this country,
as if they had been obtained from British wheat and flour. "In general," says Davy, " ilje
' As HH inftsncenf the event fliictuntion in the price of wheat occHsioned by a difference in sratons, fniay
mention thai piirt of this tine wheal wns fold in 181.') for 32s. per boll of (> bushels, or Ss. 4d. per bushel ;
iind in Ausuct. 1816, a very wet FCBSon. part whs cold for 10."is. \>ct boll, or 17s. 6d. per bushel.
t Uie's Dictionsry of the Art*, art. Flour of Whrat. { Thomson's Organic Chemistry, VegctabUt.
II I'.nbbage on the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures. § Ure's Diriionary of the Arts, art. Brtad.
(30)
WHEAT AND FLOUR.
whfat of warm climates abounds more in gluten, and in insoluble parts ; and it is of greater spa
ttilic srravity, harder, and more difficult to grind."*
Components.
French
wheat.
Odessa
hard
wheat.
Odessa
soft
wheat.
Ditto.
Flour of
Paris
baiters.
Do. of {;ood
quality, and
in public
establish-
ments.
1
Ditto,
iuferior
kind.
Starcli
Gluten
Sugar
Gum
Bran
Water
71-49
10-96
4-72
3-32
10-00
56-5
14-55
8-48
4-90
2-30
12-00
62-00
12-00
7-56
5-80
1-20
1000
72-00
7-30
5-42
3-30
12-00
7-2-8
10-2
4-2
2-8
100
71-2
10-3
4-8
3-6
80
67-78
902
4-80
4-60
200
12-00
Total
107-49
98-73
98-56
10002
1000
97-9
100-20t
It appears that Odessa wheat contains more sugar than French wheat. The gluten mentioned
here is a mixture of gluten and albumen. The gum has a brown color, and contains azote. It
is the gluten which gives to a mixture of flour and water its tenaciousness, ductility, and elasti-
city, and forms the nourishing property of loaf-bread. Gluten has a great resemblance to animal
tendon or membrane, containing no less than 14^ per cent, of azote. When subjected to ferment-
ation, which is of a peculiar character, and has thereby obtained the appellation of panary fer-
mentation, a considerable volume of carbonic acid gas is evolved, but which is retained in the
mass of the dough by the tenacity of the gluten. Thus confined during its evolution, the gas ex-
pands the dough to nearly double its pristine volume, and gives it its vesicular texture ; and it is
the infinite number of these cellules filled with carbonic acid gas, and apparently lined with a
glutinous membrane of a silky softness, that gives to the well-baked loaf that light, elastic, po-
rous constitution which good bread always possesses.^:
(1499.) Leaven was at first used to produce the fermentation spoken of in dough. It is nothing
more than a piece of dough kept in a warm place until it undergoes a process of fermentation,
swelling, becoming spongy, or full of air bubbles, at length disengaging an acidulo-spiritous va-
por, and contracting a sour taste. A much better promoter of the panary fermentation is yeast.
which is the viscid froth that rises on the surface of beer ia the first stage of its fermentation.
(l.iOO.) With good wheaten flour, the proportion given by the bakers to make bread is |
weight of flour and \ of yeast, water, and salt. The bread loses 1-7 of its weight in baking.
With these proportions, a sack of flour of 280 lbs. yields 92 loaves of 4 lbs. each, [368 pounds.]
(1501.) It is not unusual for farmers to bake their household bread, and it may be done in this
way : Take, say 24 lbs. of flour, whether tine or ground overhead, and put it in a hollow clay
dish. Make a deep hollow in the middle of it ; and sprinkle a handful! of salt over it. Then take
\ a pint of thick, sweet, fresh, well washed yeast, about 5 quarts of milk-warm water, from 65'-' to
70^ Fahr., and a pint of bran, and stir them together in a pitcher. Too hot water will stop, and
too cold will prevent fermentation. Pour the water and yeast over the flour through a sieve, and,
mixing all lightly together, set the mass before the fire, covering it with a cloth. Light the oven
fire, and bring it to a due heat. In about an hour the sponge will have risen sufliciently, when it
should be kneaded with considerable force for about 15 or 20 minutes. The dough should not
be worked too stiff, though it requires to be a little stiflfer when the loaves are fired on their own
soles than when fired in pans. The kneaded dough is again set before the fire, and covered with
a cloth as before, when a new fermentation ensues, which will have proceeded far enough when
the dough increases half more in bulk, that is, in about an hour, when the dough is portioned out
into the size of the loaves desired, and placed in the oven to be fired. If the oven is too hot,
the dough will be incrusted on the surface too much and too soon, and if too cold, the bread will
be heavy, and not rise sufficiently in the firing. Experience must teach these particulars. This
quantity will make 31 lbs. of bread.
(150-2.) The danger of making the bread so^ir is incurred between the first and second processes
of fermentation. In the first it is the vinous fermentation, which of itself is innocent, but if in-
creased heat is applied, or the sponge allowed to stand too long, it is apt to run into the acetous
fermentation. This tendency is checked during the first process by kneading the dough in time.
If, however, the second fermentation is allowed to continue longer than it should be, the acetous
fermentation will rapidly appear, and then the bread will inevitably be sour unless some coun-
teracting expedient is adopted, such as the application of an alkali, as carbonate of soda, or of an
alkaline earth, as magnesia or chalk. It is certainly better to employ these neutralizing ingredi-
ents than to allow the batch of bread to become sour, but better still to use the means of making
the batch into sweet bread than to rectify that acidity in it which ought never to have overtaken
It ; and the means of avoiding acidity are, to make the sponge fresh in the morning, a short time
before the bread is to be fired, and not to allow it to stand over night in the kitchen, in a low tem-
perature. I speak from experience, and can safely aver that with these precautions not a sour
[I Under more appropriate heads, shall we note the results of a great variety of more modern
experiments and analyses, touching this important subject in every light. Professor Johnston is
ot opinion that the quantity of gluten contained in English Wheat has generally been stated
much too high. He concludes, on a view of all that has been said and done, that the quantitj^ of
gluten in English flour is seldom more than ten per cent.] Ed. Farm. Lib ]
- Davy's Lectures on Agricultural Chfiinistry, Edition of 1839.
\ Thomson's Organic Chemistry, Vvgetablts.
(31)
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
I>>af was seen in ray hoasc for many years. I do not say that a sponge left over night mu»t he-
ctiinc njiir, h\il oiAy thai h iii much mure opt lo bocoiue »>o tliau when fresh nia<lc. When the
8»'foiid fernKMitutidti in alloweil to proceed too tar, both ihc lactic and arclic acidw are formed ;
the lornior most sensibly atiects the taste, and the latter the smell ; and both combine to make
bread sour.
(1:^03. J Brewer's barm makes tlie lightest and best vea»/ for family ose, and what of it may not
be used at one time may be kept sweet for some weeks in the following manner. " As this sub-
stance works out of the barrels, it should bo placed in deep pans, and left to settle lor a (in y or
two. The thin tluid should then be poured off, and the pan filled with cold fresh spring wai.-r,
stirring the thick yeast welt up. Everj' day this operation is to be repeated, and occasionullv it
ought to be strained through a sieve into another vessel. It will thus always be ready for iihe."
Experience alone can tell whether the scent or appearance of yeast procured at a brewery ure
those tlie mo^t desirable ; but these hints may prove useful. " II it be fit for the purpose, it vi ill
smell rather fragrant: if stale it will have a strong acid, and slightly putrid scent in this stale,
we have known it to be recovered and rendered availa)'le, by adding a teaspoonfull of flour, the
same of sugar, a saltspoonfull of sail, and a tea-capfull of warm water, to a J pint of yeast, and set-
ting it near ihe fire to rise, having well stirred it. Tliis should be done about an hour before it is
intended to be mixed with the flour ; for that lime is required inorder to watch whether the lermcn-
tative principle is strong enough to work the bread. In a quarter of an hour, the mass will have
nearly reached its bight, and a fine head will have formed. This must be looked at carefully.
If it continue up and appear opaque, it may be trusted ; but if it ' go back,' that is, sink, look hol-
low and watery, and the bubbles break, it will infallibly spoil the batch ; it must be thrown
away. Bran ought alirays to be «,<e<f. however fresh and good the ferment may be found. Bran
contains an acid principle which tends to subdue the bitter taste of the hop, and it also (lossesscs
much fermentative matter that assists the action of the yeasL" In this way, " we have ourselves
baked bread that was made with the barm for our own home-brewed beer for six successive
weeks ; not from necessity, but in order to ascertain the extent of time to vk hich ycajit might be
kept sweet."*
(l.'>04,) Itisas.snmed by some people, that a mixture of potatoes among wheatcn flour ren-
ders bread lighter and more wholesome. That it will render bread whiter I have no doubt: but
I have as little doubt that it will render it more insipid, and more than tbi.s, it is demonstrable
that its use is less economical than wheaten flour. Thus, take a bushel of •■ seconds" flour,
weighing .56 lbs. at 5s. 6d. A batch of bread, to consist of '-'1 lbs., will ab.eorb as much water,
and require as much yeast and salt, as will yield 7 loaves, of 4 lbs. each, for Cs. 4d. per loaf " If,
instead of 7 lbs. of the flour, the same weight of raw potatoes be substituted, with the hope of
saving bj- the comparatively low price of the latter article, the quantity of bread that will be
yielded will be but a trifle more than irould have been produced from 14 lbs. of flour only, with-
out the addition of the 7 lbs. of potatoes : for the starch of this root is the only nutritive part, and
we have proved that but 1-7 or ^ of it is contained in every pound, the remainder being water
and innutritive matter. Only 20 lbs. of bread, therefore, instead of 28 lbs., will be obtained;
and this, though white, will be comparatively flavorless, and liable to become dry and sour in a
few days ; whereas, without the latter addition, bread made in private families will keep ircll for
3 weeks, though, after a fortnight, it begins to deteriorate, especially in the aatumo." The cal-
culation of comparative cost is thus shown : —
Flour, 14 lbs., say at Ijd. per lb = Is. 5}d.
Potatoes, 7 lbs., say at os. per sack =: 0 2
Yeaat and fuel = Q ij
2s. Od.
Tlie yield 20 Iba., or 5 loaves of 4 lbs. each, will be nearly 5d. each, which is dearer than the wheaten
loave8,which were 4d. each, and the bread besides of inferior quality. " There are persons who
assert — for we have heard them — that there is no economy in baking at home. An accurate and
constant attention to the matter, with a close calculation of every week's results for several
years — a calculation induced by the sheer love of investigation and experiment — enable us to as-
sure our readers that a gain is invariably made of from Ijd. to 2d. on tlie 4d. loaf. If <ill be in-
trusted to servants, we do not pretend to deny that tlie waste may neutralize the pmflt ; but, with
care and investigation, we pledge our veracity that the saving will prove to be considerablc.'t
These arc the observations of a notable housewife.
(l.'iOS.i The microscope has ascertained the xlructure of ichenlen flour. "The largest grains of
the fecula of wheat." says Kaspail, " do not generally exceed .002 of an inch in size. They are
spherical, and aloui; with them we see empty and lorn membranes, resulting from tin,- bruising
of the grains by the mill. They are mucn smaller, rounder, and better pre8»'r>eil. when they
are extracted from the grain while it is greenish, and not ripened on the stalk." "Paiiificatiun,"
he observes, " is a process whose object is to burst all the grains of fecula. which are in the fa-
rina, ai«aociated with a ver\- fermentable substance called gluten. The finest and best baked
bread is what is made of farina abounding in an elastic gluten : for this gluten, rising in large
blisters by the dilatation of the gases imprisoned within it, allows each feculent grain to partici-
pate in the communication of the heat, and to burst, as it would by boiling. Hence, alter paiiifi-
cation. if the pa.«te has been well kneaded, we do not find a single grain of fecula entire. The
bread will be duller and less [iroperly baked, if it contains less of thi.s gluten. This is the rea
pou why, other circunistano'g being alike, the bread of rje and barley is less nouri.xhing than
that of wheat. Wheaten bread will likewise be heavier and less perfect, according as the
flour has been more or less mixed with other grain or with fecula. It has been observed," he
continues, " that the more of foreign fecula we mix with flour the less increase of weight does
* Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, toL tx. t Ibid. vol. ix.
(32)
WHEAT AND FLOUR. 33
tlie bread acquire. Thus, 6 lbs. of flour produce 8 lbs. of bread ; but 3 lbs. of fecula of the po-
tato, will) 3 Ib.s. of flour, produce only 6 lbs. of bread. The reasou of this is the IbUuwing : —
The grains of lecula do not imbibe the water, but only are moistened by it ; in other words, it
only adheres to them. The gluten, on the other hand, imbibes it as a sponge would do. and the
moi-e it is kneaded the more it imbibes, and the water thus imbibed adds to the weight ol' the
bread. There are two rea-ons, then, against this sort of mixtures ; and this adulteration, though
it be not a crime, is still a fraud, because the immediate result of it is to diminish at once the
weight and the nutritive quality of the bread." Thus the minutest scientitic research corrobo-
rates facts evolved by practice.
(1506.) IVheat contains more gluten than any of the other grains, and it is this substance
which confers the relative value on wheat as an article of food. It is most developed when used
in the form of bread. " If we prepare two masses of gluten by kneading," says Raspail, " we
shall not be able to make them unite by simple contact ; but if we tear open the side of each, and
bring the edges together, the smallest effort will be sufficient to unite the two masses into one.
The object of kneading, then, is to press the two edges of the glutinous parcels against each
other. Hence the quantity of gluten will vary according to the mode of kneading employed.
Thus Beccaria, who contented himself with placing the farina in a sieve, and keeping it under a
strciim of water, but without stirring it, obtained less gluten than Kesselmej-er, who, in the first
place, made a paste of the farina, and then kneaded it continually under a stream of water, till the
water ceased to pass ofl' milky. In the former process, the weight of the water falling on the
farina brought a few parcels together, but kept asunder or disunited the greater number, which
consequently passed through the sieve. In the second process, on the contrary, the hand in
kneading compressed, turned in every direction, and brought together by every point of contact,
the scattered parcels, and scarcely allowed the water to carry off anything but the round and
smooth grains of fecula. I have ever found that, in this proces.s, we obtain more or less gluten,
according as the paste is pressed in different ways ; for when it is merely compressed perpendic-
ularly, we lose a good deal more of the gluten than when it is rolled upon itself with some force.''
(I.VJ7.) In regard to the nutritive pmpertie^ of gluten, there is no doubt they are of a superior
order, thougli not for the reason ascribed by Magendie, who concluded that gluten is nutritious
because sugar, which contains no nitrogen, could not support dogs in life beyond a certain time ;
while Parmentier was led to infer that gluten remains undigested. " But who does not perceive,''
junly asks Raspail, -'that animals till then accustomed to live on flesh, must suffer on being all
at once deprived of this aliment, just as a horse would suffer from being fed on flesh instead of
hay ; for as digestion is a complex operation, why should we seek to study it by violating its ele-
ments ? Sugar will not ferment by itself^why, then, expect that it should ferment without albu-
men in the stomach ? If this mode of experimenting entitle us to erase sugar, oil, and gum
from the list of nutritive substances, we must also erase pure gluten and even pure albumen;
for if an animal be fed on tliem alone it will die just as certainly as if it had been fed exclusively on
sugar. This is one of these questions," he concludes, "in which both sides are wrong, and the
truth lies in blending the opposite opinions together. Neither gluten nor sugar, taken singly, is
nutritive ; but they become alimentary when united."
(1508.) Wheat is used in s/arc/tmaking. "In starching linen," says Raspail, "the fecula of
the potato, of the horse-chestnut, &c. may be used, as well as that of wheat ; $nd it may be used
either hot or cold, in the state of starch or of powder. The effect will be the Same, provided tlie
irons used be sufficiently heated. It is sufficient to mix the fecula with a little water, to dip the
linen in it, clapping it with the hand, and to apply the hot iron while the linen is still moist. The
grains of fecula will burst from the action of the heat, the membranes will dilate as they com-
bine with a portion of the water that is present, the soluble mass will be freely dissolved in the
rest of it, and the linen will be starched and dried by one process." Fecula is used in making
size for paper as well as glue; and "it is known that weavers are obliged, in order to preserve
the humidity of the Joiner used in dressing the threads, to work habitually in low, damp, and
consequenth' unwholesome places. Dubuc, an apothecary at Rouen, proposed to add to the
dressing a deliquescent chloride, which, by attracting the moisture of the air, might prevent the
drying of the batter, and thus admit of the workman carrying on his labor in drier and more
healthy places. Vergnaud recommends the use of the fecula of the horse-chestnut, which con-
tains a proportion of potash sufficient to prevent the batter from drying."* " The wheat of the
south of Europe, in consequence of the larger quantity of gluten it contains, is peculiarly fitted
for making macaroni and other preparations of flour, in which a glutinous quality is con.sidered as
an excellence. ''t The macaroni is formed into different sized tubes, by the dough being pressed
from a machine in broad fillets, the edges of which are brought into contact and adhere, while
the dough is yet moist. Macaroni makes the finest flavored dish with Parmesan cheese.j;
[* It seems proper to advise the reader here, that this chapter does not embrace, by any means
all that is said by the author on the subject of Wheat. It will, hereafter, be treated under the
heads — Insects and Diseases affecting — Proper Degree of Ripeness for Cutting — Cutting and
Stocking — Carrying in and Stacking — Comparative Weights of Grain, Straw, and Roots — Au-
tumn Sowing. Plowing land for it — various modes of doing this — Importance of Thorough Drain-
ing—Preparation of the Seed and Sowing— Best Varieties— Sowing by Dibbling— By Trans-
planting—Expenses of this, and Sowing of Seed — Description of the Process and Germination
&c. All these points will be embraced in this volume, and we could wish to introduce them
now, in reference to the coming season ; but there are obvious reasons why we cannot break in
upon the systematic arrangement of the author.] [Ed. Farm. Lib.
* Ra.5pnil'8 Organic Chemistry. t Davy's Lectures on Asrricultural Chemistry, Edition of 1839.
(33) 3
34
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
Fig. 304.
(1509.) Barley.*— liB botanical poaiiion ia the 3d claas Triandria, 2d order Dig^nia. genus Hor
deum o| the Liniiipan gystem, and in the natural order of the Graminrtr. Profewwr Low divides
the cultivated barley into two dlBtinctions, namely the 2-rowed and the 6 rowed, and each of thc§e
comprehends the ordinary, the naked, and the (prat or
battledore forms.t Mr. Lawson dewriben 20 varieties
of hurley;* while the Mutu-um of the Hichland and
Agricultural f?(K'icty contjiins Bjiecinieng of 30 varie
tles.|| The natural claiuiifiraLion of Harley by the ear
is obviously of three kindx. 4 rowed, tirowed. and
2-rowed. Fig. 304 represents the three forms, where
a is the 4-rowed, or here or bigg : c is the firowed : and
b the 2rowed ; all of which figures represent barley in
half its natural size. Of these the here or bigg was
tliat which \\u.t cultivated until a recent perioti, when
tJie 2 rowed has almost entirely supplanted it. and is
now the most commonly cultivated variety, the G-rowoii
being rather an object of curiosity than culture.
(1510.) In classifying barley by the sr>'ain, there are
just two kinds, bere or l"irg. and barley ; and thouL'li
both awned. are sufficiently marked to constitute dis-
tinct varieties. In the here, the median line of the
bosom is so traced as to give llie grain a twisted form,
one of its sides appearing larger than the other. In the
barley the line passes straight, and divides the grain
into two equal sides. They are both represented in
tig. 305, where a is the bigg, with the twisted-like
grain, and lengthened point from which the awn has
been broken otf ; and h is the barley, whose shortness
and plumpness give it a character of superiority. Both
iliese clusters of grain are of the natural size. The
bigg has long been recognized in Scotland, and even a
2-rowcd variety, under tlie name of common or Scotch
barley, has lon^ been in cultivation ; but several of the
English varieties are now naturalized, and in their
new sphere sliow a brighter and fairer color, plumper
and shorter grain, quicker in the property of malting,
though less hardy and prolific, than the common bar-
ley. The crenulated or shriveled skin across both sides
of the median line in the Engli.sh barleys is a good cri-
terion of malting ; and as most of the barley raised in
his country is converted into beer or spirits, both of which require malt to produce them of the
finest quality, it is not surprising that those varieties which yield the greatest return of malt
should always realize the highest prices.^
(1511.) A good crop of barley j-ields a re-
turn of fuom 48 to 60 bushels the imperial acre.
Good barley weighs from 55 lbs to 59 lbs. per
bushel. A crop of 60 bushels per acre will yield
of straw, in the vicinity of a town, 176 stones of
H Ib.s. to the stone, or 1 1-10 ton, and the weight
of the grain of that crop, at 56 lbs. per bushel, will
be \\ tons. It takes of bigg 111 grains to weigh
1 drachm ; of 6-rowed barley, 93 ; and of Cheva-
lier barley, 80 grains. Of "the three kinds, the
Chevalier is much the heaviest.
(1512.) By far the largest proportion of the best barley grown in this country is converted into
malt for making malt liquor and spirits, and barley is alw) used for distillation in a raw state. In
three years, the following quantities of malt paid duty, viz. :
4-HOWED
6-BOWED
2-KOWKD
BERE OR
BARLEY.
CHEVALIER
BIGG.
BARLEY.
Fig. 305.
ENGLISH BARLEY.
SCOTCH BEKE OB BIGG.
ENGLAND.
SCOTLAND.
IRELAND.
TOTAL.
1S3J..
Bushels.
J 34,949,646
BushelH.
3.580,7,58
£462.514
3.604,816
£465,622
4,168,854
£538,477
Buehpls.
1,776,883
£229.514
1.825,300
£235.767
1.872,104
£241.813
Ku«heU.
40..307,287
£.5,141.775
41, .508,971
£.5,361, .574
43,237,9.56
£5,584,902
1835..
/ £4,449,745
\ 36,078,855
1836..
\ £4,660,185
C 37.196.998
I A4,e04,C12
(* The Barley Crop of tlie U. States, by the last Census, was 4,161, .504 bushels, much more than
half of which was grown in New-York. Maine produced 355,161 ; Ohio, 212,440 ; Pennsyl-
vania. 209,893 ; Michigan, tF" 127.802 ; and Virginia only 87,430. Ed. Farm. Lib.]
[^ Professor .lohnston. in his Table of the nutritive matter of different kinds, from an acre of
the usually cultivated crops, puts down Barley thus : Gross produce, bushels 35 — pounds 1800 —
Husk or woody fibre, 270 — Surch, Sugar, itc, 1,080 — Gluten. &c., from 210 to 260 — Oil or Fal
36 lo 54— Saline matter. .50. Ed. Farm. Lib]
t Low's Elements of I'rHctical Agriculture. % Laweon's Manunl.. |i Caihlogue nf iht Miitiunj.
• ,34;
BARLEY AND MALT. 35
Pot and pearl barley are made from barley for culinary purposes ; and both meal and flour are
manufactured from barley for the purpose of making unleavened bread, which is eaten by the
laboring class in some parts of the country, and barley bannocks are esteemed a luxury by people
in towns. Porridge of barley-meal, with rich milk, is accounted a pleasant and light supper, and
less heating than that of oatmeal.
(l.'in.) The barley has received great attention from the cliemist, both on account of its impor-
tance as a fermentable substance, and partly to discover its constituent parts. " The following are
the proportions of the constituents obtained by Einhoff from 3,840 parts of barleycorns :
Volatile matter 430 I Meal 2,690
Husk 720 I -r^jjj^i -5;^
From the same quantitj' of barley-meal he obtained —
Volatile matter 360
Albumen 44
Saccharine matter 200
Mucilage 176
Phosphate of lime, with some albumen. 9
Total 3,840
Gluten 135
Husk, with some gluten and starch 260
Starch, not quite free from gluten 2,580
Loss 76
Besides these substances, Fourcroy and Vauquelin ascertained the presence of phosphates of
lime and magnesia, and of silica and iron; and I found in it phosphate of potash and nitrate of
soda. Barley-meal, on being macerated, yields an oil. which is supposed to give its peculiar
flavor to spirits from raw grain. If this opinion is well founded, the oil must be dissipated or
destroyed by the process of malting."*
(1514.) The grains of the fecula of the barley are very fine, not exceeding .00098 of an inch in
size. Barley flour only contains 3 per cent of gluten, and is therefore much less nutritive than
wheaten flour. The hordein, ascribed by Proust to act so important a part in the germination
of barley, is asserted by Raspail to be nothing more, under the microscope, than bran. " That this
is the case," he says, '• is proved by dissection ; for if w^e make a transverse slice of each of the
grains of wheat and barley, we shall perceive that the pericarp of the wheat peels oflf entire like a
circular band, while that of the barley can only be detached in verj' small fragments. Now, what
takes place under the edge of the scalpel," he alleges, " will also happen under the pressure of
the millstone ; consequently the bran will be much more minutely divided in the farina of barley
than ill that of wheat. In bolting flour, therefore, it will remain in the sieve; while, in the
other, its almoist microscopic fragments will pass through with the fecula and gluten, and will be
almost inseparable, by mechanical means, from the farina." Hence, if pearl barley " be ground,
■we obLain from it a farina as white as that of wheat, and containing only a very minute portion of
hordein, equivalent to the amount of those fragments of the pericarp which had been protected by
their situation in the posterior groove of the grain." t
(1515.) '-The meal so highly commended, by the Greeks was prepared from barley. .... It
w^as not until after the Romans had learned to cultivate wheat and to make bread, that they gave
barley to the cattle. They made barley-meal into balls, which they put down the throats of their
horses and asses, after the manner of fattening fowls, which was said to make them strong and
lusty. Barley continued to be the food of the poor, who were not able to procure better provi-
sion ; and in the Roman camp, as Vegetius has informed us, soldiers who had been guilty of any
ofience were fed with barley instead of bread com." %
(1516.) Malting. — This process produces a considerable change in the constitution of the grain.
The barley is steeped in cold water for at least 40 hours, according to law. Here it imbibea mois-
ture, increases in bulk, and emits a quantity of carbonic acid gas, not exceeding 2 per cent.. The
moisture imbibed is 0.47, that is to say, every 100 lbs. of barley, when taken out of the steep,
weighs 147 lbs. The increase of bulk is 1-5, that is, 100 bushels of grain measures out 120 bushels.
The steep-water dissolves from 1-50 to 1-100 of the husk of the barley, and hence barley be-
comes paler by steeping. The steeped barley is then put on a floor in a heap 16 inches deep, to
remain so for 26 hours. It is then turned with wooden shovels, and diminished in depth to a few
inches by repeated turnings. In 96 hours the grain becomes 10° hotter than the air, and then
sjccals. when it is frequently turned, the temperature being preserved in the grain from 55° to
62°. The roots now begin to appear, the stem called acrospire springs from the same end,. and ad-
vances within the husk to the other end of the grain ; but the process of malting is stopped by kiln-
drying before the germ has made much progress. The kiln, at first 90°. is raised gradually to
140°. The malt is then cleaned, and the rootlets removed, as they are considered injurious, "and
are called cominx. Malt is from 2 to 3 per cent, greater in bulk than the barley, and it loses 1-5 or
20 per cent, in weight, of which 12 per cent, is loss by drying ; so the real loss is only 8 per cent.,
accounted for by the steep-water carrying away IJ per cent., dissipated on the floor 3 per cent.,
roots cleaned away 3 per cent, and waste i per cent. The roots take away the glutinous portioii
of the grain, and the starch is converted into a sort of sugar.
(1517.) Beer. — Beer is a beverage of great antiquity. " The earliest writer who mentions be(»;"
commences Dr. Thomson in his account of the process of malting, of which the foregoing para-
graph is the substance, •' is Herodotus, who was born in the first year of the 74th Olympiad, or 444
years before the commencement of the Christian era. He informs us that beer was the com-
mon drink of the Egyptians, and that it was manufactured from barley, because wines did not
grow in their country. In the time of Tacitus, whose treatise on the Manners of the Germans
was written about the end of the first century of the Christian era. beer was the common drink
of the Germans. Pliny mentions beer as employed in Spain, under the names of ctelia and ciriti,
* Thomson's Organic Chemistry. Vegetables. t Raspail'e Organic Chemietry.
X Phillips's History of Cultivated Vegetables, vol. i.
36
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
and in Gaul under the name of cervisia. Almont every specicB of com has been asod in the
manufaoture of beer. In Europe it ia usually made from hnrlry, in India from rice, in the interior
of Africa, according to Park, from the seeds of the Uolnix apicnhif. But whatever erain
is employed, the process is nearly the same, and it is usual in the first place to convert it into
malt " " t
(1518.) Oatit. — Oats are cultivated on a large extent of ground in Scotland, and it is believed
that no country produces greater crojis of them or of finer quality. The plant belongs to the natu-
ral order of fSraviiiuir. and it occupies the 3d class Triandria, 2d order Dtgynia, genus Arena,
of the Linniean system. Its ordinary botanical name is Arena na/iva, or cultivated oat The term
oat is of obscure origin. Paxton conjectures it to have l>een derived from the Celtic eftin, to eat4
There are a great number of varieties of this grain cultivated in this country. Mr. Lav^-son de-
scribes 37 ; 11 and .'i4 are ileposited in the Highland and Agricultural Society's Museum. $ The natu-
ral claHsification of this plant by the ear is obvious. One kind has its panicles spreading and equal
on all sides, and tapering toward the top of the spike in a conical form. The other has its panicles
shortened, nearly of equal length, and all on the same side of the rachis. Fig. 306 represents both
Fig. 306.
THE TARTARIAN OAT.
THE POTATO OAT.
the kinds, a showing the first and f> the second, where they both appear somewhat confined
or squeezed toward the racliis, tlie object being to exhibit the grain in the straw as taken from
the stack, rather than wiien pulled green from the field, a is the prolific potato oat, which is
beanlless, commonly cultivated in Scotland for the sake of its meal, and b is the white Tartarian
oat, which ia bearded, and extensively cultivated in England for horse-corn. The natural classi-
[t For a valuable Essay on the culture of Barley in the United States, from the pen of H. S.
Randall, Esq., see Thk Faumkiis' LiniiAHY andMonthly Journal of Agriculttjbe, Vol. II.,
page 233. It will be farther treated in this "Book of the Farm," under the heads — Insects and
Diseases incident to it — Stooking — Precdutions necessary against its Heating in the Slack — Quan-
tity annually Malted in Great Britain — Its Chemical Composition, and that of Barley Meal —
Grinding and Malting — Comparative Weight of Grain, Straw and lloou— &c. Ed. Farm. Lib.]
* Thomson's Organic Chemistry, Vegctahlts.
li Lawson's Agriculturist's Manual.
(36)
X Paxton's Botanical Dictionary, art. Avena.
§ Catalogue of the Musuem.
OATS AND OATMEAL.
37
fication by the g^ain consists also of two forms ; the one a round, plump grain, like a, ^^. 307. and
an elongated, thin grain, having a tendency to show awns, as at ^; the a kind being cultivated on
the best lands in the low country, the other
Fig. 307,
THE POTATO OAT.
WHITE SIBEBIAN EABLY OAT.
on poorer soils and in high districts. The
first is tender, and liable to shake with the
wind ; the other is hardy, and able to resist
Uie tempest. The former is cultivated chief-
ly for human food, yielding meal largely,
the latter being raised chiefly for the food
of horses. The straw of the former kind is
strong and inclined to reediness ; that of
the latter is fine, pliable, and makes an ex-
cellent dry fodder for cattle and horses,
there being a good deal of saccharine mat-
ter in the joints; the former is considered
late in coming to maturity, the latter early,
and is consequently so designated,
(1519.) The crop of oats varies from 40 to 75 bushels per imperial acre, according to the kind
and the circumstance of soil and situation. Oats varj' in weight from 36 lbs. to 48 lbs. per bushel.
Whiteness, of a silvery hue, and plumpness, are the criterions of a good sample. The potato oat,
47 lbs. per bushel, gave 134 grains to 1 drachm ; the Siberian early oat, weighing 46 lbs. per
bushel, gave 109 grains ; and the white Tartarian oat gave 136 grains. A crop of potato oats,
yielding 60 bushels to the acre, at 47 lbs. per bushel, will weigh of grain 1 ton 5 cwt. 20 lbs., and
will yield of straw 1 ton 5 cwt. 16 lbs., in the neighborhood of a large town ; or, in other words,
will yield 8 kemples of 40 windlings each, and each windling 9 lbs. in weight. But I have been
made acquainted with a crop of Hopetown oats near Edinburgh of no more than 60 bushels to the
imperial acre, yielding 2 tons 18 cwt. 16 lbs. of straw. The common oats yield more straw in pro-
portion to the grain than the potato variety.
(152U.) The portion of the oat-ci op consumed by man is manufactured into meal. It is never
called flour, as the millstones are not set so close in grinding it as when wheat is ground, nor are
they usually made of the same material, but most frequently of sandstone. Oats, unlike wheat,
are always kiln-dried before being ground ; and they undergo th's process for the purpose of al-
lowing the thick husk, in which the substance of the grain is enveloped, to be ground off, which
it is by the stones being set asunder ; and the husked grain is then winnowed by fanners, which
blow away the husk and retain the grain, which is then called groats. The groats are ground by
the stones closer set, and yield the meal. The meal is then passed through sieves to separate the
remaining husk from the meal. The meal is made in two states ; one Jine, which is the state best
adapted for making into bread, in the form called oat-cake or bannocks ; and the other is coarser
or rounder ground, and is in the best state for making the common food of the country people,
porridge, Scotice, parritch. A difference of practice prevails in respect to the use of these two
different states of oatmeal in different parts of the country, the fine meal being best liked for all
purposes in the northern, and the round or coarse meal in the southern counties ; but as oat-cake
is chiefly eaten in the North, the meal is there made to suit the purposes of bread rather than of
porridge : whereas, in the South, bread is made from another grain, and oatmeal is there used
only in the shape of porridge. There is no doubt that the round meal makes the best porridge
when properly made, that is, when boiled as long as to allow the particles to swell and burst,
when the porridge becomes a pultaceous mass. So made, with rich milk or cream, there are few
more wholesome meals for any man, or upon which a harder day's work can be wrought. Chil-
dren of all ranks in Scotland are brought up on this diet, verifying the poet's assertion,
" The haleaome parritch, chief o' Scotia's food." — Burns.
(1521.) In regard to the yield of meal from any given quantity of oats, it is considered that
when they give what is called even meal they yield half their weight of meal ; that is. supposing
that a boll of oats of 6 bushels weighs 16 stones, it should give 8 stones of meal, and, of course, 8
stones of refuse ; but the finer class of oats will give more meal in proportion to weight than this,
more nearly 9 stones, and some even 12 stones. The market value of oats is thus estimated by
the meal they are supposed to yield, and in discovering this property in the sample millers be-
come very expert. When oats yield less than even meal they are considered to give ill, and are
disposed offer horses, or kept at home for that purpose.
(1522.) The oat has not received that attention from the chemist as the barley or wheat. The
principal characteristic of oatmeal is, that it contains a large proportion of starch. " Vogel found
that 100 parts of oats consisted of meal 66, and of husk 34. The dry meal yielded
Fat yellowish-green oil 2
Bitter extract and sugar 8-25
Gum 2-5
A gray substance like albumen 4-3
Starch 59-0
Moisture and loss 23-95
Total 10000"*
" The farina of the oat seems, to the unassisted eye, cottony, or as it were felted, from the presence
of an innumerable quantity of hairs with which the seeds are covered. The grains of the fecula
have a size of about .00276 by .0018 of an inch. They appear in general yellowish, and
strongly shaded. Some of these have the appeai-ance, but not the form, of the fecula of the
potato."!
(1523.) "We find no mention made of oats in Scripture," says Phillips, " which expressly states
• Thomson's Organic Chettuatxy— Vegetables.
(37)
t Raspail'a Organic Chemistry.
»S THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
that Solomon's horses and dromedaries were fed with barley :" but •' the use of oats as a proven-
der for horses appears to have been known in Hume as early as tlie Chisiian Era. as we
find that that capricious and proliigate tyrant Ciilignla fed Jiiritnlns, liis fiivorile liorfe, with irill
onl* out of a poldi'n cup." OatH are mixed with hurley in the diNtillation of cpirils from raw
grain ; and " the Musooviics make an ale or drink of oats, wliich is of so hot a nature, and soxtronf;,
that it intoxicates sooner than the richest winc."''t
(1524.) Rt/e. — Kotanically, this plant occupies the same place, both in the natural and sexaitl
systems, as the other grains which liave been described. It is the Secale cereale of the botanists,
so called, it is said, ii sccamlo, from cutting, as opposed to leguminous plants, whose fruits used to
be gathered by the hand. A figure of the spike of rye may be seen at e. fig. 2T>^. It is a narrow
small grain, not unlike shelled oats. There is only one species of this plant, which is said to be a
native of Candia. and was known in Egypt 3.300 years ago : but there are several varieties which
are raised as food, 4 of which are describeii by Mr. Lawson{ and 7 to be seen in the Museum of
the Highland and Agricultural Society. |( The produce of rye may be about 24 bushels per acre,
and the weight of the grain is stated at Irom .'J2 lbs. to 57 lbs. per bushel ; the number of grains in
1 drachm weight being 165.
(1.V25.) The rye is not much cultivated in this country, particularly in Scotland, where only a
patch here and there is to be seen. It is, liowever, extensivc-ly cultivated on the Continent, espe-
cially in sandy countries, and indeed forms the principal article of food ofihe laboring classes. I
have been in many parts of Germany where none but rye bread could be )iurcha.sed. Hye bread
is denser than wheaten bread, an<l darker in color, and, when baked in the sweet state, is rather
agreeable to the palate ; but when baked sour, in which state it is commonly used in many places,
it requires custom to make one become reconciled to its taste. Horses on the Continent get it on a
journey in lieu of corn, and seem very fond of it.
(1526.) Einhotr analyzed rye-seeds and meal with great care : 3,840 parts of good rye-seeds
were composed of
Husk 930 I Pure Meal 2520
Moisture 390 |
Total 3840
] 00 parts of good rye-meal contained
Albumen 3-27
Gluten, not dried 9' 48
Mucilage 11-09
Starch 6109
Saccharine matter 3-27
Husk 6 38
Loss 5-42
Total 10000
•'But the proportion of these substances must vary extremely according to the soil, the climate
and the age of the rye. The gluten of rye differs in several particulars from that of wheat. It is
less tenacious and more soluble. When it is allowed to ferment, Einhoff perceived a strong
smell of nitric acid, which is peculiar to this species of gluten. The starch of rye bears a striking
resemblance to that of wheat. Like this last, it does not form a colorless solution with boiling wa-
ter, and always precipitates at la.st, when the solution is left a sufficient time to rest."$
(1527.) The' grains of the fecula of rye-meal are peculiariy shape*!. •' The largest grains of this
fccula." says Raspail, " are about 002 of an inch in size ; but what distinguishes them from all the
other varieties is, that they are flattened, and with sharp edges like disks, and for the most part,
marked on one of their sides with a black cross, or three black rays united at the center of the
grain."1I "*
(1528.) Beans. Beans belong to a very different tribe of plants to ihose we have been consider-
ing. They belong to the natural order of I.cgiiminoaa: , because they bear their fruit in legumes
or pods; and in the Linnaan system they occupy the class and order Diadelphia dccandria
l* The oat crop of the United States, as set down in the last Census, was 123,071,341 bushels. A
close run between New-York, 20,675,847, and Pennsylvania, 20,641,819. The next largest pro-
ducer was Ohio, 14,393,103, Virginia being the fourth on the list— 13,451,062 bushels. Profes-
sor JoK'NS70N may be here quoted, thus:
Special Manubk fob Oats. — To replace 100
pounUa of the inorgnnic mHllor of the OMt, accord-
ing to the nicsn composition of it« ash, the following
mixture is adapted :
Carbonate of soda 10 lbs.
Carbonate of maynesia 14 ..
Total - 174 lbs.
Five bushels of oat« contain 6 pounds uf inorganic
mRtlor. A crop of ."iO bushels, tnercfore, will carry
oft' (X) poundd, «nd will require 105 pounds of the
abovo nii.xuiri" to rcplHce it.
IW-dust.... 88K32,^g
i^ulpnuric Bcul 44 >
Carbonate of potash, (pcarlHsh) 18 ..
This grain will be farther discussed under tl;e heads — Diseases to which subject— Insects
attacking it — Weeds to which it is subject — How to remove them — Cutting, St(X)king and Stack-
ing Average Crop yielded by it, and its Value — Its Straw — Comparative Weight of Straw,
Grain and Hoots— &c. Ed. Farm. Lib.]
["• Rye crop of the United States in 1839, 18,645,567. Here Pennsylvania runs far in the lead»
growing 6.613,873, while the next on the list, New-York, gives but 2,979,323. Strange to say, the
f Phillips' llif-tory of CuliivBtcd Vegetables.
< I.iiwsim's Apriculturist'd Mnnunl. jj Cataloinic of the Museum.
^ Thomson's Orjjanic Chemistry— K«yrtoW«. 11 RaspaiVa Organic Chemistry.
(38)
BEANS AND BEAN-MEAL. 39
Their generic term is Faha vulgaris ; formerly they were classed among the vetches and called
Vicia Faba. The common bean is divided into two classes, according to the mode of culture to
which they are subjected, that is, the field or the garden. Those cultivated in the field are called
Faba rtilgaris arvensin, or as Loudon calls them, Faba valgaris equina, because they are cultiva-
ted chiefly for the use of horses, and are usually termed horse-beans. The garden bean we have
nothing to do with, though some farmers attempt some of the garden varieties in field culture, but
I believe without success. All beans have butterfly or papilionaceous flowers. Mr. Lawson hag
described 8 varieties of the field bean ; and 10 varieties are placed in the Highland and Agricul-
tural Society's Museum.* The variety in common field culture is thus well described by Mr.
Lawson. " In length the seed is from ^ to | of an inch, by § in breadth, generally slightly or rather
irregularly compressed and wrinkled on the sides, and frequently a little hollowed or flattened
at the end ; of a whitish or light-brown color, occasionally interspersed with darker blotches, par-
ticularly toward the extremities ; color of the eye black. Straw from 3 to 5 feet in length. There
is perhaps," continues Mr. Lawson, " no other grain over the shape and color of which the climate,
soil, and culture, exert so much influence as in the bean. Thus, in a dry, warm summer and har-
vest, the sample is always more plump and white in color than in a wet and cold season ; and
these more so in a strong, rich soil, than in a light, and more so in a drilled crop than in one sown
broadcast."! I omitted to mention in the proper place, under the head of our subject of barn-
work, that, as the bean is easily separated from its pod, the fast motion of the threshing-machine
should be put on when beans are to be threshed, and in case, even with the fast motion, the straw,
being brittle, should be much broken, the best plan to avoid this effect is to feed the sheaves thin
sideways, instead of lengthways, into the feeding-rollers. The pods being covered with a sort of
down, which becomes black on winning the crop, the threshing throws off this down like a thick
black, impalpable dust, which entering the mouth and nostrils and blackening the clothes, makes
the threshing of beans a di.sagreeable process ; and the noise occasioned by their impinging
against the iron lining of the drum-case, is almost deafening, and almost overpowering to human
speech.
(1529.) The produce of the bean crop varies from 20 to 40 bushels per imperial acre, much of
the prolificacy of the crop depending on the nature of the season. The average weight may be
stated at 66 Ib.s. per bushel. It only requires 5 beans to weigh 1 drachm. I have not cultivated
the bean so much as to enable me to ascertain the weight of a good crop of straw or haulm, in com-
parison with that of the grain, for it is seldom that the same season gives the largest return of
both ; but I have seen it stated that " it has been known to yield 2 tons per acre."t A crop of
50 bushels, at 66 lbs. per bushel, gives 1 ton 3 cwt. 64 lbs. per acre.
(1530.) Beans are administered to the horse either raw, whole, or boiled whole or bruised.
They are given to cattle in the state of meal, that is, husk and grain ground overhead, and that
not very finely. Beans, however, can be ground into fine flour ; and in this state are used to adul-
terate the flour of wheat. Their presence is easily detected by the peculiar smell arising from the
flour when warm water is thrown upon it. Beans are of essential service to support horses that
have fatiguing work. '• If beans do not afford more nutriment," says Stewart, " weight for
weight of oats, they at least produce more lasting vigor. To use a common expression, they
keep the stom ach longer. The horse can travel farther ; he is not so soon exhausted In
the coaching stables, beans are almost indispensable to horses that have to run long stages.
They afl^ord a stronger and more permanent stimulus than oats alone, however good. Washy
horses, those of slender carcass, cannot perform severe work without a liberal allowance of beans ;
and old horses need them more than the young. The quantity varies from 3 to 6 lbs. per day ;
but in some of the coaching stables the horses get more, 1 lb. of oats being deducted for every
1 lb. of beans. Cart-horses are often fed on beans, to the exclusion of all other corn, but they are
always given with dry bran, which is necessary to keep the bowels open, and to insure mastica-
tion, and for old horses they should be always broken." •' There are several varieties of the bean
in use as horse-com ; but I do not know that one is better than another. The small, plump Bean
is preferred to the large, shriveled kind. Whichever be used, the bean should be old, sweet, and
sound ; not mouldy, nor eaten by insects. New beans are indigestible and flatulent ; they pro-
duce colic, and founder very readily. They should be at least a year old."||
(1-^31.) Einhoff carefully analyzed the small field-bean. " From 3,840 parts of the ripe beans
he obtained the following substances :
Volatile matter 600
Skins 386
Starchy, fibrous matter 610
Starch 1312
Vegeto animal matter 417
Total
Albumen 31
Extraction, soluble in alcohol 136
Gummy matter 177
Earthy phosphate 371
Loss I33i
3840
Vauquelin could detect no sugar in it. He and Cornea de Serra found in the skins of the beans.
tannin striking a blue with the persalts of iron, animo-vegetable matter mixed with tannin, insol-
comparatively small State of New- Jersey, with her sandy soil, comes in next, before Virginia,
giving 1,665,820 bushels— Virginia, 1,482,799. Kentucky next— 1,321,373.
Special Manure for Rye.— The following mix-
ture is adapted to the composition of the iish of the
grain of rye :
Hone-dust 190 i
Sulphuric acid ".'..'...... . 95 ( ^^ 't)3.
Carbonate of potash, (dry) .'IS lbs
Carbonate of soda, (dry) 20 ..
Carbonate of magnesia 22 . .
Total 3.i9 .
Ed. Farm. Lib.]
' Catalosnie of the Museum,
t Lawscn's Agriculturist's Manual. % British Husbandry, vol. ii. || Stewart's Stable Economy.
40
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
able in water, bat eolublc in potash. The cotyledons contained a sweet-tasted eubetance, starch
tegumei), albumen, an uncombined acid, with carbonate of potasli, phosphates of lime, magnesia
and iron. The gcrmcit of the bean cuuiaiued white tallow, legumen, albumen, phosphate ol' lime
and iron."*
(1532.) The grains of the ferula of the bean " are egg or kidney shapetL often presenting an in-
terior grain, as if inclosed in the principal one. Some of them are tbuud broken down and empty.
They attain the size of 002 of an inch.'t
(1533.) The ancients entertained some curious notions in regard to the bean. The Epyptian
priests held it a crime to look at beans, judging the very sight unclean. But the bean was not
everywhere ilius contemned, for Columella notices them in his time as food for peasants, and for
them only.
" And herbs they mix with beans for vulgar fare."
" The Roman husbandmen had a religious ceremony respecting beans somewhat remarkable :
When they sowed com of any kind, ihey took care to bring some bean.s from the field for good
lack's sake, superstitiously thinking that by such means their com would return home again to
them. The Uomans carried their superstition still farther, for they thought that beans, mixed
Nvith goods oftered for sale at the ports, would infallibly bring good luck to the seller." They
used them, however, more rationally, when beans were employed "in gathering the votes of the
people, and for electing tlie magistrates. A rchife bean signified absolution, and a black one con-
demnation. From this practice, we imagine, was derived the plan of blackhnllins obnoxious
persons.''^ It would appear, from what Mr. Dickson states, that xhafaha of the Romans, a name,
by the way. said to be derived from Haba, a town of Elruria, where the bean was culiivated, is
the same as the small bean of our fields.]]^
(l.">34.) Peas. — The pea occupies a similar position in both the natural and artificial systems of
botany, as the bean. The plant is cultivated both in the field and in the garden, and in the latter
place to great extent and Variety. The natural distinction betwixt the field and garden pea is
ibund in the fiower, the field pea always having a red-colored, and the garden i>ea almost always
a white flower; at least the exceptions to this mark of distinction are few. Tlie botanical name
oi ihe ^ca.\s Pisitm sativum, \h(i cultivated pea, and those varieties cultivated in the field are
called in addition a/TeH.<e, and those in the garden Ao;/r«.<c. The name is said to have been
given to it by the Greeks, from a town called Pisa, in Elis, in the neighborhood of which this
pulse was cultivated to great extent. Mr. Lawson has described 9 varieties of the field pea, and
the Highland and Agricultural Society's Museum contains 14 varieties.^ Of these there are a late
and an early variety cultivated, the late kind, called the common gray f eld-pea, or cold-seed, is
suited for strong land in low situations, and the early, the partridge, gray maple, or Marlborough
pea, is suited ior light soils and late situations, and it is superseding the old gray Hastings, or hot-
seed pea. The gray pea is described as having " its pod semi-cylindrical, long, and well-filled,
often containing from 6 to 8 peas. The ripened straw indicates 3 varieties — one spotted with a
bluish-green ground, one light blue, and one bluLsh green without spots." The partridge pea
has its " pods broad, and occasionally in j)airs, containing from 5 to 7 peas, of a medium size,
roundish, and yellowish-brown speckled, with light-colored eyes. The ripe straw is thick and
soft like, leaves large and broad, and average bight 4 feet."**
(LOSS.) The produce of the pea crop is either in abundance or a complete failure. In warm
weather, with occasional showers, the crop may amount to 46 bushels, and in cold and wet it may
not reach 12 bushels the acre. The grain weighs 64 Ib.i. the bushel, and it gives 13 grains to 1
drachm. In threshing it, the feeding-rollers are put on the fast motion, and the sheaf is allowed
to be taken in by them, while the feeder holds on by the sheaf, and pulls it thinner and thinner.
Peas are as easily threshed out as beans ; but the process does not create such an oft'ensive dust,
though the noise attending it is very great. Peas are riddled with the oat-riddle, the refuse gen-
erally being small clods of earth and shriveled grains, which are left in the riddle, and given to
the pigeons.
(1536. J Chemists have examined the pea. " From ripe peas, by macerating them in water, and
employing a mode of analysis similar to that used in ascertaining the constituents of barley, Ein-
boti' obtained tlie following products; the quantity employed was 3,840 parts:
"Volatile matter 540
Starchy fibrous matter, with the coats of
the peas 840
Starch 1265
Animo-vegetable matter 559
Albumen 66
Saccharine matter 81
Mucilage 249
Earthy phosphates 11
Loss 229
Total 3840"
In regard to the substance named animo-vegetable matter, " it approaches most nearly to gluten;
[$ The reader may judge of the dependence to be placed on the Census as a presentment of
our National Industry and the amount contributed to the public wealth by the cultivators of the
soil, by noting the fact that no mention is made in it whatever of beans, peas, feathers, flax-
eeed, com-fodder, &c. The corn-fodder, according to the lowest estimate that can be made, may
be valued at more than S.IO.OOO.OOO. We have no means of estimating the amount of the bean
and pea crop, but looking at the returns for the State of New-York alone, taken in 1845 under the
State Law, we find the Beans put down at 162,171 bushels from 16,211 acres, being 10 bushels to
the acre. Ed. Farm. Lib.]
* Thomson's Orpsnic ChemUtry, I'tgttahU*.
X riiillips's HitKiry of Cullivaltd Vegetables, vol. i.
i; CniHlogue of the Museum.
(40j
t Raspail'fl Organic Chemirtry.
II Dickson's Husbandry of the Ancients, vol. iL
** Lawson's Agriculturist's ManuaL
PEAS. STRAW.
41
but as it differs in several particulars from trluten and from all other vegetable constituents, we
must eonsiiler it as a peculiar principle." " Wlien dried, it assume.i a lightbrav\'n color, and the
scuiitransparency of glue, and is easily reduced to powder. EinliofF remarks that he hns seen
the L'hiten of wheat assume this appearance. I have observed the same thing," says Dr. Tiiom-
son. •' twice. In both ca.ses the wheat was very inferior in quality, and had been the growth of
a very rainy season."*
(I'.'i?.) "The grains of the feculaof the pea are nearly of the same size as those of the bean, and
of i!ie form oftho.se of the potato. When fresh they are as strongly shaded at the edges as tho-se
of the bulbs of the Alstrcemeria pelegriiia. Their surface is unequal. The largest of them is
about 002 of an inch."t
(]."i.TS.) The pea was formerly much cultivated in this country in the field, and even used as
food, both in broth and in bread, penx hannocka having been a favorite food of the laboring class ;
but since the extended culture of the potato its general use is greatly diminished. It is now
chieliy given to horses, but is also split for domestic purposes, such as making pea-soup — a favor-
ite dish with families in winter. Its flour is used to adulterate that of the wheat, but is easily de-
tected by its peculiar smell, which is given out with hot water. Peas-meal in brose is adminis-
tered in some cases of dyspepsia. Peas-pudding is eaten as an excellent accompaniment to pick-
led pork. It used to be customary in the country to burn a Sheaf of peas, by which the peas
were roasted, and, when mixed with butter and served up while hot at supper, were eaten as a
treat under the name of carulins. In some towns where ancient customs still linger, roasted peas
are sold in winter in the hucksters' stalls. Pigeons are excessively fond of the pea, and 1 have
heard it alleged tiiat they can eat their own weight of them every day. " The ancients gave
peas to stallion horses, on account of a particular virtue which they were thought to possess."^ ||
(l.'):i9.) The.se are the confifituent>: in 100 lbs. of the ashes of the different sorts of grain we have
been treating of Instead of giving the constituents of each separately, I have collected them to-
gether, in order to show their comparative proportions:
l-'ONSTITUENTS.
Potash
Soda
Lime
Magnesia
Alumina
O.side of i.'on
Oxide of manganese
Silica
Sulphuric acid
Phosphoric acid
Chlorine
Wheat.
Total .
Lbs.
19
20 i
34
4
1
Barley.
Lbs.
12
12
41
8
1
a trace.
50
9
1
Onts.
Lbs.
6
5
3
21
"2
761
1^
3
Oh
100
Rye.
Lbs.
51
lOJ
41
^2
01
~2
4
31
15J
2|
H
1
100
Beans.
Lbs.
191
381
'?
u
6
m
n
100
Peas.
Lbs.
32|
30
01
~2
oi
161
2i
H
On comparing the numbers in these columns we may observe how much more potash peas con-
tain compared to beans ; now beans contain double the quantity of soda to that of potash ; how
there is as much magnesia as lime in the bean; how large a quantity of the oxides of iron and
manganese are found in rye compared to all the rest of "the grains ; how large a proportion of
silica the oat contains in comparison of the rest of the grains ; and how large a proportion of
phosphoric acid the bean contains to other grains. The following statement exhibits the iceio'ht
cif ashes leftby 100 lbs. of the sorts of grain spokenef above, according to the analysis of Sprengel :
The grain of wheat leaves M8 lbs. percent, of ash.
barley 2-35 ..
dried at 212 ° ...2-52 .. .. .'.
oats 2-58 ..
beans 2-14 ..
peas 2-46§..
(1540.) Straio.—AB the straw of the various kinds of grain which I have just treated of, pos-
sess different properties, and as they are best applied to different purposes, a few remarks on' their
peculiarities may be useful.
(l.-)41.i Wheai-straw.—Whea.Vslraw is generally long. I have seen it upward of 6 feet in
Icnsrth in the Carse of Gowrie, and it has always strength, whatever may be its length. Of the
two sorts of wheat, white and red, the straw of white wheat is softer, more easily broken by the
thresluns: mill, and more easily decomposed in the dunghill. Red wheat-straw is tough. The
str UN- oi some sorts of wheat of both kinds pos.sess their respective properties in a greater and less
df^-ree than others. The strength and length of wheat-straw render it useful in thatching, wheth-
er houses or stacks. It is yet much employed in England for thatching houses, and perhaps the
nv.-.! (jfuutitul thatchers are to be found in the County of Devon. Since the general use of slates
m > ■oilaud, the thatching of houses with straw has almost fallen into desuetude in that country.
Hi This crop, as already stated, is not noticed in the Census. The crop in New- York in 1845
was 1.7(31,487 bushels, gathered from 113,020 acres, or 15 bushels to the acre. Both this and the
bean will be yet much more fully treated hereafter, in other points of view not necessary to
particularize. ^^ ^^^„ 2,26.]
t PhinT'^rw".''^''"'';^^?'"'''^' ^'S'etablef. t RaspaU's Organic Chemistry.
, I Philhps 8 Hiatory of Cultivated Vegetables, vol. u. 1 f B
§ Compilea from Johnston's Elements of Agricultural Chemistry, and Lectures on Ag. Chem.
42 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
An existiiiL' tli:iirh-roof may yet b« rppnin-il in preference to tlie a'lnpt'on of a slateil one, bat • o
uew roof is tliati-lKHl with struw. Wheal 81 rnw makeH the besf'halrliinjj for com ftarkn. its lensih
anil Ktriiiu-litiii'ss insuring Mifcty. nealnepH. ami (tis|mlrli in ihe prort>«. in llie busy period of w-
curintr tin- fruits of the enrtli. It fonns an niliiiinible boltoniini: to the beddini: in every rourt and
hummel of till" stoadin?. Ah liltcrinir straw, wheat straw possesses superior (jualities. It is not so
suited for lodder to slock, its hardness ami lenL-tli beiiiii unfavorable to mastication ; yet I have
seen farniliorses very fonil of it. Horses in general are fond of a hard bite, and were w beat-
straw cut for lh''m by tlie chatl"euller of a proper lenelh. I have no doubt they would preft-r it to
every otiier kind of straw as fodder. The r/i«//'of wheat does not seem to be relished by any slock ;
and is therefore strewn on the dunt;hill. or upon the lairs of the cattle within the sheds. When it
fennenls. it cau.<»>s a threat iieat. and on this account I have snp[io.sed that it would be a valuable
insiredient in !ij<si.stinfr to maintain a heat around the frames of forcing'-pits. The odor arising from
wheat straw and chaff fresh threshed is cb'tinou.s.
(1542.) Bnrli'y-s/riiir is always soft, and has a somewhat clammy feel, and its odor, with its chaff,
when new thvcsiied. is heavy and malt-like. It is reli.sbed by no .sort of stock as fodder; on
the contrary, it is said to be lieleterious to horses, on whom its use is alleired to enf:ender urease in
the heels. Barley-chaff, however, is much relished by cattle of all ages, ami rouqh as the awns are,
they never injure their mouths in mastication. Harley-straw is thus only used a.s litter, and in this
respect it is much inferior to wheat straw eillier for cleanliness, durability, or comfort. It docs not
make a tood thatch for stacks, beinj? too soft and difficult to assort in lenpths. apt to let through tlie
rain, and rot. Barley-chaff soon heats in the chaff-house, and if not removed in the course of two or
three days, di-pendent on the slate of the air, decomposition will rapidly ensue. Barley-straw and
chaff .seem lo contain some active principle of fermentation.
(l.')4.'!.) Oiifsttair. — This straw is n)o.«t commonly used as fodder, beins; con.sidered too valuable
to be administered in litter. It makes a sweet, soft' fodder, and. when new threslied, its odor is al-
ways refresh intr. Its chaff is not much relished by cattle. Oat-.straw is very clean, raisins little
or no dust, and so is its chaff; and on this account, as well as its elasticity, the latter is ver>- com-
monly used in the country to make b'ds with tickings, for wliich purpose the chaff is riddled
through an oat riddle, and the larger refuse left in the riddle thrown aside. Sheep are very fond
of oat-slraw, and will prefer it to bad hay : and even on the threatening of a coming storm, when
on turni[is, I have seen them prefer it to good haj'. Of the liitlerent sorts of oat-.straw, that of tlie
comnjoi) o:Us is preferred, being softer, sweeter, and more like hay than that of the potato oat
When oats are c-nt a little green, the straw is much improved as lodder.
(154-1.) I'l/fs/rnir. — This kind of straw is small, hard, and wiry, quite unfit for fodder, and per-
haps would make but uncomfortable litter in a stable, though it would, no doubt, be useful in a
court for laying a durable bottoming for the dunghill ; but it forms most beautiful thatch for houses,
and would, of course, do for stacks, if it were not to expensive an article for tlie purpose. It is
much sought for by saddlers for stuffing collars of posting and coach-horses, and in default of this
wheat-straw is substituted. It is aLso in great request by brick-makers, \\ ho, as stated by a writer,
gave as much as £^ per load for it in the neighborhood of London in the winter of 1834-.'). but
from what particular reason is not mentioned.* Its ordinary price is i.'2 per load. The plaiting
of rye straw for hats was practiced so long ago as by even the ancient Britons, and was certainly
not out of u.se in Shakspeare's days, who thus notices the custom of wearing this elegant head-
gear on holidays :
" You Bun-bumed ticklemen, of August weary,
Come hither from the furrow, and be merry :
Make holy-day ; your rj-e-eiraw hats put on,
And then freeh nymphs encounter every one,
In countiy footing."
The Tkmpest.
I have seen very useful hats and bonnets for field-work made by laborers and field-workers from
the upper joint of wheat-straw. Beehives and rimkies — that is, baskets for supplying the sowers
with seed — are beautifully and lightly made of rye-straw ; but where that commodity is scarce,
which it usually is in Scotland, wheat straw is sub.slituted.
(I.'i4.').| PeoK and Benn-slrair, or hatthn. — It is difficult in some seasons to preserve the straw of
the pulse crops, but, when properly preserved, there is no kind of straw so great a favorite as
fodder with every kind of stock. An ox will eat peas-straw as greedily as he will liay ; and a
Lorse will chump bean-straw with more gusto than ill-made rye-grass hay. Young cattle are ex-
ceedini.'lj' fond of bean and peas chaff; and sheep enjoy peas-straw as much. These products of
the pulse crojis are considered much too valuable to be given as litter. Since bean-chaff is so
much relished by cattle, there is little doubt that bean and pea haulm, cut into chaff, would not
only be relished, but be economically administered ; and were this practice attended to in
spring, the hay usually given to horses at that season might be dispen.sed with on farms wliich
grow beans and peas. It is said that when work horses are long kept on bean-straw tlieir wind
becomes affected.
(l.'Mfi ) Of all the different sorts of straw, it appears that wheat, oats, pen.s, and bean-straw are
used for fodder, and that barley straw is fit only for litter; and that where there is a sufficiency of
oat and beau straw, wheat-straw might also be dispensed with as fod;ier. This being tlie relative
positions of the different kinds of straw, their supply should be so arranged as to prevent the waste
of tbilderstraw in litter, and this may be easily accom[ilished by having oat-straw in the straw-
barn with barley or wheat straw. The procedure should be in this v\-ise : In the early part of the
winter, the grain chicHy in di'nianil is barley. Barley straw should therefore be supplied, stack
after stuck, until all the stock, with the exception of the seed-corn, is disposed of During winter,
the corn for the horses should be threshed, and laid up in granary, and, as common oats are usual-
ly given to horses, the best sort of fodder could thus be supplied simultaneously with the litier-
* liiiiish Husbandry, vol. iL
^42,
STRAW.
43
straw of barley. After the barley 13 disposed of, toward spring, the demand for wheat com-
mences, and then the wheat-straw should come in lieu of that of the barley for litter. Farther on in
spring, the bean-straw conies in lieu of oat straw for fodder. In this way the time may pass on until
grass is ready for stock. See (13).
(1547.) The color of the fodder-straw affects the color of the dung of the various animals; tlius,
peas and bean-straw and chaff make the dung quite black, wheat straw gives a bleached appearance
to the dung of horses, and oat-straw gives it a yellow hue.
(1548.) i do not know that the specific gravity of straw has ever been ascertained by experi-
ment ; but I should say, judging only by surmise, that oatstraw is the lightest, and wheat-straw
heaviest.
(1549.) It may be interesting to you to give the constituents of the different sorts of straw spoken
of. These consist of organic and inorganic substances. The organic substances resolve ihem.selves
ultimately into the four elements of oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen. The inorganic consist
of a considerable number, a tabular view of which is here given under each sort of straw, for the
purpose of comparison. According to the analysis of Sprengel,
1000 lbs. of wheat straw leave 3.5-18 lbs. of ash.
barley .. 52-42
oat .. 57-40
1000 lbs. of rye-straw leave. ..27-93 lbs. of ash.
bean .. 31-21
pea
49-71
And 100 lbs. of the ash of each of these sorts of straw gave the following constituents ;
Constituents.
Potash
Soda
Lime
Mrgnesia
Alumina
Oxide of iron
Oxide of manganese
Silica
Sulphuric acid
Phosphoric acid
Chlorine
Total
Wheat
Straw.
lbs.
01
7
1
02
81
1
5
1
Barley
.Straw.
lbs.
31
1
101
3
0^
731
2
3
u
Oat
Rye
Bean
Peas
Straw.
Straw.
Straw.
Straw.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
15
1
531
45
a trace.
0^
n
03
~5
6
20
54|
0^
0^
H
fij
a trace.
\ 1
H
H
a trace.
\ "*
01
H
30
80
82i
7
1^
6
1
6?
H
0
H
4f
a trace.
n
n
Oi
100
100
100
100
On comparing the numbers in these columns, we cannot fail to remark how much potash there is
in the straw of the bean ; how small a trace of soda there is in all the straws; how large a propor-
tion of lime there is in the straw of the pea, compared to that of the bean ; how large it is com-
pared to that in the grain of the pea itself; how much more silica in the straw of the pea than
in that of the bean ; but how much more phosphoric acid in bean-straw than in that of
the pea.
(1550.) " The inorganic matter contained in different vegetable productions varies from 1 to
12 per cent, of their whole weight. The following Table exhibits the weight of ash left by
100 lbs. of the dry straw of the more commonly cultivated plants, according to the analysis of
Sprengel :
Dry straw of wheat 3-51 lbs. per cent.
barley 5-24
oats 5-74
Dry straw of rye 2.79 lbs. per cent,
beans 312
peas 4-97 "* •-
(1551.) Such are the kinds, uses, and constitution of the straw usually found on farms ; and the
proper management of them, so as to confer the greatest comfort to stock, and procure the largest
amount of manure to the farm, is a matter deserving much consideration. I fear there is too much
truth in the observation of Sir John Sinclair, when he says on this subject, that " the subject of
straw is of greater importance than is commonly imagined ; and the nature of that article, taken in
the aggregate, entitles it to more attention than has hitherto been bestowed upon it. Farmers are
apt to consider it as of little or no worth, because it is not usually salable, ami is rarely estimated
separately from the yearly produce of the soil. But though seldom salable, except in the vicini-
ty of towns, it has an intrinsic value as a fund for manure, and a means of feeding stock. "t
(1552.) The proper management of straw which 1 allude to, is that the respective kinds shall
always be appropriated to their best uses — that is, the straw best adapted for litter shall not be
administered as fodder, for if it be, the animals will thereby be rendered discontented ; if barley-
straw, for instance, is put before cattle that have been, or should have been, accustomed to oat-
straw, they \yill not only not eat the usual quantity of fodder, but eat that which they are obliged
to eat with disrelish. On the other hand, if fodder-straw is strown abroad for litter, it is not used
to the best advantage, being partly wasted. Again, if more straw is threshed at a time than can
be consumed in a few days in fodder, what of it remains to the last becomes dry and brittle, and
unfit for the use of stock ; and even litter straw, if kept for a long time before it is used, becomes
much lighter, and, of course, loses a portion of its value. So far, therefore, as the .straw is con-
cerned, it is bad practice to stack up threshed straw for a long time, as some farmers seem fond
Compiled from Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistrv.
(43,
t Sinclair's Code of Agriculture.
44 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
of doing-, for it then certainly wastes some of its properties as fodder or litter. The plan is. to
thresh the straw when and as often aa it is required, both lor fodder and litter, ui:d it will be
always in the fro!?liest state for um: in both wa^'s. But to follow out this plan successfully requires
the previous consideration whether there is a suthciLUt numbt r of stacks in the stack yard, for
tlie purposes of fodder and litter throughout the season, and if there is, then those sliould be se-
lected which are best suited, of the respective kinds, for those purposes, during the winter, when
tlie utility of good straw is most appreciated. The remainder can be used for the inferior pur-
poses of bottoming the courts and stacks of the ensuing crop and season. Should the whole quan-
tity of straw, however, seem inadequate to the demands upon it, then it should be threshed only
as re(juired, and dealt out with an economical and judicious hand, so that no part of ilie season
should be worse or better supplied than the rest. Do these considerations usually engatre the
attention of farmers ? 1 fear not, but certainly not so much as they deserve. I am aware that it
may here be observed, that it is of much greater import for the interest of the farmer to study the
slate of tile market for grain, than to lose that advantage by not threshing out the straw^. This is
feasible, but, at the same time, is the farmer aware how much injury he may receive by loss
of condition in stock, and deterioration in diin^, by being inattentive to the state of his straw? I
suspect the subject has received but little of hrs consideration.
(.1553.) It was at one lime a prevalent notion that straw could not be converted into good ma-
nure, unless it were consumed by cattle and horses; and the celebrated Bakewell carried this
idea to such a hit:ht that if he had not stock sutiicient of his own to consume his straw, he took in
those of others for tlie purpose. But he lived to see his en-or. Opinion changed to the opposite
extreme, so that many farmers persuaded themselves into the belief that straw consumed by
stock was wasted, and that it should only be used as litter. This latter opinion is nearer the truth
than the former, but goes beyond the truth ; for although it is quite correct to say that stock ought
to drperid on green crops tor food to fatten them, yet it is af-jo true that that food is much assisted
in its assimilation into the animal system by a participation of fodder. It is not merely that the
stomach requires to be distended by food, but sweet, dry fodder is an agreeable change to the ox
after a hearty meal ot turnips. Feeding stock really consume very little fodder ; and when it is
placed before them at pleasure, they may either partake of it, or pick out a few choice straws, or
let it alone altogether ; thus atibrding creatures as much liberty of choice in their food as their
confined situation will admit.
(1554.) The value of straw may be estimated from the quantity usually yielded by the acre, and
the price which it usually realizes. Arthur Young estimated the straw yielded by the ditterent
crops — but rejecting the weaker soils — at 1 ton 7 cwts. per English acre. Mr. Middleton esti-
mated the dittereut crops in these proportions :
Cwts. Lbs. I Cwts. Lbs.
"Wheat straw 31 or 3.47-2 per acre.
Barley 20 2,440
Oats 25 2,800
Average rather more than 25 2,862 per acre.
Benns 25 or 2,800 per acre.
Pease 25 2,800
or 1 ton 5 cwts. per English acre. Mr. Brown, Markle, East-Lothian, computed the produce of
straw as follows, in stones of 22 lbs. per Scotch acre, which I have contrasted with the imperial :
Stones. Lbs. Cwts. Lbs.
Wheat-straw 160 or 3,520 or 31 48 per Scotch acre.
Barley-straw 100 2.200 19 72
Oat-straw 130 2,860 25 60
Beans and Peas 130 2,860 25 60
Average 130 or 2,860 or 25 60 per acre.
or 1 ton 5 cwts. 60 lbs. per Scotch acre, or 1 ton 0 cwt. 76 lbs. per imperial acre.* In the imme-
diate vicinity of Edinburgh, the produce, both in Scotch and imperial measures, per acre, is this:
Stones. Lbg. Cwts. Qrs. Lbs.
Wheat straw 9 kemplesofiests. of 22 lbs. = 144 or 3,168 or 28 1 4
Bar'iev straw 7 .. .. .. =112 2.464 22 0 0
Oatstraw 8 .. .. .. =128 2,816 25 0 16
Average TTl .. .. .. =128 or 2,816 or 25 0 Te
or 1 ton 5 cwts. 16 lbs. per Scotch, or I ton 0 cwt. 13 lbs. per imperial acre. On comparing this
result — from the vicinity of a large town where a large supply of manure can always be ob-
tained— with Mr. Brown's general estimate for the whole country, and finding the quantity less,
we must conclude that Mr. Brown's estimate is above the mark as aii average one for the coun-
try ; and unless the production of straw be very much greater in En;.'land than in Scotland, we
must also conclude that the estimates of both Arthur Young and Mr. Middleton are above the
general average ; 1 ton the imperial acre of weight for straw is too hiijh an average for Scotland.
(1554.) In regard to the market value of straw, it being usually prohibited to be sold except in
the vicinity of towns where manure can be received in return, it is only from the value received
for it in towns that we can form an estimate of its value. In Edinburgh, the usual price for
wheat-straw is 128. per kempleof 16 stones of 22 lbs., or 9d. per stone; and for oat-straw 10s. the
kemplc, or 7Jd. per stone. This statement brings out and contrasts the values in Scotch and im-
perial measures :
Sinclair's Code of Agriculture.
(44)
WAGES OF FARM-SERVANTS. 45
Wheat-straw, 144 sts. of 22 lbs. at 9d. per st. ^ £5 6s. 4d. per Scotch acre of 10 bolls of 4 bushels,
= 10s. 7d. per boll.
Os-t-straw, 128 sts. of 22 lbs. at 7^d, per st. = £4 per Scotch acre of 10 bolls of 6 bus.^ 8s. pr boll.
Equivalent to
Wheat straw, 181 sts. of 14 lbs. at 5|d. per st. = £i 6s. 9d. per imperial acre of 8 bolls of 4 bushels,
= 10s. 9d. per boll.
Oat-straw, 161 sts. of 14 lbs. at 45d. per 8t.=£3 48. per imp. acre of 8 bolls of 6 bushels ^8s. per boll.
In thjse parts of the country where straw, with its com, is allowed to be sold on foot — that is, as
it grows in the iield — but prohibited from being sold by itself, the price for wheat-straw is 6s. per
boll of 4 bushels, and 5s. per boll of oat-straw of 6 bushels. The quantity of straw per boll and
per bushel will stand thus :
Wheat-straw, 14 sts. 8 lbs. of 22 lbs. per boll of 4 bushels = 3 sts. 11 lbs. per bushel.
Oat-straw, 12 .. 17 .. .. .. 6 .. = 2 sis. 3
Or WHieat-straw, 18 .. 1 .. 11 -- 4 .. = 4 sts. 7
Oat-straw, 16 .. 1 .. .. -- 6 .. =2 sts. 9
(1556.) The Homans used straw as litter, as well as fodder, for cattle and sheep. They consid-
ered millet-straw as the best for cattle, then barley-straw, then wheat-straw. This arrangement
is rather against our ideas of the qualities of barlej- and wheat-straw ; but very probably the hot
climate of Italy may improve the quality of the barley-straw by making it drier and more crisp,
and render that of the wheat too hard and dry. The haulm of pulse was considered best for
sheep. They sometimes bruised straw on stones before using it as litter, which is analogous to
having it cutWith the chaff-cutter, as has been recommended.
(1557.) Where straw is scarce, thej- recommend the gathering of fern, leaves, &c., which is a
practice that may be beneficially followed in this countn,-, where opportunity occurs. Varro
says: '■ It is the "opinion of some that straw is called dramentum because it is strewed before the
cattle."*
4. THE WAGES OF FARM-SERVANTS.t
" The husbandman that laboreth must be first partaker of the fruits."
St. Paul.
(1558.) Winter is the time in which wages in kind are paid to farm-
servants ; and the part of that season chosen for the purpose is about the
end of the year. It is requisite that harvest shall be completely over in
the latest season, and every preparatory operation connected with the ac-
commodation of stock, either on turnips or in the steading, be gone
through, before the business of threshing the crop in a regular order be
commenced. In connection with threshing the crop, a plan should be
adopted for supplying straw for fodder and litter, as recommended in
(1457), as well as for placing a quantity of new oats in the granary, to be
drying and to be ready for use by the time the perhaps small stock of old
corn shall be consumed. After all these preparatory operations inciden-
tal to winter have been accomplished, and before much of the new crop
has been disposed of at market, farther than to ascertain its general quality
[t We need not say that in copying this chapter, we suppose that there is much, if any of it,
susceptible of adaptation to our country — still, the system of farm wages is one so obviously and
intimately interwoven with the agincultural economy of every country that every gentleman may
be presumed to be curious to know how these systems differ in different parts of the world. The
high price of wages in this country, and the scarcity of that and capital in their proportions to the
price of land, not only prevent the restoration of exhausted lands in the old Atlantic States, but
are fruitful sources of exhaustion and abandonment of Stales comparatively new — as Western
New-York for example.
What constitutes of itself a great advantage in favor of laboring people in the United States is,
that they are almost invariably " found," or boarded by their employers, and in the Free States in
most cases eat at the same table, three times a day, with the farmer and his family. For a head
man on a farm. $12 may be put down as the usual wages, and for hands or " helps " by the
month from $8 to SlO. Ed. Farm. Lib.]
' Dickson's Husbandry of the Ancients, vol, ii.
(45)
46 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
and price, the first leisure afforded by them is taken for paying the farm-
servants their yearly wages of corn ; and as the quantity distributed is
considerable on a large farm, and as all the servants should receive their
wages at the same time, to avoid jealousy, there will be a considerable
quantity of threshed grain in the bam before the distribution takes plare.
The servants receiving a variety of com, that kind shoidd be first distrib-
uted which is found most convenient for the farmer to thresh ; and each
kind should be delivered, and the barn cleaned out, before another is in-
terfered with.
(1559.) I have already enumerated the different classes of laborers em-
ployed on a farm from (241) to (252) ; and I may here mention generally,
that the wages of all may be classed under three heads : 1st, Those con-
sisting chiefly of kind, that is, of the produce of the farm, and but a small
sum in cash ; 2d, Those consisting of a large proportion of cash and small
amount o£ hind ; and, 3d, Those which consist entirely of cash. The re-
cipients of the first and third classes may \>e engaged on the same farm,
and the third class may be found exclusively on a farm, but the first and
second classes are never found together ; and as all three modes of paying
wages coexist in this kingdom, though in different parts of it, they afford
a criterion for judging which is the best mode fi»r all parties, for master
and servant ; which the most convenient for the master, which the most
conducive to the servants' comfort and moral habits. Plowmen or hinds
constituting the principal or staple class of laborers on a farm, like the
battalion-men in a regiment, the terms of their wages are taken as a stand-
ard of comparison for those of the rest.
(15G0.) Plou-men's wages. — These are paid in all the three modes enu-
merated above (1559), the first mode being in general adoption in the bor-
der counties of England and Scotland ; the second mode being practiced
in the midland and northern counties of Scotland ; and the third having
long been adopted in the southern counties of England.
(1561.) Wages in kind and money differ, in their constituent items, in
different counties, but only in a slight degree ; the aggregate items afford-
ing sufficiency of food to support a plowman and his family. I shall enu-
merate the particulai's received by the plowmen of Berwickshire and
Northumberland :
In Beririckshire.
10 bolls = 60 bushels oau, at 128. lOJd. per boll £6 8 9
3 .. =18 .. barley, at 19f>. IQid 2 19 7J
1 .. = 6 .. peas at 238. 3d. 1 3 3
12 .. = 1200 yards potatoes at 48 2 8 0
A cow's keep for the year 8 0 0
Cottage and garden 1 10 0
Carriage of coals 2 0 0
Cash 4 0 0
Equal to lOs. Hid. per week .£28 9 TJ
In Northumberland.
6 bolls = 36 bushels oats, at 128. 10 Jd. per boll £3 17 3
4 .. =24 .. barlov, at 1!>8. lOJd 3 19 6
2 .. =12 .. peas.' at 23s. .Id 2 6 6
3 .. wheat, at 47s. 2d. per quarter 0 17 8j
3 .. r>e, at 298. 4d Oil 0
40 .. potatoes, at Is 2 0 0
24 lbs. of wool, at Is 14 0
A cow's keep for the year 9 0 0
C.irriage of coals 2 0 0
Cash 4 0 0
Equal to lis. 5d. per week £2!) lullj
To the money value of both particulars I attach no impoi-tance, fan! <'r
than giving to them a tangible form ; for the prices of agrictiltui-il jmo-
(46)
WAGES OF FARM-SERVANTS. 47
duce affect neither master nor servant in their relation to one another, the
point simply being, that the master supports the servant in an adequate
manner. Any difference, therefore, show^n in the w^eekly visages between
10s. lljd. and lis. 5d. as brought out in estimating the money value of
the particulars does not in fact exist, because the plowmen of both coun-
ties live equally well. Instead of taking an imaginary rate of prices, I
have selected the aggregate average, as given in the Universal Corn Re-
porter of 20th January, 1843. Besides working a pair of horses, the plow-
man is bound to supply a field-worker, whether a woman or a boy, usu-
ally the former, whenever the farmer requires her services, and who re-
ceives for her work lOd. a day, and in harvest 2s. 6d. a day, besides
victuals. In harvest-wages there is a difference between the two counties,
and it is explained in this way. In Northumberland, it will be observed
that the rent of the house and garden is set down at d£3 a year, while the
plowman receives 2s. 6d. a day, and victuals, for the field-worker in har-
vest ; whereas, in Berwickshire, the plowman is bound to work the har-
vest as rent for his house and garden, receiving only victuals, which I have
estimated at that season at Is. a day for 30 days, which is as long a period
as harvest may be expected to last, and which should be deducted from
c£3 of rent. There is also a difference in the cow's keep. In Berwick-
shire, the allowance is 60 stones of 22 lbs. of hay in winter in lieu of tur-
nips ; but turnips are always preferred, and these are given to the amount
of 6 double horse-loads, 3 of white and 3 of Swedes. In Northumbeiland,
10 cart-loads of white turnips are given, or 5 uf white and 3 of Swedes ;
or, in lieu, 1 ton of hay, or 100 stones of 22 lbs.; so that the Northumber-
land cow is better off by =£1 in winter than the Berwickshire, and the dif-
ference is certainly so far an improvement on the condition of the English
hind. Both cows have as much straw as they can use. The grain which
the plowman can claim is next in quality to the seed-corn ; and in Ber-
wickshire he receives it in advance at the end of the year, which is in the
middle of the year's engagement from Whitsunday (May) to Whitsunday.
In Northumberland, the corn is paid in advance once a quarter. The corn
is ground in any way the plowman pleases, at one of the small mills of the
country, for the mere miller's multure ; so he saves the profits of the re-
tail dealer. If he cannot consume all his com, the farmer willingly takes
what he has to spare at the current market price. The produce of the
cow, over and above what is required to serve the plowman and his family,
may be disposed of; and if the cow is a good one, and the season favora-
ble, and the wife a good dairymaid, a considerable sum may be realized
from the cow during the year. Her calf, if early and gotten by a well-
bred bull, will fetch ,£2, and perhaps more ; if late, it may still be worth
20s. The refuse of the dairy, of the garden, and the house, enables the
plowman to fatten two pigs every year; one for his own use, and the
other to dispose of. The cow is the plowman's own property ; and to
lose her by death is a serious affliction upon him. I have seen men with
families much injured by such a loss, and could never refrain from render-
ing the poor fellows some assistance. To avert so serious a calamity to a
poor man, cow-clubs have been established, to purchase cows for the mem-
bers who may have the misfortune to lose them. Farmers subscribe ac-
cording to their number of plowmen, and each plowman who wishes to
enjoy the benefit subscribes Is. a quarter to the funds of the club.
(1562.) Wages, 7>iorc in cash than in kind, are more extensively given
in Scotland than the plan which I have just described. Tho.se who re-
ceive this species of wages are chiefly sinq-'le men, living either in the farm-
er's house, or in a house by themselves called a bothi/. The practice of
48 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
allowing farm-servants to take their meals in the fanner's house is falling
fast into desuetude, and its abandonment is much to be regretted, for it is
a far better plan for the comfort of the men tliemselves than the bothy
system. But married men are also supported in this form of wages, though
their condition is not so good as that of the plowmen on the preceding
plan, but it is certainly preferable to the bothy system.
(1563.) The portion of wages received in kind consists of oatmeal and
milk. The meal amounts to 2 pecks per week for each man, that is, 1
stone of 17-^ lbs., which makes 6^ bolls per annum, or 65^ stones of 14 lbs.;
and this at Is. per peck gives a money value of <dl5 4s. a year. The milk
is supplied either fiesh fiom the cow or after the cream has been skimmed
off, according to agreement. In the former state it is given to the amount
of 1 Scotch pint or 2 quarts a day ; and in the latter state, 3 quai ts are
given in summer, and 2 in winter. The value of the milk is usually es-
timated at c£4 a year. In some cases a cow or cows are supplied to the
men, who milk them, and are exchanged for others when they go dry ; but
supplying milk is the least troublesome plan for the master. These items
o£ kifid, with from c£10 to <£ 14 a year of cash, varying with the rate of .
wages in the country, or according to the skill of the plowman, constitute
the earnings of a plowman on this system. It is only in the amount of
cash that these wages vary at any time, for what is given in kind is con-
sidered invariable, being no more food than a stout man can consume ;
but some cannot consume it all, and save a part of the meal, which they
either dispose of to the farmer or to dealers. In stiict fairness, the meal
should be given to the men every week, but to save trouble, it is dealt out
once a month or once a fortnight. The milk, of course, is supplied every
day.
(1564.) Besides these principal ingredients, the mamed men get a
house and garden rent free, and coals are driven free to their house. The
single men are provided with a room containing a number of beds, which
are occupied each by two men ; and the bed-clothes, consisting of a chaff
ticking and bolster, blankets, sheets and coverlid, are provided by the mas-
ter, and replaced clean every month. This room is called the hothy, and
it usually forms both the sleeping-chamber and cooking-apartment of all
its inmates, which may amount to as many men as there are plowmen em-
ployed on the farm. The men are supplied with fuel all the year round,
with which to cook their victuals, and which they do for themselves. The
fuel consists of wood, brushwood, or coal, according to the supplies of the
locality ; but in winter, coal is always laid in to the extent of 1 ton each
man. Salt is also provided by the master ; and he also furnishes a pot
for cooking in, a dish for holding milk, and some forms and perhaps a ta-
ble ; but this last article of furniture is often dismissed from the bothy with
little ceremony, a form, or the lap, making a much more desirable dinner-
board. A few potatoes are generally given in winter.
(1565.) The oatmeal is usually cooked in one way, as hrose, as it is
called, which is a different sort of pottage to porridge. A pot of water is
put on the fire to boil, a task which the men take in turns ; a handful! or
two of oatmeal is taken out of the small chest with which each man pro-
vides himself, and put into a wooden bowl, which also is the plowman's
property ; and on a hollow being made in the meal, and sprinkled with
salt, the boiling water is poured over the meal, and the mixture receiving
a little stimng with a horn spoon, and the allowance of milk poured over
it, the brose is ready to be eaten ; and as every man makes his own brose,
and knows his own appetite, he makes just as much brose as he can con-
sume. The bowl is scraped clean with the spoon, and the spoon licked
(48}
WAGES OF FARM-SERVANTS. 49
clean with ihe tongue, and the dish is then placed in the meal-chest for a
similar purpose on the succeeding occasion. The fare is simple, and is as
sim])ly ni'idc^; but it must be wholesome, and capable of supplying the loss
of substance occasioned by hard labor; for I believe that no class of men
can endure more bodily fatigue, for ten hours every day, than those plow-
men of Scotland who subsist on this brose thrice a day.
(1566.) The plowmen who receive cash for wages, are in the same con-
dition as day laborers, who receive their earnings once a week and pur-
chase their subsistence at retail dealers' in country towns and villages.
This, I believe, is the condition of most of the plowmen in the southern coun-
ties of England. There is one obvious remark, occasioned by this state-
ment, which cannot fail to be considei-ed by every farmer, which is, that
unless money wages adapt themselves to the fluctuating prices of the
commodities upon which fa nu- servants subsist, servants so paid must sufier
much privation on a rise in the price of provisions ; and on the other hand,
when prices again fall , they receive higher wages than they are entitled to.
They are thus subjected to vicissitudes in their condition, fiom which the
former two classes of plowmen are exempt.
(1567.) The wages of stewards are in all respects similar to those of the
plowmen of whom tj^ey have the charge, the only diflerence being in the
amount of cash received, which is always greater than that given to the
plowmen. Instead of ^4, given to the former class of plowmen, they may
receive .^12 or £.15, and instead of c£12 or c£14 given in cash to the latter
class, they may receive from >i620 to c£25 ; and if there is any difference in
the size or situation of the servants' houses, the best is appropriated to
them. In most cases the steward is exempt from attendance on the farm
on Sundays, while in others he takes his turn along with the other men,
which latter is the better plan for the master, as the steward can then have
much better opportunity of observing whether the men fulfill their duties
properly.
(1568.) The shepherd receives the same amount of kind and money as
the plowman ; but as he is accounted a skillful servant, and his hours of
attendance extend every day from sunrise to sunset, he has leave to keep
a small flock of sheep of his own, which is maintained by his master, and
the produce of which he is entitled to dispose of every year. His flock
consists of breeding-ewes, which vary in number from half a score, such
as of Leicester ewes in the low country, to perhaps twoscore of Black-
faced ewes in the highest districts. About \ of the number of the ewes
being disposed of every year, -he is entitled to retain as many ewe-lambs
Df his flock as will maintain the full number of his breeding-ewes. The
shepherd's dog is his own property, often purchased at a high rate, and
trained with much trouble and solicitude.
(1569.) The hedger, being considered a day laborer or spadesman, gets
a smaller proportion of kind than the first class of plowmen, and more
money, and generally no cow's-keep ; and where the second class of
plowmen exist, no hedger is kept as a hired servant, but is viewed in the
light of a day-laborer, and is paid money-wages accordingly. Being a
skillful man, the hedger never receives less than c£40 a year in value, and
more frequently £1 a week. He can sow corn, build stacks, and do any-
thing that the steward can, and sometimes all that the shepherd can be-
sides.
(1570.) The cattle-man, being viewed as a laborer, receives some of his
wages in kind and the rest in cash, and is seldom indulged with a cow.
Being generally a person somewhat advanced in life, the rate of his wages
is not high — perhaps 9s. a week ; and it is well when such a post as this
(97) 4
60 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
can be given on a farm to an old and faithful plowman or shepherd, whose
growing infirmities disable him from undertaking his former active duties.
(1571.) 'Y\\e field-ivorkcr is simply a day-laborer, and receives lOd. a day,
without any wages in kind, from the farmer. This person is usually a
woman. The first class of plowmen are each bound to supj)ly a field-
worker for the farm during the year, they receiving the wages earned by
the workers in that time. They hire the women in the public markets
and support them in their houses with bed and board and wages. Should
the field-worker obtain constant employment on the farm, the plowman
may profit by the anangement. On large i'arms field-workers are almost
constantly employed. The practice had, no doubt, arisen at a time when
few women could be persuaded to work in the fields ; and the circum
stance of plowmen being bound by agi-eement to supply such laborers,
these latter have long been designated by the odious name of bondagers,
an epithet no doubt left us in legacy by our feudal forefathers. The prac-
tice has been found fault with, and even represented as a species of slavery,
probably because of the odious designation given to the condition of the
women ; but the tmth is, there is no more binding or slavery about the
matter than in the case of the plowmen themselves, and even less, for they
are bound by agi-eement to work for a year, wherea^ the hondager's term
is only for six months. The epithet is a nick-name, and should be relin-
quished for the proper name of field-worker ; but the practice is good,
because it enables the farmer to command a certain number of hands at
all times, and also to accomplish his ends by his own resources, independ-
ent of extraneous aid. It is no answer to say that women may be hired
out of villages when their services are required, because many large farms
are situate far from any village ; and even the vicinity of a village will not
secure a supply of field-workers, as I have myself experienced to my vex-
ation ; for whenever trade is brisk, manufact\irers not only pick up all the
hands they can procure, but the work which they supply being done by
the piece, at which greater wages than at field-work can be earned in long
hours of labor, a temptation is presented to women laborers to desert the
fields ; and to such a degree of stringency is this monopoly of labor car-
ried by manufacturers that they will not allow their people to go and as-
sist at harvest. A resource of labor like the Border system should, there-
fore, not be yielded by the farmer, until a better, or one as efficient, can
be substituted. Its hardship, however, is not imputed to the workers them
selves but to the plowmen who must hire them ; but if there is any hard-
ship in it to the plowmen, they nevertheless engage in it voluntarily with
all its inconveniences, rather than abandon their profession ; though, no
doubt, if a man have no family, and the work is but limited, the fiu])port
of a field-worker may press hard upon his gains, but there is this allevi-
ating circumstance, even in such a case, that the burden is imposed upon
a man who has no family to support; whereas, a family of daughters is a
great source of income to a plowman, one doing the bondage work, others
being paid for their labor, and all contributing to the support of a com-
mon fund. The system has no bad effect on the bondagers themselves ;
for they are cheerful and happy at work, and are well clad on Sundays.
Nor are they ever put to any labor beyond their strength; for as to the
alleged " unfenuiiiM. practice of females driving dung-carts,"* the practice
is not more unfeminine than helping to fill dung-carts, or turning dung-
hills ; but the fact is, women do not drive carts, in the usual sense of that
term ; they only walk beside the cart, in the absence of the driver at more
laborious work, to and from the dunghill to tlie place of its destination,
• Report of the Cottage Improvement Society of North Northumberland for 1842.
(98)
WAGES OF FARM-SERVANTS. 51
merely to keep the carts clear of one another, and when so employed they
have nothing to do with the yoking or loosening of the horse, or filling or
emptying of the cart, or turning in or out of the landings. In the north-
ern counties of Scotland no such obligation exists on the plowmen, nor in-
deed can be, for it would be impossible to coexist with the bothy system,
whex'e a plowman has not a house for himself, far less for any worker ; and
hence in those parts of the country field-labor, in as far as the manual
operations are concerned, is very much inferior to that executed on the
Borders, because of its being performed by casual laborers instead of
those who have been steadily trained up to it from early youth ; and as
long as no means are used to initiate young people, especially young
women, who are admitted to be more nimble in the fingers than men, in
the several varieties of field-labor, so long will they be impex-fectly exe-
cuted.
(1572.) Now. on taking a retrospect of the actual condition of all the laborers of the farm, as I
have endeavored to represent it, and comparing the condition of the first class of plowmen with the
others, the question that naturally occurs to the mind is — Which is the best ? I have not the
slightest hesitation in expressing my conviction of the superior position of, the plowmen in the
Borders. Let us look into one of their cottages of an evening. I grant that their cottages might
be made much more comfortable and much more convenient, and much better suited to the wants
of their inhabitants, than they are ; and this I shall endeavor to show in due time ; but in the mean
time I may say that a determination exists for improvement in this matter evinced by parties most
able to do it, namely, the landlords, and its good effects will be seen in the course of a few years ;
but look into one of their cottages, sach as they are, during a winter evening, and " you will prob-
ably see," to use the words of Mr. Grey, Dilston. on this subject, in the letter and spirit of whose
sentiments I cordially concur, 'assembled the family group round a cheerful coal-fire — which, by the
way, is an inestimable blessing to all classes, but chiefly to the poor of this country — females knit-
ting or spinning — the father, perhaps, mending his shoes — an art almost all acquire — and one of
the yoang ones reading for the amusement of the whole circle." Contrast this with the condition
of those plowmen in England who receive their wages entirely in cash, and who have to go to a
distance to purchase the necessaries of life. " Contrast this," continues Mr. Grey, " with the condi-
tion of many young men emoloyed as farm-servants in the southern counties, who being paid
board-wages, club together to have their comfortless meal in a neighboring cottage, with no house
to call their home, left to sleep in an outhouse or hay-loft, subject to the contamination of idle
companions, with no parent's eye to watch their actions, and no parent's voice to warn them of
their errors ; and say which situation is best calculated to promote domestic comfort, family affec-
tion, and moral rectitude ?" Contrast this also with the bothy system, which perhaps Mr. Grey
has never witnessed, or no doubt it would have met with his reprobation ; contrast this with a
system which, although it supplies the necessaries of life in a convenient enough fonn, presents
them in uncomfortable circumstances affording no assistance to cook the food and clean out the
chamber ; affording no one to admonish thoughtless young men, many of whom are in the practice
of wandering at night after a long day's toil, and returning home only in the morning, to begin a
day's work, with wearied limbs and depressed spirits. In the winter evenings, too, the bothy is a
scene of lewd mirth, excited by the company of females who have come perhaps from a dis-
tance to visit their acquaintance.s, and who are treated most probably with a stolen fowl, en-
tertained with profane jests and songs, and afterward convoyed homeward amid darkness
and wet.
(1.573.) " One very obvious benefit," observes Mr. Grey justly, in regard to married plow^men,
" arising to the hind from this mode of paying in kind, besides that having a store of wholesome
food always at command, which has not been taxed with the profits of intermediate agents, is the
absence of all temptation which the receipt of weekly wages and the necessity of resorting to a
village or a town to buy provisions, hold out of spending some part of the money in the ale-house,
which ougnt to provide for the wants of the family ; and to this circumstance, and to the domestic
employment which their gardens afford in their leisure hours, we are probably much indebted for
the remarkable sobriety and exemplary moral conduct of the peasantry of the North." And far-
thtr, '• this inode of engaging and paying farm-servants is not only more conducive to their wel-
fare and social comfort than the weekly payment of money-wages — which go but a little way in
purchasing the necessaries of a family, are injudiciou.sly laid out, and sometimes wastefully squan-
dered— but it has, besides, a strong and apparent influence upon their habits and moral character.
It possesses the advantage of giving to the peasant the use of a garden and cow, with the certainty
of employment ; it gives him a personal interest in the produce of his master's farm, and a desire
to secure it in good condition; it produces a set of local attachments, which often lead to a connec-
tion betsveen master and servant, of long continuance."*
(13/4.) Beneficially as this system of paying farm-servants in kind has long operated both for
master and .servant, it has been stigmatized by persons even in Parliament, as being only another
form of the truck-system, which has been made to act so prejudicially against the interests of ope-
ratives in En.ijland. But what is the truck-system ? After hearing the proper answer to this ques-
tion, we shall be the better able to judge whether the plowman's wages paid in kind can truly re-
ceive that appellation. Of the truck-system, Mr. McCulloch says that it is " a name given to a
* Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, vol. ii.
52 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
practice that has prevailed, particularly in the mining and manafactaring districts, of paying the
wages of workmen in goo<l8 instead of money. The jdan has been for the master to establish
warehouses or shops ; and the workmen in their employment have either got their wages account-
ed for to them by supplies of goods from such dif/du, without receiving any money ; or they have
got the money, with a tacit or express understanding that they were to resort to the warehouses or
shops of their masters for such articles as they were furnished with."* If this be anything like a
correct account of the properly reprobated system, it is clear that it has no affinity to the system in
kind, in which the hinds are paid their wages, inasmuch as this has no reference to the money value
of any article which the hinds receive, and il)erefore ihey alir ays receive the fame amoinU of kijid,
and of course the same rate of wages ; whereas the truck-system has undoubted reference to the
money value of the articles dealt out to, or purchased by, the operatives; and that money value is
fixed by the master whose interest it is, of course, lo keep it at as high a rate as practicable, or
else to give out articles of inferior quality at the price of those of more value ; and hence the arti-
san does not always receive the same amount of goods, nor the same rate of wages.
D. CORN MARKETS.
'■ Thus all is here in motion, all is life ;
The creaking wain brings copious stores of com."
DVEK.
(1575,) The surplus gi'ain of the farm is disposed of to corn-merchants,
millers, bakers, distillers, and brewers. These attend on the market-day
in the market-town. If the market-town is a seaport, most of the corn-
merchants and brewers reside in it permanently, and have their granaries
there. When the market-town is situate in the interior of the country, the
merchants and brewers attend the market there from the nearest seaport.
The purchase of grain is chiefly carried on in winter, when the fanner has
his crop to dispose of. Brewers and distillers chiefly buy barley for malt-
ing, millers and bakers chiefly wheat and oats, and merchants every spe-
cies of grain. The market for barley commences the season, wheat and
oats being then disposed of according to the demand for them ; but after
March the demand for both increases, to supply the consumption until next
harvest. In a corn distinct, from which most of the produce is cairied
away to large towns or manufacturing districts, it is most convenient for
the shipment of grain that corn-merchants reside in seaport towns.
(1576.) Corn markets are of two kinds, stock or sample markets. A sam-
ple-marlict is that in which farmers bring hand samples of the grain they wish
to dispose of, exhibit them to purchasers, and deliver the stock or bulk at an
appointed time.
(1577.) A stock market is where farmers bring in the grain they have
to sell m bulk upon their carts, exhibit a bagfull of it, sell the quantity
brought, deliver it to the purchasei-s immediately after the sale is ef-
fected, and then receive the money for it. A merchant who sells grain
in a stock-market does so by sample, and never thinks of bringing his
stock, which perhaps consists of granaries-full, to the market-place ; and
there is nothing to prevent farmers also to sell their grain by sample in a
stock-market.
(1578.) When sold by sample, the grain is delivered, by the farmer in his
own carts in the course of the few days allowed him for the purpose, either
at the granaries of the merchant, brewer, or distiller, or at the mill of the mil-
ler. Water-proof tarpaulins are required to cover the sacks in the carts
when grain is delivered in a a rainy day, but it is better to defer the deliv-
ery until fair weather, if not otherwise inconvenient.
-* .McCulloch's Commercial Dictionary, art Trutk-Svttem.
(100)
CORN MARKETS, 53
(1579.) When sold in bulk, corn is delivered immediately after the sale at
the granaries of the merchants on the spot, or at the brewery, or distillery,
or mill in the country, according to agreement.
(1580.) The payment for grain sold by sample is only made on the market-
day after the delivery has been effected ; but the payment of that sold in
bulk is due, and is generally received, on the day it is sold, soon after its
delivery at the gi'anaries.
(1581.) Of the two modes of selling gi'ain, each has its advantages and
disadvantages to the farmer. It is very convenient to take a quantity of
grain to market, sell it, deliver it on the spot, and receive the cash for
it immedidiately afterward. It enables the farmer to transact his market
business at once, and saves him the trouble of attending next market-day
on purpose to receive the cash, when he may have no other occasion to be
there. It obliges, in a great degree, merchants to provide granaries for
the reception of grain in the interior market-towns ; as farmers may I'efuse
to deal with a purchaser who wishes the grain delivered at a distance from
the market-town, the fatigue to their horses being thereby probably much
increased. This mode of selling grain has also the advantage of securing
the farmer against bad debts, because he may deliver the grain and receive
the value for it simultaneously. On the other hand, it is attended with this
great disadvantage, that in case the farmer does not sell his grain on the
day he has brought it to the market-place, he is either obliged to take it
home again, or put it into a granary until the next market-day, when, of
course, granary-i-ent must be incurred, and the additional expense also in-
cun-ed of either hiring carts to deliver the gi-ain next market-day, from the
temporary granary to that of his purchaser, or of sending a cart of his own
to do it; and as he must keep the grain so accommodated in sacks, he may
be deprived of the use of his sacks at a time when he may have a large
quantity of corn in his barn to measure up, and which, where lying in a
loose state, may be an inconvenience. Or to avoid these manifold and ob-
vious inconveniences he must take the price offered for his grain. An-
other disadvantage is, that his horses must stand in the market-place, ex-
posed for hours to cold blasts, after perhaps being heated on their way to
the mai'ket-town. The exhibition of corn in bulk gives power, however,
to the purchaser to inspect the cleaning of every sack before purchasing it,
and it also gives him the command of a quantity of corn immediately after
its purchase.
(1582.) The advantages of a hand sample-market to the farmer are, that
he is independent of the rate of price of any market-day; for if it does not
satisfy him, he can put his sample into his pocket again. His men and
horses cannot lose a day's work, and are not exposed to the weather in
waiting in the market-place. He need not, moreover, clean his grain be-
fore selling it, and should he be induced to sell more than what is threshed,
he has time to thresh more and clean the whole quantity at once, thereby
making the stock of uniform quality, and cleaned agreeably to the partic-
ular taste of the purchaser. The disadvantages to the farmer are inability
to receive cash for the grain he sells until the next market-day after its
delivery, and the risk he thereby runs of incurring bad debts with the
merchant, to whom the stock is delivered some days before he pays for it.
The advantage of a sample-market to the merchant is, that should the
sample please him, he can purchase as large a quantity of grain as the
farmer pleases to dispose of, and thus make up a cargo of uniform quality:
and the disadvantage which he experiences, which, by the way, is felt most
strongly by the brewer, distiller and miller, is that he cannot obtain pos-
session of the grain immediately after purchase.
(101)
54 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
(1583.) Of the two species of corn-markets, I prefer selling by the sam-
ple, chiefly because I dislike to see hoi-scs stajuling for hours with a load
in the market-place, and most probably in bad weather, for none else can
be looked for in winter. Such a stand cannot be for their advantage, and,
in my estimation, the peculiar advantages of a stock-market are insufficient
to counterbalance the risk thus incurred in the safety of the horses. This
inconvenience is perhaps appreciated by some farmers, and a modification
of the plan is followed, such as delivery in the course of a few days of a
larger quantity of grain than what was actually presented in the market-
place ; but no modification can take place of the sale of grain by sample,
in that it is simply the presentation of the hand sample in the market, the
sale of the bulk therewith, and its consequent deliveiy at the specified
time. It would be curious to obser\'e the particular diseases to which
horses are most liable, that are made to stand in a market-place for houi"s
together, and to ascertain if these are of the class most commonly contracted
from exposure to weather.
(1584.) Were all men honest, it would be immaterial which mode were
adopted for the sale of grain, in so far as the xtate of the grain is con-
cerned; but to the shame of the farmer be it spoken, it sometimes happens
that the stock is delivered of an inferior quality, or not so well cleaned as
the sample that was shown in the market. Some farmers acquire a char-
acter for this species of fraud, and so blinded do they become by their
cupidity, that they cannot discover the advantage which they thereby con-
fer on the merchant to reduce the price of the bargain made between
them. It is curious that men cannot at once believe that ill-cleaned com
cannot be so heavy, bulk for bulk, as well-cleaned. While such people,
therefore, think they are taking advantage of the merchant by giving
him light corn among the good, they are in fact cheating themselves, for
no purchaser will pay the stipulated price of good com when ill-cleaned
corn is delivered to him instead. Many farmers, I apprehend, deliver
stock inferior to sample, from no intention of committing fraud, but be-
cause they cannot deliver the stock so clean as the sample shown, it having
been differently treated from the stock. They are in the habit of pulling
out a sample from the stack, rubbing out the grain from the ears, blowing
away the chaff with the mouth, and picking out the light com. Now no
winnowing machine can clean corn in this style. Or a sample is taken
from the unwinnowed bin on the barn-floor, and treated in a similar man-
ner. Sample and stock can only agree exactly when both are derived from
a similar state of the same parcel of grain.
(1585.) On the other hand, I must say, in justice to the farmer, that some
com-merchants are very fastidious on receiving stocks of gi-ain that have
been sold them liy sample. The stock is objected to at the granary, because
it is inferior to the sample ; and when this plea cannot be substantiated on
comparison, the bulk is declared deficient in measure, which objection can-
not be rebutted without measuring over the whole quantity, and on this
being done, and this objection also proving gioundless, it is rejected be-
cause the grain is lighter than that guarantied by the farmer. But the
object is to set up the grain anyhow, to give the merchant an oppoitunity to
reduce its price. To show how such a circumstance as this can happen,
I may observe that the merchant seldom witnesses the deliveiy of grain at
his granaries, this duty being deputed to the man who has charge of the
granaries, and its delivery cannot of course be witnessed by the farmer.
So if the merchant's foreman receive the clue to make objections, these
are easily made to appear effective to the farm-sei-\ants deliverino- the
grain, who of course know nothing of the conditions of the bargain. The
(102)
CORN MARKETS. 55
corn is then set up, that is, set down in the sacks on the floor, and remains
there unemptied until an explanation takes place ; on which, if the farmot
has committed an error, he suffers a considerable reduction in price, but
if he can maintain his own rectitude, the merchant concedes the point, and
throws the blame on his stupid foreman, who, after all, is justified for the
interruption he had given, by the allegation that he had only done his duty
to his master. I have heard of both these species of fraud being attempted
to be committed, and have also heard a remark connected with one of them,
tliat mei'chants are most likely to be fastidious in regard to the quality of
the grain they receive, when prices happen to fall between the period of
purchase and that of delivery. Unfortunately, no such motive can be urged
to justify the farmer in his attempts to pass off inferior grain. In a stock-
market no such occurrence can happen. Let me say here, that my sole
object in alluding to so painful a subject is to make you aware of the tricks
of trade.
(1586.) Every species of grain is directed by the Weights and Measures
Act, (5th Geo. IV., c. 74, sec. 15,) to be sold by the imperial husliel,
containing 2,218.192 cubic inches, and not 2,150.42 cubic inches, as
erroneously given in that paragraph, this latter number being the con-
tents of the old Winchester bushel, which is now obsolete, and there is
no such recognized quantity as a quarter, boll, coom, or load. The prac-
tice has settled into measuring grain into half-quarter sacks of 4 bushels,
which forms a convenient size of load in the bam, as well for carnage on
men's backs as in carts, Plate XVIII.
(1587.) Granaries in town are frequently situate in inconvenient places
for access to carts, such as narrow streets and lanes ; and some are so
inconveniently high that four or five flights of steps have to be surmounted
ere the floor be attained which is to contain the corn ; and these stairs are
not unfrequently too narrow or too steep, or the steps so worn away in
front as to endanger the safety of the persons who carry loads up them.
But the risk is fully greater to those who have to bring loads down them,
when the contents of the granary are emptying for the loading of a ship.
For the carx'iage of corn in such a case, I have seen a convenient form of
hag used. It consisted of a short sack, capable of holding rather more
than two bushels, drawn together at the bottom, where a short piece of
thick pliable rope is attached, the mouth being formed like any other sack.
The person who is to carry the bag, folds the mouth together when filled
so as to cover the corn, and at the same time leaves a portion of the sack
loose, by which he holds firmly with his right hand. On assistance being
given him to lift the sack, when filled, he turns himself quickly round
with his back to it, and bi-ings the pai't by which he holds on, over his head ;
and holding on there with one or both hands, as he chooses and feels most
convenient in the circumstances, literally runs with the load to the ship's
hold, where, on a man seizing the short rope at the bottom of the sack,
the carrier hitches the sack off his back, and the grain is poured into the
hold, while the man all the time retains hold of the short rope.
(1588.) For long in Scotland, grain used to be sold by measure alone,
and for long it used to be sold in Ireland by weight alone ; but both ways
are liable to objection. When the measure alone is used, there is a temp-
tation to measure the corn before it is properly cleaned, especially if the
corn is sold ; and when sold alone by weight, there is also a tempta-
tion to retain light corn among the good, with the view, in both cases,
of disposing of the inferior grain at as good a price as the fine. But a
check has of late years been estabhsbed against both species of fraud, by
a statement of the weight alons: with the bulk. Merchants know the weight
(103) CO
56 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
of grain by its appearance and feel, and therefore, by trj'ing the weigfht of a
4-bushel sack, they can easily ascertain whether the grain is in as clean a
state throughout the whole bag as at its mouth. But the introduction of the
weight has given rise to a species of deceitful dealing as regards the pub-
lic. The purchaser offers a certain price for every so many pounds weight
of grain, without direct reference to the contents of the bushel ; and some
farmers are induced to sell on this plan, in the vain hope of being able to
boast that they have sold their grain at such a price, wishing it to be be-
lieved that the price applies to the tnie quarter, when in fact it is given
for so many pounds weight, and to deliver the number of pounds for the
specified sum the bushel is heaped. This is pitiful work. The fair and
common practice is to ask such a price for the grain per quarter, stating
its weight by the bushel ; and, of course, the heavier the grain, and better
the quality, the purchaser will give the higher price for it.
(1589.) The usaal denominations of com measares, based apon the imperial basbel, the standard
of capacity, are these ;
4 gills = 1 pint, contain 34} cubic inches.
2 pints = 1 quart, .. 69 J ..
4 quarts = 1 gallon, .. 277 J ..
2 gallons = 1 peck, .. 554} ..
4 pecks = 1 bushel, .. 221&| ..
8 bushels =: 1 quarter, .. 10^.. feet
5 quarers = I load, .. 5lJ ..
(1590.) In regard to the sale of corn, these settled points in law may prove useful for yoa to
know. " In sale by sample, the buyer may decline the bargain, if the bulk does not correspond
with the sample (Parker, 4 Bam. and Aid., 387). The delivery of the sample does not transfer the
property of the bulk (Hill, Jan. 26, 1785, M. 4200). The price must consist in current money,
either of Great Britain or some foreign countrv, which has a determinate value put upon it by
the tacit consent of the State ; if in goods it will be barter and not sale ; and if illusory, it will be
donation. The price must be certain, as well as the subject sold. It is generally fixed by the
parties themselves at striking the bargain. Where a purchaser of oats, payable on delivery, tem-
porized with the seller, and delayed to take delivery for a fortnight, during which period the
price of oats rose, it was held that he was not entitled to delivery to demand delivery (Craig. May
29, 1823, 2 S. D. 347). ... In sales of grain, the price is sometimes fixed by the SherifTs fiars. In
the case of Leslie (Jan. 27, 1714, M. 1419 and 1678), where there was an agreement to purchase
grain without a price specified, it was held, inter alia, that fiars' prices may be presumed the sale
between landlord and tenant; and that merchants are presumed to contract according to the cur-
rent prices of the country where the bargain is made. As to the risk of the sale after the subject
is sold, the loss is to the purchaser, as in the case of Campbell (July 15, 1748, M. 10,071). and in the
case of Tarling (1827, 6 Barn, and Cres. 361). But it was held in the case of Milne .Feb. I. 1809,
F. C.j. that where the seller takes upon himself the delivery of goods at a certain place, it throws
the risk of the goods, while in transitu to that place, on the selfer. . . . Where the seller has de-
layed delivering the subject to the purchaser when bought, he is liable for the risk; but it is not
considered delay when the purcha-ser declines paying the price. Also, when a landed proprietor
Bells a certain quantity of grain of a particular crop to a merchant, without specifying any particu-
lar parcel, and the whole crop is destroyed, the loss is to the seller ; but after such quantity of
gram is measured, or otherwise prepared for delivery, the risk will be transferred to him : so
found in the case of Hinde (6 East. 558.) ; Erskine, iii. 3. 7." In regard to the landlord's hypothec
over com, restitution was given in the case of Scot (June 11, 1673. M. 6223.). of corns boutriit from
a tenant while under hypothec. Though, when bought in public market, where they have been
brought in bulk, the purchaser is not liable in restitution ; if brought only in samples, the landlord
is entitled to restitution. This was held in the case of Smart. Dec. 10, 1793, and Earl of Dalhousie,
Feb. 27, 1828, 6 S. D. 626."* So that a stock-market is safer for a purchaser to buy in. and a sam-
ple-market is safer for the hj'pothec of a landlord.
6. FORMING OF DUNGHILLS, AND LIQUID-MANURE TANKS.
" If front, rctuminp. intemipt the plow,
Then is the time, nlong the hardened ridpe,
To drive manure " Graham.
(1591.) Toward the close of winter, the dung will have accumulated so
high in the large couits I and K, figs. 3 and 4, Plate III. and IV., as to be-
come nearly level with the feeding-troughs z , and thereby making them
* The Fnrmer's Lawyer.
(104)
DUNGHILLS AND LIQUID-MANURE TANKS. 57
inconveniently low for cattle ; but before this inconvenience occurs, the
dnn<^ should be removed and formed into dunghills in the fields intended
to be manured in the ensuing season. The court K, besides its own litter
and the refuse from the corn-barn C, contains the litter of the work-horse
stable O, and the pig-sty b ; and the court I contains the litter of the ser-
vuuts'-cow byre Y, besides its own. The dung from the cows'-court /should
also be taken away, to save annoyance to cows heavy in calf wading in
deep litter ; and that from the courts of both the hammels M and N, if not
from under the sheds, should also be taken away, for the same reason as
given above in the case of the courts, that the feeding-troughs become too
low, especially in the hammels M of fattening cattle.
(1591.) I am thus particular in detailing the contents of each court, be-
cause, differing in their constituent parts, they should be appropriated to
the raising of the crop best adapted for each sort of manure. For exam-
ple, the court K contains a large proportion of stable-litter, and not a little
from that of the pig-sties ; so its contents are somewhat of a different na-
ture from those of the court I, which contains nothing but the litter of cat-
tle. If it is desired to raise a large extent of that crop which thrives best
with a considerable proportion of horse-dung, the contents of the court K
should of course be preferred to that of the other court I ; and if any crop
is best raised with cattle-dung, the contents of the court I and the cows'-
court I should be used for it. Or should the manure required consist of
an average proportion for raising of general crops, then the contents of all
the courts should be mixed together. This method of appropriating the
dung of a farm is not so much practiced by farmers as it desei'ves ; and it
is not urged by me as a mere theoretical suggestion, but as practically be-
ing the best mode of appropriating manm'e to raise each crop to the best
advantage. To make my meaning more intelligible, I shall illustrate it in
this way. Suppose that carrots were desired to be raised on a field of light
land, then the land should be dunged in the autumn with the contents of
the court K, because it contains a large proportion of horse-litter. When
potatoes are attempted to be raised on heavy soil, which is not their natu-
ral one, they most likely to succeed with horse-litter also. Turnips, on
the other hand, grow best with cow-dung, and therefore a mixture of the
courts T and I would be best for them. Should carrots not be raised, and
the soil is naturally favorable to the potato, and therefore horse-dung will
not be specially wanted, the best way is to mix all the sorts of dung to-
gether, and form dunghills of average properties.
(1592 ) There is another matter which deserves consideration before the
courts are begun to be cleared of their contents ; which is the position the
dunghill or dunghills should occupy in the field, and this point is deter-
mined partly by the form which the surface of the field presents, and
partly from the line of access to the field. In considering this point, which
is of more importance than it may seem to possess, it should be held as a
general rule, that the dunghill should be placed where the horses will have
the advantage of going down-hill with the loads from it. Wherever practica-
hle, this rule should never be violated, asfacililies afforded to labor in a busy
scdsmi are of the utmost importance. If a field, then, has a uniformly sloping
surface, the dunghill should be placed at the upper or highest side, but then
the access to the field may only be at the lowest side. And it may be im-
practicable to reach the upper side by any road. In such a case, the loads
should be taken up a ridge of the field ; and when a field is so incon-
veniently placed, frosty weather should be chosen to form the dunghill in
it, as the wheels and horse's feet will then have a firm bearing. But should
it be found impracticable t© lead dung to its upper side, by reason of the
58 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
soft state of the land or Btcepness of tlie ascent, then the dunghill should
l>e formed at the side nearest of access. If the field has a round-backed
form, the dunghill should be j)l;ued on the top of the hight ; and in order
to supply the ridges down both 8loj)es from it with manure, a ridge, by
way of head-ridge, should Ik? formed along the crest of the hight, at the
time tlie stubble is jdowed. In a level, or nearly a level field, it is immate-
rial which side the dunghill occupies.
(1594.) The fields to which the dung should be canied, are those to be
fallowed the ensuing season ; that is, set apart for the growth of green
crops, such as potatoes and turnips, and for the part which receives more
cleaning than a green crop admits of, narriely, a bare fallow. The potato
culture coming first in order, the land destined for that crop should have
its manure canied out and formed into the first dunghill. The turnips
next come in hand ; and then the bare fallow. The dunghills intended
for potatoes and turnips should of coui"se be made respectively of such a
size as to manure the extent of land to be occupied by each crop. The
manure for bare fallow not being lequired till much farther on in the sea-
son, may be deferred being canied out at present. The proportions and
nature of the soils best suited for potato and turnip culture, will be treated
when we come to speak of those crops respectively, so that any remarks
on these particulars would be irrelevant here.
(1595.) Then the precise spot which a dunghill should occupy in a field
is not a matter of indifference. I have seen a dunghill placed in the center
of a field which it was intended wholly to manure. From this point, it is
obvious, the carts must either traverse every ridge situate between the
one that is in the act of being manured and the dunghill, or go direct
to a head-ridge, and thence along it to the ridge to be manured. This
latter alternative must be adopted if the dung is to be deposited in drills ;
for if not, the drills will be much cut up by the passage of the carts across
them — a practice which should never be allowed when neat work is de-
sired. The dunghill should be placed on a head-ridge or a side-ridge
of the field ; and of these two positions I would prefer the side-ridge, be-
cause, when the head-ridge is occupied in the length of a dunghill, the
ends of all the ridges abutting against its side cannot be plowed or diilled
in their entire length ; and if there be more than one dunghill on the .same
head-ridcje, a considerable number of head-ridges may thus be curtailed
of their fair proportions. The dunghill on a side-ridge afl'ects only a part
of the sinffle ridge which it occupies. Should a field be large and require
two dunghills, the one first to be used should be placed along a ridge, at a
distance just beyond the space of giound the manure it contains will cover,
so that the ridge occupied by it may be jilowed to its end before it is ma-
nured ; and the second dunghill should be placed along the farthest off
side-ridge. The ridge occupied by the farthest dunghill can be easily
reached at a time when the earth is hard; but should the weather C(m-
tinue fresh, and the ground soft, a dunghill should be made on the side-
ridge nearest the gateway ; and should no frost happen, this dunghill
should be made large enough to manure the whole field. A large dung-
hill in one place will no doubt cause more labor to manure the field at the
busy .season than would two dunghills at different places ; but in sofl
weather and soil it is better to incur the risk of future inconvenience than
allow the horses to drag only a half-load, axle-deep, alone: a soft; hcfid-
ridge. When proper sites can be chosen for dunghills in fields, the lor.ds,
in the busy season, will not only be insured a passage down hill, but ihe
dung be situated at the shortest distance from the place it is wanted, nnd
the plowed and prepared land be uninjured by cart-wheels and horses' feet.
(106)
DUNGHILLS AND LIQUID-MANURE TANKS. 59
(1596.) Some consideration is even required in littering the courts, and
especially the large courts, I and K. No one would believe that any care
is requisite in laying down straw in a court; but those who have witnessed
the inconvenience and loss of time incurred in removing dung from courts
will easily perceive that this may be the case. The courts are usually
cleared during frost, when time is erroneously regarded of little value, and
when, as our motto implies, the plow is rendered useless ; but notwith-
standing this common opinion, a loss of a small portion of time, even at
this season, may have a material effect upon some future operations. For
example : the hard state of the ground may favor the carriage of manure
to a distant field, to gain which, most of the time is spent upon the road.
Suppose frost continued as long as to allow tim-e to caiTy as much manure
as would serve the whole field, pi'ovided ordinary diligence were used, and
no inteiTuption met with in the courts. Suppose farther, on manuring the
field in summer there was found to be less manure in the dunghills by a
small quantity than was wanted, and that half-a-day, or at most a whole
day's driving from the steading would supply the requisite quantity, it is
clear that the day's driving could have been accomplished in frost at much
less trouble than at the season when the manure was wanted. But this
sacrifice of time must be made at the instant, or the field be deprived of
its just proportion of riP&.nure. This is no hypothetical case ; it has oc-
curred in every farmer's experience. Now, what is the primary cause of
this dilemma"? Either too much time had been spent upon the road in
driving the manure, or much interruption had been experienced in the
courts. To which of these two causes should the waste of lime be ascribed ]
With regard to driving, farm-horses get into so regular a pace upon the
road at all times, that little loss or gain of time can be calculated on in
this particular; and besides, when a head of carts is employed at any
work, every one must maintain its position in the routine, otherwise it will
either be overtaken by the one behind, or be left far behind by the one
before. The probability, therefore, is that the loss of time is incun-ed in
the courts, and for this reason. The usual mode of taking away wetted
litter from the work-horse stable is to roll it together with a graip, and
then to throw it into a barrow, in which it is wheeled into the court, and
there emptied on any spot to get quit of it in the shortest time, and left in
heaps to be trampled down by the cattle. Back-loads of thatchings of
stacks, some of which are not very dry, are carried into these same courts,
put down anywhere, and partially spread. Long straw-ropes, which bound
down the thatching of stacks, are pulled along the top of the litter. In
doing all this, and it is not all done at one time, no plan is followed with
the view o? facilitating tJie lifting of the straw afterward, but as if it was
to remain there always ; but so far from this being the case, it is again
lifted before it becomes short by fermentation, and there is considerable
difficulty in doing so. Long, damp straw is seized in one part by a graip,
and the other parts, being coiled in the heap it was first laid down, cannot
be separated without much exertion on the part of the plowman, pulling
it this way and that ; and it is too soft to admit of its being cut with the
dung-knife. Another graip encounters a long straw-rope, which, after
much tugging, is broken or pulled out, and thrown upon the cart with its
ends dangling over. In short, not a single graipfuU is easily raised, and
the business is not expedited when a heap of chaff evades the action of the
graip. Add to this the few hands generally sent to assist the plowman to
fill the carts, and the consequent time spent by the team in the court, and
some idea may be formed of the causes which incur much loss of time in
this necessary work. It is easy to conceive that in this way as much time
(107)
60 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
might be lost in cleaning all the courts as would give all the carts a half or
whole day's driving, which was just what was required tf) remove the
inconvenience felt when the field was manuring. The only method of
preventing the recuirence of so great delay in carrying out manure is to put
down the litter so as it may be easily lifted, and to afford as much assist-
ance in the court as to detain the horses but a short time, and rather keep
them moviiifj on the road ; for though their walking was constant in a shoit
winter day, it will not overcome them with fatigue.
(1597.) ' The litter should he laid down in this manner in the large couits
I and K. On fixing on the gate of the court through which the loaded
carts should pass to the nearest road to the fields requiring the manure in
the ensuinn- .season, and after covering the ground of the court evenly with
straw, the litter should be laid above it in small quantities at a time, begin-
ning at the end of the court farthest from that gate. The litter should be
spread with the slope of its lower part toward the gate, and carried gradu-
ally forward every day until it reaches the gate ; and every kind of litter,
whether from the work-horse stable, the stack-yard, or straw-bam, should
be intermixed and treated in the same manner. The straw-ropes, as I
mentioned before, should be cut into small pieces and spread about.
Thus layer above layer is laid, until they form a mass of manureof suffi-
cient hight to be carried out and formed into duri^hills in the fields.
(1598.) When the time has anived for emptying the carts, the process is
begvn at the gate through which the loaded carts are to pass, and, on lifting
the litter it will come up in sloping layers, ha^^ng an inclination from the
ground to the top of the dung-heap, not in entire layers of the whole depth
of the dung-heap, but in successive small, detached layers, one above the
other, and succeeding one after the other, fiom the gate to the farther end
of the court. The empty cart enters the court by the other gate, and,
without turning, takes up the position of the loaded cart l)efore it, which
has just passed through the gate appointed for it. When there is only
one gate to a court, and the court not very large, and a large lot of beasts
in it, it is better for the empty cart to wait on the outside until the loaded
one has gone away. When the court is large, with only one gate, the
empty cart should go in and turn round to succeed the one that is being
filled. On dropping work at mid-day, it will save time at starting again
after dinner, to fill the first cart returning empty from the field, that has
not time to reach it again loaded and return before dinner-time, and to
allow it to stand loaded, but without horses, until the time for yoking,
when the horses are put into it, and the first load thus started for the field
immediately at the hour of yoking.
(1599.) On clearing a court, or any part of it, it should be cleared to the
ground; because the manure made from a dung-heap that has been simul-
taneously formed, will be more uniform in its texture than that made
from a heap composed of new dry straw on the top, and old wet straw at
the bottom. Besides, it is much better for the future comfort of the cattle,
that the court receive its fresh dry littering from the bottom, than if the
wet bottoming were retained.
(1600.) Sometimes cattle get injured by a cart or horse when the court
is emptying, and, to avoid this risk, it is not a bad plan to confine them
under the shed as long as the people are at work in the court. The mode
of confining them in the shed I have already alluded to in (18).
(1001.) On forming a dunghill in the field, some art is requisite. One
of a breadth of 15 feet, and of four or five times that length, and of pro-
portionate hight, will contain as much manure as should be taken from one
spot in manuring a field quickly. Suppose that 15 feet is fixed upon for
(108)
DUNGHILLS AND LIQUID-MANURE TANKS. 6]
the width, the first carts should lay their loads down at the nearest end of
the future dunghill, in a row across the whole width, and these loads
should not be spread thin. Thus load after load is laid down in succession
upon the ground maintaining the fixed breadth, and passing over the loads
previously laid down. After the lottom of the dunghill has thus been
formed of the desired breadth and length, the farther end is then made up
with layer after layer, until a gradual slope is formed fiom its nearest to
its farthest extremity. This is done vnx\\ a view to effecting two purposes,
one to afford an easy slope for the loaded carts to ascend, the other to
give ease of draught,' for horses and carts to move along the dunghill m all
parts, in order to compress it firmly. Every cart-load laid down above the
bottom layer is spread around, in order to mix the different kinds of dung
together, and to give a uniform texture to the manure. To effect this pur-
po^se the better, a field-worker should be employed to spread the loads on
the dunghill, as they are laid down. When the farther end has reached
the hight the dunghill is thought will contain of the desired quantity of
manure, that higlit is brought forward toward the nearest end ; but the
center of the dunghill will necessarily have the greatest elevation, because
a slope at both ends is required to allow the carts to surmount the dung-
hill and then to come off it. It is an essential point to have the whole
dunghill equally compressed, with the view of making the manure of simi-
lar quahty throughout. After the carting is over, the scattered portions
of dung around the dunghill should be thrown upon the top, and the top
itself leveled along and across its surface.
(1602.) The object aimed at hy the covipressim of the dunghill by the
loaded carts, is to prevent immediate fermentation. So long as the tem-
perature continues at its average degree in winter of 45°, there is little
chance of much action in the interior of a dunghill; but tow^ard spring,
when the temperature increases, it may be expected to show symptoms of
action, but even then a temperature of 65<^ is required to begin the second
stage of fermentation. Some advocate the covering of dunghills in the
field with a thick layer of earth, with the view to exclude the air and check
fermentation ; but such an expedient is unnecessary in the coldest months
of winter, though it would be of service in spring to a dunghill which is
not to be turned until the season is still farther advanced. Others lay up
the dunghill in a loose manner at once in graipfulls from each cart-load,
giving the dung in fact a turning, and then cover it with earth, and trim
rouncfthe sides with the spade. This form of dunghill looks neat, and, if
the manure is to be used early, it is a good plan for obtaining it partially
fermented for an early crop, such as beans ; but for dung
that is to be used at an advanced period of the season, when ^'"- "^''^•
the temperature will have gradually increased to a consid-
erable hight during the day, the process is too promotive of
rapid fermentation.
(1603.) The litter in the courts of the hammels, and es-
pecially in those of the hammels M, will be found much
more compressed than that in the large courts I and K, in
consequence of heavy cattle being obliged to move over it
frequently within a limited space. It is sometimes so com-
pressed as almost to resist the entrance of the graip. To
enable it to be easily lifted, it should be cut in parallel por-
tions with an implement called the dung-spade, fig. 308. du.ng-spade.
This consists of a heart-shaped blade of steel thinned to a
sharp edge along both sides ; and its helve %vith a cross-head is fastened
with nails in a split socket. The hight of the spade is 3 feet, length of
(109)
62 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.^
cross-head 18 inches, length of helve 18 inches, length of blade 16 inches,
and breadth 10 inches. It is kept sharp with a scythe-stone. In using
this si)ade, it is lifted up with both hands by the cross-head, and its point
thrust with force into the dung-heap, and it is then used hke a common
spade while rutting tuif, with the foot upon the upper part of the blade.
This part, it will be observed, is rounded and not left square with ears
like a common spade, because when this spade is used to cut a dung-heap
of greater depth than the length of its blade, the round edge is not so apt
to catch the litter as square ears, on the insti-ument being pulled up. A
man's strength is required to use this spade effectively, a woman's arms
being too weak for the purpose. Another fonn of instrument for cutting
dung is like the common hay-knife, and is used in like same manner, and
which will be figured afterward ; but it is not so efficient as this instni-
ment, as will be shown when we come to speak of the cutting of hay in
spring.
(1604.) It is a practice of some farmers to keep the dung from the cow-
byres in a loose state in the court. A space in the center of a court is
inclosed with a stout wall 3 or 4 feet in hight, into which the dung is
wheeled as it comes from the byre, and the dung-heap is accumulated to
the hight of the wall, or even more, by means of a plank as a roadway for
the barrow to ascend. The dung managed in this way never requires
turning, and soon becomes in a state fit for use for potatoes or turnips.
This plan saves the trouble of turning the dung, but this saving is not un-
attended with a disadvantage, for the dung must be led direct from the
court to the field at a season when labor is precious, and when the field to
be manured is far off, the extra time spent in leading out the manure to it
may more than counterbalance any saving in the cost of turning. This
dung, might, it is true, always be resei"\ed for the nearest field, but even
the nearest may be at a considerable distance.
(1605.) Of late years the method of carting out a dunghill as described
in (1601) has been objected to, because it is alleged that many of the gases
useful to vegetation are thereby dissipated. I do not see the strength of
this objection in the winter season, when certainly no decoviposing process
can naturally onginate or proceed. The water contained in the dunghill,
it is true, may begin to evaporate at a very low temperature, even below
50"^, but what harm can accrue from this 1 But as the fact is, that fer-
mented dung must be prepared for some species of crops, of what avail
would means to prevent fermentation be at a period not earlier than would
be required to begin to ferment the manure so as it may be sufficiently so
when applied ? To obviate waste arising from fermentation, it has been
theoretically suggested to make dunghills under sheds instead of in the
open air : but how the mere screening afforded by a shed should prevent
feiTnentation, though it may ward off rain, and keep the straw drier, and
thereby retard fermentation, I cannot imagine. If the mode is proposed
solely with the view to keep the litter dry, its fermentation will no doubt
be retarded, but dry litter will never make good manure, as the usual state
of litter under sheds can testify, which is in a state approaching to being
fire-fanged, as it is termed, that is, in a smouldering, heated state. Until
a better mode of making dunghills in the fields shall prove the present one
erroneous, we must continue to follow it, encouraged by the success which
has hitherto attended it.
(1606.) An ingenious suggestion has been made by Mr. Kirk, Preston
Mains, East-Lothian, to check the spread of the seeds of weeds among manure.
His suggestion is founded on the general law of the growth of plants, that
certain classes of soils affect certain classes of plants. The suggestion is
(110)
DUNGHILLS AND LIQUID-MANURE TANKS. 63
to put the manure of the straw obtained from one kind of soil on another
kind of soil. Thus, the straw obtained from clay soil, that is, wheat land,
should be made into manure and applied to soil of light quality, that is. tur-
nip soil ; and as, according to this law, natural plants, called by farmers
weeds, which throve upon the clay soil, would not do so upon the light, it ap-
pears to be within the power of the farmer to prevent, or at least to check,
the propagation"of weeds. Putting this suggestion into practice would be at-
tended with some difficulty, for although Mr. Kirk seems to think it easy " to
make all the straw grown on one kind of soil into manure by itself," and
which, he conceives, " might be accomplished with very little additional
trouble to the farmer, where several hammels are employed in the feeding of
cattle,"* yet in large courts it would be almost impracticable to prevent the
mixture of straw of one stack off clay land with that of the succeeding one
perhaps off light land ; and even in the small courts of hammels it would not
be easy to devise a plan by which a stack of straw off clay land should be
used in them, while straw from light was in use for litter in other courts ;
and besides, the best fodder being obtained off light land, the cattle while
using it could not be littered with straw off clay land, without running the
risk of destroying the object in \'iew. The suggestion, however, being
founded on correct theory, might be subjected to experiment, which alone
can ascertain its practicability.
(1607.) Immediately after a rainy day, when the land is in such a state
of wetness as to prevent any work upon it, and the horses have nothing
particular to do upon the road, two or three of the men should each take
a mud-hoe or harle, such as in fig. 309, and rake the loose straws and liquid
Fig. 309.
THK MUD-HOE OR HARLE.
mud on all the roads around the steading to the lowest side of the roads,
and as much as possible out of the way of carts and people passing along :
while the rest should take graips, fig. 257, and shovels, figs. 149 a°nd 176,
and form the raked matter into heaps, to be led away when it will bear
lifting to the compost heap or field, as may best suit the purpose at the
time. Where there is plenty of straw, as on carse-farms, some farmers
put it upon the roads around the steading, to be trampled do^vn and be-
come wetted with rain, and then lead it away to the dunghill in the field.
The object aimed at in so far as wetting the straw is attained, but such a
littering makes walking upon the roads very damp and plashy. The best
state for roads near steadings in winter is to have their surface Jiard and
s7nooth, and with such an inclination as to cause the water to run easily
away into some ditch hard by. A scraping now and then with the mud'-
hoe will make such a road dry and comfortable.
(1608.) I must now say a few words on tanks, liquid manure, and com-
post heaps. In fig. 4, Plate IV., may be seen the liquid-mamire tank k',
gieat in length and in breadth, inside narrow, and its depth under the
soles of the liquid-manure drains should not exceed 4 feet, for the reasons
given below, its length being only extended to increase its capacity. The
• Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. viii.
(Ill)
G4 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
drains are marked by dotted lines from the tank toward x, in all directions,
preserving tliem straight as practicable. Drains in straight lines, for a
sluggish liquid, present fewer obstructions in their course than curved or
angular ones. The form and dimensions of these drains may be seen in
fig. 26, and (75 2d). At x, fig. 4, Plate IV., is an opening over the druins
to allow the liquid manure to descend into them, and every such opening
is protected by a grating such as is figured and described in fig. 25 juid
(75 1st). The liquid manure percolates through the grating, passes along
the drains, and finds its way into the tank, out of which it is pumped with
a cast-iron pump (76) into a liquid-manure cart, described below in fig.
310, in which it is carried to the field and distributed over its surface.
(1609.) Tanks need not be built on every species of farm. On carsc farms,
where there is much straw and little green food, there can be no liquid
manure ; and on pastoral farms the stock confined in winter in the stead-
ing are too limited in number to aiford much of that material. On dairy-
farms, on the other hand, where many cows are maintained and much
green food consumed by them in byres, tanks might be constructed with
advantage to the grass land. The practice of the farmers of Flanders
might be usefully followed on such faiTns by having a small tank constructed
under ground in connection with every byre, and the contents of which
might be enriched with additions of rape-cake and other valuable ingre-
dients. The enriched contents, employed as a top-dressing on pasture
and forage land, appropriated to the support of the cows, might increase
their produce very considerably. In collecting liquid manure on farms of
inixed husbandry, if the steading is properly furnished with conveniences
and the stock well supplied with litter, I do not see much can be done. I
had a tank of 12 feet in diameter and 4 feet deep, connected with well-
planned courts by neatly-built drains provided with good gratings ; and, at
the same time, I had the courts defended from being deluged with rain-
water by capacious rain-water spouts, and care taken that the cattle were
always provided with a sufficient quantity of litter ; having all these—
which every well-constructed and well-conducted steading should never
want — I can say that the tank was not filled in the course of the season
above three times, a quantity not worth while pi'oviding a liquid-manure cart
to take it to the field ; and even this small quantity was solely ascribable to
heavy rains and melting snows, for a few days, falling directly into the
courts, and causing a surplus of water which was readily conveyed into
the tank by the drains. The usual supply of the liquid manure came
merely in a few drops from the sole of the drain into which all the other
drains immerged. The sole was only 4 feet above the bottom, and, ex-
cept after rain or snow, the liquid manure never reached that hight. I
conceive that a small tank might be usefully constructed by a cotter pos-
sessing a small piece of ground, or large garden, and a cow, provided the
cow were fed within doors in all seasons with green and soft food, as an
excellent means of collecting manure that would otherwise be lost. Mr,
Milburn, Thorpefield, Thirsk, mentions " an instance of a small receptacle
of this kind, where the owner has but one pig ; he manages, however, by
its aid in his garden to grow astonishing crops, and his garden produce is
both earlier and superior to most of his neighbors." There is no ques-
tion that much may be done in this way at farm-houses, hinds' houses,
and villages, to collect matter, both solid and liquid, that would make
valuable manure. A necessary might easily be constructed in connection
with the liquid-manure tank at a steading to receive the supply.
(1610.) Tanks need not he expensively constructed. Mr. Milbuni gives
this statement as the expense of constnicting a tank dug out of the ground
(112)
DUNGHILLS AND LIQUID-MANURE TANKS. 65
131 feet in length, 6i feet in width, and 6 feet deep, inside measure, with
brick in length and mortar, and plastered with Roman cement :
"Length within 13 feet 6 inches.
Width 6 ..6 ..
Depth 6 ..0 .. =191 cubic yards.
Cutting 31 cubic yards at 3d. per yard £0 7 9
Walling, including bricks in length, and mortar around them, 31 cubic yards,
at 4s. per yard 6 8 0
Plastering and cement 0 16 0
Covering and flags 2 15 0
Total 1:10 6 9"
•' A tank," continues Mr. Milburn, " might be made under a shed, and com-
posed of clay, and covered with slabs or boarding, or any refuse boardino-.
The expense of such a receptacle would be somewhere as under, dimen-
sions the same as in the preceding case, viz :
" Cutting 31 cubic yards at 3d. per yard ^0 7 9
Clay and carting 0 14 0
Board and covering 0 5 0
Total jci 6 9"
A tank of this nature, Mr. Milbum suspects, would be subject to suffer in
frosty and in very dry weather, as well as be liable to be perforated by
worms. The frost and drouth are serious objections to this particular con-
struction of tank ; but the worms might be prevented perforating the clay,
were a little quicklime mixed with it ;* but the true principles on which
all tanks should be constructed are stated below.
(1611.) Winter is considered a favorable period for the application of
liquid manure, both because it is then most abundant, and because the
ground is in that loose and moistened state which readily receives and al-
lows the liquid to incorporate with it. Any evaporation at that season is
very limited, and is solely confined to the water contained in this liquid,
and, does not affect its more solid parts. Liquid manure may be applied
either to grass or to bare soil, but is pi-eferred for the former. It is dis-
tributed over its surface in the manner described under fig. 310, and the
quantity required is from 800 to 1,200 gallons the imperial acre. Its ef-
fects are sensibly felt both on old pasture, new grass, and on meadow ; but
where the quantity of the liquid is small, I would prefer applying it to the
small paddocks, which are to be found on most farms, and which are usu-
ally in pasture and appropriated as a hospital, breeding-gi-ound, or a place
of safety for young stock. The results of the appHcation of liquid ma-
nure are best appreciated in summer, in which season we will revert to
the subject.
_ (1612.) The space of ground adjoining the liquid-manure tank is a good
site for the formation oi composts of various kinds. Winter is not a favor-
able season for making composts, fermentation being then in a dormant
state. I may state here, however, in general terms, that the carriage of
mould, as the principal ingredient of a compost, is a laborious piece of
work. Such a compost is best made on the spot where the soil is found ;
but when the foundation of a new building of any kind affords mould
which would be removed at any rate, it should be used in compost, and
will well repay the trouble of removal. Other materials than mould may,
and mdeed must, be carried, to form bases for composts, such as saw-dust,
spent tanners'-bark, boggy turfing that had been cast in summer and left
to dry. These may be mixed with lime, or other fermentable substances,
or beneficially watered with Hquid manure. The haulm of potatoes, couch-
* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv.
(113) 3
66 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
grass gathered from the fallow-ground in summer, dried leaves, and other
vegetable refuse, form valuable and substantial intjredionis Ibr composts,
and when placed beside the tank may be enriched with li(|uid manure.
(1613.) On laying down liaulms of potatoes or quicken for coraj)ost, it is
usual to throw down the loads without the least regard to order, because
the excuse is, that when the potato crop is taken up, every hand is too
busily employed to do other things ; and in summer, every hand is also
put into requisition to gather weeds from fallow-giound. In as far as the
potato crop is taken up and the weeds gathered in a proper manner, there
can be no objection ; but these are no reasons why the refuse created by
these operations should be neglected and cause future labor and expense.
The usual practice is to throw down the haulms and quickens in haste,
and leave them in unequal masses to produce unequal decomposition. In-
stead of this, a field-laborer should be stationed at the compost-stance to
throw them up with a graip into a heap of regular shape, when the mate-
rials will not only occupy the least space of ground, but be in the best
state to receive any additions of liquid or solid matter, and when the most
perishable portions of the materials are covered with the more durable,
they are placed in the best state to preserve their properties. The neglect
I complain of, of apparently unimportant materials, arises from this cause.
There is too frequently a great tendency in farmers and stewards, when
conducting labor in fields, to do what they consider the least important
part of the work in a hasty and unthinking manner, evidently forgetting
that correction of hasty work always creates afterward more labor than
the part of the work for which it was neglected is probably worth. Many
instances might be given of this sort of tu-o-/ia?>(Icd work, as it is termed,
that is, work which has to be done over again ; but I shall confine myself
to the case before us. For example, were a field-worker or two placed at
the spot where the haulms of potatoes are carried to form a future com-
post-heap, they could form it according to previous instructions from the
cart-loads as they were thrown down ; and in this Avay, when the carriage
of the refuse was finished, so would also be the nucleus of the future com-
post-heap. But if the same materials are laid down at random in a scat-
tered and confused manner by plowmen anxious to get quit of their loads,
considerably more labor will be required to place them in the same form
of heap ; and to do it equally well, more hands and longer time will be re-
quired ; because the materials have not only to be separated from a con-
fused and compressed state, but to be collected together from a distance
into the confined space upon which the heap is desii'ed to be formed.
Thus, 1 woman, favorably placed, will throw up with a light gi'aip as much
loose material, laid down before her in a small quantity at a time, as 3 or
4 women would place the same quantity and in the same position of ma-
terials thrown down and scattered as I have described them.
(1614.) Winter is the season which supplies the greatest quantity of «ro-
wecd for manvre. On farms adjoining the sea-coast, this manure is care-
fully collected whenever it is thrown upon the shore after a storm, or by a
heavy ground-swell of the sea. Sea-weed is very succulent, and feels mu-
cilaginous, and when, exposed to the summer's sun, is easily dried to ^ its
bulk, so little solid matter is contained in it. There are 4 species very
common on our coast, and these are the haminaria saccJiarha, consisting
of a single linear elliptic leaf, without any mid-rib : the Lamiimria disj^itata,
or common tangle, a cylindrical stem, sometimes as thick as a walking-
stick, and about 2 feet long: the Fvcus ?r.9f/c?//o.v?/5, consisting of a double
stem with the edges of the leaf entire, and in the disk of which, near the
edges, are immersed a number of aii--bladders — or crackers, as they are
(114)
DUNGHILLS AND LIQUID-MANURE TANKS. 67
vulgarly called — about the size of a hazel-nut, and the use of which seems
to be to cause the leaf to float in water : and the Halidrys siliquosa, con-
sisting of a waved coriaceous stalk about 4 feet long, greatly branched,
dark olive when fresh, but quite black when dry ; is also furnished with
air-bladders or crackers.
(1615.) The constitution of these plants is very complicated, affording
no fewer that 21 ingredients. The first species, Laminaria saccharina,
afforded the following substances to the analysis of Gaultier de Claubry
in 1815:
A saccharine matter — manna. Hyposulphite of soda.
Mucilage, in considerable quantity Carbonate of potash.
Vegetable albumen. Carbonate of soda.
Green coloring matter. Hydriodate of potash.
Oxalate of potash. Silica.
Malate of potash. Subphosphate of lime.
Sulphate of potash. Subphosphate of magnesia.
Sulphate of magnesia. Oxide of iron, probably united with phos-
Muriate of potash. phoric acid.
Muriate of soda. Oxalate of lime.
Muriate of magnesia.
The composition of the other species, together with the Fucus serratus — •
which is like the F. vesciculosus, but without air-bladders — and the cliorda
Mum, or thread tangle, is very similar to the one here given.*
(1616.) Sea-weed is applied in di fresh state to grass land that is intended
to be plowed up for a crop, and it is laid on as thick as to cover the ground.
Being applied in winter it does not soon become dry, and the rain and
snow that may happen to fall upon it carries the saline ingredients with
which it is accompanied into the ground, or among the roots of the grass.
The large quantity of mucilage which sea-weed contains, and the numer-
ous salts which it affords, may be the causes of its utility as a top-dressing
and as an active manure. It has been recommended to dry sea-weed for
the sake of being easily carried into the interior of the country ; but this
trouble seems unnecessary, because winter, when it is most abundant, is
an unfavorable season to dry it, and because there is no more cast ashore
than can easily be used by the farms adjoining the coast. On combustion
in a certain way, sea-weed yields an impure alkaline substance called lielp,
which is used as a mannre. So long as this substance was used in the
arts, it was too expensive for a manure ; but its manufacture was stopped
some years ago by the introduction of foreign barilla ; and its value as a
manure is not so well known as to induce the resumption of that manufac-
ture. Many thousands of persons were employed at one time on the
shores of the main land and islands of Scotland, in the manufacture of
kelp, who are now deprived of that employment. The same substance is
manufactured on the coast of Normandy, and sold by the name of varcc.
Sea-weed, when burned in the open air, leaves ashes, which afford most
of the inorganic substances mentioned in the above analysis.
(1617.) [Tlie Liquid-manure Cart, for the economical distribution of this valuable manure, the
natural production of the farmstead, is now taking its due place among the machinery of the farm.
The water-carl has been very long in use for the conveyance of water, when the supply of that ne-
cessary element for household use has been distant from the steading ; and the liquid-manure cart is
its offspring, modified by certain additions to adapt it to this change of purpose. The water-cart is
usually the naked bed-frame of a cart, mounted on wheels, and surmounted with a cask of a capacity
suited to the demands of the establishment. The cask is furnished with a funnel inserted in or at-
tached immediately over the bung-hole ; and it it is likewise furnished with a spigot or with a stop-
cock, in.serted into that end of the cask which hangs over the back of the cart. When the water
cart has been drawn to the fountain or the pond from which water is to be conveyed, it is fille<l
either bv moans of a common pump, raised so high as to deliver the water which it lifts into the
funnel of the cask, or the water is lifted with the hand by means of a xcoop, having a helve of suf-
ficient length to enable the workman to reach the pond on the one hand and the funnel on the
other. The scoop best adapted to this purpose is a small wooden pitcher, about 8 inches in depth
♦ Thomson's Organic Chemistry, Ve^etabhs.
(115)
68
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
and 10 inches in diameter, the helve passing through its sides in an oblique direction, and a little
above its renter of pravity.
(leit".) The liqaiJ-manare cart, as most commonly used, differs very little from the above, ex
cept in its being provided with the distributing apparatus in place of the spigot ; but in laree estab-
lisnmcnls the casK is superseded bj- a covered rrc/anmilar cixfern or tank, which takes the place
of a common cart-body. The traterim of public streets and hiehways has induced the necessity
of the rectantrular tank for the di.stribution of water over the surface of roads, because of the ease
with which, by this con.struction. a greater quantity of water can be put upon one pair of wheels.
Here the quantity of water to a given surface is much greater than in the case of a liquid
manure, and hence the propriety of a capacious tank for the distribution of traier on streets, while
the same principle, (economy in the expense) leads to the propriety of employing a smaller and
less expensive vcs.<iel for the distribution of liquid manure, which will not in general be super-
abundant For a Uquidmannre cart, a cask of 120 or 140 gallons contents will be found more
economical in first cost than a rectangular tank, and as these machines can be only occasionally
in operation, they will, if not very carefully attended to, become leaky while standing unoccupiea.
In this respect the ca.-jk will have a manifest advantage over the tank, for the tightening of a cask
is an operation the most simple, by the act of driving up the hoops, while, in the case of the tank
becoming leaky, no means of that kind can be resorted to, and the alternative is, either soaking it
in water till the wood has imbibed a.s much of the fluid as will expand its substance and close the
leaks, or the vessel mast be tightened by some more expensive process. As the more econcjmical of
the two, therefore, in point of expense, 1 have chosen the cask-mounted cart for the illustration. Fig.
310 is a representation in perspective of this cart, of the simplest and most convenient construc-
tion. For the more easy means of filling the cask, it is suspended between the shafts of the cart,
and this position requires the bending of the axle to nearly a semicircle. The cart is a mere
skeleton, consisting of the shafts a a. which for this purpose may be made of red pine, their length
being about 14 feet. They are connected by a fore and hind bar, placed at such distance as will
just admit the length of the cask, while the width between the shafts is suited to the diam-
eter of it. The axle, a"! already noticed, is bent downward to nearly a simicircle, to receive the
cask, and its length will of course be greater than the common cart-axle ; even the distance l)e-
tween the caddy-bolts, in a straight line, will be usually greater, but this will depend on the
Fip. 310.
THE LIQUID-MANURE CART.
diameter of the cask. A pair of common, broad cart-wheels, b b, are fitted to the axle. The cask
c is suspended on two straps of hoop-iron, 2 inches broad, the ends of which are bolted to the
shafi.i. and the same bolts pass also through the ends of two lighter straps, which pass orer, and
secure the cask firmly in its place. The funnel or hopper d is usually fi.\ed upon the top of the
cask over the bung-hole, or it may be inserted therein by means of an attached pipe. The
distributor e may be made of sheet-copper, of cast iron or malleable iron, or even of wood : the
copper will be found the most durable, and it should be at least 1-20 of an inch in thickness. The
next best is the patent malleable iron tube ; cast-iron, though sometimes used, is not to be recom-
mended; neither is wood desirable, from its liability to choke. The bore of the distributor .«hould
be not less than 2 inches, nor is it required to exceed 2} inches, the length from 7 to ~\ feet, and
slichtly bent with a uniform curvature, which last property causes it to cover a wider surface of
«nx)und tlian it would do if straitrht. But in giving the distributor its curvature, care must be
taken to avoid increasing the curvature toward the ends, as is sometimes done, to the prevention
of uniform distribution of the manure. The erkis of the tube must be closed with movable covers,
screwed or otherwi.se fixed, that they maybe removed at pleasure, for the purpose of sponging out
the tube when it happens to get clogced up with any solid matter. A line of perforations is made
along the hinder side of the tube for the di.ochargc of the fluid ; these should beat the distance of 1
inch apart, ahd their opening about \ inch diameter. As the area of these discharging orifi-es
cannot be altered at pleasure, nor their amount of discharge altered for any given time, it becomes
(116)
DUNGHILLS AND LIQUID-MANURE TANKS.
69
Fig. 311.
THE APPARATUS FOR REGULATING THE
DISCHARGE OF LIQUID -MANURE.
necessan-, in distributing any given quautitj- per acre, to regulate tliat quantity by increasing or
diminishing the rate of traveling the cart over tlie ground. The distributor is attached to the cask
by means of a stem/of the same materials and bore as the main tube, and it enters the end of the
cask close to the lower chime. A stop-cock is frequently put upon the stem/ to regulate the dis-
charge, and for this purpose it is very beneficial,
serving in a great measure to regulate the quantity
per acre, but for the entire setting off or on of the sup-
pl}-, the stem /'opens into a small chamber inside
the cask, which chamber is closed bj- a flap-valve
heavily loaded. This valve when closed stops the
discharge, and when lifted the fluid has a free pass-
age to the distributor. The opening of the valve is
effected by a small chain attached to the flap, rising
to the top of the cask at g, where it passes over a
email roller, and onward to the fore-part of the cart
on the nigh side, where it hangs at hand for the
carter to set off or on at pleasure. Fig. 311 is a sec-
tion of part of the cask, and showing the chamber
and valve ; /is again the stem of the distributor, h a
stop-cock, ( the chamber, and k the valve, which is
the common leather flap or clack-valve well loaded
with lead, c c is part of the cask, / the chain attached
to the valve, and passing over the roller in.^
(1619.) When the liquid-manure cart is furnished
with a tank, the latter can, with equal facility, be
placed low for the convenience of filling ; thus the
axle may be cracked, as in the Li%-erpool dray-cart,
the tank resting on the cranked part of the axle ; or
the axle may remain straight, and the tank appended
below the axle. Such a tank may be conveniently
built to contain a ton of the liquid, or about 220 gal-
lons; and the distributing apparatus is the same as
for the cask. The prices of these carts vary considerably, partly from coostruction. and partly from
locality. Mr. Crosskil, of Beverley, £25 as the price of the tank cart. In Scotland the average
price may be stated at £18, and when mounted with a cask £15 : these prices, of course, including
wheels and axle.
(1620.) The cistern for collecting liquid manure in the farmstead, though apparently simple in
its construction, being merely a covered pond or a well, yet serious errors" are frequently commit-
tee in its formation. The first and most important consideration for the formation of the cistern, is
the effect of hydrostatic pressure : inattention to this has caused the failure of many such cisterns.
The liquid we have here to deal with, like all other fluids, acts on the bottom and sides of the
vessel or body that contains it, with a pressure directly in proportion to the depth at which the
fluid stands, without reterence to either length or breadth ; that is to say, suppose a cistern whose
bottom is 12 inches square, and its depth 10 feet, filled with water, every square inch in the bot-
tom will suffer a pressure equal to the hight of a column of water whose base is one inch square
and 10 feet, or 120 inches, in hight. The weight of such a column will be 4i lbs. nearly, and
this would be exerted on every square inch on the bottom, or the whole pressure on the bottom
would be 625 lbs. the weight of 10 cubic feet of water. There is a natural law that governs the
pressure of fluids, which shows us that they press equally in all directions, downward, irorizontally,
and even upward, the last arising from the general statical law, that " action and reaction arc equal
and in opposite directions.'' It follows, from these hydrostatical laws, that the lowermost portion
of each side of our supposed cistern will suffer a pressure from the water equal to that which
acts upon the bottom : hence, takin? the lowermost inch in the hisht of the sides of this cistern, it
will be pressed with a force of 52^ lbs. or thereby, or 4^ lbs. on the square inch, and each of the
four sides will suffer the same pressure. Suppose, now, that the cistern is elongated in one direc-
tion to any number of feet, and again filled to the depth of 10 feet, the pressure on each square
foot of the bottom remains the same as before, and so in like manner does it remain the same upon
the sides, for the pressure is not altered in any direction, although the proportion of the cistern
has been changed. Keeping this in view, it will be seen that" length and breadth produce no
effect on the pressures that a fluid exerts against the vessel or body that retains it, and that in cal-
culating the resistance to sustain such pressures, depth is the onlj' element requiring to be taken
into account. It is also to be kept in view that pressure on the bottom or sides is directlv as the
depth : thus, if our supposed cistern were reduced to 5 feet in depth, the pressure on the" bottom
would only be one-half, or 2^ lbs. on each square iach.t
[' As few persons will be at the expense of a cart like tliis, we recommend the plan of that
used at Mr. Wilkinson's Agricultural Institute in Dutchess County, which is found to " work
well." Directions for making- ?f.— Make an extra portable bottom to the common horse or ox
cart, of IJ-inch plank, fastened together by battings on the under side, and groove the upper side
longitudinally with J-inch grooves ^ inch deep, every inch and a half over the entire surface. On
this set a hogshead on stocks, and tap the front head, and the liquid will spread over the whole
grooved bottom, and by having the back end of the cart the lowest, the liquid will be equally
distributed aver the land. Ed. Farm. Lib.}
[t .Must it not orcur here to every reader that (hcse are principles which ought to be taught at all our
counti-j- schools, and with which everv farmer's son should be familiar » Suppose a dam to be made, and
(117)
70
THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
fl621.) The conclusion to be drawn from these remarks is that a cistern in the form of a pit or
well should be always avoided, unless it can be formed in a natural bed of impervious clay.
When such a substratum can be attained, a pit may be adopted, but not otherwise. If such
has been found, and the pit dug out, it should be lined with brick, or with stone built in mor-
tar, the bottom being first lined with the same material. When the building approaches to the
surface, the wall can gradually be reduced in diameter to a small compass, leaving only an opening
of 2 to 3 feet square, which is covered in at small expense, and the saving in this last item is the
only apparent advantage that seems to attend the practice of pit-cisterns. Deep cisterns are liable
to another inconvenience, of their becoming recipients of spring or of drainage-water; and it is
sometimes more difficult to keep such water out than to keep the proper liquid in, for if springs
and their origin lay at considerable bights, their hydrostatic pressure may be so great as to render
the prevention of access to their products a process of great difficulty.
(1622.) A cistern of moderate depth, not exceeding 4 feet below the outfall of the drains, may
be constructed in any situation, whether in gravel or in clay, and its length can be extended so as
as to attbrd any required capacity ; the breadth being restricted to that for which materials for
covering it can be most easily obtained, which may be from 3 to 4 feet. Whatever be the stratum
in which such a cisteni is to be formed, (unless it be perfectly impervious clay,) it should be pud-
dled to the thickness of at least 1 foot with the best clay that can be procured. For this purpose
the earthy matters are to be dug out to a deplli of IJ feet lower than the intended sole, and to a
width of four feet more than that proposed for the cistern. Two or three thin layers of the pre-
pared clay are then to be compactly laid over the whole breadth of the excavation, and beaten
firmly together at ail points, making up the depth to 1 foot, and the surface of it brought to a uni
form level. Upon this the side-walls are to be founded, and these may be of brick 9 inches in
thickness, or of Hat bedded rubble-stone 14 inches. The wall should be built in successive courses
of about 1 foot in hight, the whole being bedded in mortar, and, as each course is completed, the
puddle is to be carefully laid and beaten in behind, in layers of 6 inches or thereby, the first laj-er
being properly incorporated with the foundation puddle, and each succeeding layer with the one
immediately preceding it To prevent the side-walls from being pushed inward by the pressure
of tHe puddle or of the bank, tie-walls of brick or of stone should be formed at every 5 feet of the
length of the cistern. These may be 9 inches of brick or 14 inches of stone ; and they must have
conduits formed at the level of the sole, to allow the liquid to run toward the pump. The sole
should be laid all over with brick set on edge, or with strong pavement, the whole having a slight
declivity toward one end, where a small well-hole of 9 inches in depth is to be formed to receive
the bottom of the pump. The brick, or pavement, as the case may be. is to be bedded on the puddle,
and grouted flush in the joints with mortar ; and when the walls and sole are built up, they should
then be pointed in every joint with Roman cement. The covering is to be effected with strong
pavement, of length sufficient to rest on the side-walls, laid and jointed with mortar; or with
rough foiindBtone», where such can be procured, and if neither can conveniently be found, a
beam of good sound Memel fir may be laid along the middle of the cistern, resting on the tie-walla,
and with this bearer, stones of half the length will be suficienl to form a cover. A thin layer of
clay may be laid over the stone covers, and upon that a coat of gravel, by which means carts may-
be allowed to pass over it. To prevent accident, however, it is always desirable to construct the
cistern in a situation where it will be as little as possible exposed to the transit of carts ; and this
may be always obtained at a small additional expense of covered drain to convey the manure
from the dunghills to the cistern.
(1()23.) The pmnp for lifting the liquid from the cistern to the cart may be either of wood or
cast-iron, but the latter is preferable. A common sucking-pump of 3J inches chamber is quite
sufficient; the chamber should be bored out, and the punip boxes, for durability, should be also
of metal, with leathern flap-valves. The hight of the pump should be such as to deliver the liquid
freely into the funnel of the barrel, or tank; but if this hight is found to raise the pump-lever
above the reach of a man's hand, it is only necessary to joint a light connecting-rod to the lever,
its lower end being furni.shed with a cross handle, and by these means the pump-man will be able
to work the pump in the same manner as the lower end of the common pit saw. Forcing and
liftini^ pumps have been proposed and even employed for the purpose we have here in view,
though with questionable propriety ; and here it may be proper to explain, that by the term
force-pump is to be understood a pump that raises water to any hight above the point where the
power is applied, by the descent of a solid piston acting in the chamber of the pump, sending the
liquid into an ascending pipe, which springs from l/e/ow the piston. The //ffi?if(-pump difters from
this in having a valved piston through which the liquid passes, as in the sucking-pump, on the de-
scent of tne piston; and, on its ascent, the valve being now clo.scd, the lirjuid is liffca and forced
into the ascending pipe, which, in this case, s])ring3 from above the piston, the chamber being
closed at top with a water-tight stuffing-box. From this brief descri])tion the simplicity, both
in construction and in management, of the sucking or common pump, as compared with the other
two, will be obvious ; the cost being also in favor of the iirst. — J. S.]
water to he coUecled for a mill, or fish, or. as oujjht to be the case on every farm, for nn ice pond ; how
prevalent is the common notion that water covering a large surface would require a etronp, wide dam !
yet here it is seen that if it rovi-reil fifty acres, the lateral pressure would be no greatt'r than if ifcovercd
but fifty superficial yards. What we mean to intimate is, what is suggested by every part of this book, and
by common reflection to every thinking mind — \hc ViouAer ihaixhe landid iiitrrait oi the United States
does not insist on the estahli.^hmcnt of institutions hy the GcncrHJ O.veiDmcnt, similar to that at West
Point— not for the instruction of all directly, for that would he inipracticahle— but for the ivstriiction of
teachers, who might be qualitied to teach these plain practical principles to aa many boys as the military
offices can teach the Manual Exercise to the militia. The knowledge taught by the latter may be highly
useful where it should alone be ustjd to repel invasion and to suppress insunection — whereas that taught
by honorable and well instructed civil tutors would greatly augment the best sort of power that any na
tion can possess — the civilizing and blessed pntcer iif KnmHrii^e. We shall wait anxiously to hear the pow-
erful voice of Governor Wkight on this subject, in his Agricultural Address at Saratoga, in September.
Ed. Farm. Lib.\
(118)
IRRIGATION. 7]
7. WINTER IRRIGATION.
" Hence Irrigation's power at first was learnt,
A custom ancient, yet but rarely used
In cold and watery climes ; though even there
No mode of melioration has been found
Of more effect, or with more ease obtained."
Gbahah.
(1624.) It is not my purpose here to describe the mode of making in-i-
gated meadows ; that being a summer occupation, it will be attended to in
due time. At present I shall only describe the watering of meadows in
winter. Suppose, then, that the meadows have been formed in a proper
manner, and every channel cleaned with proper care, let us at once pro-
ceed to let on the water, and regulate its duration so as not only to pre-
serve the vitality of the plants, but to promote their vegetation at an earlier
period than the natural call of the season would arouse into action. As
the late Mr. George Stephens knew the irrigation of land well, I shall use
his words in describing the management of water on meadows in winter.
I shall only premise that there are two kinds of water-meadows, on% called
the bed-ivork, in which the ground is made to decline gently, and the water
to flow in the direction of the inclination. The other kind is called catch-
work, which is only suited to ground having a considerable declivity, and
by which the water is brought across the face of the declivity. The object
aimed at in both kinds is the greater production of grass. Inigation,
therefore, is one mode of manuring grass-land.
(1625.) "The whole works," as Mr. Stephens directs, "being repaired,
and there being generally water enough at this season either for the whole
or for part, the sluice should be drawn, when, in the course of half an hour,
the conductor and the upper part of the feeders will be nearly filled. The
first operation of the irrigator is to adjust the water in the conductor; or,
if the meadow is in more parts than one, the water in each conductor must
be first regulated. Then he commences anew by regulating the stops in
the first feeder ; but should there not be sufl[icient water in the feeder, a
little more must be let in, by making the aperture wider or deeper, till the
water flows regularly over the sides from one end to the other. From the
first he proceeds to the second feeder, and so on, until the water in all the
feeders is adjusted. Let the beds of a watei'-meadow be ever so well
formed, yet, by some places sinking more than others, or by the ice raising
the surface of the ground, although the water along the banks of the feed-
ers has been ever so nicely adjusted, it often happens that there may be
some places between the feeders and drains with too little water, when it
will be advisable for the manager to make a third round, redressing ine-
qualities of the surface so as to give every spot 1 inch deep of roater.
Every part of the works being regulated, the water should be allowed
to run through the whole of October, November, December and January,
from 15 to 20 days at a time without intermission. At the expiration of
each of these periods, the ground should be made completely dry for 5 or
6 days, to give it air ; for there are few species of the grasses vi^hich form
the most nutritive part of the herbage of water-meadows, that will long
exist under an entire immersion of water. Moreover, if the fi'ost should
be severe, and the water begin to freeze, the icaterins must he discontinued,
(119)
72 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
otherwise the whole surface will became one sheet of ice ; and, whenever
the ice takes Jiold of the ground, it will undoubtedly draw it into heaps,
which is very injurious to plants." " The object of this early watering of
the meadows is to take advantage of the autumnal floods, which bring
along with them a variety of putrescent matter, which is found veiy en-
riching to land. It is the chief object of the irrigator in those months to
collect as much of this manure as possible, and at the same time to shelter
the land fi-om the severity of frosty nights. It is therefore requisite to
use as much water as the land will carry without guttering. I believe it
would be difficult to give land, with a dry subsoil and considerable descent,
too much water before the weather begins to get warm. It is necessary
in those months that the meadows be inspected at least once in 3 or 4
days, to see that the equal distribution of the water is not obstructed by
the accumulation of weeds," &c.
(1626.) Simple as these directions are, yet the actual management of the
water of meadows is not unattended -with difficulty, but requires the exer-
cise of good judgment and great attention. " The adjustment of watei
flowing over the surface of land," remarks Mr. Stephens, " for the purpose
of improving the herbage, is a very nice operation ; it requires a perfect
knowledge of levels and the vegetation of grasses, and ought never to be in-
trusted to an unskillful manager. When the supply of water is, in any
state of the stream that supplies it, sufficient for the whole or one-half of
the meadow at once, the management becomes pretty easy ; for after the
works are cleaned, and the water regulated in the autumn, the sluices
should be fixed at such a hight as to let in the exact quantity required, when it
is allowed to run according to the state of the weather and the season of the
year, for 2, 6, 10, or 15 days, without any alteration ; and it will be found
(unlessthe water has carried along with it weeds, sticks, or \vreckof anykind)
to run dui'ing that whole period nearly as equally over the surface as when
first put on. But when the stream is small, and rising and falling with
every shower of rain, the management becomes so much the more diffi-
cult that it will require every possible attention of the in-igator to watch
and change the water from one part of the meadow ro another, or from
one bed to another, according to its abundance or deficiency. Such mead-
ows are indeed ill-managed, although half an hour's 7vork in a day would
put everything to rights. Indeed, let the formation of the meadow be ever
so perfect, and the supply of water constant and uniform, yet it is necessa-
ry that the manager should sui-vey the whole every 3 or 4 days, to remedy
any defect occasioned by the accumulation of weeds, or by a stop being
washed away, and thereby cause some places to have too much water, and
others too little ; so that, in the former case, the grasses might either be
killed or veiy much injured by the generation of scum, or, in the latter
case, there would l)e little or no produce of grass. Small streams are cer-
tainly much more at command than large ; but if the manager, as is too
often the case with a young practitioner, vainly endeavor to water too much
ground at a time, he may give one part too much water, and another too
little ; for on the alteration of the apertures, and adjustment of the
water, greatly depend not only the quality but the quantity of the crop."
(1627.) There are many ways of mismanaging water-meadows, such as
retaining a moist subsoil, or allowing the gi-ass to stand too long before
cutting ; but there is an error committed at this period of the year, to which
I wish to direct your attention, and which is thus chai-acterized by Mr.
Stephens. " Another great error irenerally committed is, allowing the
water to run too long at a time, without properly drying the ground. I
know some instances where the gi'ound is not attempted to be dried from
(120)
IRRIGATION. 73
the time the water is put on the meadows in autumn till 8 or 10 days be
fore the cutting of the hay ; the consequence is that the gi-ass is of the
coarsest quality, and the ground becomes so very boggy that the whole
crop of grass is obliged to be canied by people to some other place to be
mule into hay A water-meadow," adds Mr. Stephens, " like a gar-
den, will be good for little without due attention. All dry soils require
more attention than moist ones ; for if the water in moist soils should not be
so nicely regulated as on sandy or dry land, the crop of grass will not be
so defective as on porous soils, iclicre the management has been neglected. I
presume that all dry land that has been converted into water-meadows, in
countries where the art of inigation is not well known, and the supply of
water not abundant or regular, is liable to more injury, from imperfect
treatment, than land of a moist nature, for plants must have their food at
stated times as well as animals, but this cannot be the case when the water
is irregularly applied."*
(1628.) The mode in which water acts in producing the effects witness-
ed in water-meadows, has not yet been completely ascertained. It is not
the sediment in the water that alone works the chaiTn, for clear water pro-
duces similar results ; though, no doubt, enriching ingredients caiTied by
the water encourage the growth of plants more rapidly than clear water,
as witness the produce of foul-water meadows in the neighborhood of Ed-
inburgh. Professor Low has these observations on the theory of the pro-
cess : " The theory of the process of irrigation," says the Professor, " has
not been satisfactorily explained. That the effect is not produced by the
mere supply of deficient water, appears not only from the period at which
the water is admitted, and when in our climate the soil is always saturated
with the fluid, but from the circumstance that Me effect is not j^roduced
when the water is allowed to stagnate, and sink do\vn in the soil, but when
it is kept in a current over it. When the water is suffered to stagnate, the
soil tends to produce carices, junci, and other sub-aquatic plants ; but
when it is kept in motion, and drained off at intervals, the finest grasses
peculiar to the soil and climate are produced. Neither does the fact of
the deposition of mud, or other fertilizing sediment, explain the phenome-
non ; for however such depositions may increase the effect, it is likewise
found that water, without the least perceptible sediment, may be employed
with success. It has been supposed that the water acts beneficially by
maintaiuing the soil at a higher temperature. Water, at a temperature of
40^, is of greater specific gravity than at a lower temperature ; and hence
as the water tends to the freezing point, the warmer portion of it is next
the ground. ]Much, however, cannot be ascribed to this cause, in a current
so shallow and constant as that which passes over the watered meadow. It
is probable, therefore, that the main effect is produced by a mechanical ac-
tion of the water, acting upon and bringing nourishment to the fibrous roots
of the plants."t
(1629.) Although it may be very true, as Mr. Stephens obsei-ves, that
" however authors may disagree on this interesting subject (the theory of
irrigation), I believe all experimentalists acknowledge that early winter
watering is necessary to produce early and abundant vegetation ; in what
w;.y this operates is, as to practical purposes, less material ;"| yet it is al-
ways satisfactory to man to be able to give a reason for what he does. To
this view I shall add another theory of imgation, that has been suggested
by Professor Rennie, late of King's College, London. It is believed by
* Stephens's Practical Irrigator and Drainer,
t Lows Elements of Practical Agriculture, Edition of 1838.
X Stephens's Practical Irrigator and Drainer.
(121)
74 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
some vegetable physiologists that plants excrete certain matter from theii
roots, which proves inimical to the health of other plants of the same kind.
Hence it is concluded that grasses do not continue permanently in a healthy
state in the same site, because they are in time injuriously affected by their
own excretions, which, encouraging the growth of plants of a different na-
ture, such as mosses, spring up and extirpate the grasses. It is supposed
to be probable that every species of grass is not alike affected by its oirn, or
the cxcrcmentitious matter fru)n other grasses, and therefore some species
withstand the poison longerthan others. Now the water of inisation, in its
descent through the soil and subsoil, washes away or carries off" in solution
the injurious excrementitious matter exuded by the grasses, and thereby
cleanses the soil in which they are growing, free of it. Hence the perennial
verdure of iirigated meadows.*
(1630.) In order to an-ive at a satisfactory explanation of this subject,
and believing that both this theoiy, as well as the one given by Sir Hum-
phry Davy refeired to by Professor Low, contain truth, I proposed some
time ago a conjunction of the two theories ; and the compound theory cer-
tainly explains the four gi'eat points of irrigation, namely, that it supplies
moisture to the soil in dry seasons and in tropical climates ; it aff"ords pro-
tection to plants against the extremes of heat and cold ; it disseminates
manure in the most minute manner to plants ; and it washes away injuri-
ous matter from the roots of plants. The benefits derived from inigation
I therefore maintained are purely mechanical, and doubted the coiTectness
of 8ir Humphry Davy's opinion when he says that "in the artificial wa-
tering of meadows the beneficial effects depend upon many different causes,
some chemical, some mechanical,"! because chemical action only com-
mences after the act of in'igation has ceased, as the nature of the following
particulars attending irrigation will show. No doubt, the effects of the sub-
stances, whatever they may be, which are deposited by the water of irri-
gation, may be chemical, as well as those of manure applied to grass by
the hand of man. But the act of the water in depositing fertilizing mate-
rials, can be no more chemical than that of the instruments used in spread-
ing dung upon the soil. The truth is, that whenever the water of irriga-
tion, or the substances contained in it, act che7nicallyuY>on the grass or soil,
while subjected to the process, that moment irrigation proves injurious to
the plants. The chemical action and the injury are both evinced by the
same phenomenon, namely, the existence of white scum floating on the
water. " If the weather should be mild," observes Mr. Stephens, " and
you suffer the water to run over the meadow too long without intermission,
a white scum is generated, which is very destructii'C to the tender grass."\
The particulars of irrigation I referred to are these : " The operation of wa-
ter bringing matter into minute subdivision ; the sediment which it contains
when used in irrigation being minutely distributed around the stems of
the plants ; water protecting plants in irrigation against the extremes of
heat and cold, by completely covering and embracing every stem and leaf;
and the supplying of moisture to the soil and washing excrementitious mat-
ter out of it, are all purely mechanical operations." For, " could thp hand
ofvian distribute manure around the roots and stems of grass as minutely
and as incessantly as turbid water; could it place a covering of woolen
texture upon each blade and around each stem of grass, as completely as
water can embrace each plant and keep it warm ; could it water the grass
as quietly and constantly as the slow current of irriijation ; and could it
wa.sh away hurtful matter from the soil as delicately from the fibres of the
* Uiinrierly Journal of Apriciilturo, vol. v. t Davy'i Agricultural Chemigtry.
X Stepheiis'a Pracdcal Irrigator and Drainer.
IRRIGATION. 75
roots of grass as irrigating water, there would be no need of irrigation ; the
husbandman could then command at mil verdant pasturao-e for his flocks
and herds, throughout the year, and in the driest season. His vicclianical
agency would be as effective as imgation ; but constituted as the relative
state of things at present are between man and the action of physical laws,
he employs irrigation as an instrument of hid will, and induces Nature to
assist him in maintaining his live-stock by an application of her pecu-
har mode of acting, under his own guidance, but in which she undoubt-
edly displays her superiority over him, both in perseverance and dex-
terity."*
* Kacyclopsdia Britaimica, eerenth edition, art. IrrrigaXion,
76 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
SPRING.
"Fled now the sullen murmurs of the North,
The splendid raiment of the Spring peeps forth;
Her universal green, and the clear sky.
Delight still more and more the gazing eye."
Bloomfield.
We have now deliberated upon every topic which the indoor operations
of the farm, as they may be called, have suggested ; and their considera-
tion, to a minute degree, has extended our lucubrations rather beyond
their prescribed limits ; and yet, when every subject, as it presented itself
in succession, was new, and claimed attention, not only on its own account,
but as possessing a controlling influence upon those which are to follow, it
was requisite to examine particularly into the principles upon which they
were based, that the consequent subjects dependent on similar principles
may be the more easily understood, and treated according to their nature.
I earnestly hope that this may be the result of the deliberations which we
have had hitherto together ; and I would feel somewhat confident of that
issue, if you have bestowed that attention upon the subjects treated of,|
which they really i-equire.
Upon the whole, we have seen that winter is the season of repose, of
passive existence, of dormancy, though not of death. Spring calls forth
the opposite emotions ; it is the season of revivification, of passing into
active exertion, of hope, nay of confidence in what we do will succeed —
of hope ripening into fruition as the earnest of prospective plenty is pre-
sented in the reproduction of the herds and flocks, and in the world of life
which springs into view immediately after the industrious hand has scat-
tered the seed upon the ground. The joy in contemplating such a pros-
pect to the issue of labor is indescribable. I am unequal to the task of
describing it, but would not, if I could, in case of giving you an unsuitable
idea of the enjoyment. I would rather that you should go and enjoy the
pleasure for yourself; because " the chosen draught, of which every lover
of Nature may drink, can be had, in its freshness and purity only at the
living fountain of Nature ; and if we attempt to fetch it away in the clay
pitchers of human description, it loses all its spirit, becomes insipid, and
acquires an earthy taste from the clay."
The weather in spring, in the zone we inhabit, is exceedingly variable,
alternating, at short intervals, from frost to thaw, from rain to snow, from
sunshine to cloud, very different from the steady character of the arctic ,
spring, in which the snow melts without rain, and the meads are covered
with vernal flowers ere the last traces of winter have disappeared. The
sky is very clear when the air is free of clouds. The winds are very shai-p
when coming from the N. or N. E. direction ; and they are frequent, blow-
in"- strono-ly sometimes from an eastern and sometimes from a western di-
rection. In the former they are piercing, even though not inclining to
frost ; in the latter they are strong, boisterous, squally, and rising at times
(124)
SPRING. 77
into tremendous hunricanes, in which trees only escape being uprooted in
consequence of their leafless state ; but by which many a hapless mariner
is overtaken and consigned to a watery grave, or dashed without mercy
on a rocky shore. The air, when dry, evaporates moisture quickly ; and
the surface of the ground is as easily dried as wetted. Very frequently
snow covers the ground for a time in spring. The severest storms and
falls have occurred in February. The memorable falls of the 9th Feb-
ruary, 1799, and of the 7th February, 1823, are yet fi-esh in the recollec-
tion of many persons alive, when, for weeks together, the internal commu-
nication of the country was entirely stopped. Roads opened up in one
direction were again blocked up immediately after by a drift from the op-
posite direction. There is something truly awful among the hills in a
storm of snow in spring. Here is a description of one, ti-ue to the life,
with all its accompanying prognostics. " One evening, after a day of un-
wonted tranquillity, dense clouds appear like great snowy mountains in
the western part of the horizon, while the few clouds which lie in streaks
across the setting sun, are intensely deep in their shadows, and equally
bright in their lights As the evening closes in, the clouds disappear, the
stars are unusually brilliant, and there is not a breath of air stining. The
old experienced farmer goes out to take his wonted nocturnal survey of
tlie heavens, from which long observation on the same spot has enabled
him to form a tolerably correct judgment of what will be the state of the
weather in the morning. Two or three meteors — ^brilliant, but of short
duration — shoot along a quadrant of the sky, as if they were so many
bright lights of the firmament, dropping from their orbits. He returns
and directs his men to prepare for what may happen, as there will cer-
tainly be a change of the weather. The air is perfectly tranquil when the
family retire to their early pillows, to find that repose which healthful
labor sweetens and never misses —
' Till rest delicious chase each transient pain,
And new-bom vigor swell in every vein.'
But just at the turn of the night the South gives way, the North tiiumphs,
and the whirlwind, herald of victory, lays hold of the four comers of the
house, and shakes it with the shaking of an earthquake. But the house,
like its inhabitants, is made for the storm, and to stand secure and harm-
less ; while the wind thunders in the fields around, every gust roaring
louder than another among the leafless branches of the stately trees. In a
little its sound is muffled, without being lessened, and the snow is heard
battering at the windows for an entrance — but battering in vain. Morn-
ing daAvns ; but every lea and eddy is wreathed up ; the snow still dark-
ens the air, and reeks along the culling ^vreaths as if each were a furnace.
For two days and two nights the storm rages with unabated violence ; but
on the third day the wind has veered more easterly, blows rather feebly,
and though the snow falls as thickly, it falls uniformly over the whole sur-
face. This continues for two or three days more ; and on the coming of
the last of these days, the sun, which has not been visible for nearly a
w-eek, looks out just before setting, as if promising a morning visit. The
night remains clear, with keen frost, and the wind steady at north, and
blowing very gently. The sun rises bright in the morning, the storm is
over, and the weather remains unbroken for four or five weeks.
" When the appointed days of the snow-storm are numbered, a disturb-
ance again takes place in the atmosphere, but it is of a different kind from
the former. There are little sheets of lightning playing momentarily in
the lower atmosphere, and the lustre of the stars is diminished ; but still
there is no cloud. The wind, however, dies away to a dead calm toward
(125)
78 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
eveninjT. and all is ready for the breaking stonn. That operation is the
first pei-formed by the spring, and we shall bonow the words of the ' Brit-
ish Natui-alist' wherein to describe it : ' As the spring gets the naastery,
which is aided by the condensation which takes place during the night, it
rises to a wind, the sound of which cannot be mistaken. The rigidity of
trees, window-frames and other wooden fabrics through which it })asses
is lelaxed ; the withered grass and reeds, when these are exposed, moisten :
and the rattling and thumping are succeeded by murmuring harmony, in
which, compared with the other, there is a good deal of music ; and as the
morning advances and the animals come abroad, and man begins to be
active, the hard metallic sounds are gone, and there is a softness aljout
Nature. There is always a delightful transparency about the atmosphere,
because the little splcnicp of ice are gone, and the heat of the air is too
much occupied in converting the snow and ice into water, for changing
much of that into vapor. When the change is accompanied by rain, it is
far more pleasant at the time, and there is a danger, almost a certain one,
that the spring will be treacherous; and that, in consequence of the great
heat required for melting the snow, and the evaporation of the rain to-
gether, frosts will return long before the process of thawing, so compara-
tively slow, s completed. The slow melting of snow by rain, compared
by that of a warm atmosphere which is constantly shifting by the wind,
can be easily understood, when it is remembered that the water which falls,
even if it had the temperature of the greatest summer heat, would be
cooled down to the freezing point in melting half its weight in snow. But
as the temperature can only be a little above freezing, the water will Ijave
the temperature of 32° before it has cooled perhaps ^ of its weight ; and
as the water is a bad conductor of heat, and great part of the action of the
oblique rays of the sun reflected away from its surface, a rainy breaking
of a storm is almost sure to be followed by fiost, if it do not happen when
the season is far advanced.' In such a situation, and under such circum-
stances, the storm not unfrequently passes away in what is emphatically
termed a gentle thaw; and when this is the case, the spring comes under
the most favorable circumstances. The snow is dissolved by atmospheric
influence alone, without any rain from the clouds ; although there are
generally light clouds hovering about, ready to produce rain if a retuniing
frost should render a contest of the elements necessary. Besides its rare
pleasantness, the gentle thaw is attended with several beneficial conse-
quences. In the first place, there is no flooding of the low grounds, ami
no washing of the soil from the more elevated ones; but the snow forms a
trough for the disclinrge of the water into which it is melted, and thus the
coldest of the snow-water does not reach the surface of the land. In the
second place, the water produced by the melting of the snow sinks gradu-
ally into the earth, and the earth has been opened to receive a greater
store than if it had been pelted by rain during winter. This is occasioned
by the radiation of the heat from the lower strata of the earth, which is
confined by the snow and turned back again to act upon the earth. In the
third place, this last circumstajico jiroduces a beginning of the spring un-
der the shelter of the snow, which could not have taken place with free
exposure to the atmos]>here. The blade of the ])lant is protected, and the
roots have heat and moisture, and the air is excluded from them. They
are thus placed under the most favorable circumstances, and they are
stimulated accordiiitjly. The diflerence in this respect is very considera-
ble ; for if, owing to the action of the wind during the fall, or to any other
cause, one portion of a field has been exposed to the air while the frost
continued, and another covered by the snow, it will be found that vegeta-
(126)
SPRING. 75
tion upon the part which the snow covered will be fresh, green and vigor-
ous, long before that upon the exposed part shows any decided signs of
action. This, by the way, is the real cause why spring is so rapid, and
meets with so few reverses, where the winter is firm and decided, but of
moderate length, than it does when the winter is variable. In such a place
as we ai-e alluding to, the spring wind usually freshens as the snow disap-
pears ; and this latter quickens the melting of the snow, and dries the sur-
face of the ground. When the clods begin to dry, the lai-k soars aloft at
the streak of dawn, calling the plowmen to their labors. Nor are they
backward to obey ; for they and their teams have been rested during the
storm, and then return to their labor with fresh vigor."* I have been the
more induced to give this long extract, as, besides containing a true de-
scription of a spring snow-storm, it indicates its prognostics, and the pe-
culiar states in which the atmosphere presents itself at this season.
Spring is a busy season on the farm. The cattle-man, besides contin-
uing his attendance on the fattening cattle, has now the more delicate task
of waiting on the cows at calving, and providing comfortable lairs for new
dropped calves. The dairy-maid commences her labors, not, it is true, in
the peculiar avocations of the dairy, but in rearing calves — the supply of a
future herd — which, for a time, are indulged with every drop of milk the
cows can yield. The fari'ows of pigs now claim a share in her solicitude.
The shepherd, too, has his painful watchings, day and night, on the lamb-
ing ewes ; and his solicitude and tenderness for the simple lambs, until
they are able to frisk and gambol upon the new grass, is a scene of pe-
culiar interest, and insensibly lead to higher thoughts. " When we see the
attention of a judicious shepherd upon these occasions, we cannot refrain
from thinking of the unspeakable condescension and kindness of Him who
' feeds his flock like a shepherd, gathers the lambs into his arms and car-
ries them in his bosom, and gently leads those that are with young.' " The
condition of the fields demands attention as well as the reproduction of
the stock. The day now affords as many hours for labor as are usually
bestowed at any season in the field. The plowmen, therefore, know no
rest for at least twelve hours every day, from the time the harrows are
yoked for the oat-seed until the potato and turnip crops are sown. The
beans first demand the plowman's aid, and then the lea ground, turned
over at intervals of fresh weather in winter, is ready, with a due degree
of drouth, to receive its allowance of oat-seed. The turnip land, bared
as the turnips are consumed by sheep, is now plowed across, or ridged up
at once for spring wheat, should the weather be mild and the soil dry
enough, or else the ridging is delayed for the barley-seed. The fields
containing the fallow land now receive a cross-furrow, in the order of the
fallow-crops, the potatoes first, then turnips, and lastly the bare fallow.
Grass seeds are now sown among the young autumnal wheat, as well as
among the spring wheat and the barley. The field-workers devote their
busy hours to carrying seed to the sower, turning dunghills in preparing
manure for the potato and turnip crops, and continuing the barn-work to
supply litter for the stock yet confined in the steading, and to prepare the
seed-corn for the fields. The hedger now resumes his work of water-
tabling and scouring ditches, cutting down and breasting old hedges, and
taking care to release the sprouting buds of the young quicks from the
face of the hedge-bank, fig. 42, which he planted at the commencement
and during fresh weather in winter. The steward is now on the alert,
sees to the promotion of every operation, and intrusts the sowing of the
* Mudic's Spring. Since I last had occasion to quote Mr. Mudie's sentiments on the influence of Win
tcr, c'eath has seized the hand of him who was so capable of wielding the pen.
(127)
80 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
crops to none but liimself, except a tried hand, such as the skillful hedger.
Thus every species of laborer has his work appropriated for him at tliis
busy season ; and as the work of every one is individually defined, it is
scarcely possible for so great a mistake to be committed as that any piece
of work should be neglected by all.
The farmer himself now feels that he must be " up and doing ;" his
mind becomes stored with plans for future execution; and in order to see
them executed at the proper time and in the best manner, he must now
forego all visits, and remain at home for the season ; or at most under-
take an occasional and hasty journey to the market-town to get quit of
surplus grain, should the draughts have a leisure day to deliver it. The
business of the fields now requiring constant attendance, his mind as well
as body becomes fatigued, and, on taking the fireside after the labors of
the day are over, seeks for rest and relaxation rather than mental toil.
He should at this season pay particular attention to the state of the
weather, by obsen'ing the barometric and theiTnometric changes, and make
it a point to observe every external phenimienon that has a bearing upon the
changes of the atmosphere, and be guided accordingly in giving his instruc-
tions to his people.
During a snow-storm in spring, wild-birds, becoming almo.st famished,
resort to the haunts of man. The robin is a constant visitor, and helps
himself with confidence to the crumbs cast out for his use. The male par-
tridge calls in the evening within sight of the house in hopes of obtaining
a morsel before collecting his covey together to rest for the night upon the
snow. In the severe snow-storm of 1823, several covies used to approach
my own door at sunset, and ofi;entimes, ere putting down the sheaf of bar-
ley for their nightly meal, at the root of an old beech-tree, the old cocks
reminded me of my hospitality, though that was unnecessary in the cir-
cumstances, by their loud crisp-like call, before retiring to rest. 1 believe
that, had it not been for this timely supply of nourishing food, they would
all have perished in the severity and length of that memorable stoiTn. Hares
came to the very door at sunset, and in the moonlight, to receive what food
was set down on purpose for them ; and so powerful a tamer is hunger of
creatures of the most distant habits, that even the wood-pigeons, in large
flocks, used daily to frequent an orchard immediately behind the house to
pick the curly greens which had grown so tall as to overtop the snow, their
favorite food — the Swedish turnip — being then buried out of reach in the
snow. The rooks now make desperate attacks upon stacks, and, if allow-
ed, soon make their way through the thatch. Always making their atjack
at the top, they seem to be aware of the exact place where the corn can
be most easily reached. The spaiTOws even burrow in the thatch, and the
lively tom-tits, with a strength and perseverance, one should think, beyond
their physical abilities, pull out whole straws from the sides of the stacks,
to bring the heads of corn within their reach. Farther on in the season
the insect world come into active life in myriads, to sei"\-e as food for the
feathered tribes. Rooks, with sturdy walk and independent gait, diligently
search the ground for them, in the wake of the plow, to feed their young
therewith. Tom-tits clamber round every spray of trees which indicate an
opening of their floret buds. The swallows at length appear, giving anima-
tion to the air, and the stream of migration to the northward betokens the
approach of genial weather.
" By the time the season is fairly confirmed, the leisure houi-s of the
cottagers," and of plowmen, who are in fact cottagers of the be.st condition,
are spent, in the evening, " in the pleasing labctr, not unaccompanied with
amusement, of trimming their little gardens, and getting in their early
(128)
SPRING. 81
crops. There is no sort of village occupation which men, women, and chil-
dren set about with greater glee and animation than this ; for, independ-
ently of the hope of the produce, there is a pleasure to the simple and un-
sophisticated heart in ' seeing things grow,' which perhaps they who feel
the most are least able to explain. Certain it is, however, that it would be
highly desirable, that not only every country laborer, but every artisan in
towns, where these are not so large as to pi'event the possibility of it, should
have a little bit of garden, and should fulfill the duty which devolved on
man in a state of innocence, to ' keep it and to dress it.' It is impos-
sible for any one who has not carefully attended to the subject, to be at all
aware how strong the tie is which binds man even to a little spot of his na-
tive earth, if so be that he can consider it as his own, and that he himself,
and those on whom he loves to bestow it, are to enjoy the fruit. This is
the very strongest natural hold which binds a poor man to his country, and
to all those institutions established for the well-being of society. Show me
the cottage, the roses and the honeysuckles on which are neatly trimmed
and trained, and the garden behind is well stocked with culinary herbs and
a few choice flowers, and I will speedily find you a cottager who nevei
wastes his time or his money, or debases his mind, and learns the broad
road which leadeth to destruction,' in the contamination of an ale-house. If
the garden is neat, one may rest assured that the cottage, however humble
it is, is the abode of contentment and happiness ; and that however simple
the fare may be, it is wealth and luxury in full store to the inmates, be-
cause they are satisfied with it, and grateful for the possession of it."* I
believe that the contentment of the lot of the Scottish man-ied plowmen,
and of the attachment to the farm upon which they serve, may be traced
to the principles evolved in these remarks. No doubt, much yet remains
to be done to inculcate on them and their families the advantages of prac-
ticing habits of personal and domestic cleanliness. Hinds' houses, in this
respect, might be much improved, and which, if they were, an air of tidi-
ness and comfort would attend their dwellings, which at present is gener-
ally wanting. A great deal depends on the example of the farmer him-
self; for while he keeps his garden and shrubbery and little avenue in a
slovenly manner, it is not to be expected in servants to evince a desire to
excel their master. A farmer's garden gets a trimming twice or thiice a-
year, and in the mean season, weeds may riot in it without molestation, and
its produce may be plucked as best suits the convenience or caprice of the
kitchen-maid. Doubtless, considerable crops of vegetables are raised in
these gai'dens, but more through strength of manure than skill of culture.
It is, I am aware, inconvenient to obtain the assistance of the professional
gardener in the country when his services may be most wanted; but on a
farm on which a hedger is employed, he should be taught as much of gar-
dening as to be able to keep the garden in decent order in the absence of
the gardener, whose principal duty should be to crop the ground. A field-
worker now and then would keep the weeds in subjection, and allow both
the sun and air a freer access to the growing plants.
Toward the end of spring, the farmej- thinks of disposing of his fat cat-
tle ; but, should he not be offered the price he considers them to be worth,
he keeps them on, and even threatens to put them to grass. The dealer
and butcher affect to be shy purchasers at this season, knowing there is
plenty of fat stock in the country ; but, nevertheless, are unwilling to allow
• a prime lot to slip through their hands, and therefore keep a sharp look-out
on all the best lots for disposal. The ready means of steam conveyance to
* Mudie's Spring.
(129) 6
82 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
London for fat stock, gives the farmer a vantage ground in his dealings
with the butclier, which the latter now knows well to avail himself of by
closing a ready bargain on the best conditions he can make.
This is the season, too, for the letting of grass-iiarks. These usually lie-
long to landed proprietoi-s, and form a poili(»n of their park and lawn. The
ready market which these jiarks meet with, induces the retention of snch
ground in permanent grass, while it places their ownere beyond the risk
of speculation in the purchase of grazing cattle on their own account. It
is not custoniaiy for farmere to let their gi-ass-parks, except in the neigh-
borhood of large towns, where cow-feeders and butchers tempt them with
high offers, which they except rather than purchase cattle whose feeding
may not be i-epaid. Pasture for grass is, in truth, so convenient for the
stock of those classes of people, that they will almost give any rent rather
than be deprived of the convenience. In regard to the effect which letting
of grass-parks by tenants has on the rights of the landlord, I may mention
that his " hypothec extends over the crops and live stock of the tenant, in-
cluding horses, cows, sheep, cattle, and every description of stock raised
on thefarjii, but it does not extend to the cattle of others tal-rn in to praze.
On this ground, it has been held an initancy of the lease, should the ten-
ant, instead of stocking the farm, take in cattle to gi'aze, and thereby give
the landlord no security for his rent. (Mackye, December 4, 17 SO, M.
6214)"* Facility of obtaining grass-parks in the country is at times useful
to the farmer who raises grazing stock, in one of which, at least, he may
give them a better bite or warmer shelter than he can perhaps offer on the
division of his farm which happens to be in grass.
The landed proprietor has to seek another market in spring, one for his
timber, which he annually fells in thinning out his plantations. These sales
afford convenient supplies to farmers who may be in want of paling for
fencing new hedges, wood for sheep-flakes or stabs, or timber for the erec-
tion of shedding for animals, or for implements. They are also sei-viceable
to country joiners and implement-makers, in supplying them with neces-
sary materials nigh at hand. The timber is felled by the owner, and
assorted into the sizes and kinds of lots which he knows will best suit the
local demand. Prunings and small thinnings are sold as fire-wood, and
purchased by villagers who cannot afford to purchase coal, and by farmei-s
who have to supply fuel to bothies. After this resume of spring-work, let
us now particularly consider each operation in its proper order
8. cows CALVING AND CALVES.
" Whon elip has cRlrpd, then tex ihe dam aside,
And for the tender progeny provide."
DsTDKN'a ViBon..
(1631.) The first great event in spring, on a farm of mixed husbandry*, is
the calving of the cores ; not that this event should net occur till spring —
though most breeders of farm-stock are anxious to have calves eaily, par-
ticularly bull calves, (1238,) and on that account calves are bom as early
as December and January — but by far the qreater proportion of the stock
of cows are not desired to begin to calve till February, and the season of
calving continues in good time till the middle of April ; after which, as
(130)
cows CALVING, AND CALVES. 83
in May, the calves are accounted late, and then seldom retained as a
part of the breeding-stock, namely, that portion which is specially set aside
to propagate its kind. Reluctance to late calves arises from no objection
to their purity of breeding, for earliness or lateness of birth can have no
effect in that respect ; but chiefly because an early calf possesses the ad-
vantage of having passed through its period of milking in time to be
supported on grass, as soon as it affords a plentiflil supply of food. From
8 to 10 weeks at this season is a period of great anxiety for the state of
the cows ; and, indeed, till her calving is safely over, the life of the most
valuable cow is in jeopardy. Every solicitude, therefore, that can conduce
to her passing in safety over this critical period, ought to be cheerfully
bestowed.
(1632.) You may remember the treatment which I recommended some
time ago for cows in winter, in reference to food and exercise, in (1215)
and (1218.) When the cow first shows heavy in calf, which is usually
after her sixth month, the litter in the court should not be allowed to be-
come too deep, as over-exertion in walking over soft, loose litter and dung
may cause such an excited action of the animal's system, and most prob-
ably of the womb, as to make her slip calf — or to slink the calf, as it
is usually termed. The litter in a court which is constantly trampled
by cattle at freedom, becomes so firm as to afford a good footing ; but
the case is different in a cows'-court, which is usually filled with loose
litter wheeled from the byre ; and as it is walked upon only for a short
time every day by cows, which, when in calf, are not disposed to roam
much about, it never becomes firm. To render the litter as firm as may
be under the circumstances, the cattle-man should spread each barrowfull
as he \vheels it out, taking care to mix a due proportion of the straw with
the dung.
(1633.) Cows, as they calve, and after it is considered safe for them to
go out in the air again, should not be allowed to go into the court at the
same time with those yet to calve ; because calved cows soon come into
season, as the phrase has it, that is, soon become desirous of the bull; and
when they approach this condition there is a very prevalent desire on the
part of the other cows to ride upon them, and, what is remarkable, espe-
cially of those yet uncalved. As may be supposed, such violent exertions,
made on soft litter, are likely to produce injurious results on the uncalved
cows, by even causing inversion of the calf in the womb, by bringing on
febrile action, or by causing the slipping of the calf. The time of the day
at which cows in these different conditions should go out, may be left to
the discretion of the cattle-man, who should, however, keep this considera-
tion in view, that as cows, after having calved, become more tender in
their habit than before, they should enjoy the best part of the day ; for
instance, from 12 to 2 o'clock.
(1634.) Coivs may be ascertained to be in calf hetweeu the fifth and sixth
months of their gestation. The calf quickens at between 4 and 5 months ;
and up to that period no disagi'eeable change has been caused in the con-
stitution of the cow ; but from this period she becomes subject to several
diseases. The calf may be felt, by thrusting the points of the fingers
against the flank of the cow, when a hard lump will bound against the
abdomen, and the feeling will be communicated to the fingers. Or when
a pailfull or two oi cold water is drank by the cow, the calf kicks, when a
convulsive sort of motion may be observed in the flank, by looking at it
from behind, and, if the open hand is then laid upon the space between
the flank and udder, this motion may be most distinctly felt. But it is not
in every circumstance that the calf can be felt at so early a period of its
(131)
84 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
existence ; for when it is lying in a natural position in the interior of the
womb it cannot be felt at all ; and when it lies near the off or ri^ht side
of the cow, it is not so easily felt as on the opposite side. So that, al-
though the calf cannot be frit at that early stage, it is no proof that the
cow is not in calf. Some cow-dealers show great acuteness in ascertain-
ing whether a cow is in calf One, whom I knew, that was bred a tailor,
told me tljat when a resinous-looking substance could be drawn from the
teats by stripping them firmly, the cow is sure to be pregnant. After this
period the flank in the near side fills up, and the general enlargement of
the under part of the abdomen affords an unequivocal symptom of preg-
nancy.
(1635.) The wnmh of the cow is a bag of inegular form, having a cham-
ber or division attached to each side called the hornx of the icornb, and so
called, perhaps, because of the fonn they present in an unimpregnated
state, of the large curved horns of a black-faced tup. The womb consists
almost entirely of muscular fibres, with a large proportion of blood-vessels,
and of cellular matter, which admits of contraction and extension. Its ordi-
nary size in a large cow is about 2^ feet in length, but when containing a
full-grown foetus it is 7 feet in length. This is an extraordinary adaptation
to circumstances which the womb possesses, to bear an expansion of 7
feet from about ^ of that length, and yet be capable of performing all its
functions. The use of the horns seems to be to form a lair for the calf,
and each is occupied by the calf according to its sex. The quey-calf occu-
pies the near, and the bull-calf the off-side horn. So that a quey-calf is
more easily felt in the younger stage than the bull-calf; and indeed the
latter is frequently not felt at all until the seventh month, when other
symptoms afford proofs of pregnancy.
(1636.) The exact time of the cow's calving should be known to the
cattle-man as well as by the farmer himself, for the time when she was
served by the bull should have been marked down. Although this last
circumstance is not a certain proof that the cow is in calf, yet if she passes
the period when she should take the bull again without showing symptoms
of season, it may be safely inferred that she became in calf at the last serv-
ing, from which date should then be calculated the period of gestation, or
of reclconivii, as it is called. A cow generally goes 9 months, or 273 days,
with calf, although the calving is not certain to a day. Nay, she sometimes
goes as much as 3 weeks, over her time, but far more frequently only 9
or 10 days. When a cow passes her reckoning for a number of days, she
will be found most commonly to bear a bull-calf
(1637.) Cows are most liable to the coviivg down of the calf-hed, to
which I formerly refened, (1300,) when near the period of calving, be-
tween the eighth and ninth months, and, from whatever cause it may
originate, the jiosition of the cow in which she lies in her stall should be
attended to, by keeping her hind part as high as the fore, by raising the
litter. The immediate cause of the protrusion of a part of the womb, is
the pressure of the calfs fore-feet and head against that part of it which
is opposite to the vaginal jiassage, and the protrusion mostly occurs when
the calf is in its natural jiosition ; so that no great danger is to be appre-
hended from the protrusion, although it is better to use means to prevent
its recurrence, which is an unnatural occurrence, than to trust to conse-
quences by over-confidence.
(1638.) Much more care should be bestowed in administering food to
cows near the time of their reckoning, than is generally done ; and the care
should be prf)portioned to the state of the animal's condition. When in
high condition, there is much risk of inflammatory action at '.he time
(132)
cows CALVING, AND CALVES. 85
of parturition. It should, therefore be the farmer's care to check cA^ery
tendency to obesity in time. This may be effected by giving fewer tm-nini
and more fodder than the usual quantity ; but some cows when in calf, and
have been long dry, will fatten on a small allowance of turnips ; and there
is this disadvantage of administering food in too dry a state, that it tends
to aggravate one of the tendencies of the system you are attempting to
check, namely, the inflammatory. Other means must therefore be used,
along with a limited allowance of food, and, in as far as medical treatment
can be applied to the case, there is nothing so safe as bleeding and laxa-
tives. " Every domestic animal like the cow," observes a very sensible
writer on this subject, " is to be considered as by no means living in a
state of nature. Like man himself she partakes of civilized life, and of
course is subjected to similar infirmities with the human race. The time
of gestation is with her a state of indisposition, and every manager of
cattle should should be aware of this, and treat her with every attention
and care during this time. The actual diseases of gestation are not
indeed numerous, but they are frequently very severe, and they occa-
sion always a tendency to slinking, or the cow slipping her calf. As the
weight of the calf begins to increase, it will then be necessary to take
some precautions, and these precautions will consist in an attention to her
diet, air and exercise."*
(1639.) It is the 8th and 9th months that constitute the critical period of
a cow in calf. The bulk and weight of the fcEtus cause disagreeable sensa-
tions in the cow, and frequently produce feverish symptoms, the conse-
quence of which is costiveness. The treatment for this is bleeding once
or twice, in proportion to the strength and condition of the cow, and the
administering of laxative medicine and emollient drinks, such as a dose of
1 lb. of Epsom salts with some cordial mixture of ginger and carraway and
ti'eacle, in a quart each of warm gi'uel and sound ale. Tui'nips, of course, are
given, and they have a laxative tendency. Potatoes, too, are recommend-
ed ; but I confess I entirely object to giving potatoes to cows at any time, be-
cause of their great tendency to produce hoven, of which, if an attack were
to overtake a cow far advanced in calf, would either kill the calf in the
w^omb, or cause the cow to slip it. Turnips, though perhaps not of so lax-
ative a nature as potatoes, are yet much safer ; though it is quite true that
Swedish turnips, at the season of the year when cows calve, are solid in
their texture, and have less sap in them, and are therefore more binding
in their nature, but on account of these properties they are the better
adapted for feeding. In cases of indigestion, conseqq,ent on inflam-
matory action, I have seen the substance of this turnip in the maniplies,
or third stomach, squeezed flat like the husks of apples from a cider-
press.
(1640.) Having suffered the loss of two or three cows by costiveness, im-
mediately after calving, I was induced to try oil-cake as a laxative along
with the Swedish turnip. The cake was given to the cows for 2 months,
one before and one after calving, and its valuable property of keeping the
cows in a fine laxative state, and at the same time in high health, was truly
satisfactory ; and on continuing the practice every year afterward, a simi-
lar mishap never overtook my cows. The quantity given to each cow daily
was 4 lbs., at an intermediate time between the feeds of turnips. The time
of giving it was as regularly adhered to as that of the turnips, and when the
hour arrived, at 10 o'clock in the forenoon, for its distribution, every cow
expressed the gi-eatest anxiety for the treat. It was broken to them in
•* Skellett on the Parturition of the Cow.
(133)
86 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
small pieces with a hammer, which is a tedious manner of break-
ing it when a number of cattlu are supplied with it at a time ; but the pro-
cess can be easily and expeditiously peribrmed by the use of the oil-cake
breaker, fip. 264.
(1641.) J^iit the opposite state to obesity is also to be avoided in cows
in calf, namely, that of weakness and impoverishment of condition. In such
a case, bleeding of course is improper, and the cow should rather have good
and nourishing food, such as mashes of boiled barley, and turnips and oil-
cake, not given in large quantities at a time, but frequently and moderate-
ly, with a view of laying on flesh in a gradual manner, and of avoiding the
fatal tendency to plethora. I believe he who gives oil-cake to his cows be-
fore and after their calving, as I have recommended, need entertain no ap-
prehension of their safety in as far as regards their calving, in whatever
condition they may happen to be, because it proves a laxative to the fat,
and a nourishing article of food to the lean cow, and in both secures a pro-
per state of all the parts connected with calving.
(1642.) Slinking, or slipping calf, is both a vexatious occurrence and a
gi'eat loss to the breeder of stock. It is not only a loss of the calf itself,
but the want of it makes a blank in the number of the lot to be brought
up in the season, and which must be made up by purchase. And it is a
very vexatious occunence in a cow that is desired to be kept as a brood
cow, inasmuch as she never can again be depended upon to bear a living
calf, the probability being that she will slip every calf afterward at one
time or another of her gestation. Why this should be, has never been
satisfactorily explained, though the fact is undoubted. The only plan for
the farmer to avoid a future disappointment by such an untoward event, is
to draw the milk fiom the cow as long as she gives it, and then fatten her
for the butcher. I had a very nne Short-Honi cow, bred by myself, that
slipped her second calf; and not being disposed to trust her again, fed her
off, when she became extraordinary fat, and yielded very superior meat ; and
this was the only cow I ever had which was a victim to the complaint we
are speaking of. This is the same cow that I referred to before, as having
yielded so great a quantity of tallow, (1324).
(1643.) The causes of this troublesome complaint are various, arising
chiefly, however, from violent exercise, the eflect of frights, bruises, and
knocks; "but," says Skellett, "a more common cau.se of slinking than any
of them, and which is peculiar on the influence of this animal, is a dx^-A-
greea.h\c nai/.seoys svicll ; the cow is remarked to prepossess a very nice
and delicate sense of smelling, to that degree that the slinking of one cow
is apt, from this circumstance, to be communicated to a great number of
the same herd : it has been often known to spread like an infectious dis-
ease, a?id great losses have been sufl'ered by the cow-feeders from the
same."* If there is any truth in the last cause mentioned in producing
the complaint, and which 1 believe to be true, as T knoAv that cows are en-
dowed with a very delicate sense of smell, you will recjuire no arguments
to convince you of the necessity of keeping everything in a liyre occupied by
breeding-coirs in a clean and wholesome state ; to have every particle of
filth removed daily from the feeding-troughs before and the urine-gutters
behind them; and to have the byre thoroughly ventilated when the cows
go out to the court. The same circumstance will show you the propriety
of preventing any pig beine^ slaughtered on the litter on which cows are
accustomed to walk, and of not allowing any animal to be bled, and ot
any blood to be spilled near the byre. When any of the cows require bleed
* Skellett on the Parturition of the Cow.
(134)
cows CALVING, AND CALVES. 87
ing, the operation should be performed in a different apartment from the
byre.
(1644.) Whenever a cow shows symptoms of slinking, which may be ob-
served in the byre, but not easily in the gcass-field, she should be removed
immediately from her companions. Thejirst symptoms are a sudden fill-
ing of the udder before the time of reckoning would warrant, a looseness
and flabbiness and redness of, and a yellow glairy discharge from, the vagi-
na, and a giving way of the ligaments or couples on each side of the rump.
When any of these symptoms are observed, the cow should be narrowly
watched, and means of preventing slinking instantly adopted, one of the
chief of which is blood-letting. This should be followed by a laxative dose.
But these means may prove ineffective if the symptoms made their appear-
ance suddenly, and went through their course rapidly, and the calf be slip-
ped after all.
(1645.) The risk which the cow runs, after slinking, is in not getting quit
of the cleaning, or afterbirth, ov 2>lacenta, because in such a case it is in an
unprej^ared state to separate from the womb. Should it be retained, a cer-
tain degree of corruption is apt soon to take place in it, which will produce
a very nauseous smell, that may remain for some time, as the cleaning may
only pass away by degrees by putridity. Whenever the cleaning does not
come away in the course of a few hours, or at most a day, the assistance of
the veterinary surgeon should be obtained. The following cordial drink
will promote the cleansing ; juniper berries 3 oz., bay berries 2 oz., nitre 1
oz., anise seed 1 oz., gentian ^ oz., gum myrrh ^ oz., asafetida ^ oz., well
pounded togethei% for 1 dose, and given in 1 quart of mild ale made warm
in 1 quart of pennyroyal tea. This drink should be given fasting, and re-
peated every day till the cleansing is evacuated.*
(1646.) After such a mishap the cow should be kindly treated in her
diet, by the administration of mashes, gruels, and cordials, and her
bowels kept in an open state at the same time, until her system recover
its tone.
(1647.) As to the ^re?7e«^/o« of the recurrence of this vexatious complaint,
though I believe that the best thing for the farmer is not to attempt any,
but just to milk and fatten the cow, yet as a natural desire may be felt to
retain a valuable and favorite cow, I shall mention some means which may
be used, and which may have the effect of enabling the cow again to bear
a living calf; and there is certainly this inducement to try means, that after
the womb has again assumed its healthfull tone, so as to retain the foetus till
the proper time, there is a probability of the complaint not returning, pro-
vided the following means are used every season during the period of ges-
tation. Skellett mentions these preventive measures : " When a cow has
slipped her calf, in the next gestation she should be early bled, her body
should be kept open by cooling physic ; she should not be forced to take
any moi-e exercise than what is absolutely necessary for her health, and her
interfering with other cattle guarded against by keeping her very much by
herself. At the same time," he adds, " it must be observed that, though it
is necessary to preserve a free state of the bowels, a laxity of them will
often produce this accident ; cows fed very much upon potatoes, and such
other watery food, are very apt to slink, from their laxative effects. In the
food of the cow, at this time, a proper medium should be observed, and it
should consist of a due proportion of other vegetable matter mixed with the
fodder, so as the bowels may be kept regularly open, and no more." Our
author, however, does not see that these remedial measures can be very
useful. If the cow is in high condition indeed, she should be reduced in
* Skellett on the Parturition of the Cow.
(135)
88 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
condition ; if she is very low, she ought to get nourishing food and strength-
ening medicines, and if she is much annoyed by nauseous smells, these
should either be counteracted, or the cow withdrawn from them. To coun-
teract bad smells, Skellett recommends the following mixture tt> be formed. .
and rubbed a little every day on the parts the cows commonly smell each
other: Barbadoes tar, 3 oz., balsam of sulphur, 3 oz., rectified oil of as;-
ber, 1 oz., fine oil of thyme, 1 oz. ; and animal oil, 1 oz. " Of what nature
that odor is," continues Skellett, " which gives offence, we cannot alto-
gether be certain ; but the author has remarked that its effects occur at one
season more than at another, and particularly when the weather has been
wet, and the cows have long been kept at grass. From this fact," he con-
cludes, " it will appear that the smell is of a vegetable nature, and con*
nected with their feeding at that time."* It is understootl that cows
that are fed in the neighborhood of and in woods, and that live on coarse,
rank pasture in autumn, are most liable to this complaint. In Switzer-
land, the complaint increases after the cows are put on rank pastures in
autumn.
(1648.) Though slinking is spoken of as an infectious complaint, it has
no property in common with any contagious disease; but sympathetic in-
fluence being a main cause of it, its result is as fatal as if direct contagion
had occasioned it.
(1649.) About a fortnight before the time of reclionivg, symptoms of
calving indicate themselves in the cow. The loose skinny place l>etween
the vagina and udder becomes florid ; the vagina becomes loose and flabby ;
the lower part of the abdomen rather contracts ; the udder becomes larger,
harder, more florid, hotter to the feel, and more tender-looking ; the milk-
veins along the lower part of the abdomen become larger, and the cou])ling
on each side of the rump-bones looser; and when the couplings feel as if
a separation had taken place of the parts there, the cow should be watched
day and night, for at any hour afterward the pains of calvhig may come
upon her. From this period the animal becomes easily excitoil, and, on
that account, should not be allowed to go out, or be disturbed in the byre.
In some cases, these entire preparatory symptoms succeed each other
rapidly, in others they follow slowly ; and the latter is ])articularly the
case with heifers with the fii"st calf. These symptoms are called sjj?i/iging
in England, and the heifers which exhibit them are springers.
(16.';0.) In different parts of the country, diflcrent practices exist in re-
gard to attending on cows at calving. In the southern counties of Scot-
land, thf shepherd conceives it to be his duty to attend on the occasion,
assisted by the cattle-man, and other men if required. In the northern
counties, on the contrary, the calving is left to women to manage. I think
this difference in practice must hn\e ansen from the ihgree of assistance
required at the oporalion. In the southern counties, the large class of
cows filmost always re(]uire assistatice in parturition, the neglect of which
might cause the cow to sink from exhau.stion, and the calf to be strangled
or drowned at its birth. Powerful assistance is sometimes recpiired and
can only be aff'orded by men, the physical ability of women being unequal
to the task. Indeed, I have witnessed the assistance of 8 men, in one
way and another, tjiven in the extraction <if a calf coming e\en in a natural
position. The calf was the first of twins, was very large, and this was ti)e
first labor of the heifer. I shall never forijet the distressing cries of the
poor creature when racked with pain, nor the patience and sympathy
evinced by all the men who were sunnnoned to assist. It was an interest-
ing case, conducted by an experienced .shepherd, and lasted altogether
* Skellett on the rnrturilion of the Cow.
(136)
cows CALVING, AND CALVES. 89
about five hours. The cow and calves were much exhausted ; but all
recovered in the course of a few days. In the northern counties cows are
not only smaller, but their calves are smaller in proportion, so that most
cows calve without assistance ; and, therefore, women may manage both
cow and calf without difficulty. Of the two modes of conducting this
delicate and ofttimes tedious operation, I should say that it falls most le-
gitimately under the guidance of the shepherd, who seems to be the natural
guardian of all the young stock brought forth on a farm ; and where there
is no shepherd, the cattle-man should take the charge, the farmer himself,
in all cases, giving his sanction to the means about to be used, as it is but
fair that he himself should bear the heaviest portion of the responsibility
connected with this dangerous procedure.
(1651.) There are a few preparatory requisites that should be at hand
when a cow is about to calve. Two or three rein-ropes are useful, to
fasten to the calf if necessary — a fiat, soft rope being the best form, but
common rein-ropes will answer. A mat or sheeting, to receive the calf
upon in dropping from the cow, should she be inclined to stand on her
feet when she calves. The cattle-man should have a calf's crib in R, fig. 3,
Plate III, well littered. The shepherd should pare the nails of his hands
close, in case he should have to introduce his arms into the cow to adjust
parts ; and he should supply himself with goose-grease or hog's lard to
smear his hands and arms. Goose-grease is best for making the skin
smooth, and withstanding evaporation. It may be that a few sacks
may have to be put under the cow to elevate her hind-quarter, and even
block and tackle may be used to hoist her up by the hind legs, in order to
adjust the calf in the womb. These last articles should be ready at hand
if wanted. A little straw should be spread on the floor of the byre, to
place the new-dropped calf upon.
(1652.) All being thus prepared, and the byre-door closed to keep all
quiet, the cow should be attended to every moment. The symptoms of
calving are thus exactly described by Skellett, as they occur in an easy
and ordinary case. " When the operation of calving actually begins," he
says, " then signs of uneasiness and pain appear ; a little elevation of the
tail is the first mark ; the animal shifts about from place to place, fre-
quently getting up and lying down, not knowing what to do with herself.
She continues some time in this state, till the natural throes or pains come
on ; and as these succeed each other in regular progress, the neck of the
womb, or os uteri, gives way to the action of its bottom and of its other
parts. By this action the contents of the womb are pushed forward at
every throe ; the water-bladder begins to show itself beyond the shape,
and to extend itself till it becomes the size of a large bladder, containing
several gallons ; it then bursts, and its contents are discharged, consisting
of the liquor amnios, in which, during gestation, the calf floats, and which
now serves to lubricate the parts, and render the passage of the calf easier.
After the discharge of the water, the body of the womb contracts rapidly
upon the calf; in a few succeeding throes or pains, the head and feet of
it, the presenting parts, are protruded externally beyond the shape. The
body next descends ; and in a few pains the delivery of the calf is com-
pli'te."* The natural and easy calving now described is usually over in
2 hours, though sometimes it is protracted 5 or 6, and even so long as 12
hours, particularly when the water has been easily evacuated, or the water-
bhuhlcr has broken before being protruded beyond the shape or vaefina.
(165.3.) But although the calf may present itself as here described in its
natural position, wdth both its fore-feet projecting, its chin lying on both
• Skellett on the Parturition of the Cow.
(137)
90 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
fore-legs, and the point of the tongue sticking out of the side of the mouth,
it may not be extracted without assistance ; and as the feet of the calf are
too slippery to be retaint-d liold of by the hands, a rein-rope is doubled,
and a foidine: loop at the dttuble is passed up above each fetlock joint,
whence the double rope from each leg is ready to be taken hold of by the
assistants. The pull should only be given at each time the cow j)resses to
get quit of the calf, and it should be steady but firm, in a direction down*
from the back of the cow , and a little more than sufficiently strong to keep
good whatever advance the calf may have made. Meantime the shepherd
endeavors to relax the skin of the cow around the calf's head, by manipu-
lation, as well as by anointing with goose-grease, his object being to pass
the skin over the cantle of the calf, and when this is accomplished, the
whole body may be drawn gently out. In obstinate cases of this kind, a
looped rope may be passed across the mouth of the calf round the under-
jaw, which will facilitate the passage of the head ; but this should not be
resorted to but on necessity, the cord being apt to injure the tender mouth.
(16.54.) On the extrusion of the calf, the first symptom it shows of life is
a few gasps which set the lungs in play, and then it opens its eyes, and
tries to shake its head, and sneer with its nose. The breathing is assisted
if the viscid fluid is i-emoved by the hand from the mouth and nostrils ; and
the thin membrane which envelops the body in the womb should now be
removed, much torn as it has been in the process of parturition. The calf
is then carried by two men, suspended by the legs, with the head held up
between the fore-legs, and the back downward, to its comfortably littered
crib, where we shall leave it for the present to attend still farther on its
mother.
(1655.) The presentation is sometimes made with the h inci -feet foremost .
At first the hind-feet are not easily distinguished from the fore, but if a
hind presentation is made in the natural position of the body, that is, with
the back uppermost, the hind-feet will be in an inverted position to the
fore, that is, the soles will be found uppermost instead of the hoofs. There
is no difficulty with a hind presentation, only it should be ascertained that
the tail is in its natural position, and not folded up, before the legs are
pulled out. The first obstructing point is the rump, and then the tliickest
part of the shoulder. On drawing out the head, and coming last, it should
lie pulled away quickly, in case the calf should give a gasp for air at the
moment of leaving the cow, when it may inhale some of the water instead
of air, and run the risk of choking. The mouth and nose should be wiped
immediately.
(1656.) Some have a custom, which is particularly practiced by women,
to ruV) the skin of the new-dropped calf with a wisp of straw, but such a
species of dressing should not be allowed, as it serves only to agglutinate
the hair with the licpior amnios which is brought along with it. If left to
itself, the li(]uor evaporates in a short time and loaves the hair diy ; but
while the evaporation is proceeding the calf trembles, no doubt from feel-
ing it cold, and on this account, if for no other, the litter in which it is first
laid should be soft, clean, and amply siifficient to bury its body out of sight.
I may mention, however, that the trembling is considered a hajipy symp-
tom of the strength of the calf
(1657.) All yet has been easily managed, when the cow lies still in her
stall, with plenty of straw around and behind her hind-quarter; but some
cows are f»f so restless a disposition that they will not lie still to calve, and
whenever the pains seize them, up they start to their feet, and when they
cease lie down again. Such a cow is troublesome to deal with, as it is
scarcely possible, by reason of her risings up and lyings down, to ascertain
(138)
cows CALVING, AND CALVES. 91
the true position of the calf, especially when it does not present itself in
the natural position. In such a case, it is the more necessary to extract
che calf energetically, and remove the uneasiness of the cow, for, till she
gets quit of it, she will not settle in one position or another. When the
calf is so near the external air as to enable the operator to get the ropes
round its legs, whether fore or hind, and a gentle pulling commenced, to
fix her attention to the object in view, she will press with great force, the
standing position giving her additional advantage, so that the extraction
of the calf, in such a case, is generally the most expeditious. As in this
position of the cow the calf will have to fall from a considerable hight to
the ground, and may thereby be hurt, it is necessary to be provided with
a mat or chaff-sheet, which two men hold below the body of the calf,
ready to receive the body upon it when it leaves the cow. I had a Short-
Horn cow that was very troublesome at calving, lemaining but a short
time up or down, and being the whole time in the greatest state of excite-
ment. She always stood to calve, but when the process was actually be-
gun she pressed with so much vigor that she got quit of it in a few minutes.
Upon one occasion, after the water had come from her, the shepherd was
preparing the ropes to be in readiness in case they should be required ;
but while employed at them, and within a couple of yards from the cow •
in her stall, she gave such a powerful press as to project the calf from her,
and it fell upon the floor, but luckily upon the very straw that had been
laid down to receive it. This instance shows the necessity of careful
watchfulness on cows. after symptoms of actual calving have begun, as in
such a case as I have just narrated, entire neglect might afterward have
found the calf killed or injured by the heavy fall it had received.
(1658.) Some calves, though extracted with apparent ease, appear as if
dead when laid upon the straw after birth. When such a case occurs, the
hand should be placed against the side of the breast, to ascertain if the
heart beats ; which, if it does, there is of course life, and all that is want-
ed is to inflate the lungs. To accomplish this, the mouth and nose should
be cleaned, the mouth opened, and if there still be no breathing, some one
should blow steadily into the open mouth, a device which I have seen an-
swer the purpose ; as also a hearty slap of the open hand upon the but-
tock of the calf, which starts it, as it were, into being. Perhaps a bellows
might be usefully employed in such a case, to inflate the lungs. Should
no beating of the heart be felt, and yet consciousness of life seem to be
there, the calf should be carried without delay to its crib, and laid down
and covered up with the litter, leaving the mouth free to breathe, and it
may survive ; but even after giving a few gasps, it may die. Most proba-
bly the cause of its death may be from injury it had received in calving,
such as long detention in the vaginal passage, or an undue squeeze in pass-
ing through the mouth of the womb, or by some rashness of the operator.
The body of the calf when thus lost should be skinned while warm ; it
should be cut in pieces, and buried in compost for manure, and the skin
sold.
(1659.) The difficult cases of presentation which usually occur are with
one foot and the head, and the other foot drawn back, either with the leg
folded back altogether, or the knee doubled and projecting forward. In
all of these states the missing leg should be brought forward. To effect
this, it is necessary to put round the presented foot a cord to keep it with-
in the power of the operator when the head is pushed back to get at the
other foot, and the greased arm of the operator introduced, and the foot
brought forward into the passage beside the other. A calf may be ex-
tracted with one leg folded entirely back alongside the body, and on feeling
(139) ^ o
92 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
this to be the case, it is perhaps better to extract the calf at cnce, than to
delay the parturitittn in attemptiiiir to biiuj; forward tlie leg. The pre-
sentation may be of the head alone without the feet, which may be
knuckled forward at the knees, or folded back along both sides. In the
knuckled case both legs may be brought forward by first pushing the head
back, but, in case of losing hold of the calf altogether, a loop should be
put in the calf's mouth. In the folded case, one leg at least, but both if
possible, should be brought forward. A worse case is, when one or both
legs are presented and the head folded back into the side. In this case
the calf will most likely be dead. The head should be brought forward,
and both legs, if possible. It may be beyond the strength of the opera-
tor to bring forward the head ; then he should put a loop into the calf's
mouth, by which his assistants will pull forward the head. Still worse
cases may occur, such as a presentation of the shoulder, with the head
lyine into the side ; a presentation of the buttock, with both the hind legs
stretched inward. Or the calf may be on its back, and making presenta-
tions in all the worst features now enumerated. In whichever of these
states the calf may present itself, no extraction can safely take place until
it is placed in a position by which the head and one of the legs, with the
other folded entirely back, oi- both the hind legs, with the back tunied up-
permost, are secured. In no case, however, should a fore or hind leg be
left so as not only to obstruct the body in leaving the mouth of the womb,
but a foot left so much at liberty as to tear the womb. The safest prac-
tice, therefore, is to secure both legs as well as the head. This may cause
the operator considerable trouble, but by retaining hold of what parts he
can with cords, and dexterity in handling the part missing, so as to bring
it forward to the passage, while the assistants pull as he desires, his object
will in most cases be attained ; but it should be home in mind that none
of all these objects can be attained but by the assistance of the cow herself;
that is to say, they should only be attempted when seconded by the throes
of the animal. If this circumstance is not attended to and patiently
watched by the operator, the muscular gi-asp of the womb will render his
arm powerless. Another facility that should be taken advantage of by
the operator is, that when the hind-quarters of the cow have an inclination
downward she has the power to press the stronger, and of course to coun-
teract his efforts the more easily. "What should l>e done, therefore, is to
raise that quarter of the cow with bundles of straw fully higher than the
fore-quarter, until he has got the calf in the position he desires, and then,
by lettini:^ the cow down again, and watching her pressings and assisting
her at the same time, but not otlierwise, the extraction may be accom-
plished in a reasonable time. As to block and tackle, the expedient
should never be resorted to but to save the life of the cow, and as to turn-
ing the calf in the womb, there is far more danger in the attempt of injur-
ing the womb than the value of the calf is worth. Much rather destroy it
and cut it away in piece.s, than run the risk of losing the cow. When the
head only of the calf has found its way into the mouth of the womb, and
cannot be protruded through the vagina, by reason of the unfavorable and
obstructive position of the fore-legs, an inspection should immediately be
made of the position of the calf, by first throwing the head back with a
loop in the mouth, and bringing the legs forward. When this inspection
has been too l«)ntr delayed, and the head kept confined in the passage, the
violent throes of the cow will certainly strangle the calf, and its head will
swell to an inordinate dejn'ee. In such a case, as the swelling will pre-
vent the calf's head being pushed back to get at the legs, it must be taken
off, the legs brought forward, and the body then extracted. One of the
(UO) °
cows CALVING, AND CALVES. 93
most difficult cases is, when the fore-feet are presented naturally, and the
head is thrust down upon the brisket between the legs. The feet must
first be pushed back, and then the head brought up and forward, and the
extraction will then become natural.
(1660.) A skillful shepherd may be able to manage all these difficult
cases within a reasonable time ; but unless he is particularly dexterous at
cases of parturition, it is much safer to obtain the advice of a veterinary
sui-geon, even although he should not be required to put a hand to the
operation himself. In the ease of exti'acting monstrosities, his assistance
is indispensable.
(1661.) In regard to extracting twin calves, before rendeiing the cow
any assistance, it is necessary to ascertain that the calves have made a
proper presentation ; that they are free of each other; that one member
of the one is not interlaced with, or presented at the same time with, that
of the other. When they are quite separated, then each can be treated
according to its own case.
(1662.) Calving in a byre does not seem to produce any disagreeable
sensations in the other cows, as they express no suipiise or uneasiness in
regard to what is going on beside them. When the cow gives vent to pain-
ful cries, which is rarely, the others no doubt express a sympathy ; and
when the calf is cari'ied away, they may exhibit some restlessness ; but
any commotion arising from these circumstances soon subsides. But if a
difficult labor is apprehended, it is better for the cows, and also for the
cow herself, that she be delivered in another apartment, well littered,
where the operator and his assistants can have free access to her.
(1663.) A notion exists in some parts of England, that a cow, when
seized with the pains of labor, should be made to move about, and not
allowed to lie still, though inclined to be quiet. " This proceeds from an
erroneous idea," Skellett well remarks, " that she will calve much easier,
and with less danger ; but so far from this being the case, the author has
known a great many instances where the driving has proved the death of
the animal by overheating her, and thus producing inflammation, and aK
its bad consequences. Every rational man will agree in opinion with the
author, that the above practice is both cruel and inconsistent in the ex-
treme ; and this is confirmed by what he has noticed, that the animal her-
self, as soon as the pains of calving come on, immediately leaves the rest
of the rest of the herd and retires to some corner of the field, or under a
hedge, in order to prevent the other cows, or anything else, coming near,
that may disturb her in bringing forward her young."* In short, too much
gentleness cannot be shown to cows when calving, and they cannot be too
strictly guarded against eveiy species of disturbance. The shepherd will
not allow even his dog to enter the byre when calving is going on.
(1664.) The afterbirth, or placenta, does not come away with the calf, a
portion of it being suspended from the cow. It is got quit of by the cow
by pressing, and, when the parturition has been natural and easy, it seldom
remains with her longer than from 1 to 7 hours. In bad cases of labor it
may remain longer, and may only come away in pieces ; but when it re-
mains too long and is sound, its separation will be assisted by attaching a
small weight to it, say of 2 lbs., which, with its continued force, and occa-
sional pressing from the cow, will cause it to drop. The usual custom is
to throw the afterbirth upon the dunghill, or it is covered up with the litter ;
but it should not be allowed to lie so accessible to every dog and pig that
may choose to dig it up. Nay, pigs have been known almost to choke
themselves with it. Such a custom is disgusting, and should be put an
* Skellett on the Parturition of the Cow.
(141)
94 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
end to. Let the substance be buried in a compost-heap, and if there ia
none such on the farm, let it rather he l)uricd in the earth than exposed
to he used in tliat manner. The uml>iHcal cord or navel string breaks in
the act of parturition.
(1665.) Should the cow seem exhausted by the protracted state of calving,
she may be supported with a warm drink of gruel, containing a bottle of
sound ale ; and should she be too sick or indifferent to drink it herself, it
should be administered to her with the drinking-honi, (1407.) After the byre
has been cleansed of the impurities of calving, and a supply of fresh litter intro-
duced, the cow, naturally feeling a strong thirst upon her from the exertion,
should receive a warm drink. I don't know a better one than warm water,
with a few handsfull of oatmeal stirred in it, and seasoned with a handfull
of salt, and this she will drink up greedily ; but a pailfull is enough at a
time, and it may be renewed in a shoit time after, should she express a de-
sire for it. This drink should be given her for two or three days after calv-
ing, in lieu of cold water, and mashes of boiled barley and gruel should be
made for her, in lieu of cold turnips ; but the oil-cake should not be forgot-
ten, as it acts at this critical peiiod as an excellent emollient. A very com
mon practice is to give a cow barley in the sheaf to eat, and even raw
barley, when there is no barley in the straw, and sometimes a few sheaves
are kept for the express pui-jiose ; and barley-chaff is given where people
grudge to part with good barley. Though so very common, the practice
is a very objectionable one, for nothing could be proposed that would
cause indigestion so readily as raw barley or barley-straw at the time of
calving, when the tone of the stomach is impaired by excitement, and it
may be by fever. Boiled barley, or any other mucilaginous drink, is quite
safe, but a substance that can hardly fail to irritate and inflame the stom-
ach is most injudiciously applied in the circumstances. In fact, nothing
should be given to a cow at this time of an astnngent nature, but rather
everything of a laxative quality.
(1G66.) It is desirable to milk the new-calved cow, as soon as convenient
for her, as, whether the labor has been difficult or easy, the withdrawal
of milk affords relief It not unfrequently happens that an uneasiness is
felt in the udder before calving, and should it increase while the symptoms
of calving are long delayed, the cow may experience considerable incon-
venience, especially if the flush of milk has been sudden. The causes of
uneasiness are an unequal hardness in the udder and there is a heat, florid-
ness and tenderness all over it. Fomentation with warm water twice or
thrice a day, continued for half an hour at a time, followed by gentle rub-
bing with a soft hand, and anointing with goose-grease, will tend to allay
irritation. In the case of heifers with the first calf, the uneasiness is some-
times so great during the protracted symptoms of calving, as to warrant
the withdrawal of milk before calving. Should the above remedial meas-
ures fail to give relief, the great heat in the udder may cause direct inflam-
mation, and consequent suppuration. To avert such an issue, the uneasi-
ness should not be neglected from the first moment it is observed, as
neglect may allow the complaint to proceed so far as to injure the structure
of a portion if not the whole of the udder.
(1667.) Milliivf^ is performed in two ways, stripping and nievling.
Sfrippi/ie consists of seizing the teat firmly near the root between the face
of the thumb and the side of the fore-finger, the length of the teat passing
through the other fingers, and in milking the hand passes down the entire
length of the teat, causing the milk to flow out of its point in a forcible
stream. The action is renewed by acjain quickly elevating the hand to the
root of the teat. Both hands are employed at the operation, each having
(142)
cows CALVING, AND CALVES. 95
hold of a different teat, and moved alternately. The two nearest teats are
first milked and then the two farthest. Nievling, or handling, is done by
grasping the teat round at its root with the fore-finger like a hoop,
assisted by the thumb, which lies horizontally over the fore-finger, the
rest of the teat being also seized by the other fingers. Milk is drawn by
pressing upon the entii-e length of the teat in alternate jerks with the en-
tire palm of the hand. Both hands being thus employed, are made to
press alternately, but so quickly following each other that the alternate
streams of milk sound to the ear like one forcible, continued stream. This
continued stream is also produced by stripping. Stripping, then, is per-
formed by pressing and passing certain fingers along the teat ; nievling by
the whole hand doubled, or Jist, pressing the teat steadily at one place.
Hence the origin of both names.
(1668.) Of the two modes, I prefer the nievling, because it appears to
me to be the more natural method, inasmuch as it imitates the sucking of
a calf. When a calf takes a teat into its mouth, it makes the tongue and
palate, by which it seizes it, play upon the teat by alternate pressures or
pulsations, while retaining the teat in the same position. It is thus obvious
that nievling is somewhat like sucking, whereas stripping is not at all
like it. It is said that stripping is good for agitating the udder, the agi-
tation of which is conducive to the withdrawal of a large quantity of milk ;
but there is nothing to prevent the dairy-maid agitating the udder as much
as she pleases, while holding the teats in nievling. Indeed a more constant
agitation could be kept up in that way by the vibrations of the arms than
by stripping. Stripping, by using an unconstrained pressure upon two
sides of the teat, is much more apt to press it unequally, than by grasping
the whole teat in the palm of the hand ; while the friction occasioned by
passing the finger and thumb fiiTnly over the outside of the teat, is more
likely to excite heat and irritation in it than a steady and full grasp of
the entire hand. To show that this friction causes an unpleasant feel-
ing even to the dairy-maid, she is obliged to lubricate the teat frequently
with milk, and to wet it at first with water ; whereas nievling requires no
such expedients. And as a farther proof that stripping is a mode of milk-
ing which may give pain to the cow, it cannot be employed when the teats
are chapped, or when these and the udder are affected with the cow-pox,
with so much ease to the cow as nievling. This difference I saw strikingly
exemplified one summer, when all my cows were affected with the cow-
pox, and when the assistant, who could only milk by stripping, was obliged
to relinquish her duty till the cows were so far recovered as to be again
able to endui'e her mode of milking.
(1669.) Milking should be done fast, to draw away the milk as quickly
as possible, and it should be continued as long as there is a drop of milk to
bring away. This is an issue which the dairy-maid cannot too particularly
attend to herself, or see it attended to by those who assist her. Old milk
left in the receptacle of the teat soon changes into a curdy state, and the
caseous matter not being at once removed by the next milking, is apt to
irritate the lining membrane of the teat during the operation, especially
when the teat is forcibly rubbed down between the finger and thumb in
stripping. The consequence of this repeated imtation is the thickening
of the lining membrane, which at length becomes so hardened as to close
up the small orifice at the point of the teat. The hardened membrane may
easily be felt from the outside of the teat, when the teat is said to be corded.
After this the teat becomes deaf, and no more milk can afterward be drawn
from the quarter of the udder to which the corded teat is attached.
(1670.) The milking-pail is of various forms and of various materials.
1143)
96 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
The Dutch have brass ones, which are brilliantly scoured every time they
are in use. Tin pitchers are used in some parts, while pails of wood in
cooper-work are employed in other parts of the country. A pail of oak
having thin staves hound together with bright iron hoops, with a handle
formed by a stave projecting upward, is convenient for milking in, and
may be kept clean and sweet. One nine inches in diameter at the bottom,
11 inches at the top, and ten inches deep, with an upright handle (tv lug
of 5 inches, has a capacious enough mouth to receive the milk as it de-
scends ; and a sufficient hight. when standing on the edge of its bottom
on the ground, to allow the dairy-maid to grasp it firmly with her knees
while sitting on a small three-legged stool. Of course the pail cannot be
milked full; but it should be as large as to contain all the milk that a single
cow can give at a milking ; because it is undesirable to rise from a cow
before the milking is finished, or to exchange one dish for another while
the milking is unfinished.
(1671.) The cow being a sensitive and capricious creature, is so easily
offended that if the dairy-maid rise from her before the milk is all with-
drawn, the chances are she will not again stand quietly at that milking ;
or if the vessel used in milking is taken away and another substituted in
its place, before the milking is finished, the probability is that she will
hold her milk — that is, not allow it to flow. This is a curious propeity
which cows possess, of holding up or keejiing back their milk. How it is
effected has, I believe, never been ascertained ; but there is no doubt of the
fact that when a cow becomes irritated, or frightened by any cause, she
can withhold her milk. Of course, all cows are not affected in the same
degree, but as a proof how sensitive cows generally are, I believe that very
few will be milked so freely by a stranger the first time as by one to
whom they have been accustomed.
(1672.) There is one side of a cow which is usually called the milking
side — that is, the cow's left side — because, somehow, custom has estab-
lished the practice of milking her from that side. It may have been
adopted for two reasons : one, because we are accustomed to approach all
the larger domesticated animals by what we call the near side — that is,
the animal's left side — as being the most convenient one for ourselves ; and
the other reason may have been, that, as most people are right-handed,
and the common use of the right hand has made it the stronger, it is most
conveniently employed in milking the hinder teats of the cow, which
are often most difficult to reach because of the position of the hind legs,
of the length of the hinder teats, or of the breadth of the hinder part of the
udder. The near side is most commonly used in Scotland, but in many
parts of England the other side is preferred. Whichever side is selected,
that should always be used, as cows are very sensitive to changes.
(1673.) It is a rare thing to see a cow milked in Scotland by any other
person than a woman, though men ai'e very commonly employed at it in
England. For my part, I ncN-er see a man milking a cow without being
impressed with the idea that he is usurping an office which does not befit
him ; and this sense scenes to be expressed in the terms usually applied to
the persons connected with cows — a dairy-w«/(/ implying one who milks
cows, as well as performing the other functions of the dairy — a dairv-^won
meaning one who owns a dairy.
(1674.) Cows are easily rendered troublesome on being milked; and the
kicks and knocks which they usually receive for their restlessness, only
render them the more fretful. If they cannot be overcome by kindness,
thumps will never make them better. But the fact is, restless habits are
continued in them by the treatment which they receive when first taken in-
(HJ)
cows CALVING, AND CALVES. 97
to the byre, when, most probably, they have been dragooned into submis-
sion. Their teats are tender at first ; but an unfeeling horny hand tu"-s at
them in stripping, as if they had been accustomed to the operation for
years. Can the creature be otherwise than uneasy ] and how can she es-
cape the wincing but by flinging out her heels 1 Then hopples are placed
on the hind fetlocks, to keep her heels down. The tail must then be held
by some one while the milking is going on ; or the hair of its tuft be con
verted into a double cord, to tie the tail to the creature's leo-. Add to this
the many threats and scolds uttered by the dairy-maid, and you will o-et not
a very exaggerated idea how a young heifer is broke into a byre. Some
cows, no doubt, are very unaccommodating and provoking ; but neverthe-
less, nothing but a rational course of conduct toward them, administered
with gentleness, will ever render them less so. There are cows which are
troublesome to milk for a few times after calving, that become quite quiet
for the renjainder of the season ; others will kick pertinaciously at the first
milking. In this last case, the safest plan, instead of hoppling, which onlv
irritates, is for the dairy-maid to thrust her head against the flank of the
cow, and while standing on her feet, stretch her hands forward, and get a
hold of the teats the best way she can, and send the milk on the <Tround ;
and in this position, it is out of the power of the cow to hurt her. These
ebullitions of feeling at the first milking after calving, arise either from feel-
ing pain in a tender state of the teat, most probably from inflammation in
the lining membrane of the receptacle ; or they may arise from titillation
of the skin of the udder and teat, which become the more sensible to the
affection, from a heat which is wearing off. Be the cause of irritation what
it may, one thing is certain, that gentle discipline will overcome the most
turbulent temper.*
(1675.) Cows, independently of their power to retain their milk in the
udder, afford different degrees of pleasure in milking them, even in the
quietest mood. Some yield their milk with a copious flow, with the gentlest
handling that can be given ; others require great exertion to draw the milk
from them in streams no larger than threads. The udder of the former will
be found to have a soft skin, and the teats short; that of the latter will have
a thick skin, with long, tough teats. The one feels like velvet, the other no
better than untanned leather.
(1676.) The heifers that are to be transferred to the cow-stock should
be taken fi-om the hammels N, fig. 3, Plate III., in which they have been
confined all winter, into the byre, about three weeks or a fortnight before
their reckoning, at once into the stalls they are to occupy. If they had
been accustomed to be tied by the neck when calves, they will not feel
much reluctance in going into a stall ; but if not, they require some coax-
ing to do it. When taking them to a byre, it should be remembered that
a fright received at this time may not be forgotten for a long time to come.
To avoid every chance of that, let them go in quietly of their own accord ;
let them smell and look at everything they wish ; and let them become ac-
quainted with them before driving them on ; and having plenty of assist-
ants to prevent any attempt to break away, let the cattle-man, with the
shepherd, allow them to move on bit by bit, until they arrive at the stall.
Here will be some difficulty ; but a little favorite food in the manger will
entice them to go up, especially if the time is chosen, which it should be,
[ This caution cannot be too strongly impressed on the mind, as applicable to the breaking in
of domestic animals for all purposes. To conciliate and reconcile them to any operation or ser-
vice, assuredly it is more rational and eflBcient to have them connect with it agreeable recol-
lections of kind treatment and gentle usage, than anticipations of harshness and violence.
Ed. Farm. Lib.\
(193) y '
98 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
when tliey are hungry. Another difficulty will be experienced in putting
the seal, fi<;. 11, round tlie neck. It should hanp, when not in use, on a
nail upon the stake ; and on (juietly taking it down, without clanking the
chain, and while the creature is eating, let the cattle-man slip one hand
l)elow the neck, while the other supports the seal over it, and then bring
the loose end of the seal round the neck, and hook it into whatever link he
can first get.
(1677.) The milk that first comes from the cow after calving is of a thick
consistence and yellow color, and is called hiestivgs. It has the same
coagulable properties as the yolk and white of an e^^ beat up. After
three or four days the biestings is followed by the milk. That which
comes last, the after'nigs or strippings, as it is commonly called, is much
the richer part of new milk, being not unlike cream. Being natural-
ly thick, it is the more necessaiy to have it drawn clean away from the
udder.
(1678.) The structure of a cow s udder is remarkable. It consists of 4
glands, disconnected with each other, but all contained within one bag or
cellular membrane ; and the glands are uniform in structure. Each gland
consists of 3 parts, the glandular or secreting part, the tubular or conduct-
ing part, and the teat or receptacle or receiving part. The glandular forms
by far the largest portion of the udder. It appeai-s to the naked eye com-
posed of a mass of yellowish grains, but under the microscope these grains
are found to consist entirely of minute bloodvessels forming a compact
plexus. These vessels secrete the milk from the blood. " Thus, then,"
says a writer, " we perceive that the milk is abstracted from the blood in
the glandular part of the udder; the tubes receive and deposit it in the
reservoir or jeceptacle ; and the sphincter* at the end of the teat retains it
there till it is wanted for use. But we must not be understood to mean that
all the milk drawn from the udder at one milking, or meal, as it is termed,
is contained in the receptacle. The milk, as it is secreted, is conveyed
to the receptacle, and when this is full, the larger tubes begin to be filled,
and next the smaller ones, until the whole become gorged. When this takes
place, the secretion of the milk ceases, and absorption of the thinner or
more watery part commences. Now, as this absorption takes place more
readily in the smaller or more distant tubes, we invariably find that the
milk from these, which comes the last into the receptacle, is much thicker
and richer than what was first drawn off'. This milk has been significantly
styled ufterings ; and should this gorged .state of the tubes be permitted to
continue beyond a certain time, serious mischief will sometimes occur ; the
milk becomes too thick to flow through the tubes, and soon ])roduccs, first
irritation, then inflammation, and lastly suppuration, and the function of the
gland is materially impaired or altogether destroyed. Hence the great im-
portance of emptying these smaller tubes regularly and thoroughly, not
merely to prevent the occuirence of disease, but actually to increase the
quantity of milk ; for so long as the smaller tubes are kej>t free, milk is con-
stantly forming ; but whenever, as we have already mentioned, they become
gorged, the secretion of milk ceases until they are emjitied. The cow her-
self has no power over the sphincter at the end of the teat, so as to open it
and relieved the overcharged udiler ; neither has she any power of retain-
ing the milk collected in the reservoirs when the spasm of the sphincter is
overcome."! I
* The teat does not terminate in a true sphincter, there beini; no musrle in connection with it A sphincter
•ctt by the |>owerof fonr muscle*, which are contracted orex(ianded at will, and close or open the oritice
•round which they are placed. t Blurtun's Practical Essay on Milking.
[t Observations such as these, on the anatomy and functions of the udder, may appear soperfttj-
DOS to some, bat not so to him who woold desire, for himself or his son, a sort of knowledge which
(194;
cows CALVING, AND CALVES. 99
(1679.) You thus see the necessity of drawing away the last drop of
milk at every milking, and the better milker the cow is, this is the more
necessary. You also see the impropriety oi hefting or holding the milk in
cows until the udder is distended much beyond its ordinary size, for the
sake of showing its utmost capacity for holding milk, a device which all
cow-dealers, and indeed every one who has a cow for sale in a market,
scrupulously use. It is remarkable that so hackneyed a practice should
deceive any one into its being a measure of the milking power of the cow,
for every farmer is surely aware, or ought to be aware, that the person who
purchases a hefted cow on account of the magnitude of its udder exhibited
in the market, gains nothing by the device ; because, when the cow comes
into his possession, she will never be hefted, and, of coui'se, never show the
greatest magnitude of udder, and never, of course, confer the benefit for
which she was bought in preference to others with udders in a more nat-
ural state. If, then, purchasers derive no benefit from hefting, because
they do not allow hefting, why do they encourage so cruel and afterward
injurious practice in dealers % Would it not be better to select cows by
udders in the state in which it is desired by purchasers they should be
in their own possession % Were purchasers to set their face against
the barbarous practice, the dealers would soon be obliged to relinquish it.
(1680.) Having spoken of the internal structure of the udder, its exter-
nal form requires attention, because it indicates different properties. Its
form should be spheroidal, large, giving an idea of capaciousness ; the bag
should have a soft, fine skin, and the hind part upward toward the tail be
loose and elastic. There should be fine long hairs scattered plentifully
over the surface, to keep it warm. The teats should not seem to be con-
tracted or funnel-shaped at the onset with the bag. In the former state,
teats are very apt to become corded or spindled, as another phrase ex-
presses it, and in the latter too much milk will constantly be pressing on
the lower tubes or receptacle. They should drop naturally from the lower
parts of the bag, being neither too short, small, or dumpy, or long, flabby
and thick, but perhaps about 3 inches in length, and as thick as just to fill
the hand. They should hang as if all the quarters of the udder were equal
in size, the front quarters projecting a little forward, and the hind ones a
little more dependent. Each quarter should contain about equal quanti-
ties of milk, though I have always believed that the hind contain rather the
most.*
it becomes every man to possess who has leisure to acquire it, and ■which every farmer should
regard as being within the purview of his pursuit and position in society — just as much so as it
is befitting in a scholar to be familiar with history, or a diplomatist with living languages and the
laws of nations. There is, in fact, not a word in this section, nor in the work to which it belongs,
that should not be made a part of the course of instruction for all youths who are to gain their
living and maintain their standing in society by the practice of Husbandry and a knowledge of
its principles. This Note would apply almost as well anywhere as here ; we only seize the oc
casion to urge an impression which we believe cannot be too often suggeated or too widely acted
on, as to the variety of knowledge and of studies that ought to embellish the profession of the
practical agriculturist, as well as augment its profits. Ed. Farm. Lib.]
[* As this number or volume of The Farmers' Library may fall into the hands of persons
who do not possess the Monthly Journal of Agriculture in which it was published, it
seems proper to refer here to that extraordinary •' Treatise on Milch Cows," by M. Guenon.
Of the validity of that work the strongest proof has been adduced, not only by the unanimous
declaration of Committees of French Societies, but in the testimony of American agricnlturists
of undisputed judgment, and of the highest respectability. Of these we will take room only for
the following statement at a Farmers' Club meeting in Boston : " Mr. Denny fully accorded with
Mr. Brooks in his estimate of the treatment of cattle by Guenon. He had tested its value by
(195,
00 THE BOOK OF TIIK FARM SPRING.
(1681.) Largely developed milk-reins, as the subcutaneous veins along
the undtT pnrt of the alulonien are commonly called, arc regarded as a
source of milk. This is a poj)ular error, for the milk-vein has no connec»
tion with the udder; but " although the subcutaneous or milk-vein has
nothing to do with the udder," says Mr. Youatt, " but conveys the blood
from the fore part of the chest and sides to the inguinal vein, yet a large
milk-vein certainly indicates a strongly developed vascular system — one
favorable to secretion generally, and to that of the milk among the rest."*
(1682.) Let us now attend to the young calf The navel-string should
be examined that no blood be dropping from it, and that it is not in
too raw a state. Inattention to this inspection may overlook the cause
of the navel-ill, the treatment of which is given below ; and insignificant
as this complaint is usually regarded, it cairies off more calves than most
breeders are aware of.
(1683.) The first food which the calf receives consists of what its mother
first yields after calving, namely, biestings. Being of the consistence of
egg, it seems to be an appropriate food for the fnetus just ushered into the
world. On giving the calf its first feed by the hand, in a crib in R, fig. 3,
Plate in., it may be found to have gained its feet, or it may be content to
lie still. In whichever position it is found, let it remain so, and let the
dairy-maid take a little biesting in a small dish — a handy, formed like a
miniature milk-pail, and of similar materials, will be found a convenient
one — and let her put her left arm round the neck of the calf, and support
its lower jaw with the palm of the hand, keeping its mouth a little elevated,
and open, by introducing the thumb of the same hand into the side of its
mouth. Then let her fill the hollow of her light hand with biestings, and
pour it into the calf's mouth, introducing a finger or two into it for the
calf to suck, when it will dinnk the liquid. Thus let her supjdy the calf,
in handfull after handfull, as much as it is inclined to take. When it re-
fuses to take more, the creature should be cleaned of the biesting that may
have flown over. Sometimes, on a calf being begun to be fed, when lying,
it attempts to get upon its feet, and, if able, let it do so, and rather assist it
up than prevent it. Some people are afraid to give a calf as much bie.st-
ings at fii-st as it can take, because it is said to produce the navel-ill. This
is nonsense-, let the creature take as much as it pleases, for biestings
never harmed a calf, and certainly never produced navel-ill, though it has
been accused of it ; but if the truth were investigated, the illness would be
found to have proceeded from neglect of proper inspection in due time,
arising from ignorance of the danger. I have minutely detailed the pri-
mary and simple process of feeding a new dropped calf by hand, because
very absurd ways are adopted in doing it. Nothing is more common than
to plunge the calf's head into a large quantity of biestings, and because
the liquid bubbles around its mouth with the breath of the nose, and it
will not attempt to drink it, its head is the more forcibly thrust and kept
down into the tub. How can it dnnk with its nose immersed among the
fluid ? And why should a calf be expected at first to drink with its head
distributing a number of copies among intelligent practical farmttrit, and their united report was
in favor of the high value of the work. One of them went so far as to say that a farmer keeping
twenty cowB coulil well afford to give tlOO for this treatise of Gu6non, if it could not be obtained
at a less cost." According to this treatise, the quality and quantity of milk which anv cow wijl
g^ve may be accurately determined by observing natural marks or external indications alone
These marks have been fully illustrated by engravings designed to explain the system as already
published in Th£ Monthlt Journal of Aoricdltubk, coDnected with The Far.mers' Li-
BRAHT. Ed. Farm. Lib.]
* Youatt on Cattle.
(196)
cows CALVING, AND CALVES. 101
down, when its natural instinct should lead it to suck tcith its head up ? It
should always be borne in mind that feeding calves by the hand is an un-
natural process ; nevertheless, it is a convenient, practicable and easy one,
provided it is conducted in a proper manner. The cieature must be taught
to drink, and a good mode of teaching it I have described above. In this
way it is fed as often as the cow is milked, which is three times a day.
After the first two or three days, however, another plan should be adopted,
for it should not be accustomed to suck the fingers, as then it will not drink
without their assistance. The succeeding plan is to put a finger or two
of the right hand into its mouth, and holding the small pail of milk with
the left under its head, bring the head gradually down into the pail, where
the fingers induce it to take a few gluts of the milk ; but in doing this,
the fingers should be gently withdrawn while the head is kept down in its
position with the hand, taking care to keep the nostrils above the milk.
In a few days more the fingers will not be required, and in a few days
more still you will see the cd\? drink of its own accord.
(1684.) For the first month the calf usually has as much sweet milk
warm from the cow as it can drink. It will be able to drink about 3 quarts
at each meal, and in three meals a day, in the morning, noon and evening,
it will consume 8 quarts. After the first month it gets its quantity of milk
at only 2 meals, morning and evening. It is supported 3 months in all on
milk, during which time it should have as much sweet-milk as it can drink.
Such feeding will be considered expensive, and no doubt it is, but there is
no other way of bringing upa^oo^Z calf Some people grudge sweet-milk
after a few days, and take the crea;m off it, and give the skimmed to the
calves. This is considered thrifty management ; but its I'esult does not
insure immediate gain, because it is not possible to extract double advantage
from a given quantity of sweet-milk. If butter is preferred to calves, or
good beasts at an after period, the wish is attained, and the farmer has had
his preference ; but he must know — at least ought to know — that he can-
not obtain butter and good beasts from the same milk. Others, more gen-
erous, give half sweet and half skimmed milk to their calves ; while some
provide a substitute for a part of the milk, by making gelatine of boiled
linseed or sago, and give it with no milk. When milk is actually scarce,
such expedients are permissible ; but when it is plentiful, and is used for
other purposes than merely to serve the farm-house, the adoption of ex-
pedients is a practical avowal that the farmer does not wish to bring up
his stock as he might do.
(1685.) The jelly from linseed, or lythax, as it is called, is easily made
by boiling good linseed in water, and while it is in a hot state to pour it
in a vessel to cool, when it becomes a firm jelly, a proportion of which is
taken every meal, and bruised down in a tubfiill of warm milk, and dis-
tributed to the calves. They are very fond of it, and in the third month
of the calf's age, when it can drink a large quantity of liquid at a time,
and during a day, it is an excellent food for them. Sago may be prepared
in the same way. But a better substance for calves than either is, in my
opinion, pea-meal. It should not be boiled, but made into hrosc, by pour-
ing hot water upon it, and stirring the mixture till it is Jine. It becomes
gelatinous on cooling ; and when cold, a portion of it is put into new warm
milk, and mixed so intimately vrith the hand that not a lump of the meal
can be felt ; and the mixture is made of a consistence which a calf can
easily drink.
(1686.) Another mode of bringing up calves by breeders of stock is to
allow them to suck their mothers, and the plan is arranged in this way :
Either a large crib is erected at a convenient part or parts of the cow's
(197)
J 02 THE BOOK OF THE FARM WINTER.
byre, to contain a numlier of calves each, in a loose state, an«l when the
hours arrive at which they are fed, they are let out of tlie cribs, whence
they each proceed forthwith to the cow that supports it ; or the calves are
tied by the neck in stalls erected for the puq)08e agrainst the wall of the
byre, immediately behind the cows, and when the hours of the respective
meals arrive, they are loosened fiom the tyings, and pass across the byre
to the cows. Generally, in both cases, one cow suckles two calves ; and
a cow that has calved early may suckle two sets, or four calves, or at leaat
three, in the season.
(16S7.) With regard to the merits of this plan, I must remark that I am
averse to tying calves by the neck. It cramps their motions and deprives
them of that freedom of action which is so conducive to health. By pre-
venting motion they will no doubt sooner acquire condition ; but for stock-
calves, kept for the formation of a herd, this is of less importance than
strength acquired by moderate exercise within a limited size of crib. As
to having a number of calves within the same crib, though they all have
liberty of motion, they are so commixed as to have liberty to suck at one
another. The ears, navel, scrotum and teats, suffer by this dirty habit ;
and there is no preventing it after it has been acquired, so long as two re-
main together. Upon the whole, therefore. I much prefer the separate
crib to each calf, so formed of spars as to allow every calf to see its neich-
bors, and so sensibly in company, as to remove the idea of loneliness. The
separation prevents the abominable habit of sucking being acquired ; and
the crib is as large and no larger than to allow them to move about for
exercise, without fatigue.
(1688.) In regard to suckling calves, there is no question it is the best
way of bringing them up, provided the calf has free access to its mothei
or the cow which is supporting it ; but I am doubtful of the superiority of
suckling over feeding by hand, in the case where the calf is only allowed
to go to the cow at stated times. It saves the trouble of milking the cowi
and giving milk to the calves ; but the saving of trouble is not so import-
ant a consideration in the rearing of young stock as the promotion of theii
welfare. There is one objection to suckling where one cow brings up two
calves — that the quantity of milk afforded to each is unknown ; and the
stronger or more cunning calf may steal the larger share. True, they are
both brought up; but are they brought up as well as they might be, with
the assistance of nourishing food, when the milk becomes scarcer, which
it will be to each calf the older it grows. Another objection to suckling is,
that a cow which suckles calves at one period of the season does not take
kindly afterward to milking with the hand ; and a cow will always prefer
to be sucked to being milked by the hand. Unless, therefore, cows are
kept for the purpose of suckling, they become troublesome to milk after
the calves are weaned.
(1689.) At a month old the male calves that are not intended to be kepi
for bulls are castratccl. Though the operation is very simple and safe, yei
it should not be performed at a time when there is any affection of the
navel-string, or indication of costiveness or dysentery ; these exciting causes
of the system shoiild first be removed ere another is voluntarily superadded.
Supposing the calf is in good health, the castration is performed in this
manner : An assistant places the calf upon its rump on the litter, and, sit-
ting down himself, takes it between his outstretched limbs on the ground,
with its back against his breast. Then seizing a hind-hock of the calf in
each hand, he draws a hind leg up to each side of its body, and holds both
in that position as firmly as he can. The operator makes the testicles keep
the scrotum smooth and stretched with his left hand, and then cuts with a
(198J
cows CALVING, AND CALVES. 103
sharp knife through all the integuments till he reaches one testicle, which
he seizes, pulls out as much of the spermatic cord as he can, and there di-
vides it. The same operation is performed on the other testicle, and the
castration is finished in a minute or two. The calf feels stiff in the hind
quaiter for a few days, and the scrotum may swell ; and if the swelling
appear to become serious, fomentations of warm water should be fre-
quently applied ; and should suppuration ensue, the incisions made in the
scrotum should be opened to give it vent ; but the probability is that the
cut will heal by the first intention, and give no farther uneasiness to the
calf than a feeling of stiffness in the hind quarter for a few days.
(1690.) When the air becomes mild, as the season advances, and when
the older calves attain the age of two months, they should be taken out
of the cribs, and put into the court k, fig. 3, Plate III., during the day;
and after a few days' endurance to the aii-, should be sheltered under the
shed in the court at night, instead of being again put into the cribs. Some
sweet hay should be offered them every day, as also a few sheep-slices of
Swedish turnips to munch at. Such a change of food may Have some
effect on the constitution of the calves, causing costiveness in some and
looseness in others ; but no harm will arise from these symptoms, if reme-
dial measures are employed in time. Large lumps of chalk to lick at will
be found serviceable in looseness. The shed of the court should be fitted
up with small racks and mangers to contain the hay and turnips, and
chalk. Should a very wet, snowy, stormy, or cold day appear after the
calves have been put into the court, they should be brought back to their
cribs till the storm pass away.
(1691.) At three or four months old, according to the supply of milk
and the ready state of the grass to receive them, the calves should be
weaned in the ordinary seniority, due regard being at the same time had
to their constitutional strength. If a calf has been always strong and
healthy, it may be the sooner weaned from milk, if there is grass to sup-
port it ; but should it have ailed, or be naturally puny, it should be remem-
bered that good, sweet milk is the best remedy that can be administered to
promote condition or recruit debility, and should be given with an unspar-
ing but judicious hand. Calves, on being weaned, should not be deprived
of milk at once ; it should be lessened in quantity daily, and given at
longer intei-vals by degrees, so as that they may not be sensible of their
loss when it is entirely withheld. I have frequently observed that when
calves are stinted of milk preparatory to weaning, means of supplying
them with a sufficient quantity of food of an enticing nature are not so
well attended to as they ought. Fresh bundles of the most clovery por-
tions of the hay, turnips fresh sliced, pure fresh water at will, a little
pounded oil-cake, if presented at times when they used to get their milk,
will induce them to eat those substitutes with contentment ; whereas, when
these are entirely neglected, or the trouble gi'udged in supplying them, and
the creatures left to pick up what they can find for themselves in a court
or bare lea, they cannot but suffer from hunger, and vociferate for the loss
of what they had enjoyed till then. Thus treated, they evidently fall off
in condition ; and which if they do at the critical period of weaning, the
greater portion of the ensuing summer will elapse ere they regain their
former condition, strength, and sleekness of coat. A small paddock near
the steading is an excellent place for weaning calves, before turning them
out to a pasture field ; but then it should afford a full bite of grass to sup-
port them as the milk is taken fi-om them, otherwise they ^vill be more
injured than benefited in it.
(1692.) When bull calves are brought up, they should be early calved,
(199)
104
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
and receive as much new milk as they can consume ; and they should not
be weaiu'd till the prass is fully ready to sujiport them. The object of this
high keej)iii!^ is not to fjittcii them, hut to trive strength to their hones and
vigor to their constitution, these l)eing much strengthened by the (juality
and quantity of food given to calves at the earliest period of their exist-
ence. The valuable impulse thus given in calfhood to these very essential
properties in bulls, is evinced in the vigor of succeeding life, and it is sure
to lay a foundation upon which a durable superstructure may be raised,
and, what is more, no durable structure can be raised on any other. Even
in ordinary cases push a calf forward in the first month of its existence, and
the probability will be that it will evade every disease incident to its age.
(16;i3.) The following Table, containing the dates at which cows should calve from those at
■which they are bulled, will be found useful to you for reference. It is unnecessary to fill up the
Table witli marking down every day of the year, as within the short period between each fort-
night you can easily calculate the particular reckoning of each cow. The period of gestation is
taken at I'T.") day.s. or 9 calendar months, which is the minimum time, and from which the symp-
toms of calving should be narrowly watched till the event of calving actually takes place.
A RECKO.NING-TABLE FOR THE CALVIKG OF COWS.
When Bulled.
January 1
15
29
Febrnary...l2
26
March 12
26
April 9
23
Will Calve.
October ... 1
15!
29
November .12
26
December . 10
24
January ... 7
21
When Bulled. I Will Calve.
May 7 February.. 4
21 18
June 4;March 4
le 18
When Biilled.
September. 10
24
October ... *■
July.
April 1 I November.. ?
.15
...29
August 13 May 13
27| 27i
19
December.. 3
17
31
Will Calve. |
June 10
24
July 7
21
August 4
18
September. 1
15
29
(1694.) The usual modes of determining whether the cow is in calf are deceptive : she maj- not
hold when bulled ; she may take the bull again in a few days; and she may not show evident
symptoms of calving but for a few days only before she actually calves. The mo.st certain sign of
pregnancy is the enlargement of tlie abdomen and filling of the flanks in the third or fourth
month. A more philos-ophical method of determining whether a cow is in calf at all, has been
discovered by medical men by the application of the ear to the flank of the cow, suggested by tlie
curious and valuable discoveries brought to light by the ulellic.tcope. " That greatest of improve-
ments in veterinary practice." observes Mr. Youatt, '• the application of the ear to the chest and
belly of various animals, (in order to detect by the different sounds — which, altera short lime, will
be easily recognized — the state of the circulation through most of the internal oreans, and conse-
quently the precise seat and degree of inflammation and danger,) has now enabled the breeder
to ascertain the exixlence nfpres^nancy at as early a stage of it as sij- or eight trcrJcs. Tlie beating
of the heart of the calf will be distinctly heard, twice or more than twice as frequent as that of the
mother; and each pulsation will betray the singular double-beating of the ftpial heart. This will
also be accompanied by the audible rushing of the blood through the vessels of the jdacenta. The
ear should be applied to the right flank, beginning on the superior part of it. and gradually shifted
downward and backward. These sounds will soon be heard, and cannot be mistaken."*
(169.').) Sirathaven in Scotland has long been famed for rearing go«id real for the Glasgow and
Edinburgh markets. There the dairy farmers retain their queycalves for maintaining the
number and viiror of their cow stock, while they feed the male calves for veal. Their plan is
simple and efticacious, and therefore may be followed anywhere. They give the calves milk
only, and seldom any admixture, and ihev do not allow them to suck their dams. Some give milk
but sparinpl}- at fir.tt, to whet their appetite, and all take care not to produce surfeit by giving too
much at a time. The young calves get the first drawn milk, or forcbroods, as it is termed, and
the older, less of the fore-broads and more of the afteringti, and frequently that of two or three
cows, as being the richest portion of the milk. After they are three or four weeks old they get
abundance of milk, but only twice a day. They get plenty of drj- litter, fresh air, moderate warmth,
and are kept nearly in the dark to check sportiveness. They are not bled during the time they
are fed, and a lump of chalk is placed within their reach. They are fed from 4 to 6 weeks, when
they fetch frwii X3 to i.4 apiece; and it is found more profitable to fatten a number of calves for
that time, to miccei.'d each other, than to force them beyond the state of marketable veal, of from
25 lbs. to 30 lbs. per quartcr.t
(1696.) Di»c>tsef of You 7ig Calves. — While speaking of the calf, I may here notice the diseases
to which it is subject at this period of its existence, and in this season of the year. The young
calf should get quit of the black and glutinous fa>ce8 that had been accumulating in its intestines
during the latter period of its Crptal existence ; and there is no aperient better suited for the pur-
pose than biestings. The farmer, therefore, who throws it away, does not know the jeopardy in
which he places the lives of this branch of bisyounu' stock. Should there not be enough of biest-
jngs to remove the feeccs, 2 or 3 oz. of castor-oil, beat up with a yolk of an egg. or in thick gruel.
* Youatt on Cattle.
l200)
t Quarterly Journal of AgrictUture, voU t.
cows CALVING, AND CALVES. 105
should be administered, and a scruple of powdered ginger, to act as a carminative. In cases of
co.-tiveness, which j'oung calves are very liable to contract, and inattention to which, at first, is
tiic cause of the loss of many of the best young stock, arising partly from repletion of inilk at times
when calves are permitted to suck their dams, or when they eat too much hay at one time after
the milk has been too suddenly removed from them at weaning, active measures .should be adopt-
ed to prevent its confirmation, for then the case becomes hopeless, as fever will inevitably ensue
and iho food harden into a mass in the maniplies. Do.ses of warm water, containing a solution of
2 or 3 oz. of Epsom salts, should be frequenti, administered, both to dissolve the matter in the
stouiach, move the bowels, and wash out the stomach. Calves are liable to a disease of an opposite
na'-ure from this, namely, luoxeuess,sciiuri>iic or duirrhca. They are most subject to it when put to
grass, though still on milk, at too early an age. I sho\ild s.iy that if so treated before attaining 2
mouths, they are certain of being affected with it. One means of prevention is, to retain (he calves
in the house or shed till they are at least 2 months old, and if a little older so much the better. Of
cour.se, it is only the latest calves that are likely to be thus treated, the earlier having attained ma-
ture age for weaning before the gra.ss is ready. In the house, scouring may be brought on by
starvation and excess, and on grass by a sudden change of food. So long as the calf is lively and
takes its milk, there need be no apprehension from a thin discharge of faeces, but dullness and
loathing of food, accompanied by discharge, should create alarm. The first application of a remedy
should be a mild purgative, to remove, if possible, the irritation of the bowel.s, and then should fol-
low anodynes, astringents, and alkalies, with carminatives, the withdrawal of every sort of green
food, and the administration of flour or pea-meal gruel. The following mixture the farmer is call-
ed to " rely on. and it is recommended that he should have it always by him, as it will do for all
suciiling animals, namely, 4 oz. of prepared chalk. 1 oz. of Winters' bark, powdered, 1 oz. of
laudanum, and 1 pint of water. Give 2 or 3 table-spoonsfull, according to the size of the animal,
2 or 3 times a day."* Another recipe is : '• Take from \ oz. to | oz. of tincture of rhubarb, with
an equal quantity of water, according to the age and strength of the calf. To be given every al-
ternate day in ca.se one dose is not sufficient. I have used the remedy for several year.s," says a
writer, " and have not lost a calf't Mr. E. E. Dawson, Ingethorpe, Grantham, recommends this :
" For young calves boil ^ oz. of ground black pepper in half a pint of ale ; add a tea spoonfull of
ginger; rni.K together ; to be given lukewarm every morning until the calf recovers of its weak-
ness; to have its milk as usual. Older calves will require J more for a complete cure. Great
care should be used in making u.se of the above recipe, that the animal does not receive the mix-
ture too fast ; for want of attention mischief may be done."| I have given all these remedies for
tlie scour in calves, for it v^'ould appear that it may be removed by various means, and one maybe
more efficacious in one locality than in any other. I never experienced among my calves but one
instance of serious scouring. It was a Short Horn quey calf, and the recipe which effected a cure,
after trying many, was very like the first, though I now forget the exact ingredients, with the ex-
ception of the pint of water, for which fiour-gruel was substituted.
(1*)97.) CidfloHse. — It is not a little singular, in a physiological point of view, that there should
be a peculiar pedicular parasite appropriated to the calf, yet such appears to be the ca.se, although
the creature is by no means common. It is very like the ox-louse. Haematopinns enrysteruus, fig.
268, but comparatively narrower, and having two rows of dusky spots on the abdomen. It is termed
Hcematop WIS vituli, or louse of the calf |]
(lti98.j " Although parturition is a natural process," as well observed bj- Mr. Youatt, "it is ac-
companied by a great deal of febrile excitement. The sudden transferring of powerful and accu-
mulated action from one organ to another — from the womb to the udder — must cause a great deal
of constitutional disturbance, as well as liability to local inHammation."§ One consequence of this
constitutional disturbance of the system is milk/ever. " The cause of this disea.se," says Skellett,
" is whatever obstructs perspiration, and accumulates the blood internally ; hence it may be pro-
duced by the application of cold air, by lying on the cold ground, or by giving cold water after calv-
ing ; and these causes will naturally produce this effect from the open state of the pores at this
time, and from the external parts being so wide and relaxed after the operation. Cows in high
condition are more subject than others to this complaint, and especially if they have been kept
up for some weeks before calving."1[ The complaint may seize the cow only a few hours after
calving, or it may be days. Its first attack is probably not observed by those who have the charge
of the covvs, oreven by the farmer himself, who is rather chary in looking after the condition of
his cows, in case of offending his female friends, to whose special care that portion of his stock
is consigned. The symptoms are first known by the cow shifting about in the stall, or from
place to place if loose, lifting one leg and then another, being easily startled, and looking wildly
about her as if she had lost her calf and blaring for it. Then the flanks begin to heave, the mouth
to open and issue clear water, she staggers in her walk, and at length loses the use of her limbs
and lays her head upon her side. The body then swells, the extremities feel cold and clammy.
Sliiveriug and cold sweats follow, the pulse becomes irregular and death ensues. The promptest
remedy to be used, after the first symptom has been observed, is to bleed to the extent of 3 or 4
(luarts; and the next is to open the bowels, which will be found to have a tendency to constipa-
tion. From 1 lb. to IJ lbs. of Epsom salts, accordiu^s: to the strength of the cow, with a little gin-
ger^and carraway, should be given as a purge ; and if the do.se does not operate in due time, i lb.
of Epsoin salts should be given every 6 hours until the bowels are opened. This result will be
much expedited by a clyster of warm thin gruel and soap or oil. After the opening medicine has
operated, a cordial drink will be necessary, by which time the cow may show symptoms of recover-
ing in^\pressing an inclination to eat, with which she should be gratified.. but with precaution.**
* Johnson's Farmer's Encyclopedia, art. Diarrhea. t Bell's Weekly Messenger for March, 1842.
t Mark-Lane Express for November, 1842. || Denny's Monographia Anoplurorum BritanniB.
§, Youalt on CatUe. U Skellett on the Parturition of the Cow.
[** The more artificial treatment of cattle in England probably produces diseases and casuaUiea
to which they are far less subject in our country, where they are left in a more natural and onre-
(201) ^
106 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
(1C99.) Reiliratcr. — The uintli day after a row liait calved, an utcriac discharge should take
{>lui-c and ci-iitiiiue fur a day or two, alter which the cow will exhibit all the mn niplonis of good
health. 1 liiivi.' observed that when thix diiu-liurge docH not take place the cow will sooo af-
ter show 8yni|itiini8 of red- water. She will evacuate urine wiih ditliculiy, which will come away
in Rmall streunit>, and be highly tinned with blood, and at lenirlh appear like dark grounds of
cotiee. •■ The I'uture and cause of the di.•^•a^<■ ore her»' evident enouLli." aw Mr. Vouatt well ob-
serves. " During the period of pregnancy there hail been ron8iderable determination of blood
to the womb. A degree of su.sceiilibilily. a tendency to inHiimniatury action, liad been set up,
and this had been increaMed as the peri««l of parturition approai lied, and was a^vravated by the
state and general fullness of blood to which she had incautiously been rai.<ed. The neighboring
organs neces.-iarily participated in this, an<l the kidneys, to which so much blood is Bent for the
proper dischiirtreof their function, either quickly shared in the inflammation ot tlic womb, or
tirrt iot)k an inflammation, and sulK-red most by means of it."* The prevention of this disease
is roconiinended in purgative medicine alter calving : but as such an administration, in the cir-
cum.xlance, never fails to atl'ect the quantity of milk given by the cow for some time after, a bet-
ter plan is to administer fooil which will operate as a laxative at the same lime, for some time
before as well as after calving, and the substance which possesfcs these two properties \a otl-cake.
I have proved this from experience. I lost two cows in Forlarshire by red-water, one a Sbort-
Horn and the other an An^'us, and one of tl»e hinds lost one alst) — all in ditferent but succestiive
years. Uv examination of the stomach and bowels after death, I became satisfied that the deter-
mination of the blood to the womb during pregnancy had caus<^'<l a tendency to inflammation in
tlie bowels and stomach, and that indigestion and constipation were the conseiiueuces, and these
were au'gravate<i by the state of the fooil, which consii-led entirely of Swedihh turnips, which, at
lliut 8ea.<on, in April, are fibrous and sweet, by the Juice becoming concentrated in the bulb, and
which the more readily induce cattle to eat them. The remedy was an obvious one : give laxa-
tive diet, and as that cannot readily be effected by turnips, narticularly in c«iws whicli do not re-
ceive BO many as they can eat, nor by raw potatoes which incur the risk of hoven (1294), and to
the giving of potatoes to cows 1 have always had an utter aversion — call it prejudice, if yon
will ; and as potatoes boiled have no laxative effects, the only alternative was oil-cake, and, for-
tunately, from the period I employed it medicinally to the cows, for a month before and a month
after calving, to the extent only of 4 lbs. a day to each cow, and which quantity was also given
to the hind's cows about the time of their calving, the complaint was never more seen or dreaded.
(1700.) I may here mention an unaccountable fatality which overtook a Short-Horn cow of
mine, in Forfarshire, immediately after calving. She was an extraordinary milker, giving not
less than 30 (juarts a day in summer on grass ; but what was more extraordinary, for two calvings
the milk never dried up, but continued to flow to the very day of calvintr, and after that event re-
turned in a flush. In the third year she went naturally dry for about a month previous to the day
of reckoning ; every precaution, however, was taken that the milk should dry up without giving
her any unea.siness. She calved in high health, the milk returned as usual in a great flush after
calving, but it proved an impossibility to draw it from the udder ; not a teat would pass the milk,
all the four being entirely corded. Uuills were introduced into tliem at first, and then tubes of
larger size were pushed up to the root of each teat. A little milk ran out of one of them — hope
revived ; but it slopped running, and all the art that could be devised by a skillful shepherd
proved of no avail to draw milk from the udder ; rubbing and softening the udder with goose-
grease, making it warmer wi h warm water — all to no purj)osc. To render the ca.se more dis-
tressing, there was not a veterinary surgeon in the district. At length, the udder inflamed, mor-
tified, and the cow died in the most excruciating agony on the third day, from being in the high-
est state of health, though not in high condition; for her milking propensity usually kept her lean,
but still she was always spirited. No loss of the kind ever afl'ected my mind so much — to think
that nothing eould be done to relieve the distress of a creature that could not help itself. I waa
told afierward by a shepherd to whom 1 related the case, that I should have cut off" all the teats
by the roots ; which horrid operation would, of course, have destroyed her for a milch cow, but,
he conceived, would have saved her for feeding. He had never sec/t that operation performed
on a row ; but it .suggested itself to him in consequence of having been obliged at times to cut off
a ewe's teat or teals to save her life. The suggestion I think good ; and I mention :t that it may
occur to you in similar circumstances. 1 purchased this cow when a quey in calf, along with
another, from Mr. Cume, then in Brandon, Northumberland.
(1701.) Cows differ very much in the lime they continue to give milk, some not continuing to
yield it more than 9 month", while others att'ord it for years. The usual lime for cows that bear
calves to give milk is 10 months. The cow that died in conseiiueuce of the corded teats men-
tioned above, ;noO,) gave milk for 3 years, and bore a calf every year. A cow of mine tliat
slipped her calf, and was not again served by the bull, gave milk for 19 montlis. But many re-
strained condition. Hence with us the parturition of cows is very rarely attended with any diflB-
cnlty or danger — so rarely as scarcely to make it an object of attention or solicitude ; thus all the
precautions, descriptions of symptoms and remedies, Ac. laid down here, may seem to be almost
unnecessarj-. It is with domestic animals as witli the human family — too much care and manage,
ment seem to beget ditKculties. The fine lady is watched with intense solicitude ; the family
phvsician is on the qui rive for weeks before the event ; and she sometimes falls a victim to the
contagious sym()athy and apprehensions of her friends, and to that delicacy of frame and constitu-
tion which is the fruit of too much refinement in her rearing and physical education. The poor
laboring man's wife has no such fear, and no such difficulties. The misfortune in his case is that
children come loo easy and too fasL Ed. Farm. Lib.]
• YouHtt on Cattle.
(202J
cows CALVING, AND CALVES. 107
markable instances of cows giving milk for a long rime are on record. •' The rnimense length of
time for which some cows will continue to give milk.' says a veterinan,- writer, "if favorably
treated, is truly astonishing ; so much so as to appear absolutely incredible. My own obsers-a-
tion on this subject extends to four most remarkable cases: 1. A cow purchased by a Mr. Ball,
who resided near Hanipstead, tiiat continued to give milk for 7 years, subsequently to having her
first and only calf 2. A large dan Suffolk cow, shown to me as a curiosity by a Yorkshire farm-
er. This animal, when I saw her, had been giving milk for the preceding 5 years, daring
which period she had not any calf The five-years' milking was the result of her second calving.
During that period, attejiipts had been made to breed from her, but inetfectnally. 3. A small
aged cow, belonging to a. farmier near Paris, that gave milk for 3 years subsequent to her last
calf 4. A cow in the possession of Mr. Nichols, Postma.ster, Lower Merion-street, Dublin. This
animal was in Mr. Nichols's possession for 4 years, during the entire of which time she continued
to give an uninterrupted supply of milk, which did not diminish in quantity more than 3 pints
per diem, and that only in the winter months He disposed of her for butchers' meat, she
being in excellent condition. The morning of the day on which she was killed, she gave her
usual (juantity of milk." *
(170'.i.) The same writer enters fully into a subject with which I was not previously acquainted,
namely, the possibility of securing permanency of milk in the cow. This is effected, it seems, by
simply spai/ins the cow at a proper time after calving. The operation consists in cutting into
the flank of the co^v, and in destroying the ovaries of the womb by the introduction of the hand.
The cow must have acquired her full stature, so that it may be performed at any age after 4 years.t
She should be at the flush of her milk, as the future quantity yielded depends on that which is afr
forded by her at the time of the operation. The operation may be performed in ten days after
calving, but the most proper time appears to be 3 or 4 weeks after. The cow should be in high
health, otherwise the operation may kill her or dry up the milk. The only preparation required
for the safety of the operation is, that the cow should fast 12 or 14 hours, and the milk taken away
immediately before the operation. The wound heals in a fortnight or three weeks. For two or
three days after the operation, the milk may dimini.sh in quantity-; but it regains its measure in
about a week, and continues at that mark for the remainder of the animal's lite, or as long as the
age of the animal permits the secretion of the fluid ; unless, from .some accidental circumstance —
such as the attack of a severe disease — it is stopped ; but even then the animal may be easily fat-
tened.
(1703.) The advantages of spaying milch-cows are thus summed up : "1. Rendering permanent,
the secretion of milk, and having a much greater quantity within the given time of everj- year
2. The quality of the milk being improved. 3. The uncertainty of and the dangers incidental to
breeding being to a great extent avoided. 4. The increased disposition to fatten, even when giv-
ing milk, or when, from excess of age, or from accidental circumstances, the secretion of milk is
checked ; also, the very short time required for the attainment of marketable condition. 5. The
meat of spaj-ed cattle being of a quality superior to that of ordinary cattle.'' + With these advan-
tages, of course, breeders of stock can have nothing to do ; but since the operation is said to be
quite safe in its results, it may be presented to the notice of cow-feeders in towns.
(1704.) A cow will desire the bull in 4 or 5 w^eeks after calving. The symptoms of a cow being
in season are thus well described by Skellett : " She will suddenly abate of her milk, and be
very restle.«s ; vv-hen in the field with other cows she will be fi-equently riding on them, and if
in the cow-house, she will be constantly shifting about the stall ; her tail will be in constant mo-
tion ; she will be frequently dunging, stalling and blaring ; will lose her appetite : her external
parts will appear red and inflamed, and a transparent liquor will be discharged from the vagina.
In old cows these symptoms are continued 4 or 5 days, but in general not more than 24 hours,
and at other times not more than 5 or 6 hours. Therefore, if a cow is intended for procreation,
the earliest opportunity should be taken to let her have the bull ; for if it be neglected then, it
will often be two or three weeks before the above sj-mptoms will return. These instructions,"
adds Skellett, " are necessary to be given only to the proprietor of a small number of cows, where
a bull is not always kept w^ith them If a cow, after calving, shows symptoms of season
sooner than 4 or 5 weeks, which is sometimes the case, she should not be permitted to have the bull
sooner th<zn A or 5 weeks from that period, for the womb, before that time, is generally in so re-
laxed a state as not to be capable of retaining the seed ; consequently she seldom proves with calf,
if she is sufiered to take him sooner." t| This last remark I consider cf great value, for 1 am per-
suaded that most cases of cows not holding in calf the first serving after calving, arises from the
want of consideration on the part of breeders, whether the cow is in that recovered state from the
eflfects of calving as to afford a reasonable hope that she will conceive ; and this is a point more to
be considered than the mere lapse of time after calving, for a cow after a severe labor, may be in
a much worse state for conception, even at double that length of time, than another which has
[t It is not, of course, meant to say that cattle may not be spayed earlier. On the contrary, it
is quite common, especially in our western country, to spay heifers, and where the operator has
floine experience there is little danger. Should the system of M. Gueno.v, by which it may at a
very early age be pronounced whether a calf will make a good or a very indifferent milker, be
fully established, it will undoubtedly become expedient for farmers to sell to the butcher for veal,
or to have spayed all that are found to be devoid of the marks or escutcheons. Being spayed,
they have a greater tendency to fat, and cases might happen, we should think, where the farmer
has few cattle that it might be economical to bring such condemned and spayed heifers under the
yoke. Ed. Farm. Lib.]
' Fersuson on Distemper among Cattle.
I Ferguson en Distemper among Cattle. 11 Skellett on the Parturition of the Cow
(203)
108 TlIK DOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
passed the ralvinp with cbho, thouu'li the former may come as rogularly into Beason as the latter.
The state of ilie body, iherefure, as well on tlie length of time, should be taken into consideration
in dcti-niiiiiinu this ixiiiit.
(ITO.'i.) ThtTo Hre still other considerations connected with the serving of cows which deserve
your atliMitioii. The usual practice, in places wht-rc there is no hull, is to lukc llie cow to llic bull
ut a convLMiifiit time for the cattle n)an to ^o with her; and should she have fiussi-ii the bloom of
the season before her arrival at the bull llie issue is of course doubtful. The cow may have trav-
eled a louf.' distance and become weary, and yet no rest is allowed her, and she must underpo
the still further fatigue of being served. Some people cannot be satistied with the service which
their cows R-coive, until both cow and bull are wearied out. Others will force either the cow or
bull, or both logctlier, against their inclination, she being held by the nose, and he goaded on with
throats and thumps. In all such cases the chances are much against conception. There is, to be
sure, the difficulty of not having the bull on the spot, but, when he is reached, he may have been
worn out for theday by previous service. No sui'h difficulty is fell when there is a bull at home ;
but even then, wheii the cow has to be taken to him out of the byre, for example, some judgment
ts requisite of the proper time at which she should be taken out ; and this can only be ascertained
bv studying the idiosyncracy of every cow, and remembering each case. It apiiears to me to be
as essential a matter to keep a record of the churncteristics of each cow, in regard to her stale of
sea.son, as of her reckoning to calve ; and this remark is strengtheneil by the great differences, in
this respect, evinced by different cows under the same treatment. For example, one arrives soon
at mature seii.st)n after the symptoms are exhibited ; another reciuires a few hoars to arrive at the
same point, and the season continues for some time longer in a languid state. A third runs through
the course of sea.son in a few hours, while a fourth is only prepared to receive the bull at the last
part of her season. A fifth may exhibit great f:re in her desire, which induces her kecjier to have
her served at once, when loo soon ; while another shows comparative indifference, and in waiting
for an exhibition of increased desire on her part, the season is allowed to pass off; and when this is
the case, some cattlemen, conscious of ncLrlect, and afraid of detection, will persist in llie bull serv-
ing her, though she may be very much disinclined for ihe embrace, and does everything in her
power to avoid it. There is no way so natural for a bull serving a cow, as when both are in the field
together, and umlerstand one another. The most proper lime is wisely chosen by both, and failure
of conception will be rare in the circumstance. But it is possible that the bull may be unable to
obtain possession of the cow in the field, by rea.«on of disparity in bight and of corporeal conforma-
tion ; in which case he will require to be taken to a part of the ground which will favor his pur-
pose. Two or three thorouprk. skips are quite sufficient for the purposes of conception. The cow
Bhould be put into and kept quiet in the byre, after being served until the desire leave her, and
she should get no food or water for some hours after, as any encouragement of discharges from
the body at this'time, by food and drink, is inimical to the retention of the semen.
(1706.) "When nature is satisfied," says Mr. Skellett, who is a great authority in the vaccine
department of veterinary practice, "or the symptoms of season disappear in the animal, concep-
tion has taken place. The neck of the womb becomes then completely closed by a glutinous sub-
stance which Nature has provided for that purpose, being perfectly transparent, and with diEB-
culty separated from the parts. This matter is for the purpose of excluding all external air
from the mouth of the womb during gestation, which, if admitted to the fa>tus, would corrupt the
membranes and the pellucid liquor in which the foetus floats, and would undoubtedly cause the
cow to slink. This glutinous substance also prevents the lips of the mouth of the womb from
growing toirether; and when the cow comes into season it becomes fluid — in the act of copulation
serving lo lubricate the parts and prevent inflammation." *
9. THE ADVANTAGES OF HAVING FIELD-WORK ALWAYS IN A
FORWARD STATE.
" Who breakesh timely his fallow or ley.
Sets forward his hushnndrie many B wsye.
This, timely well ended, doth forwnrdly bring
Mot only thy tillage, but all other thing."
TCSSKR.
(1707.) The season — early spring — having arrived when the laboring
and sowing land for the various crops cultivated on a farm of mixed hus-
bandry are about to occupy all hands for several months to come, the
injunction of old Tusser to undertake them in time that each may be fin-
ished in its proper season, should be regarded as a sound advice; for
jvhenever your field labor is advanced ever so little at every opportunity of
* Skellett on the Parturition of the Cow.
(204)
THE ADVANTAGES OF FORWARDING FIELD-WORK. ] 09
weather and leisure, no premature approach of the ensuing season can
come upon you unawares ; and should the season, on the other hand, be
delayed beyond its usual period by natural causes, you will be ready to
proceed with your work whenever the weather proves favorable. When
work advances little by little, there is time to do it effectually ; or, if it be
not then executed in an effectual manner, you have yourself to blame for
not looking after it. When I say, however, that work may be advanced
little by little, I do not mean that it should be done in a slow, careless
manner, as if the work-people were unimpressed with the importance of
what they were doing. The advantage of doing even a little is that what-
ever is done is not to do afterward; and that a little may be done as well,
and in as short a time, as if it had been done as a part of a great opera-
tion. In this way, even if only one man is kept constantly at the plow,
he would turn over, in the course of a time considered short when looked
back upon, an extent of ground almost incredible. He will turn over an
imperial acre a day, that is, 6 acres a week, 24 acres in a month, and 72
acres in the course of the dark and short days of the winter quarter. All
this he will accomplish on the supposition that he has been enabled to go
at his plow every working day ; but as that cannot probably happen in
the winter quarter, suppose he turns over 50 acres instead of 72, these will
still comprehend the plowing of the. whole extent of ground allotted to
be worked every year by each pair o^orses when the farm was taken. In
fact, here is a large proportion of a whole year's plowing done in a single,
and in the shortest quarter of the year.
(1708.) Now, a week or two may quickly pass in winter in doing things
of little moment, and which, in fact, amount to time being thrown away ;
such as sending away a rake of all the draughts to a stock corn-market, on
a day when there is little prospect of disposing of the grain, and when they
would have been better employed at home at the plow ; or driving some ma-
terial on the farm which would better and easier be done when the plows are
laid idle at any rate by frost ; or in setting men to the corn-barn to thresh
or clean coni, and laying the horses idle for the time ; or in contriving
some unimportant work to fill up the time for half a day, until the frost
thaws a little on the lea, because it would give too much trouble to take
the plows from the lea to the stubble field, if there be any such at the time.
Sharpening and setting irons differently may form a reasonable excuse for
shifting the plows fi'om a stubble to a lea field, but no such excuse is avail-
able in neglecting to make the opposite transference. Such omissions
and instances of misdirected labor are too much regarded as trifles in win-
ter ; but is undeniable that they occupy as much time as more important
work ; and in a season, too, when every operation of the field is prepara-
tory to one at a more busy season. Occasionally the state of the work
will force the consideration on the farmer, that it is not so far advanced as
it should be, or even as he could wish ; still, instead of pursuing a different
course from that which has given rise to the reflection occasioned by the
delay, his unsatisfied mind consoles itself with the assurance that when
the season for active work actually arrives, the people will be able to make
up for the lost time. This is, however, mere delusion ; for if work can be
made up, so can time, the two being inseparable ; and yet how can lost
time be made up, when every moment of the year has its work to per-
form, and when that period, long as it is, is usually found too short in
which to do everything as it ought to be done 1 " There's the rub." For
time eludes pursuit, and brooks no interruption ; but neglected worh,
though attempted to be overtaken — and it may be overtaken before its
issue — still the race will never terminate in a satisfactory manner. The
(205J '' ^
110 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
neiylected work may, no doubt, be done in a slitirt time — in an unprece-
dcntedly sliort tlmo ; but in that case, it is tlie tinx- in wliich the work Is
done that is l)uasted of, not the work itself — thf nieasiirt', and not tlie tiling
mrasnrcd, which is held up to view; and yet, time being the standard by
which all well-executed labor is measured, it cannot be deprived of that
projierty, whatever devices may be used to makt- it go beyond its steady
I)uce. You should remember that iln p;ue is the same in winter as in sum-
mer, and the extent of labor, measured by the length of its tread, ought to
be as great in winter as in summer, otherwise an iireclaimable error is
assuredly committed in that season.
(1709.) Convinced that //rW-labor should he jjerseveringly advanced in
winter, whenever practicable, I am of opinion that plan is good which ap-
points plowmen to difterent departments of labor ; some to work con-
stantly on the farm, others occasionally to go from home ; some to be con-
stantly, or nearly so, at the ])low, others frequently at the cart. Thus the
benefits of the subdivision of labor may be extended to the farm. When
a certain proportion of the draughts are thus set aside for ])lowing, that
most important of all operations will not only be well done by those whose
special duty it is to do it, but perseveringly and judiciously done. This
proportion is only legitimately employed at aiiy other work when there is
no plowing for them to execute. Plowing being a steady occupation, not
subject to the irregular action of the cart, can be performed by the older
men and horses, who cannot so well bear the shocks of carting as younger
men and horses.
(1710.) It may be proper to give some familiar examples of what I
mean when I say that J^eW-labor should be advanced at every opportunity.
The order of work in spring is well understood ; it should therefore be
the study of the fanner to conduct the operations of winter so as to suit
those of spring in their natural order. If the weather seems tempting to
sow spi'ing wheat, then a portion of the land cleared of tuniips by the
sheep, best suited to that species of crop, should be so plowed as to an-
swer wheat instead of barley. If beans are desiderated as a crop, and
there is land suitable for their culture, then, in autumn or in early winter,
the stubble land, in its particular state should be so plowed as to suit their
growth ; and in whatever mode beans are to be afterward cultivated, care
should be taken to have the land particularly dry, by letting off" water in
winter by additional gaw-cuts, where necessary, or by deepening those
already existing, where the^ seem to require that amendment. Beans
being an early crop, such precautions to render land dry on the surface
are requisite. If common oats are to be sown in spring, they being sown
earlier than other sorts, the lea intended for them should be plowed first,
and means taken to keep it dry in winter, so that the most unpro])ifiou8
weather in 8j)ring may not find the land in an unprepared state. What
land is intended for potatoes, what for turnips, or tares, or bare fallow,
should be prepared in their respective order ; and when every one of all
these objects have been promoted, and there is found little or nothing
to do till the burst of spring-work comes, both horses and men may enjoy
a day's rest now and then, without incumng the risk of throwing work
back ; but before such recreations are indulged in, it should be ascertained
that all the implements, great and small, have been repaired for work —
the plow-irons all new laid — the harrow-linos new laid and sharpened, and
fastened firmly into the bulls of the haiTows — the harne.ss all tight and
strong — the sacks new ])atched and mended, that no seed-corn be spilled
upon the road — the seed-corn threshed, measured up, and sacked, and
what is last wanted put into the granary — the horses new shod, that no
(20tiJ
CROSS-PLOWING, DRILLING, AND RIBBING LAND. Ill
casting or breaking of a single shoe may throw a pair of horses out of
work tor even one single hour — in short, to have everything prepared to
start for work when the first notice of spring sliall be heralded in the sky,
(1711.) But suppose the contrary of all this to happen; suppose that
the plow-irons and harrow-tines have to be laid and sharpened, when per-
haps to-morrow they may be wanted in the field — a stack to be threshed
for seed-corn or for horses'-com in the midst of a sowing of a field — sup-
pose, too, that only a week's work has been lost, in winter, of a single
pair of horses, and the consequence is that 6 acres of land have to be
plowed when they should be sown, that is, a loss of a whole day of 6 pair
of horses, or of 2 days of 3 pair — suppose all these inconveniences to hap-
pen in the busy season and the provoking reflection occurs that the loss
incurred now was occasioned by trifling offputs in v^anter. Compare the
value of these trifles with the risk of finding you unprepared for so^ving
beans or spring wheat. Suppose, once more, that instead of having tur-
nips in store for the cattle, when the oat-seed is begun in the fields, and
that, instead of being able to prosecute that indispensable piece of work
without interruption, you are obliged to send away a portion of the
draughts to bring in turnips, which must be hronght in, and brought in,
too, from hand to mouth, it being impossible, in the circumstances, to
store them. In short, suppose that the season of incessant labor airives
and finds you unprepared to go along with it — and what are the conse-
quences ? Every creature about you, man, woman, and beast, is then
toiled beyond endurance every day, not to keep ttp work, which is a light-
some task, but to make up work, which is a toilsome task, but which you
said you could easily do, when you were idling your time in a season you
consider of little value ; and, after all, this toil is bestowed in vain to ob-
tain the end you wish, namely, to prepare your crop in dne season. You
who are inexperienced in the e\als of procrastination may fancy this to be
an overdrawn picture — even an impossible case ; but unfortunately for
that supposition, it is drawn from the life. I have seen eveiy incident oc-
cur which I have mentioned, both as to work being in a forward and in a
backward state, not, it is true, in any one year ; but some instances in
one, and some in another year, but what may occur in different years may
all occur in one, and such a result may easily be realized by indulgence
in increased negligence.
10. CROSS-PLOWING, DRILLING, AND RIBBING LAND.
The new-gained field laid down in seemly drills."
Graham.
(1712.) I have already described the various modes of plowing land at
the commencement and during winter. It remains for me to describe
other modes of plowing, which were deferred from that time until the sea-
son in which they are usually begun to be executed, namely, spring.
These modes are cross-plowing, drilling, and ribbing.
(1713.) And, first, as to cross-plowing. I have alluded to this mode of
plowing, not so much to describe it minutely, as to deprecate its practice
before winter. " Its object is to cut across the existing furrow-slices
into small pieces, that the land may be the more easily pulverized and
prej)ared for the future crop." Fig. 312 represents a field to be cross-
1207)
112 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
plowed, and it is purposely formed of an irregular shape, as most fields
are, to show the side from which the cross-furrows should he feered, and
the mode of plowing the last, or irregular feering, aicording to the circum-
stances of the case.
(1714.) The first thing to he done in preparing any field for cross-plow-
ing is to render its surface as free of large clods as possihle ; and this is
effected hy harruwins;, an operation which is executed hy an implemeni
that will he particularly described when it comes to he spoken of in seed-
time. The winter's frost may have softened the clods of the most oh-
durate clay-soil, and the mould-hoard of the plow may be able to pulver-
ize them fine enough, and the lighter soils may have no clods on them at
all ; from all which circumstances it may be regarded as a loss of time to
harrow the ground before cross-plowing it in spring ; and, for these rea-
sons, I believe, some farmers do not practice harrowing ; but it appears
to me to be always the surest plan of pulverizing the soil to harrow it be-
fore cross-plowing the winter furrow ; because you cannot be sure that,
in the strongest land, all the clods have been softened to the heart by frost ;
and should they happen still to be hard there, and become burietl by the
cross-furrow, they will not be so easily pulverized as when lying exposed
upon the surface of the ground to the action of the harrow ; and even in
the lightest soils, the harrows not only make a smoother surface, but assist
in intermixing the dry frost-pulverized soil of the surface with the moister
and firmer soil below, at least as far as the tines of the haiTOws reach.
(1715.) There is not much time lost in hanowing before cross-plowing ;
for although the harrowing should be given a double-tine, that is, backward
and forward upon the same ground, to pulverize the clods, or equalize the
texture of the ground ; and although it should be given across instead of
along the ridges, that the open fuiTows may be filled up with soil as much
as possible, whether the land had been plowed with gore-furrows, fig. 136,
or not — that which has been cloven down with gore-furrows, fig. 141, or
twice gathered up, fig. 139, being the most difficult to cross-harrow, not
only on account of the numerous open funows of the former method, and
the inequality of the gi"ound, occasioned by the latter, but because both
these methods are adopted for winter furrows on strong land, which is the
most difficult to be labored even in the most favorable forms — yet the
worst form of plowed land can be harrowed in a short time.
(1716.) Two pairs of harrows should be set to cross-haiTow together, as
being the best mode of accomplishing effective hanowing in all cases, as
will be shown afterward ; and that number of hanows, when unconfined
by ridges, will cover at least 16 feet in breadth, and proceeding at the rate
of 2 miles per hour for 9 working hours, will give 19 acres of ground a
double tine, on the supposition there have been no interruptions ; but as
time must be lost in turnings, as you have already seen in plowing (930),
and a breathing occasionally given to the horses, that quantity of land can-
not be harrowed a double tine at that rate of traveling, in the ordinaiy
mode of conducting labor; but say that 16 acres are thus cross-harrowed
in the course of a day, a half day's harrowing will make room for a num-
ber of plows.
(1717.) If time presses, the feerings for cross-plowing can be commenced
almost immediately after the harrows have started ; and if these cannot get
way before the plow, it can either take a bout or two in each feering, till
the harrows have passed the space for the next feering, or the harrows can
pass along the lines of each feering before the plow, and return and finish
the harrowing of the ground between the feerings. Thus in fig. 312, after
ihe line of feering ^yhas been harrowed, the plow can either take a bout
(208)
CROSS-PLOWING, DRILLING, AND RIBBING LAND.
113
or two around it, till the harrows have passed the next line of feering gh;
or the harrows can go along each line of feering, first c f, then g h, then
i k, and so along / m and n o, in succession, to pi-epare the ground for feer-
ing, and then return and harrow out the ground between e and g, g and i,
i and Z, and / and n. In this way the harrowing, and feering, and the
plowing of the different feerings can be proceeded with at the same
time. But if time is not urgent, the systematic mode is to harrow the field
A FIELD PEERED FOR BEING CROSS-PLOWED
in a continuous manner, beginning along the fence a b from the gate at h,
and proceeding by breadths of the harrows across the field till the other
side of it, c d, is reached ; or another equally effective mode is to step off
feerings from a b, in breadths of 30 yards in succession, along the field, in
the manner 1 am about to describe, for cross-plowing ; and this mode has
the advantage of giving an easier turning to the horses at the landings.
(1718.) Suppose, then, that all or as much of the field to be cross-plowed
has been harrowed as will give scope to a single plow to make the feer-
ings without interruption. In choosing the side of the field at which the
feerings should commence, it is a convenient rule to begin at the side
farthest from the gate, and approach gradually toward it, and its conve-
nience consists in not having to pass the finished feerings, and so to avoid
the risk of trampling on the plowed to get at the unplowed land. The
convenience of this rule is felt not only in cross-plowing, but in pi'osecu-
ting every species of field-work ; and besides avoiding the risk of damage
to finished work, it is gratifying to the minds of laborers to think that, as
their work proceeds, they approach the nearer home ; while it conveys to
others the idea of a well-laid plan, to witness the operations of a field
which have commenced at its farthest end, and are finished at the gate,
where all the implements employed meet, ready to be conveyed to another
field. The gate in this instance is like home, and in most instances it is
placed on that side or corner of the field nearest the steading. In the par-
ticular case of the field represented by fig. 312, these conveniences are not
all available, owing to its form, which is a very common one ; and peculiari-
ties of form involve considerations in retjard to conducting field operations
01 more importance than mere convenience, and one of these is the most
(209) 8
114 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
important one of loss of time. It is always desirable to commence a
feerinq at a straight side of a field, whence there is little risk of error in
ing off the feerings to include parallel spaces of ground; and wher estrik-
this particular is not attended to, much tjme is needlessly spent in plowing
a number (tf irregular pieces (jf ground. It is better to leave any irregu-
larities in j)lowing to the last ; and, as an irregularity must occur, at all
events, along the side of a crooked fence, it is saving of time to throw any
irregular plowing to that side. In fig. 314 it so liappens that the straight-
est side of the field is nearest the gate at h, and the crooked fence, c to d,
farthest from it. In pursuance of the rule just announced, the feering
slujuld begin along the side of the straight fence a h, and tei'minate in an
irregular feering, along the crooked fence c d. A straight feeinng could,
no doubt, be made at first along c d, leaving any inegularity between it
and the fence ; but the setting off of that feering parallel with the straieht
fence a h, in order to avoid making an irregularity there also, would im
pose considerable labor, and take up more time than the advantage
would compensate of avoiding the inconvenience of having to pass ])lowed
ground.
(1719.) Let the first feering, then, be made about 7 or 8 yards from the
fence a b, or from the ditch-lip of that fence, if there be a ditch there.
Some farmers neglect the head-ridge in the cross-plowing, and measure
the feering from the open furrow between it and the ends of the ridges.
I maintain that the head-ridges should be plowed at this time, as well as
the rest of the field, for if they are neglected now, the busy seasons of
spring and of early summer will prevent attention being paid to them till,
what with the trampling of horses in working the land for green crop, and
the piobable drouth of the weather in those seasons, will render them so
very hard that it will be found impracticable to plow them, and they will
thus be deprived of the ameliorating effects of the sun and air during the
pest part of the year. Let them, therefore, be included in the cross-plow-
ing, although they cannot be <:?05*-plowed themselves. But if it is desired
to plow them with the side-ridges, which form the head-ridges to the
cross-plowing, and which side-ridges must be plowed before the crop, wliat-
ever it may be, can be sown upon them, then the head-ridges may be left
out of the feering, and the first feering be struck at 7 or 8 yards from the
head-ridge open fuiTow. Suppose that this line of feering is e f; and as
it is executed in the same way as that already described in feering ridges
in (646), 1 refer you to that paragraph, as well as to fig. 132, where the
furrow-slices m n are shown to be thrown out right and left from the line
of feering k I. The next line of feering is g h, at 30 yards' distance from
ef, and so there is a feering at every 30 yards' distance, to the last feer-
ing, n a.
(1720.) After as many feerings are struck as there are plows to be em-
ployed in cross-plowing, each plow enters a feering, and first lays the
fuiTOW-slices of the feering together, to form the crown of the future
cross-plowed break of land. The horses are hupped around each feer-
ing, ef, g h, &c., till about ^ of each break of land is ])]owed, that is, i
from c toward g, and 1 from g toward e, thus plowing i the break lie-
tween e and g by hupping the horses. The remaining ^ of the break, be-
tween e and g, is then plowed by hieing the horses (901) from e to g, and
from /i to f, till the middle, between e and g, is gained by an open furrow.
No open fiirrows, however, are left in cross-plowincj, these l>eing plowed
together again by 2 or 3 bouts, lessening the size of each furrow in every
bout, till the last one is closed up by the moidd-board of the plow, whicl
is laid over on its side, and dragged forward while the plowman hob'
(210J
CROSS-PLOWING, DRILLING, AND RIBBING LAND. 115
only by the large stilt. The obliteration of the open-furrow ia necessary
to avoid any hollow that would be left there across the ridges, when they
are acrain plowed into form. I have alluded to this subject before in
(667.)°
(1721.) The plowing of the complete feerings is all plain work, and, in-
deed, the only difficulty encountered in cross-plowing is when the last or
irregular feering, such as n o, is reached. This feering is begun' to be
plowed like any of the rest, till the nearest point to the open funow of the
head-ridge is attained, and if the head-ridges have been included in the
feerings, then the plowing proceeds till the ditch-lip or hedge-root stops
the plow ; but if left to be plowed with the side-i"idges, a small feering
should be made at the low^est points of the ridges at the head-ridge fuiTow,
and the break included between these points and the feering should be
plowed out by Jiieing the horses with a long furrow on the one side and
a short one on the other, till the middle is gained, where the open furrow
is closed up like the others. This feering will take longer time to plow
than any of the rest, in proportion to the quantity of the ground turned
over in it, on account of the plow having to go empty from the bend of the
fence to the points on both sides.
(1722.) Had the field been a true rectangle, like the space included
within the dotted lines a n b t, the feering might have been struck from
either fence, and there would have been no loss of time in plowing alter-
nate long and short furrows. Scarcely a more striking comparison can
be made of the loss of time in plowing land of the same extent than be
tween a field of regular and iiTCgular form at a busy season. The letters
p and r indicate single and double ridges.
(1723.) The furrow given at cross-plowing is always a deep one, deeper
than the one given at the commencement of winter ; and this is easily ac-
complished, as the land, not having had time to consolidate, nor any labor
executed upon it to consolidate it, the plow passes easily under the old
furrow, and not only turns it over again, but raises a portion of the land
below it. Indeed, it is requisite to make the plow take hold of this firm
substratum in order to keep it steady, otherwise the formerly tumed-over
furrows, which ai-e still cloddy, or the unrotted stubble which has been
buried by the plow, may form obstacles under and on both sides of the
plow, so as to throw it out of operation altogether, or at least so affect its
motion as to prevent its maintaining an equal depth of furrow. Perhaps
9 inches may be considered a good avei'age depth in cross-plowing with a
pair of horses.
(1724.) But means ax'e frequently used at this season to cross-plow with
a deeper furrow than can be reached by a plow drawn by a pair of horses,
3 or 4 horses being employed for the pui-pose. The third horse is very
commonly yoked in front of the furrow-horse of the plow, and harnessed
in cart-traces, as represented in the trace-horse of the cart in Plate XVIII.,
the hooks of the trace-chain being passed into a link of the plow-chains,
behind the haims, of the rear horse. A simpler plan still is adopted by
only using the plow-harness, and lengthening the plow-chains by short-
ends, that is, short pieces of chain, which are hooked in a similar manner
to that just described. Neither of these methods, however, will bear a
comparison, in point of draught, with the yoking of 3 horses, as repre-
sented in fig. 201, and described in (909). I have an objection, however,
to this mode of yoking, which is founded, not on its principles, which are
faultless, but on account of an inconvenience to one of the horses. When
so yoked, the three horses work nearly abreast, the middle one being only
a little in advance of those on either side : and the objection is, that the
116 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
middle horse %vill become more heated in the work, in that position, than
either of" the other two. Tliis inconvenience may not be much felt in
early spring-work, but at the time when the largest proportion of cross-
plowing is usually executed, or in summer, the middle horse must suffer
considerably more than the others, and this result I have frequently wit-
nessed in places where three liorses are still yoked abreast to the harrows.
Therft are various modifications of yoking three horses practiced in differ-
ent parts of the country, to which reference has already been made in
(910), (911) and (912), and where will also be found methods of com-
pensating the labor of any individual horse by an alteration of the swing-
tree, when unequally yoked, which one of the horses is, when three are
made to work together, as they are usually yoked in tandem fashion.
Three horees will take a depth of fuiTow of 11 or 12 inches, according to
the texture and dej)th of the soil.
(1725.) A still greater depth maybe attained, and is fi-equently desirable
in cross-plowing, and there is no other sort of plowing which affords such
facilities for obtaining a deep furrow. This greater depth is attained by
yoking four horses to a plow, 2 leading and 2 following, the 2 off" ones
walking in the furrow, and the 2 near ones on the firm land. Two very
convenient and efficient modes of yoking 4 horses may be seen in figs. 202
and 203, and a description of them is given in (913) and (914). Yoked
as in fig. 202, the leading horses are best harnessed, as in the traces of the
cart, Plate XVIII ; but, as in fig. 203, they may be in their usual plow-
haniess, with the exception of the chains, which are made for this particu-
lar mode of yoking. The depth reached by a 4-horse plow is, on an aver-
age of soils, 14 inches. I have used the 4-horse plow much, and with stout,
well-matched horses have never reached less than 14 inches in obdurate
subsoils ; while in freer soil and substratum, not properly a subsoil, but rar
ther an undisturbed soil, the plow went to 16 inches of pei-pendicular depth,
and the work was most satisfactory,
(1726.) An ordinary stout plow will answer for 3 horses, and so it may
for 4, where there are no bowlder-stones in the land; but where a consid-
erable quantity of 4-horse plowing is desired to be executed, it is better to
have a plow made for the purpose a little stronger than the ordinary 2-
horse plow.
(1727.) In a 3-horse yoke, one man may drive all the horses by means
of reins or by the voice, though a boy to assist at the turnings will save as
much time in that matter as will compensate for his wages. Where 3
horses are yoked abreast, one man may as easily manage them as 2 horses.
In the case of 4 horses, however, there should be a man to drive the horses,
and this is usually done with the whip instead of reins, though the near
leader .should have a rein. The second man, in this case, is no loss, as the
4 horses just constitute 2 paii-s of the ordinary draughts. Even if the sec-
ond man were taken away from his horses — which should never be the
case — and set to other work, he would be of little senice, as his mind
would be constantly occupied with the desire to know how his horses are
getting on under the guidance of another man. But the fact is, that no
man can manage 4 horses at the plow with advantage to the work. Fig.
206 shows how a 4-horse plow may be yoked and driven.
(1728.) This deep cross-plowing with a 3 or 4-horse plow should not be
confounded with trench-plowinc:, which is best and usually performed as
represented in fig. 206. Trench-plowing only deserves the name when a
common plow goes before and turns over a furrow-slice, and in the bottom
of which the 4-horse plow follows and goes as deep as it can. In deep-
plowing, the 4-hor8e plow goes as deep as it can of itself, and it is rare that
(212)
CROSS-PLOWING, DRILLING, AND RIBBING LAND.
117
it meddles with the subsoil, which it is the special object of trench-plowing
to disturb. Deep-plowing will be very well executed by one common plow
following another in the same furrow ; and when the substratum is free,
this is a very good way of stirring up the soil to the moderate depth of 10
or even 12 inches.
(1729.) The 3 and 4-horse plows should not be inconsiderately employ-
ed in cross-plowing in spring, because, either mode of plowing occupying
a considerably longer time with the same number of draughts, and employ-
ing more horses than ordinary plowing, it cannot be prudently employed
on land that is immediately to be occupied by an early spring crop, such
as beans, though the time in which potatoes, turnips, and fallow are re-
spectively finished, will afford plenty of leisure to have the land appropi'ia-
ted to them deeply cross-plowed in the best manner.
(1730.) Next as to drilling. This is a form of plowing very different
from the ordinaiy^ but it is not unlike that mode of plowing stubble in some
Fis. 313.
THE MODE OF PLOWING SINGLE DRILLS.
parts of the country which is represented by fig. 142, and which I alluded
to only to condemn. The principal reason for my condemnation of it was
that, while it professed to turn up the soil to the action of the atmosphere,
it buried more than half of it untouched by the plow, thus in a great meas-
ure running counter to its own avowed object. On compariuf fig. 313,
with fig. 142, the form of the two modes of plowing are somewhat similar
but their structure, that is, the state of the soil within and without, they
are very different. In fig. 142, the gi'ound h is quite solid and unmoved
from the state in which it had borne crops, and the moved parts a are
full of stubble and weeds. The lines of the drills c are quite irreo-ular,
having no reference to the quarters of the compass, the direction of the
ridges, or in parallelism with themselves. The regular drill, on the other
hand, is formed of deep loosened soil, plowed and harrowed on purpose,
and made as clear of weeds as the time allotted to prepare the soil will
allow. Drilling is a finished piece of work, the other only confessedly a
preparatory one. Drilling is essential to the proper cleaning of the land at
a future period of the season, the other a very questionable mode of attain-
ing any good object.
(1731.) I have said that before land is drilled it should be well pulver-
ized, well cleaned, at least as well as the time when it should be drill-
ed will allow; and the ground should be in a soft state by labor when
drilling is to be executed, otherwise the diills will not have their proper
form and structure. Drills should not be formed on hard land, nor ought
they to be attempted to be formed on hard land, as the object of making
them at all is, in the first plac(«, to afTuid a sufficient quantity of loose soil to
(013) -X J
118 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
cover the manure deposited in them ; in the next place, to afford the roots
of plants fiufricient freedom to roam in search of food ; and, in the last
place, to aHbnl opportunity, notwithstandin;^ the presence of a crop, to free
the land of weeds, by stiirino it occasionally with proper implements.
There is no way of effecting all these objects so effectually as by drilling.
Accordingly, all crops intended to melioiate and clean the ground are cul-
tivated in drills, and these are what are called green crops, namely, pota-
toes, turnips, mangel-wurzel, beans, &c.
{1T32.) After land has been much plowed and harrowed, and even rolled
to render it friable, it is usually in a Hat state, whatever may have been
the form in which it had been before plowed ; and when flat, it is in the
best state for being plowed into drills. Yet strong land that is constantly
retained in ridges of a rounded form, that is, twice gathered up, fig. 139
and (656), will exhibit the form of ridges, even after it has been well pul-
verized by plowings, harrowings, and rollings ; it will still appear as if
gathered up from the flat, fig. 133, and it had been harrowed and rolled
fine on the surface. Lighter soil with the same work will appear quite
flat, that is, of a uniform surface throughout, not as if it were level. This
distinction in the appearance of the ground of being ridged or not ridged,
should be kept in view, as it will in great measure determine the width
of space that should be left between the drills : and it is entirely occasion-
ed by the difference of the form in which the difl'erent sorts of soils had
beeu previously plowed. Strong soil is always kept round by repeated
gatherings up, or gatherings-up based on casting with gore-furrows, figs.
135 and 136; whereas the lighter soils are usually only once gathered up,
fig. 133, cast together without gore-furrows, fig. 135, or plowed two-out-
and-two-in, fig. 138.
(1733.) In whichever of these states the land maybe, whether complete-
ly flat or exhibiting a slight indication of rounded ridges, the drills are
made of the same form ; and they are formed in the following various
ways. They are made by one landing of the plow, when they are said to
be single, or they are made with a bout of the plow when they are called
double ; and both single and double drills are made either toward or from
thefcering. The ultimate forms of the two different modes are apparently
the same, but that which makes them Jro7n the feering is nevertheless the
best, as I shall show in the sequel.
(1734.) In begiiming to make drills, let us take one of the simplest
cases that present themselves, namely, a field having a straight side at its
farthest end, and having the forms (jf ridges still visible ; and as it is requi-
site in strong land to preserve a form that will keep it as dry as possible,
the drills should be so formed upon the ridges as to be accommodated be-
tween their open furrows. If the ridges are 15 feet in width, 6 drills of
30 inches apart will fill up that space between the open furrows ; and if
18 feet wide, 8 drills of 27 inches will answer the same end. When the
ground is flat, any width of drills previously determined on may be executed,
have seen it stated in cases of drilling land fi)r turnips in England, that
only 18 inches was a good distance to be preserved between drills ; but
what object is gained by adopting a distance which is too narrow for the
free operation of the implements required to keep the ground clean, I can-
not imagine.
(1735.) Suppose, then, that the ridges present a form of 15 feet in width
on strong land, they should be made 30 inches wide, and they are made
in this way : Begin at the end of the field farthest from the gate, and
where the fence runs in a straight line ; and set up 3 feering-poles (446)
in a straight line upon the nearest furrow-brow of the third ridge from the
(214)
CROSS-PLOWING, DRILLING, AND RIBBING LAND. 119
ftMice, and 15 inches from the middle of its open fun'ow. Split out the
feerin'"- along the line of the poles, tuniing over the furrow-slices fii-stto one
side and then to the other, like the fuiTOW-slices 7?i and n, along the feering
k I fio-. 132. The reason that the first feeiing is made on the lurrow-brow
is, that when the di-ills are split to cover the dung, or whatever else is put
in them, the place which the hollow now occupies will then be filled up
by the drill, and the open furrow will then be the hollow between the drills
upon the furrow-brow of both ridges. In fig. 313, suppose a b to be the
feerin^ in the furrow-brow of the lidge. On passing up from a to b, the
plow fays over the fun-ow-slice c d, and the soil having been pulvenzed, it
crumbles down in a continuous heap upon the firmer land under it. On
o-ainino- the head-ridge at the other end of the feering, the horses are Jiied,
and the plow comes down from b to a, laying over a similar furrow ?i o
upon the firm land. A similar feering is made in the fuiTow-brow of the
6th rido-e from the last, and so on upon every 6th ridge across the field ;
but ere'' the field is all feered for drilling, some of the drills are formed be-
tween the feerinss, that the land may be proceeded with for the pui-pose
it has been drilled, while the feering and the drilling of the remainder are
proceeded with. To proceed, then, with the drilling at the first feeiing,
at a distance of 30 inches, this previously determined \vidth of the drills is
measured off from a to e, and this the plowman does with his plow-staff, or
shaft of his plow-spade, as that implement is call in some parts of the coun-
try, upon which the various breadths of drills executed on the farm are
notched off. The plow then proceeds from e to/ preserving a parallelism
\vith the feered furrow a b, laying over the furrow-slice g h upon the firm
o-round, upon which it crumbles down in a continuous heap. On Jtleing
The horses' at the other end of the drills, a similar distance of 30 inches is
marked off from b to i, the plow passes down from i to f, laying over the
furrow-slice I m upon the firm ground. Hieing the horses again, the plow
passes on to p, and goes by p, forming another drill like the others. The
plowman does not measure off" the width of every drill he makes in this
manner, his eye being able to keep him right for a number of drills,
across which he then lays his plow-staff, to ascertain how he has been pro-
ceeding, whether the drills he has made be too narrow, or too wide, or
quite the proper breadth, and then again proceeds with his work. It will
be observed, from the description of this process, that one drill has been
formed every time the plow has gone up in the direction of e / and an-
other every time in coming down in the direction of i t, with the exception
at strikino-'the feering, when the plow both went up and came down a b.
In this way the horses are made to hie round a b, and the plow to make 2
drills every bout till 2 ridges on each side of the feering a b are drilled
up, and the last drill will be made close behind the fence. ^V^aen this
takes place, the plowman goes to the next feering, when two furrows ^yere
split out as at a b, and forms drills around it in the same manner till 2
ridges also on each side are drilled. Two ridges having thus been drilled
to the right of the first feering and two to the left of the second, and six
ridges intervening between the feerings, two ridges of the six have yet to
be drilled, upon which the drills are formed hy Jiuppiftg the horses from
the one set of drills to the other ; but in doing this, caution is requisite to
make all the drills of the exact width of 30 inches, and particulariy the last
two formed at the junction of the two feerings. The caution is exercised
by the plowman applying his plow-staff frequently to ascertain the breadth
of the ground to be drilled, and the width of the drills themselves ; and
should he find that he has more or less ground than he should have for the
number of drills he has yet to make,'^be must modify the width of each
(215)
120 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
drill, so as the whole number may be very near the width, and not reserve
any surplus or deficient ground to be added to, or substracted from, the
last drill alone. Another caution of not less importance is to ascertain if
the ground to be last drilled is of the same breadth at both ends at the
head-ndges, for if this point is not attended to, the last drill may run out to
a point at one end, and be too broad at the other. In closing every feering,
therefore, the greatest caution is required to preserve the breadth of the
drills.
(1736.) This is one way of forming single drills, and the following is an-
other. Instead of splitting out the feering a b, fig. 313, as just described,
the plow lays two furrows together, and forms a finished drill with an ele-
vated ridge, in the place of the hollow furrow a h ; and this is done by
hupping the horses instead oi hieing them, as in the other case. Still hup-
ping the horses and measuring off the width of the drills as formerly, the
next drill is made in the direction o{ fe, laying the furrow-slice upon the
firm ground, toward the open track of the plow left in making the previous
drill in the same direction. The next drill is made in the direction of t i,
again laying the furrow-slice toward the plow-track left open in form-
ing the previous drill. The drills are thus formed around the first ferring
over the 2 lidges on each side, then over the 2 ridges on each side of the
second feering, and the drills are closed up between them, with the pre-
cautions noticed above (1735), by hieing the horses.
(1737.) The essential difference betwixt these two methods is this. In
the first, the fuiTOw-slices are all laid over Jrom the feerings toward the
unplowcd land, and the horses are first hied and then hupped in finish-
ing the feerings. In the second method, the fuiTow-slices are all laid over
toward the feerings and the plotccd land, and the horses are first hupped
and then hied. As to the treatment of the horses, there is no difference in
regard to them, being huppied and hied in both cases, but there is a consid-
erable difference in regard to the treatment of the land. In the second
method, the furrow-slice being laid over toward the open track wliich the
plow has made in making the previous drill, should the land be at all
cloddy, and it is impossible to reduce eveiy clod on strong land at all
times, clods or stones may roll down the crumbling furrow-slice, acquiring
an impetus by the action of the ear of the mould-board, into the hollows
between the drills ; and this is no imaginary inconvenience, for clods and
stones actually roll down into the said hollows, when they happen to be
numerous, or when the soil is so firm as to acquire a considerable force of
the plow to elevate it into drills, and when it is apt to rise in large masses
before crumbling do\\ii in its fall from the mould-board. When the width
of the drills is as much as 30 inches, this inconvenience is less likely to
happen, but when the more usual width of 27 inches is adopted, I have
seen it occur to a considerable degree. The immediate inconvenience oc-
casioned by these clods is, that they interrupt the progress of the bean-
barrow when the land is drilled up in this way for the bean-crop ; and
when the land is dunged, they occupy the best part of the drill, and
being there covered up with the dung, they remain among it, and form
obstructions to those roots of plants that may be pushing through the
manure in search of farther sustenance. At all events, they can do no
good.
(1738.) In the first method, on the other hand, this inconvenience is en-
tirely avoided, and no other is substituted in its stead ; for should clods
and stones roll away from the furrow-slice when the drill is making, and
which they will inevitably do when present, upon the open and firm land,
they remain there only to the next passage of the plow, which sweeps them
(216)
CROSS-PLOWING, DRILLING, AND RIBBING LAND. 121
away, and at the same time leaves a small space of ground between the
former furrow-slice and its track, as from t to o, &c., and which track is
clear and open, ready for the bean-barrow, or the dung that may be de-
posited in it. The advantage possessed by the first over the second method
of drilling in these respects is so obvious, that any argument in support of
i^ appears unnecessary, and being so obvious, you should not fail to adopt
this method as your invariable practice.
(1739.) When the ground is flat, that is, when the ridges are not remark-
ably prominent, the drills are made the common width of 27 inches, some
make them 28 inches, and the feering is conducted in the same way ; but
in setting off any feering from the last one, when there is no such guide as
the breadth of ridges to measure the proper distances, care should be taken
to set off such distances as will contain a determinate number of drills
of the fixed width, otherwise an error will inevitably occur at the closings
of the feerings. Thus, if the drills are 27 inches in width, in a feering of
30 yards broad, 6 ridges of 15 feet, each making a very convenient breadth
of feering, the number of drills will be exactly 40.
(1740.) So much for single drilling ; now for double. For this mode the
feering is made in a different manner from that for the single mode of drill-
ing. Supposing, again, that the x'idges are visibly marked in the ground,
the feering is taken from the furrow-brow of the ridge nearest the fence,
at 15 inches from its extreme outer edge, and there setting up a straight
line of poles, split out the feei-ing as before by the plowing passing up and
down in the same furrow. Suppose this furrow to be represented by the
line in ey in fig. 132, then set up a square table at d, and mark off there-
from a line with poles at right angles in the direction of the aiTow through
s to t. Removing the square table to g, set off a similar and a parallel line
in the direction of the other arrow through « to v. Split out both these
lines with the plow as straight as the plowman can, and the bottom of the
furrow in them will form a guide to set off the requisite widths of di-ills at
right angles to the feering, at least they will serve to check the plowman
in his making the drills correct. Plowmen expert at drilling are apt to
contemn such guides in forming double drills, because they conceive they
can preserve the widths sufficiently well by the eye, and no doubt plow-
men are to be found who drill with precision, and I have met with such;
though very few in number, but the generality of them cannot be intrusted
in this delicate task without a guide of some sort, and there is none more
simple and more effective than the one I have desciibed and recommend-
ed. And where single drilling is to be executed on land on which no ves-
tige of a ridge is seen, it is quite impossible for the most expert driller to
set off the feerings with sufficient accuracy. Plowmen, I know, try to do
it, and I have seen good ones nearly succeed in it, but never witnessed
one who was not obliged to modify the widths of the drills at the closings.
Strict accuracy in regard to drills is not required in some crops, such as in
the bean and potato ; but with regard to the turnip, which is sown with a
machine set to a given width, unless the drills are very nearly alike in breadth
at both ends, the sowing will be very imperfectly performed. The means,
too, of attaining accuracy are so simple — merely drawing two or three fur-
rows across the field — that it is culpable to neglect it. There will be, I
am certain, more time spent by the plowman in measuring the widths of
drills with his plow-staff at every closing, than he would spend in drawing
a few cross-furrows at first ; and after all his adjustments, his mind is not
satisfied that he has done the work in the most accurate manner. It is
true that with all the assistance cross-furrows can afford him, he will still
have to measure the widths of drills with his plow-staff at every closing,
(217)
]22 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
but he is much less likely to err in his measurements while having the
cross-furrows to guide him at right angles to the direction of the drills,
than in measuring at random in a supposed right direction. This is so
self-e\-ident that your mind must assent to the facilites afforded by cross-
furrows.
(1741.) The double drills are formed in this way, on the supposition that
rido-es are visible at 15 feet asunder ; and this method is analogous to the
first method of feering single drills. After the furrow-slice c d, fig. 313, is
laid over at the feering of a b along the funow-brow of the ridge nearest
the fence, the horses are huppid, and the plow is made to come down at
the pre!«cril)ed width of the drills, namely, 30 inches, along the line f e,
and to nut a furrow-slice against the other funow-slice cd, which had just
been turned over upon the firm ground, and in doing this the drill receives
a somewhat sharp-ponited crest. At 30 inches this crest is never very
shai-p, but at 27 inches it may be made as shaqi as you please, by making
the plow go a little deeper. Then hieing the horses, the plow again goes
along ef, but in the opposite direction, and lays over the furrow-slice g h
on the open ground. Hupping again, the horses come down 7;, and fonn
the other side of the drill h g ; and so on, one drill after another. No
breaks of feerings are required in this mode of drilling, as every drill is
finished as it is formed, and the precautions required are, that the proper
widths of the drills are preserved throughout their lengths, in which they
may be easily checked by the assistance of the cross-furrows.
(1742.) The other mode of double drilling is analogous to the second
mode of single drilling. After the feering-poles are set up, as in the
former case, the plowing is commenced from the other head-ridge, and the
first furrow-slice n 0 is laid over while coming down b a. The horses are
then /iicd, and the plow is passed up the same furrow in the opposite di-
rection a b, and having little earth to lay over, but a small furrow-slice is
laid toward c d. Huppi/ig the horses, the plow is then brought down /e,
which beino^ a fresh furrow, the furrow-slice d c is large, and completes
the drill d c. Hieing the horses, the plow again passes along the last fur-
row in the opposite direction e f, and having little earth to take lays over
the small furrow-slice g h ; and then hupping again, a large furrow-slice
is laid over from q and completes the drill h g, and so on, one drill after
another, at the requisite width.
(1743.) The same difference exists in the two modes of making these
double drills, or in making the single. Thus, in the first method the large
furrow-slice is laid over upon the open and firm ground, and the drill is
finished by the second and smaller fuiTOw-slice ; whereas in the second
method the larger furrow-slice is laid toward the already drilled land, and
upon the smaller furrow-slice which was first turned over.
(1744.) On considering carefully both modes of drilling, it will be ob-
served that the two sides of a double drill are not equal, that side which
receives the furrow-slice raised from the firm land receives a larger quan-
tity of earth than the side which receives the small furrow-slice derived
from the same track out of which the former large slice had been taken.
The immediate consequence of this iiiequality of earth upon the two sides
of a drill is to give it the form of an unequal triangle, and its effect on the
growth of any seed deposited within the drill, is to cause the germ of the
plant to grow out of the side at the upper part instead of the top of the
drill. This effect is paiticularly shown by the sloping direction which a
stroncr growing stem of beans or potatoes takes, and to obviate which the
tops of the drills are always, in practice, harrowed down as much as to
allow the stems to grow upright.
(218)
CROSS-PLOWING, DRILLING, AND RIBBING LAND. 123
(1745.) This inconvenience of the unequal form of the double drill at-
tends both modes of making them ; but, of the two modes, that which lays
the large fun'ow-slice upon the open side of the firm land possesses two
advantages over the other ; the first of which is that no clods, large or
small, can roll from the top of the drill into the hollow ; and the other ad-
vantage is still greater, that of the finished drills being less trampled by
the horses in making the succeeding ones. This last circumstance may
be explained by refemng to fig. 313. When the plow, for instance, goes
up e f to commence a new drill, it cuts the firm ground along that line,
laying the furrow-slice g h upon the open unoccupied ground to the right,
and leaving on the left a small space of firm ground c e and d f, between
the line of the plow/" e and the crumblings of the previous large furrow
or unfinished drill c d. In doing this, the fui'row-horse walks up the hol-
low of the former made drill a b to guide him in the exact line he should
go, and the other goes on the firm gi'ound by the side of e f. On return-
ing, the furrow-horse comes down f e, while the other comes down p,
while the plow is making up the small side of the drill d c ; but in doing
this the footsteps of the horse that went up the finished drill a b are left
untouched. This may be considered a matter of little importance, and
from the generality of the practice, one would be led to conclude it of lit-
tle importance ; and in case of some horses which walk neatly and nar-
rowly in a drill, the impressions of their footsteps may be almost unob-
served in its bottom ; but in the case of a horse which walks wide behind,
and in that of all weak horses which stagger under their draught, both
sides of the drills are frequently much trampled ; and in the case of drill-
ing strong land, footprints injure the soil by holding water. These may
be obliterated in this way : instead of perfecting the drills one by one in
succession, let an intermediate drill remain unfinished between one that is
finishing and another that is forming. For example : instead of finishing
the second side of the drill h g by returning down the hollow b a, let the
drill remain unfinished until the new drill p is formed so far as to lay over
its furrow-slice on the firm gi'ound. Then let the plow come down b a,
having the fuiTOW-horse before it, and it will obliterate its footmarks, and
let the other horse come down the intermediate open fuiTowye, because
in going up and down, it is necessary in drilling that one of the horses
shall go in a hollow of a drill formerly made to guide it in the proper line.
With regard to the mode which lays the large fun'ow-slice toward the
drilled land, it seems impossible but to leave the finished drills trampled.
For example : on finishing the drill h g, on the plow coming down b a,
the furrow-horse walks down the finished drill i t, and the other walks on
the firm ground down d c ; and the same ground is gone over by the
horses on the plow laying over the small furrow toward c ^ on passing up
the hollow a b. When the plow comes down^ e to lay over the large fur-
row toward and to finish the drill d c, the fun'ow-horse comes down b a,
and the other upon the firm land alongsidey e ; and thus the finished hol-
low a h \s twice trampled, first in guiding the fiirrow-horse while the plow
is forming the drill d c when coming down f e, and again on the plow
passing up ef to lay the small furrow toward h g for the next drill, which
is completed in its turn when the plow comes down p, and the furrow-horse
tramples the finished hollow^e.
. (1746.) When the ground is quite flat, double drills may be made 27
inches wide, and the same width may be adopted when ridges of 18 feet
are visible, for 8 drills of 27 inches just cover an 18-feet ridge. A feering
of 6 ridges of 18 feet just includes 64 drills of 27 inches, so that where
drills are desired of 27 inches in width, and no more, the land should be
(219)
124 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
in IS-feet ridges, if ridged, or it should be flat — otherwise some of the
27-inrh diills on 15-feet ridges will be left in the open fun-ow, a position
which in strong land cannot fail to prove injurious to that part of the tur-
nip crop in winter. AVhen the soil is thorough-drained, it is of no im-
portance where the drills are situated ; but till that operation is performed,
it is necessary to attend to the safety of the crop in the most unfavorable
circumstance of soil by judicious management.
(1747.) It may have occuired to you to inquire that, if a perfect drill is
formed by a bout of the common plow, why it is that perfect drills are not
formed by one landing with a double mould-board plow ] The intjuiry is
a natural one, and it can receive a satisfactory answer. Were a drill per-
fectly formed, a vertical section would s'ne a triangle whose bight is equal
to half the length of the base. The hight to which a common plow can
elevate the crest of a drill is that of the ear of its mould-board, which, in
the common (Small's) plow, Plate X., is 12 inches ; and this hight is con-
formable to a drill of only 24 inches in width. Such a plow, therefore, to
make a drill of the usual width of 27 inches, will either leave a flat space
on its tops of 3 inches in breadth, or it will leave a sharp crested ridglet
of 3 inches in breadth at the bottom of the hollow of the drill. A com-
mon plow varies in width from the ear of the mould-board to the land-side
from 18 inches (Wilkie's) to 20 inches (Small's). A bout of AVilkie's
plow could thus make a diill 36 inches, and that of Small's 40 inches in
width in a bout, were it plowed to the full breadth either was capable of;
but as drills are only made 27 inches in width, the second furrow is taken
by the plow going nearer the side of a drill than in the middle of the hol-
low between two drills, and it is this expedient which gives to drills one
sloping and another more perpendicular side. A double mould-board
plow, constinicted of similar dimensions of an ordinary one, would make
drills much wider than are required ; but even if its mould-boards were
set as naiTow as to make a 27-inch diill, it is found that on account of the
width of double mould-board plows below, they cannot go so deep as to
give drills their proper elevation of 13^ inches, required to bury the re-
quisite quantity of manure deposited in them.
(1748.) There is a species of drilling executed by the small plow, fig.
314, which has received the appellation o{ ribbing. In executing this mode
Fig. 314,
THE SMALL, OR RIBBI.VO OR PARING PLOW.
of plo\ving, it exactly follows the mode of making single diills ; and of the
two modes of making these, it is necessarily restncted to that which lays
the furrow-slices toward the unplowed ground, because the ribs being
necessarily naiTow, were clods and stones to fall into the hollows, which
the other method would infallibly cause, the puqioses of the ribs forming
a kindly seed-bed would in a great measure be frustrated. The ribs, with
(220)
SOWING SPRING WHEAT AND GRASS-SEEDS. 125
great pains, can be formed as narrow as 9 inches, and by careless plowmen
they are made as wide as 14 inches, so that 12 inches may be considered
a good medium \\-idth. They are always formed on ridges, never on a flat,
and only used in seed-furronnng. The best width of feering for making
them is 2 ridsres, besfinnino: on the furrow-brow of the ridges, and laying:
the furrow-slices into the middle of the open furrows between the two
ridges ; by hupping the horses the seed is kept out of the open furrow,
and retained upon the best land of the ridges. Ribs are formed in the
length of the ridges. Supposing them to be 12 inches asunder, there will
just be 30 ribs in every feering of 2 ridges of 15 feet each. Another im-
plement which makes a number of ribs at once is described below.
11. SOWING SPRING WHEAT AND GRASS-SEEDS.
" When winter froste constrain the field with cold,
The nfinty root can take no steady hold."
Dbyden's VinciL.
(1749.) Wheat cannot be sown in spring in every sort of weather, and
upon every variety of soil. Unless soil possess a certain degi'ee of firm-
ness, that is, contains some clay, it is not considered adapted for the growth
of wheat, at least it is more profitable to sow barley upon it ; and unless
the weather is as dry as to allow strong soil to be plowed in the proper
season, it is also more profitable to defer the wheat, and sow barley in due
season. The general climate of a place affects the question of so^ving
wheat there in spring, and it is a curious problem in climate why wheat
sown in autumn should thrive at a place where spring wheat will not. Ele-
vation of position, even in a favorable latitude, produces the same effects.
Experience in these well-known circumstances renders the farmers of Scot-
land chary of soAving wheat in spring, unless the soil is in excellent con-
dition, and the weather very favorable for the pui'pose.
(1750.) When wheat is sown in spring, it is usually after turnips,
whether these have been entirely stripped from the land, or partly con-
sumed on the ground by sheep. In whichever of these states of the turnip
crop may be chosen to be followed by wheat, it is not sufficient merely to
raise a crop of turnips by dint of a plentiful supply of manure at one time
upon an otherwise exhausted soil that will insure a good crop of spring-
wheat ; the land itself should be and have been for some time in good
heart, otherwise the attempt will inevitably end in disappointment.
(1751.) On a farm possessing the advantages of favorable soil and cli-
mate, and on which it is the custom to sow spring wheat every year, the
turnip-land is plowed with that view up to a certain period of the season,
not later than the beginning of March ; and even on a farm on which
spring wheat can only be sown occasionally, when a favorable field comes
in the course of rotation, or the weather proves tempting, the land should
be so plowed as that the advantage may be taken to sow wheat. Should
circumstances warrant the attempt, or matters take an unfavorable turn
for the purjjose, there will be no harm, as the soil can afterward be worked
for barley.
(1752.) Land should only receive one fuiTow, the seed-furrow, for spring
wheat, for if it is plowed oftener after a manured green crop, and in spring,
(221)
126 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
when it has become tender by the winter frost, it would want that firmness
which is essential for the growth of wheat. The nature of this seed-fur-
row depends upon circumstances. If the land presents a visible form of
ridge, and if it soon becomes wet, the best way to plow it is to gather it
up, and then it will have the appearance of l)eing twice gathered up, as in
fig. 139. If it is flat, and the subsoil somewhat moist, gathering up from
the flat will answer best, as in fig. 133. If the soil has a dry subsoil,
though of a pretty strong clay itself, it may be cast with gore-furrows,
(6G3). And should it be fine loam resting on an open bottom, the ridges
may be cast together without gore-fuiTows, as in fig. 135. It is probable
that a whole field may not be obtained at once to plow up in either of
these ways, and indeed such an event rarely happens in regard to prepar-
ing land for spring wheat ; but when it is determined to sow it, a few
ridges should be plowed up as convenience offers, and then a number of
acres sown at one time. In this way a whole field may be sown by de-
grees, whereas to wait until the sowing of the whole field at once can be
obtained, may prevent the sowing of any part of it in proper season. Nay,
bad weather may set in and prevent the sowing after the land has been
plowed ; still a favorable week may occur, and at the worst, at the lattei
end of the season the land may be ribbed with the small plow, in the mannei
I have described in (175S), and which will move as much of the tendei
part of the soil on the surface as sufficiently to burj- the seed, and the
greater part of the former furrow will still remain in a firm state to sup-
port the wheat plant.
(1753.) The land being plowed, it should be soicn as quickly as possible;
for which purpose the seed-wheat should be measured up in the sacks, oi
ready to be measured up in the corn-bam or granary, and the means of
pickling it also ready when wanted. Wheat should be sown thick in
spring, because there is no time for the plant to stool or tiller, that is, to
throw out young shoots from the roots, as in the case of autumnal-sown
wheat. About 3 bushels per imperial acre will suffice for seed.
(1754.) Seed-wheat should he pickled, that is, subjected to a preparation
in a certain kind of liquor, before it is sown, in order to insure it against
the attack of a certain disease in the ensuing summer called smut, which
renders the crop comparatively worthless. Some farmers aflfect to laugh
at this precaution, as originating in a nonsensical faith in an imaginary
specific : but the existence of smut and its baneful effects uj^on the wheat
crop are no imaginary inventions, and when experience has proved, in
numlK>rless instances, that the application of a steep has the effect of ward-
ing off" the evils of smut, the little trouble which pickling imposes may
surely be undertaken, rather than the whole crop be put in jeopardy. TT'/cy
pickling now should have the effect of preventing the smut at vl future pe-
riod is a different question ; and it is perhaps because this question has not
hitherto been satisfactorily answered, that pickling is thought lightly of by
some farmei"s, rather than because any valid objection can l>e urged against
its practice. Indeed there cannot, for the palpable fact stands obvious to
conviction, that one field sown ANnth pickled wheat, and managed in the
usual way, will escape the smut, while an adjoining one, managed in ex-
actly a similar manner, but sown with plain wheat, will be almost destroyed
with the disease. I have seen this identical case tried by two neighboring
farmers, the Messrs. Fenton, late tenants of Xevay and Eassie, in Forfar-
sliire. It is true that, on some farms, wheat no\\i\ in a plain state escapes the
disease, as I have heard Mr. Oliver, Lochend, near Edinburgh, state is the
case with his farm ; and it is also true that pickling does not entirely pre-
vent the recurrence of tlie disease on other farms ; but such cases are ex-
SOWING SPRING WHEAT AND GRASS-SEEDS. 127
ceptions to the rule, which is, if wheat is not pickled it may be smutted ;
at least no one can aver beforehand that it shall not be so ; and while un-
certainty exists in the recurrence of a serious disease, the safer practice is
to bestow the trouble of pickling, the expense being very trifling, rather
than incur the risk of disease. It is now a well-ascertained fact that inocu-
lation will not insure immunity from small-pox, yet it will certainly piodify
the attack when it occurs, and so it is with the case of pickling wheat ;
and as long as means are used to ward off sraall-pox, so long also, from
analogy, ought wheat to be pickled.
(1755.) Wheat is pickled in this way. For some days, say 2 or 3 weeks,
let one of the tubs referred to in (1229) be placed to receive a quantity of
chamber lye, and whenever ammonia is felt to be disengaging itself freely
from the lye, it is ready for use. It is better that the effluvium be so strong
as to smart the eyes, and water added to dilute the liquor, than that the
lye be used fresh. This tub should be removed to the straw-barn, as also
tlie wheat to be pickled, and part of the floor swept clean, to be ready for
the reception of the wheat. Let 2 baskets be provided, capable of holding
easily about \ a bushel of wheat each, having handles raised upright on
their rims. Pour the wheat into the baskets from the sacks, and dip each
basketfull of wheat into the tub of lye as far down as completely to cover
the wheat, the upright handles of the baskets preventing the hands of the
operator being immersed in the lye. After remaining in the liquor for
two or three seconds, lift the basket up to drip the surplus lye again into
the tub, and then place it upon two sticks over an empty tub, to drip still
more till another basketfull is ready to be dripped. Then empty the
dripped basket of its wheat on the floor, and as every basketfull is emp-
tied, let a person spread by riddling through a barn wheat-riddle, a lit-
tle slaked caustic lime upon the wheat. Thus basketfull after basket-
full of the wheat is pickled till it is all emptied on the floor, when the
pickled and limed heap is turned over and over again till the whole mass
appears uniform. The mixing by turning is most surely managed in this
way. Let two men be each provided with a barn shovel, and let one
stand on each side of the heap, one with his shovel in the right and
the other with his in the left hand ; let both make their shovels meet in
their edges upon the floor, under one end of the heap of wheat, and each,
on lifting his shovelfull, turn it over behind him, and thus proceed, shovel-
full after shovelfull, to the other end of the heap. Let them return in a
similar manner in the opposite direction, and aye till the heap of wheat is
completely mixed with the lime and lye. The pickled wheat is then
sacked up and carried to the field in carts. Other substances beside
chamber lye are used for pickling wheat, such as brine of salt, sufficiently
strong to float an &<g^ ; solution of blue vitriol — all good enough, I dare
say, but when so simple and efficient and easily-obtained an article as
lye can be had, it appears to me unnecessary to employ anything else. It
is a powerful ingredient, destroying vegetable life in the course of a few
hours, and it is perhaps to this property that is to be ascribed its efficacy as
a protection against the attack of that vegetable enemy of the wheat-crop
— the smut. The wheat pickled with it should therefoi-e be used immedi-
ately after the process ; and as danger may be apprehended to pickled
wheat being kept over night, the quantity pickled should be sown at once,
and no more should be pickled at one time than can immediately be sown.
The use of the quicklime seems to be to dry the lye quickly, so that the
gi-ams maybe easily separated from one another in the act of sowing; but
there may some chemical change arise between them in the circum-
stances, which may be sei-viceable to the purpose for which both are em-
(223) ^ -^
128 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING*
ployed. Can it be that the lime fixes the ammonia of the lye, and pre-
serves it for use until wanted by the plant or seed 1
(1756.) There is some art in setting down sacks of seed-corn on the
field. It should be ascertained how many ridges of the field to be sown
are contained in an acre, so that the sacks may be set down at so many
ridges as each sack contains seed to sow the ground, allo^ving the specified
quantity of seed to the acre. This instruction should be given to the ]>low-
man before he proceeds to the field with the sacks, otherwise he may set
them do^\^l cither too close or too wide. When one row of sacks is suffi-
cient, and the ridges just long enough for the sower to carry as much seed
as will bring him back again to the sack, the sacks should be set down in
the middle ; when the ridges are short they may be set down on the head-
ridge, and when of such a length as to require two rows of sacks, each
row should be set on the same ridges, and the distance between them
made to suit the circumstances of the case. The setting down of the sacks
should be l>egun from the side at which the sowing commences, and this
again depends on the nature of the surface of the field. If the surface is
level, it matters not which side is selected for commencing operations ; but
if it has an inclination, then that side which lies to the left while looking
down, or to the right on looking up the inclination, should be begun to be
sown. The reason for this preference is that breaking in the surface with
the harrows — that is, the first stroke of them over the ground, along the
ridge — is most difficult for the horse to draw; and to ease their draught
the breaking should be executed down hill. The sacks are always placed
on the furrow-brow of a ridge, that the hollowness of the open furrow
beside it may give advantage to the person who carries the seed to take it
out more quickly and easily when it sinks near to the bottom of the sack.
(1757.) The carrier of the seed is a field-worker, and the instant the first
sack of seed is set do\vn, she proceeds to untie and fold back its mouth,
and fill the rusky, fig. 315, with seed, and carries the first quantity to the
sower, who should be ready sheeted awaiting her arrival on the head-ridge
at the side of the field. Her endeavor should be to supply him with such
quantities of seed as will bring him in a line with the sack when he wants
more ; and as the sacks are placed about half-way down the ridges when
only one row is wanted, this may easily be arranged ; or should there be
two rows, she must go from row to row on the same ridge, and endeavor
to form the same arrangement. This regular plan will give her the
least trouble, and supply the sower always with the requisite quantities of
seed ; and it should be borne in mind that nothing can be more annoying
to a sower than to have his sheet brimfull at one time and at another stint-
ed ; and it is also very annoying to him to be obliged to wait the arrival
of the seed-carrier, whereas she should rather
wait on him. If the sacks of seed are conve- __^-^v
niently placed, one active seed-carrier will sen'e
two sowers, at e, fig. 322 ; but where the sacks
are set down in more than one row, and there
are more than one sower, there should be a car-
rier at each row.
(1758.) The rusky, fig. 315, or seed-basket, is
usually made of twisted straw laid in rows above
each other, and fastened together by means of
withes of willow. It is provided with a couple of ^^^ sked-cors rcskt.
handles of the same material, sufficient to admit
the points of the fingers, and also a rim around the bottom, upon which it
stands. In the Border counties it is cairied on the head or the seed-canier
(?24)
SOWING SPRING WHEAT AND GRASS-SEEDS. 129
wlion full, in other parts it is carried in the arms with the bottom rim sup-
ported by the haunch. It should be filled each time with just the quantity
of seed, and no more, which the sower requires at one time. The mouth of
the sack should be rolled round upon itself, that the seed maybe easily and
quickly taken out, for there is usually no time to lose when seed is sowino-.
As one sack becomes empty it should be taken by the carrier to the nearest
sack, and as they accumulate they should be put into one, and thus taken
forward out of the way of the harrows. It is not unusual to see the sacks
lying upon the ground where they are emptied, and only removed when
the harrows come upon them, and not unfrequently tear them, and they
are then cast away to be in the road again when the field is harrowed in
another direction. The carrier should be careful not to spill the seed upon
the ground on taking it out of the sack.
(1759.) The sower is habited in a peculiar manner ; he puts on a sow-
ing-sheet. The most convenient form of sowing-sheet is that of a semi-
spheroid, having an opening at one side of its mouth large enough to allow
the head and right arm to pass through, and by which it is suspended over
the left shoulder. On distending its mouth with both hands, and on re-
ceiving the seed into it, the supei-fluous portion of the sheet is wound over
the left arm and gathered into the left hand, by which it is held tightly,
while the load of corn is securely supported by that part of it which passes
over the left shoulder, across the back and under the right arm. The right
arm, which throws the seed, finds easy access to the corn from the compar-
atively loose side of the mouth of the sheet, between the left hand and the
body of the sower. A square sheet, knotted together in three of its cor-
ners, and put on in a similar manner, is sometimes used as a sowing-
sheet ; but one formed and sewed of the proper shape, and kept for the
purpose, is a much better article. Linen sheeting makes an excellent ma-
terial for a sowing-sheet, and when washed at the end of the sowing season
will last many years. The difl&cult point is to make the sowing-sheet fit
the sower on the top of the left shoulder, where the greater part of the
weight of corn is felt ; and, in attempting this, the principal thing to be
considered is to make the plain part which goes over the shoulder broad
enough, and to slope with the shape of the shoulder. The gatherings of
the cloth on each side of the shoulder-top should be neatly executed, and a
couple of tapes drawn tight in a slot-hem in front of the sheet across the breast.
(1760.) A basket of wicker-
work, such as in fig. 321, is
very commonly used in Eng-
land for sowing seed. It is sus-
pended by girthing, fastened to
the two loops shown on the rim
of the basket, and passed either
over the left shoulder and under
the right arm, or round the back
of the neck ; and the left hand
holds it steady by the head of
the wooden stave shown on the
other side of the basket.* No
doubt such an instrnment an-
swers the purpose of the sower,
or it would not have been so
long in use ; but, for my part, I much prefer the comfortable feel of the
linen sheet to the hard rubbing of the willow basket.
[ • Wilkinson eays the handle ought to be at the bottom instead of top, projecdng forward. Ed. Farm. Lib. I
(225) 9 r.i' J b
THE ENGLISH SOWING BASKET.
130
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
(1761.) Both these forms of utensils for sowing seed are intended for
the use of one hand only ; but some sowers throw the seed with both
hands, and then the instrument must be made to suit the practice. In
this case a linen sheet will not answer; a basket or box, made of thin
deal, having a curved form to suit the front of the body, should be used.
It is fastened round the body by a strap and buckle, and is suspended be-
sides by girthing fastened to loops on the side next the sower, and passed
round the back of his neck ; and the further side is suspended by a strap
passing upward toward the chin of the sower, where it divides into two,
and })asses over both shoulders, and is made fast to the strap buckled
round the body. A more simple form of sowing-sheet for both hands, is a
linen bag attached to a hoop of wood or iron-rod, made to suit the form
of the body, buckled round it, aiid suspended in front in the manner just
described. Both hands are thus at liberty to cast the seed.
(1762.) In sowing with one hand, the sower walks on the third and fourth
fuiTow-slices from the open-furrow, which he keeps on his right hand.
Taking always as much seed as he can grasji in his right hand, he stretches
his arm out and back, with the clenched fingers looking forward, while the
left foot is making an advance of a moderate step, as represented by a,
fig. 322. When the arm has attained this position, the seed is begun to
Fig. 322.
THE SOWING OF CORN BY HAND
be cast, which is done with a quick and forcible thrust of the hand for-
ward. At the first instant of the forward motion, the fore-finger and thumb
are a little relaxed, by which some of the seed drops upon the fuiTow-
brow and in the open furrow, and while relaxing tlie fingers gradually,
the back of the hand is turning upward till the arm is stretched forward,
when the fingers are all thrown open, with the bark of the hand upper-
most. The f()i-\vard motion of the hand is accompanied by a correspond-
ing forward advance of the right foot,* which is jdanted on the ground
the moment the hand has cast forward tlie most of the seed. This posi-
tion is attempted to be rejiresenfed by the figure at h. The figure which
the seed describes on the ground, in being thus cast forward, is something
like the area of a section of the extreme end of the larger axis of a very
eccentric ellipse, having one comer of the section at the open furrow, and
[* Mr. WilkinBon, of Dutchess Coiinty, says this is unnatural ; that it should be the left foot in concp
with the right hand. Ed. Farm. Lib:
(226)
SOWING SPRING WHEAT AND GRASS-SEEDS. 131
the other stretching 2 or 3 feet beyond the crown of the ridge, and its
broadest part spread over that side of the ridge on which the sower walks ;
this figure is attempted to be shown hj b c d. The moment the seed is
got quit of, the hand is brought back to the sowing-sheet and, thence re-
plenished, is stretched back for a fresh cast, while the left foot is made to
advance simultaneously. Thus the right hand and right foot play into
each other with a regular slmulta7ieotis motion, while the same hand and
the left foot play with an alternate motion.
(1763.) Many points require consideration to enable the sower to cast
the seed equally over the ground. If the hand and feet do not correspond
in their motions, the ground will not be equally covered, but a strip be-
tween the casts left almost bare. When the braird comes up, the omis-
sion shows itself like the steps of a ladder, and hence it is named, in some
parts of the country, laddering, in others, happergain', as if the seed had
been cast in hopping. This error is most apt to be committed by a sower
with a stiff elbow. The arm should always be thrown well back and com
pletely stretched out, though in continuing this action it will become pain-
ful in the inner fold of the elbow-joint. If the hand is opened too soon, a
larger portion of the seed than necessary will fall upon the furrow-brow,
and the crown will receive less than its proportion. This fault young
sowers are very apt to commit, from the apprehension that they will retain
the seed too long in the hand. If the hand is brought too high in front,
the seed will be apt to be acted on by the wind, and tossed to a different
direction to that intended by the hand. High casting is a very common
error with sowers, and is an unsafe practice in windy weather. In strong
wind the sower is sometimes obliged to walk on the adjoining ridge to the
windward, to sow the one he wishes ; and a sower who casts high will
never make good work in such a case. In casting high, the hand is sure
to be elevated above the level of the elbow, whereas it should always be
below it. The hand should be kept low, the arm stretched out, and the
seed made to fly in a curve in front, by a sharp turn of the hand, and a free
opening of the fingers near the end of the action, the nearest edge of the
cast falling within two paces of the sower. Seed when so cast will be
little affected by even a strong wind. Some sowers take long steps, and
fill their hand with the seed as if in a shovel, and of course make long
casts, reaching across the lidge from open furrow to open fuiTOw. Such a
sower will spill the seed behind the hand, and make bad work in wind.
The step should be short, the casts frequent, and the seed held firmly in
the hand, when a complete command of the whole work will be ob-
tained.
(1764.) A sower with both hands must make high casts, otherwise the
seed will not reach the furrows as he walks along the crown of the ridge,
which he must do. I can see no advantage attending this mode of sow-
ing over the other, but, on the contrary, a considerable risk of scattering
the seed unequally, for however dexterous an ambidexter sower may be-
come, his left arm will not make so perfect a cast as his right, if he is a
right-handed person. In calm weather he may get on tolerably well, as
also with the wind direct in his face or in his back ; but a side-wind would
puzzle him, for while adjusting himself to it for one of the hands, the
other is immediately placed in a disadvantageous position. In short, he
should not sow with both hands in wind. An Irish sower usually makes
a step, stands still, and scatters one handfull of seed with two short and
one long cast of the arm. This is slow work.
(1765.) A single-handed sower makes a bout to sow a ridge. When
the ridge is single, fig. 133, he always keeps the open furrow on his right
132 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
hanfl ; when it is double, that is, cast together, fig. 135, he must go a bout
round the crown, as well as by the open fniTows ; and whore the land is
plowed two-out-and-two-in, fig. 138, a mark of some sort will be required
to keep him in the proper place between the crown and open fiirrows.
(1766.) It is obvious that in sowing with the hand the com is scattered
promiscuously, and, in whatever anangement it may come up, depends
on the form of the ground, whether it had been plowed in common fur-
rows or in ribs ; for, in the latter case, the com comes up in rows or drills,
the com having fallen into the hollows of the ribs when sown ; and in the
former, broadcast, that is. equally over the surface of the ground.
(1767.) The harrows follow the sowers, each sower keeping 2 pair of
hanows employed when the land receives a double tine, that is, backward
and forward on the same ground, which a hrealing in of the seed should
always be. To draw harrows as they should be drawn is not so light a work
for horses as in appearance it is; and, indeed, when the tines are new sharp-
ened and long, and take a deep hold on the ground, the labor is consid-
erable. To hanow the ground well, that is, to stir the soil over the seed,
and bring to the surface and pulverize all the larger clods, requires the
horses to go at a smart pace ; and, indeed, harrows should always be em-
ployed with a quick motion. If the men owe the steward a grudge for his
sharp discipline, spring-wheat sowing is a favorable time to take advantage
of him, when the land is naturally friable and easily pulverized, and the
horses are quite fresh, and when, on the other hand, the lime of the pickle
annoys the sower's face, and the land is rather soft for quick walking. If
they keep the harrows hard at his heels, for very shame he must sow hard
to keep out before them ; and if he is a slow sower, he must get a good
heating. I never .see a man sowing with his coat on below the sowing-
sheet, than a wish arises to see the haiTows close at his heels to punish
him for the lazy-looking trick.
(1768.) After the appointed piece of ground, whether a whole field or
part of one, has been sown and broken in, the land is cross-harrowed
a double tine, but as, in this, the ground is not confined within the
breadths of ridges, the hari'ows cover as much of the ground as they can,
and get over it in less time than in breaking in ; and, besides, the second
hanowing being easier for the horses, they can walk faster.
(1769.) In regard to harrowing ribbed land, a double tine of breaking
in is all that it receives to place it in the same position as the common
mode of seed-fiirrowing is placed after th«3 cross-harrowing — ribbed land
never being cross-haiTowcd, as that would derange the drilled-like state of
the seed, and bring a large proportion of it again to the surface.
(1770.) To judge of the harrowing of land, the sense of feeling is re-
quired as well as that of sight. When well done, the fi-iable portion of
the soil seems uniformly smooth, and any clods that are seen should lie
free upon the surface. The ground, too, .should feel uniformly soft under
foot. When the land is not enough haiTOwed, the surface appears rough,
and the clods are still half immersed in the soil, and the ground feels une
qually soft under foot, in some parts resisting pressure, in others giving
way too easily.
(1771.) The well hanowing of land is a point of more importance than
seems generally to be imagined. Its object is not merely to cover the
seed, but to pulverize the ground, and render it of a uniform texture.
Uniformity of texture keeps the soil in a more equal state of temperature,
not absorbing rain so fast, nor admitting drouth so easily, as when the soi!
is rough and the clods keeping it open. Whenever the texture is made
uniform, the harrowing should cease, for it is a fact, especially in light,
(228;
SOWING SPRING WHEAT AND GRASS-SEEDS. 133
soft soils, that more harrowing than necessary brings part of the seed up
again to the surface.
(1772.) Spring wheat following a green crop is always sown down with
grass-seeds, and the land is in a fit state to receive them when it is in the
above condition of its harrowing ; but as grass-seeds are also sown at this
time among the wheat that was sown in autumn, it is requisite to consider,
in the first place, the state of that crop before proceeding to sow them
among the spring wheat, especially when both kinds of crop are in the
same field. The state of the lointer wheat depends entirely on the sort of
weather it had to encounter in winter and early spring. If the winter has
been open and mild, the autumn wheat plant will have grown luxuriantly,
indeed so much so that it may have hecoxaQ proud, that is, in a precocious
state of forwardness for the season. When it is in this state in spring,
which is rarely the case in Scotland, though not unfrequent in England,
a heavy fall of snow in spring, that happens to lie for some weeks, will rot
a great many of the plants ; and, instead of the rest retaining their green
color under the snow, they will become blanched at the roots, pressed flat
to the ground, and will probably never rise again. Blanks will in conse-
quence be formed where this catastrophe has happened ; but unless these
be of large extent, or the season be far advanced before the wheat has
been liberated from its snowy covering, the plants will tiller out with new
runners from the roots of the surviving old plants, and occupy the blank
spaces. When snow falls upon wheat in the early part of winter, and
covers it for a considerable time, it protects the crop from injury from the
atmosphere, and prevents the earth from cooling below 40° Fahr. In
this position the young plant retains its healthy green color, thoufrh it
does not grow much ; and whenever it is relieved from the snow, it grows
rapidly, unless it happen to encounter black frost, which changes its
greenness into a brown, and may kill some of the plants ; but should there
be no black frost, there is no state of the young wheat plant in spring in
which it tillers so closely, and afterward grows so equally, as after emerging
in favorable circumstances from snow. The most trying time, however,
for winter wheat is in March, when sharp frosts frequently occur at night,
and bright sunshine in the day. The frost draws the moisture of the
ground to the surface, and there freezes it ; when the sun shines upon the
ice it melts, and most frequently very rapidly, and the consequent evapora-
tion produces such an intense degree of cold as even to kill the plants sud-
denly ; and if they escape destruction in this way, the damp ground that
had been raised up by means of the expanded condition of the ice sud-
denly contracts by its melting, leaving the plants with their roots half
drawn out of the earth, in which state many perish. It must be owned,
however, that this particular effect is most commonly produced on loamy
soils which rest on impervious clay subsoil and not on a dry subsoil, so
that draining may be reasonably expected to prevent this injury. Con-
tinued rains upon winter wheat make it change its color to a bluish hue,
and if the air is temperate the plant becomes tender, and at length sets up
with red-pointed leaves, as if it would grow no more. Continued drouth
in spring, on the other hand, makes winter wheat of a vivid green, espe-
cially in fresh weather ; but should it be cold and inclined to frost, the
points of the leaves become brown, which latter effect is invariably in-
duced by the cold east winds so prevalent in spring in this country.
Drouth and heat combined always promote the vigor of the wheat plant.
(1773.) Although I have said that double harrowing across prepares the
land on which spring wheat has been sown for grass-seeds, it should not
be imagined these are sown whenever wheat-seed is sown, because the lat-
(229)
134 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
ter may be sown at any time during winter or early spring that tlie state
of tlie weather and soil will allow ; Imt when spring wheat is sown at the
latest period of the season, then grass-seeds may not only be sown among
this, but among all the spring wheat that had been previously sown : and
at the same time among the winter wheat, if the land that has stood all
winter is dry enough to bear harrowing at the time. Frost injures clover-
seeds, and will even kill them when exposed to it, so that they cannot
safely be sown very early in the season ; but there is not much risk of
frost being so powerful in March as to injure seed that is harrowed in.
Many farmers used to sow grass-seeds without harrowing, trusting to so
small seeds finding their way into the soil among the clods, and of being
covered by their mouldering, and this practice is, 1 believe, not yet relin-
quished ; but the safer and more correct practice is to cover every kind of
seed when it is sown by haiTOwing. It may happen that in the same field
in which the latest spring wheat has been sown, may be found some that
had been sown at a former period, and even winter wheat may occupy
another part of it. When this is the case, and especially if the last sown
completes the cropping of the field, then the grass-seeds should be so\nti
over the whole field at one time, beginning with that part which has just
been sown, continuing it over that which was the next last, and finishing
upon the winter wheat ; because it is desirable first to finish the land that
has been most recently worked, in case the weather should change, and
prevent the finishing of the whole field. Should barley, however, have
still to be sown on that field, it will be better to defer the sowing of the
grass-seeds upon the wheat until the whole field is sown at one time ; and
in this case the new-sown spring wheat can be water-furrowed and put
past danger for the time. If the winter wheat in the same field is, on the
other hand, far advanced, and the weather still favorable to its growth, the
grass-seeds should be sown among it, for, if delayed too long among strong
plants, part of the seed may not find its way to the soil, and the subse-
quent hariowing may injure the progi'ess of the already forward plant.
In such a case the spring wheat should be sown with the grass-seeds at
the same time, and the barley-land can be sown by itself, when the barley-
seed is finishing.
(1774.) The grass-sowing machine is a most perfect instrument for the
sowing of grass-seeds, distriliuting the seeds with the utmost precision, and
to any amount, and scattering them so near the ground as to render their
sowing a matter independent of windy weather. This machine will be found
in Plate XXVI., fig. 316, and a detailed description of it byMr. Sliixht will
be found below. Its management is easy, when the ground is plowed in
individual ridges ; the horse which draws it walking in the open furrow,
as in a, fig. 133, and the machine reaching in length to the crown of tie
ridge on each side, to h and h, sows the width of a ridge at once, the lene^th
of the machine being made to suit the breadth of the ridges adopted on the
farm. The gearing is put out of action till the horse enters the open fur-
row from the head-ridge, when it is put on and it is again taken off when
the machine reaches the opposite head ridge. The seed is supplied at one
of the head-ridgos, and the head-ridges are sown by themselves. When
ridges are coupled together, the horse walks down in the middle between
the crown and the open furrow, taking the furrow-brow as a guide for the
line he should keep. Where ridges are plowed in breaks, as two-out-nnd-
two-in, fig. 138, it is necessary to use some marks on the spaces of the
ridges between the crown and open furrows, to guide the line of the ma-
chine. The driver ought to be provided with double-reins. Were this
machine to proceed onward, sowing without inteiTuption for 10 hours at
C230)
Uook of the Farm.
!>G©Ig@:2: W[»[£[£[L.
Plate xxiir.
T i ■" 6 ..
Book ol the I'aruu BWQAlS)©^©'? ©@Waii3© SSl^SKiaKIE,. Hate XXVI
SOWING SPRING WHEAT AND GRASS-SEEDS. 135
the rate of 2^ miles per hour, it would sow 54 acres of ground; but, of
course, the turnings of the landings, and the time spent in filling the ma-
chine occasionally with seed, cause a considerable deduction from that
quantity. The machine is also used to sow corn in broadcast, and it an-
swers the purpose very well, but not perhaps in so superior a manner to
the hand as it does the grass -seeds, nor is it so generally employed to sow
corn as grass-seeds, but for what reason I cannot say. There was a reason
for this before the introduction of the third or front wheel, the weight of
the box when full of coi'n being too heavy for the horse's back, especially
in going down hill. I cannot refrain from pointing out the superior con-
struction of this machine, as represented in Plate XXVI. , in putting it in
the power of the person who drives it to contract its length, so as to admit
the machine easily into a field-gate, and thereby to dispense with removing
it, at any time, from its cari'iage.
(1775.) After the grass-seeds are sown, the ground is haiTowed to cover
them in ; and for this purpose lighter harrows are used than those for or-
dinary harrowing ; and being light, are not unfrequently provided with
wings, to cover a whole ridge at a time, so that in following the sowinp--
machine, the process connected with the grass-seed sowing may be finish-
ed at once. There is some dexterity required in driving winged grass-
seed han-ows. It is not convenient to move them from one ridge to an-
other immediately adjoining, as a part of the implement will have to turn
almost upon a pivot ; in doing which, unless conducted with great care
injury is apt to be done to it. And, besides, it is a particularly awkward
movement to hup the horses with these harrows. The plan to avoid the
inconvenience alluded to, is to hie the horses at the end of all the landings,
and leave an intermediate unhaiTowed ridge at every turning, which will
be greatly facilitated if the plowman lifts up the near wing from the ground
with a hooked stick when the turning is to commence, and lets it drop down
again when it is finished.
(1776.) The land may be rolled or not, accoi^c/ing to circumstances, be-
fore the grass-seeds are sown. If it is dry, even strong land would be the
better, at this season, to be rolled, to reduce the clods before they become
very hard, and to form a kindlier bed for the small seeds. Should it, how-
ever, be in a waxy state, between the wet and the dry, the rolling had better
be deferred until afterward. When it is in a proper state for rolling at the
time of sowing the grass-seeds, it should be rolled before the sowing, and,
of course, before the harrowing of the grass-seeds ; because, were the land
left with the smooth rolled surface, and rain come after, and this succeed-
ed by drouth, which is not an unfrequent state of the weather at this sea-
son, the smooth ground would become so battered and hardened as to curb
the wheat braid considerably ; whereas, were it rolled before it was sown,
and then haiTowed, the harrowing would again raise a small, round clod,
which would prevent the battering by rain, and consequent inciustation of
the land, while the smooth ground would offer a fine surface for the small
grass-seeds to spread themselves upon. On lighter soils, such as hazel
loams and tui-nip soils, it is better not to roll until the land has been sown
and harrowed, because the smooth I'olled surface assists in repelling the
drouth for a considerable time, and rain can^not injure such a soil in any
way.
(1777.) The roller is represented below, where it is particularly described
by Mr. Slight in its principles and action. It is most conveniently formed
of cast-iron, and in two pieces, and mounted with shafts and framing. The
cast-iron gives weight, which a roller should always have, and being in two
pieces, gives a facility to turn on little space. In driving it, the plowman
(231)
136 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
may sit on the front of the framing, if he wishes, and urge the horses with
whip and reins. The framinij^ sometimes supports a box, into which stones
are placed to render the roller heavier, and this device may be necessary
when reducing hard clods of clay, in summer. Whether used fortius pur-
pose or not, tiie box is useful in carrying any stones that may be found on
the land to either side of the field. It has often seemed to me ridiculous
to see a small stone-roller, or one lightly constructed of wood, used to cmsh
clods on new plowed heavy land. Instead of breaking them, a light roller
only presses them into the softer soil upon which they are lying. The roll-
er is found to do its work in the best manner when drawn across the
ridges, at risjht angles to the open furrows, which are thus easily passed over.
(1778.) The finishing process consists of water-fur rowing, that is, making
a plow-furrow in the open fuiTows, for the purpose of affording facilities
to rain-water to flow oft' the surface of the land. It is executed with a
common plow and one horse, or with a small double mould-board plow
and one horse ; and in the execution, the plow obliterates the horse's foot-
marks. When the land is harrowed after the rolling, as in the case of heavy
land, the water-furrowing is done after the harrowing, and finishes the
work of the field; but when rolling is the finishing operation, as in the
case of light soils, the water-fuiTOwing is executed immediately after the
han'owing and before the rolling. Water-furrowing after rolling gives a
very harsh-looking finish to a field.
(1779.) The presser-roller, used to give consistency to light soils, is seen
below, where Mr. Slight's description of it will be found. Like the best of
our agricultural implements, it is of English origin, where it has long been
employed to compress light soils. It is used in this manner in compressing
the soil. Driven by one horse, it follows the last of 2 plows, after they have
laid over their fun-ow-slices ; and on passing along these furrow-slices,
not only compresses them into less bulk, but leaves a groove on each of them
to receive the seed when the land is sown. With 1 presser, 2 acres of ground
can only thus be compressed in the course of a day; and, where a consid-
erable extent of spring wheat may be sown, this rate of sowing would be
too slow. Either the number of pressers should be increased, or a consider-
able extent of land be pressed before it is sown; for it would be tiresome
work to sow only 2 acres a day of a large field, which might rccjuire a fort-
night of 2 plows to plow. Perhaps the most convenient plan for most farm-
ers would be to have 2 pressers in operation, and sow the ground compressed
every two days, that is, 8 acres, which would be a large enough sowing of
spring-wheat in one day upon a farm that worked 4 pair of horses; and
this j)lan may be followed, with perfect safety to the wheat croj), for a
double tine along of the harrows is quite sufficient to cover pressed spring
wheat ; and, indeed, it should receive no more, imless perhaps a single
tine along, in case the surface is considered not sufficiently fine, for cross-
harrowing would discompose the seed that had fallen in rows into the
grooves made by the pressers. Another plan is to plow and press the lea
early in winter, allow it to consolidate still more, and then sow an entire
field with wheat in sjiring, if the weather be favorable, and if not, it will
be ready for oats. This, I conceive, would be an excellent plan to follow
on light soils, that are in a rich enough state for spring wheat.
(1780.) This same instrument may be beneficially employed in com-
pressing light turnip-land as it is plowed into ridges, and rendering it
more fit for spring wheat ; and in effecting this pur])ose it is employed in
the same manner as on lea.
(1781.) But the presser may be employed on even strong lea, and the
crop of wheat consequent thereon increased to a sensible degree, as the
(232)
SOWING SPRING WHEAT AND GRASS-SEEDS. 137
following case will testify : " A very striking instance of the utility of this
machine," says Mr. Hugh Watson, a gentleman whose name is well known in
this country as an eminent farmer, " was exhibited on a field belonging to
my friend Captain Barclay AUardyce of Ury, who last season (1832) broke
uj) a piece of grass land near his mansion-house, supposed to have lain out
a'.iout one hundred years. It was a strong soil, and required 4 horses to
Avork the plow, and it was followed by the presser, leaving the work in
such a finished state that, although Captain Barclay's intention was to sow
the field with oats after the preparation of a winter's exposure, he was
induced to try a crop of wheat, and succeeded beyond his expectation, hav-
ing reaped 50 bushels per imperial acre, while the probability is that if the
field had been sown in spring with oats they would all have rotted." " I
have used the presser," continues Mr. Watson, "for two seasons, and can
with confidence recommend it on all light soils with every sort of corn
cropT * It would thus appear that the use of the presser is almost of gen-
eral application, and that the ground may be plowed a considerable time
before it is sown, which renders it of use even on a winter furrow. Sev-
eral farmers in Forfar and Fife shires, I am aware, have used this instru-
ment for several years, but I have not learned with what success.
(1782.) With regard to the vai'ieties of wheat which you should sow in
spring in preference to others, is a subject in which I feel I cannot advise
with confidence. The erroneous classification of wheat by botanists, in as
far as it affects Agriculture, into beardless or winter and bearded or spring
wheat, is apt to mislead the farmer ; and were he so far to rely on the
opinions of botanists as to try these two distinctions of wheat in the season
said to be suitable to each, he would certainly be disappointed, for the
results would probably be the very opposite aiiticipated. For this reason
I quite agree with Mr. Lawson in what he has said on the subject. " Bot-
anists," he states, " generally divide the common beardless and bearded
wheats into two distinct species, terming the former Triticum hyhermim,
or winter wheat, and the latter Triticum oestivum, or summer wheat. But
the propriety of the distinction may well be questioned, more particularly
as the chief distinguishing character between them consists in the varieties
of the former being beardless, or nearly so, while the awns of the latter
are generally 2, 3 or more inches in length ; and it being an established
fact that the awns or beards in grasses form by no means a permanent
specific distinction, and that in many cases they do not even constitute a
variety, so much does their presence or absence depend upon the effects of
climate, culture, soil, &c But the principal objection to the names
commonly used is that they make no proper distinction between the two
great classes — winter and spring wheats ; for instance, under Triticum hy-
hernum are included several of the earlier, and, without doubt, the best
sorts of spring wheat ; and under Triticnvi oBstivum are included sev-
eral bearded wheats, equally hardy, and requiring as long time to arrive
at matui'ity as our common winter sorts." t Colonel Le Couteur falls
into the same error when treating of the classification of wheat, by divi-
ding all wheats into the two distinctions of "beardless or winter wheats,"
and "bearded, or spring wheats." J
(1783.) Although the subject is thus rendered by botanists and writers
on the cultivated varieties of wheat sufficiently puzzling to the farmer, yet
there are a few considerations which may direct you in the choice oT your
spring wheat. I may premise that you cannot make a mistake in regard
to a winter wheat ; for however early may be the habit of the variety
* Quarterly Journal of Aericulture, vol. iv.
t Lawson's Agriculturist's Manual. t Le Couteur on Wheat
(233j
138 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
sown, the very circumstance of liaving sown it in autumn, when there
is not sufficient time to mature the plant before winter will convert it
for a time into a winter variety. The wheat j)lant is a true annual, but
when sown late, and the progress of its growth retarded by depression
of temperature, it is converted for a time into a biennial. It is therefore
highly prcibable that as the nature of all wheats is to bring their seed to
maturity in the course of one season, that any variety sown in spring
would mature its seed in the course of the ensuing summer and autumn.
I suj)po.se there is no doubt of this being a fact ; nevertheless, circum-
stances concur to render the fact of doubtful applicaticm in this climate. A
variety of wheat, for instance, that has long been cultivated in winter in
the same latitude, on being sown in spring will not mature its seed that
season in the same latitude, should the temperature fall below its usual
average, or should it be cultivated on very inferior soil to what it has
been accustomed ; so that in practice it is not safe, in a precarious climate,
to sow ever}/ variety of wheat in spring. One criterion, however, may safely
be applied to any variety of wheat in order to ascertain its character, pro-
vided its history is known, which is, that a wheat brought from a warmer
to a colder climate will prove earlier in the latter locality than the native
varieties, and, in so far, is better suited for sowing in spring in that latitude
than the native varieties, and if you can ascertain, besides, that the same
variety is an early one in the warmer latitude — bringing its seed to matu-
rity in a short period, perhaps not exceeding 4 months — then you may
safely sow it as a spring wheat, whether it be a red or white colored
variety.
(17S4.) In my own experience of spring wheat the old Lammas red, and
another old variety which I have not heard of for many years, the Cobham
red, were at one time considered excellent varieties of spring wheat. Of
the Lammas red, I have seen a field of 35 imperial acres sown on the 8th
March, and cut down, an excellent crop, on 2Gth August. This was, how-
ever, in the memorable year for all kinds of good crops, 1815. The variety,
I believe, exists to the present day, and is still a favorite with may farm-
ers, and in my opinion deservedly so.
(ITe.'j ) [The harrow, considering the operation it lias to perform, in covering the seeds that
have beun cast upon the surface of the soil, is an implement of no small importance ; and yet its
effects are apparently rude and uncertain, while its construction is of the simidesi order. So sim-
ple, indeed, is this construction, that at a very remote period it appears to have taken that form
which, in so far as the simple principles of the action are concerned, is almost incapable of farther
improvement. Variations in size, in weight, in materials, and slight changes of form, have from
time to time been proposed and effected ; but yet no important change has been made in the ac-
tion of the implomeni, though among these changes a more uniform distribution of its effects over
the surface id the soil has been attained. The only important improvement on the harrow of which
\\'e have any historical data, was achieved about fifty years ago by. I believe, the late Mr. Low, Gor-
donbaiik, Berwickshire, fatherof Professor Low. of the University of Edinburgh ; and this improve-
ment lay chielly in the/orw. but which also afforded a more uniform distribution of effect. Pre-
vious to the period Just alluded to. the seed harrow was always constructed in the form of a rec-
tangular frame of wood, consisting, as it still does, of four longitudinal bars, known, in the language
of the agricultural mechanic, by the term hidh, which arc framed together by mortising, with four
lighter transverse bars, or slota. The dimensions of the rectangular harrows are. on an average,
3 feet n inches in breadth, measuring over the bulls, and 3 feet 10 inches in length over the slots.
The bulls are nencrally about 4 feet 6 inches of extreme length, 3 inches in breadth, and 3 to 3|
inches in depth; the slots are 3 inches in breadth, and J to 1 inch in depth. Each bull is armed
with .') tines or teeth of malleable iron, about 10 inches in length. They are fixed in the bull by
being driven into an au),'er hole bored through it. and project downward from 6 to 7 inches.
(1786.) The 'mprorcd form given to the harrow, as above alluded to. clianges the rectangle into
a rhomboiii. and this, when duly nrojiortioned. ijives to the implement as has been supposed, as high
a degree of perfection, in point of form, as it appears capable of attaining. Fig. 323 represents a pair
of the rhftmboiilal harrows in the working position. The frame of these harrows consists of the
same number of parts as the common sort already alluded to. Four bulls a a a a, and four slots b
b h b, the breadth of the frame over the bulls, at rV'ht angles to them, is 3 feet 6 inches ; and in the
same manner, over the slots the len^'th is the same, but the bulls extend at each end 4 inches be-
yond the slots, making their entire Icncth. including the obliquity, about 4 feet 6 inches. The
"dimensions of the parts vary a lilile. according to the quality of the material employed, from 2^ to
3 inches in breadth by 3 to 3J inches in depth, for the bull. The slotB are from 2J to 3 inches in
(234)
SOWING SPRING WHEAT AND GRASS-SEEDS.
139
breadth, and from § to 1 inch in depth, the bulls being mortifei, and, when the slots have
been inserted, are fixed with wooden pegs driven through the bulls. In each harrow an iron
bar c c, having a number of holes punched in it, is likewise fixed into mortises in the two outer
bulls on the left side, for the attachment of the yoke. Each bull is divided into four equal parts,
the extreme division being about 1 inch clear of the mortise of the slot, and at each division the
-t30^O
bulls are bored with an auger for the reception of the tines, and in thus boring, a slight inclination
forward below is given to the tines, though this, it must be admitted, is not of verj- great import-
ance. The length of the tine is about 10 inches, of which 6 or 7 inches project below the bulls;
and it has been recommended that the front row should be 7 inches, the succeeding rows dimin-
ishing gradually to 6 inches, to compensate for the effect of draught of the horses tending to ele-
vate the fore-parts of the harrows. This tendency to rise in front is not so great as has been sup-
posed, for the weight of the swingti-ees and whole yoke will nearly compensate for the effect of
the angle of draught. In all cases of this kind, the yoke, consisting of chains, hooks and swing-
trees, of which the latter, in the harrows-yoke, forms a portion of considerable weight, the sjstem
resolves itself into a catenarian curve, more or less perfect, of which the point c, where the yoke
is attached to the harrow, will approximate to the apex of the curve, and consequently to a hori-
zontal line, thereby neutralizing the tendency to rise in the front of the harrows.
(1787.) There ia one point in the improvement of this harrow that appears to me of even more
importance than the rhomboidal shape ; it is the joints or hinges d d. In the one harrow, fig. 323, the
tail of the double joints of the hinge is prolonged into a bolt d e, de. passing through all the ^i"^'
and secured with screw-nuts at e e. The single joints are in like manner prolonged into the bolts
fp.fg, thus serving to add greatly to the strength as well as to the efficiency of the harrows. The
loose joints d f, df have been found to answer their purposes mMch better than the well-htted
joints originally given to them, by their allowing of a sreat freedom of action, and the double jomts
d d are therefore now usually made as in the figure, the span of the bow d being about 6 meshes,
with a small eye at each end to fit the joint-bolt. The eye of the single joint/ is about 1^ or - in-
ches diameter, having thus sreat freedom to play upon the joint-bolt. .
(1788.) From the figure of the rhomboidal barrow, when duly constructed, it can only pertorm
its maximum of effect when drawn forward with its slots at right angles to the direction ot its mo-
(235)
140
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
tion, and this is effected by the master swing-tree h. Tliis tree, for harrows of the dimensions here
described, requires to be 4 feet 6 inches in length between the points of attachment, and it is con-
nected to the liarrows by means of the S hooks and shackles at c c. Tlie balance of draught of
the liarrows is adjusted by shifting the shackles into tlie ditFercnt holes of the bars c c. until the
harrows are found to lie at right angles to the draught wlien in motion ; and this, be it obseni-ed. is
not attained by having an equal number of tines on each side of the center of the swing-tree /;, for
there is found to be a greater resistance to the forward motion of the implement on the left than
there is upon the right side, arising, it is supposed, from the tines presenting a broader surface to
resistance on tliat side than on tlie other. The other parts of the yoke i,k, I, are the common plow
swing-trees.
(1789.) The objects to be attained on the construction of the rhomboidal harrow are chiefly uni-
formity and equal di.stribution of effect from the tines, and to cover the greatest breadth of surface,
with such cffect.«. In these respects, it has been supposed that the rhomboidal affords advantages
over tlie rectangular form, but such advantages seem to fall only within certain limits; for the rec-
tangular harrow, if due attention is jiaid to its construction and position of yoking, and if mounted
with the hinge-joints, will perform all the functions ascribed to the rhomboidal harrow witli equal
effect. Though the rectangular form presents no advantage in point of expense, there v\ould be
this advantage in construction, that, by keeping simply to one dimension of breadth no mistake
could occur with the maker to mar the attainment of the objects in view ; whereas we find rhom-
boidal liarrows made at all angles of obliquity, though the length and breadth may be the same in
all ; and such being the case, many of them must be defective in some, if not in all the points
eoutrhl for. To exhibit this more clearly, and to render the basis of construction of this simple im-
plement practically intelligible, let us suppose that a pair of harrow s carrying forty tinea are to
be so constructed "as to cover 9 feet in breadth, we shall have 39 spaces between the extreme
tines, wtiich are to form equal intervals. Draw a base-line a' If, fig. 323. and having set from a
scale, or at full size, a distance a' L' equal to 9 feet ; divide this into 39 equal parts and. from the
points of division draw the dotted lines at right angles to a' b', the distance between the divisions
will be 2 76 inches, or say 2| iuche.«, which represents the distance at which the tines will pass
throui-'h the ground. Having determined, also, the distance between the tines as tliey stand in the
bulls to be 9 J inches: set off, on the first dotted line 1. any distance a' m, which last point m will
be the place of the first tine. With a length of 38 inches, or 4 tine spaces as belbre fixed, setoff
from the point m a distance vt n, cutting the fifth dotted line in n. which last point will be the
place of the .5th tine, or the foremost in the first ball. If a line is then drawn through the points
m n, it will cut the divisions 2, 3, 4, in the points o a p, indicating the three intermediate tines of
the first bull, and the line ni n is the true position of the central line of the bull, forming an angle
of 73^ nearly with the base-line. A line drawn through m to q, and parallel to a' b', will deter-
mine the position of the first tine on each succeeding bull, where tlie line intersects the 6th, 11th,
IGth. 21st. <!cc., of the dotted lines of division, and lines drawn through those last points of inter-
section parallel to the first line m n, will determine the central line of all the bulls in the pair of
harrows. It is then only necessary to extend the length of the bull requisite to contain the mortise
for the slot, with a sufficientexteut beyond to rirevent tlie bursting of the wood ; this, as already sta-
ted, may be about 4 inches, o<r the bulls will be about 4J feet in length.
(1790.) Were it desired to have the tines so placed as to follow in the ground at equal dis-
tances of 2J inches in.«tead of 2J inches, in this case the distance between the extreme tines
would be 39 limes 2J inches, or 8 feet IJ inches. The line a' V , fig. 323, would now be made 3
feet \\ inches, and being divided into 39 equal parts, and the lines of division drawn as before, a
repetition of the process described in (1789/ will give the true form of the rhomb for tliis particu-
lar breadth, and so of any others ; and it should be particularly observed tliat in any ca.se where
the rhomb has been correctly laid down, the harrows should progress with the front row of tines
at right angles to the line of direction in which they are drawn forward. Attention to this will
insure the best possible effects from the harrow, and at the same time cover the greatest breadth
of surface that it is capable of harrowing, to the best advantage.
(1791.) I have said that the common rectangular harrow is capable of producing equal effects
with those of the rhomboidal ; and though thi,* cannot be said of all common harrows, the con-
struction of such as will do this is not more difficult, while it is. perhaps, a little Ies.s expensive.
The chief difference lies in the mode of applying this harrow, for, when duly constructed, it is
only necessary, in order to produce equal intervals of the tines, to yoke the harrows in such posi-
tion as will make the bulls lie upon the ridge with the same degree of obliquity that those of the
rhomboidal shape occupy when they are dravm in the position due to the angle of their respective
rhomb. It is neces.sarj-, however, in order to secure the due performance of the rectangular har-
row, to pay attention to its construction as regards the distance between the bulls, and the rule is
nmpiy this: Whatever breadth the pair of harrows are intended to cover, divide the whole
breadth into a number of divisions, one less than the whole number of tinea in the pair, and the
distance from center to center of the bulls must be made equal to as many of these divisions as
there are tines in each bull. Thus, taking the first case of the rhomboidal harrow (1789) we have 5
times 2 J inches nearly, or 133 inches for the distance between the centers of the bulls, or 3 feet 8 in-
ches in breadth overall. To complete the arrangement, the harrows must he jointed as in the rhom-
boidal form, and mounted with iron draught-bars, as at c c, fig. 323, so that the point of draueht
can be adjusted to bring the harrows to their proper position ; and here it may be remarked that
thev should never be drawn by the extreme angle : but if not hinsre-jointed, the angle with the
second bull, and the fore *lot, will be tolerably near to the true point of draught. A common and
a very u.Beful practice has long exi-sted. of coupling two harrows together by a bar of wood or
iron, called a rider. This bar falls looselv at each end upon a stud projecting upward from the
second bull of each harrow, and the bar being adjusted to that length which keeps the two har-
rows at their proper distance, serves to prevent them from riding over one another, and to make
them cover their full extent of surface. The introduction of the rider was an evident approach
to the more perfect modem improvement of the hmge-joinu.
(236)
SOWING SPRING WHEAT AND GRASS-SEEDS.
141
(1792.) The extensive application of iron has of late years brought the use of that material to the
formation of the harrow as well as of the plow, and iron harrows are now coming very generally
into use, both in the rectangular and the rhomboidal form. Fig. 324 represents the malleable-iron
rhomboidal harrow, as commonly constructed, and its dimensions are the same as already given
for those of wood. The arrangClnent of the parts are somewhat different, and, from the nature of
the materials, the dimensions of the parts differ also more materially. Thus, the bulls a a a a are
\ inch in breadth and 1 inch in depth, swelled out where the mortises for the slots are formed, and
also for the tines, their ends projecting only 2 inches beyond the slot. The slots h b h are 2 inches
Fig. 324.
THE IRON RHOMBOIDAL HARROWS, WITH THEIR YOKE OF SWING-TREES.
in breadth, f inch in depth, and there being only three of them, the middle one is so placed as to
be free of the middle row of tines ; while the end slots are elongated toward the meeting sides of
the pair, and are there formed into the hinge-joints i. d, as formerly described for the wooden har-
rows. The draught-bars c c are inserted in the projecting ends of the first and second bulls, and
retained in round pivot-holes ; the swing-trees h ik I are the same as described for the wooden
harrows. The construction of the iron harrow is so similar to the others that it is unnecessary to
enter into farther details regarding it; but it may be remarked that, from the almost imperishable
nature of the materials, as compared with wood, there seems every reason to expect the iron im-
plement will entirely supersede the wooden ; and though the price of the iron harrows is consid-
erably above that of wood, the additional first cost is more than repaid by the greater durability
of the iron. There is good reason al.so to believe that by a construction more adapted than the
present to the natm-eof the material, the price may yet be considerably reduced.
(1793.) The/orw of the tine/i of the harrow, as regards their effects in stirring the soil and cov-
ering the seed, is deserving of inquiry. In the wooden implement, we are, from the nature of the
material, confined to one form of tine ; that which has for its horizontal section an oblong square ;
the tines in these cases being | inch broad by | inch thick, must, for the safety of the wood, have
the greatest dimension lying in the direction of the fibres of the wood. Another and a better
form, for the purpose of stirring the soil, is that which has its cross-section forming an exact square
of I inch on each side, and inserted in the bull with its diagonal pointing in the direction of the
progressive motion. This form and position of the tine, however well adapted to the soil, cannot,
with propriety or safety to the implement, be used in the wooden harrow, from the powerful ten-
dency it has to split the wood. In the iron implement this difficulty does not exist; and as this
form of tine is in every respect best adapted to the intended purpose, it should never be omitted
in the iron harrow. Whatever be the cross-section of the tine, in that part which passes through
the bull, the projecting part is tapered toward the point, not uniformly, but a little barreled, and
terminates in an obtuse point. In all wooden harrows *he tines are simply driven firmly into the
(237,
142 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
wood after it has been bored. In inoHt irua harrows they are fixed in the oame manner : but as
the tines are Hometinieo liable to become luo(<e, when simply inw.-ried and driven down by (he
hammer, they are, when a more perfect constnictiuu is followed, fixed by being driven Irom be-
low, and secured by a ncrew-nut above.
(1794.1 (J raxx-scfd Harroirt. or those that are employed for giving a light covering to gra^s-
seedswncn sown, differ from the common harrow in no respect except in dimensions and weight.
They have generally the same number of tines, bulls and slots. Tlie breadth over all is about 3
feet, or from that down to 33 inches, and the distance between the tints about 7 inches, giving a
length of bull 3 J feet, and the tines vary from 5 to C inches in lengtli. Harrows of lliis descrip-
tion are freijuently useil by English farmers to give the last turn of harrowing in grain, and a fine
finish to the surface. Grass-seed harrows are made of iron as well as of wood, but withal it is liCt
held a.-* an ess>ential implement, Uie common harrows being more frequently used for the purpose
to which the grass seed harrow is more especially and almost exclusively adapted.
(1795.) Various other forms of harrows are adapted for special purposes, such as the bufhhar-
row, which is a frame of wood interwoven with the smaller branches or croppings of trees, and
in this manner employed instead of the grass-seed harrow described above, and it is also employed
for harrowing in top-dres-iing upon grass.
(17yt;.| The Iron-irrb Harrow is a late invention by the ingenious and indefatigable Mr. Smith,
late of Deanston, for the same purpose. It is formed of an assemblage of annular disks of cast-
iron, of the size and shape of the common playing-quoit ; and these are interwoven with iron
wire tif about \ inch diameter, in a certain regular form, until the whole forms a flexible web, in
which the disks have liberty to play and roll about within small limit.s. The web may be 2 yards
in length by 1 in breadth, and is simply dragged over the ground, when it is said to give the t-ur-
face a finish superior to anything hitherto proposed or introduced.
(ITltT.) The Brakeharroir is only an enlargement of the common implement, wherein every
part is increased in size and weight for the purpose of breaking down and pulverizing rough and
stubborn laud. Brakes are made of various forms, such as rectangular, rhomboidal, and triangu-
lar: anil every form has its advocates, the preference being given frequently to that which acci-
dent had thrown in the way of the experimenter; and without taking measures to compare its
etlects with those of other forms, the implement is marked as the most perfect of its kind. There
appears no good reason for concluding that any one of the above forms is better than another,
provided proper weight is put in the implement, and the tines of proper length and number, and
disposed in a manner that, with a duly applied draught, will make an equal distribution of its jml-
verizing effects over the surface which it covers. The extended application of draining, and the
increasing employment of the grubber, which 1 shall shortly have to notice, appear in some meas-
ure to be superceding the brake-harrow.
(1T9S.) Tne Broadcast Soicing--machinc has now come mlo jireUy general use, especially in
tho.<e districts where the arable system is under tlie best management, and on large farms is
nearly superseding the process of hand-sowing. It not only sows all Uie white grains, wheat,
barley, oats, when sown broadcast, in a verj- uniform manner, and with any desired allowance
per acre ; but it serves in a superior manner for grass-seeds, in point of distribution, and, in the
case of windy weather, is greatly superior to hand-sowing. This last advantage arises chiefly
from the low position of llie discharging orifices, as compared with the bight of the hand in sow-
ing ; but partly also from the more direct discharge of the seed from the machine ; its velocity of
discharge, likewise, and the distance it has to fall, being always uniform. The nice gradation of
the discharge is one of its chief qualifications, for it may be adjusted to sow any required quan-
tity per acre, between the lowest and the highest, that may be judged expedient, and in all cases,
from the uniformity of the distribution, a considerable saving in seed may be eflectcd.
(179U.) I have on previous occasions had to notice the rather curious facts of the introdncticn
of certain practices from England into the Scottish system of farming. Such practices have
remained either stationarj- in the former countn,-, or have been but partially extended, whereas
the practices thus borrov%-ed by the latter have been improved on and widely extended. The
machini' now under consideration is another example of this ; for though it appears to have been
originally brought into Scotland from Yorkshire, I believe it is even now but sparingly used in
England, while here it is in extensive use in the best arable districts, and still rapidly extending.
In the course of some inquiries as to the period when this machine was first adopted in Scotland, I
have been enabled, through the kindness of Mr. Scouler, Haddington, to fix the time of its introduc-
tion to the year 1(117, and the first machine so made appears to have been by Mr. Robert Lowrie,
EdinL'ton, who makes the following statement: " The first broadcast sowing-machine that came
into this county (nerwickshire) was ordered by myself from England from Mr. Short of Cliiver-
ton by Hackhill ; it was a smart thing, wheeled by a man, and was about 8 feet long ; it is still in
the possession of Mr. Wilson of Edineton Mains. I got tliat machine in 1816. and in the follow-
ing year I made one from it for Mr. Wripht. late tenant in Prenderguest, which was IT) feet long,
and was drawn by one horse. So far as I know, this was the first sowing-machine made in Scot-
land ; and after it had sown Mr. \Vrii;ht's crop of that season, I exhibited the machine at the Ag-
ricultural Shows of Coldstream and Kelso, and received premiums for it at both places: tliis was
in 1817 ; and in the following year I made one of the same dimensions for Mr. Wilson's father,
the late Mr. Abraham Wil.sou." From Berwickshire the machine made its way immediately
into East-Lothian, where the manufacture of it was taken up by the lale Mr. Adam .Scouler after
the machines of Mr. Lowrie above referred to. and has been successfully carried on bv his suc-
cessors, Mes,srs. Scouler and C6ni|)any of Haddington. The machine here referred to "as having
been brought from Chiverion. is the same as are yet to be found in the ncirthem and eastern coun-
ties, and used chiefly for .-iowing grass seeds ; its application to tlic sowing of grain having made
little progres.'*, or it may rather be considered as having been superseded by U>e drill system of
sowing, so much practiced in these counties of England.
(1800.) In the early application of the broadcast machine, it was mounted on two wheels: but a
few years' experience pointed out the advantages of a third wheel, which was applied to it by
(238)
SOWING SPRING WHEAT AND GRASS-SEEDS. 143
Messrs. Scouler about tlic j-ear 1830, the third wheel being applied as a swivel or fore-carriage.
The carriage is still subject to considerable variety of construction, but these varieties are not of
a nature to alter its general character. A carriage of a nearly triangular form is very generally
adopted, the apex being in front over the swivel-bar. A rectangular carriage is also very much
employed, and this is the most workmanlike construction, though perhaps not the cheapest, but
it is withal the most convenient and useful form. As regards the general construction, an import-
ant improvement has been introduced within the last six years ; this is the cutting of the seed-
chest into sections. The chest is usually made 18 feet long, which being far beyond the width of
any field-gate, produced a necessity for changing the position of the chest when passing through
a gateway. It was therefore the practice to lift the chest from its vi'orking position parallel to the
a\le of the machine, and deposit it parallel to the horse-shafts until it had passed through the gate.
This was clearly both imperfect and inconvenient, and these defects gave rise to the cutting into
sections, the middle part being 9 feel, and the extremes each 4J feet, so that when the latter are
folded up, the extreme length of chest is 9 feet.
(1801.) The illustrations of this machine which I have here given in Plate XXVI. are taken
from those manufactured by James Slight and Co., Edinburgh, and they exhibit the machine in
its most complete state, embracing the chest in sections, with the mode of supporting the same ;
this last improvement having, it is believed, been first introduced by the above-named house. In
Plate XXVI., fig. 316, is a view in perspective of the entire machine, as it appears when in work,
and fig. 317 a section, on a scale of J inch to a foot, taking the chest transversely through its
center, the carriage being cut in the same line, or parallel to the horse-shafts. In these two figures
the same letters mark corresponding parts. The carriage is marked aba, fig. 316, and is a frame
of hard wood, the bars of which are from 4 to 5 inches in depth, and 2| inches in thickness; the
dimensions of the frame being 7 feet in breadth over all, and 4 feet in length over the rails, of
which there are three, as seen at b b. The hind wheels c c are 34 inches in hight, generally
formed with cast-iron naves, wooden spokes and felloes; or, as in the figure, the felloes are super-
seded by a simple hoop of malleable iron 2J inches by | inch, which, for light carriages of this
description that never travel on hard roads, is found sufficiently serviceable. The axle of these
^vheels is 1^ inches diameter, seen at d, in fig. 317, and is in two lengths supported in pillow-
blocks bolted to the lower edge of the bars aaa of the frame, and meeting in the middle bearing.
The nigh-side wheel is fixed dead upon the axle, carrying the axle round with it to give motion
to the pitch-chain d e of fig. 317, and w^hich is seen also at a, in fig. 316, where it is seen as en-
tering the chest. The off-side wheel may in this case be also fixed dead upon the other half of the
axle, or it may run loose. But the axle may also be made in one piece, the off-side wheel being
left loose, which is necessary for the convenience of turning round, this wheel being disengaged
from turning with the other. The front wheel/, fig. 317, and seen also partially in fig. 316, is 24
inches diameter, usually of cast-iron, and is supported on the cast-iron sheers g, which are 4 inches
wide between the arms, and terminates upward in the lower half of the swivel-plate h, and this,
again, is furnished with a strong pivot, passing upward through the head i of the cast-iron fore-
beam i k. The head of the fore-beam is formed into a swivel-plate corresponding to that of the
sheers g. and is bolted to the two foremost bars b b oi the carriage. Two small pillars I are cast
upon projecting ears of the swivel-plate of the sheers g, and bolts passing through these pillars
and the splinter-bar m, bind these parts firmly together, producing an effective swivel-carriage.
The horse shafts n n, broken off in fig. 317, are attached to the splinter-bar m by means of a long
draft-bolt passing through the ends of the shafts, and through eyes fixed in the splinter-bar.
(1802.) The seed-chest o o is 18 feet in length, formed of |-inch deal. The breadth of the bottom
board is &\ inches, projecting on one side 2^ inches, forming an apron, on which the seed falls from
die orifices. The sides of the chest are 10^ inches in depth, and the cover 14 inches in breadth, 9
inches of which form a hinged flap, as seen in the figure. The chest is bound together upon ends
and partitions of hard-wood 1 j inches thick; when in sections as here described, each section has
two such ends, and the middle section has two partitions in the middle, set at 2J inches apart.
When the chest is in one length, two ends and the two middle partitions only are required. The
joints or hinges of the sections are formed of the iron straps p p, two of which are securely riveted
on each side of the chest, having eyes formed at the apex q q, and through these eyes a small
bolt, q, passes from side to side, which completes the hinge ; and by withdrawing the bolt the
parts of the chest are at once disengaged. For the better connection of the segments, however,
when the machine is in action, the contiguous ends are held in contact by a bolt and nut, as seen
at & in fig. 318, which, together with fig. 319, are on a scale of 1 inch to a foot. The two extreme
segments, also, are supported by the light tension chain i" i' i' i", which passes over the two upright
iron stanchions, k k' the tops of which, i' t' form the suspending fulcra for the chain, while its
extremities are secured at the po'nts if i" with adjusting nuts.
(1803.) The sowing-geer of the machine consists of the following parts: The main axle of the
carriage is mounted with a pitch chain-wheel 4 inches diameter, placed upon the axle close to the
middle bar a of fig. 316, and seen in full at d e, fig. 317 ; a corresponding wheel r is placed upon a
short axle within the seed-chest, and between the two middle partitions of the chest. In this way
motion is communicated from the carriage-wheels c, and their axle, to the axle of the small wheel
r, fig. 317. A light shaft, | inch square, is coupled to the ends of the axle of the wheel r, extend-
ing to each end of the chest; when the chest is entire, each of these shafts is al.so entire; but
in the present case each shaft is in two pieces, coupled at the junction of the segments of the
che-ft by means of small clutch couplings attached to the ends of the shaft, and these engage or dis-
engage of themselves when the segments of the chest are let down or folded up. These last-
mentioned shafts are supported in bearings of hard-wood laid in the bottom of the chest, at dis-
tances of from 2 to 2 J feet, and the journals, which are 1| inches long, covered with straps of
Btoiil hoop-iron. The shafts are armed with the seed-wheels of the form as .shown at r in fig. 318,
which are placed upon it at distances of 6^ inches, 32 wheels being required for an 18-feet chest.
The seed-wheels have suffered a variety of changes : originally circular brushes were employed ,
then came wooden naves, of about 3 inches in length and 21 inches in diameter; and into these
(239)
144 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
were inserted leaves or teeth of hoop-iron, about 1 inch broad and 1 inch long, and this form of
wheel is still much employed. In the progressive stapes of the machine it was famished with
one set of these smalK shafts, carrying brushes, and another set carrj-ing wheels, as above de-
scribed : the former being then thought necessary for sowing grass-seeds, and the latter were cm-
ployed for grains: observation shortly pointed out that the toothed wheels were equally well
adapted for either grass-eeeds or grain, and the brushes have consequent!}' been laid aside* The
wheels represented by r, fig. 318, are of cast-iron, of very light fabric ; they are ten-toothed, and
are 4i inches in diameter, measnrinu to the extreme points in the cross-section : the points of the
teeth are slightly rounded, to adapt them to the concave groove or cup that is formed in the back
of the chest around each discharging orifice : the wheels are cast with a square eye, and fixed
opon the shaft by barbing the angles of the shaft round the eye of the wheel.
(1P04.) Corresponding to each seed-wheel, a discharging orifice » is formed in the back of the
chest ; these are I inch diameter, and their center is 1 J inches above the apron board /"tr. On the
inside of the back-board oval excavations are made in the wood around the orifices, leaving
the bottom of the cnps or edges of the orifice not exceeding 1-16 inch lliick : and in this oval cup
the seed-wheel sinks until the points of the teeth arc only I inch clear of the bottom of the cup
or the edges of the orifice a« seen at .«. The position of the seed-wheels in relation to die bot-
tom/ " of the chest is such as to make the teeth turn at about i inch clear of the bottom. The
seea orifices are defended by the iron plates d', fig. 319, of a triangular form, the apices d' are
driven into the apron, which secures lliat point of the plates, and tlie other two points are fixed by
nailing. The fixing of the plates requires some attention, in order that the orifices may exactly
coincide with those of the slide 1 1; without perfect coincidence in these two parts the sowing
will be unequal.
(1805.) The slide is a bar of hoop-iron 2 inches in breadth, and about 1-12 inch in thickness ; it
is perforated at the regular distance by means of a punching instrument, and gauged to determine
the precise inter\'al8. In the entire chest the slide b in two lengths, but in that now described
each half is again cut in two at the junction of the sections, and connected by a slip hinge-joint.
The slide is held in its place by the small clasps e' e", and a elamp^"is riveted upon it at any con-
venient point ; the short arm of the lever ic enters an opening m this clamp, while its fulcrum
lies in the plate b, which carries a perforated stud, and is fixed on the back of the chest as
in fig. 318. forming the fulcrum of the lever, by means of which the slide is moved over the seed-
orifices. To effect the precise adjustment of the orifices, the slide is made in two halves, and at each
end of the chest an adjusting-screw v acts in a nut attached to the end of the chest, the point of
each screw being brought to bear against the end of the slide, which is here thickened to meet
the point of the screw. " The adjustment will be understood by reference to fig. 319. which repre-
sents a portion of the slide of the left-hand half of the chest. The slide is here supposed to have
been pushed toward the right hand by means of the adjusting-screw r, fig. 316, till the orifices
have been reduced to the desired size, as here shown in fig. 319 about half shut ; in this elate the
machine is supposed to be fit for sowing, and that it has reached the end of the field, when it be-
comes necessary to shut while turning ; the shutting is effected by moving the slide still farther,
to the right hand, by means of the lever, until the orifices are entirely closed. Both ends of the
chest having undergone this operation, which is done in an instant, but in reverse directions, the
machine may go to any distance without discharging a grain ; but whenever it has been turned
into the next ridge, the "levers ir are thrown in the opposite direction, moving the slide toward the
adjusting-screw r, and this being done at both ends, the orifices will have attained precisely the
same area as before, and thus the shutting and opening again to the same area : and of course the
same discharge is effected for any number of turns without the smallest variation, so long as the
screw r remains unaltered.
(1806.) For the purpose of equalizing the distribution of the seed over the surface of the ground
after it has left the discharging orifice, the bottom-board / «• of the eeed-chest is made to project
beyond the back of the chest about 2J inches, as at ?r, fig. 318. forming an apron on which the
seed is first received from the orifice, and being thus checked in its descent, is thereby more
aniformly scattered over the surface. Another precaution is taken, the better to secure a uniform
discharge in the case of s<iwing on ground that has a high inclination. In sowing up-hill, in such
situations the weight of the basket is thrown more upon that side of the chest from which it is
discharcred, tending thereby to increase the discharge. On sowing down-hill, on the other hand,
the effe."t of pressure is reversed, and the discharge will be less. To avoid these inconveniences,
Messrs. Sconlcr. among their other improvements in this machine, introduced a tilting motion to
tbe seed chest in the following manner : on the two outward bearers a a of the carriaee bolsiers
y y, having a semi-circular scat of about 8 inches diameter, and corresponding to these, on the bot-
tom of the chest, are formed two circular bearing or journals y y f on the bottom of the chest and
concentric with the shaft of the seed wheels r, figs. 317 and 31*. Upon these journals the chest
can be tilted to a certain extent backward or forward, and this is eCected by the lever z. which
may be variously attached to tlie chest. In the present case it is a fork thrust into two apertures
in the chest, forming a lever, whose arm is retained in the sheers of the quadrant a', and bj*
raising or depressing the lever z the chest is tilted backward or forward as the sower sees it
neces.«arv ; the lever being retained in the required position by a bolt passed through the lever
and the t^icn corresponding hole in the quadrant
(1807.) As the seed chest is 18 feet in length, and it may sometimes be desirable to reduce its
breadth of sowing to 16 or to 15 feet, suiting ridees of these breadths, the reduction is effected by
stopping two, three, or more of the seed orifices at each end. For this purpose the orifices
intended to be stopped are provided with a flat swing-cla.ep. turning upon a pin to which it is riv-
eted, and having a flat tail which is brought over the orifice that is to be stopped. Two of tliese
clasps arc seen at each end of fig. 316, under x, where they are in the position tliat leaves the
orifice open.
(1808.) The fotrinsrueer of this machine has undergone a variety of changes. In the example
before na. the pitch-chain is employed to communicate motion from the first mover — the carriage
(210)
SOWING SPRING WHEAT AND GRASS-SEEDS. 145
axle — to the seed-wheels. It has the property of great simplicity, but has been objected to on the
score of its keeping- the seed-wheels constantly in motion, whether sowing or not, which has been
supposed to have a tendency to injure the grain which lies in contact with the wheels. Perhaps there
ma}' be grounds for this supposition ; but if it do exist, the deterioration must be very trifling. Be
these surmises what they may, diey have given rise to the means of prevention, by employing a ge>ar-
ing that disengages die seed-wheels from the first mover when the machine is being moved and
no discharge of seed required. Fig. 320 represents a very perfect and convenient arrangement
of this kind, and which has been very successfully employed, but is a little more expensive than
the chain-gearing, a is the seed-chest, h h z. part of the carriage, and o o the middle and back
transverse-bars of the same (con-esponding to h b. fig. 316.) The bar/e is one side of a tight cast-
iron sheers, which is bolted to the bars o o (standing in the place of the middle longitudinal bar a
of fig. 316;) and the three equal wheels c c c are set in the sheers — the first of the three being
upon the carriage-axle, which is in halves as before, and the meeting-ends supported on the
sheers c. The last of the three wheels takes into the wheel h, mounted on the central portion of the
seed-wheel shaft, as before described in (1805) ; and <Z is a fourth wheel, of equal size with c c.
mounted on the lever g-, which is forked to receive the wheel d, and to embrace the sheers/e at
e, upon which last point the lever turns as a fulcrum. It will be evident that by lifting the lever
g, and throwing it forward upon the seed-chest, the wheel d will be ungeared from the first
wheel c; and though it remains in contact with the middle wheel c, no motion will be communi-
cated to the seed-wheels until the lever is returned to its original position.
(1809.) In using the broadcast machine, it is frequently drawn by one horse; but it forms a
rather heavy draught, and is, therefore, more frequently the work of two horses. The chest is filled
from end to end with the seed-corn, and. the horses walking in the furrow, the machine sows the
half ridge on either side. When the chest has been filled, and the machine brought to that posi-
tion which places the horses in the furrow — the sower having previously determined the degree
of opening in the orifices that will deliver the desired quantity per acre, he throws each slide out-
ward again.st its graduating screw, which will produce the proper opening, (1807) ; and this done,
the hur.scs are driven forward. On arriving at the farther end of the ridge, and before entering
upon the he'adridge, the slides are witlidravvn toward the center, closing up the vents; the ma-
cliine is then turned round on the head-ridge, and takes up a position on the next furiow, when
the process is repeated, and so on till the field is sown all over, the head ridges being the last por-
tion of the work, and here the blinding of the extreme orifices come frequently into play, if the
head-ridges are of less breadth than those of the field.
(1810.) It has often been suggested tliat a register screw or index would be a useful appendage
to tlie machine, by which the .sower could at once fix upon the extent of opening in the seed-
vents. This addition, however well it may appear in theory, appears, in the practical application
of the machine, to be of little value ; for the eye of an experienced sower will, on passing over a
few yards with the machine, by simple ocular inspection, be able to judge of the quantity of
seed he is bestowing upon the soil. If experimental accuracy is required, the sower may then
put into the chest as much grain as will just cover the seed-wheels, and then measvre in one or
two bushels, and proceed to sow this until as much remains as will just cover the wheels again,
so that the measured quantity is found to have been discharged. By now measuring the number
of yards in length that have been sown with two bushels, he will ascertain by calculation the pro-
portional quantity required for an acre. Thus, let the intended quantity to be sown upon an
acre be 5 bushels, and that one bushel has been sown in the experiment which has covered 140
yards of the 18-feet ridge, or two half ridges equal to 18 feet, or 6 yards. The imperial acre con-
tains 4,840 square yards, and this divided by 6, the yards in the breadth of the ridge, we have 8065
as the number of lineal yards in length of an 18-feet ridge to make up an acre; and l-.'i of this, or
161.2 lineal yard.s, is the extent that should have been covered by 1 bushel of seed-corn. The
machine having, as supposed, covered only 140 yards, it follows that the sowing is about I part
of the bushel too thick ; the graduating screws, therefore, must be turned forward about half a turn,
and the experiment repeated if thought necessary. It is seldom, however, that such experirnenis
will be required in the hands of a practical sower.
(1811.) In reference to the inconvenience attending the great length of the seed-chest as taken
notice of at (1800) when it is in one length, there remains to be observed that tlie method by
which it is shifted is thi.s : in its working state the chest is kept in its bolsters by means of two
quadrants attached to the lower part of the chest, one being on each side of the carriage ; the.se
are fonned concentric with the curvature of the bolster i/ y, fig. 317, and a bolt, over which the
quadrant slides, is screwed into the side of the carriage, and this retains the chest in its place.
When it is found necessary to move the chest, the two bolts are unscrewed, which sets the chest
at liberty ; it is then lifted from its bolstei-s and laid longitudinally on the carriage. In this opera-
tion, however, the pitch-chain, when that medium of power is employed, has to be disengaged by
withdrawing a coupling-link from the chain; but when the medium, fig. 320, is employed, there
is nothing required but the unscrewing of the quadrant-bolts to set the chest at liberty. It is then
lilted and laid longitudinally on the carriage as before. The price of these machines ranges from
£:i0to£l2. .' o r ft
(1812.) The Presser-RoUer is an implement of very recent introduction to the operations of the
farm, and, like many others of the useful class of agricultural machines, its origin is to be traced
to England. Although the presserdoes not take its place in the first raqk, yet it pos.sesses quali-
ties who.se effects on the soil give it a position by no means low in the scale of usefulness. The
chief object of its application is to produce consolidation in the soil over a narrow space, in which
space the seeds of plants are to have root ; hence its effects are applicable only to the drill sys-
tem of culture, and that only under particular circumstances, namely, consolidating soils whose
texture is too loose and friable for the continued support of wheat plants, and to produce close
contact in the furrow-slices of lea when plowed for a seed-furrow.
(1813.) The Presser-Roiler is represented in its most common form by fig. 325, which is a view of
tlie machine in perspective, and is of extremely simple construction. The carriage consists of a
(289) 10 ^ ^
146
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
rectangular frame a a ; its length over the front and hack bars is 3 feet 8 inches, and its breadth
over the sides 4 feet 8 inches ; a third longitudinal bar is introduced between those of the back and
front solely to increase the rigidity of the carriage-frame. A pair of horse-shafts b, are bolted
Fig 325.
THE FRESSER-ROLLER.
X
upon the frame, the nSgh-side shaft being laid upon the side-rail, and the other at the usual dis-
tance, to afford space for a horse to travel. A cast-iron bracket is appended by bolting to each
side-rail ; one of these is seen at c ; its eye or center descends to a distance of 8 inches below the
bottom of the rail ; an axle of 2 inches square extends between, and is supported in the eye of the
bracket in which it turns upon its journals ; this axle carries the two pre.«singwhepls d d, which
are fitted to turn with the axle, but are movable in ihe transverse direction, and provided with the
means of being fixed at any desired distance apart, though 9 to 10 inches is the usual space.
The axle carries also the light carriage-wheel c. of 2 feet
10 inches diameter, which may be placed either outside or
inside of the carriage-frame, and is usually made of cast-
iron, turning upon the axle, this being requisite for the more
convenient turning round of the machine. The oft'-side
shaft b having but an imperfect connection to the carriage-
is supported bj' the iron stay-rod /"; and two iron scrapers ir
are attached to the hind bar for the purpose of throwing off
any soil that may adhere to the wheels. Fig. 326 is an edge-
view of the two pressing-wheels detached from the carriage,
in which a a is the axle broken off, b b are the two pressing-
wheels as they appear edgeways ; they are 2 feet 10 inches
of extreme diameter, and their breadth 5^ inche.s, their
weight being about 2 cwts. each ; the rim or periphery- of
the wheel is sloped off on both sides to an angle of about
70°, forming two opposite conical frusta, but a cylindrical
band is left in the middle of about 1^ inches in breadth. The
pressing-wheels are held at the required distance by the
square collars cc c fitting round the axle and sliding upon it
to the proposed distance apart, where they are fixed by the
pinching-screws c c c. d d represents a "transverse section
of ground undergoing the pressing process; the shaded part
of the section exhibits the state of a soft, loose soil, when
pressed by the roller, and the dotted lines ejf, ef, that of newly plowed lea undergoing the
operation of consolidation.
(1814.) As explained in the text above, and with reference again to fig. 32.1, the pressing-
wheels a.-c to be undir.stood as running always upon the last turned up furrows but one ; while
the carriage-wheel runs always upon the solid land, where the horse also walks, the shafts being
placed at that side. But the nresser is now being more advantageously used as to time, in the
consolidation of soft soils, bv being constructed with four, nix. or more pressine wheels ; and in
this fonn the carriage wheel is not required. In using the presser of this construction, the field
must be ploveed for the sccdfurrow all over, cither entirely or in part, before the pressing is be-
gun ; and the field is regularly gone over by tho presser, which, from its now increased weight,
will require two horse.*. In this form, with six pressincwhoels, and with two horses, the ma-
chine will press roll from eight to nine acres in a day. There remains to be observed, in regard
to the last form of the machine, that, in order to secure facility of turning about, the wheels must
either be all set upon a round axle, or they must be set ujion an axle in two lengths, if it is con-
tinued of a square form ; and there is conse<in<iitly required a middle beoring" ior the meeting
ends of the axle. For this puri)ose, a third bracket is appended to the middle rail of the frame,
fig. 325. I have found both of these modes of constniction perfectly suitable in practice ; and the
entire weight of the six-wheel rollers amounts to about 12 or 13 cwt.s. The price of the two-
wheeled presser is £C lO.s., and for each additional wheel, with its mounting, £l 12s.
(1815.) The common Land-Roller is an implement of great simplicity of construction, ihe act-
ing part of it being a cylinder of wood, of stone or of metal, and in many cases its only append
age is a rectangular frame of wood, consisting of two strong end bars, selected for having
curvature to keep clear of the ground. In these the gudgeons of the roller are borne, and whu
(290)
J J' s
EDGE VIEW OF THE PRESSING-
WHEELS.
SOWING SPRING WHEAT AND GRASS SEEDS.
147
are connected by two transverse rails, to one of which the horses are yoked. Simple as this im-
plement appears, there is hardly an article in the establishment in which the farmer is more liable
to fall into error in his selection. From the nature of its action, and its intended effects on the
soil, there are two elements that should be particularly kept in view — weight awA diameter of the
cylinder. By the former alone can the desired effects be produced in the highest degree, but
these will be always modified by the diameter. Thus, a cylinder of any given weight will pro-
duce a greater pulverizing effect if its diameter is one foot, than the same weight would produce
if the diameter were two feet ; but then the one of lesser diameter will be much worse to draw ;
hence it becomes necessary to choose a mean of these opposing principles. In doing this, the
material of the cylinder comes to be con.sidered. In the first place, wood, which is frequently
employed for the formation of land-rollers, may be considered as least adapted of all materials for
the purpose ; its deliciency of weight and liability to decay render it the most objectionable of
all others. Second, stone, though not deficient in weight, possesses one marked disadvantage,
liability to fracture ; this of itself is sufficient to place stone rollers in a doubtful position as to
fitness. This brings us to cast-iron, which i.s undoubtedly the most appropriate of all'materials
for this purpose. It is unnecessary here to enter into the inquiry as to the most advantageous
diameter for a laud-roller ; the subject has already been elaborately discussed ; * let it suffice to
say that experience has proved that a diameter of 2 feet is, under any circumstances, the one
that will produce the best effects with a minimum of labor from the animals of draught ; the
weight being of course proportioned to the force usually applied, which is in general two horses.
The weight df roller, including frame corresponding to this, is from 12 to 15 cwts. ; but it is bet-
ter that the roller itself be rather under the weight, and that the carriage be fitted up with a box,
in which a loading of stones can be stowed, to bring the machine up to any desired weight. In
a large and heavy roller, in one entire cylinder, the inconvenience of turning at the headlands is
very considerable, and has given rise to the improvement of having the cylinder in two lengths;
this, with a properly constructed carriage, produces the land-roller in its most perfect form.
(1816.) Fig. 327 is a perspective of the land-roller constructed on the foregoing principles, a a
is the carriage-frame, consisting of two semi-circular ends of cast-iron, connected by two trans-
THE LAND ROLLER.
verse bars of hard wood, and these last are crossed by the horse-shafts b. The cylinder c is in
two lengths of 3 feet to 3 feet 3 inches each, and 2 feet in diameter ; the thickness of the metal is
from J of an inch to 1 inch, according to the weight required ; and each half length of the cylin-
der has a cross fitted into each end, through the centers of which the axle passes. The axle, in
consequence of the cylinder being in two lengths, requires to be of considerable strength, usually
2J inches diameter, and of malleable iron ; upon this the two sections of the cylinder revolve
freely, and the extremities of the axle are supported in bushes formed in the lower part of the
semi-circular end-frames. Two iron stay-rods pass from the end frames to the shafts as an addi-
tional support to the latter. The price of the land-roller, fitted up as here represented and
described, is, according to weight, from £10 to £14.1
[t We cannot forbear recommending here the use of a machine invented by, we think, a Mr.
Gray, of Lower Virginia. It was brought to our notice by one of those too rare men among farm-
ers— one who thinks — Hon. W. Carmichael, of Clueen Anne's County, Maryland. The simple
name of this implement indicates the simplicity of its construction, being called the drag-log. It
is made of a log of wood say 5 feet long, more or less, and 12 or 14 inches square, with the tongue
of a common ox-cart pinned down in the middle on the top of it, instead of a pair of shafts, as in
the land-roller here represented. To this tongue is to be hitched a span of oxen and the log thus
dragged over the surface of cloddy plowed land. It will be found to pulverize the land more at
one operation tlian rolling at two. Instead of burying the clods it mashes and grinds them to
powder as it proceeds. Ed. Farm. Lib.]
' Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. i.
(291)
148 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
12. SOWING OAT-SEED.
"Though ley land you break up when Christinas is gone,
For sowing of barley or oats thereupon,
Yet haste not to fallow till March be begun.
Lest afterward wishing it had been undone."
TUSSER.
(1817.) After what has been said of plowing lea ground (919), and of
tne mode of sowing seed upon the land by hand, fig. 322, and of the prop-
erties of different kinds of oats cultivated in this country (1519), little re-
quires to be added here on the sowing of oats, except the manner in which
that operation \s finished.
(1818.) Beans and spring wheat are not sown upon every species of
farm, the former being most profitable in deep, strong soils, and the latter
is only to be commended after turnips, on land in good heart, situate in a
favorable locality for climate, and the crop eaten off by sheep ; but oats
are sown on all sorts of farms, from the strongest clay to the lightest sand,
and from the highest point to which arable culture has reached on moor-
land soil, to the bottom of the lowest valley on the richest deposit. The
extensive breadth of its culture does not, however, imply that the oat is
naturally suited to all soils and situations, for its fibrous and spreading
roots indicate a predilection for fnable soils ; but its general use as food
amonof the agricultural population has caused its universal culture in
Scotland, while its ability to support the strength of horses has induced its
culture to be extended throughout the kingdom ; and it is certainly a re-
markable fact with what admirable effect this plant has adapted itself to
the various circumstances in which it is cultivated, and this result is, most
probably, owing to the same food, namely, the decomposed grasses with
which this plant is uniformly supplied.
(1819.) All the varieties of oats cultivated may be practically classed
under three heads, the common, the improved, and the Tartarian. The
common varieties include all those having a pyramidal spike, soft sti-aw,
long grains possessing a tendency to become awny, and which are late in
reaching maturity. Among the named varieties are the following in com-
mon use : early and late Angus, Kildrummie, Blainslic, white Siberian,
fig. 307, Cumherlayid, sandy, and Dyoch, which last two are recent varie-
ties, and others. It is unnecessary to point out the superior character-
istics of each variety, for in the respective districts in which they are sown,
each is considered best suited to the locality in which it is cultivated — an*
opinion which may safely be disputed. The four last named are in high
repute at present, owing to their recent introduction ; and it is probable
that any recent variety will answer best for a shorter or longer period.
All common oats are sown on the inferior soils, and in the most elevated
fields of farms, and the season for sowing them is the beginning of March.
Of the improved varieties are the potato oat, which has long been culti-
vated as the only variety ; but of late years the Hopetoun oat has been
added to the short list. Before it the Georgian was introduced, but did
not succeed. Both the potato and Hopetoun oats have long, strong straw,
large spikes, come early to maturity, and are chiefly cultivated on the
best and lowest lying ground. The grains are very similar, the Hopetoun
being distinguished by a tinge of red on the bosom, fig. 306, These oats
"(292)
Book cf the Parm. ©a][LlL ©©^JKI© jflAvy >] J?Jl©a H»tc XXVII
Thr nor Lrrer Drill Sutring Macliinr. The common Thrill Sov'inp Marlnne.
BcoTc of the Farm-
■u-yBM]? Ajg© [13Si^!I ®y©7 SS3]1,L<,
Plate XXXI
SOWING OAT-SEED. 149
are sown a fortnight after the common. The cultivation of the Tartarian
varieties, both black and white, is chiefly confined to England, for the use
of horses, and are there cdWedi feed oats. I am surprised that this oat
should be cultivated at this time of day, both on account of its coarseness,
as well as the disagreeable work which it occasions in the barn by its long
hygrometric awns.
' (1S20.) The plowed lea-ground should be dry on the surface before it is
sown, as otherwise it will not harrow kindly ; but the proper dryness is to
be distinguished from that arising from dry, hard frost. It will not be pro-
per to wait until every spot of the field is dry alike, as even thorough-drain-
ing will not insure that ; though spottiness shown in spring is a good crite-
iion wliether land has been enough drained, or where it most requires it.
Should the lea have been plowed some time before, and from young grass,
the furrow-slices will be found to lie close together at seed-time ; but should
it have been recently plowed or from old lea, or on stiff ground in a rather
wet state, the furrow-slices will not lie close together, but be as far asunder
as to allow a good deal of the seed to drop down between them, and where
this happens the seed will be lost, as oats will not vegetate from a depth of
6 or 7 inches. In all cases of lea where the furrow-slices are not close, in
order to save a part of the seed, and avoid a thin crop, the ground should
be harrowed a single tine before being sown. The tines of harrows
should be particularly sharp when used for covering in seed upon lea.
When oats are sown by hand upon dry lea-ground, the grains rebound from
it and dance about before depositing themselves in the hollows between
the crests of the furrow-slices, and thus accommodating themselves to the
form of the ground, are not so liable to be happerga' ed in sowing as other
grains. Were the ground only harrowed in along the ridges, so as not to
disturb the seed along the furrow- slices, the germs of the crop would come
up in as regular rows as if sown by drill ; but as the land receives cross-
haiTowing as well as along, the braird comes up broadcast, notwithstand-
ing the position the seed assumes when it settles on the ground. The
quantity of common oats sown is usually 6 bushels to the imperial acre ;
and in deep friable land in good heart, 5 bushels of potato oats suffice, A
man does a good day's work if he sows broadcast 16 imperial acres of
ground in 10 hours, that is, scatters 80 bushels of potato oats and 96
bushels of common oats in that time. Some men can sow 120 bushels of
common and 100 of potato in that time, that is, 20 acres ; and double-hand-
ed sowers can sow more than this latter quantity. Two sowers keep one
seed-carrier fully employed, and indeed if the sacks are not conveniently
placed (1756), one will not be able to supply them both, but 2 seed-carriers
will easily supply 3 sowers ; and every sower employs 2 pairs of harrows
breaking in after him, with a double tine. So that the number of sowers
is regulated by the number of pairs of harrows that a farm can furnish.
The arrangement of the labor for sowing an oat-field may be seen in fig.
322, where 2 sowei's and 1 seed-carrier are represented, but the harrows of
1 sower only are shown in view. See from (1762) to (1766) inclusive.
After the land is broken in with a double tine, it is harrowed across with a
double tine, which cut across the fuiTOW-crests, and then along another
double tine, and this quantity generally suffices. At the last harrowing the
tines should be kept clean, and no stones should be allowed to be trailed
along by the tines, to the manifest ribbing of the surface. On old lea, or
on hard land, another single turn across or angle-ways may be requird to
render the land fine enough ; and, on the other hand, on a free soil a single
tine along after the double one cross may suffice. In short, the harrow-
ing should be continued as long and no longer than the ground feels uni-
150 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
formly smooth and firm under the foot, having no hard places, or others
sinking into hollows l»y the pressure of the foot (1770). The head-ridges
are harrowed round by themselves at last. See (1771). The land, after
the oat-seed is sown, is always icater-furroiced in every open furrow
(1778); and it should also be rolled (1777), according to circumstances ;
that is, the young braird on strong land being retarded in its growth, when
the earth is incrusted by rain after rolling, it is safe to leave the rolling of
such land until the end of spring, when the crop has made a little progress,
and when the weather is usually dry. Light friable land should be rolled
immediately after the seed is sown and harrowed, if there is time to do it;
but the rolling of one field should cause no delay to the sow-ing of others in
dry weather. There will be plenty of time to roll the giound after the oat-
seed and other urgent operations at this season are finished, and especially
as rolling mayhe speedily performed. The cutting oi gaws should never be
neglected in finishing oft" an oat-field, to carry oft' water along hollows or
in the open furrow beside the lowest hedge-ridge, as particularly described
in (918). Oats are sown broadcast by machinery as well as by hand. The
machine is the same as is used for sowing grass-seeds, and figured at fig.
316, Plate XXVI., and already described by Mr. Slight in (1798) to
(1811). As constructed at first upon two wheels, this machine, when load-
ed with a full complement of oat-seed, was too heavy for a horse's back,
especially on going down hill ; but the addition of the third wheel disposes
of that objection, and I believe it is now pretty extensively employed in
sowing corn.
(1821.) But oats are also sown in rows by such drill-machines as are
represented in figs. 325 and 326, Plate XXVII., and described below by
Mr. Slight. In using dj-ill-machines, the land should first be harrowed a
double tine along, and then a double tine across the ridges, and ajjain a
single tine along. The drill then sows the oats across the ridges, and the
land is finished by harrowing a single tine also across the ridges. The
water-furrowijig and rolling should be executed in the manner described
(1820) for broadcast sowing. The drill seems to me not well adapted for
sowing corn on lea ground. It cannot pass through it, even after it has
been well cut with the harrows, with the facility it does through ground
in a soft state; and on hard ground and upon old lea it is questionable
whether the coulters can penetrate so far as to deposit the seed at a depth
to be out of reach of birds and drouth ; and every stone in such ground
being rather firmly imbedded, will be apt to cause the drill to go out of its
proper course, while at the same time the risk at least of partially dis-
placing the old, uncorrupted tui'f will be imminent. In these latter cases
I would recommend the broadcast machine or the hand in preference to the
drill ; and I would confine the drill in sowing oats to tender land as in the
neighborhood of towns, where it is made tender by the application of
large quantities of street-manure, and where drilling is advisable as aftbrd-
ing a facility for cleaning the land of surface-weeds, a multitude of which,
and especially wild mustard, Sinapis arrcfisis, are apt to sjiring uji from the
use of street-manure. In England, however, where the drilling of grain is
followed out, it must be owned that their plowing with the wheel-plow
and sowing with the drill-machine are so perfect in their operation that
the seed is laid in the fuiTows with certainty, and without at all disturbing
the furrow-slice.
(1822.) At a time when a less rational system of husbandrj' was pursued than now happily pre-
vails— that is, when land was allowed to be overrun with surface-water ; when lea was plowed,
out of choice, in a wet state, because the labor of doing it was easier for half starved, jaded horses ;
when land was harrowed with small, light, loose harrowe, funiishcd with short, blunt tines ; when
the leaturf consiBted chiefly of the longh roots of perennial weeds — in these circamstances lea
(294)
SOWING OAT-SEED.
151
ground required a great deal of harrowing to bring it to a tolerable degree of tilth, eight or nine
double tines being considered no more than necessary. The great length of time required to do
this, obliged the oat-seed to be begun early, so early indeed as Tusser recommends it to be begun
in January :
" In January, husband that poucheth the groats,
Will break up his ley, or be sowing of oats ;"
if the husbandman desires to pocket the gain of a good crop ; and by the time the crop was
finished, every creature, man and beast, ■were almost worn out with fatigue. The land being
now made tender and fertile by draining, cleaning and manuring, oats have time to come to ma-
turity when sown long after January, and its harrowing is now finished in one-third of the time,
and with one-fourth the labor it was then.
(1823.) The oat crop, when very young — that is, ^vhen the plant has not pushed its leaves more
than 2 inches above the ground — is subject to a very serious disease called the grtib, a name de-
rived from the grub or larva of a particular insect, the Tvpnla oleracea, Meadow -crane fiy, attack-
ing its roots, and causing the plant to decay, and even to die when seriously injured by this insect.
The perfect female insect is represented of the natural size at a, fig. 328, and which will at once
be recognized as that well known by the familiar names of Long'-Zeg-g, Tailors, Jenny-the-spinner.
Its body is near 1 inch long, of a brownish-gray color, and its wings pale-brown. In the female
the abdomen is thickest near the middle, from which it tapers to a point at the hinder extremityj
that of the male is thicket at the hinder extremity, which forms a kind of club. " This insect,'
says Mr. Duncan, " is very plentiful during the summer months in all parts of the country. Its
long legs are of great advantage to it in places it frequents, as they enable it to skip over the
grass as if on stilts ; and it still "farther facilitates its motions while so doing, by keeping the wings
expanded, to render it buoyant. The female lavs a great number of eggs, which are very small in
proportion to the size of the in.sect, and of a black color. These she places at some depth m the
earth, which she pierces for the purpose with her ovipositor. The insects may easily be seen
performing this operation, and it will at once be known that they are so employed by the singu-
lar position they assume. The body is placed in a perpendicular direction, supported on the
hinder feet and extremity of the abdomen, while the wings are expanded, and the anterior legs
(295)
152 THE BOOK OF THE FAR»I SPRING.
rest on the eurronnding plant8. When a dufficicnt number of egps have been laid in one spot,
the insect moves on to another, without ciianging the vertical poBturc of her body, merely drag-
ging herself forward by her forelef,'8, aiding her movements with her wings." It is in the larva
state that these insects injure crops, meudow -grass not being their only food ; they attack dif-
ferent kinils of corn, especially oats, the effects of pruhbhip- in which are well known to every
farmer. When full grown, the hirvn* are in the shape of an elongated cylinder, somewhat sud-
denly attenuated at Iwili extremities, and are of a dull grayish color, and without feet. The head
is furnished with two hooks, one on each side. The pupa is not unlike the chrysalis of some kinds
of moth ; and it is nearly of the same color as the larvK, the edges of the segments being furnished
with pretty strong hairs." The larva; reside generally about 1 or 2 inches beneath the surface, mining
their wav "among the roots of the herbaijc, and causing it to wither for want of nourishment. They
prefer a "soil which has been long undisturbed by ilic plow ; and if it contains some portion of
peat earth, it seems thereby better adapted to their tastes. " In the rich district of Sunk Island,
in Holdemess, in the spring of 1813," say Messrs. Kirby and Spence, "hundreds of acres of pas-
tures have been entirely destroyed by them, being rendered as completely brown, as if they had
suffered a three months" drouth, and destitute of all vegetation, except a few thistles. A square
foot of the dead turf being dug up, 210 grubs were counted in it ; and what furnishes a striking
proof of the prolific powers of these insects, last year it was diflicult to find a sinirle one."' '• Al-
ter mentioning their extensive devastations, it may occasion surprise." as Mr. Duncan well re-
marks, " to be told that many eminent ob.servers are of opinion, that these maggots cat nothing
but the fine mould they find at the roots of plants, and that the injury caused to the latter arises
solelv from their disturbing the soil, and preventing the rootlets fixing themselves. Such was the
opinion of Reaumur : and the generality of subsequent writers on the subject have yielded to
his authority. • - Mr. Stickney, who has published ' Ohferra/ions on the Grub.' made some ex-
periments for the express purpose of determining this point, and they convinced him that the
larva? devour the roots of grasses. Indeed, unless this were the case, it would be impossible to
account for the herbage withering to such an extent in places where the maggots prevail ; for
this could never arise from such small creatures, even though very numerous, burrowing in and
loosening the .wil. When earth-worms are plentiful, they must produce a considerable disturb-
ance in the soil by their winding galleries; but these so far from retarding, have always been
regarded as promoting the growth of plants. 'The grub of this tipula,' says Mr. Stickney, as
quoted by Mr. Duncan, • commits its ravages chiefly in the first crop, after the breaking up of the
grass-land, also after clover and beans ; the fly from which the insect is produced having deposited
its eggs in the soil among the grass, clover, or beans. . . On investigating the habits of this
insect, I found that it took the fly-state about the beginning of the month of August ; I therefore
concluded, as we got our clover-hay from the land a little after midsummer that, if we plowed
the clover stubble any time after that, and before the month of August, it would be nearly free
from the grub, as instinct has directed the fly not to leave its eggs upon the naked soil where no
vegetable is growing. I knew of no application to the land,' adds Mr. Stickney, ' that will in any
way destroy the grub : but we are much indebted to the rook, and a variety of other birds, for
keeping its depredations within limited grounds.'! The saturation of ^le soil," concludes Mr.
Duncan, '• with some caustic fluid, seems the only waj' by which this maggot can be destroyed.
The perfect insects are easily caught ; but they are so generally distributed, and usually so plenti-
ful, that their destruction in "this way would be a hopeless task. "J The rook fCorriisfrvgile^usJ
may be seen busily engaged in turning over everj' loose turf clod on a grubbed field of oats, af-
ter the young crop has evidently assumed an unhealthy hue. This hue should not be mistaken
for the yellowish tint exhibited by the plant when the support derived from the seed is exhaust-
ed, and before the rootlets have obtained sufficient scope in the ground to maintain the plant
The grub taint is of a bluish and reddish tint, and many of the plants evidently appear to be dy-
ing, and the consequence is, that large spaces are left without a plant The usual expedient em-
ployed by the farmer is rolling the ground, especially in the night ; but this is a useless remedy.
Holes have been recommended to be made a few inches asunder with the dibble, into which the
grubs, it is said will fall and perish; but why they should thus die when they can penetrate the-
ground, is what I cannot conceive. The ravages are generally committed in dry weather with an
easterly wind, and when rain falls they cease. It is surprising how a field will recover fi-om the
effects of grubbing. One season a field of mine, of fine deep hazel loam, after two years grass,
was dreadfully grubbed, and after trying the u.sual remedies to get quit of the insects without ef-
fect, a rainy night silenced them. Most of the field appeared bare after having exhibited a beau-
tiful braird, but on the plants recjuiring renewed growth, they tillered out with great force, and
covered the ground almost as thickly as desirable. At harvest the crop was a very strong one
the straw being difficult for women to cut with a common sickle ; the spikes were verj- large and
full ; the stooks, when set without hood-sheaves, stood about 6 feet in bight, and the yield was
not less than 60 bushels to the imperial acre. On good soil I would have no fear of potato oats
tillering out after being severely grubbed, sufficiently to afford a good crop; but such a result
should not be expected of common oats upon inferior soil.
(1824.) [Crrniii Drillinsr Machines. — The introduction of the drill-system into the agricultural
practice ot any country, will always form an era in the annals of its Agriculture : but it is often a
difiScult matter to define the precise time of its introduction, more especially when we find that,
by tracing backward into the history of man in his social capacities, the practice of drilling grain
extends backward to the most remote antiquity. A curious and interesting example of this, in an
antiquarian point of view, is to be seen in the scries of Hindoo models of agricultural implements
in the Museum of the Highland and Agricultural Society in Edinburgh. Among them is to be
seen a correct model of a rudely constructed drill machine possessing all the essential points
of the more elaborate modem implement ; and among a people so little liable to change, there
* Kirby and Spence'g Introduction to EnlomoloEy. vol. i.
t British Farmer's Magazine, vol vi. JQuarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. xL
(296>
SOWING OAT-SEED.
153
can be uo doubt that the machine is of very remote Crispin, compared with which, the earliest of
our modern drills are but things of the moment : and all of them, of whatever degree of merit, are
but improvements on the Hindoo original. Among the early notices of the introduction of the
system in England, we find Amos* recommending it as early as ITS'} as the result of numerous
comparative experiments ; and the figures which he gives of the drill sowing-machine, which
he recommends not as an original invention, but an amplification of that given by Duharael, is al-
most identical iu ever}' essential point with the most approved drill sowing-machine used in the
present day in England, and which may be held as the most perfect machine of its kind ; but
from the excessive elaboration employed in its construction, its high price lays an interdict upon
it-< introduction into the economical practice of Scotch farming, the price being at least six times
that of the common drill used in Scotland.
11825.) The mode of distributing the seed adopted in the broadcast sowing-machine, from the
simplicity of the principle, opened a ready means of acquiring a drill sowing-machine at a mode
rale price ; it accordingly quickly followed the introduction of the broadcast-machine, and until
very lately no change of importance has been made upon ihe common Scotch drill. Slight modi
fications, however, had been eii'ected occasionally, such as varying the distance between the rows,
the machine always covering the same breadth, but varying in the number of coulters. Thus, a
machine to cover 7^ feet in breadth, could change the number of its coulters from 11 to 10, 9 or 8,
the spaces between the rows being respectively 8, 9, 10, and 11 inches, or thereby.
(1826.) The Common or East Lothian Drill Sowi/iir-Mrtchine, has been here taken to illustrate
the principles of the machine. Though it may be deficient in some points as compared with those
of Berwickshire and B-oxburgshire, yet its extreme simplicity and cheapness has brought it into
Fig. 329.
SECTION OF THE COMMON DRILL SOWING-MACHINE.
very extensive adoption, not only in East Lothian, but in other districts where the drill-system is
followed. Fig. 325, Plate XXVII, is a view in perspective of this machine, and for the better
elucidation of its construction, the annexed cut, fig. 329, shows the arrangement of the parts in
longitudinal section, and for convenience of reference the letters mark corresponding parts in both
figures. The figures represent a machine of six rows, which is the size most generally used,
chiefly because it can be drawn by one horse ; but also in the event of its being employed along
swelling ridges, its covering but a small breadth secures a nearly equal depth for the deposition
of the seed, which cannot be easily done under the same circumstances if the machine is mounted
with a greater number of coulters. But it follows from the peculiarity of structure, the coulters
being permanently fixed in position for the depth to which they penetrate the soil, that the ma-
chine is best adapted for sowing across the ridge.s, and hence it is almost invariably worked in
that direction, though when worked in the direction of the ridge the breadth covered by the ma-
chine is equal to one-fourth of an 18-feet ridge.
(1827.) In the construction, a is a bed-plank 5 feet 1 inch in length, 14 inches in breadth, and
2^ inches in thickness. Across the ends of this are bolted the two side bars b b. each 33 inches
in length, 2| inches in depth, and 2J inches in breadth. These last are crossed by the bar m m,
bolted to the side-bars, serving a special purpose, to be afterward noticed ; and these four parts
form the simple frame-work of the machine. The seed-chest c is 4 feet 8 inches in length, placed
between the side-bars 6, and attached to these and the bed-plank. The chest may be about 10
inches in depth, 2^ inches wide at bottom, and 15 inches at top, with a hinged cover. The chest,
so mounted with the seed-wheels and axle g, fig. 329, and with side plate, lever, and adjusting
screw in all respects similar to the broadcast-machine (1801), except that, in place of the apron on
which the seed falls in the broadcast, the orifices deliver the seed directly into a small hopper-
ehaped aperture formed in the bed-plank, immediately under the orifice i, fig. 329. The carriage-
wheels d d axe 3 feet 1 inch in diameter ; the axle of one of them is seated in a strong bush or
plummer-block, and coupled to the small shaft of the seed- wheels, thereby giving them the re-
quisite motion, their revolution coinciding with that of the wheels, and the opposite wheel d turns
* Theory and Practice of DriU-Husbandry. By William Amos, 1802.
(297)
154
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
upon an axle fixed permanently upon Uie bed frame. The horse-shafts e are jointed to the bed
plank at /;, and appear broken oft' at f, fig. 329, by strap-and hook hinges, and the handles// are
bolted to the lower side of the bed plank. The coulters k k consist of an iron shank J iucli square,
furnished ai the lower end with a pointed sheath of sheet iron about 1-10 inch thick; tlie sides of
this sheuth, being about D inches broad, and ") inches or more in bight riveted upon the bottom of
the shank, which at this place is f()rj:,'ed into a wedge shape, to receive the sheath. The coulters are
fixed at loj) in mortises cut in the bed-plank, and lenced with plates of iron above and below,
where they are secured by means of wedges; and they are farther supported by the coullerbar
0. seen in section in fig. 3.!!t. This bar is bolted under the heel of the handles, and to it the coul-
ters are attached by eye-bolts. The seed on leaving the orifices, falls into tlie funnel-shaped recep-
tacle i in the upper side of the bed plank, from which it passes down the tube t t into the sheath of
the coulter, by which it is deposited into the rut formed by the sheath.
(1828.) From the construction and action of this machine, and the resistance of the soil to the
passage of the coulters through it, there is a constant tendency, produced by the traction of the
horse when the machine is in action, to elevate the extremity of the handles; and by thus swing-
ing upon the axle of the wheels the coulters are withdrawn from their action on the soil, and
from forminir the rut for the reception of the seed. The tendency thus produced being greater
than a man is capable of continuing to contend with, is counteracted by the application of the
balance-chain / /, as shown in fig. 3i9, producing a change of direction in the line of draught, and
of the point of attachment of the draught. In this machine the true point of attachment
is in the hinge h, fig. 329 ; and the tendency of the draught, when applied simply to this
point, is to cause the point h to approach an imaginary straight line lying between the
horse's shouldiT and the point of resistance at lower k in the figure, and the effect of this
is to bring h forward and downward, or to throw lower k backward till it loose hold of the
soil, thereby destroying the intended effect of the coulter. The counteraction of this is effected
by the po.sitiou of the balance chain, and its attachments to the machine. The first part of it is a
simple rod, fixed to the shafts at /, and to the extremity of a pendant attached to the hind bar of
the shafts at h ; the chain then passes under the coulter-bar o, and on to the cross bar of the han-
dles, as seen in fig. 325, Plate XXVII., where it terminates in a handle furnished with a spring-
catch, by which it can be hooked under tension, to the crossbar of the handles, or by disengaging
the catch, the chain hangs loose. 'When the chain is brought under tension, and the shafts borne
up by the horse, the resistance to the coulters is transferred to the back of the horse, through the
medium of the chain acting on the shaft at the point /, and on the pendant h, the point of which
being below the plane of the shaft, changes the direction of the tractive force from e A to c middle
1, and leaves the handles in a nearly quiescent state. The marker »n « is another appendage to
the machine, which, although not so necessary as the balance-chain, is generally applied to this
drill-machine, especially when sowing across the ridges. It consists of the bar to to. and the
marking-rod to h. The latter is swing-jointed on a stud fixed in the ends of the marker-bar to m,
and having a stop on the joint, by which cither of the markers can be retained in the position of
that on the further side of fig. 325, or let down, as in that of the nigh side. The use of the marker
is to trace a line on the surface of the ground parallel to the direction in which the machine trav-
els, and at a distance from the middle point of the surface covered by the machine, equal to the
entire breadth, so covered ; hence, on returning to sow the next breadth, the horse should walk
exactly upon the line drawn by the marker. In sowing with the machine here described, the
distance from line to line will be 4 feet 6 inches; the distance between the rows being 9 inches.
.The wheels are usually set 54 inches apart, measuring at the point where they rest on the
ground ; or their distance in any machine may be found by multiplying the number of coulters by
the number of inches given to the interval between the rows or coulters ; thus six coulters of 9
inches interval, give 6 X 9 = 54 inches. From the construction of the machine it is found, thai
when the balance-chain is under tension, the coulters are drawn to the ground, and the handles
also drawn downward ; but on releasing the chain, which is done at the land-ends and turnings,
the conductor must support the handles to keep the coulter from the ground, and in this state, if
the handles are let go when the machine is standing, the coulter will pass forward and the han-
dles will fall to the ground. To prevent this last inconvenience, a crutch is usually appended
to the marker-bar, which, on stopping, is allowed to drop to a perpendicular position, resting on
the ground, and thus keeps the machine upon a level. This appendage not being of much im-
portanc',', is left out of the figure.
(1829.) This sowing-machine has been long and successfully manufactured by Scouler and Com-
pany of Haddington ; and with slight variations by various other implement makers, as Morton,
Leith Walk, Kdinburgh ; James Slight and Company, Edinburgh, &.C. The price varies accord-
ing to the number of coulters, from i6 to £10.
(1830.) To render the expensive English drill machines Jwhich we have omitted, and which
cost in England from S.'iO to SOO,] more generally useful, it is not an uncommon practice in Eng-
land for the owner of one to travel the country with it at seed-time, and undertake to sow the
fields of any farm, where the farmer may choose to employ him. The charge is usually Ss. 6d. per
imperial acre, the farmer supplying the requisite number of horses to work the drill, and under-
taking to deliver it at the farm on which it is to be next employed.
(298)
THE LAMBING OF EWES. 155
13. THE LAMBING OF EWES.
"Ah gentle shepherd, thine the lot to tend,
Of all that feel distress the most assailed,
Feeble, defenceless ; lenient be thy care ;
But spread around thy tend'rest diligence
In tlow'ry spring-lime, when the new dropt lamb,
Tott'ring with weakness by his mother's side,
Feels the fresh world about him; and each thorn,
Hillock, or furrow, trips his feeble feet :
O guard his meek sweet innocence fiom all
Th' num'rous ills that rush around his life."
Dyeb.
(1831.) Tlie lambing season of Leicester and other heavy breeds of
sheep, reared in the arable part of the country, commences about the 11th
of March, and continues for about the space of 3 weeks. There is no
labor connected with the duties of the shepherd which puts his attention
and skill to so severe a test as the lambing season ; and a shepherd whose
unwearied attention and consummate skill become conspicuous at that
critical period of his flock's existence, is an invaluable sei'vant to a stock
farmer — his services, in fact, are worth far more than the amount of wages
he receives ; for such a man will save the value of his wages every year,
in comparison with an unskillful shepherd, and especially in a precarious
season, by so treating both the ewe and lamb, during the time, and for
some time after the lambing season, that the lives of many are preserved
that would otherwise have been lost. To make my meaning more plain,
suppose a shepherd that has attentively observed the tupping, and marked
the reckoning of every ewe, and who has put the ewes in proper time in
a suitable place to lamb in — that renders them requisite assistance, and
no more, at the proper instant of lambing, and treats them afterward ac-
cording to the circumstances of the weather — that sees the lamb supplied
with milk by day and night, when its mother happens to be unkind to it,
or feeds it with milk obtained elsewhere, when the ewe has too scanty a
supply to support it — that knows how to aiford relief to the ewe in case
of sickness and inflammation after lambing, and who castrates the lamb at
the proper period of its strength, and in the proper state of the weather —
that knows the manner how, and the time when, to put an additional lamb
to a ewe that has abundance of milk, and to take it from another which has
too little for a pair — suppose that by doing all this in a skillful manner,
night and day, until the lambing is not only entirely completed, but the
lambs reared beyond danger, he saves the lives of 10 ewes worth 40s.
each, and of 20 lambs, that will come to be worth 20s. each, and this is
no extravagant supposition in a large standing flock of fifteen scores of
ewes, it is clear that, in so doing, he will save his wages of c£40. Few
shepherds are so successful, although I have known two instances of such
success ; and no better proof need be adduced of the fewness of skillful
shepherds, than the loss which every breeder of sheep sustains every year,
especially in bad weather. I knew a shepherd who possessed unwearied
attention, but was deficient in skill, and being over-anxious, always assisted
the ewes in lambing before the proper time ; and as he kept the ewes in
too high condition, the consequence was, that every year he lost a number
of both ewes and lambs, and in one season of bad weather the ic«s amount-
ed to the large number of 26 ewes, and I forget of how many lambs, in a
(299)
156 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
flock of only 10 scores of ewes. I knew another shepherd who was far
fi"om being solicitous about his charge, though certainly not careless of it,
yet his skill was so undoubted that he chiefly depended upon it, and his
success was so eminent that the loss of a ewe or a lamb under his charge
was matter of suiprise. Of these two sorts of shepherds — tlie attentive
and the skillful — it would aj)pear that the skillful is the safer, and of
course the n)ore valuable', though it must be owned that it is better to pre-
vent evils by skillful attention, than to cure them by attentive skill; yet it
is only by the union of both these qualities that a perfect shepherd can be
formed. In contradistinction to a skillful shejiherd, whose qualifications
have been just noticed, let me advert to a few particulars mentioned by
Mr. Price as occurring, apparently as a matter of course, at the lambing
season. He says that in preparing ewes for lambing. " the ewes are driven
into a pound, and the looker takes them singly, throics them doicn, and
removes with the shears the wool on their tail, udders, and inside of their
thighs." If this is a common practice, think of its barbarity, of throwing
down a ewe on the ground big with lamb, nay, on the eve of lambing, in
order to remove a trifling impediment to the lamb's sucking, which can be
removed at any time after lambing. But there is a reason, it seems, for
this treatment, called clatting, and it is this : " The removal of the wool
renders the pait much weaker," — neatness of appearance being preferred at
this particular time to the comfort and ease of the animal — " and enables
the lamber to see ivhen the cioe has lamhed, from a stain which generally
appears on the back part of her udder. Were not this appearance to take
place, the lamber would sometimes he at a loss, as the young ewes frequently
desert their young, and endeavor to escape along with the other ewes
grazing with as much unconcern as if nothing had happened." Observe
here the great skill and attention of a shepherd who is at a loss to know
whether a ewe has lambed or not ; and who, it seems, does not even know
whether a ewe is in lamb or not, until he has thrown her down to remove
the wool ; for " the barren ewe, or those which are not pregnant, are dis-
tinguished at the time of clatting by not having any swelling in their udder
or belly, and by their skipping about nimbly." Think also of what sort
of care is bestowed on a newly lambed flock in a low country, when such
losses as these are incuired : " I have known thousands of lambs lost from
being drowned in a wet stormy night; I once beheld 30 or more lying
together drowned in a ditch. The ewes and lambs seek the corners of
pasture-fields during the continuance of severe weather, and when the
lambs get under these high shores and fall in, it is utterly impossible for
them to extricate themselves ; besides, as there are many huddled together,
they often push one another in." That lambing paddock must be strangely
managed which presents such a scene as this : " Lambing presents a scene
of confusion, disorder and trouble, which it is the lamber's business to rec-
tify, and for which he ought always to be prepared : some of the ewes
perhaps leave their lambs, or the lambs get intermixed, and the ewes
which have lost their lambs run about bleating, while others want assist-
ance." It seems a shepherd cannot recognize the lambs of ewes, and so
they must be marked. "The twins are marked with a mixture of tar and
lampblack, by means of small figures fixed in an iron handle about 8 inches
long;" "and the twin lambs are easily separated, for the ewe very frequently
walks away with one Isimb, leaving the other in the field, to the covfusion
of the lamher ; therefore they should be marked as early as possible to pre-
vent this confusion." " The lamber must take the lamb to its mother
which he will find out by its number;" and yet the number, it seems, will
not always enable the lamb to find out the mother ; for " if the lamber
^300)
THE LAMBING OF EWES. 157
finds a young lamb, and is not certain whicli may he its mother, a cii'cum-
stance which sometimes occurs when ewe's drop twins, and leave one of
them, he may readily discover her by taking away the lamb she is foster-
ing, and putting the doubtful one on in its stead, when she will display
evident tokens whether it belongs to her." This method of trial and error
the shepherd may have, of course, to put to every ewe before he dis-
covers the ti'ue mother; for as he knows neither the mother nor the
lamb, the lamb may chance to belong to a ewe which has a single lamb as
well as to one which has twins, unless the single lambs are left unmarked ;
or, at any rate, he may present the marked and known-to-be-a-twin lamb
to a ewe that has a single one, as readily as to one that has twins. It will
excite no surprise to learn that with shepherds so wretchedly qualified foi
their profession as the above particulars show, in " most years not more
lambs than one to each ewe" were obtained ; and that out of 800 ewes
of a certain flock only 100 pairs were saved, though it is stated by Mr.
Price that with more skill afterward the number of pairs increased to
200. Here, then, is an instance where the improved skill of one man
saved the lives of 200 lambs, which would come to be worth £200, equal-
ing the wages of at least 4 good shepherds.* I would not have noticed
these egregious blunders, said by Mr. Price to be committed by shepherds
in a low country like Romijey Marsh, in Kent, so prominently, had not Mr.
Youatt adopted the sentiments of Mr. Price in the very particulars quoted
above, in his excellent treatise on the history and diseases of sheep.t Were
a shepherd of a Leicester flock in Scotland made aware that he was sus
pected of such ignorance of the nature of sheep he would be quite ashamed;
and so would shepherds even of the hill country, who cannot have so inti
mate a knowledge of every individual of their flock, usually toccuying a
wide range of mountain land, as their brethren of the profession tending
flocks within much more limited bounds.
(1832.) Before the season of lambing an'ives, the shepherd should have
a small field of 1 or 2 acres or a sheltered corner of a grass-field of like
size, conveniently situated as near the steading as possible, fenced round with
nets, and fitted up with sheds made of hurdles set up in the most sheltered
part, against a wall or hedge, and lined in the inside and comfortably
roofed with straw. Such straw-sheds form most comfortable places of
refuge for ewes that may lamb in the night, or that have lambed in the
day, and require protection from frost, snow, rain, or cold in the night, until
the ewes are perfectly recovered from lambing, and the lambs sufficiently
strong to bear the weather in the open field. The small hand tumip-slicer,
fig. 245, will be found on such occasions a very convenient instrument, for
cutting turnips in such turnip-troughs as fig. 225, for the ewes in the pad-
dock, or in small boxes for them in the shed. Common kale or curly-greens
is excellent food for ewes that have lambed, the nuti'itive matter of which,
being mucilaginous, is wholly soluble in water, and beneficial in encourag-
ing the necessary discharges of the ewe at the time of lambing. According
to the late Geo. Sinclair, 1 lb., or 7,000 grains of green curled kale, {Brassi-
ca oleracea viridis,) yields 5,680 grains of water, 880 grains of wood fibre,
and 440 grains of nutritive matter, which last is all soluble in water.f In
these respects kale is better food for ewes after lambing than Swedish tur-
nips, which become rather too fibrous and astringent in spring for the se-
cretion of milk. A large lantern which sheds plenty of light is an essen
tial article of furniture at night to a shepherd. As foxes are apt to snatch
away young lambs at night even close to the lambing-houses, I have found
- Price on Sheep. t Youatt on Sheep.
J Sinclair'a Hortus Gramineus Woburnensis, edition of 1824.
(301)
158 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
an effectual preventive to their depredations in setting a shep-net, as in fig.
217, in front of the lambing-houses, leaving a sufficient space for a few
ewes with their lambs taking up their lair within the net. When thus
guarded, the foxes are afraid to enter the net, being apprehensive that it
is set as a trap to ensnare them. Such an expedient is even more neces-
sary in the corner of the field chosen for the lambing-ground. A large
lantern fixed on a stake within the lambing-ground, and so placed as to
throw light upon the whole ground, will be found a useful assistance
to the shepherd in showing him the ewes that evince symptoms of
lambing. A net and lantern are also good safeguards against foxes at
night in the grass-field where the recovered ewes with their lambs should
be gathered for the night. This expedient of net and lantern I was in-
duced to try after losing, for a year or two, several lambs by the fox ; and
such was its efficacy in deterring that nightly prowler from visiting the
lair of ewes and lambs, that not a lamb was lost ever after. A fox will not
meddle with a lamb above a month old.
(1833.) Being thus amply provided with the means of accommodation,
the shepherd, whenever he observes the predisposing symptoms of lambing
in as many ewes as he knows will lamb first — and these symptoms are, en-
largement and reddening of the parts under the tail, and drooping of the
flanks — he places them of an afternoon, within the enclosed lambing-
gr(jund in the paddock or field, as described above, and provides them
with cut turnips. The more immediate symtoms of lambing are when the
ewe stretches herself frequently ; separating herself from her companions ;
exhibiting restlessness by not remaining in one place for any length of time ;
lying down and rising up again, as if dissatisfied with the place; pawingthe
ground with a fore-foot ; bleating as if in quest of a lamb; and appearing
fond of the lambs of other ewes. In a very few hours, or even shorter time,
after the exhibition of these symptoms, the immediate symptom of lamb-
ing is the expulsion of the bag of water from the vagina, which, when ob-
served, the ewe should be narrowly watched, for the pains of labor may
be expected to come on immediately. When these are felt by her, the
ewe presses or forces with earnestness, changing one place or position for
another, as if desirous of relief Up to this time, not ahand should be put
upon her, nor until the hoofs of the fore-feet of the lamb, and its mouth
lying upon them, are distinctly seen to present themselves in the passage.
(1834.) The natural presentation of the lamb is the same as that of the
calf, described in (1653). When time has been given to obsene that the
ewe is not able to expel the lamb by her own exertions, it is the duty of
the shepherd to render her assistance, before her strength fails by unavail-
ing pressing. The exact moment for rendering assistance can only be
known by experience ; but it is necessary for a shepherd to know it, as
there is no doubt that hasty parturition often superinduces inflammation,
if not of the womb itself, at least of all the external parts. When assist-
ance should be rendered, the ewe is laid gently over upon the ground on
her near or left side, and her head a little up the hill ; and to prevent her
being dragged on the ground when the lamb is being extracted, the shep-
herd places the heel of his left foot against the belly of the ewe, and kneels
on his right knee on the ground across the body of the ewe, which lies be-
tween his heel and knee, with his knee pressing against her rump. Hav-
inrr both his hands free, and his face toward the tail of the ewe, he first
proceeds to push out from him, with both hands, one leg of the lamb and
then the other, as far as they will go ; then seizing both legs firmly, above
the fetlock joints, between the fingers of his left hand, he pushes them from
him downward from the ewe's back, with considerable force, while by
(302)
THE LAMBING OF EWES. 159
pushing in the space between the tail of the ewe and the head of the
lamb toward him, with the side of his right hand, he endeavors to slip the
the vulva of the ewe over the cantle of the lamb. These pushes are only-
given simultaneously with the pressing of the ewe, merely to assist her, and
keep good what is obtained at each pressing, and not, as it were, to tear
the lamb from her perforce. Whenever the head is cleared, the shepherd
seizes the neck of the lamb behind the head with the right hand, and pulls
out the body. The lamb is then placed at the ewe's head, for her to lick
and i-ecognize, which she will instantly do, if her labor has not been se-
vei'e ; but if it has she will likely become sick, and be careless of the lamb
as long as the sickness continues, which is evinced by quick breathing. If
the pains have been very sharp, and thisher first lamb, and she is not over-
come by sickness, she may start to her feet, and run away from the lamb.
The attempt should, of course, be prevented, and the tail of the lamb put
into her mouth to make her notice it. While still lying on her side, her
abdomen should be felt, to ascertain if there is another lamb to come ; and
if there is, the pains accompanying its passage may have been the cause
of her carelessness for the first lamb ; and if the second one is in natural
position, it will most probably by this time be showing itself in the passage,
and if this be the case, the best plan is to take it away in the same man-
ner as the first, and the ewe feeling the attempt, will at once assist on her
part by pressing. The existence of a second lamb is worth attending to
on another account, inasmuch as some ewes become so engi'ossed with the
first lamb, that the pains attending the second are neglected by them, and
they will indicate no signs of it for a time. When a second is found in her
she must be watched, that whenever it comes into the passage, it may be
taken away; butunlesss it actually makes its appearance there, it should
not be attempted to be taken away. Should it not make its appearance in
a reasonable time, it may be suspected that the lamb is either dead, or not
in a natural position, and examination should be made by the fingers into
the state of the case. A dead lamb is easily known by the feel, and should
be extracted immediately, as it can afford no assistance of itself ; but should
the lamb be alive, it may be necessary to introduce the hand to ascertain
its position. Before the hand is introduced, it should be smeared over
with goose grease. If the head is bent back, it must be placed straight, or
if one leg or both be folded back, they must be brought forward, one by
one, into the proper position. In short, all the presentations offered by a
lamb require the same means to be used to place them in a proper posi-
tion, as in the case of a calf; but with a Leicester ewe there is the addi-
tional difficulty of two, and even more, lambs at a birth, and mistaking a
leg of one lamb for that of another. The method of extracting a lamb as
described above, is adopted by a shepherd who has no assistants; but when
he has assistance, he adopts another and more easy plan for himself. The
assistant holds the ewe in any way the most easy for her and himself, so
as to prevent the body being dragged along the ground while the shepherd
is extracting the lamb, which he does by placing himself behind the ewe,
and performs the extraction by pulling the legs toward him, while the as-
sistant endeavors to make the vaginal skin pass over the lamb's head,
which, when accorapUshed, the shepherd seizes the neck by his left hand,
and holds the legs still in his right, takes away the lamb as quickly as he
can, and places it before the ewe. There is a great difference in the dis-
position of ewes to assist in lambing. Some, when they find they are as-
sisted, give themselves httle trouble ; while others press with vigor from
first to last; and others only press at long intei-vals. A ewe that presses
strongly and continuously, will become sooner exhausted than one that
1303)
160 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
takes more leisure, and in the former case there is more danger in neglect
ing to make examination ol' the presentation in time, that is, before the
ewe has become exhausted. I remember of seeing a lamb's head without
any of the legs protruded by the ewe, and, being allowed to remain in that
state too long, the lamb was found strangled to death by the force of
pressing. This was a case of neglect, as the head should not have been
allowed to come out without one accompanying leg at least. I remember
of another case in which there was no appearance of a lamb, though the
ewe had pressed for a consideiable time. On examination it was found
that the mouth of the womb was closed up. Inflammation had no doubt
at one time existed, and a discharge of lymph had caused adhesion. The
shepherd, nothing daunted, very ingeniously introduced, in his smeared
hand, a pen-knife, between the middle and fore-finger, and cut an incision
across the pursed mouth of the womb, and thereby liberated two lambs,
and the ewe was not at all the worse for the operation.
(1835.) When lambing has taken place in the day, the ewe with her
lambs are best at liberty within the inclosed area of the lambing ground,
but in rain or snow, she should be taken under shelter to lamb, and kept
there for some time until the weather prove better, or she be completely
recovered from the effects of paiturition. Should she lamb at night, it
should be under cover, whatever may be the slate of the weather. In the
day, it matters not for lambs how cold the air is, provided it is dry. The
cleaning or placenta generally drops from the ewe in the course of a very
short time, in many cases within a few minutes, after lambing. It should
be carried away, and not allowed to lie upon the lambing ground. The
lamb is fondly licked by the ewe at first, and during this process makes
many fruitless attempts to gain its feet, but it is surprising how very
soon after an easy lartli it can stand ; and the moment it does so, its first
effort is to find out the teat, expressing its desire for it, by imitating the
act of sucking with its lips and tongue, uttering a plaintive cry, and wag-
ging its long tail. It is considered a good sign of health when a lamb
trembles after biith. There are various obstacles to its finding the teat at
first ; the long wool on the ewe's flank hides it, the wool on the udder in-
terferes with it, and what is still more tantalizing to the anxious toper, the
intense fondness of its own mother urges her to turn herself to fondle it
with her mouth — uttering affectionate regards — but the motion has the ef-
fect of removing the teat, the veiy object of its solicitude. When at length
a hold of what it wants is attained, it does not easily let it go until satis-
fied with a good drink. When a fond ewe has twin lambs, one can easily
obtain the teat, while she is taken up in caressing the other. This is the
usual conduct of strong lambs ; and on once being filled with warm milk,
progress rapidly to increasing strength, and are soon able to bear very rough
weather. But lambs after a protracted labor, or the first lamb of young ewes,
are so weakly at first as to be unable to reach the teat by their own strength,
when they must be assisted, and the assistance is given in this way. Turn-
ing the ewe over upon her rump, the shepherd reclines her back against
his left leg, which is bent, while he supports himself kneeling on the light
one. Removing any wool from the udder by the hand, and which is all
that is necessary, without clatting or doddcrinp, as it is called in Scotland,
he first presses the wax out of the teats, and then takes a lamb in each
hand, by the neck, and opens the mouth with a finger, and applies the
mouth to a teat, when the sucking proceeds with vigor. A young ewe or
gimmer is apt to be shy to her first lamb ; but after she has been suckled,
either in this or in the natural way, she will never forsake her offspring.
Indeed, it is a good plan for a shepherd to give every lamb its first suck
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THE LAMBING OF EWES. 161
in this way, as it not only saves it much trouble, and puts it in the way of
gaining strength rapidly, but affojds Inmself a favorable opportunity of ex-
amining the state of the udder, whether it is in a proper state for yielding
milk, or feels hard, or is inflamed. The proper treatment of the udder
when in an inflamed state will be found below. Gimmers have so scanty
a supply of milk that it is expedient for the shepherd to support their
lambs partially on cow's milk, until they can afford the requisite supply,
which will be induced partly by suckling, and partly from new grass.
When the shepherd has lambs to support for a short time, he should
supply them with milk at regular times, such as in the moniing and
evening, and see that the lambs are suckled by their mothers during the
day, and thus endeavor to bring on a suflRciency of milk. The dairy-
maid should put the cow's milk for the shepherd in bottles, at the hours
when the cows are milked, in the morning and evening, and he adminis-
ters it to young lambs while warm from the cow, and it is done in this
way : Sitting down, let him take a mouthfull of milk from a bottle, and
holding up the open mouth of the lamb, he pours the warm milk into it in
a small stream from his mouth ; and thus mouthfull after mouthfull until
the lamb is filled. This auxiliary supply of milk should be withheld the
moment the ewe can support her lambs herself, for cow's milk is not so
congenial to a lamb's constitution as that of its own mother. The ewes
are kept on the lambing ground till they have completely recovered from
the effects of lambing and the lambs have become strong, and the ewes
and lambs have become well acquainted with each other. The time re-
quired to accomplish this depends on the nature of the lambing, and the
stale of the weather. The ewes, with their lambs, are then put into a field
of new grass, where the milk will flush upon the ewes, much to the advan-
tage of the lambs. It is generally a troublesome matter to drive ewes
with young lambs to any distance to a field, because of the ewes always
turning round and bewildering the lambs. A dog more frequently irri-
tates the ewes than assists the shepherd in this task. I believe the best
plan is to lead the flock instead of driving it, by canying a single lamb,
belonging to an old ewe, by the fore legs, which is the safest mode of
carrying a lamb, and walking slowly with it before the ewe, while she will
follow bleating close at the shepherd's heels, and the rest of the ewes will
follow her of course. If the distance to the field is considerable, the de-
coy lamb should be set down to suck and rest. With plenty of food, and
a safeguard of net and lantern at their lair at night, to keep off" the foxes.
the flock will not fail to thrive apace. In case this safeguard is not adopt-
ed, and which I believe is rare, it may be proper to tell you the distinctive
maiks of the attacks of a dog from that of foxes on a lamb flock. The
fox always attacks a lamb on the neck behind the head, and, if scared from
his purpose, distinct holes made by the teeth will be found on each side
of the neck, whereas a dog seizes any part of the body, and worries by the
under part of the neck. Some ewes will fight off* either dog or fox, and
be able to protect a single lamb ; while others become so frightened at
once from an attack, that they do not know whither to flee for refuge.
After such an attack, the bleatings of the ewes and lambs in search of
each other, which is an unusual occuiTence at night, will soon acquaint
the shepherd that some disaster has happened to his flock. The fox, if not
immediately disturbed, cairies off" his prey, while the dog womes and
leaves behind him what he does not eat.
(1836.) All the preceding cases of lambing are easy to the shepherd,
but others usually occur which put his skill to the test. Malformations of
the body of the lamb create difficult parturition, and endanger the life of
(305) 11
162 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
the ewe. It is almost impossible to bring the head of a wry-necked lamb
into the passage of the womb, but it must be done before the entire body
can be extracted, and if not, the head of the lamb should be taken off
rather than the ewe should lose her life. Sometimes twin laml« die in
the womb several days before the period of lambing, and as they cannot
present themselves to the birth, they must be extracted by force, or even
cut away in pieces, or they may be pulled away in pieces. In such a case
the placenta will be corrupted, and it may be a considerable time before
it is entirely got rid of by the ewe by pressing. I have seen it so corrupt-
ed that it came away in discharges from the ewe as black and as viscid as
tar. When twins are about to be lambed, the only care required is to
ascertain that each is presented separately. A breech presentation is a
difficult one, and the extraction is impracticable until the hind-legs are
first brouorht out ; and in extracting by the breech, the operation should
be done quickly at the last to prevent the lamb drowning in the liquor
amnii. In all cases of extraction, it should be made a point to have the
back of the lamb next to the back of the ewe.
(1S37.) Much trouble is experienced by shepherds when ewes will not
take their own lambs. A ewe that beats off her own single lamb and en-
deavors to purloin one from another ewe, should be immediately put into
the shed and confined to a spot by a short string tied above the fetlock
joint of one of her fore-legs to a stub dnven into the ground. AVhen she
endeavors to leave her lamb, the string pulls her foot off the ground, and
while her attention is taken up with the string, the lamb seizes the teat
and sucks in the mean time. The stratagem often repeated takes the
courage from her, and makes her take with the lamb. Tn every case of a
ewe refusing to let her lamb suck, the shepherd should particularly exam-
ine the udder, and see there is no inflammation or uneasiness in it ; and
if there is, he should endeavor to remove it before putting the ewe under
discipline. It is surprising how soon a lamb learns to steal a suck from a
ewe ; if it cannot approach by the flank, it will seize the teat from behind
between the hind legs. When a ewe will allow but one of her twins to
suck her, she should be held till both suck her, and in a little time she will
take with both. It is not suiprising that one ewe should refuse to take
the lamb of another ; and yet it is necessary when a lamb is left an orphan,
or is a supernumerary, to mother it, as it is termed, upon another ewe.
For example, when a gimmer that has little milk has twins at a time when
another ewe that has plenty of milk produces a single lamb, it is for the
benefit of both ewe and lamb that the ewe which has plenty of milk
should bring up two lambs ; and the transference is easily enough accom-
plished while all the lambs are still wet, and two of them are placed be-
fore the ewe at once ; but when a ewe does not die till two or three days
after she has lambed, it will be difficult to make another ewe that lambs a
single lamb, as the other ewe dies, take the older lamb along with her
own. The usual plan in such a case is to rub the body of the older lamb
with the new dropped one, before the new lambed ewe has had an op-
portunity of recognizing her own lamb, and to place both before her at the
same time ; and she may take both without scruple ; but the probability
is that she will reject the older one, when she should be put into a dark
corner of the shed and confined in it by a board placed across the comer,
only giving her room to rise up and lie down, and to eat, but not to turn
quickly round upon the stranger lamb, which, rubbing against her wool,
and sucking her against her inclination, will soon acquire the odor of her
own lamb, and ingratiate itself in her favor. Another case of difficulty is
when a twin lamb dies at birth from a ewe that has plenty of milk, while
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THE LAMBING OF EWES. 163
another ewe has had twins and is unable to support them ; and the expe-
dient is to strip the skin immediately off the new-born dead lamb and sew
it on the body of one of the lambs belonging to the other ewe, and pre-
sent both the foster-lamb and her own at the same time to the ewe that
has plenty of milk. It is probable that the dark corner will require to be
used before a cordial reception is given to the foster-lamb. Should all the
above expedients fail to mother the lambs upon the ewes — and they may
fail, though under the guidance of a skillful shepherd they seldom do —
the lambs should be taken away and brought up as jjets on cow's milk.
(1838.) The lamb of a fat ewe is always small when lambed, and is
plump and lively, but the ewe in that state runs a great risk in lambing of
inflammation in the passage of the womb. A lean ewe bears a lamb large
in the extremities, and thin and weak in the body. A very old ewe's lamb
is both small and weak. The lamb of a gimmer is small, and she not hav-
ing sufficient milk to rear it, continues small ; and the lamb of a hogg is
still worse off. The best plan of managing ewes for rearing good lambs,
is to keep them always in fair condition in winter, and until they have
lambed, after which event they should have the best grass the farm can
afford. New grass always produces abundance of milk, and it springs
earlier than old. In case of snow covering the ground in spi'ing, when
the ewes are heavy in lamb, they should get a few turnips and plenty of
hay, and clover-hay if possible, until the ground is again clear ; but in
open weather in winter, there is nothing better for them than gi-ass which
had been kept rough for the purpose in autumn. While confined on the
lambing-ground, ewes should have turnips and hay to support them ; and
after lambing there is nothing better for them than cabbage or kale, in de-
fault of which a little oil-cake will encourage, at that time, the necessary
dischai'ges and purify the body. New grass also operates medicinally on
the system.
(1839.) It is necessary to say a few words on the rearing of fet lamhs.
Wherever these are there must be orphans or supernumeraries in the flock,
and, in either case, the deserted creatures would die were they not reared
by hand. As a remarkable instance of lambs being obliged to be made
pets from supernumerary births, I remember one season, in a small flock
of Leicester ewes, 50 in all, 48 having twins, and two trines. The two
lambs which constituted the trines were properly taken away to relieve
the ewes, and brought up by hand as pets. When ewes die it is scarcely
possible avoiding having pets, on account of the improbability of ewes
lambing single lambs just in time to receive those that have become or-
phans. Pet lambs are supported on cow's milk, which they receive warm
from the cows each time they are milked, and as much as they can drink.
In the intervals of meals, in bad weather, they are kept under cover, but
in good weather they are put into a gi-ass paddock during the day, and
under shelter at night until the nights become warm. They are fed by
hand out of a small vessel, which should contain as much milk as is known
each can drink. They are first taught to drink out of the vessel with the
fingers like a calf (1683), and as soon as they can hold a finger steady in
the mouth, a small tin tube, about 3 inches in length, and of the thickness
of a goose quill, should be covered with several folds of linen, sewed
tightly on, to use as a substitute for a teat, and by which they will drink
their allowance of milk with great ease and celerity, A goose quill would
answer the same purpose, were it not that it is easily squeezed together
by the mouth. When the same person feeds the lambs — and this should
be the dairy-maid — the lambs soon become attached to her, and would fol-
low her everywhere ; but to prevent their bleating, and to make the^
(307)
164
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
Fig. 3i25.
THE SHEPHERD 3
CROOK.
contented, an apron or a piece of cloth, hung on a stake or bush in the
paddock, will keep them together.
(1840.) A very common method practiced by shepherds of Leicester
eheep, when they wish to catch a ewe to give a weakly twin lamb a suck,
or to examine the state of her udder, is to stoop down and run in upon hei
from behind and seize her by a hind leg. This is a safe
enough mode of catching a sheep when dexterously done;
but when it fails, that is, when the captor cannot keep
himself out of view until he seizes the ewe, she will start
and run oft', and alarm the other ewes beside her, and ev-
ery alarm to a ewe, whether lambed or about to lamb, is
injuiious, and at any rate cannot do any good. In these
circumstances, a crook does the same thing more quietly
and as securely. It consists of a round rod of iron, bent
in the form shown in fig. 325, furnished at the point with a
knob, that the animal may not be injured by a sharp point,
and at the other end with a socket, which receives a long
shaft of wood, 5 or 9 feet long, according to fancy. The
hind-leo- is hooked in at a, from behind the sheep, and it
fills up the narrower part beyond a, while passing along it
until it reaches the loop, when the animal is caught by the
hock, and when secured its foot easily slips through the
loop. Some caution is required in using the crook, for
should the sheep give a sudden start forward to get away,
the moment it feels the crook, the leg will be drawn forci-
bly throuo-h the narrow part, and strike the bone with
8uch violence against the bend of the loop as to cause the animal consid-
erable pain, and even occasion lameness for some days. On first em-
bracino- the leo-, the crook should be drawn quickly toward you, so as to
brino- the bend of the loop against the leg as high up as the hock, before
the sheep has time even to break off", and being secure, its struggles will
cease the moment your hand seizes the leg.
(1841.) When those male lambs which are not to be kept as tups attain
the ao-e of from 10 days to a month, they are castrated. Some Ijreeders
advocate castration in a day or two after birth, while others will not allow
the operation to be performed until the lamb is one month old. My opin-
ion is, that both these periods are extremes. A lamb of a day old cannot
be confirmed in all the functions of its body, and indeed in many instances
I question whether the testicles can then be found. At a month old, on
the other hand, the lamb may be so fat and the weather warm, that cut-
ting may be attended with febrile action. I prefer the operation being
j>erformed at from 10 to 15 days, when the creature has attained some
strength, and yet its parts have not yet become rigid. Castration is per-
formed in this way. Let the assistant hold the body and both legs, one
in each hand, as represented in fig. 32G. The shepherd then causes the
testicles to press the scrotum a smooth ; and making an incision through
the integuments of the scrotum to the testicles, he pushes out one testicle
farther than the other, seizes it with his teeth and draws out the spermatic
cord until it breaks, and does the same with the other testicle, when the
operation is finished. Advantage is taken of the o])portunity to dock the
tail, which is left at c as long as to reach to the meeting of the hams. In
performing docking, the division should be made in a joint, otherwise the
portion of the vertebra which has been cut through will have to be
sloughed off" before the wound can heal. Ewe lambs are also docked at
this time, but they are not held up for the operation, being merely caught
(308)
THE LAMBING OF EWES.
165
Fig. 326.
THE CASTRATION OF LAMBS.
and held until it is done. In England, docking is performed at the third
joint, which leaves a mere stump of a tail. The male lamb, after being
docked, is let down to the ground by the tail, which has the effect, it is
said, of righting the parts about the scrotum
after castration. The same opportunity is
taken to mark the ears of lambs, and in the
case of stock in hill farms, where it is not
easy to gather flocks frequently, the opera-
tion is now easily performed ; but as Leices-
ter lambs are not marked in the ear at this
time, I shall defer describing that operation
until its proper season in summer. The
scrotum does not bleed in castration, but the
tail sometimes bleeds for a long time in two
minute and forcible streams, though usually
the bleeding soon stems. Should it continue
so long as to sicken the lamb, a small cord
should be tied firmly round the end of the
tail, but this must not be allowed to remain
on above 24 hours, as the point of the tail
would slough off. The object of docking is
to keep the sheep behind clean from filth
and vermin ; but as the tail is a protection against cold in winter, it should
not be docked too short, as is the case in England. Tup-lambs are al-
lowed to retain their full tails until a year old, in order to strengthen the
back. Great caution is required in castrating lambs ; it should not be
done in rainy weather, nor in very cold weather, nor in fiost ; nor should
the lambs be heated before the operation. It is best performed early in the
morning, in fresh weather, with a westerly breeze. The ewes and lambs
should be driven gently to a corner of the field, but not by the dog, whose
duty is only to prevent a ewe breaking away. One assistant should catch
the lambs, and another hold them while the shepherd operates. It is not
easy to catch a lamb with a sheep's crook, their small, active limbs easily
escaping from the loop, but it may be effectually used in hooking the neck,
when the captor runs in upon the lamb and secures it. Where there is a
bught or open shed in a field, the lambs and ewes may be driven loosely
in, and the lambs captured there. The old-fashioned mode of castrating
lambs is to cut off the point of the scrotum and extract both testicles by
the large incision ; but the extensive wound thus made takes a considera-
ble time to heal, whereas the simple incision now m.ade heals almost al-
ways by the first intention. In some cases, however, inflammation ensues,
and the scrotum swells, and even suppurates, when the wound should be
carefully examined, the matter discharged, and the wound soon heals up.
The operation should always be done in the morning, that the several
cases may be observed during the day ; and should the weather have
changed for the worse toward the afternoon, the ewes, with the lambs that
have just been cut, should be brought into shelter all night. Besides the
state of the weather, one cause of inflammation is the scratching of the
wound of the scrotum by the points of the stubble among the new grass,
and this irritation is most likely to be induced when the castration has
been performed by cutting off the point of the scrotum. To avoid this
source of initation, the new cut lambs should be put into a field of new
grass where the stubble is short, or into a field of old grass for a few days.
Hill lambs should be driven the night before being castrated into a bught
or inclosure where they will be ready and cool for the operation in the
(309)
166 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
morning. The practice of applying turpentine to the incision on the scro-
tum gives unnecessary pain and serves no good purpose. Sometimes one
of the testicles does not descend into the scrotum, in which case the lamb
becomes what is called a chaser, that is, one who constantly chases the fe-
males of the flock, when near him, from morbid desire.
(1842.) These are the various risks which ew6s and lambs are subject
to, until they may be said to be beyond danger; and when they have
passed through these several trials in safety, the shepherd may calculate
on the result of his success — he may then endeavor to ascertain whether
he has increased the breeding part of his flock in the proportion it should
have increased. He should not be satisfied with his exertions, unless he
has preserved one-half the number of ewes with twin-lambs, nor should
he congratulate himself, if he has lost a single ewe in lambing. I am
aware these results cannot always be commanded, but I believe an atten-
tive and skillful shepherd will not be satisfied for all his toil, night and
day, for three weeks, if he has not attained these results. The ewes may
have lambed twins to gieater number than the half, and yet many pairs
may have been broken to supply the deficiencies occasioned by the deaths
of single lambs. The death of single lambs is a vexatious matter to a
shepherd, as it not only breaks his pairs, but imposes very considerable
trouble on him in mothcrhg the severed twins upon other ewes ; and yet
the trouble must be undertaken to retain the ewes that have lost their
lambs in milk, and so maintain them in proper condition for future years.
In fine, steady weather, the shepherd proceeds with his labor in compara-
tive ease ; but when stormy or wet weather prevails, or comes at unex-
pected intervals, the number of lambings are not only accelerated, but
every ewe most probably creates some trouble even in the day time. True,
" daylight has many eyes," and permits him to observe many casualties in
time to remedy their effects ; but at night, in bad weather, with glimmer-
ing light, difficulties increase tenfold, and so sensibly have I witnessed
these difficulties myself, I am convinced every farmer of a large flock
would find it repay it at the end of the lambing season, in the increased
number of preserved lambs and ewes, to afford the shepherd assistance at
mght in the most busy period of the lambing season, according to the cii--
cumstance of the case. In regard to Cheviots, it is considered a favorable
result to rear a lamb for each ewe ; and with Black-faced ewes, 18 lambs
out of the score of ewes is perhaps one as favorable. Cheviots yield a
few pairs. Black-faced very few. The former sometimes require assist-
ance in lambing, the latter seldom.
(1843.) The state of the new grass-fields occupied by ewes and lambs
requires consideration. Ewes bite very close to the ground, and eat con-
stantly as long as the lambs are with them ; and as they are put on the
new grass in the latter part of March, before vegetation is usually much
advanced, they soon render the pasture bare when overstocked, and the
weather is unfavorable to vegetation. In cold wccathcr in spring, bitten
grass soon becomes brown. Whenever the pasture is seen to fail, the
ewes should be removed to another field, for if the plants are allowed to
be bitten into the heart in the early part of the year, the greater portion
of summer will elapse ere they will recover from the treatment. In steady
growing weather there need be little apprehension of failure in the pas-
ture. The sown pastures consisting chiefly of red clover and rye-grass,
the clover is always acceptable to sheep ; and in the early part of the sea-
son young shoots of rye-grass are much relished by ewes. On removing
the stock from the first to the second field, it is better to eat the first down
as low as it safely can be for the plants, in order to hain it, that is, to leave
(310)
THE LAMBING OF EWES. 167
it for at least a fortnight, to allow the young plants to spring again with
vigor, and which they will do with a much closer bottom than if the field
had been pastured for a longer time with fewer stock. Such a field eaten
down to the end of May or beginning of June, and allowed to spring af-
terward in fine growing weather, will yield a much heavier crop of hay
than if it had not been depastured in spring at all. Although the whole
breadth of young grass on a farm pastured lightly with ewes and lambs in
the spring were to grow, as the season advances more rapidly than the
ewes could keep it down, it will never produce the fine, sweet, fresh pas-
ture which field after field will yield that has been eaten down in succes-
sion, and then entirely hained for a time. But in removing ewes and
lambs from a short to a full bite of grass, considerable caution is requisite
in choosing the proper time for the removal. It should be accomplished
in dry weather, and in the afternoon ; because, continued damp or rainy,
or cold wet weather, renders new grass so succulent and fermentable as
almost certain to produce the green skit in lambs that are put upon it, al-
though the damp weather should increase the ewes' milk.
(1844.) Carse farms have neither a standing nor a flying stoclv of ewes, and consequently, have
no lambing season; neither have farms in the neighborhood of large towns, nor dairy farms, nor
pastoral ones for the breeding of cattle ; so that ewes and lamb.s are only found on pastoral farms
that are devoted to the breeding of sheep, or on farms of mixed husbandry. But pastoral farms
rear breeds of sheep very different in their nature from the breed, the management of which, I
have described. On our hills, the Cheviot and Black-faced, or Heath sheep, were long the only
inhabitants, but now the valuable Soulhdowns are added to the list. The Cheviot and Southdown
range along semi-upland green mountain pastures, such as the Downs and the green hills of Che-
viot, in England, and the green hills of Ochils, Sidlaws and the Lammermuir group, which
stretches across the south of Scotland ; while the Blackfiiced roam on the highest mountains, not
only as far as a plant of heath can grow, but even beyond it, in the regions of the cryptogamia.
(1845.) In as far as the assistance of the shepherd is required to be given to ewes in the act of
lambing, the observations I have made in reference to the lambing of Leicester ewes will apply to
those of the Cheviot, Southdown and Black-faced breeds; but the ewes of these breeds do not
require assistance nearly to the same extent as Leicester ewes, the lambs of the latter being gen-
erally larger in proportion to the ewes, and they are more square-built in form. Single lambs of
the other breeds are generall3' brought forth without any assistance, and twin-lambs are so few
that the ewes bearing them may be singled out for remarkable attention. A Cheviot single lamb
soon gets on foot after being lambed, and its acute instinct as soon directs it to the teat. The
Black-faced lamb is fully more active after being dropped, gaining its feet in a few minutes, and
its rough coat of wool serves to protect it at once from the weather. Placed in shelter derived
from one of the many natural inequalities of the ground common in a pastoral country, both these
breeds may easily be tended in the lambing during the day; but the constant attention required
of the shepherd limits his ability to superintend, at this particular period, a lambing flock bej'ond
a certain number; 400 ewes are as many as one shepherd can superinted in the course of the day,
to render them the as.sistance they may stand in need of; to see that the new lambed ewes and
lambs are placed in shelter until they have both perfectly recovered, and are able to take to the
pasture ; and, in case of bad weather, to see that the ewes are supplied with some turnips and
hay, to enable them to support their lambs until the weather becomes favorable. If one shep-
herd fulfills these duties in the daj-, he does quite enough, so that it will be necessary to have
an assistant for him in the night, to see that the ewes are gathered into the shelter at nightfall, and
to take a weakly lamb, or all the lambs that have dropped during the night, into sheds erected on
purpose as a protection against bad weather. To ascertain the state of his flock, he should go
through them with a lantern, at least every two hours, and oftener if necessary. Lord Napier
I'ecommends the construction of a '•lavtbi/i^ park," for the use of ewes, and gives the cost of
making one to comprehend 25 acres of ground, which shall accommodate 200 ewes, with 2 stells
and 2 stell-houses, and hay-racks, at ^^90, which, at 7 per cent, interest, with repairs of racks, &c.,
will incur an annual cost of £7 5s. 8d. for sheep.* Such a place of shelter and of inclosure would,
no doubt, be useful to a certain extent, but only to a limited extent: for such a park can only be
in one part of the grazings, where at times it will no doubt be exposed to the weather, and as 25
acres would only contain 1-5 of the flock at a time, in stormy weather the rest of the flock, whether
already lambed or yet to lamb, require shelter as well as ewes expected to Iamb ; and the dividing
of the flock every day to get the 200 ewes with their lambs out, and other 200 driven in, would
make a serious commotion among them at a very critical period of the ewes. I cannot help thinking
that a chosen spot selected to afford shelter, according to the circumstances of the weather, to all
the ewes yet to lamb within a given time, and where they could be partly supported on artificial
food, while those which have lambed could occupy at night a sheltered part of the best portion ot
the pastures, would disturb lambing ewes far less than a lambing park which was not constantly
occupied by all the ewes. It should be remembered that hill sheep cannot be so easily shiftedfrom
one place to another as Leicester sheep, and especially in a grazing which has few or no mclo-
* Napier on Practical Store Farming.
(311)
168 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
sares. Small pieces of English blanketing, to be kept dry when not in use. to wrap round and
keep warm a weakly lamb in ilic shed, until it has recovered by the eflect of its mother's milk, or
by warm cow's milk administered by the shepherd, will he found a u.scful article by every shep-
herd, and may be the means of prcHervinij the life of many n lamb. Many a lamb I have seen
recruited by this means, when it would have otherwise perished of inanition. The period of
lambing, in hill sheep, is longer than that of Leicester, because the gimmers are not tupped in
the auliimn until a fortnight after the ewes, and, of course, do not begin to lamb in the spring
until a fortnight later. The ewes begin to lamb about the 20th April, and the gimmers a fortnight
after. To strengthen the gimmers, and to bring a flu.«h of milk upon them, they are st^parated
from the ewes about a month before llicir lambing time, and are supplied with turnips to the
amount of a double horse-load, say \T> cwts., to every 100 or 120 gimmers. About a fortnight be-
fore the ewes lamb, they get the same quantity of turnips for every 160 ewes. In mountain
farms, where there are no turnips, hay should be sui)plied in the same manner to gimmers and
ewes. A (|uantity of hay, expended at this time, will be more than repaid in the safety of lambs
and vigor of ewes, especially in unfavorable weather.
(18-1»>.) These few observations of Mr. Little on the qualifications of a hill shepherd, are worth
your attention, as containing much good practical sense and truth. "Much." he truly says, "of
the success in sheep-farming depends on the skill and application of shepherds, as well as on the
judgment of farmers. As the situation of a shepherd is one of considerable trust, he ought to be
honest, active, useful, and of a col7n temper ; for if at any time a shepherd gets into a pa-ssion with
his sheep, it is attended with great disadvantage in herding, or in working among them. I have
known a hasty, pa-ssionate man, with a rash dog, give himself double the trouble in managing a
birsel of sheep, besides abusing the sheep, that a calm, good tempered man, with a sagacious,
close-mouthed dog, would have had in the same circumstances. The qualification required in
taking care of a hirsel of sheep, is not in running, hounding and training dogs, nor in performing
a day's work of any other kind ; but to direct them according to the soil, climate, and situation of
the farm, in such a manner as to obtain the greatest quantity of food at all seasons of the year.
Their health and comfort should be carefully loooked after by the shepherd ; and if his exertions
are made with judgment, they are of very great consequence to the farmer. It is not by walking
much, and doing a great deal, that a shepherd is a good one ; but it is knowing where to walk, so
as to disturb the sheep the least, and by doing at the time whatever is necessary to be done.
There is not an experienced shepherd who has been any length of time on one farm, who does
not, as soon as he rises in the morning, and observing the state of the weather, know almost to a
certainty where to find every sheep on the hill, and will accordingly take his course to the places
he knows his presence is most wanted. The object in looking over a hill every evening and
morning is to a.^certain if there be no trespassers nor diseases among the sheep which require
looking after. If any of your own or neighbor's sheep have tresspassed, it is very foolish to dog
or abuse them, for the more gently you can turn them back the belter. If the boundary should be
on the top of a bight, to which sheep are apt to draw at night, it is better to turn your own a
little closer to the boundary in the afternoon, than to turn back your neighbor's; and it will answer
the same purpose ; and if the two Hocks are gently divided in the morning without dogs, they
will become so well ac<iuainted with their own side that at the very sight of the shepherd they
will lake to it without farther trouble. Tho.se shepherds who dog, force and shed much about
a march, I consider them as bad herds for their musters as for the neighboring farmer. If the
boundary be a brook or low ground, where the sheep graze in the middle of the day, and if tres-
passers are likely to be considerable, the same plan of turning the sheep should be taken as on
the bight, except that they are to be turned down in the morning, and set out in the af\ernoon.
When a sheep dies on the hill, or any disease appears among them, the dead or diseased sheep
should be removed immediately, but particularly so if the disease appears of an infectious nature.
Looking regularly over a hill is of great consequence, also, in case of any sheep falling into a
ditcb, or lamb losing its mother, or when they are annoyed by flies or maggots, or by foxes or
dogs worrying them, or when they fall on their backs and cannot get up again. All these inci-
dents an active shepherd with a good eye will soon discover, however much a flock may be scat-
tered over a farm In good weather the shepherd may possibly do all that can be done
among the ewes in the lambing season ; but in bad weather it is the farmer's interest to afford
every necessary assistance, for tlie want of which serious losses have often been incurred
Knowing sheep by head-mark often saves a shepherd much trouble, particularly in the lambing
season, ajjd .it all sortings of the sheep; yet there are many good shepherds who do not know
sheep bjf liead-mark, and there are some very ordinary ones who have a talent in that way.
Every individual may be known by the sforlc mark. To possess the knack of conntina sheep
readily is of no small service to the shepherd, for he ought always to be able to count his flock
when he makes his rounds on the hills. There are few shepherds who aocu.stom themselves
to count sheep, who cannot, wherever they meet with them on a hill, count 100 going at large, or
even 200, and it seldom happens that a greater number than 200 will be found together in an open
hirsel. To know the number in the ilifierent lots is of great use in case of a hasty blast, as you
can in that event know, almost to a certainty, whether or not any sheep are wanting, and from
what part of the farm. A shepherd ought likewi.se to be able to do nni/ kind of work nboiit a
theep farm, such as cutting lambs, smearing, slaughtering, dressing for the market, repairing
stone-dykes, cleaning out drains, mowing grass, making hay. casting and winning peat-turf for
fuel, &-C. ; but he ought at no time to noglect the sheep for such work. Shepherds are generally
accounted lazy, but those who really care for their sheep will not be so. Much walking unfits a
man for hard labor, as much as hard labor unfits a man lor much walking; but laborers will gen-
erally be found more lazy in a hill, or among sheep, than sheijhcrds will be found at field work."*
(1847.) Ewes in lambs are liable to abortion, or slippinn' of the lamb, as it is usually termed, as
well as the cow, but not so much so, nor is the complaint considered epidemical in the sheep.
* Little's Practical Observations on Mountain Sheep.
(312)
THE LAMBING OF EWES. 169
Various causes produce it, such as severe weather in winter, having to endure much fatigue in
snow, leaping ditches, being frightened by dogs, overdriving. It is stated by Mr. Youatt, that
too liberal use ol salt will produce abortion. The wool is apt to come off in spring after abortion.
It is scarcely possible to predicate abortion in sheep on account of their woolly covering ; but its
immediate etiects of dullness in the ewe, and of a redness under the tail, will be symptoms nouced
by an observant shepherd. " The treatment after abortion," observes Mr. Youatt, " will depend
entirely on the circumstance of the case. If the foetus had been long dead, proved by the fetid
smell of it, and the vaginal discharge, the parts should be washed with a weak solution in water
(1 to 10} of the chloride of lime, some of which may also be injected into the uterus. If fever
should supervene, a dose of Epsom salts, timeously administered, will remove the symptoms. If
debility and want of appetite should remain, a little gentian and ginger, with small doses of Ep-
som salts will speedily restore the animal. Care should be taken that the food shall not be too
nutritive or loo great in quantity." In protracted labor when the ewe is becoming weak, she
will be much relieved by receiving a table-spoonfull of brandy and sweet spirit of nitre in equal
parts, with a drinking-horn. To produce pains in a ewe when she becomes apathetic in lambing,
2 table-spoonsfull of a strong infusion of the ergot of rye, repeated in a second dose in a quarter of
an hour, will produce pains and ease the labor. In cases where it is impossible to extract the
lamb, and the life of both lamb and ewe are in danger, the Caesarian operation, that is, extracting
the lamb from the womb by an incision made in the side and the womb of the ewe, has been per-
formed with success. " In some lambs that are born apparently dead, the vital principle is not ex-
tinct, but it would soon be so if the little animal were suffered to remain on the cold damp grass.
Every lamb that is found in this situation should be carefully examined, and if there is the slight-
est degree of warmth remaining about it, the shepherd should blow into its mouth in order to iu-
flute the lungs : many a little one has thus been saved. The shepherd need trouble himself very
little about the expulsion of the placenta or cleansing, although a day or two may pass before it is
detached. A couple of ounces of Epsom salts, with a little ginger, may be given if there should
be a longer delay, or if symptoms of fever should be exhibited : but the farmer would do well to
avoid the rough barley or the misletoe, or in fact any stimulant, fur there is at this time sufficient
disposition to fever, without its being artificially set up." "The intiammation of the womb, after
parturition, usually comes on between the first and the fourth day, and especially when any vio-
lence has been used in extracting the lamb. It is a most fatal disease, and speedily runs its
course. The treatment should be bleedings and purgatives of Epsom salts. Connected with this
disease are after-pains or heaving, to which ewes are subject, and which are fie(]uently severe
and destructive. They are apparently the same pains, but considerably stronger, which Nature
uses to expel the lamb. It is evidently produced-by the ewes being too well kept during their
pregnancy. It cannot be too often repeated, that it is a fatal error to overfeed the ewes at this
period with a view of giving them strength to support their approaching labor. It is an nnscien-
titic and injurious practice, and severely does the farmer suffer for it. But there is some epidemic
influence at work, or the constitution of the sheep is at that time irritable almost beyond belief"
Young lamb.s, as long as they are dependent on their mother for food, are sul>ject to a few dis-
eases. A change to new luxuriant grass in damp weather may bring on the sku or diarrhoaa, and
exposure to cold may produce the same effect. As long as it feeds and plays there is little dan-
ger ; but should it appear dull, its eyes watery and heavy, and its joints somewhat stiff; remedial
means should immediately be u.sed. " A gentle aperient is first indicated in order to carry off' any
ofiensive matter that xaay have accumulated in and disturbed the bowels: halt an ounce of Epsom
salts, with half a drachm of ginger, will constitute the best aperient that can be administered. To
that must be added a table-spoonfull of sheep's cordial, consisting of equal parts of brandy and
8w»et spirit of nitre, housing and nursing." But there is a species of apparent purging, which is
a more dangerous disease than the skit. ''In the natural and healthy state of the milk and the
stomach, curd produced by the gastric juice gradually dissolves and is converted into ch3'me ; but
when the one takes on a morbid hardness, and the other may have lost a portion of its energy, the
stomach is literally filled with curd, and all its functions suspended. The animal labors under
seeming purging, from the quantity of whey discharged, but the actual disease is constipation. It
is apt to occur about the time when the lamb begins to graze, and when the function of the
stomach is naturally somewhat deranged. Chemistry teaches u.s. that while a free acid produces
coagulation of the milk, an alkali will dissolve that coagnlum. Magnesia, therefore, should bead-
ministered, suspended in thin gruel, or ammonia largely diluted witli water, and with them should
be combined Epsom salts to hurry the dissolved mass along, and ginger to excite the stomach
to more powerful contraction. Read's stomach-pump will be found a most valuable auxiliary
here. A perseverance in the use of these means will sometimes be attended with success, and the
little "patient being somewhat relieved, the lamb and the mother should be moved to somewhat
better pasture." Besides looseness, lambs are at times subject to cosliveness in the bowels. In
the first few days of its existence the fseces they void has a very viscid consistence, which, when
it falls on the tail, has the effect of gluiaig it to the vent and of stopping up that passage. On the
removal of the obstruction by scraping with a knife, the symptom will also be removed. A worse
species of costiveness is, when a few drops of liquid faces fall occasionally to the ground accom-
panied by straining, as it is generally accompanied with fever that may be dangerous. Halfounce
doses of Epsom salts should be administered every six hours until the bowels are evacuated, after
which both ewe and lamb should be turned into more succulent pasture, as the cause of the com-
plaint is to be found in bare pasture and dry weather. In cases of fever, which may bo observed
from the dullness of the lamb and its quick breathing, the administration of tolerable doses of Ep-
som salts will generally avert the malady at its commencement. After recovery from lambing,
the only complaint the ewe is subject to is inflammation in the udder, or udder-clap, or garget.
Of this complaint Mr. Youatt gives a good idea of its origin and of its treatment in these words :
" The shepherd, and especially in the early period of suckling, should ob.serve whether any of
the ewes are restless and exhibit symptoms of pain when the lambs are sucking, or will not
permit them to suck at all. The ewe, like the cow, or oftener than that animal, is subject to in-
"Vi\
X70
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRI\r:.
fiammation of the uildcr during the time of Ruckling, caus«d either by the hardness or dryness of
the soil on which ohe lies ; on tlic other hand, by iu* loo great mnixture and tilth, or by some ten-
dency to general infliimmation, anil determined to the udder by llie bumps and bruises, sometimes
not a little severe, from the head of the lamb. If there is any refusal on the part of the ewe, or
even di><inclinatinii. to permit tin- young one to suck, nhe must be caught and examined. There will
generally be found redness anil enlargi'im-nt and tenderness of one or both of the teats, or some-
times the whole of the udder, and several small dislinct kernels or tumors on ditierent parts of the
has. The udder should be cleared of the wool which s'lrmunds it. and should be well fomented
with warm water, a dose of K;"8um salts ailniinistered. and then, if there are no large distinct
knots or ki-rnels, she should be returned to her lamb, whose sucking and knocking about of the
adder will eoniribiite more than by any other means, to the dispersion of the tumor and the regu-
lar How of milk. It may occasionally be necessary to confine her in a pen with her little one, in
order that he may have a fair chance to suck. A day. however, having passed, and she not per-
mittinc it to suck, the lamb must be taken away, the fomentation renewed, and an ointment com-
posed 1 drai'lim ore:im|)lior rubbed down with a few drops of spirit of wine, 1 drachm of mercu-
rial ointment, and 1 oz. of elder ointment, well incorporated together, must be rubbed into the
affected part, or the whole of the udder, two or three times a day. She must also be bled, and
the physic repeated. If the udder should continue to enlarge, and the heat and tenderness shoald
iucrea.se, and the knots and kernels become more numerous and of greater size, and some of them
should begin to soften or evidently to contain a fluid, no time mast be lo.st, for this disease ia
abundantly more rapid in its pro?ress in the sheep than in the cow. A deep incisum niu-si be
made into that part of the udder where the swellings are ripest, the pus or other matter squeezed
out, and the part.s well fomented again. To this should succeed a weak solution of the chloride
of lime with which the
ulcer should he well bath- Fig. 332.
ed two or three times in
a day. When all fetid
smell ceases and the
wound looks healthy, the
friar's balsam may be sub-
tituted for the chloride of
lime. The progress of dis-
organization and the pro-
cess of healing are almost
incredibly rapid in these
cases, and the lamb may
sometimes be returned to
the course of a few days.
There are particular sea-
sons, especially damp and
warm ones, when there is
a superfluity of grass, in
which garget is peculiarly
frecjueiit and fatal. With-
out warning, the udder
swells universally with
hardened teat^, which
Bometitties brings on great
inflammation, and if it has
not stopped iu the course
of 24 liours. iiart, if not the
whole, of the udder morti-
fies, and the mortification rapidly spreads, and the sheep dies."*
(1841*. ) In case of an individual ewe, of a large flock of a pastoral farm, strayina: a considerable
distance from the shed erected to aHbrd shelter to ewes, or has suffered in hard labor, or baa a
weakly lamb, or has twins which are apt to stray from her or she iVom them, or has been over-
taken by a rude bla.st immediately uf\er lambing, a contrivance to aflbrd such ewes temporary
shelter, esp.jcially under night, having been used by Mr. Nicholas Burnett, HIaik Hedley, near
Gateshead, with success, seems to deserve attention. It consists of an inclosure of boards,
or a box, as seen in fig. 33-2, whereof a is the front, which removes by hooks at the sides to
admit the ewe and her lamb within, and when- she is provided with a mani;cr A to contain
sliced lurnij) or oil cake, and a rack r for hay, to fill both of which access is obtained by the lid
d, movable on its hinges. I have been assured by Mr. Burnett, that in using this contrivance,
which, being a liu'ht implement, can be ea.sily carried to any spot, he has had the satisfaction
of using it as a means of saving the lives both of ewes and lambs which would have otherwise
perished from exposure. The size of the ewe-house, as it is called, may be made to suit that of
the sheep bred on the farm and as it is not costly, any number can be made to be used at a lime.
The fork e Icanini; at:ainst the side of the ewe house may be used to ijrasp a ewe's neck, while
Ivinsron the trround, and to fasten it down, while the shepherd is lambing her without other as-
sistance ; but the method of holding a ewe between the heel and the knee, which I have before
described, renders such an instrument of little us<'.
(1849.) One of the greatest sources of loss among lambs on hill farms is a fall of snow at the
lambiu? season or a continuance of snow to that period. Ground rendered wet by the melting of
new-fallen snow, is in a worse state for lambs than when made wet by rain, as in the latter case
the temperature of the air is higher, though, of course, wet ground of any kind is inimical to the
THE KWE-HOUSE.
Yountt on Sheep,
(314)
THE LAMBING OF EWES.
171
THE MOUNTAIN SNOW-HARROW.
safety of new-dropped lambs. In such a case, the driest part of the farm combined with shelter
should be chosen for the lambmg ground, though it may be inconvenient in some other respects
bat should the best lambing ground be covered with old snow, especially in sheltered spots and
tlie temperature of the air be generally above the freezing point, could the snow be stined b'-v anv
means, it would melt •' '
much faster than it Fig. 333.
would of itself A
snoia-harrow or snow-
plow will be found a
useful implement for
the purpose, and
those recommended
by Mr. Hepburn of
Culquhalzie seem to
possess every requi-
site. The snowhar-
row is represented
by fig. 333. It con-
sists of a single bull
a b, i\ inches square,
and 6 feet long; and
in the middle of
which, on the under
Bide, a piece of 1^
inch plank c d,2 feet
long, is sunk flush
transversely, for the
attachment of the
draught-hook c, and
the siilt e to steady the motion of the implement. In the bull are fixed by screw-nuts at intervals
of 10 inches, 7 cutters//, &c.. 9 inches long and If inches broad, sabre-shaped, with their points
turned backward, so as to be less liable to be arrested by obstacles on the surface of the ground.
Between these cutters are fixed 6 shorter ones g g, &c.. 3 inches long, having their points turned
forward. This implement, dragged by one horse ridden by a boy, and the stilt held by a man,
cuts the frozen snow into strips of 5 or 6 inches broad, which are easily pulverized by the feet of
the sheep, or divided by the suowplow. The severe snow storm of 1823 lay on the hills from
February to May ; and the protracted snow-storms of 1837-8. with repeated falls and alternations
of frost and thaw, caused the death of many a sheep before and at the lambing season. The snow
became so compacted in the latter j-ear, that the common snow-plow was unable to penetrate the
snow, and the common harrow to break its glazed surface. With the view of obviatin" both these
inconveniences, Mr. Hepburn contrived the snow-harrow described above, and also the snow-
plow, of which the following is a description in Mr. Hepburn's own words : " The severity of the
winter of 1837-8 in mountain sheep pasture, led me to attempt the snow-plow, with or without the
aid of Uie snow-harrow, for being applied in such situations. To enable the plow to clear tracks
for the sheep along the hill-sides, it is necessary it should be made to throw the snow wholly to
the lower side. To effect this I caused to be fitted to the plow a a, fig. 334, the body of which
forms an isoceles triangle whose sides are 7^ feet, and its base 6 feet in length, the depth of the
sides being 15 inches, a shifting head bed, wiih unequal sides, one b c, being 18 inches, the other
b d, 30 inches long, fixed by iron pins passing through to pairs of eyes as seen at c, attached to the
head and to the sides of the plow respectively, so as to bring the point of the attached head of the
plow nearly into the line of its upper side, or next the hill. The stilt e at the same time was made
movable by a hinge-joint at its anterior extremity, fixed to the bottom of the head from the post/
so as to be capable of being fixed to the cross-bar or stretcher g a, either in a line bisecting the
angle, as at h. which is the position for level ground, or in the line alternately, of either of the sides
b a or b g, when to be
used on a declivity. Fig. 334.
The draught-chain is g,
fixed, not to the shift-
ing head, but to the
upright frame-post /,
in the uo.<e of the
plow, which rises 10
or 12 inches above the
mould-boards. When
a plow so constructed
is to be worked along
a declivity, with the
left hand toward the
hill, the shorter limb
of the shifting head is
fixed on the left side
of the plow, near the
point, and the longer '^^^ mountain turn-wrist snow-plow.
limb on the right side, toward thp middle-, and the stilt being fixed in the left extremity of the
cross-bar, nearly m a line with a temporary point, the plow is necessarily drawn in the direction
of us left side, so as to throw the snow wholly to the rie-ht down the hill. When the plow is to
return across the declivity, with its right side to the hill, the movable head is detached by drawing
(315) ^ o , J s
172 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
out the Nnch-pins, is tnrncd np side down, and fixed in the reverse position ; the shorter limb be-
ing attached to the right side, and the longer to the left side of the plow, while the stilt is brought
to the right extreniiiy a of the crossbar. The plow is then drawn into the direction of the right
side, and the snow is ilirown wholly to the left, near the lower side. Should the lower side of
the plow show a tendency to rise, it may either be held down by a second movable stilt, fixed to
llie middle b of the cross-bar, or a block of wood, or other biillast weight may be placed on that
side of the plow. The plow will be found to remove considerably more than its own depth of
snow. When a plow of 1 foot hi:.'h pas-ses through snow Iri inches or 2 feet deep, very little
of snow falls back into the track, and what does so fall is ea-sily cleared out by the plow in retum-
iag."* In lowland farms the snow remains around the fences long after the middle of the fields
are clear. A speedy means of geltintr rid of the snow is to plow it wiili the common plow repeat-
edly. Had I not adopted this expedient in the spring of 18v!3, the oat-seed would not have been
begun for a lortjiight later than it really did.
(le.'iO.) In reijard to the treatment of sheep on turnips in spring, they are managed in the same
way as in winter, until removed to grass, which tliey are, whenever the turnips fail, and are
kept on for a short time, until tlie weather becomes mild enough to have them shorn of their wool
and then they are sold to the butcher : but other farmers prefer selling them fat, in a rousrh state off
the turnips — that is, before the wool is clipped ofi'them. The circumstances which regulate these
different cases will be explained in a short time.
14. TRAINING AND WORKING THE SHEPHERd's DOG.
" He was a gash an' faithful tyke,
As ever lap a eheugh or dyke,
His honest, sonsie. bsws'nt face.
Aye gat him freemis in ilka place.
I His breast was white, his touzie back
Weel clad wi' coat o' glossy black :
His gawcie tail, wi' upward curl.
Hung o'er his hurdies wi' a swirl."
BCBNS. r,
(1851.) The natural temper of the shepherd may be learned from the
way in which he works his dog among sheep. When you observe an aged
dog making a great noise, bustling about in an impatient manner, running
fiercely at a sheep and turning him quickly, biting at his ears and legs, you
may conclude, without hesitation, that the shepherd who owns him is a
man of hasty temper. Most young dogs exhibit these characteristics nat-
urally, and they generally overdo their work ; and if you ob.'serve a shep-
herd allowing a young dog to take his own way, you may conclude that
he also is a man who loses his temper with his nock. If you observe
another shepherd allowing his dog, whether old or young, to take a range
along the fences of a field, driving the sheep within his sight as if to gather
them, you may be sure he is a lazy fellow, more ready to make his dog
bring the sheep to him, than he to walk his rounds among them. Great
harm may accrue to sheep by working dogs in these ways. Whenever
sheep hear a dog bark that is accustomed to hound them every day, they
will instantly start from their grazing, gather together, and run to the far-
thest fence, and a good wliile will elapse ere they will settle again. And
even when sheep are gathered, a dog of high travel, and that is allowed to
run oiJt, will drive them hither and thither, without an apparent object.
This is a trick practiced by lazy herds every morning when tliey first
see their flock, and every evening before these take up their lair for the
night, in order to count them more easily. When a dog is allowed to run
far out, he gets beyond the control of the shepherd ; aiid such a style of
working among wether sheep, puts them past their feeding for a time ;
with ewes it is very apt to cause abortion ; and with lambs after they are
* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Societv, vol. xiii.
(316;
TRAINING AND WORKING THE SHEPHERD S DOG. 173
weaned, it is very apt to overheat them, and a considerable time will elapse
before they recover their breath. Whenever a sorting takes place amono-
the sheep with such a dog they will be moved about far more than is
necessary ; and intimidated sheep, when worn into a comer, are far more
liable to break off than those treated in a gentle manner. A temperate
herd works his dog in quite a different manner. He never disturbs his
sheep when he takes his rounds among them at morning, noon and night,
his dog following at his feet as if he had nothing to do, but ready to fulfill
his duty, should any untoward circumstance require his sendees, such as
breaking out of one field into another. When he gathers sheep for any
purpose of sorting, or of catching particular ones, the gathering is made at
a corner, and to gain which he will give sheep the least trouble, making
the dog run out to the right and left, to cause the sheep to march quietly
toward the spot, and after they are gathered, he makes the dog to under-
stand that it is his chief duty to be on the alert, and with an occasional
bark prevent any of the sheep breaking away. When a sheep does break
away and must be turned, he does not allow the dog to bite it, but only to
bark and give a bound at its head, and thus turn it. In attempting to turn
a Black-faced wether in this way, the dog runs a risk of receiving an injury
from its horns, and to avoid this I have seen him seize the coarse wool of
of the buttock, and hang by it like a drag, until the sheep was turned
round in the opposite direction, when he lets it go. In short, a temperate
herd only lets his dog work when his sen-ices are actually required, he
fulfilling his own duties faithfully, and only receiving assistance from his
doff when the matter cannot be so well done by himself, and at no time
will he allow his dog to go beyond the reach of his immediate control.
Dogs, when thus gently and cautiously trained, become very sagacious,
and will visit every part of a field where sheep are most apt to stray, and
where danger is most to be apprehended to befall them, such as a weak
part of a fence, deep ditches or deep furrows into which sheep may pos-
sibly fall, and lie aivalt or aicTcivard — that is, lie on the broad of their back
and unable to get up, and they will assist to raise them up by seizing the
wool on one side and pulling the sheep over upon its feet. Experienced
dogs will not meddle with ewes having lambs at foot, nor with tups, being
quite aware of their disposition to offer resistance. They also know full
well when foxes are on the move, and give evident symptoms of uneasi-
ness on their approach to the lambing ground. They also hear footsteps
of strange persons and animals at a considerable distance at night, and an-
nounce their approach by unequivocal signs of displeasure, short of grum-
bling and barking, as if aware that those noisy signs would betray their
OM'n presence. A shepherd's dog is so incorruptible that he cannot be
bribed, and will not permit even a known friend to touch him when intrusted
with any piece of duty. So far as my obsen'ation extends, I think there
are two varieties of the shepherd's dog — one smooth, short-haired, gener-
ally black-colored on the back, white on the belly, breast, feet and tip of
the tail, with tan-colored spots on the face and legs ; the other is a larger
and longer-bodied animal, having long hair of different colors, and long,
flowing tail. In their respective characters I conceive them to be very like
the pointer and the setter. The small, smooth kind, like the pointer, is
very sagacious, slow, easily broke and trained, and admirably suited to
work in an inclosed and low country ; the other, like the setter, is more
swift, bold, ill to break, and requiring coercion, and fitter for work on the
hills. The former answers the habits of Leicester sheep, the latter those
of the Cheviot and Black-faced. The latter requiring a great range to
work in, on account of the nature of the sheep and of the giound which
(317)
174 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
they frequent, are bold and rough in action ; still they should be trained to
work with judgment and caution, and not with recklessness and fury.
Most shepherds ])rofess to be able to train young shepherds' dogs, and
therein many display much ignorance of the nature of the animal, and of
the a])titude of the particular animal for the peculiar work, and the conse-
quence is, many dogs are rendered unfit for tlieir work. Every shepherd's
pup has a natural instinct for working among sheep, nevertheless they
should always be trained with an old dog. Their ardent temperament
requires subduing, and there is no more eflectual means of doing so than
keeping it in company with, and making it imitate the actions of, an expe-
lienced, sober dog. A long string attached to the pup's neck, in the hands
of the shepherd, will be found necessary to make it acquainted with the
language employed to direct the various evolutions of the experienced
dog while at wjork. With this conti-ivance it may be taught to " hold aioay
out by" to " come in" to " come in behind" to " lie d^/un," to *' be quiet,"
to " bark," to "get over the dike or fence," to ^^ wear," that is, to intercept,
to " heel," that is, to drive on, to " kcp," that is, to prevent getting away; it
will learn all these evolutions and many others in a short time, in imitation
of its older companion and guide. It is supposed that the bitch is more
acute than the dog, though the dog will bear the greater fatigue. Of the
two, I believe that the quietly disposed shepherd prefers a bitch, and is
careful in working her as little as he can when in pup. I may mention
that the shepherd's dog claims exemption from taxation; and I believe
that a well-trained one costs at least dGS.
15. SOWING BARLEY-SEED.
" Such land as ye break up, for barley to sow,
Two earths at the least, ere you sow it bestow.
If land be thereafter set oatitig apart.
And follow this lesson to comfort thine heart."
TCSSBB.
(1852.) It may be laid down as an axiom, that land which has borne
turnips which have been eaten off by sheep should receive two plowings
of some sort before it is sown with barley. I have seen the experiment
ti'ied of sowing barley on a single fuiTow on land ranging from clay to
gravelly, and the invariable result was a manifest deficiency of crop com-
pared to what had received two fuiTOWs ; and this result is not surprising,
when it is considered that barley requires a deep, well-pulverized soil to
its perfect development, and that it is impossible to render any land so
with a single furrow, that has been trampled firm by sheep, after carrying
a heavy crop of tuniijis. Strong land yields, with a single furrow, a tough,
waxy clod, very inimical to the growth of barley; and light turnip soil,
when ridged up with a single funow, exhibits the growth of barley in
drills corresponding exactly with the drills which had been manured for
turnips. The least diflerence of crop uHth one and two fuiTows is ob-
served on fine hazel loam, still the superiority is to be found with the two
furrows. Lay it, therefore, down as a nile, that barley land shall receive
two fun'ows ; and the only question is in what form these should be given,
bearing in mind, at the same time, that the land must be deep and well
pulverized, and to settle what that form should be shall be our present
endeavor.
(318)
SOWING BARLEY-SEED. 175
(1853.) On clay loam in good heart it is possible that some of the tur-
nip land that had been ridged up for spring wheat had been, from some
cause, prevented fiom being sown with that grain, and, of course, it must
be sown with barley. The land had likely been gathered up from the flat,
as in fig. 133, or it may have been cast, as in fig. 135 ; in either case the
barley land will be desired to be seed-fun-owed in the same manner, that
the ridging of the whole field may be uniform. Since the furrow for the
spring wheat was the seed-furrow, and its ridges had been formed with a
view to make the surface of the field uniform from side to side, it will be
impossible to re-plow those ridges with one fuiTow of the common plow,
without disturbing their form. Such ridges must either be plowed tivice
with the common plow, to bring them back to their present form, for which
repetition of work there may not be sufficient leisure, or they may be
stirred with the grubber, a class of instruments with the importance of
w-hich you will be made acquainted below by Mr. Slight, or ribbed with
the small plow, fig. 314, without affecting their form. The choice of these
various modes of stirring the ground may be taken according to circum-
stances. If the ridges have become much consolidated in consequence of
being plowed a considerable time, or of much rain having fallen, and if
the soil itself be naturally firm, two furrows with the common plow will
best put the land into a state for receiving barley ; but should they be in
a somewhat soft state, with perhaps rather too much moisture below,
though with a kindly state of the surface, capable of affording a fine tid
with the harrows, then the grubber is the most proper implement for mak-
ing a deep bed for the barley-seed, while it at the same time retains the
dry surface uppermost ; and should the soil be naturally free while it is
desired to retain the upper stratum of soil still uppermost, it may be
ribbed with the small plow. Putting these ridges thus into the best state
for the barley-seed, there will be no difficulty with the remainder of the
land. The first furrow given to barley land, which is at the same time in
the best direction, is the cross-furrow, as in fig. 312, because being plowed
in an opposite direction to the seed-furrow to be afterward given, the best
means are taken to pulverize it. I need not here repeat what has already
been said so fully on cross-plowing in (1718) to (1723) inclusive. Although
the land may not be all so cleared of turnips as to allow the cross-plowing
to extend from one side of the field to the other, it should be divided into
two portions, one of which should be plowed and sown while the other is
clearing, and which may perhaps be cleared by the time the sowing of the
first part is completed. After a passage of the harrows a double tine over
the cross-plowed land, the ridges should be feered and plowed up for the
seed-furrow, and the usual form of seed-furrow is either gathering fi-om
the flat, as shown in fig. 133, or yoking two ridge-breadths together, as in
fig. 135. Every plow should be employed in ridging up the seed-furroAV
for the barley-seed, for it is essential to the success of that crop that the
seed be sown on the soil fresh turned-up, or on a Jiot-furroio, as it is termed.
Both the cross-plowing and seed-fuiTow should be deejJ. The former may
be turned up with a broad, stout fuiTOw-slice, but the latter should be
plowed with a deep, narrow furrow-slice, in order to pulverize the soil as
much as possible, and to make the crests of the furrow-slices numerous
and narrow, so as to disseminate the seed more equally when sown by
hand ; for the sowing of seed on a fine pulverized surface requires assist-
ance of this sort to cause it to be equally disseminated, inasmuch as on
whatever spot every seed falls, there it lies, the soft earth having no elas-
ticity Hke the firm furrow-shce of lea, and hence, of all the sorts of grain,
barley is the most likely to be hapversa'ed in the sowing, and on that ac-
(319)
17G THE BOOK OF THE FARM-^SPRING.
count every handfull requires to be cast with greater force than other sorts
of grain. The walking on soft ground in sowing barley is attended with
considerable fatigue, ajid as short steps are most suited for walking on soft
ground, so small handsfuU are best for grasping plump, slippery barley.
Barley may be sown any time that is proper for spring wheat, and it may
be sown as late as the end of May ; but the earlier it can be sown, the
better will the crop be in quality and uniformity, though the straw will be
less. The average quantity of seed sown broadcast is 3 bushels to the im-
perial acre ; when sown early less will suffice, and when late, more ; be-
cause the later it is sown there is less time for so quick a growing grain
as barley to tiller and cover the ground. Mr. Brown has some judicious
remarks on this subject: "Among the farmers," he says, "it seems a dis-
puted point whether the practice of giving so small a quantity of seed (3
bushels per acre) to the best lands, is advantageous. That there is a
saving of grain there can be no doubt ; and that the bulk may be as great
as if more seed had been sown, there can be as little question. Little ar-
gument, however, is necessary to prove that thin sowing of barley must
be attended with considerable disadvantage ; for, if the early ]>art of the
season be dry, the plants will not only be stinted in their growth, but will
not send out offsets ; and if rain afterward falls — an occurrence that must
take place sometime during the summer, often at a late period of it — the
plants then begin to stool, and send out a number of young shoots. These
young shoots, unless under very favorable circumstances, cannot be ex-
pected to arrive at maturity ; or if their ripening is waited for, there will
be great risk of losing the early part of the crop — a circumstance that fre-
quently happens. In almost every instance an unequal sample is pro-
duced, and the grain is for the most part of inferior quality. By good
judges it is thought preferable to sow a quantity of seed sufficient to in-
sure a full crop, without depending on its sending out offsets. Indeed,
when that is done, few offsets are produced, the crop grows and ripens
equally, and the gi-ain is uniformly good."* There is no grain so easily
affected by weather at seed-time as barley ; a dash of rain on strong land will
cause the crop to be thin, many of the seeds not seemingly germinating
at all, while others burst and cannot germinate ; and in moist, warm weather
the germination is certain and very rapid. Indeed, it has been observed
that unless barley germinate quickly, the crop will always be thin. I have
seen the germ of barley penetrate the gi'ound only 36 hours after I had
sown it myself, and when it took place, the gi'ound was smoking by the
evaporation of moisture, caused by a hot sun in a calm atmosphere. I
have also traced the germ of barley to the depth of 9 inches below the
surface. The harrowing which barley-land receives after being sown is
less than oat -land, a double tine being given in breaking in the seed, and a
double tine across immediately after. Then the grass-seeds are sown
with the grass-seed sowing-machine, formerly described in (1774) ; the
land is harrowed a single tine with the light grass-seed harrows (1775) ;
water-fun-owed (1778) ; and finished by immediate rolling. On strong
soil, apt to incrust on the surface with drouth, after rain the rolling pre-
cedes the sowing of the grass-seeds, and the process is finished with the light
grass-seed harrows ; but on all kindly soils the other plan is best for keep-
ing out drouth, and giving a smoother surface for harvest-work. The
head-ridges are plowed and sown by themselves. Barley may be sown
with the broadcast machine as well as oats, and it is admirably suited for
sowing with the drill sowing-machine, which deposits the seed at a uniform
depth and breadth between the rows, with about two bushels of seed to
• Brown on Rural Affairs, vol. iL
(320)
SOWING BARLEY-SEED.
177
the acre ; and such an an-angement affords opportunity for the exercise of
the draw-hoe, to remove the wild mustard, which is apt to spring up
among the spring crops in the vicinity of large towns, vi^here street-manure
is used to a large extent.
(1854.) Barley is sown after potatoes and beans, but never when the
weather will permit the sowing of wheat. When intended for barley, the
land is gathered up for the winter, water-fuiTowed and gaw-cut, to pre-
vent water standing upon it ; and in spring it is cross-plowed and ridged
up with the seed-furrow. Barley is sown also at times after wheat or oats,
and the sample in such a case is always fine colored, but the practice is
bad farming, and should never be pursued. It is never sown in Scotland
after lea, but might be after the land had received a paitial fallowino- in
spring. When sown in autumn, it does not stand the winter well in Scot-
land, though it does in England. Winter barley is always early ripe, but
is seldom a prolific crop, and when it tillers late in spring to cover in the
ground, the produce is apt to contain a large proportion of light grain.
As an instance of late sowing of barley, I may relate what has ff^Jlen un-
der my own observation. The late Mr. Guthrie, of Craigie, near Dundee,
had early plowed the greater part of a field of strong soil after turnips, and
much rain had afteiward consolidated. Being desirous of giving the land
another furrow before sowing it with barley, he found the plow bi-ing up
large waxy clods, unfit to form a seed-bed for barley. He consulted me,
and I advised him to rib the land with a small plow, fig. 314, instead of
plowing it. His men never having seen land so ribbed, I showed them
the way, and saw the ground sown and hanowed with one double tine
along. The sowing took place on 26th May, 1819, and the ribbed land
produced 12 bushels the Scotch acre more than that which was plowed
with the common plow, because all the tender part of the land had been
kept uppermost.
(1855.) Now that you have seen the termination of the sowing season of Uie various sorts of grain
usually cultivated on a fann, it may prove useful to you to give you an idea of the principles of the
germination of seeds, and which you will find given here in the words of Dr. Madden. [The process
of germination consists chiefly of various chemical changes in the composition of the seed, by which
its substance is rendered soluble, and in tliis state furnishes nourishment for the young plant. This
change is effected by means of a highly azotized principle present in all seeds, and which, under
the joint influence of air, moisture and a certain temperature, undergoes various chemical changes,
during the occun-ence of which it is capable of exciting similar changes in other substances with
which it may be in contact. Seeds are for the most part composed of starch, gum, sugar, albumen,
and various saline matters; of these the starch is in general the most abundant, and the most im-
portant change produced during germination is the conversion of this starch into sugar. I have
stated that the necessary conditions for efiecting this change are, independently of the vitality of
the seed itself, air, moisture and a certain temperature ; these three points are sufficient to regu-
late all the practical details of the sowing of seed, both as regards the weather and the condition
of the soil in respect of water and tillage.* If the season, for example, be not far enough ad-
vanced, then germination is either retarded by the lowness of the temperature, or the vitality of the
SOIL WITH WATER AND WITHOUT AIR.
CLODDT AND STONY SOIL.
seed is altogether destroyed by the continuance of hard frost. If, again, the soil be too wet, the
seed does not obtain a sufficient supply of air, owing to the interstitiarcanals already mentioned—
* See a paper by me on this subject in the Prize Essavs of the Highland Agiicultural Society, vol. siv.
(321) 12
178
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
(884) 10 (tietJ) — beini: filled wiih water. To j:ivc you a better idea of tliis condition, you will per-
ceive, in fig. 33o, that the seed a is not ouppiied with any air beyond whiit rearheH it in the state of
solution in water. Again, if the Boil be not properly pulverized, it is very poiwible liiat the seed
may be badly situated for the purposes of germination, owing to the obliteration of the interstitial
canals by pressure, as is shown in fig. 336. where h represents a clod of earth, and c a stone, be-
tween which the seed n is placed. I need scarcely mention the remaining cause of imperfect
germination, viz., the absence of moisture, as represented in fig. 337, where a is the seed, as
this is far too rare an occurrence, under ordinary circuni.stances, to require notice. Lasilv, the
proper condition of soil for germination is, as l>efore noticed, l?^."),) where Uie pores of each
particle are filled with water, while the interstitial canals are filled with air. This condition is
ihown in fig. 338, and it will at once be observed that while the seed a obtains moisture by
Fi?. 337.
Fig. 338.
SOIL WITH AIR A.SD WITHOUT WATER.
I
V
♦ /
s i*.
*
» • ■'
»»
■ /• '
SOIL WITH WATER A.SD AIR.
contact with the dark saturated particles of soil, it receives a continuous supply of fresh air from
that circulating constantly through the interstitial canals. " Lest any one should suppose that the
contents of these interstitial canals are so minute tiiat their whole amount can be of little conse-
quence, we may here notice the fact that in moderately well pulverized soil they amount to no less
than i of the whole bulk of the soil itself. For example, 100 cubic inches of too/,-./ soil — that is. of
soil in which the pores arc iillod with water, while the canals are filled with air. as fig. 337 — con-
tain no less than 25 cubic inches of air. According to this calculation, in a field pulverized to the
depth of 8 inches, a depth perfectly attainable on most soils by careful tillage, every imperial acre
will retain beneath its surface no less than l-J,O'15,280 cubic inches of air. Taking into the calculation
the weight of soil, we shall find that every additional inch you reduce to powder by plowing, you
call into activity e35j tons of soil, and render it capable of retaining beneatli its surface 1,568.160
additional cubic inches of air. — H. R. M.)
(185fj.) The subject of the condition in wl)ich seed is usually found deposited in tie ground may
be pursued a little farther, from the paper alluded to by Dr. Madden, and the first conditions that
strike one are bad plowing and bad sowing. In fig. 339, the furrow-sUces under a, h and c arc all
ill plowed, as you may easily perceive ; and the soil being so arranged, of course tlie seed will be
in^egularly deposited, as seen at a, h and c, in fig. 340, where some are too deep, as under b, to
Fi? 339.
/\
''^■J^fMh^:^
A^'^
a b
;«»'^:f»^";^-vrV:;''r-::^:»v';^^:*-t:^B;i
Fig 341
^ A
toliilLiMlM lin-fffifrrgf
1^
^ ;X-
THE EFFECTS OF BAD PLOWINO ON SEED. THE EFFECTS OF BAD SOWING ON SEED.
germinate quickly, if at all, and others much nearer the surface, ns at c. In these various positions
in which the seed is placed, it is obvious that the plants spriniring from them will appear and
grow as irregularly, as seen in fii.'. 341. where the plants at b are much farther advanced than
those at a. In regard to bad sowing, ahhough the furrow slices are regular and well ploweu ;n
the right-naad side of fig. 339, from c W d, yet the seed having been irregularly deposited on the
(322)
SOWING BARLEY-SEED.
179
surface, they have arranged themselves in one place too thick, as at e e e, fig. 340, and too thin at
f f; and the consequences are visible in the position of the plants in fig. 341, where they are too
thick at g g g. and too thin at h h. Where such irregularities exist — and every farmer is liable
to their consequences by the carelessness of their workpeople, it is clear that the crop cannot be
uniform; and it is a fact which cannot be disputed however it may be explained, that the more
uniform a crop is, it is the greater, and affords better grain. If, on the other hand, you observe
fig. 342, you will perceive that the seed has been deposited at uniform depths and intervals from a
FiR. 343.
1 i-': ■ »• i-;, ;»> -.• ; ■/\(:y;::v>:i;:M'^-=:'\i^ ■ \ V:.
f tf f 1 f i ft t f t J...I «
THE GOOD iify£CTS OF THE EliUAL DEFOJITIOS OF SEED.
to 'a, and the consequence is that the plants grow at uniform bights and strength, as from c to c.
Although the favorable result is obtained by drill-machines depositing every seed at a regular depth,
which is not the case of broadcast by hand, yet there are objections against sowing corn in rows,
which all drill machines do; but could they be made to deposit seed at a uniform depth, and at
the same time disperse it broadcast, the objection would be disposed of The objection to all
crops placed in rows is that the air, having free access along the rows, while it encourages the
growth of the cultivated, so also it does of wild plants, and to destroy the latter, certain imple-
ments are used to stir the ground, while the former are, of course, allowed to grow ; but as in
their progressive growth the plants throw out innumerable root-fibres in every direction in search
of food, the fibres which occupy the open space between te rows are destroyed in common with
the weeds; and though no estimate can be formed of the amount of injury which plants sustain
in the destruction of their root-fibres, yet it is consonant to reason that these fibres must be essen-
tial to the welfare of the plant, otherwise they would not be sent forth. It would therefore be
worth while to ascertain, by experiment, the comparative results derived from depositing seed
broadcast at a uniform depth with ordinary broadcast, and with rows.
(1857.) I have amused myself at times in calculating the quantity of seeds of different grains
sown in an acre, and on comparing the amount of crop actually received, with what ought to
have been their produce, and the deficiency which the results bear out appears incredible. Thus,
Hunter's wheat gives 84 grains to 1 drachm \\'eight ; and taking it at 65 lbs. per bushel, the num-
ber of grains in a bushel is 698,870, and giving three bushels per acre for seed, there will be sown
on an imperial acre, 2,095,510 grains, or 48 grain« in the square foot. Now, I have counted ears
of wheat to contain as high as 61, and as low as 24 grains each, the average thus being 44 grains ;
and allowing no more than one ear of produce from each grain sown, and allowing nothing for
the tillering of the crop, the produce ought to be 44 fold ; but the largest produce of wheat in the
Carse of Gowrie is 52 bushels per imperial acre, or only 17 fold for the seed sown : what then
becomes of the other 27 fold ? Again, 80 grains of Chevalier barley, at 69 lbs. per bushel, weighs
1 drachm, or affords 604,160 grains to the bushel, and at 3 bushels to the acre, 1,812,480 grains per
acre, or 41 grains to the square foot. Now barley yields from 32 to 21 grains in the ear, the aver-
age being 28, and allowing 1 ear from each grain sown, the produce should be 28 fold ; but 60
bushels per acre is the best crop, or 20 fold of the seed : what then becomes of the 8 fold which
is wanting ? Once more : Potato oats give 134 grains to 1 drachm, at 47 lbs. per bushel, or 806,144
grains to the bushel, and at 6 bushels an acre for seed, 4,836,864 grains per acre, or 111 grains per
square foot. Now, potato oats differ in the yield of grains in the ear from 182 to 20, the average
being 64, or 64 fold, allowing 1 ear from each grain sown witliout tillering. Now 72 bushels is a
good crop per acre, or 12 fold of the seed : what then becomes of the 52 fold wanting ? These
are incredible discrepancies, and how can they be accounted for ? Can the attacks of insects and
vermin, or the effects of soil and weather, account for the loss ? The subject is worth investiga-
tion, and were the result of investigation the discovery of the means to protect the seed while it
is in the ground, the produce would either be greatly increased, or the quantity of seed to be sown
would require to be much lessened.*
* See some speculations of mine on this subject in vol. iv. of Quarterly Journjil of .Agriculture.
(323)
ISO THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
16. TURNING DUNGHILLS AND COMPOSTS.
"The compost pilo examine now ami turn,
And if 'lis not completely liecomposed
Into one mass of veget-tble mould,
With an unsp"*™!; hrtnd throw in more lime.
When unremittini; cold retards the stage •
Of fermentation, heat, then, genial heat.
Must be applied.
Graham.
(1858.) The ordinary mode of treatins^ tlunghills of farm-yarfl manure is
very simple the principh? upon which it is founded is quite consonant to
reason and the re.'^ults of the application of the manure so treated is also
satisfactory. The treatment is, to spread every kind of straw used in lit-
ter and every kind of dung derived from the various sorts of animals domi-
ciled in the steading uniformly in layers, as it is supplied, over the area of
the respective courts; to take this compound of straw and dung out of the
courts at a proper period, and form it into a heap in the field where the
manure derived from it shall he needed, with as much care as to mix the
different ingredients of the heap together as they were in the courts, and
to prevent tlie fermentation of the whole until the manure is used ; and to
turn this heap over in such a way, and at such a time, as the manure it
contains shall be ready to be applied to the soil when wanted. The prin-
ciple of this treatment is the simple one of commixing the various ingre-
dients of sti-aw and dung so intimately together, fii-st in the couits, then in
the duno--heap, when led out, and lastly in the same dung-heap when turn-
ed over^to be duly fermented, as that the fermented manure shall be aa
uniform a compound as the nature of the materials of which it is composed
will admit. And the result is, when the manure so treated is applied to
the soil, it is found to be the most valuable of any known manure for every
purpose of the farm. You have already been told how the courts should
be littered, and been shown the advantages of attending to this simple yet
important part of rural management in (1596) and (1597). You have also
seen how those courts are emptied of their contents, and the proper time
when they should be so emptied, in (1598) and (1599). And you have
witnessed how their contents are disposed of in heaps in the fields in which
they shall be required, (1601), and the reasons why they are formed in the
manner recommended, (1602). My present purpose is to inform you how
these heaps should be turned in order to bring them into the degree of fer-
mentation best suited for making them into good manure ; and the mode
of actually apjjlying that manure will be. shown to you when we come to
consider the culture of the potato and turnip crops.
(1859.) Potatoes are the first crop which require a large quantity of farm
duntr. It is the practice of some farmers to drive the dung for potatoes
direct out of the court, in its compressed state, and before it has been fer-
mented at all. On strong soils, naturally unsuited to the growth of this
plant, by reason (jf their heavy and tenacious character, long dung may be
successfully used, because? it assists to relieve the pressure of the soil upon
the young plant. Indeed, on such soil, I have seen a drill of potatoes ma-
nured with dry twisted straw-ropes obtained from the coverings of the
stacks in the stack-yard, and which was so manured for the purpose of as-
certaining the diflerence, if any, betwixt it and the best made dung, pro-
TURNING DUNGHILLS AND COilIPOSTS. 181
duce as good potatoes as the dung. In like manner, potatoes may be
raised well on soils of that character with horse-dung which has reached
that state of worthlessness caWed jirc-fa?iged. In all other sorts of soils the
use of long-dung incurs imminent risk of a deficiency of crop, and there-
fore dung should generally be fermented for potatoes. Dung, when laid
up in an uncompressed state in the court, as noticed in (1604), becomes
sufficiently fermented for potatoes, and may be driven out atonce without
farther preparation. There is one objection to the use of unfermented
dung for potatoes, which seems to me insuperable, and it is, that where
grains of every kind find their way among the litter of courts, and it is im-
possible to have the straw threshed by the mill absolutely clean, or the
seeds of weeds that may have been sifted out of the corn when cleaned,
thrown upon the litter in the courts, though they ought to have been thrown
away elsewhere ; so long as these grains and seeds possess all their vitali-
ty, and that will escape destruction in unfermented dung, they will sprino-
up among the potatoes, not in the intervals between the drills, where they
might be removed by the horse-hoes in the process of cleaning the land,
but actually among the potato-plants, having vegetated and grown alono-
with them, and deriving as much nourishment from the dung as the pota-
toes themselves. I have frequently seen such an intermixture with potato
plants at various places, and a very dirty and slovenly farming it makes.
Having a piece of ground trenched from an old plantation, and beino- com-
paratively pretty clean, I was desirous of trying potatoes upon it for the
first crop, and having no dung ready prepared for this extra space of
ground, what was required was taken out of the court in which the corn-
barn was situated, and the result was as I have just described. No doubt,
the weeds thus sprung up. among the potatoes can be removed by the field-
workers with the draw-hoe, when they are cleaning the crop, but the labor
of removing large plants fi-om that position, and especially when forced
in growth by powerful manure, is considerable, and the weeding cannot
be accomplished but by removing a considerable portion of the useful
soil around the young potato plant. It is clear that it is much better farm-
ing to have no plants in this position to take away, than to have to re-
move them.
(1860.) On commencing the fuming of a dunghill, it should be consider-
ed from which end it will be most convenient to take the dung and lav it
on the land. On the supposition that the dunghill occupies the position'ex-
plained in (1595), the end from which the dung will be carted away will
be the head-ridge. After determining this point, the next subject for con-
sideration is, whether the dunghill will be once or twice turned before it
is applied, and this point is determined by the crop for which the dunghill
is preparing — if for potatoes, only one turning is requisite, and two for tur-
nips. As the first dunghill is intended for potatoes, it receives one tui'ning,
and it should be begun to be turned at the end farthest from the head-
ridge. The unturned dung-heap slopes at both ends, as observed in (1601),
but the turned dunghill should be made of the same bight throughout. To
attain this end, the space occupied by the workers at the commencement,
between the turned dung and the dung-heap, should be wider than at the
middle of the heap, and the dung should be thrown to a greater hight than
the side from which it is taken. The usual width marked off on the dung-
heap is 3 feet, which affords sufficient room for people to work in ; but the
first few spaces upon which the first divisions of the heap are laid, should
be held narrower than 3 feet, until the desired hight of the turned dung-
hill is attained at the end. The effect of this arrangement is, as the turn-
ing approaches the middle of the dung-heap, where it is of the greatest
(325J
182 THE BOOK OF THE FAR3I SPRING.
hit^ht, the space upon whicli the diinrr is turned upon will be more than 3
feet in width, and the additional width will be required near and at the
middle, that the extra bight of the dung-*ieap there may be reduced to the
level of the end. After the middle has been passed, the spaces turned upon
should be gradually lessened in width toward the end at which the turning
is finished, where, as at the commencement, the turned dung will have to
be thrown to a greater bight than the dung-heap, to attain the medium
hight of the finished dunghill. There is much more of nice management
in following those particulars of turning a dunghill than at first sight may
appear necessary, because the turned dunghill will not ferment equally
throughout if it is of different bights. The greatest heat will be at the
deepest part, where the dung will become comparatively short and com-
pact, while at the shallowest parts it will continue crude and unprepared ;
and these different states of manure have very different effects on the soil.
In ordinary practice, miscalculations are always made as lo tlie uniform
hight of dunghills, for they are lower at the ends than at the middle ; and
if an endeavor is afterward made to equalize the bight, it is done by throw-
ing bi"-h dung of the middle toward the ends, and the effect of this expe-
dient is that no union takes place between the dung which was turned over
in the regular way with what is afterward thrown upon it ; they ever after
remain in different states, and rise differently to the graip when removed
into the cart ; and the middle part, besides, becomes trampled down and
harder than the ends.
(1861.) Laying these down as the rules by which dunghills should be
turned, the mechanical part of the operation is done in the following man-
ner : The people required to do this work are a man and a few field-
workers, according to the size of the dunghills ; and of this latter class,
women are by far the best hands at turning a dunghill, because, each
taking a smaller quantity of dung at a time upon a smaller graip than fig.
257, the dung is much more intimately mixed together than when men
are occupied at this work, for they take large graipsfull, and merely lift
them from one side of the trench they are working into the other, without
shaking each graipfull loose, or scattering it to pieces. Turning dung is
not a cleanly work for women, their petticoats being apt to be soiled in the
trench by the dung on both sides ; but there is a plan which Berwickshire
women adopt of keeping the bottom of their dress clean, which is to tie the
bottom of the petticoat with the garters just below the knee, as long as they
are at work. The man's duty is to cut the dung-heap into divisions of 3
feet wide across its breadth with the dung-spade, fig. 308, in the manner
desciibed in (1603). When the edge of the dung-spade becomes dull, it is
sharpened with the scythe-stone. The drier portions of the dung are put
into the interior of the dunghill, and when different sorts of dung are met
with, they are intermingled in small graipsfull as intimately as possible.
Each division of the dunghill is cut down and turned over to the ground
before another is entered on, and when the ground is reached, the scattered
straws, and earth that has been damped by any exudation from the dung-
heap, are shoveled up either with the broad-mouthed shovel, fig. 149, or
the frying-pan shovel, fig. 176, and thrown into the interior. When straw-
ropes are met with, they should be cut into small pieces and scattered
among the dampest portions of the dung. Though the dung-heap is cut
into parallel trenches, the dung from the top of one trench is not thrown
into the bottom of the former, but rather thrown upon the breast of the
turned dung, so as the turned dung may slope away from the work-people.
The utility of this firm is, that when the dung is carting away it rises
freely with the graip. When a dung-heap is thus turned over, and its form
(326)
TURNING DUNGHILLS AND COMPOSTS. 183
preserved as it should be, it constitutes a pai'allelopipedou, and is a well
finished piece of work.
(1862.) Unless much rain has fallen from the time the dung was led out
of the court until the heap is tuined, the dung will not be very moist, and
not at all wet, but in a free workable state, with a slight degree of heat in
it, and evaporation would be observable from it, were the air cold when
it was turning. Very little moisture will be observed as having come from
the heap. After this turning over, shaking up and mixing together, which
should be finished in the same heap as quickly as possible, that the whole
mass may have the same time to ferment, the operation being performed
about a fortnight before the time of planting potatoes, in the latter end of
April and beginning of May, the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere is
then such as a considerable degree of heat may be expected to show itself in
the dung in the course of a few days. There is no danger of this first fermen-
tation proceeding to a gi'eat degree of heat, as the air is still cool at nio^hts
and the largest proportion of the heap consists of the dung of cattle, which
is slow of fermentation at all times, and particularly in the early part of the
season. The first external symptom that fermentation is proceeding in the
heap is subsidence of its bulk, w-hich in the course of a fortnight may con-
tract one foot of hight. A perceptible smell will then arise from the duno-,
accompanied with a flickering of the air over it, which is occasioned by
the escape of vapor and some of the gases, but chiefly, I apprehend, aque-
ous vapor. By inserting a walking-stick into the heap here and there, a
heat considerably more than that of the hand will be felt, and by pushino- this
stick into different parts of the dunghill, the relative heat of those parts
will be ascertained, and the greatest heat may be expected to be felt at
the side opposite whence the wind blows, if there be wind, or even
a breeze. The substance of the dunghill becomes more consolidated in
consequence of the fermentation, and also more uniform; and a black-
colored liquid will be found in some degree to ooze from its sides. If the
soil upon which the dunghill stands was soft when the dunghill was formed,
the oozing will then be absorbed by it, and exhibit no wetness of surface ;
but if the soil be firm, then the moisture will remain on the surface, and form
small pools in the ruts of the cart-wheels or open furrows. All the leakao-e,
even if collected in one pool, would afford but a trifling quantity ; indeed
much moisture cannot exude from a dung-heap derived from courts in
which the cattle are duly supplied with abundance of litter to keep them
both dry and warm. So much for the ^o^c/^o-dunghill.
(1863.) As to the turnip-dunghiW, it receives a somewhat different treat-
ment, but still conformable to the purpose for which it is destined. It is
turned twice, and on this account it is begun to be turned at the opposite
end from that for potatoes ; but the same rules are followed in doino- it as
just described for the potato-dunghill, and it also is allowed to ferment for
about a fortnight. At the second turning, which is given about a fortnight
or ten days before the dung is used, the operation is commenced at the
end at which the former turning terminated, and it is much more easily
performed than the first, inasmuch as the substance is easier cut with the
dung-spade, more free to separate and shake with the graip, and less care
required to retain the rectangular figure formerly given to the dunghill.
The weather at the second turning will be warm, and the fermentation, of
course, rapid, so that apprehension may be excited that it will proceed to
an injurious extent for the materials composing the dunghill. For raising
turnips, however, there is little dread of the fermentation proceeding toa
far, as it is matter of experience that the more effete the dung is, the more
valuable it is for the nourishment of the turnip plant, as is well known to
(327)
184 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
every turnip farmer. Wlien in this valuable state heat has almost entirely
left it, it has become like soft soap, anil rises in lumps with the graip, and
would almost cut into pieces witli the shovel. It is, moreover, sappy, co-
hesive, greasy, and of a dark-brownish black color. Tlie larger the mass in
which tlie dung in this state is found, the more valuable it is for turnips.
To check rapid fermentation, a spitfull of earth around the dunghill thrown
upon its top, will have that effect to a certain degree. It is supposed by
many farmers who grow Swedish turnips to a large extent, that dung of
the same year cannot be transfomied into this state in time for Swedish
tumij)H, which ought to be sown before the middle of May ; and in the
temperature of ordinary seasons in Scotland at that time, the observation,
I dare say, is correct. To obviate the want of so valuable an ingredient
as oUl muck, it is the practice of some farmers to keep dung on puqiose
over the year. This would no doubt be a difficult matter on farms which
depend entirely on their own produce for the manure applied on then ; but
let the sacrifice be made for one year either to collect farm-yard dung from
external sources, and form it into a dunghill for the succeeding year, or
purchase other maimre to a large extent for one year, to raise a crop of
turnips, and reserve the farm-yard dung for the Swedish turnips of the
next year, and the object is gained. I have known many farmers attain
this object to a partial extent, but no one whom I have observed practice
it to so great an extent as Mr. Smith, when he was at Grindon in North
Durham, where he possessed the fine stock of Short-Horns that was ad-
mired by all who saw them. The dung of the year was made fit for
white turnips, which were not sown for a month or so after the Swedes,
and when both heat and time combine to bring it to a proper state for use.
(1864.) The subject of composts, when followed out in all its bearings,
is an extensive one — for there is not a single article of refuse on a farm
but what may form an ingredient of a compost, and be converted into a
manure fit for one or more of the cultivated crops. At the same time there
is great labor attending the formation of composts of every kind, as the ma-
terials cannot be collected together without horse-labor ; and in summer,
when those materials are most abundant, the labors of the field are most
important, and to devote then the time required to collect them, would be
to sacrifice part of the time that should be occupied in indispensable field-
labor. I believe the most economical mode of forming composts is to col-
lect materials at times when leisure offers for the purpose ; and when they
have accumulated in sufficient quantity in the space allotted for their use,
they can be put together by the field-workers when not necessarily en-
gaged in the field. This advice will not suit the temper of those who,
wishing to obtain their object at once, would make the forming of com-
posts, or any other thing they have in hand at the time, the principal busi-
ness of the farm ; but you should be very cautious in determining to exe-
cute any piece of work that diverts horse-labor from its legitimate pursuits.
I speak on this subject in this manner from direct experience, for I was
once strongly impressed with the benefits to be derived from using com-
posts; and having plenty of materials at my command for making what I
conceived should be good manure for the land, I persuaded myself that
manure to any extent miglit be made on the farm. Having access to an
unlimited quantity of rough bog-turf and peat, large quantities of dry leaves
in autumn, black mould to some extent, and those usual refuse products
of the farm — quicken and potato-haulms, with plenty of shell-marl and a
stratum of fine clay associated with it, and, of course, Hme-shells from the
market-town at all times, 1 was in these circumstances perhaps fully more
favorably situated for making composts than most farmers. But little did
(328)
TURNING DUNGHILLS AND COMPOSTS. 185
I anticipate the labor I undertook. Two years convinced me that it was
no child's play to collect together bog-turf, marl, lime, dry leaves and rub-
bish into one focus, and cart them all out again to the field or fields des-
tined to receive the benefits of their composition. I put together the ma-
terials in the best manner I could devise or hear of, turned them at proper
times with the greatest care, and certainly enjoyed the satisfaction of ma-
king a great deal of stuff apparently well adapted for the pui"pose intend-
ed ; and in regard to its quality, I invariably found that the oldest made
compost looked richest, most uniform in its texture, and most active in its
effects, like old rotten muck; but notwithstanding these favorable appear-
ances, unless very large quantities were applied, little benefit was derived
from them ; and even from 40 to 50 cart-loads to the imperial acre did not
produce the good effects of 12 cart-loads of good muck. I could have
managed the manual part of the work to any extent, for hired laborers
could have been found to do it by piece-work, and the bog-turf was ob-
tained on that condition ; but the horse-labor was overpowering, for every
acre thus required a cartage of SO to 100 loads to provide no more than
sufficient manure for it. An extra pair of horses could not have over-
taken the additional labor thus imposed on the horses, and to incur
that expense continually for the problematical good to be derived from
the largest source of materials I possessed, namely, grassy-bog-turf, and
peat-turf, was more than the most sanguine farmer is warranted in
risking.
(1865.) It may, perhaps, prove interesting to relate a few of the com-
posts I made with those materials. 1. The first was a compound of peat-
turf and lime-shells. The turf was wheeled to the margin of the bog on
hard land, and allowed to lie some weeks, to drip the water out of it, and
to make it lighter for cartage. The lime was mixed in the proportion of
1 cart of lime to 27 of turf After the compound was twice turned, the mass
became a fine greasy pulp in the course of a few weeks in spring and the
early part of summer — so gi'easy that no one could walk on it without slip-
ping. It was applied to good turnip land, to raise turaips, and the rule
adopted to determine the quantity requisite for an acre was, in the first
place, to fill the drills with it, and the quantity required to do this was from
30 to 40 double cart-loads per acre. The crop of white turnips was only
tolerable, and certainly not nearly equal to what was raised in the same field
with 12 loads of fai-m-yard dung, while the field became troublesomely
covered with the bog-thistle, as also the common field-thistle, and a few of
the bur-thistle, the lime not having been in sufficient quantity to destroy the
vitality of the thistle-seed contained in the turf, though the degree of heat
created in the mass to reduce it to a pulp was considerable. 2. Another
compost was made of peat-turf and farm-yard dung, with a sprinkling of
lime, as directed by the late Lord Meadowbank in his celebrated treatise
on that subject, and which you may consult.* The effect produced from
this was better than the former compost, but still not equal to the usual
quantity of dung. 3. A mixture of lime and black mould, on some head-
ridges that had too much earth accumulated upon them, was only applied
before the land was drilled up and dunged for turnips, to thicken the soil ;
and labor such as this is not thrown away. 4. I tried a compost of rape-cake
and earth, the compound was not proportioned, but enough of the cake
was sprinkled on while the earth was turning over, to bring a very brisk
fermentation to the mass. After the heat had nearly subsided, it was ap-
plied for turnips, and with much success. I may mention that no account
• Meadowbank's Direction for Preparing Manure from Peat, edition of 1842.
(329) ^ ^
186 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
was taken of the exact numher of cart-loa<ls per acre of this or any other
of the composts that were applied, such particulars being seldom noted by-
fanners, who are chiefly guided by judgment in the quantity of manure
which any crop should receive. 5. Shell-marl and bog-turf, when mixed,
produced no heat, and of course were never reduced into a unifonn mass,
for without the agency of heat it is impossible to make any compost homo-
geneous. 6. The bog-turf burnt in the form of kilns, produced ashes
which varied much in their specific gravities ; those of a white color being
light and incftective as a manure, while the red color were heavy, earthy
in appearance, and well suited to raise turnips ; but I was unable to dis-
tino-uish beforehand which turf yielded the white and which the red ashes.
The troulile attending the casting of the turf in the bog, wheeling it to the
side, exposing it to the air to dry, and afterward either burning it to ashes,
or carting it away for compost, was much greater than the quantity of
ashes obtained, or the quality of compost formed would remunerate. Two
years' labor with this concoction of materials were sufficient to give me a
distaste for the business, and at length I dropped it, and prefened going
into the neighbonng towns to purchase street and stable and cow-house
manure, and bone-dust. These never disappointed me, and the eating off
of the turnips which they raised every year with sheep, soon put the soil in
a fertile state. Not\vithstanding this resolution, I made a point every year
of making up a large compost-heap of the quicken gathered fiom the fallow
land, as it was preparing for the turnips — of the potato-haulms as they
were haiTOwed together — and of the dried leaves in autumn, which would
otherwise have blown about the lawn and shrubberies — and of any other
refuse that could be collected together on the farm. These with the as-
sistance of a little fresh horse-dung, and such water as the liquid-manure
tank, which was situate in the compost court, afforded, a compost was
foiTiied every year, which assisted in extending the boundaries of the turnip
crop; and if that portion of the crop was not always heavy, the gieater or
less proportion of the turnips eaten off by sheep enabled it to produce its
share of the succeeding coiii crops and grass, while, at the same time, the
soil was thickened by the mould reduced from the compost. 7. Any of
the animals that fall by disease, when their carcasses are subdivided, and
mixed in a large quantity of earth powdered with a little quicklime, will
make a compost far superior to any of the preceding vegetable materials,
for raising turnips, especially Swedes. 8. The produce of privies, and
pigeons' dung, as well as the dung of fowls from the hen-houses, form ex-
cellent ingredients for putting into the tank of liquid manure to melt, and
afterward to distribute it over a compost. 9. Of late years saw-dust, which
was long considered a useless article, and which maybe obtained in quan-
tity on some farms where saw-mills are at work, is now rendered useful in
compost by being mixed with farm-yard dung, fermented to a considerable
degiee of heat, and then subdued with water;* and it may also be mixed
with ^ of its proportion of lime and road scrapings, and turned and kept
in compost for 3 years.t Such a compost has raised crops of turnips, as evi-
denced by Mr. William Sim, Drummond, Inveniess-shire, and Mr. H. H.
Drummond of Blair-Drummond, Perthshire. 10. Spent tanner's-bark,
when laid down for a time on the road around the steading and trampled
under foot and bruised by cart-wheels, and then formed into a compost
with either dung or lime, and allowed to stand for a considerable time,
might be rendered into good manure for turnips. Saw-dust and tanner's
baz-k, or refuse of the bark of fir-trees, will not bear the expense of a long
* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricnltural Society, vol. xiii. t Ibid., vol. svi.
(330)
TURNING DUNGHILLS AND COMPOSTS. 187
carriage; but where a supply of them is near at hand, their decomposition,
though occupying a long time to effect, is worth the trouble. 11. In the vi-
cinity of villages where fish are cured and smoked for market, refuse of fish
heads and guts, or liver and oil refuse, make an excellent compost with
earth. Near Eyemouth and Bummouth, on the Berwickshire coast, 30
barrels of fish refuse, with as much earth from the head-ridges as will
completely cover the refuse, is suffcient dunging for an imperial acre.
The barrel contains 30 gallons, and 4 baiTels make a cart-load, which sell
for Is. 6d. per barrel. From 400 to 600 barrels may be obtained for each
farm in the neighborhood in the course of the season. 12. Whale-blubber
when mixed with earth forms a good compost for turnips. As this is a
most caustic substance in a fresh state, it should be compounded with a
large proportion of earth, and turned over and kept for at least 3 years
until the compost becomes inert. I have seen a blubber compost, 2 years
old, applied as top-dressing on grass, burn up every plant by the roots, but
after it becomes apparently effete it raises excellent turnips. 13. I have
heard of a compost being made of whin and broom cuttings and earth, 3
loads of earth to one of the cuttings being mixed together and watered for
2 or 3 days, and to remain untouched for 8 or 10 days more, when it is
turned and again allowed to rest for 10 days, when it is fit to be applied as
manure. The cost of making this compost was estimated at 2s. per cart-
load, and it is said to have raised wheat and oats well. But the fish refuse
which I noticed before is to be obtained at some places at 2s. a load, and
there can be no comparison in the relative value of it and the cuttings.
You thus see how endless is the subject of composts for manure ; and it
is obvious, from what has been said, that the kind of compost which you
may make depends entirely on the nature of the materials which can be
supplied in your immediate neighborhood.
(1866.) So numei'ous are the articles which are now presented to the
notice of the farmer in the name of manures, that but to notice each shortly
would occupy many pages ; nor is it incumbent on me to describe them
at present, as the greatest number have yet to establish a character for
themselves by repeated experiments in successive years. This will, no
doubt, put some of them to too severe a trial ; but it will be necessary,
inasmuch as they may not be able in the second year to confirm the pre-
tensions they assumed in the first. I remember of a compound which be-
came celebrated some years ago, after one year's trial, for the turnips
raised with it were really good, and could have stood a comparison with
those grown by the best muck of the farm ; but, alas, in the second year,
even, the substance was almost a complete failure — not that the original
composition would have failed in the second any more than it did in the
first year, but the demand for it in the second year had probably increased
so much in consequence of the success attending its use in the first, that
the manufacturer, to supply the market with the desired quantity, had
taken the liberty to injure its quality ; and the consequence to him was
exactly what he himself might have anticipated : the farmer lost faith in
the manure and distrusted the manufacturer. I was induced by a flaming
advertisement which appeared constantly in the papers at the time, to try
a compound manure ; but in this substance I was only once deceived —
" once and for aye," for in truth it had no better effect, in raising turnips,
for which it was specially recommended, than black mould which was
tried alongside of it. Such results as these should induce caution in the
use of compound manures, the composition of which is unknown to you ;
still it is right to try them, as some one may turn out to be a really valua-
ble substance ; but the trials should be made at first on a small scale, if
(331)
188 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
«
■you are among the first to try it ; but if you hear of others havins^ suc-
ceeded, then, of course, your confidence may be yielded to it with the
greater safety. To make known whetlier any new suV)stance has succeed-
ed or not, I think it is incumbent on every farmer to do so for the sake of
his brother fanners, and there are now many pubHcations which devote
themselves to the promulgation of loiral practice. But I have been of
opinion for many years that no farmer should purchase any compounded
substance advertised as a manure, unless it happens to be a natural sub-
stance; for, even in the hands of honest men, compounds may fail to con-
tinue to afford the satisfaction they once did, as carelessness in compound-
ing an article that is much in demand, and of which large quantities are
made at a time, is a very natural and not an uncommon consequence.
Besides, failure in a case of this kind is a very serious matter to the fanner.
It is not merely the value of the article itself which constitutes his entire
loss, though even that may be considerable, but the consequence to future
years. The crop immediately dependent on the manure is not only defi-
cient, but the remaining part of the deficient crop is ahvays of inferior
quality. This is an invariable effect in every crop ; and its converse be-
ing equally true, that a full crop is always one of fine quality, and not only
this, but eveiy crop in the course of the rotation is affected by the state of
the one which directly receives the manure, that is, if the fallow crop, as
the turnip crop is called, be deficient and of inferior quality, the succeed-
ing ones will not exhibit that vigor of growth by which a fiill fallow crop
is invariably succeeded. I do not pretend to explain the cause of this re-
sult, nor have I ever seen it attempted to be explained, but as a fact it is
indisputable, and I have heard the fact noticed by many farmers. You
thus see how very much it is for your interest to be assured of the efficacy
of every manure that you are to apply. To be assured of their efficacy,
it has been recommended to analyze every manure before it is applied, in
oi'der to ascertain whether it is really the article it is given out for. As
an instance of the necessity for such analysis, I will quote a case or two
adduced by Mr. Madden. He says : " Three different specimens of ni-
trate of soda were submitted to analysis, when they were found to contain
respectively 14, 25 and 26 per cent, of common salt. Now these speci-
mens were purchased from extensive dealers in the article, and were con-
tained in the bags in which it was imported, so that we have no reason for
suspecting the honesty of the retailer; and it follows, therefore, that this
shameful amount of adulteration must be effected prior to its being shipped
for Britain. 1 would desire that you bear in mind, however, the fact
that the presence of common salt, even to this enormous extent, may be
natural, but yet the imposition upon the British farmer is equally glaring,
whichever be the case, as will be seen by the following statement regard-
ing saltpetre. This article, likewise, contains common salt, though in
much smaller quantities ; but in this instance the fact is not attempted to
be concealed. Every cargo is analyzed at the India House before it is
sold, and the per centage of salt marked upon it ; and the amount of salt
is deducted from the lot purchased. For example, suppose the saltpetre
contained 10 per cent, of salt, if the purchaser buys 100 cwts. he receives the
100, but only pays for 90. Hence, therefore, there is no deception ; but
we would ask how it happens that the same is not done with the nitrate
of soda, and that those specimens containing from 14 to 26 per cent, of
salt, should all be sold at one and the same price ] Why, if justice were
done in this case, the specimen containing 26 per cent, should have sold
at 22s. in place of 25s., if that be the fair price for the lot containing 14
per cent. ; and if, on the contrary, 25s. is the proper price for the pure ar-
(332)
TURNING DUNGHILLS AND COMPOSTS. 189
tide, these three lots should have sold respectively at 21s. 6d., 18s. 9d., and
18s. 6d. per cwt." I may here mention, casually, in regard to the pres-
ence of salt in both the saltpetre and nitrate of soda, that it must be natural,
and not placed there by human agents ; for common salt in the countries
whence these articles are imported, is much higher priced than the ar-
ticles themselves. Strictly in connection with the purity of manures is
the price demanded for them of the fai-mer. If other articles are charged
in the same proportion as saltpetre is, as is shown by the following
statement of Dr. Madden, the profits of the manure-dealer must be
much greater than those of the farmer, even after all the risk he runs
in using manures unknown to him. " Before leaving this interesting sub-
ject," continues Dr. Madden, " I would make one other observation, viz.,
concerning saltpetre. I find by reference to the most extensive purchas-
ers of this article, that it sells at the India House in 5-ton lots at a price
varying from 25s. to 29s. per cwt. ; whereas it is retailed to farmers at the
enormous charge of from 50s. to 55s. For example, I analyzed a speci-
men sold to a farmer at 55s. per cwt., and detected 2 per cent, of salt in it ;
whereas another specimen, purchased at the India House at 28s. 6d. per cwt.,
contained less than 1^ per cent, of salt ; and, be it remembered, the lots
were purchased at nearly the same time, during which there had been lit-
tle or no fluctuation in the mai-ket." In a note. Dr. Madden mentions the
pi'actice of an extensive dealer in nitrate of soda in England, that he ex-
amines whatever he buys, and finds the average amount of salt to be from
8 to 10 per cent., and that he rejects as ^^ useless stuff" any lot containing
over 13 per cent.* The purity of so simple a substance as saltpetre or
nitrate of soda can at once be ascertained by analysis, but the case is
rather different with many of the compounds at present offered to the ac-
ceptance of farmers ; their analysis can hardly prove so satisfactory. If
experiments ai'e to be made with substances extraneous to the farm, I
think that chemist would act most judiciously who would suggest a mix-
ture of a few of those simple substances which he conceives would benefit
any particular crop, or the whole series of crops usual through a rotation,
rather than any compound, however high sounding. A farmer can at
once see what he is about when he himself forms a compound of various
simple substances, differently proportioned, as suggested to him by an in-
telligent chemist. He can purchase each of these in as pure a state as
they usually are made by practical chemists, who make them on a large
scale. He himself does not know what may be the result of their appli-
cation ; he only expects results such as he is led to expect from the in-
formation given him by the chemist ; but, working as he does, even in tiie
dark, when he works under the guidance of a scientific man, who has no
interest in the materials he recommends, he has confidence in what he is
about to undertake, because he considers himself as his own agent in the
business, pui'chasing simple ingredients, the nature of which is known to
every one, and the commixing of which has been performed under his
own eye. Far different is the case when he employs an article the purity
or impurity, the efiicacy or inefficacy, of which is equally unknown to him,
and in the application of which he cannot anticipate a single result. Till
some such plan is established for the use of extraneous manures, their re-
sults will be determined by mere chance, and the confidence of the farmer
in them will fluctuate every year as the result turns out favorably or oth-
erwise, till at length the use of them will be abandoned with contempt.
All natural substances used as manure, such as bones, gypsum, guano,
nitrate of soda, &c., are not the objects of the foregoing remarks; but
* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv.
190
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
should it be objected that the substance of the compound manures, being
themselves natural compounds, cannot be sold as simple substances, it may
be answered that all the natural compounds which they contain, by being
rendered dry or concentrated, could be sold as natural compounds, which
rnay perhaps become equally valuable as others ; but as long as they are
mixed up with other matter, no one can say whether the valuable or val-
ueless materials in them predominate.
(1S67.) A simple list of the various ingredients at present in the market
for the use of farmers will puzzle you as to the choice you should make
amon" them. The names and prices are taken from the Mark-Lane Ex-
jness of 24th April, and the New Farmers' Journal of 8th May, 1843.
They are as follows :
Aniiiialized black, £3 38. to X3 58. per ton at
Duiiliar.
As?iiciilturiil palt, 34s. per ton.
Ciiiefoii, 21s. per cwt.
Clarke's desiccated compost, £3 128. 6d. per
lilid., sudicicnl for 3 acres.
Chloride lime, 288. per cwt.
Daniell's new Bristol manure, 8?. per qr.
Graves, £6 10s. per ton.
Gypsum at the water-side, 328. 6d. per ton; land
and housed, 38s. to 42s. per ton, according to
quantity.
Grimwade's preparation for turnip-fly, 10s. 6d.
per packet, sufficient for 3 acres.
Guano, 10s. to 14s. per cwt., according to quality.
Hunt's bone-dust, ISs. per qr.
Hunt's half-inch bone, Ifis. per qr.
Hunt's artiKcial guano, £S per ton.
Hunt's new fertilizer, 13.s. 4d. per qr.
Lance's carbon, 12s. per qr.
Lance's humus, 14s. per qr.
Liverpool Abbattoir Company's animalized ma-
nurin.Ef powder, £2 10s. per ton.
Muriate of ammonia, 24s. per cwt.
Muriate of lime, 12s. per cwt.
Nitrate of soda, 18s. to 18s. 6d. per cwt., duty
paid.
Nitrate of potash (saltpetre) 26s. 6d. per cwt.
Owen's animalized carbon, 25s. per ton. free on
board at Copenhagen.
Potter's artificial guano, 158. per cwt.
I'oittevin's patent disinfected manure, 13s. 6d.
per qr.
Poittevini's highly concentrated manure, 308.
per qr.
Petre salt, 4s. per cwt.
Rape dust, £7 to £8 per ton.
Rape-cake, £6 10s. to £7 per ton.
Rag's, £4 to £4 10s. per ton.
Sodaash, 14s. to 168.
Sulphuric acid, 2^d. per lb.
Sulphur for destroying worms in turnips, 168.
per cwt.
Soap-ashes, 10s. per ton.
Sulphate of soda. ~s. 6d. per cwt.
Sulphate of ammonia. 18s. per cwt. at Dundee.
Trimmer's compost for clover, wheat and tur-
nips.
Urate of the London Manure Company, £5 per
ton.
Watson's granulated compost, 10s. per cwt
Wolverhampton imperial compost, (Alexan-
der's,) 12s. per qr., subject to carriage to
London, or forwarded from Wolverhampton.
Willey dust, £i 48. per ton.
Wright's alkalies, 288. to 42s. per cwt.
The following are the weights per bushel of some of the substances enu-
merated above :
Per bushel — Iba. lbs.
Agricultural salt 75 to 80
Alexander's compost 65
Bone-dust 42 to 44
Clarke's desiccated compost 60 to 65
Daniell's Bristol manure 50
Guano, foreign 56
Potter's 65
Gypsimi 80 to 84
Hunt's new fertilizer 65
Muriate of amniouia 65 to 70
Per bushel — lbs. lbs.
Nitrate of soda 80
Petre salt 75
Rape-dust 56
Saltpetre 80
Soda-a.sh 60
Sulphate of ammonia 70
of soda 60 to 65
Trimmer's compost for clover, wheat
and turnips 60 to 65
Urate 50
(1868.) To reduce farm-yard dung to the saponaceous state recommended and described in
(1863), is contrary to the theory propounded by non-practical writers; and for the ordinary ma-
nuring of the farm, the recommendation, it may" be acknowledged, is carried to an extreme; but
for the purpose of raising a good crop of turnips, and especially of that invaluable kind the Swe-
dish, it is beyond dispute that no manure, of whatever kind, is so congenial to their constitution as
well-made old muck. Until, therefore, a substitute is found for this infrrcdient, equal to it in effica-
cy, and as attainable, it u ill be made and applied by every farmer who is desirous of raising a good
crop of Swedish turnips. The recorde<l opini<ms of Sir Humphry Davy on this subject, though oft re-
ferred to to caution practical men against hisconchisions, nevertheless deserve examination, because
of the common-sense like manner in which he states his views, and on this account these should be
the more explicitly refuted ; and that they will one day be refuted I have no doubt, for I am per-
suaded that where practice and theory disagree, theory will be found to be in the wrong. In
regard to the general principle of the action of vegetable manures, he says: "There can be no
doubt that the straw of diiferent crops, immediately plowed into the ground, afPords nourishment
to plants, but there is an objection to this method of" using straw, from the difficulty of burying long
straw, and from its rendering the husbandry foul."' You observe at once, here, that the theory
(334)
TURNING DUNGHILLS AND COMPOSTS. 191
of the use of clean straw as a manure is objected to solely on the score of a difficulty of using it
in that state in practice. K svch an objection may be valid against the use of straw, so may it
be against tlie use of unfermented dung. If practice is to be respected in this instance, why not
in the other ; but Sir Humphry proceeds to render the straw more manageable when he says —
'• When straw is made to ferment, it becomes a more manageable manure ; but there is likewise,
on the whole, a great loss of nutritive matter. More manure is perhaps supplied for a rough
crop ; but the land is less improved than it would be supposing the whole of tlie vegetable
matter could be finely divided and mixed with the soil." Here the remark suggests itself, that
if straw is allowed to be fermented because of its being more manageable in that state for prac-
tice, so might dung be allowed to be more fermented for the same reason. If deference is paid to
practice in one case, why not in tlie other? To obviate the inconvenience of burying long straw,
Sir Humphry recommends it to be chopped thus : " It is usual to carry straw that can be em-
ployed for no other purpose to the dunghill to ferment and decompose ; but it is worth experi-
ment whether it may not be more economically applied when chopped small by a proper machine,
and kept dry till it is plowed in for the use of a crop. In this case, though it would decompose
much more slowlj*, and produce less effect at first, yet its influence would be much more lasting."
1 have no doubt that chopped straw would raise potatoes on strong clay land, and when applied
on summer-fallow a good crop of wheat would also be raised ; but in all free soils, straw, in
whatever state, vrhether long or chopped, ■would only keep tlie soil .so open as to let in drouth,
retard vegetation, and it would be found lying at the bottom of the furrow in an inert stale, as
useless, in short, s.sji re-fan gcd straw. In regard to the fermentation of farm-yard dung — which is
a composite manure — Sir Humphry admits the propriety of its undergoing a slight fermentation, as
thus: " A slight fermentation is undoubtedly of use in a dunghill ; for by means of it a disposition
is brought on in the woody fibre to decay and dissolve, when it is carried to the land or plowed
into the soil, and woody fibre is ahoai/s in great excess in the refuse of the farm." So that fermenta-
tion in the dunghill is necessary to the dissolution of woody fibre, and as woody fibre is in great
excess in the refuse of farms, it follows that fermentation ought to be generally allowed in dung-
hills, so that the question of fermentation here is only one of degree. " Too great a degree of
fermentation is, however, very prejudicial to the composite manure in a dunghill; it is belter that
there should be no fermentation at all, before the manure is used, tlian that it should be carried
too far. The excess of fermentation tends to the destruction and dissipation of the most useful
part of the mann re ; and the ultimate results of this process are like those of combustion." If
It is here meant to convey the idea that fire fanged dung h fermentation to excess, the idea
is correct, for I suppose no fanner thinks otherwise ; but that the usual degree of fermentation
allowed in dunghills renders the manure useless, is inconsistent with experience. It is quite
true, as Sir Humphry says, that " it is a common practice among farmers to suffer the farm-yard
dung to ferment till the fibrous texture of the vegetable matter is entirely broken down, and till
the manure becomes perfectly cold, and so soft as to be easily cut by the spade ;" but so far from
tie most useful part of the manure being dissipated when the dung attains this state, experience
assures us that the finest Swedish turnips cannot be raised with dung in a less elaborated state ;
and this conclusion is inevitable, that if the most valuable part of the manure is dissipated by the
fennentatiou usually allowed in dunghills, diat mo.st valuable part is not required for raising the
best crop of Swedish turnips, and that being the case, it is unnecessary to trouble ourselves to
retain it. But what are the best parts of manure ? " During the violent fennentation." says Sir
Humphry, '• which is necessary for reducing farm-yard manure to the state in which it is called
sliort 7nnck, not only a large quantity of fluid, but likewise of gaseous matter, is lost ; so much so
that the dung is reduced one half to two-thirds in weight ; and the principal elastic matter disen-
gaged is carbonic acid with some ammonia ; and both these, if retained by the moisture in the
soil, are capable of becoming a useful nourishment of plants." No doubt both the fluid and gas-
eons products of decomposing vegetables perform important functions in the economy of Nature,
but if they escape while dung is preparing in the best state for use^ according to iuvai'iable expe-
rience, it follows, as an inevitable consequence, that these products of fermentation are ttof. requi-
site, in co7ijunction with short muck, to raise a crop of turnips. Tli^^may be u.seful ingredients
for other purposes, and at other times, but it is clear that the turnip crop can be raised to a better
state without than with them. Why, therefore, attempt to retain their presence on the particular
occasion ?*
(1869.) Whether a more scientific mode of forming dunghills, in consonance with practice, will
ever be discovered, I cannot pretend to say ; but, as there seem no bounds to the discovery of
science in other arts, we should not limit its powers of application to the art of husbandry. Ex-
periments are at this moment in progress on the very subject of the formation of farm-yard dung-
hills, in connection with which I may mention the distinguished name of Professor Henslow, of
Cambridge, who, in a series of letters addressed to the farmers of Suffolk, and which have ap-
peared in the public prints, suggests the proprietj' of their performing experiments to ascertain
whether the ammonia which escapes in the gaseous state as a carbonate of ammonia may not be
retained in dunghills by the instrumentality of gypsum ? Should the event prove successful, we
may perhaps e.xpect to hear of important improvement in the management of ordinary dunghills.
Till the experinients are tried, which time alone can do, I am happy in placing before you the
opinion of so distinguished a philosopher as Professor Sprengel on the vahie of old dvnsr, when
he says m his valuable essay on manures, which ought speedily to appear in "an Engli.sh dress,
that " the longer the dung is left in the dunghill, the more advantageous will be the preparation
of the compost, because the ammonia, di.«engaa:ed from the dung and urine in it, will become
chemically combined with humic acid." It will be observed that these sentiments bear a strong
analogy to the subject which engages the attention of Professor Henslow. As a satisfactory' con-
clusion to the theoretical part of this subject, I give vou the following explanation of the ferment-
ation of manure, and its effects, by Dr. Madden.— [Whenever dead organic matter, either animal
* Davy's Agricultural Chemistry, edition of 1839.
(335)
192 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING
or vegetalile, is cxposod to nir in a moiat stale, it absorbg oxyRcn, which, by entering into combi-
nation wiiJi its carbon, destn)yB its original corapoi<ition, and gives rise to the production of variotw
new compounds, wliicli iu their turn suffer decon)i)Oiiilion hy means of fresh supplies of oxygen
being absorbed, and s<> on in a continued series until the whole mass is reduced to diemical com-
pounds of such stability as to resist the lartlier anion of oxygen under ordinary circumstances. —
During tliis scries of changes, the various solid compounds are converted first into fluid and then
into fiiseous products : vvliich latter, by escaping into the air. become lost. Chemists are much
divided as to what precise amount of decomposition is requisite to render organic matter in a
proper state to become food for |)lants : all agree that ilecomposltion must have commenced, some
maintain that it must he cotnplrfcd. My own belief, founded on extensive observation and not a
few experiments, is, that all Ihr products of decommaition, in erery ftafrc, arc available as food
for plants, provided they are cither liquid or cnpal'le of dissolving in irater. These observations
will, of course, regulate us in the management of the "" midden.]' Whenever any moist organic
matter absorbs oxygen, its chemical union witli its carbon gives rise to an increase of temperature,
which increase enables the surrounding portions to absorb oxygen more rai)idly than they other-
wise would do ; these parts in their turn become heated, and thus the influence extends through
llie entire mass — the amount of heat being proportionable to the size of the mass, its degree of
moisture, and quantity of air contained withm ils intersticea By careful management, you can
retard or accelerate llie fermentation of your "midden" to almost any extent, from scarcely any
change takinc place, to so great a rapidity as to endanger the whole taking fire from the heat
evolved. The most profitable way for dung to ferment is slowly but steadily, so that by the time
it is required for use, it will readily cut with a spade like soft cheese, and exhibit a uniform rich
brown color, and emit no smoke unless the air be very frosty. During fermentation, the azote
contained in the various constituents of the dunghill unites with hydrogen, and forms ammonia or
hart.shorn, which, being verj' volatile, is apt to escape with the watery vapor and oilier gaseous
products of decomposition. Various means have been of late recommended to prevent this, but
none of them appear to me at all satisfactory, and I believe have not as yet given very satisfaclorj-
results when applied to practice. The best condition for a "midden" to be in is when it contains
a sufficiency of water to cut moist, and yield a little liquid by pressure, but not enough to run
from it spontaneously ; this is easily effected by draining the " midden " stance, if in the court, so
that all superfluous moisture runs off into the drains, which, of course, must lead to the liquid ma-
nure-tank, from which in dry weather it should be pumped up and scattered uniformly over the
"midden"; in this state of moisture, scarcely a perceptible quantity of ammonia is lost, as it all
remains in solution ; and I believe that tliis plan will be found in all cases to be superior to every
other hitherto devised for preserving farm-yard dung. — H. R. M.]
17. PLANTING POTATOES.
■' the potato plat
Should now be delved, and, with no sparing hand.
Manured ;
The dibbling done, the dropping of the chips
Is left to liltle hnnds, well pleased to lend
Their feeble help : "
Graham.
(1870.) The potato crop is cultivated on what is calletl the fallow-break <»r
di\'i9ion of the farm, being considered in the light of a green or ameli-
orating crop for the soil. Following a crop of grain, whose .stubble is bare
in autumn, the soil is plowed early in the season, that it may receive all the
advantages which a winter's sky can ccnifer it in rendering it tender; and
as potatoes affect a dry and easy soil, the piece of land intended for them
may be ])lowed and even partially cleaned in spring. Time for cleaning is
very limited in spring, and on this account the cleanest portion of the fallow-
break should be chosen for the potatoes to occupy. The stubble will either
have been cast, fig. 1:35, in autumn, or clove down without a gore-fuiTow,
fig. 140, according as the soil is strong or free ; and having been particu-
larly provided with gaw-cuts, to keep the land as dry as possilile all winter,
for a croji which requires early culture in spring, as potatoes do, it is prob-
able that the land thus apjnopriated will be able to be cross-plowed, fig.
312, soon after the sjiriiig wheat and beans are sown, if either is cultivated
on the farm, and if not, the cross-jdowing for potatoes constitutes the ear-
liest spring work after the lea. After the cross-furrow, the land is thoroughly
(336)
PLANTING POTATOES. 193
harrowed a double tine along the line of the furrow, and then a double tine
across it, and any weeds that may have been brought to the surface by the
harrowing are gathered off, along with any isolated stones that would sp-
pear unseemly on the surface. If the land is clean, it will be ready for
drilling; if not, it should receive another plowing in the line of the ridges,
that is, across the cross-furrow, by being ridged up in casting, and then again
harrowed a double tine along and across, and the weeds again gathered off.
Should the surface be dry after the harrowing which succeeded the cross-
plowing, and the weather appear not likely to continue dry, the grubber
will be a better implement to give a stirring to the soil than the plow, as it
will still retain the dry surface uppermost, and it will also bring up to the
surface any weed that would entangle itself about the implement. The
two-horse gi'ubber is an excellent implement for stirring the soil when it
has become somewhat solid by rain or by lying untouched for a time.
The time occupied in doing all this, as the weather will permit, may be
about a month, that is, from the middle of March to the middle of April,
when the potato crop should be actively preparing for planting. As the
land cannot receive more plowing in early spring than it should, to stir the
land a little more, and. make it still more tender, the drills first made for
securing the manure of the potato crop should be set up in the double
mode, as particularly described in (1740) and (1741).
(1871.) The state of the potatoes, when taken out of the pit, will depend
on the temperature of the weather in spring, and also on the state they
were in when pitted in autumn. In cold weather, they will not be much
sprouted in the pit by the time they should be planted ; but should they
have been heated at all, in consequence of the wet state in which they had
been pitted, or the unripe state in which they had been taken up aaa pit-
ted, they will be sprouted independently of the temperature of the exter-
nal air. When the sprouts are long, they should be removed, as it will
be impossible to preserve them entire ; but if the quickening of the tubers
be mere buds, these can be preserved ; and they are of advantage, inas-
much as they will push above ground several days sooner than sets that
are not sprouted at all. It should be kept in mind, however, that sets with
long sprouts, and sprouted sets which have been long kept after beino-
taken out of the pit until planted in the field, are apt to set up puny plants.
In selecting tubers, therefore, to cut into sets, the middle sized that have
not sprouted at all, or have merely pushed out buds, will be found the
soundest ; and wherever the least softness or rottenness is felt, the tubers
should be entirely rejected, and even the firm portion of these should not
be used as seed. The small potatoes should be picked out and put aside
to boil for poultry and pigs. Those potatoes which are not required for
seed, but are nevertheless firm and of good size, whether intended for sale
or for use in the farm-house, should be placed in an outhouse, until dis-
posed of or used — the apartment having, if possible, an earthen floor, and
kept in the dark, though with access to the air, and water thrown upon
the potatoes occasionally, to keep them crisp, but not at all moist, and
turned carefully over by hand, when the sprouts are taken off.
(1872.) To insure the vitality of the sets in the ground, even when
planted under adverse circumstances, it has been recommended to dust
them with slaked lime immediately on the potatoes being cut ; and the
sap, on exuding from the incised part, will then be immediately absorbed
by the lime, which, on forming a paste, incrusts itself on the incised sur-
face.* Others recommend to dip the sets in a thick mixture of lime and
water, which, on drying, envelops them in a coating of plaster. This lat-
* Prize Essaya of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv.
(385). 13 = " *•
194 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
ter plan would be attended with some trouble, and seems to offer no ad-
vantage over the former, which is easily done with a riddle, as the sets are
cut, and can do no harm at all events. It has also been recommended to
sprout the sets prior to planting them, in order to test their vitality. The
plan suggested is to spread the sets on the ground, in a part of the field
they are to be planted, 2 or 3 inches thick, to cover them with a thin coat-
ing of earth, and then to water the earth frequently w ith a watering-pan,
until they are all sprouted, taking care to have them sprouted by the time
the land is manured to receive them. They are then to be carefully placed
in baskets, and set in the ground with the sprouts uninjured. This process
of sprouting is said to accelerate the vegetation of the sets in the drill at
least 14 days. If potatoes that have sprouted in the pit are cut into sets
and iinmcdiatchj planted, they should be in as favorable a state to grow in
the drill as when subjected to this process; and however easily it may be
conducted on a small scale — for garden culture, for example — I consider
the suggestion as unfit to be practiced on a large scale on a farm ; and es-
pecially as sets which are in a dry state when planted are found to come
up in the drill more equally, provided their vitality has been preserved. —
Small whole potatoes make good seed. One season, happening to have
fewer sets cut than would plant the ground the dunghill allotted tf) the
potato-land manured, some of the small potatoes, which had been picked
out for the pigs when the sets were cut, were planted to finish the land
with potatoes, and the crop from them was better than on the rest of the
field.
(1873.) Having drilled up as much land as will allow the planting to
proceed without intenuption, and having turned the dunghill in time to
ferment the dung into a proper state for the crop, and having prepared the
sets ready for planting, let us now proceed to the field, and see how opera-
tions should be conducted there, and in what manner they are best brought
to a termination. The sets are shoveled either into sacks like corn, and
placed in the field at convenient distances, or into the body of close caits,
which are so placed on the head-ridges as to be accessible from all points.
When the drills are short, the most convenient way to take the sets to the
field is in a cart, as the distance to either head-ridge is short ; but, when
the drills are long, sacks are best suited for setting down here and there
along the middle of the land. A small, round willow basket, with a bow
handle, should be provided for every person who is to plant the sets ; and,
as a considerable number of hands are required for this operation, boys
and girls may find employment at it, over and above the ordinary fieldr
workers. A frying-pan shovel, fig. 17G, will be found a convenient instru-
ment for taking the sets out of the cart into the baskets. Carts yoked to
single horses take the dung from the dunghill to the drills. A dung-hawk
or drag, with 2 or 3 prongs, and about 6 feet long in the shaft, such as fig.
343, is used by the steward for pulling the dung out of the carts. Boys,
Fig. 343.
(T
THE DC.NG-H.WVK OR DRAG.
girls or women are required to lead the horse in each cart to and from the
dunghill to the part of the field which is receiving the dung. The plow-
men, whose horses are employed in carting the dung, remain at the dung-
(386)
PLANTING POTATOES.
195
hill, and, assisted by a woman or two, fill the carts with dung as they re-
turn empty. One man, the grieve or steward, hawks the dung out of the>
carts, and gives the land dung in such quantity as is determined on before-
hand by the farmer. Three women spread the dung equally in the drills
with the small graips, while a fourth goes before and divides it into each
drill as it falls in heaps from the carts. If the drills have all been made
before, no plow is employed in that way while the other operations are
proceeding ; but plows are required to split in the drills and cover in the
dung and sets as fast as the planting is finished. All these materials of
labor being provided for their respective purposes, let them start to work ;
and, to render your conception the better of the manner in which they
should be arranged relatively to each other, I have contrived the annexed
cut, fig. 344, which shows you at once how all the people and horses are
employed.
Fig. 344.
<tW t^,£^^^lSL^^^'i
POTATO PLANTING.
(1874.) The first thing to be done is to back a cart to the dunghill, and
fill it with dung; and in doing this the carts are usually not qufte filled,
and the dung is heaped as near the back end of the cart as is convenient
for the draught of the horse, that the man who hawks it out may have the
less labor. The carts are filled, and the bottom of the dunghill shoveled
clean by the plowmen whose horses are employed in carting the dung ;
and whose number in the figure is 2, there being 3 carts employed at the
dung : the men are usually assisted by a field-worker or two, in order to
keep the carts a shorter time at the dunghill. "Wlienever the load is ready,
the driver c starts with the horse and cart g, and walks them along the un-
dunged drills, until the horse meets the steward, who places the licirse and
cart mto their proper place in the drills, and then removes the back-board
oi the cart. To retain this board within reach, he places it upon its edge
on the nave of the near wheel, where it is held from falling oft' by passing
the small coterel, at the end of the chain attached to the back-board, into
the slit-eye of the stud, which projects from the hind-end of the side of the
cart, and which coterel and stud keep the back-board, when in use, fast in
(387) ^ '
196 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
its proper place. If the carts are ivlwlc-hodied, the steward proceeds, after
the back-board is removed, to hawk out the dung; but if they are tilt or
cd?//^-carts, he elevates the front a few inches, by means of the hesp at-
tached there, that the dung may be hawked out the more easily. The
wheels of the cart and the horse occupy 3 drills, as at i, the horse being in
the middle drill between them. The steward h, with the hawk in both
hands, pulls out a heap of dung i upon the ground, and it invariably falls
into the middle drill. The horse is then made to step forward a few paces
and to halt again, by the voice of the steward, who then pulls out another
heap of dung. An active man, accustomed to this sort of work, does not
allow the horse to stand still at all, but to walk slowly on while he pulls
out the dung. When the cart is emptied, the steward fastens down the
body of the cart, if it is a coup one, puts on the back-board, and the cart
again proceeds by its driver to the dunghill. When the distance to the
dunghill is short, the carts are as slightly filled as to dispense with the
back-boaid altogether ; and when it can be wanted, labor is considerably
expedited. After the cart has proceeded a few paces, and deposited a few
heaps of dung, the foremost of the band of 4 women who spread the dung,
as k, divides the heaps, as at ?«, with her small common graip into other
two heaps, I and n, one in each of the drills beside her ; and from m she
goes to the next heap i and divides it into other two heaps, and so on with
every heap of dung. The 3 field-workers, n op, having each a small graip,
fig. 151, then take each 1 of the 3 drills occupied by the horses and cart-
wheels, and all spread the dung before them equally along the bottom of
the drills I m n, each taking care to remain in her own drill from the one
end of the field to the other, shaking to pieces every lump of dung, and
teazing out any that may happen to be ranker than the rest, trampling
upon the spread dung as she walks along the bottom, and keeping it with-
in the limits of the drill. Meanwhile the plowman a makes double drills
from h to c, if they have not been already foi-med, and proceeds with the
making of them toward e and d. Immediately that a part of 3 drills are
dunged and the dung spread, the potato planters, after having plenished
their baskets or aprons with sets from the cart t upon the head-ridge, pro-
ceed to deposit the sets upon the dung along the drills, at about 8 or 9
inches apart. Some women prefer to carry the sets in coarse aprons in-
stead of baskets, because they are more convenient. As setting requires
longer time than dung-spreading, there should be two sets of planters, as
at r and .?, to one set of spreaders — that is, 6 planters to 4 spreaders. One
set of planters, as .y, go in advance of the other, r, till the latter comes up
to the place where the former began, and then the set r goes in advance,
and so one set after another goes in advance alternately, each set filling
their baskets and aprons as they become empty, but all confining their la-
bor to 3 drills at a time. Whenever 3 drills are thus planted, the plow-
man u commences to split the first and cover in the dung and sets in the
double way. The drills are split in the same way as they were set up —
that is, as the plowman a turns over the first furrow of each drill upon the
plain ground, stretching from a to e, so the plowman u, in splitting the
drills, turns over the first furiow upon the dung toward the planters r and
* ; because the^rv^ furrow being the largest, it should have complete free-
dom to cover the dung and sets. If the land had been suflBciently worked
in spring, so as to be tolerably clean and free at the time of planting the
potatoes, the plowman a may make up the drills in the single way, that
is, making one drill in going away, as he is represented in the cut, from h
to c, and returning with another drill in coming from d to c, because sin-
gle drills will be sufficiently deep to contain the dung within them. Pota-
(388)
PLANTING POTATOES. 197
toes always receive a large dunging, they being in the first place a fallow
crop, when the ground is entitled to be dunged, and, in the next place,
they are considered a scourging crop to the land, that is, taking much
nourishment out of it, and returning little or nothing to it — yieldino- no
straw but a few dry haulms, and the greatest proportion of the entire crop
being sold and driven away from the farm. A large dunging to potatoes
always seeyns great, for time is wanting to make the dung short, and, of
course, to reduce its bulk in the dunghill. About 20 single-horse loads, or
15 tons, to the imperial acre, is as small a dunging as potatoes usually re-
ceive of farm-yard dung. In the neighborhood of towns, street-manure,
to the extent of 30 tons per imperial acre, is given ; but there the crop is
forced for an early market, and the street-manure has not the strength of
farm-yard dung, and indeed is found to be not nearly so good for them as
for turnips. The spreading should be kept up as close to the cart as pos-
sible. The plowman u should not leave a single diill uncovered in the
evening when he gives up work. If he cannot possibly split all the drills
in the double way, he should cover up the dung and sets of a few drills at
the last in the single way ; or he should receive assistance from the plow-
man a to split them all completely, if he sees the weather showing symp-
toms of rain or frost. And even at the loosening from work at mid-day,
or forenoon yoking, every drill should be covered in, even though the
plowman should work a while longer in the field than the rest of the work-
people ; for which disadvantage he should be as long of yoking after them ;
and he should make it a point to cover in the drills at the end of the fore-
noon yoking in a complete manner, when the weather is hot and dry ; be-
cause dung is soon scorched by the mid-day sun, and its dry state is inju-
rious, not so much on account of the evaporation of any valuable material
from it, the material being chiefly water, but because it does not incorpo-
rate with the soil so soon and so well as damp dung ; and when both soil
and dung are rendered hot and dry by exposure, their incorporation is
rendered very difficult. If all the plows cannot cover in the drills within
a reasonable time after the loosening time anives, especially at nio-ht,
much rather give up the dunging of the land and the planting of the sets
a little sooner than usual, than run the risk of leaving any dung and sets
uncovered.
(1875.) You will observe that the process of planting potatoes, as rep-
resented in fig. 344, is composed of a variety of actions, which, taken indi-
vidually, are equally important, and none of which can be carried on with-
out the assistance of the rest, and all of which, if not proportioned to one
another, would end in confusion. Thus, the plowing of the drills, the
dunging of the land, the spreading of the dung, the setting of the pota-
toes, and the splitting of the drills, are all equally important operations in
potato culture. None of them would be of any use without the rest.
There would be no use of making drills unless they were to be dunged,
nor would the planting of the sets avail unless the dung were spread, nor
would the planted sets be safe, even on the spread dung, unless the drills
were split to cover the whole from the weather. But if these component
operations are not proportioned to each other, the whole operation is
thrown into confusion. Suppose, for example, that the plowman a, while
making double drills, could not keep out before the party that is spread-
ing the dung, it is evident that every other party would be constrained by
his tardiness, and made to lose time ; and the remedy for this inconve-
nience obviously is, that the plowman should have as many double drills
made before the dunging commences, as that he shall not be overtaken in
the drilling ; or that the plowman should make single drills, when he finds ■
(389) ^ °
J 98 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
the dunging gaining ground upon him ; or that another plowman should
be sent to assist him in making double drills. Suppose, again, that more
carts are employed in conveying the dung from the dunghill than the
steward h can possibly hawk out, or the 4 women kno p possibly spread ;
or, the same effect would be produced by employing more people than ne-
cessary at the dunghill to fill the carts ; the result would be that the stew-
ard and women would be overworked, while the horses driving the dung,
and the people at the dunghill would be comparatively idle, and of course
losing time. Suppose there are fewer planters at r and * than can keep
out before the plowman u, then time would not only be lost in covering
up as many drills as might be, but the dung spread would lie exposed to
the desiccating action of the sun and air between the planters of the sets
and the spreaders of the dung. Were there, on the other hand, too many
planters for those who spread the dung to keep out before them, then the
planters would be comparatively idle. Suppose, lastly, that the plowman
u cannot keep up ^^•ith the planters, who, nevertheless, do not proceed on
their part faster than the dung is spread, the effect will be that the spread
and planted dung will become dry before it can be covered up. The
remedv for this inconvenience is either to employ another plowman to
split in drills, or to make one plowman cover the dung with one fuiTow,
and let another finish the drills behind him at his leisure.
(1876.) I have dwelt the more fully on these particulars, because potato
planting is one of those great operations which are made up of a variety
of constituent operations that are performed simultaneously, and unless
they form a haraionious whole, tending in all its parts to a common end,
the entire operation cannot be completed in the best manner ; but wherever
this harmony is seen to exist, it is a satisfactory proof that the person who
has so arranged the working materials as to produce it, possesses the
knowledge of combining varieties of field-labor. In effecting such an ar
rangement as the above, he displays knowledge of a superior order to that
which is usually displayed in conducting potato planting. A very com-
mon mode of dunging potato-land, for example, is to hawk the dung out
of the cart for 5 drills instead of 3, though 3, or even fewer, women are
sent to spread the dung over them. In doing this, each woman's attention
is not confined to a single drill, but must be extended over the whole 5,
when each spreads the dung from the heap she takes possession of; and
it stands to reason that she cannot spread dung so equally, and of course
not so iccll, over 5 drills as along 1 ; and the work is not done better,
though faster, even though the 3 women are all employed to spread from
the same heap, as each has still the entire 5 drills to attend to. Besides,
when dung is hawked out of the cart for 5 drills, it is usually laid in large
heaps at considerable distances, at from 5 to 10 paces apart, thereby in-
creasing the difficulty of spreading ; and a large space of the ground being
thus heaped over, before the duno^ is begun to be spread, by the time it is
spread, and the sets planted, the dung will have become quite dry. This
plan may excusably be adopted on a small farm, where laborers are few,
and it is desired to conduct operations with what is considered economy,
by the employment of as few hands as possible ; but on a large farm it has
the appearance of gieat slovenliness, and it certainly encourages careless-
ness in work, and evinces confusion of ideas in arranging it. It is no un-
common sight, even on large farms, to see the dung carted out and spread
in one yoking, and the sets planted and the dung covered in another, by
the same people and horses ; doing a great deal of work, no doubt, in
each yoking and during the entire day ; but the result would be much
more satisfactory were the entire work finished as it proceeded. A great
(390)
PLANTING POTATOES. 199
number of dunged drills are usually begun to be planted with sets at the
same time, instead of confining the setting to a few at a time, to get them
finished as soon as possible, to be covered with the plow. In short, there
is no end to the many ways in which field-work may be done in a slovenly
manner ; but there is only one hest way of doing it.
(1877.) Drills of potatoes are recommended to be made at 30 inches
apart, instead of 27 inches, which is the usual width for turnips, because
the large stems of the potato-plant growing vigorously require plenty of
air. Even 3 feet apart is recommended by some cultivators, and in
deep, rich soils this width may not be too great ; but I observe that, in the
neighborhood of large towns, where the greatest extent of ground is oc-
cupied by potatoes, the drills seldom exceed 24 inches, owing partly to
the great value of land in that locality, and partly because the earlier va-
rieties of potatoes, which have small stems, are most profitable to cultivate
there. The drills for potatoes are usually not made so very i-egular in
width as for turnips, because the seed is not planted by a machine. It is
very easy to ascertain whether the exact quantity of manure desired to
be given to the potato crop is actually given. Knowing the length of the
drill and its breadth, a simple calculation will inform you of the number
of drills in an acre, and, by apportioning the number of cart-loads that
should be applied on every 3 drills, the requisite quantity per acre can at
once be ascertained with great precision ; and this as precisely on the very
first 3 drills that are commenced to be dunged, as if the calculation had
been made over a large propoition of the field.
(1878.) As to the varieties of the potato I would recommend for field-
culture, I find it impossible to tender an advice, because it would not be
generally applicable. I have seen a potato transferred from England,
where it was a favorite, to Scotland, another variety transfeiTed from Scot-
land to England, another from Ireland to Scotland, and in each case pro-
duce a very inferior crop in its adopted country to what it ever did in its
native one ; and even in a transference from one part to another of the
same country, I have seen a material effect produced upon the plant, in-
creasing it in one case and diminishing it in another. The general result
is found to be an increase of produce and improvement of quality in trans-
ferring the potato from inferior to better soil, and from an elevated to a
lower situation. The tendency of the potato to improve on being thus
transferred, is taken advantage of in its attainment as seed. When I men-
tion that there are upward of 100 varieties o{ field potatoes described by
Mr. Lawson,* and as many experimented on by Mr. Howden, Lawhead,
East-Lothian,t you will not be surprised that I cannot confidently recom-
mend any particular variety for a particular locality. Nevertheless B,good
potato has certain characteristics which distinguish it everywhere from an
inferior one. A desirable potato is neither large nor small, but of medium
size ; of round shape, or elongated spheroid ; the skin of fine textui'e, and
homogeneous ; and the eyes neither numerous nor deep-seated. The
habit of growth of its stem is strong and slightly spreading, and color
lightish green. I believe that the intensity of the color of the flower is in
some degree an indication of the depth of the color of the tuber ; and I
believe, also, that white potatoes are generally fit to be eaten when taken
out of the ground, but that red ones are the better for being out of the
gi-ound for a shorter or longer time, before being used, according to the
fineness of their texture. But color is by no means a fixed characteristic
of any variety of potato, as it changes by cultivation and other circum-
* I.aweon'B Agricullurist'e Manual, and Supplement.
t Prize Essays of the Hishland and Agricultural Society, vol. xL
(391)
200 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
Stances. Mr. Lawson relates a curious circumstance which gave rise to a
permanent difference in the color of the same variety of potato. " In the
first report of Messrs. Dickson and TurnhuH's Agricultural Museum at
Perth," he says, " a remarkable iustauce is given of a irhite variety of the
Perthshire red potato, being obtained by Miss Bishop, New-Scone, from a
red potato with a white eye, which she carefully cut out and planted by
itself, the result of which is that the produce has for several years retained
the same color as the original eye, without the slightest appearance of
change."* Before determining the properties of a potato in a locality, it
is necessary that it exhibit the same character for 2 or 3 years in the same
circumstances of soil, manure and culture, otherwise enors may be com-
mitted in your estimation of varieties. The Intrinsic value of a potato, as
an article of commerce, is estimated by the quantity of starch which it
yields on analysis ; but as an article of domestic consumption, the jiaror
of the starchy matter is of greater importance than its quantity. Almost
every person prefers a mealy potato to a waxy, and the more mealy it is
usually the better flavored. The mealiness consists of a layer of mucilage
immediately under the skin, covering the starch or farina, which is held
consistent by fibrous matter. Light soil raises a potato more mealy than
a strong, and I suppose every one is aware that a light soil produces a
potato of the same variety of better flavor than clay. So that soil has an
influence on the flavor, and there is no doubt that culture has — for potatoes,
whatever may be the variety, raised from soil that has been dunged for
some time, are higher flavored than those erown in immediate contact
with dung.
(1879.) The most common varieties of potatoes cultivated in the fields
in Scotland, are the common or Edinburgh Dons, very plentiful in the
Edinburgh market. It is round, and is an early variety ; that is to say,
the stems are entirely decayed by the time the tubers are fit for use. It
produces about 16-fold of the seed, and yields 576 grains Troy of starch
from 1 lb. of tubers. The Buff is a mealy and superior-flavored potato,
yielding about 15-fold, and 466 gi-ains Troy of starch from 1 lb. of tubers.
The Perthshire Hed, an oblong flat potato, is largely cultivated for the
London market. It yields about 15-fold, and affords as much as 777
grains Troy of starch from 1 lb. of tubers. Of the late varieties, that is,
those the foliage of which, in ordinary seasons, does not decay until
destroyed by frost, and the tubei-s of which generally require to be kept
for some time before being used to the greatest advantage, the Staft'ald
Hall, or Wellington, as it is sometimes called, is to be preferred. It is
represented to yield 22-fold, and affords 813 grains Troy of starch from 1
lb. of tubers. The Scotch Black potato has long been cultivated in Scot-
land ; and it seems to suit strong soil better than light, where it yields as
high as 16-fold of increase, and affords 522 grains Troy of starch from 1
lb. of tubers.t Of the late varieties for field-culture suited for cattle, the
Irish Lumpers and Cups appear prolific. Tf)e Lumper is a white, oblong
potato of very inferior flavor, but yields 421 bushels, and 3,118 lbs. of
Btai-ch per Scotch acre, I presume ; and the Cups are an oblong red potato'
yielding 479 bushels, and 3,539 lbs. of starch per acre.| On recommend-
ing any variety of potato, however, it should be understood that potatoes
will not permanently maintain their preeminence at all places ; on the
contrary, a few years may witness their utter decline. The Leather-coats,
for example, were a variety in very great esteem and in extensive cultiva-
* Lawson'8 Agriculrurisi's Manual,
t Lawson's Agriculturipl's Manual.
X Prize Essays of the Highland and AgricnltarBl Society toL sd.
(392)
PLANTING POTATOES. 201
tion some years ago, and now are hardly known. The small American
white potato was extensively cultivated in the midland districts of Scot-
land about 20 years ago, but has yielded some of its ground to more pro-
lific varieties. For the table, howevei', when raised in hazel loam — the
true potato soil — there are few varieties cultivated superior to it in flavor,
richness and beauty as a dish. It is now, I believe, chiefly confined to the
garden. The finest flavored and most beautiful potato I ever saw on the
table was a light red, small, round variety raised a few years ago in the
sandy soil of the parish of Monifieth, in Forfarshire. It had quite the
nutty flavor ol z. fresh Spanish chestnut — a state of that fine fruit unknown
in this country.
(1880.) There are other ways of cultivating the potato in the field be-
sides the one I have described. When light soil, in which the potato
thrives, is clean and in good heart, it is frequently dunged on the stubble
in autumn, and plowed in with a deep, square furrow by casting with or
without a gore-furrow, fig. 139. Abundance of gaw-cuts are made to let
off superfluous surface-water in winter. It is then cross-plowed in spring,
and harrowed a double-tine, when it is ready to be drilled up in the sin-
gle form, the sets planted, and the drills split in the double form, to com-
plete the opei'ation. In the neighborhood of towns this is an expeditious
mode of planting a large breadth of potatoes in spring on light soil, but it
requires the land to be in very good heart. I have tried it on good land
in middling condition, but could not succeed in raising much more than
half the crop produced from dunging the same land in spring.
(1881.) There is a modification of this plan which may be practiced with
success in vex-y light soil, which is that after the cross-plowing and har-
rowing rn spring, the land is ridged again by casting without gore-furrows
in the opposite way it was cast in autumn when the dung was plowed in ;
and at every third furrow two women follow the plow, and plant the sets
in the bottom of the furrow. If the furi'ows are held 9 inches wide, the
distance between the rows of potatoes will be 27 inches ; and if they are
10 inches wide, the rows will, of course, be 30 inches apart ; so that this
plan admits of the rows being made wide enough.
(1882.) There is a sub-modification of this last method, which is, that
the dung is spiead over the smooth harrowed ground after the land has
been cast into ridges in spring, instead of being applied on the stubble in
autumn. The dung is raked in and spread evenly along the bottom of
every third furrow by a woman with the small gi'aip, fig. 151, following
the plow, and immediately pi'eceding the planters, and the plow which
follows the planters covei's up the sets. In both these modes the potato
plants come up in roios upon the flat ground at the same distance they do
in drills, and after their stems have grown up in summer, the earth is
plowed up toward them, so as to convert the flat ground into a drilled sur-
face by the time the culture is finished.
(1883.) Another mode of the field-culture of the potato is in lazy-heds,
a mode more genei'ally practiced in Ireland than in any other part of the
kingdom. This system, however, will likely become less general, being
much condemned by the good farmers there. Nevertheless, on lea-ground
and on undrained bogs the small farmer cannot, perhaps, pursue a better
one. " In bogs and mountains," says Martin Doyle, " where the plow
cannot penetrate through strong soil, beds are the most convenient for the
petty farmer, who digs the sod with his long naiTow spade, and either lays
the sets on the inverted sod — the manure being previously spread — cover-
ing them from the furrows by the shovel ; or, as in parts of Connaught
and Munster, he stabs the ground with his loy, a long narrow spade pe-
(393)
202 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
culiar to the laborers of Connaught, jerks a cut set into the fissure when
he draws out the tool, and afterward closes the set with the back of the
same instrument, covering the surface, as in the case of lazy-beds, fiom
the furrows. The general Irish mode of culture on old lich arable lea (a
practice very common in the county of Clare, and elsewhere among the
peasantry wlm pay dearly for old grass land,) is to plow the fields in ridges,
to level them perfectly with the spade, then to lay the potato sets upon the
surface, and to cover them with or without manure by the inverted suds
from the furrows. The potatoes are afterward earthed once or twice with
whatever mould can be obtained from the furrows by means of spade and
shovel. And after these earthings, the furrows becoming deep trenches,
form easy means for water to flow away, and leave the planted giound
on each .side of them comparatively dry." " The practice in the south of
Ireland is to grow potatoes on grass land from 1 to 3 years old, and tur-
nips afterward, manuring each time moderately, as the best preparation
for corn, and as a prevention of the disease called fingers and toes in
turnips. In wet bog-land, ridges and fuiTows are the safest, as the furrow
acts as a complete drain for surface water; but wherever drilling is prac-
ticable, it is decidedly preferable, the produce being greater in drills than
in what may be termed, comparatively, a broadcast method."* The
spade-culture of potatoes seems an appropriate mode for small fanners
and cotters, but it is by far too expensive a mode to be introduced into a
farm where horse-labor is employed.
(1SS4.) "While speaking of the form of the double drill, I have said that
one of its sides was larger or heavier than the other ; that is, the first fiir-
row with which it is made is much larger than the second, the eft'ect of
which relation of furrows is to make the line of their meeting at the side
instead of at the top of the drill, (1744) and fig. 313. The germ of the
potato, and of the bean too, in pushing upward, toward the top of the
drill, finding the least resistance in the soil along the line of the meelinsT
of the two furrows, finds its way to the day through the side instead of
the top of the drill. Were the plants allowed to grow out from that
part of the drill, they would not only be bent at the ground, but their
stems would interfere with the horse-labor bestowed on the land in the
hollows of the drills. To avoid this inconvenient and unnatural position
of the plants, the practice is to harrow down the tops of the drills with
harrows, so that the drill shall have the lightest part of the earth upon its
crown ; and, of course, the germ finding the least resistance directly up-
ward, will push out at the top of the drill. The harrowing down of the
tops of the drills is executed with the common harrows, or with haiTows
made for the purpose. The common haiTows are passed either along or
across the drills, according to the nature of the soil. Strong soil bears the
haiTows being driven along the drills, and in very hard land, particularly
in dry seasons, they may be passed along a double tine, but a single tine
will usually be sufllicient. Harrowing across, tritJi tines well uorn down,
will have the least chance of disturbing long manure when used for dung-
ing potatoes, as the drill which first receives the fore part of the hanow
supports it and keeps the tines from penetrating too deep at once ; but the
walking across the drills is irksome both for man and beast, so that the
harrowing is most easily performed along the drill. The common han"ow,
however, is a harsh imj)lemcnt for harrowing drills, compared to a couple
of curved ones, figured below, which embrace two drills at a time, and
which when pulled along do their work admirably. A modification of
this last method has been recommended to "be adopted on strong land in
* Doyle's Cyclopedia of Practical Husbandry — art Potato — second edition.
(394;
PLANTING POTATOES. 203
dry weather, after much rain has fallen, and when such land has become
very hard and cloddy. A wooden roller, cun^ed so as to embrace two
drills, is recommended to be passed along, and by it the clods at top are
either crushed or displaced to the bottom of the drills. Two pairs of har-
rows of a triangular form, suited to work in the hollows between the
drills, are then passed along, and they either remove the clods that were
too hard to be broken by the roller, or they divide the large clods into a
number of small ones, and bring them all, the clods of every kind, into the
hollows of the drills. In every one of these modes of rolling and harrow-
ing the drills of bean or potato land, the bean and potato germs are per-
mitted to shoot perpendicularly up through their tops. This hanowino- is
given to the drills 8 or 10 days after the potatoes have been planted, if the
land is dry, but, of course, it must be done before the germs have had time
to penetrate the ground, although the weather be not altogether favorable for
working heavy land. Of the two sorts of potato-haiTows alluded to — the
curved and triangular — the latter is best fitted to be used when the germs
have appeared above ground, as its outmost tines work between the top of
one drill and another, and not over the top of the drill hke the curved harrows.
(1885.) The potato is subject to disease at a very early period of its
existence, not merely after it has developed its stems and leaves but be-
fore the germ has risen from the sets. The disease which affects the
plant is called the curl, from the curled or crumpled appearance which the
leaves assume when under the influence of the disease. What the imme-
diate cause of the disease is, it is difficult to say ; but the puny stem and
stinted leaves indicate weakness in the constitution of the plant, and, like
weak animals affected with constitutional disease, the small tubers pro-
duced by curled potatoes, when planted, propagate the disease in the fu
ture crop. The curl is so well known by its appearance, and the curled
plant so generally shunned as seed, that the disease is never willingly
propagated by the cultivator ; still there are circumstances in the manage-
ment of the tubers which induce the disease therein. The experiments of
Mr. T. Dickson show that the disease arises from the vegetable powers
of the sets planted having been exhausted by over-ripening, so that sets
fi-om the waxy end of the potato produced healthy plants, whereas those
from the best ripened end did not vegetate at all, or produced curled
plants.* It is the opinion of Mr. Crichton, " that the curl in the potato
may often be occasioned by the way the potatoes are treated that are in-
tended for seed. I have observed," he says, " wherever the seed-stock is
carefully pitted, and not exposed to the air, in the spring the crop has sel-
dom any curl ; but where the seed-stock is put into barns and outhouses
for months together, such crop seldom escapes turning out in a great
measure curled ; and if but few curl the first year, if they are planted
again, it is more than probable the half of them will curl next season. "t
•(1886.) The other disease alluded to affects the seed or sets, and is call-
ed the failure or taint, which consists of the destruction of their vital pow-
ers. Many conjectures have been hazarded as to the cause of the failure,
and most of them have ascribed it to the feiTnented state of the dung, to
the drouth of the season, to the heating of the sets, to the tuber being cut
into sets, and other secondary causes ; but all these conjectures leave un-
touched the principal consideration in the question, how these circum-
stances should induce failure now, and not in bygone years 1 Cut sets
have been used for many years without causing failure. Farm-yard dung,
in various states of decomposition, has been used as long for raising pota-
toes^ The extraordinary drouth of 1826 caused no failure, while in com-
* Memoirs of the Caledonian Horticultural Society, vol.i. t Ibid., vol. i.
(395)
204 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
paratively cool seasons the disease has made great havoc. Mr. John
ShirrefF takes a general and philosophical view of the cause of disease
in the potato crop, and though, no doubt, his observations are particular-
ly applicable to the curl, still they will apply equally well to the taint ;
for the connection between the two diseases is so intimate, that you have
seen Mr. Dickson's obsen'ation is that some sets " did not vegetate at
all," that is, failed, or produced curled plants." Mr. Shirreff adopts the
general doctrine broached by Mr. Knight. " The maximum of the dura-
tion of the life of any individual vegetable and animal," he says, " is pre-
determined by Nature, under whatever circumstances the individual may
be placed ; the minimum, on the other hand, is determined by these very
circumstances. Admitting, then, that a potato might reproduce itself from
tubers for a gi-eat number of years in the shady woods of Peru, it seems
destined to become abortive in the cultivated champaign of Britain, inso-
much that not a single healthy plant of any sort of potato that yields ber-
ries, and which was in culture 20 years ago, can now be produced." Mr.
Shirreff concludes, therefore, that the potato is to be considered a short-
lived plant, and that though its health or vigor may be prolonged by rear-
ing it in elevated or in shady situations, or by cropping the flowers, and thus
preventing the plants from exhausting themselves, the only sure way to
obtain vigorous plants, and to insure productive crops, is to have fi-equent
recourse to new varieties raised from seed.* The same view had occuned
to Dr. Hunter. The fact ascertained by Mr. Knight deserves to be no-
ticed— that, by planting late in the season, pethaps in June, or even in
July, an exhausted good variety may, in a great measure, be restored ;
that is, the tuber resulting from the late planting, when again planted at
the ordinary season, produces the kind in its pristine vigor, and of its for-
mer size. It is obvious that all these opinions refer to the possibility of
plants indicating constituticmal weakness, and why may not the potato 1 I
have all along been of the opinion that the failure has arisen from this
cause, nor does it seem to me to be refuted by the fact that certain varie-
ties of potato have been cultivated for many years in the same locality
without f\iil ; because it is well understood that every variety of potato
has not indicated failure, and one locality may be more favorable to re-
tention of vigor of constitution than another; at least, we may easily be-
lieve this, and discrepancies in the case may arise, since we do not yet
know the circumstances which must of necessity produce constitutional
weakness. I have no doubt in my own mind that, were seed-potatoes se-
curely pitted, until they were about to be planted — not over-ripened be-
fore they were taken out of the ground — the sets cut from the crispest
tubers and from the waxy end — the dung fermented by a turning of the
dunghill in proper time — led out to the field, quickly spread, the sets as
quickly dropped on it, and the drills split in the manner represented in fig.
344, and described in (1874), there would be little heard of the failure even
in the driest season — at the same time, the precaution of obtaining seed
frequently from an elevated and late district compared to where the seed
is to be planted, should not be neglected. I own it is difficult to prove the
existence of constitutional weakness in any given tuber, as its existence is
only implied by the fact of the failure ; but the hypothesis explains many
more facts than any other, than atmospheric influence — for example, pro-
ducing the failure like epidemic diseases in animals, for such influences
existed many years ago, as well as now. The longer the cultivation of
» Memoirs of the CBledonian Horticulrurnl Society, vol. i. See also a well-reasoned essay by Mr. Aitken.
Castle-Douglas, entiiled, •' The potato rescued from destruction, and restored toprestine vigor; and who takes
the same view of the subject.
I396J
PLANTING POTATOES. 205
the tuher of the potato, which is not its seed, is persevered in, the more cer-
tainly may we expect to see its constitutional vigor weakened, in strict
analogy to other plants propagated by similar means ; such as the failure
of many varieties of the apple and pear, and of the cider fruits of the 17th
century. This very season, 1843, contradicts the hypothesis of drouth and
heat as the primary cause of the failure, for it has hitherto (to June) been
neither hot nor dry, while it strikingly exemplifies the theory of constitu-
tional weakness, inasmuch as the fine season of 1842 had so much over-
ripened the potato — farmers, still unaware of the cause of the failure, per-
mitting the potatoes they have used for seed to become over-ripened — that
the sets this spring, to repeat again the words of Mr. Dickson, " did not
vegetate at all," even in the absence of heat and drouth, and in the pres-
ence of moist weather. Had the potatoes been a little less over-ripened
in 1842, the sets from them might have produced only curl this season,
though it is not improbable that the same degree of over-ripening may
cause entire failure now that would only have caused curl years ao-o •
and as over-ripening was excessive last year, owing to the very fine
weather, so the failure is extensive in a coiTesponding degree in this,
even in circumstances considered by most people preventive of its recur-
rence, namely, in cold and moist weather. And observe the results of both
1842 and 1843 as confirmatory of the same principle, illustrated by diamet-
rically opposite circumstances. The «W(?er-ripened seed of the bad season
of 1841 produced the good crop of potatoes of 1842, in spite of the great
heat and drouth existing at the time of its planting in 1842; while the
o^^er-ripened seed of the good season of 1842 has produced extensive fail-
ure, in spite of the coolness and moisture existing at the time of plantintr
in 1843. How can heat, drouth, or fermenting dung account for these
results %
(1887.) As fact, I may mention the effects of comparatively diy and
moist soil, on cut sets and whole potatoes, which were brought to lio-ht by
an experiment of Mr. Howden, and which results obtained no one could
have anticipated. " On the 28th June," says Mr. Howden, " I selected from
a store which had been repeatedly turned and kept for family use, 70 pota-
toes of the old rough black variety. I divided this number into 5 lots,
sizing them, so as each lot of 14 potatoes weighed exactly 4 lbs. I made
on that day one lot of 14 into starch, and obtained 9 oz. On the same day
I put 14 potatoes whole, and 14 cut into 56 sets, into a deep box filled with
d,ry mould. The remaining 14 whole and 14 cut I put into another box
filled with moist earth, and which was watered from time to time. At the
end of 3 weeks, with the exception of 5 sets, all the plants made their ap-
pearance. All this time the dry box had been kept from moisture. On
the 21st July, however, I allowed it to be moistened with heavy rain, and
on the 28th July I took up and extracted starch from the whole. Before
doing so, however, I weighed the several lots, and what seemed to me
curious was, that each lot of the icTiole potatoes had gained 8 oz.; while
each lot of the cut ones had lost 6 oz. of its weight, and of their number 10
did not vegetate. The sprouts from the xcliole potatoes weighed 4 oz., and
those from the cut only 2 oz. ; yet the starch from the 28 cut potatoes was
only 2 oz., and that from the 28 whole potatoes 9 oz., being exactly the pro-
duce in starch of half that number, namely, 14, which was made into starch
at the commencement of the experiment."*
(1888.) The potato belongs to the natural order Solanaceiz, which also comprehends those re-
markable but well-known plants, the deadly nightshade, the capsicum, the tobacco, the henbane,
the stramonium, the tomato. &c. " The potato is now considered the most useful esculent that is
cultivated, and who," Dr. Neill asks, "could a priori have expected to have found the most use-
* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xL
(397j
206
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
ful amoD? the nattrral family of the Solanaceic. most of which are delelerions, and all of which
are forbidding in Uieir aspect'" The eenus Solanvtn stands in the order Pcntnndna monopy-
nin. of the LinuH?an system. " The name is given by Pliny, b'lt the deri%-atii>n is uncer'ain ; some
derive it from Sol, the sun ; others say u is Snlannm. from Snt. being serviceable in the disor-
ders of swine : and others from Solar, to comfort from its soothing narcotic effects ; all these con-
jectures are, however, improbable. Solarium tuberosum, the commou potato, has roots bearing
tubers; stems herbaceous ; leaves unequally pinnate ; leaflets entire ; pedicel articulated. It is a
native of South America, on the west coast cverjwhere. The cultivated potato varies much m
the leaves, color of the flowers, shape and color of the tubers, &c."" " Gerard," says Phillips,
'• describes two kinds of potatoes in his Herbal ; and as the account is highly interesting I shall
copy it verbalim. 'This plant.' says he, ■ which is called »SiSflrMm Peruviorum. or Skyrrits of
Peru, is generally of us called potatus or potatoes. .... The roots are many, thick and knob-
bed, like unto the roots of peonies, or rather of the asphodill, twined together at the top into one
head, in manner of the Skyrrit. which being divided into divers parts and planted, do make great
increase, especially if the greatest rootes be cut into divers gobbets and planted in good fertill
ground. . . . Of these rootes may be made conserves, no less toothsome, wholesome, and domestic,
than the flesh of quinces These rootes may serve as a ground or foundation whereon the
cunning confectioner or sugar-baker may worke and frame many comfortable delicate conserves
and restorative sweet meates.' ....'• This was evidently the sweet-potato," continues Phillips,
" which was supposed to possessan invigorating property. Kissing-corafits were made of them in
Shakspeare's time. Falstaff"say8 in the Merry VV ives of Windsor,
Let it rain potatoes, and hail kissing-comfits.'
Gerard commences his second chapter with the description of the common potato now in use, and
says, ' Bit fata Virsriniana sire Virs^inianorum, el Pappus, polaxoea of Wrginm.' After an ac-
curate description of the plant and flower, he adds, "The roote is thicke, fat, and tuberous; not
much differing either in shape, color, or taste from the common potatoes, saving that the rootes
hereof are not so great nor long, some of them round as a ball, some ovall or egge fashion, some
longer, others shorter.' The potato was introduced into Spain in the early part of the 16th cen-
tury, and thence spread over the Continent, first to Italy, then to Flanders, and thence through
Germany to Austria in \ri9$. It found its way to England by a different route, being brought
from Virginia by the colonists sent out by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1584 and who returned in 1586, and
probably, according to Sir Joseph Banks, brought with them the potato. This palladium against
famine was not cultivated in Scotland until 1683, and was then confined to the gardens. In 1728,
Thomas Prentice, a day-laborer, first planted potatoes in open fieldsat Kilsyth, and the success was
such that every farmer and cottager followed his example. Potatoes were scarcely known in the
East Imiies 30 years ago. but they are now produced in such abundance that the natives in some
places make con.siderable use of them. Bombay is chiefly supplied with this excellent root from
Guzerai. And though the cultivation of this root is much increased in France within these last
few years, the poor of that country cannot yet be prevailed on to eat it.''t
(1889.) Rooks are verj' destructive to the potato crop just as the germs of the plants are pene-
trating the ground, and they seem to possess an exquisite sense of smelling to find out those
which are most palatable to their taste They steal verj- quietly into potato fields, and are there
pretty well hidden among the drills; and in this respect their tactics ditTer from what tliey pursue
when alighting among com, which tliey do in large flocks. There is nothing but gunpowder will
deter them from a potato-field ; they soon find out the innocuous character of a scarecrow, or lai-
fie doolie, as that sorry semblance of humanity is always misnamed. One cannot always be firing
among crows with the gun. but an occasional shot does good, aided by that effectual check to
their visitation of any field — the burning of gunpowder matches here and there and now and
tlien along the windward side of the field, the fumes of which sweeping along tlie surface of the
ground, being smelt by the rooks, put them in constant trepidation, and at length to flight
(1890.) It may prove interesting to those of you who may possess a farm in the neighborhood
of a large town, to know why it is that the street manure of towns is not so suitable for raising
potatoes as stable or byre manure. A paper on the subject by Dr. Madden enables me to give
ytiu an idea of the explanation he gives of the subject ; to enable you, in the first place, to judge
of the nature of street manure. I will insert a part of a Table of his conetruci;un, showing the
chemical difference between it and horse and cow-dung.
Water, cScc
.MANURES. 1
triable.
Byre.
i^treet.
13-5
11-5
15-9
13-33
4577
45.7
90
12-6
21-8
10.9
26-4
1-4
10
11-2
600
Organic Matter
Soluble in Water
Soluble in Potassa
De.<troved by Heat
Saline Matter
Total
10000 inn-n
1000
The sum of the chemical nature of these three substances used in raising potatoes is that stable-
duns' is the most heating, but not so durable — that byre dung is cooler, and much more lasting
and that */rec/mannre is very inferior to the other two in everv respect, and, in fact, would be
little better than soil, were it not for the highly azotizcd nature of its organic matter, and probably
also for the presence of a considerable quantity of chalk. The effect of applying street-manure to
the soil is this: " When any quantity of street-manure," says Dr. Madden, "is plowed into good
* Don's General System of Botany and Gardening, voL iv. — Solancct^t.
t Phillips's History of Cultivated Vegetables, vol. ji
(398)
r,ookof the Farm. [?3K)L^V©©K1© a!i51?[3©^S© ©SMSaaBo Plate XXIX
Fig 412
PiO'^'k of the Farm
K3ISC^^7©©D^© ©"IJDIJDSB.
Tlate XXX
THE GRUBBER. 207
soil, the following changes takes place ; The ordure and carbonate of lime, which are evidently
the most powerful ingredients of this manure, will react upon the less decomposable organic mat-
ter, both of the soil and of the manure itself, and thus bring the whole into a state of fermentation
the extent and intensity' of which will be regulated by tlie quality of these active ingredients, es-
pecially the ordure. This action depends upon the fact that when any organic substance in a
state of fermentation is brought into contact, or mingled with any organic matter capable of fer-
menting, but not at present in that condition, the whole mass, after a time, undergoes the same series
of changes, which are always accompanied with the escape of various gases, and the formation of
certain soluble compounds, which latter constitute the chief food of plants. Moreover, it has been
long ago proved that substances rich in azote are always the most prone to decomposition, and like-
wise are capable of exciting fermentation to a far greater extent in others of a less putrescibie
nature. Again, it is well known to farmer.s that chalk or carbonate of lime possesses the power
of increasing the putrescent tendency of many vegetable substances, so that, when applied to
soils, it renders them richer. But what is curious enough, at the same time that it causes the pro-
duction of suluble matter by promoting putrefaction, it renders less soluble those portions already
in a state of solution, by entering into chemical combination with them. On these accounts, there-
fore, and especially from the ordure being a very highly azotized substance, street manure will be
capable of exciting putrefaction to a greater extent, considering the small quantity of organic
matter which it contains, than one at first sight would be led to suppose. It must, however, be
remembered that as the putrescent eflect will only be produced in the immediate neighborhood
of the-aciive ingredients themselves, and as, moreover, these are mixed with a large quantity of
other comparatively inert matters, their action is very liable to be confined to certain spots.
Owing, likewise, to the presence of cinders, a certain portion of the soluble organic matter will
be absorbed bj-them, and thus for a time at least, removed beyond the reach of plants. But, on the
other hand, it will be observed that, from the highly azotized nature of its organic contents, the
fermentation will be rapid at Jirst, and, consequently, the manure will be hot in proportion to
the quantity of real manure which it contains." In the actual effect of this manure in raising pota-
toes being \ inferior to stable and byre dung, the following explanation of its inferiority is offered
by Dr. Madden. " In the account of the culture of the potato, given in Professor Low's excellent
work on Practical Agriculture, we find the following expressions: 'Dung will in all cases act
most quickly upon young plants when it is well prepared, but extreme preparation of the dung
is not required in the case of the potato. It is enough that it should be \nsucka state of fermenta-
tion an that it may be readily covered by the plow.' Thus proving that this plant does not require
an instant supply of a considerable part of soluble matter. And, moreover, it is clear that as the
useful part of this plant is produced during the later periods of the giowth of the crop, the great-
est supply of food will be necessary at that time. But we have already shown that street ma-
nure, from the nature of its constituents, ferments very rapidly at first, and. consequently, its
greatest effects will be in the very early periods of the growth of the crop. The next sentence in
Professor Low's work commences thus : 'The potato requires a /ar^e s"^/?/y of manure.' But
we have already .shown that street manure does not contain ^ as much real manure as either that
derived from dairies or stables. And a little below the above quotation occurs the followifig sen-
tence : ' Lime does not appear to act in a beneficial manner, and is rarely applied directly to
this crop. But our analysis has proved that lime exists in considerable quantities in the street-
manure of Edinburgh ; and as it has been exposed to great heat — for it is evidently derived from
the ashes — it will, of course, be in the same state as mdd lime when it is applied, and will, most
probably, therefore, have the same effect, which, according to Professor Low, is ' not benejicial.'
The potato possesses a spreading root, and, consequently, must require a uniform, manure, in or-
der that all its parts may be equally supplied with soluble organic matter. But we have before
shown that street manure h partial. The potato requires the greatest quantity of azote at the Za^er
periods of its grovpth ; because the tubers contain considerably more of that substance than the
leaves. But .street manure, from the nature of its organic constituents, will ferment rapidly, and
allow mo.st of its azote to escape during the early periods of the cultivation of the crop." " As a
general rule for the application of manure to potatoes, ' We may hence argue," as Dr. Madden
remarks, " that a manure to suit well for the potato crop, should possess the following qualities: It
mast be spread equally through the soil, so that the spongioles, at the termination of all the .'spread-
ing fibres of its roots, may be supplied with nourishment." And surely there is no way of spread-
ing dang so equally as along only three drills at a time, and by spreaders keeping to their own
drills. " It must yield azote during the whole period of the growth of the plants : in fact, rather
more is required during the later periods than prior to the development of the tubers ; for, from
M. Boussingault's analysis, it appears that they contain .5-100 per cent more of this substance
than the leaves. In an economical point of view, therefore, the best manure for potatoes would
be one which contained plenty of azote, but still did not decompose very rapidly — cow-dung, for
example."*
(1891.) Finlayson's Harrmc or Grubber. — Fig. 346, Plate XXIX., is a view in perspective of
Finlayson's harrow of the improved form. The frame- work and the active parts are precisely the
same as vvhen the implement was manufactured under the patent, the improvement 1 ,ing in the
parts which have been introduced for raising tlie tine-frame from the ground. The figure repre-
sents the implements as carrying seven tines, and consists first of the body-frame, which is formed
of two interior oblong fi-ames a' d and d' a, each 4 feet 6 inches in length, and 12 inches in width
over all. These frames are welded solid at the angles, and rectangular; the sides a' and d' are 3
inches in depth, and \ inch in thickness, and are perforated to receive the tines at their full strength,
whether of a square or oblong section ; the bars a' and df are therefore allowed to swell out on
both edges at the perforation, to preserve strength. The sides d and a, together with the ends of
these frames, are only 2i inches in depth, and | inch in thickness, and the perforations are only
sufficient to pass the screwed tail of the tine. The sidebars a a and a!' a" are bolted upon tbe
' Prize Essays of the Highland and Agi-icultural Society, vol xiii.
(399)
208
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
ends of the interior frames, as seen in tlie bar a'' a", and each is prolonged forward from a and d'
to tiie point b. forming the triangular prolongation a" a" b, and are connected by a bolt at b. These
eide-bars are 3.J inches in depth, \ inch in thickness in the parts a a and a" a", while in the trian-
gle they are reiluccd to \ inch in thickness, and the distance from a', the front of llie body frame,
to the apex b of the triangle, is 4 feet 6 inches.
(189i.) The tines are always in this machine made of the ewan-neck or self-cleaning form.
They consist of the shank f, by which they are fi.\ed in the interior frame, and of the prong m,
which penetrates the ground. A cross section of the swan-neck and shank is either a s<juare o\' 1 J
inches, or it is an oblong of 2^ inches by J inch, some makers adopting the square, which was
Finlayson's original form, while others adopt the oblong. The shank diminishes from the neck
toward the tail, which terminate in a J inch screw, by means of which and a nut the tine is held
firmly in its place. The prong, or forward end of the tine, diminishes gently in depth to the ex-
tremity, which terminates in a chisel-shaped point of \\ inches broad, having a slight inclination
earthward, without which the implement has a tendency to rise out of the ground.
(1893.) The body frame, with its tines, is supported on the two hind-wheels d d, 20 inches
diameter, which arc mounted on the crankedaxle/e/, and upon the front castor-wheel g, of 12
inches, the former turning upon studs in the cranks f and the latter in the sheers h. The axle e
is supported in brackets, bolted upon the inside of tlie side-bars n a and o" a", as seen in fig. 345,
where a o is the side bar, and e the bracket, the eye of which, tor receiving the axle, stands 3 J
inches above the upper edge of the bar, and its thickness is j inch. Tlie sheers /(, hg. 346. of the
fore-wheel are jointed into the bent lever at i. forming a bell crunk-lever i k I by which the fore-
part of the machine is elevated or depressed. The hind-part is acted upon directly by the lever
n n, which isal-so bent at n to nearly a right angle in the arm it oe, tlie extremity of which passes
tlirough the axle at e, and is secured with a screw-nut This form of the lever, n ii e is rendered,
in its effects upon the hind-wheel and axle, a simple straight lever ; but the angle which it forms
&tno serTes an essential purpose, as it affects the fore-wheels. It will be observed that the ami
n o e takes a position nearly parallel to the arm k I oi the fore-crank, and by the introduction of
the connecting rod n p I, jointed to the lever n n e, and to tlie crank i k I, by this arrangement,
whatever motion is communicated through tlie lever n n e, to the cranked-axle of the hind-wheels,
a corresponding motion is simultaneously given to the fore-crank and its wheel, whereby the tine-
frame is uniformly raised or depressed at pleasure. The lever n n e is about 5^ feet in length, and
is under the control of the conductor; its position in the figure indicates the highest position that
the tine-frame can attain ; and to enable die conductor to retain it in any required position, the
quadrant q r, with its upright support s r, is bolted upon the back frame d' a ; the edge of the
quadrant-bar is notched with serratures about \ inch deep, adapted to receive and retain the edge
of tiie lever, as seen in the figure, occupying the lowest notch, which brings the tines entirely out
of the ground. By removing the lever from this notch and putting the machine in motion by the
horses, the tines immediately descend into tlie soil, and when tliey have attained the required
depth the lever is laid into the notch suited to that depth, and the machine proceeds thus until the
attendant sees it necessary to withdraw the tines from the ground, which must be done at every
lands-end, or oftener if obstructions are met with.
(1894.) Fig. 345 is a geometrical elevation of the grubber to showr more distinctly the relation
and action of the elevating apparatus, the solid lines exhibiting the machine with the tines m. and
m nearly at full depth in the soil below the surface line, and the repetition of the figure in the dot-
ted lines show it when the tines are fully raised out of the ground. In the first position,
aab is the tine-frame, e the brackets that support the crank-axle, and/ the crank carrying the
hind-wheel d. The fore-crank, including the sli«ers of the fore-wheel, takes the position i k /, and
the back lever, which is broken off at n' , has the position «' o c, op I being the connecting-rod. It
will be ea.sily seen that that e o I k approaches to a parallelogram, and theoretically it ought to be
such, but from matters of convenience to suit the diameter of the wheels, the side o e is usually
made shorter than the side Ik, and, to compensate for this difierence, the arms _/'_/' and i k of the
cranks are made proportional to the arms o e and Ik, and as tlie.«e are the members of the machine
by which the elevations and depre.ssions are produced, and being connected hy the rod o p I, the
arms o e and / k will move through equal lengths of arc, but with unequal angles, the proportion-
al arms/'e and i k will describe corresponding arcs and angles, and so produce a nearly parallel
rise and fall of the tine-frame moving round the centers/* and h ol the hind and fore wheels, fig.
346. In this complicated combination of levers, it will be observed that the principal lever n' o e,
fig. 345, from its combination with the crank ef, is in eftect resolved into a simple lever of the
first ord.'r, whose fulcrum is /", its power is in '^t' and the point of resistance in o; for though
kneed at o, and rekneeded at e, yet from its construction, the parts ;i' o ef form one rigid system,
and the result is the same as if a rigid bar were extended from ?t' lof, tind then from/' to o, but
in which case a jointed bar must fall from o to c. to bear up the tine-frame.
(1895.) In this, fig. 34.5, the dotted lines represent the changed position of all the parts where the
tine-frame has been raised to its utmost limit; the same letters, with an accent annexed, mark the
position of the different points : and here it will be farther observed that the change of position
takes place by the parts turning about the centers of the hind and fore wheels.
(1891)) Tliis form of Finlayson's harrow or grubber is a very well marked improvement on the
original, ari.^ing from the facility now afforded of raising the whole of the tines out of the ground.
In the original form, the only provision of this kind that the machines po.«sessed was the elevation
of the apex b of the triangle and witli it, a partial elevation of the fore tines while those behind re-
mained always in the ground at their working dcptli. It is true that this depth could be varied,
but only by shilling a bracket that carried the axles of the hind-wheels, and the adjustment of
them was a work of considerable time ; a screw in some cases was attached to each bracket, by
which it could be raised, hut they were at best tedious and inconvenient compared with the nev*'
form of the elevating apparatus. The original harrow was, in consequenceof this defect, a much less
manageable machine, and having four of its tines always in the ground, it was much more liable to
accident and to fracture. With the improvement also of the elevating apparatus, the bulk and
(400)
THE GRUBBER. 209
weight of the implement has beea reduced, and it is now very frequently used witli five tines, in
place of the original seventiued implement as here figured with the improvements.
(1897.) Kirkicood's Grubber. — Though in point of time, this instrument was introduced prior to
that just described, it was several years later than tliat of Finlay.son's original improved harrow,
or about 18:jO.* In this machine the ingenious apparatus for elevating the tine-frame was, I be-
lieve, first brought out, and from it has been deduced all the various forms in which this effect ia
now produced, though, as we .shall .see, some of them are so much changed from the original as
hardly to be recognizable; still the elements of the original are there, obtained in .some casea
at a greater, in others at a smaller expen.se. The present form, as figured here, differs in some
minor points from the original, but not so much as at all to alter the character of the implement,
which is still es.sentially Kirk wood's, though the figure is taken from those maimfactured by James
Slight and Company. Edinburgh. The chief points of difference are in the length of the axle of
the hind-wheels; this, in the original, was .so short as to bring the wheels close to the levers: iu
the figure the axle is extended so far as to place the wheels on the outside of the extreme tines.
This extension of the axle gives the machine a broader base, and thereby a greater steadiness of
liiotion, and to compensate for, and give support to, the extremities of the axle thus extended, it
is supported by a trussed-tie witli king-posts.
■ (1898.) Fig. 348, Plate XXX., is a view in perspective of this grubber; it may be considered
as consisting of two parts, the tine frame, and the carriage with its wheels and handles, the two
being connected by means of the apparatus for elevating the tine-frame, and by a joint-rod which
is common to both, the whole being constructed of malleable iron, except the wheels. The tine-
frame is of an irregular triangular figure, composed of two sides a a a, &c. ; these are forged to
the peculiar form represented in the figure, and to the following dimensions: from extreme a to
//' in the oblique straight, the distance is 25 inches, b' to (/ 21 inches, and r. to a" 39 inches ; and
the lengths on the opposite side correspond exactly with these; but the central distance fioni ex-
treme a to a" is 6 feet 6 inches. The breadths measuring from center to center of the tines are at
extreme a 4 feet two inches: i' to a 2 feet 19 inches, and c' to a 17 inches; the fore-part of the
bars forming the neck, approach to within | inch of each other, between the points d' and m, and
at a" they come in contact, and are fi.Ked by the bolt at a" \ the muzzle a'' z is simply a prolonga-
tion of the bars, and is provided with several holes in which the draught-shackle and hook can be
attached to regulate in some degree the tendency to earth. That part of the frame d' to m, form-
ing the neck, is raised 9 inches above the line of the body, measuring from the upper surface of
the one to that of the other, and lies parallel with the body of the frame. The side-bars here de-
Kcribed are 2^ inches in depth and 1 inch in breadth, till they approach d', when they are dimin-
ished in breadth £ inch, and go on diminishing to ]. inch at a" ; the slot-holes for the tines are 2\
inches by I inch. Besides the connection at the point a'', the sidebars are connected by the
joint-rod f;. which is 1^ inches square at the middle, tapering and rounded toward the end. where
it terminates in a screw and nut of about 1 inch diameter : and a light stretcher a' is al.so inserted
as a farther support to the frame. The beam b b is 2^ by 1 inch from b to it, and diminishes from
■u to d' to J inch ; it is kneed at extreme b, so as to leave space sufficient to receive the slot hole
for the middle tine, and it is bent upward at u to the hight of 10 inches above the frame as before
for the purpose of receiving the bridle u v' ; at the end b of the beam is notched into the middle
of the joint-rod ?■ (which is here spread out to 2 inches in depth,) and fixed by a screw-bolt, tapped
into the end of the beam, while its fore-end is secured between the side-bars by a through bolt at
d'. The tines, of which this ibrm of the implement contains seven, h h, &c., are at \{ inches
by J inch, bent at the point as in the figure, with a slight tendency to earth, and are fiattened
oat at the point to a breadth of \\ to 1| inches, their length from the level of the point to
the top is 20 inches, and they are secured at any required degree of earth by one iron wedge to
each line.
(1899. J The carriage consists of the a.xle d d, on which are mounted the two handles or levers
ceo, the a.xle passing through these, and fixed with colterels on each side. At the distance of
13^ inches from the center of the axle, the levers are also perforated for the joint-rod (c, the posi-
tion of which in the tine-frame is such as just to allow the extremities a to pass the axle when the
frame is being raised or depres.sed. A third perforation is formed in the fore-end of the lever at o,
2 inches forward of the joint-rod, for the attachment of the staj's. The levers extend backward to
a length of 4^ feet, and terminate in -sockets, into which wooden helves are inserted ; and thev are
farther supported by the stay-rod and bow c'. The carriage is now supported on the hind-wheels
//, of 22 inches diameter : and the fore-part of the castor-wheel i, of 13 inches diameter, with its
sheers k I, and crank lever / m n. The connections between the carriage and frame, and which
also form the elevating apparatus, is arranged in the following matter. The right and left sta}'-
rods o p q and rp s are bolted to the levers at 7 o and r s. The perpendicular di.stance ;?■ 77 being
12 inches, and the like distance from the center of the axle d to p 18| inches, the two stays being
brought together upon a stretcher-bolt at p, of 1 inch in length, having a .screw and nat at each
end. The connecting-rod p t n i» 5 feet 2^ inches in length. J inch diameter, and is jointed to
the carriage by the short stretcher-bolt at p, and to the lever of the front wheel at n. which com-
pletes the arrangement by which the tine-frame is moved up and down iu positions always paral-
lel to the horizon.
(1900.) Fig. 347, Plate XXX.. is a geometrical elevation of this grubber, showing i/i a more
distinct manner the relation and action of the elevating apparatus. In this the solid lines repre-
sent the machine as with the tines in the ground, the surface being represented by tlie line.r' x" ;
and the repetition of the figure in dotted lines represents it as when the tines are elevated, and the
machine in a traveling condition, the same letters applying in both po.sitions, but in this with an
accent. In the first position, applying the same letters as in the former figure, a a. &c., is the
tine-frame, b the beam, c the handles or levers, d the axle of the carriage, / the hind wheels.
Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. viii.
(401) 14 '
210
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
g the position of the joint-rod of the tine-frame, and h h are the tines. The front wheel is shown
in the sheers k /, and / to « is the crank-lever, g p r '\9 the stays, and t the connecting-rod.
(1901.) In the apparatu.s of the front wheel, tne distance i'rom the sole of the wheel, where it
touches the line x' x", to the center at m, is 23 inches, and from mXo n\\\ inches; and as the car-
riage lever, (hoagh in a complicated form, is resolvable into a more simple one. which has the
Bame proportions as the former, the point where the wheel touches the Ime x' x" is the fulcrum,
and a line drawn from the point if to the joint at p will be parallel with, and equal to x" m, and
g p will be equal to wi n ; and the point/?. « acting simultaneously, by means of the connecting-
rod f, the point p rises by turning round the fulcrum a/, while m rises through the same space by
the point .v" turning round the point in in ihe opposite direction. By these motions the tine-
frame will rise and fall through equal spaces before and behind, and thus preserve the parallelism
of the frame in any position.
(1902.) In working the machine, it is requisite that the conductor have it in his power to regu-
late and preserve a uniform depth for the lines, and be able to withdraw the tines from the earth.
To accomplish this part, the connecting-rod t. fig. :i48, has small mortices punched in it. to the
number of 6 or 8. at very close intervals between ?/ and p, the rod being square at this place. A nut
or slide-box y' is fitted to slide easily upon it, and having al.so a mortice punched through it cor-
responding to tho.se iu the rod, it can be fixed at any point by dropping a pin through this and
any required mortice. The bridle v n' consists of two similar parts bolted one on each side of the
beam; and having the middle part.s of its stay widened to admit the passage of the nnt, it receives
the folding link v upon the bolt, on which the link turns freely. Tne handle v x v is made of
such length as will bring the eye rr within reach of the conductor : it is furnL^hed with a cross-
head X, and the end v being screwed into the link v, the handle can be shortened or lengthened
at pleasure ; and this is done to make the cross-head fall in behind the end of the connecting-rod
when the tines are in the ground, which thus lock them that they cannot ri.se out of the ground,
although, from anj- malformation of the tines, they miijht have a tendency to do so were this lock
not applied; but while the tines preserve their due form, the lock is not required. A prolonged
Bcrew-nut at /> is also put upon the handle ; it is forked in the prolonged part, and when the
tine frame is raised out of the ground for traveling, the nut is adjusted to fall in before the
checks of the stays at p, and thus keeps up the tine-frame without the continued aid of the
conductor.
(1903.) The DrillHarroiB is another implement of recent introduction ; like the other members
of its tribe, it is of extremely simple construction, and from its having been first applied to potato
culture, it is frequently styled the po/r/^o ^ar?-o«'. Thi.s harrow is always worked in pairs; and
to render it applicable to its intended purpo.se, it is made of an arch form, jjartially embracing the
curvature of the ridglet or drill. The two leaves of the pair are connected by two coupling-rode,
which arc formed to expand or contract to any required width of drills; and each leaf is furnish-
ed with a chain, to which a draught-bar or swing-tree is attached, and to which again the horse is
yoked: the bar and chains, in this mode of yoking, serve by their weight to produce such a cata-
narian curvature as to make the vertical line of traction leave the harrows nearly in a horizontal
line, giving thus the full etlect on the drill. Simple though the construction of this implement be,
I frequently see a malformation in the placement of its tines; its breadth does not exceed 26 inch-
es, and. therefore, the number of its tines need not exceed 18, though a streak at every ] J inches
should be required; notwithstanding this, -we frequently see these harrows with as many as 24
tines, and with such a number, unless a very careful division is made in their placement, many of
them will follow in the track of others, and are hence of no use. In laying out this simple har-
row, if the rule laid down in (1789), as applicable to all harrows, is attended to, such useless waste
of labor and materials might be saved, and the work for which the implement is intended will be
equally well done.
(liJ04.) Fig. 349 is a geometrical plan of a pair of the rectangular drill-harrcws, in which a regu-
lar division of the tines is observed, and as the harrows are 2G inches from center to center of the
outside bars or bulls, and the number of tines 15. they will draw streaks on the surface at equal
distances of Ij inches nearly: the three bulls ab c, and the three cross-bars d ef. form the body
of the harrow ; the breadth over all is 27 inches, and the length 33 inches ; the bulls and bars are
all li by I inch. There i.s no slotting, as in the common harrow, but the bulls and bars are simply
crossed, and secured by a small bolt and nut, or they may be riveted together, except where a tine
falls iu the crossing, when it is secured by the nut of the tine itself. The bulls and crossbars
are simply punched for the tines, which are secured by a screw-nut. The middle bull of each
harrow is prolonged a little forward at £-, and punched for the shackle of the draught-chain,
which is afB.xed thereto by a bolt. The bolt which joins it to the crossbar at each end is also
prolonged upward 4 inches, having a collar above arid nut below, forming a firm stud, on which
the stretcher is placed, and retained by a nut above. The tines are about 4 inches iu length
below the bars, and are | inch square at the shoulder, tapering to a blunt point.
(1905.) Fig. 350 is a cross section, at the front-bar, of both the leaves of the harrow, showing
the arched form and direction of the tines. The rise of the arch is 5 inches, but this maybe varied,
and if the arclnng is flat, the tines toward the apex should be shorter than those toward the sides
of the harrow, to prevent injury to the young plants. In the front bar the rieht-hand tine may be
left out, as Its place may be taken up by that of the third bar, leaving 5 tines. In the second
cross-bar there are al.so 5 tines, and in the third, 5. The two leaves are connected and kept at
due distance by the coupling-rods k, which are | inch diameter, and flattened at the ends to the
extent of 5 inches, and have. 3 perforations made at each end, at 1 J inches pitch, or closer if
thought necessary ; this construction of the coupline rods affords the means of adapting the har-
rows to any width of drills. The draught chains i i, fig. 350, are about 2 feet long, and are shackled
to the draught-bar. to which the horse is yoked by the eyes at h h. The pair of harrows are d rawn
by one horse, walking between the drills: the weight of the pair, with the mounting, is about 90
lbs., and the price from 308. to 358. complete.
(1906.) Triangular Drill-Harrows are considered by some agriculturists as superior iu effect
(402) ^
THE DRILL-HARROW.
211
to the rectangTilar form : with due attention to the division and placement of the tines, they may
no doul>t be rendered equally effective, and probably more so, but the advantages are not perma-
nently marked.
(1907.) On farms where potatoes are raised only to supply the wants of the people who labor
them, the drills may be made in the single or double way, as may suit the fancy of the farmer,
Fie. 349.
TffE POTATO HARROWS.
but he should bear in mind that the more minutely the soil is pulverized, the better state it will
be in for the crop. But where potatoes are raised for the London or the markets of other great
towns, a mode of culture should be adopted to admit of much work being done in the limited pe-
Fig. 35t).
SECTION OF THE POTATO HARROWS.
nod in which potatoes should be planted. Bearing this necessity in view, the land should be
drilled up in the single mode in preparation for the dung, the dung then spread in the manner
represented in fig. 344, and the drills split with a double mould-board plow ; but as it is desirable
that the earth in the drills should be as lightly put over the sets as possible, and as the common
mould-board plow presses very much upon the lower part of the sides of th" drills, the under pr*
(403)
212 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
of the hind-end of the mould board should hn cut awav. and the plow otherwise formed — that is,
of such size and length tm to be worked by a pair of horses instead of one. The double mould-
board, besides aflbrdiiij? expedition, covers the dung equully with both furrows, puts less earth
over the sets, permits the eerms to grow upright at once, and thereby allows the access of more
air to the sets. Still it will be requisite to harrow down the drills before the sets send up their
germs to the surface of the ground.
(1908.) Being desirous of a.scertaining the true cause of the failure in potatoes, I am ready
to recommend to your notice every rational explanation that is offered on the subject. The fol-
lowing explanation is, I believe, from the pen of Professor Lindley of London, and therefore de-
serves attention. At the same time, I must own that the explanation is unsatisfactory to me. in-
asmuch as the tubers in the soil, in regard to their liability of being acted on by chemical agen-
cies, would be the same many years ago, when failure was not so universal as it has been within
these few years. " The potato' crop," he says, "has of late years been seriously affected by a
disease which consists in the production of tubers, instead of stems, when growth hrst commences
after planting, and in the loss of all farther power of vegetation consequent upon this malforma-
tion. We have examined several specimens of the disease wilhout -succeeding in discovering the
smallest trace of organic injury, and we feel satisfied that there is nothing in the visible formation
of the potato whicl) will account for it. All the tubers, young and old, seem perfect. It is therefore
probable that Chemistry must be called upon to explain the source of tlie mischief, and that some
deficiency or excess of the proximate principles loiiged in the tuber will be found connected with
it. Although we have nothing po.sitive to state in confirmation of this suggestion, yet there are some
facts which may possibly lead to the discovery. We know all that the potato shoots, when first
produced, are fed by the matter lodged in the tuber from whicli the shoots proceed. Thai mat-
ter consists largely of starch — an insoluble substance, which onlj- becomes capable of nourishing
a young shoot by changing into gum or sugar. Chemists tell us that such change is effected by a
form of matter which they name Diastase, in which nitrogen is an element. Since we know that
the quantity of azotized matter found in a potato varies very con.siderably, it is probable that the
quantity of diastase also varies, and that in some cases it may be altogether insufficient to render
the starch soluble, except to a small extent. Jf that were so, the bud, when it springs from a
tuber, would be unable to grow into a shoot bearing leaves, but would develop itself in an imper-
fect way, and remain as a little tuber, wilhout any power of growing farther. This may be the his-
tory of the disease in the potato now under consideration ; and if so. it would perhaps be removed
by adding azotized manure ; ibr the latter, when decomposing in the soil, may funiish the nitrogen
that is required. It is true that diastase is a peculiar compound, and that we have no authority for
supposing diastase itself likely to be formed in a potato by the addition of azotized matter to soil. On
the other hand, we know so little of nitrogen and its action in vegetation, except that its influence is
most important, that it is a fair subject of. speculation. Jf leaves cannot decompose carbonic acid,
except in tlje presence of nitrogen, it may very well be that starch also cannot change into sugar
or gum except in its i)resence. and that in any nascent state it may act just as well as if produced
by the decomposition of diasta.se. We would recommend, then, those whose potatoes are thus
affected to manure them at once with water containing ammonia. This can do no harm, and may
do good. Experiment, too, is somewhat favorable to the trial ; for lately, in the garden of the
Horticultural Societj', some potatoes which had not made their appearance above ground at the
time when others, planted at the same period, were in full vegetation, were, at the desire of Mr.
Edward Solly, watered with a weak solution of muriate of ammonia ; when in a few days the
leaves and stems came up, and are now the most vigorous of all."* This last recommendation, of
course, can only be practiced in garden culture.
18. BREAKING IN YOUNG DRAUGHT-HORSES.
" Thy flatterina; method with the youth pursue ;
Joined with his sobool-l'ellows, by two and two,
I'crsHude 'em tfret to lead an empty wheel.
That scaree the dust can raise, or they can feel ;
In length of time produce the laboriiip yoke
And Bhining shares, that make the furrow smoke."
Dryden'8 Virgil.
(1909.) Young (liauglit-horses are never broke in. They are most fre-
quently yoked with an old steady horse at once into the harrows, accom-
panied with a few restrainers of reins and ropes, or an additional hand or
two to assist the plowman, to prevent any attempt at a run away ; and, no
doubt, when colts have been haltered and led out from the time they were
weaned by a steady, quiet-tempered man, they will soon submit to work,
and become harmless in the course of a few short yokings. But, notwith-
* The Gardeners' Chronicle for June 24, 1843.
(404)
BREAKING IN YOUNG DRAUGHT-HORSES. 213
standing their quietness, they cannot be said to be broke i/i, in the proper
sense of the term ; that is, they do not yield to the guidance of the plow-
man, because they either know or understand what he means, or would
subject themselves to his control, but because they feel they are subdued,
and are obliged to move along with an older and stronger horse, to which
they are attached, as he may choose to lead them. Their mouth is quite
intractable to the bit all the time they are apparently subdued ; they seize
the bit with their teeth, and press upon it, with their head hanging down,
their neck arched, and their eyes set back, as if suspicious of harm over-
taking them. In this way, day after day, or at least in every yoking they
are worked, they look more like objects of oppression and pity than of
pride to the farmer, on seeing the young and noble steed he has bred and
reared first undertake its work. The rein may be pulled this way and that
to no purpose ; and in the end the dull, sulky-looking colt is confirmed in
his natural temper, and the timid one rendered more afraid. No doubt
time, in this as in every other thing, brings about a change ; but why
should the change, even for the better, be allowed to be effected by a
lapse of time, to the discomfort and annoyance of the animal in the mean
time, when he can be broke into his work with comparative ease ] " Ay,
break him indeed, but remember the cost," is the ready rejoinder to the
question just asked ; and the answer to the rejoinder is as ready. What
although it does cost some money to break in a colt to do his work in a
proper manner, in the most easy way for himself, and in the shortest time
to his master ] Is a little cost to be put in comparison to giving trouble to
people to teach a colt how to perform his work, who know nothing of the
rules of tuition, and who therefore run the risk of spoiling the colt for life I
Is one guinea such a deadly sum as to induce any owner of a fine colt to run
the risk of spoiling him — for no greater cost need be incurred in breaking
in a draught-colt to his work.
(1910.) The easiest plan to make a draught-colt work well soon, is to
employ a good horse-breaker to bridle, and handle, and lunge him for a
short time — as long as is requisite to make his mouth yield to the bit —
and then he will obey both voice and rein ; and while employing the rein,
the horse-breaker should be instructed to use the language that will be
spoken to him while at work, the terms of which I have fully explained in
(901). The harness required for this pui'pose is a breaking bridle, a
cavesson, and pad for the back, all of which the horse-breaker will supply.
I must remark, however, that most of the bits I have seen used in break-
ing bridles seem to me inefficient for the purpose. They are very thick at
the guard, round, and jointed in the middle, a construction which gives
the horse an opportunity of seizing the round thick part with his grinders,
when folded back by the force of the rein acting on the joint, and of rest-
ing his head upon it. A more efficient bit is represented in fig. 351, which
I have seen used many years ago in Berwickshire, by Thomas Middlemiss
of Norham, who was reckoned in his day one of the best horse-breakers
and grooms that had practiced in that part of the country. It consists of
two bits, one twisted and the other square, both 8^ inches in length. The
square bit c d\s \ an inch square, and so is the diameter of the twisted one
a b, and they both have a play of ^ an inch between the shoulders of the
guards a c and b d. The guards ef, g h, are 7 inches in length. The ring
i on each side is 2i inches in diameter over all, and at ^ is a bunch of
links to play upon the tongue, and make the horse move his jaws. The
straps connected with the bit are, first, the head-stool ; the hand-reins, 4^
feet in length ; the check-reins to keep the horse's head in fine, when strap-
ped to the pad, and which pass below the neck-strap of the martingale. All
(405J
214
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
these 3 straps are buckled to tlie rings i i. There is, besides, a martin-
gale to \>re\enl the head being thrown forcibly up. The breadth of the
straps is 1 inch ; that of the counter strap of the martingale 1^ inches.
Fig. 35L
THE BREAKING-BRIDLE BIT.
The bit can be buckled on in the reverse order shown in the cut, hav-
ing the square bit c d uppeiTnost, and the bunch k is then screwed to
the twisted bit a b. The cavesson is well known, and requires no par-
ticular description, its figure and appointments being uniformly the
same.
(1911). It is unnecessary to go through all the discipline of breaking in
a draught-colt, as is required in the case of a saddle-horse, but a few pre-
liminary steps are necessary, such as playing the bit in the mouth for 2 or
3 hours in the stable, twice or thrice a day, the colt standing in the re-
versed position in the stall, which has the double advantage of making the
mouth yield to the bit and of keeping up the horse's head. The bit is
buckled on slack for this pui-pose, so as to lie upon the gums, on the bare
space of the lower jaws between the front and back teeth, upon which
place either the square or twisted bit is felt to rub sharply, while the bunch
of links k makes the mouth and tongue play as if desirous of getting quit
of the whole concern. When the head is pressed forward to get hold of
the bit with the back teeth, the straps being too long, the head finds noth-
ing to rest upon, while the bunch k is brought too far back upon the tongue
to be agreeable. After this discipline in the stable for two or three days,
according as it is seen that the colt yields to the bit, with occasional walks
out of the stable, he should be led out to walk two or three hours at a time
by the nose-rein of the cavesson, to learn to step out, and to acquire a good
pace ; and this is the most essential discipline for a draught-horse. A
short lunge or two backward and forward round a circle, on red land, will
be useful, not to teach him to trot ; but the trotting exercise will make
him active, and sooner get the use of his legs in cases of difficulty. He
should then be backed, and, while guided by the reins, should be spoken
to in the language he will be addressed in the yoke. After that he should
be guided along a road with long double-reins, while can-ying the plow-
chains to accustom him to their noise and feel, and addressed in the appro-
priate language. Now all this discipline may be gone through in the
course of a week, or 8 or 10 days, according to the disposition of the ani-
mal, the handling he may have received since he was a weaned foal, and
(406)
BREAKING IN YOUNG DRAUGHT-HORSES. 215
the genius of the horse-breaker. The horse-breaker should groom the colt
immediately after exercise, that the animal may becotrie familiarized with
the usa"-es of the stable, and the degree of exercise given should be with
a discrimination suited to the condition and physical strength of the anirnal.
The colt's food, too, should be so administered as to harden his condition
for labor ; with the understanding, however, that, after the busy season of
work is finished in the early part of summer, the young tyro shall be al-
lowed to have a run at grass for a few weeks, and then fall into his own
share of regular work. . -, r
(1912.) After the treatment and discipline received from the horse-
breaker, the colt will be easily made to understand work. The sort of
harness with which he is first invested is that of the plow, consisting of a
bridle, collar, fig. 197, and back-band and chains, or theats, as these are
called'in some parts of the country. It is quite possible that the discipline
received from the horse-breaker will make the colt suffer at once to be
yoked with an old horse at the plow ; but in case of accidents, and to err
on the safe side, it is best to use precaution, even though it should be
proved to have been unnecessary. The principal precaution is to attach
the colt to a strong, steady horse, that will neither bite nor kick him, and
be able to withstand the plunges the colt may choose to make. The at-
tachment is made by a cart-rope being first fastened round the girth of the
old horse, and then passed round that of the colt, leaving as little space
between their bodies as is required for plowing ; and to afford no liberty
to advance or retire beyond a step or two before or behind the old horse.
Besides the usual rein employed by the plowman, the horse-breaker should
have another in his hand from the colt's head. Thus equipped in plow-
harness, the first yoking of the colt should be to an old cart-wheel, placed
on its dished face on plowed land, furnished with a swing-tree, which he
should be made to draw, while the horse walks beside him ; and, in draw-
ing this, the reins should be used, and the appropriate language spoken,
that he may associate ihe changes of his motions with the accompanying
sounds, and which are indicated by the reins while guiding him. I remark
in passing, how curious it is for us to have adopted the Roman method of
breakinp-'young horses bv the employment of the wheel, as set forth in the
motto selected from Virgil. Should the colt offer to wheel round, the gen-
tlest means should be used in putting him again in his proper position, as
the start may have been made from fear, or from the tickling of a part of
the harness. When a hind-leg gets over a trace-chain, the chain should
be unhooked from the swing-tree, and hooked on again after the colt has
been put in his right position. Should he offer to rear or kick, from a dis-
position to break away, the old horse should be urged on to the walk, and
be made to pull him along, while a smart tip of the whip will take the
courage out of him. According as he evinces a disposition to go on qui-
etly in the work, should the length of time be determined at which he
should work at the wheel. When submissive, he should be yoked to the
plow, for there is no species of work which calls forth the sympathy of
horses to one another in so short a time as when working with this imple-
ment ; and, after a few landings, it will be seen that he will work with en-
ergy and good-will, and then he should be kindly spoken to, encouraged,
and even fondled. The probability is that his desire for the draught may-
be evinced too keenly, but the pace of the old horse should be subdued,
and the keenness mitigated by the rein and tyg, which the short reins are
called that pass from the head of one horse to the collar of the other, and
which, in this particular instance, is fastened to the rope round the girtH
of the old horse. It is interesting to the farmer to see his young horse put
(407J
216 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
his shoulder to the first work he has ever tried with a spirit even beyond
his strength ; and, while he continues at the work until his nostrils distend
and flanks heave, his owner cannot help having a regard for him, hight-
ened by a feelinij of jjity for the unconscious creature acquiring experience
of work at which he is about to be doomed to toil for the remainder of his
life. It should be mentioned, as a precaution, that all the harness em-
ployed about the first yoking of a young horse should be fresh and strong,
and not likely to break, even by violence. The colt should be broke in to
the cart as well as the plow. He is yoked into a single horse-cart, but
great care should be used on the first yoking, that he get no flight, by any
strap rubbing against him, or the shafts falling upon him when raised up
to allow of his being backed below them ; for, if frightened at the first
yoking to a cart, a long time will elapse ere he will stand the yoking qui-
etly. The horse-breaker should stand in the cart using double reins ; and
a rein should be held by a man walking first on each side of his head, and
then at a little distance on the sides of the road. The chief danger is kick-
ing, and thereby injuring the hocks against the fiont-bar of the cart ; to
prevent which, a rope should be placed across the top of the colt's rump,
and fastened to the harness on the rump, and on each side to the shaft of
the cart. There is little danger of his running away while all the reins
are good. He will take with the traces of the cart more readily at first
than with the trams, as they are so similar to the yoking he has felt at the
plow, and he is conscious of having his companion behind him.
(1913.) On the first use of harness by a young horse, the shoulders and
back are liable to become inflamed, and even the skin to be broken by the
collar and saddle. It should be ascertained, in the first place, that the col-
lar he is to work in fits him properly ; and, if it does not, it should be made
to do so before he use it, as the first day's use may so injure his skin as to
give him pain for weeks thereafter. The usual aflfection is heated swell-
ings in the line of the collar and seat of the saddle. A good lotion, to be
applied to those parts whenever the colt comes out of yoke, is a solution
of common salt in warm water, and, when cold, applied as a fomentation
with a sponge. The water not only cools the skin, and keeps down the
inflammation, but the salt hardens it for use ; and in the course of a short
time, particularly if the weather be dry, the skin will become inured to the
pressure of the harness, A young horse may be broke in for work any
time in the course of the spring, from the beginning of workine: the turnip-
land to Its completion. I can affirm the efficiency of the plan I have rec-
ommended by repeated experience, and it is one unattended with the
slightest accident in practicing it. '
(1914.^ It is the usual practice to shoe and dock the young horse before
putting him to the yoke. I think he should first be broke in, and then he
will suffer himself to be shod the more quietly. At the first shoeing it will
be useful, in making him stand quietly, and in diverting his attention, to
take the old horse he has been working with to the smithy. By nailing a
mat against the wall, and making him stand alongside the mat, it will save
his skin being ruffled should he i-ub against the wall, while the wall will
form a firm barrier against his retreating farther firom the blacksmith.
After the fore and hind feet of one side have been shod, these can next
be turned to the wall to get his other feet shod. Gentle and coaxing
means should be used, though a twitch on the nose has a powerful com-
mand over a horse. The first shoes of a young horse should be light, with
no heels, and the hoofs should not be pared down much at first. Rather
renew the shoes, and pare the hoofs down again in a short time, than
incumber a colt at first with heavy shoes with heels, to the risk of tram-
(408)
sows FARROWING. 217
pHng himself, as to cure the effects of a severe tramp may cost much more
than the price of many sets of new shoes. As to docking z. draught-horse,
I think it a necessary operation, because a long rump is very apt to get
injured when the horse is yoked in the trams, by coming against the body
of the cart, and in coup-carts especially it can scarcely escape being nipped
when the body of the cart is brought down upon it when lying on the
front-bar, and besides a draught-horse has no use for a long tail. A neat
swish is all that is requisite at any time, and in winter even that is apt to
be loaded with mud on dirty roads. Some writers affect to believe it pre-
sumptuous in man to deprive any animal of six of the joints of the verte-
bral column which Nature has given him ; and no doubt were our horses
always idle, especially in summer, when a long tail is of essential service
in whisking off flies, the vertebrae ought to be kept entire ; but surely
there is no greater absurdity in docking the tail, than in driving iron nails
into the crust of the hoofs of a horse, and yet without iron shoes to pro-
tect it, the horny foot of the horse would be beaten to pieces on hard I'oads
at the pace many kinds of horses are driven along them ; and there is no
necessary cruelty in the act of docking, for it is an operation of the sim-
plest form when properly done, that is, when effected in a joint where the
wound is easily healed. As to niclcivg the tail and cropping the ears, such
operations are never performed on draught-horses, and at best only serve
to disfigure the appearance of the animals subjected to such unnecessary
torture.*
19. sows FARROWING OR LITTERING.
"Sows ready to fairow this time of the year,
Are for to be made of. and counted full dear ,
For now is the loss of a fare of the sow
More great than the loss of two calves of the cow."
TCSSEB.
(1915.) It should be so managed, where there are more than one brood-
sow on a farm, as to have one to bring forth pigs early in spring ; but, at the
same time, it should be borne in mind that young pigs are very susceptible
of cold, and if exposed to it, though they may not actually die, their
gi'owth will be so stinted as to prevent them attaining to a large size, how-
ever fat they may be made. Even the most comfortable housing will not
protect them from the influence of the external air, any more than certain
constitutional temperaments can be rendered comfortable in any circum-
stance in spring, when under the influence of the east wind. From
March to September may, perhaps, be considered as the period of the
year when young pigs thrive best.
[* The reasoning of the author in this case appears not to be conclusive. There is no reason
to suppose there is any sensibility in the horn of the hoof, and the nailing of the shoe is intended
to prevent, not to give, pain — whereas docking gives much pain at the time, requires care to heal
it up, and deprives the horse of the brush which Nature gave him to keep off the flies from a large
portion of his body.
The exposure of the tail to be filled with mud, is an inconvenience, but when occasion re-
quires it (which is generally when there are no flies about, in winter,) the hair may be neatly
plaited and tied up, as all good teamsters know how to do. We go against all nicking and dock-
ing and cropping, and for saving beasts, as well as our fellow-creatures, from every moment of
painful sensation that can be avoided. \E^- Farm. Lib.
(409)
218 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
(19 1 6.) Whenever a brood-sow shows symptoms (jf approaching paituri-
tion ; that is, wlien the vulva is observed to enlarge and become red, it is
time to prepare the sty for her reception, for she will keep her reckoning
not only to a day but to an hour. The period of gestation of a sow is 112
days, or 16 weeks. The apartments meant to accommodate brood-sows
in the steading are marked by the letter c in figs. 3 and 4, Plates III. and
IV'. They consist of an outer-court 18 feet long by 8 feet broad, inclosed
by a door, as represented in fig. 23, and described at 5 in (CS), and an in-
ner apartment S feet by 6, roofed in. This is the usual ft)rm of a sty for
sows, but others more convenient for overlooking the state of the sow and
lier pitrs is when the outer court and inner aj)ai1ment are placed under
one roof, that is, in a roofed shed, or in a house which may be shut in by
a door. The litter allowed to a brood-sow should be rather scanty and
of short texture, such as chaff, short straw, or dried leaves of trees, as
young pigs are apt at first to be smothered or squeezed to death amtmg
long straw, when they get under it. When a sow has liberty before she
is about to pig, she will carry straw in her mouth, and collect it in a heap
in some retired comer of a shed, and bury herself among it, and the
chance is, in such a case, that some of the pigs will be lain down upon
unseen and smothered by the sow herself; when seen she will carefully
push them aside with her snout before lying down. Some sows have a
trick of wandering away to litter in a quiet place, such as in a field of
corn, in a plantation among underwood, or in a dry ditch at the root of
an old hedge or tree. I remember of a sow being missing for upward of
a fortnight, not a person having seen her leave home, or being able to dis-
cover where she had gone to ; but she was suspected of having disappeared
for the purpose of littering. At length she appeared one day craving for
food at the kitchen door, bearing evident signs of having littered, and of
having suckled pigs. She was cautiously tracked to her hiding-place,
though jealous of being discovered ; and it was found that she had formed
a nest with the straw gathered from the adjoining field of wheat, in a se-
cluded part of a dry ditch at the root of an old thorn-hedge, about 300
yards from the steading. She had subsisted as long as she could upon the
corn, but hunger at length drove her to the house in search of food. Had
she been allowed, she would, no doubt, have come to the house every day
for food ; but means, of course, were used to have the p'gs conveyed to
the steading, and this was a work of some difficulty, as the sow herself
was perfectly savage when any one approached her young ones ; and these
were so wild in their habits that they eluded capture for a long time among
the standing corn. At length, by the assistance of the shepherd's dog,
which seemed to enjoy the affair as sport, they were all caught, a large
litter, and, on being conveyed home in a large basket, the sow naturally
followed her captive young ones. I remember of another sow taking up
her abode in the bottom of a pea stack, where a small hole was only left
as an entrance, but a large chamber was formed in the interior, and it
was found imjiracticable to dislodge her from this stronghold, she keeping
every man and the shepherd's dog at bay, and he was too knowing to ven
lure to attack her in sinirle combat ; so she was let alone, and she pro-
duced her young there, and kept them until they were able to run about,
food having been set down for her. I mention these instances of the pe-
culiar habits of some domesticated sows, merely to show you the propriety
of securing the brood-sow that is about to farrow, and" particularly one
that is given to wander abioad in search of a nest, in a proper sty some
time before the period of her reckoning.
(1917.) Knowing the day of her reckoning, she should be attended to
(410)
sows FARROWING. 219
pretty frequently, not that she will probably require assistance in the act
of parturition, like a cow or a ewe, but merely to see that all the pigs are
safe, and to remove any one immediately that may be dead when pigged,
or may have died in the pigging. I have heard, however, of a sow in
high condition which died because the second pig, on coming by the breech
presentation, had a hind-leg folded back, which could not be put right by
the sow herself in pressing, and having been neglected, her parts very
much swelled. As an attempt to save her life, the Cesarian operation was
performed on her, and the obstructing pig was removed ; the animal lived,
but the others in her womb were dead, and she herself did not sursive the
operation above an hour, having been completely exhausted before it was
attempted. I do not know whether it is generally the case, but 1 have
frequently observed that pigs leave the womb alternately in a reversed
order; that is, they are projected by a head and breech presentation al-
ternately, not uniformly so, but most frequently. There is no doubt, how-
ever, of the fact that the first-born pigs are the strongest, and the last the
smallest and weakest, in a large litter, such as upward of 12, though the
difference is less or scarcely observable in smaller litters of 6 or 8. The
small, weak pigs are usually nicknamed wrigs, or pocJc-shaldngs, and are
scarcely worth bringing up ; still, if there is a teat for them to lay hold of,
they ought not to be destroyed. Sometimes there are more pigs littered
than the sow has teats to give to each. I have seen as many as 19 pigs
when there were only 12 teats ; and I remember of a sow that never lit-
tered fewer than 17, when she had 14 teats, which are two more than the
usual numbex'. Extra pigs, can, no doubt, be brought up by hand on
cow's milk, but the last ones of a very large litter are usually so small and
weak that they generally die off in the course of a day or two to the num-
ber of the teats. A young pig soon gets to its feet after birth, and as
soon finds its way to the teat ; but it can find no sustenance from it until
the sow pleases, so that until the entire parturition is accomplished and
the sow recovered from it, there is no chance of the pigs getting a suck.
Many sows are very sick during parturition, and for some time aftei' — so
much so that the skin of their mouth becomes bleached and parched, and
the breathing quick. To those unaccustomed to see a sow in that state,
it would seem that she must die ; but a little rest recovers her, and she
betakes herself fondly to her young. It is necessary, as I have said, to re-
move the pigs as they die, if any die, as some sows evince the abominable
propensity of eating their own pigs when they die, whether the death
takes place at the birth, or immediately after, or whether it happens on
their being smothered or squeezed to death by being lain down upon by
the sow herself, when nestled between her and the wall. I remember of
a sow that was never sick at pigging, and such was her propensity to eat
every pig that died or was smothered, that even during parturition she
would get up as every pig was bom, to ascertain whether it was dead or
alive, and, if dead, would eat it instantly, provided she was not prevented;
and even after they were a week old she would eat them, had they died
by accident.* There is a peculiarity exhibited by young pigs, different
[* There is much that \a superfluous, in this chapter, for American farmers generally. But al-
though the business of hog-breeding is, perhaps, of all stock-breeding the most simple and the one
in which Nature may be generally left unassisted and unattended to, still this inattention may be
and is often carried to an extreme ; for although generally the pigs-.vill live, how much better
woald they tlirive if, at the time of farrowing, the sow were treated with a more liberal allow-
ance of suitable liquid and green food for keeping the system in a better condition, and expressly
for producing a greater flow of milk. The growth and ultimate size of all animals depend greatly
(411J
220 THE BOOK OP THE FARM SPRING.
from the young of other domesticated animals, in each choosing a teat for
itself, and ever after keeping possession of it ; and this compact, as it were,
is faithfully maintained. Should there be one pig more than there are
teats, it must take its chance of obtaining a teat when the rest are satis-
fied. It is generally observed that the pigs which are supported at the
foremost teats become the strongest; and the fact was noticed long ago
by Tusser, who recommends store i)igs to be those which are
" Ungelt, of the bejit keep a couple for store,
One boar pig and sow pig, that sueketh before."
Pigs require to use coaxing before the sow will give them milk. They
make loud entreaties, and rub the udder with their noses to induce her to
lie down ; which, when she does, every pig takes its own place right earn-
estly, and nuzzles away at the udder with the teat held in the mouth,
whether situate in the upper or lower row. After a good while of this
sort of preparation, the milk begins to flow on the sow emitting a fond-
like grunting sound, during which the milk is drawn steadily and quietly
till the pigs are all satisfied, and they not unfrequently fall fast asleep with
the teat in the mouth. Young pigs are lively, happy creatures, and fond
of play as h>ng as they are awake, but they are great sleepers. When a
week old, their skins are clean, hair soft and silky, and, with plump bodies
and bright eyes, there are few more beautiful young animals to be seen
about a farm-yard. Those of a white color look the most delicate and fine.
(1918.) As to the food of the sow after she has recovered from parturi-
tion— which will be longer or shoiter according to her constitutional tem-
perament— she should get a warm drink, consisting of thinnish gruel of
oatmeal and lukewarm water, and which sei-ves the double purpose of
meat and drink. If she is thirsty — which she is likely to be on recovery
from sickness — the gruel may be again offered in a thinner state in an hour
or two afterward. The ordinary food may consist of boiled potatoes, with
a mixture of barley-meal, among water, administered at a stated hour at
morning, noon, and night, with such refuse as may occur from the farm-
house. This food will be found to support her w-ell while nursing ; and
it should be borne in mind that, as long as she is nursing, she should re-
ceive abundance of food, if it is desired she should rear good pigs. Should
the weather be frosty, or otherwise cold, the water may be given a little
warmed ; but in fresh weather, or in summer, cold water is most accepta-
ble to her. The mess should not be made so thin as to be sloppy and take
a long time to drink up, or so thick as to be cloggy in the mouth, but in a
state of gruel — meat and drink at the same time. Whatever food is given
to her should be cooked, and not in a raw state ; that is to say, the pota-
toes should be boiled and not given raw, and the barley-meal should first
be mad'3 into brose with warm water, and then mixed with the potatoes,
and the whole mess made like gruel with cold water. The trough out of
on their being we/l supplied in their infancy with suitable food. Yet to this it must be confessed
that irj our country generally too little attention is paid, and in no instance is this the case more
than in our neglect to provide properly for the ewe and the soic during the period of suckling.
As to the propensity o^^omc sows to eat their pigs, when they die young; it is by no means a
rare thing — or rather it somcliines hajjpens, as we know, that they will at once devour the whole
litter, though farrowed alive and well ! They ^ecm to be animated to this horrible and disgusting
act of infanticide by a sort of furor which is said to proceed from a morbid state of the blood, and
to be most apt to happen with sows that are in too high condition. To guard against this mon-
strous disposition, it was rccommcndeil by the late Goiuiam Parsons, of Massachusetts, (whose
memory as a personal friend, and able promoter of the cause of agricultural improvement, we
shall ever cherish with grateful recollection,) to give, for a week or two before farrowing, a spoon-
full of sulphur occasionally in their food, to "cool their blood," as he said. Ed. Farm. Lib.]
(4;-.>i
sows FARROWING. 221
which she receives her food should be washed every two or three days in
cold, and every day in warm weather. I believe it is the common prac-
tice never to give pigs salt among their food, because it is said to encour-
age the scab. A large quantity of salt may have this effect, but I never
saw a relish of salt produce such an effect. When a sow leaves any of the
food in the trough, it should not be presented to her again, but given to the
young pigs, who will relish it.
(1919.) Most pigs are usually gelded, both male and female — the few
that are kept for breeding forming but a small exception. They should be
gelded on the milk at from 10 to 14 days old. The males are castrated on
being held between the knees, and the scrotum incised down upon each
testicle, which is removed by the pressure of the finger and thumb, and
the spermatic chord separated by the knife. The she-jiigs are treated in a
different manner. Being laid on a chair-bottom or table, on its far side,
the pig is there held by an assistant ; the operator cuts an upright incision
into the flank, of about 2 inches in length, and, introducing a finger, brings
out the ovaria of the womb, and separates them by the knife. He then
closes the incision by a few stitches with a needle and thread, and the op-
eration is finished. There is very little danger attending the operation to
either sex. In the case of rupture or hernia in the male — and some breeds
of pigs are very liable to this disease when young — it is necessary to stitch
up the incision of the scrotum, and the testicle at castration should, in such
a case, be removed with care, in case of producing inflammation in the
intestines. The incisions in both the male and female generally heal by
the first intention. The gelder should use the precaution of cleaning his
knife before every operation. The usual charge for gelding pigs is 2s. 6d.
the litter, whatever number it may contain. Young pigs are not gelded
vrhen intended to be killed for roasting.
(1920.) It is seldom that any complaint overtakes the sow on littering,
though she may be earned off by puerperal fever, and I suspect there is
no remedy for this disease in her case. The pigs which she leaves may
be very well brought up by hand on cow's milk, as they will soon learn to
drink out of a dish, in which the milk should be given them warm from
the cow, and as often as the cows are milked. It is surprising how small
a quantity of milk a pig will drink at a time ; and on this account they
should get it frequently, and the dish in which it is served should not be
easily upset, because there will be a struggle to get first at the milk, and
one or more will be sure to jump into it. The diseases incidental to young
pigs are luckily few. Their tails sometimes drop off with a sort of canker,
and a red eruption sometimes takes place on their skin, and sometimes one
in a litter may take a wasting and die. I believe that if the sow is pro-
vided with plenty of wholesome food, the pigs kept clean and warm in their
sty and litter, and their sire and dam be not too near a-kin, that few dis-
eases will overtake pigs as long as they are on their mother's milk. A
sow is not allowed to take the boar until after the pigs are weaned, but as
soon after as possible, in a week or two ; and, to bring her into season the
sooner, she should be fed with oats or oatmeal until she takes the boar. —
The symptoms of season in a sow are a redness and enlargement of the
vulva — which, when observed, the boar should have access to her ; and,
should there be a boar on the spot, the meeting will be easily accomplished,
and one embrace, which is usually a protracted one, is quite sufficient for
securing a litter of pigs. When there is no boar on the farm, the sow is
sent to him, and she remains a few days with him to secure her impregna-
tion. Pigs are weaned at 6 weeks old, and some keep them on the sow
for 2 months ; but there is little thrift in such management, as the suckling
(413)
222 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
in the last week of a larg^e litter of large pigs brings a sow very frfst down
in condition, and which must he made up again with extra feeding and a
longer time before she fanows the next time. A sow that can bring up 10
pigs, and has 5 such litters in the course of 2 years, is a profitable animal,
and deserves to be well maintained and taken care of. Even at 10s.
apiece — which is the lowest sum a fanner should take for a pig, for he
should keep it until it is worth that sum, rather than part with it at a lower
one — such a sow will return ^£25 in the course of 2 years.
(19'21.) As it is considered by farmers inconvenient to keep beyond a certain number of pigs on
the farmstead, it is necessary to determine what that number should be, and as it is difficult to
fix its amount for every particular case, a few hints on different modes of managing litters, after
they are weaned, may' prove acceptable to you. Before investigating this point, a few particu-
lars may be stated which you may regard in the light of maxims on this subject. A sow should
always be either with young or giving suck, for if allowed to run about in season, or alrreaminp,
as it is termed, she wilt lose flesh instead of gaining it. A sow should always be kept in good
condition, whether with young or supporting young, because a lean sow never brings forth or
can nourish strong pigs. Every breeder and feeder of pigs will find his own advantage in never
allowing them to go to bed with a hungry belly. A sow that brings forth the greatest number of
pigs of the best quality, proves the best nurse, and is most careful of her young, should always
be preferred as a brooil-sow. When a sow gets old, she is apt to become careless of her pigs, so
that 3 or 4 years may be age enough for a brood-sow. Pigs, though on grass during the day in
summer, should, nevertheless, receive a drink of water and meal, or potatoes, or of wbey at morn-
ing and evening.
(19i2.) There are just two ways of rearing pigs on a farm — one is to have a large number of
sow.s, and sell the pigs when they are weaned at 6 weeks old ; the other is, to have fewer sows,
and rear the pigs until they are fit for the pork-curers ; and the adoption of either of these plana
depends entirely on tlie nature of the market of the locality. If there is a demand for young
pigs immediately after being weaned, supporting the larger number of sows will be the most
profitable plan for the farmer, because the pigs have not to be maintained on food independently
of their mothers; but it is a plan attended with much trouble, inasmuch as food has to be daily
cooked for the sows while supporting their young, and the market for pigs is, moreover, confined
to one age. In the latter plan, on the other hand, the sows are only supported on special Ibod as
long as they support the pigs, and there is not only the choice of the market for newly weaned
pigs, but for pigs of various ages, suited for the tastes of porkcurers. Suppose, then, that 2
egws are maintained, in pursuance of the latter plan, and that they bring forth 20 pigs twice a
year. Reiiiining 4 of these for ham, and other two for pickled pork, for the use of the house,
there will be 34 pigs to dispose of every year, and as these meet with a ready market when
4 or Ty stones imperial each, at 6s. a stone, will make them worth each from 24s. to 30s.. or from
£iO to i.'50 a year for pigs. It should be borne in mind that these 34 pigs, when running about
the courts in winter, eating a few turnips or ) otaloes, or grazing in the grass-field in summer, do
not cost much to rear them to the weight most desiderated by the curers of pork, and they are in
that state fat enough for the purpose, and make very wholesome meat. On a farm of ."iOO acres,
2 brood-sows could thus be easily maintained ; on a larger farm 3 might be kept, and on a smaller
1 may suHioe ; but circumstances must regulate the proper number. Where dairy husbandrj- is
more attended to on one farm than on another, and when the mixed husbandry is practiced on
both, more sows may easily be kept in summer than where the dairj- husbandry is less attended
to. There is a remark of Mr. Henderson on this subject which is worthy of attention, in regard
to the timing of sows in bearing their litters of pigs. " Whenever," he says, '• farmers have an
opportunity of selling pork at all seasons, they do not think it neces.«ary to make the sows bring
their litters at a particular season, as they wish to have a lot of a certain age to go off" regularly
at least every month." in autumn, winter, and spring. •• They make them ready for the market,'-'
he continues, ■• wiili little expense, only giving them close feeding 2 or 3 weeks previous to their
being sold." Pigs intended for pickled pork merely, do not require even this feeding, thougii
those sold for making hams are the better for a little extra and hardening feeding. '-They have
very little trouble in selling them," concludes Mr. Henderson, " as there are jobbers continually
traveling dirough the country, purchasing swine of all descriptions, who receive them and pay
the money at the farms."
(1923) The omnivorous disposition of swine is well known, and it is this disposition which
makes them so easily ninintaini'd and .«o serviceable on a farm. " Swine, though exceedingly
voracious,'' remarks Mr. Henderson, " will feed on almost anything. In miry and marshy ground
they devour worm.«. frogs, fern, rush and hedpe-roots. In drier and woody countries, they feed
on haws, sloes, crabs, mast, chestnuts, acorns. iVc, and on this food they will grow fleshy and fat
They are a kind of natural scavengers ; will thrive on the trash of an orchard, the outcasts of the
kitchen, the sweepings of barns and granaries, the ofl"al8 of a market, and most rirhlj' on the
refuse of a dairy. If near the sea, they will search the shores for shell-fish, in the fields they eat
grass, and in great towns they are supported chiefly by grains. It is evident that the facility of
feeding them everywhere at a small expense i.s a material benefit, more especially in a country
where people are accustomed to eat flesh daily, or, on the other hand, where there is so ready a
market for bacon and pork as we have. It is no less observable that, notwithstanding the fa-
cility of feeding, and the multitude of swine niainiained, they seldom fail of comina- to a good
market. Swine ought to have hard feeding two or three weeks previous to their being killed,
to give firmness to the flesh. This practice ought to be particularly attended to by those who
feed at distilleries on burnt ale and grains, as the fat of pies thus fed" melts almost wholly away
in boiling or roasting. Peas and beans are excellent for the purpose, and acorns are still better.
(414)
THE HATCHING OF FOWLS. 223
Where oak plantations are near, they will resort to tliem in autumn, and there remain until this
their favorite food is exhausted. The late Sir James Colquhoun of Luss, I have been told, was
in the habit of sending his pigs to one of the islands of Loch Lomond, where there is an oak
plantation, that they might pick up the acorns, which is said to have given a surprising degree
of delicacy to the flesh. Those who have woods of this kind, and orchards, ought to allow their
pigs liberty to range among the trees, to pick up shaken fruit and seeds."* The hogs of Germany
enjoy the droppings of the oak and chestnut forests, and it is supposed that it is this species of
food' that imparts the very superior flavor which the hams of Westphalia are known to possess.
That all the haras sold in this country for Westphalian are genuine, I have doubts, after having
become acquainted with the true flavor in their own country. I remember of passing through a
forest of sweet chestnuts of, I dare say, 3 miles in length, near Bellinzona, in the canton of Ticino,
in Switzerland, in autumn, when the fruit was dropping from the trees; and into this forest the
peasantry, I was informed, turned their pigs every year to get fattened at the season I allude lo.
(1924.) Swine should not be allowed to enter a field of any kind without a ring in the nose.
Their propensity to dig for worms and roots makes them turn up the soil with their noses, and
when a grass-field is thus treated, it presents a perfect scene of havoc, in so far as the grass is
concerned. The best material for making the nose jewels of swine is horse-shoe nails, they being
both durable and ductile. As there is no use of retaining the heads of the nails, they are hammered
into a point, and the nail is then fit for use. It is inserted into a hole, formed by an awl or other
sharp-pointed instrument, through the upper point of the snout, and passing, with a good hold,
through the cartilage of the top of the snout to its front, where the points of the nail are twisted
firmly together. A new hole can be made in the snout, and another nail substituted, when the
old hole and nail have become worn.
20. THE HATCHING OF FOWLS.
" . . . . The careful hen
Calls all her chirping family round,
Fed and defended by the fearless cock.
Whose b^ea^t with ardor tiames, as on he walks,
Graceful, and crows detiance. In the pond
The finely chequered duck before her train
Rows garrulous
The turkey nigh,
Loud threat'ning, reddens; while the peacock spreads
His every -colored glory to the sun.
And swims in radiant majesty along.
O'er the whole homely scene, the cooing dove
Flies thick in am'rous chase, and wanton rolls
The glancing eye, and turns the changeful neck."
Thomson.
(1925.) Spring is the busy season of the feathered inhabitants of the
farm. Thomson well describes the " homely scene," which these happy
creatures present while tending their young, and which might be seen at
every farmstead in spring, were fowls cared for as they should be. In-
stead, however, of indulging in unavailing regrets, I shall endeavor, in as
few words as the clear elucidation of the subject will admit of, to describe
the mode of hatching and rearing every sort of fowl usually domesticated
on a farm, and thereby show you that it is not so difficult nor so trouble-
some an affair as the practice which generally prevails would seem to in-
dicate. Observation of the habits of domesticated birds, and punctual
attention to their wants, are all that are required to produce and bring up
plenty of excellent poultry on a farm.t
[t As no fitter occasion may offer, we think it best to preserve here the following, which ap-
peared in a late number of the Gardeners' Chronicle, and which applies to disorders of poultry
of not unfrequent occurrence. The prescriptions appear to be of a practical character and to be
founded on experience : \^Ei, Farm. Lib.
Diseases of Poultry— Disorders of Digestion.— 1. Indigestion of, or Torpid (full)
Crop. This IS a very common ailment, arising from taking cold, unsuitable diet, and other causes.
The symptoms are moping, little or no disposition to take food, and hardness of the crop when
felt. As a remedy, one or two tea^spoonsfull of English gin, according to the size of the fowl,
has almost an immediate eff"ect. It appears to act as a solvent, for the crop soon becomes soft,
* Henderson's Treatise on the Brcedine of Swine
(415) ^
224 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
(1926.) In my observations on the manaj^ement oi Jicns in Avinter, I men-
tioned that tlie early-hatrhed chickens of the former sprinc^ were tlie best
to treat as laying hens during winter (1473). These same young hens
being in fine condition in spring, will prove good layers through the ensu-
ing summer, and should therefore be kindly treated for that purpose, and
not encouraged to become sitters on eggs, which they will do, if allowed
to wander in search of food, and to find out nests of their own to lay in. I
and maceration soon goes on as usual. Possibly this may be owing to the presence of the es-
sence of the junii)er bcrrv, as no olher spirit has the same effect, but is, on the contrarj-, deleteri-
ous to birds. This is infallible.
2. Iiidisextion of the Gizzard. — It would be difficult to enumerate all the causes for this, as
for the former fatal ailment; but it often ari.«es from confinement. locality, exposure to wet, damp
and cold, and most frequently from unskillful treatment in the hands of negligent persons, or
those ignorant of the habits or requirements of poultry, such as shelter, wholesome diet, sweet
green food, lime, sand, &c., which are quite as neces.sarj- as grain. In the farm-yard and fields,
the more natural state, birds can procure most of these ingredients for themselves, which in towns,
pens, coops, or cages, their perfectly artificial etate, must be administered artificially. Hue and
fresh butter, or svrup of rue and barlej-meal, or soot and fresh butter formed into pellets with
barley-meal, with the addition of a little pounded red brick, or pounded dry clay, are excellent
remedies : or with the addition of a small pinch of allspice, or a few of the allspice conis. A
very few minute grains of Cayenne pepper have been recommended, but with great caution ; in-
deed, I would scarcely advise anything so powerful and irritating. The best and only efficacious
remedy, after all,, is castor-oil, one or two teaspoonsfuU.
Mechanical Aid, when the crop is overloaded and medicine fails to promote maceration, must
be resorted to and be effected by discharging its contents by gentle preseure, with great care
and patience, through the mouth.
When, however, the contents swell, and are of a nature impossible to remove in that way
without violence, which must never be used on account of the danger of lacerating the throat,
an operation by a skillful hand is necessarj-, but requiring great trouble and attention durine the
healing process. A small slit niu,st be made in the lower part of the crop, through which the
noxious substances can be extracted. One or two sutures should then be neatly made w^ith a
needle and thread to hold the sides together, which will soon heal.
More sutures than are absolutely necessary would prevent healthy suppuration, which is
requisite, in order to encourage the healing process. Care should be taken to keep the wound
clean, but without damaging the sutures. The fowl must be kept within doors very quiet, and
upon soft diet until recovered. But this sort of operation is often more curious than useful, if not
cruel, unless the patient be one of some value.
3. Oon. or Lush, or Shellens E^ss. — When a hen lays this sort of egg. and not habitually, the
occurrence is generally accompanied with hard or full crop. In that case, it is owing to indiges-
tion, to be treated as before with one or two tea-spoonsfuU of English gin. One cause is said to
be overfeeding when fowls are too fat.
These eggs are generally dropped from the roo.st, and if it is not too high from the floor, or if
they fall on straw, may be saved entire and used for puddings. As to symptoms, experience will
make known the indications, and the time when a hen is about to pass one of these eggs, by ap-
pearing somewhat dull, and uneasy when walking about ; when proper precautions should be
taken to secure it. and prevent the other hens from gobbling it up. When this occurs from indi-
gestion, the shapes of these eges are often twofold, cither like a funnel, the protuberance being
about 2 inches long, ending with a thin thread twisted up at the end, or otherwise twain (two
email) egs-s, joined by a membrane, about an inch long; one containing the yolk, the other the
Nvhite. The cause for this curious deviation of shape I have not ascertained. But when this
happens habitually, which is not uncommon, the shape is in every respect as usual, and the caii.'^e
is some deranscment or injun,- of the passages through which the e^s has to pass, after the yolk
has detached itseir(by its own weight, as it grows from the size of a pin'shead) from the pedicle
which attaches it to the egg cluster, before the entire egg reaches the sack, just previous to being
laid. The writer has a favorite hen, which always regularly drops these eggs from her roost, and
never la> s any others, and has done so for these "five years past, although in perfect health.
This circumstance is attributable to the ignorant and cruel practice of •' groping." which can-
not be too often denounced and reprobated. When these eggs break within, the yolk and the
white will pa.«s off", but the skin will olten remain and form a hard "extraneous subistance," often
becoming iiutri<l. This is the ca.se when the cau.se is indigestion, of which they often die, if not
aasLsted lo get rid of this obstruction. The surest remedy in this case is a dose of ca.storoil, which
seldom fails to cure the cause and remove the obstruction. But a precaution against this occur-
rence (when possible) is to assist in removing this skin artificially, before it haslime to become a
fixture, when it is observed to hang from the fowl. Experience and obser\ation alone can leach
the extreme nicety of this operation, so as to lead to success. It often occupies a quarter of an
hour of time, and requires great forbearance and patience.
4. Ess-bonnd. — This is a fatality which is not of unfreqnent occurrence, arising from an inac-
tive state of the organs, when a fowl does not as usual, in due time, get rid of an ege, which will
remain in tlie egg-bag for some days, often producing very ill consequences. The symptoms
are moping, awkward gait, enlarged appearance and hanginij down of the abdomen. The causes
are various; but generally a cold, and often indigestion. The remedy is sometimes speedv : a
few grains of salt put into the entrance, but without using any violence, v-iW excite an immediate
disposition to lay, when the fowl will run ofi'instanter to the nest. If caused by indigestion, the
cure must be treated accordingly ]
(416)
THE HATCHING OF FOWLS. 225
also mentioned that there was no great diftlculty of bringing up chickens
in winter, if it were thought expedient to do it, and should any have been
nursed in winter (1474) they will now in spring be in good condition, and
be valuable birds, fit to make a handsome dish of roast or boil.
(1927.) As soon as the grass begins to grow in spring, so early will
cared-for hens delight to wander into sheltered portions of pasture, in the
sunshine, in front of a thorn-hedge, and pick the tender blades, and devour
the tiny worms which the genial air may have warmed into life and activ-
ity. With such morsels of spring food, and in pleasant temperature, their
combs will begin to redden, and their feathers assume a glossy hue ; and
even by February their chant may be heard, and which is the sure harbin-
ger of the commencement of the laying season. By March a disposition
to sit will be evinced by the early laying hens ; but every hen should not
be allowed to sit ; nor can any hen sit at her own discretion where the
practice is, as it should be, to gather the eggs every day as they are laid.
It is in your option, then, to select the hens you wish to sit to bring out
chickens. Those selected should be of a quiet, social disposition, not ea-
sily frightened, nor over careful of their brood, nor disposed to wander
afar ; and they should be large and full feathered, to be able to cover
their eggs well and brood their young completely. Those which you
may have observed to be good sitters and brooders should be chosen in
preference to others ; but it is proper to begin one young hen or so every
season, to sit for the first time.
(1928.) The eggs intended to be set should be carefully selected. If
those of a particular hen are desired to be hatched, they should, of course,
be kept by themselves, and set after her laying time is finished. In se-
lecting eggs, they should, in the first place, be quite fresJi, that is, laid
within a few days; they should be large, well-shaped, truly ovoidal ; nei-
ther too thin nor too thick, but smooth in the shell; and their substance
should almost entirely fill the shell, and should be perfectly uniform and
translucent, when looked through at a candle, which is the best light for
their examination. It is said that the position of the cell that contains air
in an egg determines the sex of the chick that will spring from the egg,
that is, if the cell occupies the exact apex of the end, which is always the
large end, the chick will be a male, and if on one side of the apex, it will
be a female. I believe there is truth in this observation, but to what ex-
tent, and what experiments have been made to determine the point, I have
not learned ; but there is no doubt of this, that the longer an egg has been
kept with access to the air, until it becomes addled or dead, this cell in-
creases in size, by the absorption of air through the shell, and, of course,
by absorption also of the substance of the egg, which makes room for the
air. The matter of the sex of the egg is of no importance on a farm, as a
good chicken of one sex is as valuable, as an article of food, as a good one
of the other. Either 11 or 13 eggs are placed under a hen ; the former
number, 11, is more likely to be successful in being entirely hatched than
the latter, as few hens can cover in a sufficient manner so many as 13 large
^oS^' There is a freak, prevalent even at the present day, of the propriety
of setting an odd number of eggs under a hen. This may have arisen
from the idea that, allowing 1 egg to become rotten, an even number, or
so many couples of chickens, will still be obtained in the. hatching, and, ac-
cordingly, it is considered a good hatching if 10 chickens are brought out
of a setting of 11 eggs, or a dozen of one of 13 eggs. As essential a mat-
ter as selecting the hens and eggs, is the making a proper nest for the sit-
ting hen. This should consist of a circular hassock of soft straw-ropes, or
it may brf a box, or a basket. The obiect of this foundation is to raise the
(417) 15 "^
226 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
real nest sufficiently off the ground to keep it dry, and to give the nest
such a hollow as that none of the eggs shall roll out by any mischance that
may befall the nest. Either a box or a basket is a very convenient thing
for the purpose, but in using either it will be requisite to stuff the corners,
as well as the bottom, firmly with straw, that the eggs may not drop into
the corners, or the young chicks, as they are hatched, fall into them. The
nest itself should be made of soft, short straw, sufficiently large to contain
the hen, just sufficiently hollow to prevent the eggs rolling out, and suffi-
ciently high above the floor to prevent any draft of air reaching the eggs.
(1929.) Places should be chosen for placing the sitting hens in — for the
hen-house, common to all the laying hens, will not answ^er, the perpetual
commotion in it disturbing the sitting hens. A hatching-house should con-
tain one hen at a time, but as many may be accommodated in it as thei-e
are partitions to separate the one hen completely from the other, for hens
are so jealous of each other, and especially when sitting, that they will
sometimes endeavor to take the nest and eggs from one another. Other
places can be selected for sitting in, such as an outhouse, a loft, a spare
room in the farm-house, or even the back-kitchen. The hen selected for
sitting having been accustomed to lay in the hen-house, or elsewhere, will
feel annoyed at first on being transferred to her new quarters ; she will
have to be coaxed to it, and even after all may prove obstreperous, though
exhibiting strong symptoms of clucking, in which case she must be dis-
missed and another chosen, rather than the risk be run of spoiling the
whole hatching by her capricious conduct. A couple or so of old eggs
should first be put into th-e nest, upon which she should be induced, by
meat and water beside her, to sit for two or three days, to warm the nest
thoroughly, before the eggs she is to hatch are placed under her. After
she shows a disposition to sit, and the nest has become warm, the eggs are
put into the nest, 11, as I said before, being quite enough, and the hen
allowed to go upon them in her own way, and to manage the eggs as she
chooses, which she will do with her bill and body, spreading herself out
fully to cover all the eggs completely. The time chosen for setting the
hen should be in the evening, when there is a natural desire for roosting
and resting, and by next morning, by daybreak even, it will be found that
she has taken to the nest contentedly. It is not an unusual practice to
set a hen at any time of the day, even in the daylight, when she is almost
certain to come off and desire to wander; and to curb this disposition, a tub,
or some such vessl, is placed over her to keep her in the dark, and the con-
sequence is, that the fright consequent upon such treatment prevents her
paying any attention to the eggs, and some may even be broken in her at-
tempts to get out of confinement. In such an attempt to keep the crea-
ture in the dark, it might suggest itself to a considerate person, one bhould
think, that darkness would be most easily and naturally found at night,
and that natural darkness was better than any that could be made artifi-
cially. Thus situate, the sitting hen should be looked at occasionally every
day, and supplied with fresh food, corn, and clean water. She will not con-
sume much food during the time of incubation, which is 3 weeks. Every
2 or 3 days, the dung, feathers, &c., about the nest or on the floor should
be swept and carried away, and the place kept clean and dry. In about
3 weeks a commotion among the eggs may be expected ; and should the
hen have proved a close sitter, and the weather mild, it is not unlikely
that 2 or 3 chickens will be seen peeping out below her feathers before
that period. The hen should not be disturbed during the time the chick-
ens are leaving the eggs, or until thoy are all fairly out and dry. Any at-
tempt to chip an egg infallibly kills the chick ; and every attempt to re-
(418)
THE HATCHING OF FOWLS. 227
move pieces of a chipped egg causes the chick to bleed. A good plan is
to give the chickens, when fairly out, a drink, by taking them one by one
and dipping their bills in water. Meat is then set down to them on a flat
plate, consisting of crumbled bread and oatmeal, and a flat dis^ of clean
water. The hen's food consists of corn or boiled potatoes and water. The
chickens should be visited every 3 hours, and a variety of food presented,
so as to induce them to eat it the more frequently and heartily, such as
picks of hard porridge, crumbled boiled potatoes, rice, groats, pearl barley
— taking care to have their food always fresh, and their water clean, how-
ever small the quantity they may consume. The hassock, or box, or
basket, should now be removed, and the true nest set down on the floor,
with a slope fiom it, that the chickens may have the means of walking up
to the nest to be brooded at night. In the course of 24 hours after all
the chickens are on foot, the hen will express a desire to go out, which
she should be indulged in, if the weather is dry, and especially when the
sun is out ; but if it rain, she had better be kept within doors, unless there
is a convenient shed near, in which she may remain with her brood for a
short time. Visited every 3 hours during the day, and supplied with a
change of food such as I have mentioned, and clean water, for about a
fortnight, or until the feathers of the tails and the wings begin to sprout,
chickens may then be considered out of danger, and, of course, become
less of a charge to her who has the care of them. During the remainder
of the season the chickens should receive food 3 times a day, consisting
of potatoes boiled as they are used at table, as long as they last, and they
might last the greater part of the summer, provided means were used to
presei've them for the purpose ; and the fact of being able to rear poultry
cheaper on potatoes than on any other sort of food, is a sufficient induce-
ment to preserve them as long as possible in a useable state. When po-
tatoes fail, or even along with them, hard-made oatmeal porridge is an
excellent food for fowls, when administered in small bits at a time. It is
not expedient to set a number of hens at one time, but in succession every
3 weeks or a month ; for a few chickens, ready in succession, are of great-
er value than a large number of the same age. As the season advances
in summer, hens, as they become fat by picking up plenty of food in the
fields, have a predilection to select places for nests in the fields, lay in
them, and bring out chickens from their own eggs ; and it must be owned
that this is the most natural way of obtaining chickens ; but no depend-
ence can be placed for a supply of young fowls in this way, as the weather
may not suit hens sitting in the open air ; and hens may not be in a state
for laying a nestfull of eggs in the most desirable part of the year, namely,
the early and late periods of the season. In short, it is impossible to de-
pend on a regular supply of either eggs or chickens, unless provision is
made for collecting the one and hatching the other in a systematic man-
ner. Chickens go 6 weeks with their mother. A good hen that has
brought out an early brood will become so fat while rearing them that
she will in time begin again to drop eggs, and of course again become a
clucker, and may then be employed to bring out a late brood. Cock-
chickens, just out of the egg, are distinguished from hen-chickens by their
larger heads and stronger legs.
(1930.) In regard to the hatching and rearing of ^wrytcys, it is universally
said to be a very difficult matter to accomplish ; an opinion I am by no
means inclined to acquiesce in, for I am disposed to maintain that they are
as easily reared as chickens, as may be seen in the sequel. When a tur-
key-hen is seen disposed to lay, a nest should be made for her in the hatch-
ing-house. It may consist of the same materials as the hen's nest, but, -^
(419j
228 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
course, of a larger size to suit the bird. A box or basket is an excellent
thing, with every corner filled up. When once the turkey-hen lays an egg,
and a nest-egg is placed in the nest, she will use it regularly every time
she requires it, which will be once in about 30 hours. As the eggs are laid,
they should be removed and placed gently in a basket in the house, in a
dry place, and turned with caution every day. When she has done laying,
which may not be till she has laid 12 or 13 or even 15 eggs, she will be
disposed to sit, when the eggs should be placed under her, to the number
of 11 or 13, the former number being the most certain of succeeding, as a
turkey cannot cover a greater number of her own eggs than a hen can of
hers; and a brood of 10 poults is an excellent hatching. Corn and water
should be placed near the nest ; but the turkey need not be confined with-
in the apartment she occupies, though she is not disposed to wander, nor
is she jealous of another one sitting in the same apartment with her. A
turkey sits 4 weeks, and is proverbially a close sitter. During the incu-
bation her food and water should be supplied to her fresh and clean daily,
and all dung and dirt removed fiom her every two or three days. When
the poults are expected to make their appearance, the turkey should be fre-
quently looked at, but not disturbed until all the creatures are fairly hatch-
ed. It is, I believe, a common practice to put a peppercorn down the
throat of every poult a very short time after it is hatched. How this prac-
tice originated I cannot say ; but as turkeys, when at liberty, have a great
relish for ants, and seem to possess an instinctive faculty in discovering
their hills, it is possible that the peppercorn may operate as a substitute
for the ant. It is known that ants yield a peculiar acid c^Wed formic acid ;
and it is not improbable that the pungency of the peppercorn may act as
stimulant on the stomach in the same manner as the acid in ants. Dr.
Thomson, in speaking of the origin of the formic acid, says that " it is se-
creted by the Formica riifa or red ant, and is the liquid that renders the
bites of these insects so painful. It was first publicly noticed by Mr, Ray
in the year 1670. . . . Mr. Fisher had stated to Mr. Ray several years be-
fore, that ' if you stir a heap of ants so as to rouse them, they will let fall on
the instiiiment you use a liquid which, if you presently smell, will twinge
the nose like newly-distilled oil of vitrol.' Mr. Fisher farther stated that
' when ants are distilled by themselves or with water, they yield a spirit
like spirit of vinegar, or rather like spirit of viride ceris. It dissolves iron
and lead. When you put the animals into water, you must stir them
lo make them angry, and then they will spit out their acid juice.' Mar-
graaf obtained this acid in 1749, by distilling ants mixed with water and
rectifying the liquid that came over. The acid obtained had a sour taste
and smell."* While considering this acid, I may say a kw words on the
constitution of pepper. " Piper nigrum is the name of the plant which
produces common pepper. It is a shrub which grows in India. The seeds
are hemes, round, hanl, having an aromatic smell and a ?iot acrid taste.
These hemes constitute pepper. The unripe berries are the common
black pepper ; while the ripe berries, deprived of their epidermis, consti-
tute white pepper. . . . In 1821 M. Pelletier published an elaborate ex-
amination of pepper. He showed that it contained the following constit-
uents :
Piperin. Malic and tartaric acids.
A nolid, very orriil oil. Starch.
A bal»ainic voljitile oil Bassorin.
A gunimy-colorcd matter. Lignin.
Extract BJinilar to that obtained Eartliy and alkaline salts
from leguminous seeds. in small quantities.
* Thomson's Chemistry of Animal Bodies.
(480)
THE HATCHING OF FOWLS. 229
M. Pelletier showed that piperin did not possess alkaline characters, as
Oestedt had supposed, but that it was a peculiar principle. He found, too,
that pepper owed its 'peculiar ^as^^e to a volatile oil. This I had shown many
years before," adds Dr. Thomson.* From this account of it, it is not im-
probable that the solid and very acrid oil in the pepper may operate on
turkeys in a similar manner to the formic acid in ants ; and this may form
an excuse for an old practice for which a sufficient reason cannot be given
by those who follow it. After the peppercorn is given, and it may be
given or not at the person who has charge may choose, the poults get a
drink of water, and are returned into the warm nest, where the mother re-
ceives them with characteristic fondness. But before leaving the turkey
for that night, the box or basket in which the nest is formed should be ta-
ken away, and the nest brought down upon the floor, with a sloping face
toward the floor to enable the young poults to gain the nest. For 24 hours
the poults will eat nothing, though the turkey herself should be provided
with corn or potatoes and water. Next morning the young creatures will
be quite astir and ready to eat food, which should now be given them. It
should consist solely of hard-boiled eggs, yolks and white shredded doion very
small, and put on a flat plate or small square board. In one respect turkey-
poults differ in their nature from chickens, inasmuch as they are more apt
to purge for about the first fortnight of their existence, and when purging
does overtake them it is difficult of cure, and indeed generally proves fatal ;
but hard-boiled eggs, forming an astringent and nourishing food, entirely
prevent purging, and are better for them than some other things I have
seen tried. For instance, for the sake of experiment, hard-made oatmeal-
porridge was given instead of hard-boiled eggs, and in a short time two
poults took the flux and died, the rest having been saved by a return to
the egg. With G^g, not a single death has occurred among one to two
hatchings every year for upward of 20 years, and that is surely sufficient
experience to justify the recommendation of any practice. Let the poults
be visited every 3 or 4 hours, supplied with hard-boiled egg and clean
water. Let their food be removed after the poults are served, otherwise
the turkey -hen will devour it, for she is a keen feeder, and not so disinter-
ested a bird as a hen. Let them remain 2 nights and a day in the house,
and after that let them go into the open air and enjoy the sun and warmth,
of which, it is hoped, there will be a plenty in the month of May. In wet
weather, however, they should either be confined to their house, or allow-
ed to go into a shed. When the birds become strong and active, in the
course of a few days let the turkey be placed in a coop on the green to
curb her wandering propensity, until the poults can follow her, which they
will be able to do after they have partaken of the hard-boiled egg for a
fortnight. Their meat can be put down on a plate on the green beyond
the reach of the coop, and where the poults can help themselves, while the
food of the turkey is placed within re.ach of the coop, consisting of corn,
and potatoes, and water. After the feathers in the tails and wings of the
poults are beginning to sprout, the egg may be gradually withdrawn, and
hard-boiled picks of porridge, with a little sweet milk in the dish, to facili-
tate the swallowing of the porridge, should be given them at least 4 or 5
times a day at stated hours, and will make wholesome food, until the mother
can provide insects and other natural food for them, which will form a de-
sirable variety with the food given them, and then they will thrive apace,
and grow amazingly fast as the weather becomes warm. Should the grass
be damp, let the coop be placed on the gravel of the road or walk, as damp-
nesses injurious to all young birds of the gallinaceous tribe. After the egg
* Thomson's Chemistry of Vegetables
(421)
230 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
the poults are fond of a little shredded cress and mustard, and when at full
liberty, they will pick the leaves of nettles with avidity. These predilections
for ants, cress, and nettles, show that turkeys enjoy stimulating condiments
with their food.
(1931.) Turkeys are sometimes extraordinary layers. One season a hen-
turkey of my own, after bringing up 11 poults till they were 8 weeks old,
made a nest" in the middle of a large bush of nettles at the edge of a young
plantation which she visited, and contrived to slip away unnoticed from
her brood to lay an e<^g in evert/ daij. The nest was soon discovered, the
egg taken away every day as it was laid, and a nest-egg left in it, and thus
she continued to visit it daily until she had laid the extraordinaiy number
of 90 eggs. The consequence of this oviparous fecundity was, that the
turkey did not moult till the depth of winter, and the moulting was so very
bare that she had to be confined to the house ; and whether the catastro-
phe which befell her before spring was owing to the severity of the late
moulting I do not know, but an inflammation and a consequent swelling
seized one of her eyes, and she was deprived of its sight. By spiing, how-
ever, she recovered from the moulting, was furnished with a complete set
of new feathers, the wound on the eye healed, but somehow she died in a
very short time after. Turkey-hens are most watchful protectors of their
young, and are particularly wary of birds of prey, which, whenever ob-
served, even at the greatest hight in the air, they will utter a peculiar
cry, and every poult will instantly hide itself among the longest grass and
other plants within reach. There is another peculiarity in regard to the
turkey-hen ; one impregnation from the cock fecundates all the eggs of
the ovarium ; and on account of this property, I am told it is not uncom-
mon in spring in Ireland to see people carrying about a turkey-cock and
offering his services at farmsteads as those of a stallion are proffered. It
is perhaps owing to this peculiar constitutional habit of the turkey that
makes the cock so regardless of his own progeny ; and, indeed, the hen
voluntarily shuns his attention when in charge of her brood. The brood
goes with her for an indefinite length of time.
(1932.) In regard to geese, they make early preparation for incubation.
There are couplets in existence indicative of the period of commencement
of their laying, namely,
" By Candlemas day. , , "By St. Valenlinc's day,
Good goose will lay." ' Good and bad goose will lay."
Geese, however, seldom lay in Scotland till the end of February. The
goose and gander cannot embrace but in water, and if the pond which
they frequent be covered with ice, it should be broken to allow them
to get to the water, and every egg requires a separate impregnation. An
attentive observer will know when a goose is desirous of laying, by her
picking among straws and placing one on this side and one on that of her,
as if making a nest. ^Vhenever this is noticed, or an embrace on the wa-
ter, a nest should be made for the goose to lay in in the hatching-house,
and to which she should have easy access, for she cannot jump up with the
nimbleness of either a hen or a turkey, though her nest may be made in a
box or basket, in the same manner as that of the hen, but of a size to suit
the bird intended to occupy it. It is not proper to confine a goose a long
time before laying her first egg ; but when symptoms of being with egg
are observed, she should be caught in the morning, when let out, and the
lower portion of the soft part of the abdomen felt, where the c^rg may be
easily ascertained to be in a state or not, for being immediately laid, and if
it feel hard, the goose should be shown her nest and confined to it until she
(422)
1
THE HATCHING OF FOWLS. 231
lays in the course of the day, after which she is of course let out, the eo-g
taken away and kept dry in a basket, and turned every day, until the whole
are placed under her. Every other day after this the goose will visit her
nest and lay an egg, and the number she may lay will seldom exceed 12,
though 18 have been known to be laid ; so, by the time she is done laying,
it will be about the end of March. There is, however, considerable differ-
ence in this respect with geese, on some farms they being considerably
earlier in hatching than on others. This may arise from the nature of the
soil, for it is probable that a dry, sharp, early soil for grass and grain, will
also early promote the functions of the animals that live upon it. After the
goose has finished laying her eggs she will incline to sit, and then is the
time for her to receive the eggs ; and the best time for placing her upon
them in the nest, as I have said before, is in the evening, that, by the arri-
val of the morning, the nest being warm and comfortable, the goose will
have no inducement to leave it. The number of eggs given to be hatched
should be 11, which is as many as a goose can conveniently and easily cover.
The goose plucks the down off her body to furnish her nest with the means
of its increasing its heat ; and one great use of the down is, that when she
leaves her nest at any time it serves the double purpose of retaining the
heat about the eggs and of preventing the external cold affecting them. A
little clean water and a few oats are put beside a goose when she is sit-
ting ; but she will eat very little food all the time of her incubation. A
feed of good oats, such as is given to a horse, will serve a sitting goose for
a month, yet this little handful! is actually grudged the goose, and instead
of good corn, only little better than chaff, the lightest corn that is blown
from the fanners, is only allowed by many farmers who consider themselves
very good managers. Some hen-wives will not allow the goose to go
abroad as long as she is sitting ; but this is an unnecessary constraint upon
her. Let her go off whenever she pleases, and there is no fear but that she
will return to her nest in time to retain the heat of the eggs ; for she
makes it a point to cover every egg with down before leaving the nest.
Most people will not allow her to go to the water at all, alleging that if
she return wet upon her eggs they will become addled, but this is a mis-
take. Let her go to the pond if she wills it, and wash herself in it, and,
depend upon it, she will not continue long there ; she will be cooled and
much refreshed by it. The feathers will not become wet ; it is not their
nature to become so ; and after such a relaxation, which she much enjoys,
she will sit the closer. Geese are liable to become costive while sitting,
and to counteract this tendency, they should be supplied now and then
with a little boiled potato in a dry state, which they will relish much, and
feel much the better for ; and, indeed, every fowl, while sitting, should re-
ceive a little of this useful succedaneum at that peculiar juncture. The
gander usually takes up with one mate, but if there are only two geese,
he will pay attention to both ; and his regard for his mate is so strong that
he will remain at the door of the hatching-house like a watch-dog, guard-
ing her from every danger, and ready to attack all and sundry who ap-
proach her sanctuary. At the end of a calendar month the eggs may be ex-
pected to be hatched ; and during this process the goose should be left
undisturbed, but not unobserved. After the goslings are all fairly out of
the shell, and before they are even dry, they may be taken in a basket with
straw to a sheltered dry spot in a grass-field, the goose carried by the
wings, and the gander will follow the goslings' soft whistle. Here they
may remain for an hour or two, provided the sun shines, for in sunshine
goslings will pick up more strength in one hour than all the brooding they
can receive even from their mother for a day. The goose \^all rest on the
(423J
232 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
grass, the goslings will endeavor to balance themselves on their feet to
pluck it, and the gander will proudly protect the whole. Water should
be placed beside them to drink. Should the sky overcast, and rain likely
to fall, tlie goslings should be collected, and they and goose carried instant-
ly to their nest ; for if goslings get their backs wetted with rain or snow
in the first two days of their existence, they will lose the use of their legs,
never recover their strength, and inevitably die. Should the weather be
wet, a sod of good grass should be cut and placed within their house, with
a shallow plate of water. In setting down a common plate to goslings, it
should be prevented tVom upsetting, as they are apt to put their foot upon
its edge, and spill the water. After two days' strength, and especially in
sunny weather, the goslings may venture to the pond to swim ; but the
horse-pond is a rather dangerous place for them as yet, so many creatures
frequenting it. Some water, or a pond, in a grass-field, would be a better
place for them. For the first two or three days after goslings go about,
they should be particularly observed, for should they in that time happen
to fall upon their backs, or even into a hardened hoof-print of a horse, they
cannot recover their legs, will be deserted by their dam and the rest of the
flock, and will perish. After three or fmwwlays, however, in dry sunny
weather, and on good grass, they will beo^ifce strong, grow fast, and be
past all danger. It is surprising how rapidly a young gosling gi'ows in the
first month of its life. After that time they begin to tire of gi-ass, and go
in search of other food ; and this is the time to supply them daily with a
few good oats, if you wish to have a flock of fine birds by Michaelmas ;
any other grain will answer the purpose, as rice and Indian corn, let it be
but com, though oats are their favorite food. Even ordinary light com will
be better for them than none ; and if they get corn only till harvest, they
will have passed the most gi-owing period of their life, and will then be
able to shift for themselves, first in the stack-yard and afterward in the
stubbles. The sex of the gosling may easily be ascertained after the feath-
ers begin to sprout, the ganders being white, and strong in the leg, head,
and neck ; the geese are gray and gentler-looking. Goslings go with their
parents for an indefinite length of time.
(1033.) Geese are in general close sitters; but sometimes they become
so capricious as to forsake some of their eggs after a number of them have
been hatched. An instance of this sort of desertion I have witnessed. A
goose after hatching 5 goslings, deserted her nest and would no longer sit
on the other 6 eggs to bring them out, though one of them was chipped.
Fearing that the deserted eggs would perish from cold, my housekeeper
— who took the charge of all the poultry, cows, and calves, besides the
duties of the house — brought the eggs into the house, put them in a basket
among flannel and wool, caused the oven to be gently heated, placed the
basket with the eggs in the oven, and continued the heat in it night and
day until all the goslings were hatched, which they were one by one, ex-
cepting one in which the bird had died. The young creatures" occupied
some days in leavine: their eggs, and longer than they would have done
under the goose. They were carefully attended to and were taken out to
the grass in the best part of the day, kept warm in the house at night, and,
when the weather was such that they could not get out, a gi-ass-sod was
brought to them into the house. The goose refused to take her ov.n broken
brood when offered to her, after they had gained sufficient strength to go
about; and this being the case, they were brought up without her aid, and
became as strong birds as those of her own out-brintrino-. I consider this a
remarkable instance of the resources of a ready mind, and of disregard of
personal trouble ; and it is an encouraging example of perseverance in an
(424)
THE HATCHING OF FOWLS. 233
attempt to preserve the lives of useful annimals under very inauspicious and
even provoking circumstances.
(1934.) Ducks begin to lay eggs early in the season, as early as Febru-
ary, so it is possible to obtain an early hatching of ducklings, if desired ;
but early ducklings are not desii-able, for, during that unnatural period for
them, they do not acquire much flesh, even with the utmost care; their
bills and bones grow disproportionately large, and altogether the experi-
ment does not succeed. It is early enough to set duck-eggs in Scotland
by May, and by April in England. It is customary to place duck-eggs*
under hens, owing I believe, to the great difficulty of making a duck take
to a nest which she has not herself made. Hens make pretty good foster-
mothers to ducklings, though in becoming so, the task is imposed upon
them of a week's longer sitting than is natural to them, and, after all, the
natural plan is for ducks to bring out their own kind ; and there is no
doubt that when a duck does choose a nest for herself, lines it with her
own down, and brings out a brood, the ducklings are better than any
reared under the auspices of a hen ; the instinct of the duck being more
congenial to ducklings in leading them to places in search of food peculiar
to their tastes, as well upon land as upon water. Still the entire production
of ducklings on a farm should not be left to the chance of ducks setting
themselves on eggs, for they are proverbially careless of whei-e they deposit
their eggs, and on that account hens must be employed to hatch at least a
few broods.
(1935.) As in the case of her own eggs, a hen can only cover 11 duck-
eggs with ease, and, of course, she requires the same treatment when sit-
ting on them as she receives with her own eggs. A calendar month is re-
quired to bring out ducklings ; and the hen should be left undisturbed un-
till all the brood comes out. Ducklings should be kept from water for a
couple of days, until their navel-string is healed ; and the food which they
receive should be of a soft nature, quite the opposite of that given to turkey-
poults, such as bits of oatmeal porridge, boiled potatoes, bread steeped in
water, barley-meal brose, and clean water to drink in a flat dish in which
they cannot swim. On this treatment, 3 or 4 times at least every day, they
will thrive apace, and become soon fledged in the body, when they are fit
for use ; but their quill-feathers do not appear for some time after. In
this state wild ducklings, under the name oi Jlaffers, make good sport,
and are an excellent dish with green peas, when stuffed with onion and
sage shred small, and a little pepper and salt among them, and roast-
ed, and served up in a hot sauce of Port wine seasoned with pepper and
mace.
(1936.) A great number of ducklings are bred and reared every year at
Aylesbury in Buckinghamshire, for the London market, by people of the
poorer class. The eggs are hatched by hens, and 3 or 4 broods are put
together into one division ; while other divisions contain them in a different
state of growth, some half grown, others full fledged, and all are fed alike.
In this way one person has 300 or 400 ducklings feeding about his house,
and perhaps under the same roof with his own family. A great many are
housed in little space, and never allowed to go at large ; but are permitted
to wash themselves every day in a pond made on purpose near the house.
They are fed three times a day on potatoes, barley-meal, bran, greaves,
&c., and receive as much as they can eat ; and it is said that they can eat
an incredible quantity of food while thus forced for the market. When
full-feathered they are sent to London, where they find a ready sale, at
from 6s. 6d. to 8s. a pair. As the season advances, prices fall, till they
reach 3s. a pair, when the breeding is given up for the season. These pec*
234 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
pie allege that they are not remunerated for their trouble even at the high-
est prices.
(1937.) Pea-hens, in their hatching, cannot be subjected to control. The
hen selects a secluded spot for her nest, not unlikely in the garden,
where 8he feels herself secure from the attentions of the cock, whom she
seems to avoid at this season, with marked assiduity. She takes care that
he shall not know, not only where her nest is, but when the pea-fowls come
out, because, as is alleged, the cock would destroy them. A pea-hen in
this country seldom brings out more than 3 or 4 birds, though usually
laying 5 eggs ; and these she tends with great care, taking them to places
where wild food can be found in greatest abundance, such as insects of
various kinds and in diflerent states, and grain, while they are fed as young
turkeys ; and she continues her attentions to them for the greater part of
the year.
(1938.) Pigeons, when their dove-cot is favorably situated for heat, be-
gin to lay in February, and will continue to do so until December. They
make their own nests, which are of the simplest and rudest construction,
and, indeed, the same nest will be used by the same pair season after sea-
son, eveh after it has been much elevated with dung. A fine nest is not
required by pigeons, which only laying 2 eggs at a time, one of each sex,
the hen can easily cover them ; and to secure them still more, she pushes
them below her with her bill, among the feathers, to keep them warm. A
supply of young pigeons might be found at the farmer's table all summer.
To vai-y their cookery, they can be stewed, roasted, broiled, and made in-
to pies, one and all of which, when properly seasoned with pepper, salt,
onions shred small, and butter, makes a savory appendent to any dinner.
While touching on cookery, I may remark, in regard to other poultiy, that
a young chicken roasted or broiled, when in perfection, at 14 weeks old —
a young cock especially, or boiled — a young hen being the more delicate
— with a slice of ham, is a standing delicacy at a farmer's table. Duck-
lings and green peas are seen for a short season in the early part of sum-
mer, but a roast duck may be had all autumn and the early part of winter.
Turkey-poults are never indulged in by the Scottish farmer, probably from
the idea that they have too little flesh upon them, and are too similar to
boiled chickens ; and as chickens are more plentiful, and can be used with
less scruple, the poults are spared until they attain full size. Young geese
are never seen at a Scottish farmer's table, though a stubble-goose at
Michaelmas seems to be prized in' England. With regard to the means of
supplying young fowls on a farm, 2 turkey-hens and 2 geese will rear as
many turkeys and geese as will be required by a large family ; 3 or 4 broods
of ducks will suffice ; a brood or broods of chickens may be brought out
from March to November; and as to pigeons, it is the farmer's own fault if
he has not a supply of them from March to December. Those who do not
care for the flesh of fowls may send their poultry to market ; and those who
breed for the market should provide a person well versed in rearing poultry
to undertake the duty.
(1939.) With regard to the feeding of fowls in summer, boiled potatoes
and hard-made oatmeal porridge should be their staple food ; and so fond
are all sorts of birds of potatoes, that there should some pains be taken by
farmers to preserve a lew of the best of them over the summer, for the
express purpose of feeding poultry. I have described a plan of keeping
them over a year in a former paragraph (1871). Food, when distributed
for poultry, should not be laid down in a large heap in one place, when
birds of different natures partake of it, and are therefore almost certain of
quarreling and fignting ; but it should be scattered thinly along a bare
1426)
THE HATCHING OF FOWLS. 235
piece of ground, or, what is better, upon grass, which keeps it clean, and
from which it can easily be picked up, but it should not be laid among straw,
as it is easily lost sight of among it. As different sorts of birds have different
habits, and frequent different places, the food should be scattered for each
kind as near their usual habitats as their natures indicate, and which the
person who has charge of the matter can devise — scattering some near
water for geese and ducks, upon the margin of grass on the side of the road
near the steading, for hens, and at a more retired place, though still upon
grass, for the turkeys ; and the food should be thus be laid down for the
different sorts of fowls at a fixed hour of morning and afternoon. Cleanli-
ness, attention, regularity, and good food, constitute the grand secret of
reaiing poultry to the highest perfection.
(1940.) AVhat I have described of hatching the different sorts of fowls
usually reared, is suitable to every sort of fai'm, and may be acquired by
any domestic of the farm-house : and that it is a practicable scheme my
own experience has demonstrated. Other schemes are recommended in
books, and large establishments, consisting of buildings and ponds, and
spare ground, are erected in the parks and farm-courts of country gentle-
men; but let any other plan be what it may, and the erections and other
appliances of whatever magnitude, there is none, I feel confident, will af-
ford poultry at all times in a higher degree of perfection than the simple
one 1 have been describing, and recommending for your adoption — and
experience is the true test to which every plan should be subjected. I do
not hold it out as a peculiarly cheap plan, that is, that it will supply good
poultry for the table at little or no cost, though that is the idea of cheapness
entertained by farmers, when they condescend to cast a thought on the
poultry of their farms. I will not say, because I do not believe it, that fowls
can be reared for nothing, or upon the refuse of the products of a farm ;
because, when I see that it requires the best oats, the best turnips, and the
best grass that a farm can raise, to rear such horses, cattle, and sheep, as
purchasers desire to have, I cannot believe that the best poultry can be
reared but on the best sort of food suited for them ; but this I will say for
the plan as a practicable one for an ordinary farm, that it requires no costly
buildings, and that it will assuredly yield poultry in good condition at all
times in return for the food and trouble bestowed upon them, and what
more can any reasonable farmer desire 1
(1941.) Fowls are kept in towns in places quite unsuited to their habits ; most frequently in a
small court, surrounded by a high rail, except on the side in which the hen-house is situated ;
and this consists of a flattishroofed outhouse, pervious to rain and redolent of moisture — a condi-
tion the very worst for fowls. The floor of the court is generally covered with dirt, and the
small vessel which is intended to contain water is as often dry as plenished with clean water,
while the food is thrown upon the dirty court-floor. Add to these sources of discomfort, the sun,
probably, never shines upon the town hen-house, or only for a few minutes in the afternoon, when
the fowls are about to retire to roost. Ducks are treated in even a less ceremonious manner than
hens ; having no water, their feathers become begrimed with dirt, and their food is given them
in a state little else than a puddle. It is, of course, impossible that fowls can thrive in such cir-
cumstances, and, indeed, a sight of the poor creatures excites nothing but commiseration for their
fate. What can induce people to keep animals in such a state of filth and suffering is what I
cannot conceive. One cause of suffering to hens in such situations is tiie want of sand or gravel
to assist the trituration of food in the stomach. It is found that gallinaceous birds require a sup-
ply of quartzy substances, and these they find on any farm, as also calcareous matter, such as
lime, to assist in the formation of the shell of the egg, without which hens will lay what are
called ivind eggs, that is, eggs without a hardened sheW. In the case of the fowls on board a cer-
tain East Indiaman getting unwell in their coops, notwithstanding the attention daily bestowed,
and the good food allowed them, it was discovered by the surgeon, on dissection of some of the
birds which had died, that the cause of death was the want of gravel to assist the digestion of
food. A supply of stones to beat down small was obtained at a convenient port, and the fowls
became healthy and continued bo afterward. Another source of suffering of a similar nature to
hens, is the want of dust to flutter among their feathers in order to destroy the vermin that annoy
their skin ; and the want of water for the ducks to wash in and clean themselves.
(1942.) With the diseases of chickens or other young fowls, such as the pip or chip, I am not
acquainted, not having seen any such disease after an experience of many years in rearing every .
(427)
236 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
species of fowl that is found on a farm, and, of coarxe, I am inclined to maintain that, were others
to follow a similar fourse to the one I have so succcHsfully pursued, tliry would have e(|iiu! suc-
cess, and wiii)c'8.s an few diveuKos among their poultry as I have. 1 am corroborated by a writer
on the rearinir of doniosiic poultry, whose experience I know is considerable — whose attention
I am sure ix unreniitlinx — and whose good sense is evident. " Of the diseases to which poultry
are liable we are |)ructicully ignorant," says the writer, a lady of my acquaintance, " having been
for many years here so fortunate as to experience few or no instances of disease among our
stock ; and" we attribute the health of our various animals in the farm-yard entirely to strict at-
tention to ciraii/iiit's.i. diet, find rational treatment. Those who listen to advice of the ignorant
and the projudiced. nay, tln-v who seek from books remedies for disorders which may appear
among their live-.stock.'will have to contend with monstrous absurdities, excessive ignorance,
and barbarous cruelty, in the quackeries recommended. Nature will generally effect a cure, if
her efforts are secoti'ded by simple means on our own part. Calomel, sulphur, rue, pepper, and
gin, are all absurdities, though all recomnicnde<l for the ailments of poultrj-." Another writer
thus expresses himself on the same subject : ' With regard to medical treatment applied to the
diseases of jiouliry, but little regarding its efficacy is known. The no.strums and mode of treat-
ment adopted throughout the country, together with the greater jjart that has been written upon
the subject, is a farrago of nonsense and absurdity. If shelter, irarmth. food, and chdnliiiat,
conpen'ial to their hal/its. will not preserve them in health, but little reliance can be placed upon
medicine. Most good wives, however possess an insatiable itching to bo considered skillful doc-
tors. From among some thousand birds that have come under my observation. / never cnvld
discm'er that common and universal disease called the 'pip.' Yet show any farmer's wife a
sicklv chicken, and she immediately opens its mouth, and with her needle tears oH' the cartilage
from'tlie under part of the bird's tongue, to show it is afflicted with it ! When will the light of
knowledge banish these absurdities?"* The former writer, however, alludes to an ailment
among chickens which I have never seen, arising, it would appear, from their being hatched at a
particular period of the year. After adverting to the tender state of chickens superinduced by
both early and late hatching, the writer particularizes the period of the year when the disease
alluded to makes its appearance : " There is yet another time, during which it is absolutcli/ in-
dispensable tluit hens bepreventcdfrom silting, and that is the month of June. Close observation
(after having suffered at that season numerous failures most unaccountably) enabled us to dis-
cover the cause, and thereby verify the truth of an old saying, which we have since met with —
'Between the sickle and the ecyihe.
What you rear will seldom thrive.'
We had noticed that chickens which were hatched during the month of July were almost all at-
tacked about the time of their first moulting (a period always attended with much suffering to
them) with a fatal disorder, the symptoms of which are unvarying. The chickens appeared to
collapse, arid moved about with difficulty, as If their joints were stiffened, or rather as if the skin
had become tight and tender ; their feathers became rough and stood out ; their wings drooped
and dragged on the ground ; they refused sustenance ; and becoming more and more weak and
torpid, they in a day or two, died off in great numbers. Every rational means was resorted to
in order to arrest, or even account for the disorder; at length it was discovered that they were
In a high state of fever, and that the extreme redness of the skin was caused by the irritation of
hundreds of that minute pest the harvest bug. Some — verj' few — were recovered by anointing
them all over with oil and vinegar (which is also the best, nay the only remedy for the annoyance
which human beings experience from the same source) ; but the receipt is too rough for little
delicate creatures already enduring the pain attendant on the season of moulting. It oecame ob-
vious that the period during which harvest-bugs are most numerous and tormenting must be in-
imical to the rearing of chickens; and that if hens were not allowed to sit in June, or rather, if
the chickens were either strong enough to cope with the evil, or were not hatched until the sea-
son for the pest had passed by, the destruction might be prevented, and so it has proved." t
(1943.) On considering the hatching of fowls, the mind is naturally led to the curious artificial
system of hatching which the ancient Egj'ptians practiced, and which afforded them an immense-
supply of poultry every year. It is unnecessary to detail the ancient mode of hatching, as it is
unsuited to this country, our climate being much too unsteady for the purpose; but particular
accounts of it may be Ibund detailed by authors.^ The modern Egyptians still practice the sys-
tem, and i'.s the results exhibit some extraordinary facts, I am tempted to give the following ac-
count of it from Mr. Mowbray. '• Sicard," he says, " gives an idea of the immense quantities of
chickens hatched in his time in Egypt. The number of ovens for hatching tlie eggs, dispersed in
the several cantons of the country, was no less than 386. The business seems to be monopolized
by the Agas or Government, and therefore cannot be varied in extent but by their permission.
Each manial or oven has one managing Bermean, a native of the village of Berme in the Delta,
by whom the art of managing it has been retained, and is taught to his children. These man-
agers cannot absent tliemselves from duty but with leave obtained from the Aga of Berme, never
obtained but at the ext)eiisc of fi to 10 crowns. The Aga constantly keeps a register of these
fees, which to him is a sort of rent roll. The above number of ovens is kept at work in Egypt
annually during 4 to ti niouihs. allowing more time than is necessary to ha ch 8 successive broods
of chickens, ducks, and turkeys, making in the whole, yearly, 3*088 broods. The number in
each hatchine is not always equal, from the occasional difhculty of obtaining a sufficient number
of eggs, which may be slated at a medium between the two extremes of 40,000 and 80,000 to
each oven. The Bermean contracts to return, in a living brood to his employer. § of the num-
ber of eggs set in the oven— all above being his own perquisite in addition to his salary for the
season, which is 30 to 40 crowns, exclusive of his board. According to report, the crop of potil-
* Bucknelfe Eccaleobion. ♦ QuHrterly Journal of .Agriculture, vol. viil.
t Wilkinson's Manners and Cuitomi of the Ancient Egyptians, vol. i., New Series.
(428)
THE HATCHING OF FOWLS. 237
thus artificially raised in Egypt was seldom or never below that ratio, making the enormous
dual amount of S^.GJO.OOO. It is obvious that the apparent grand difficulty of obtaining a suffi-
try 1
annii _ . _ .
cient number of eggs must subsist chiefly or entirely in the infancy of such' an undertaking, and
that its progress must infinitely extend that supply, as has been the case in Egypt, where the
breeding siock has been so multiplied, and where, in consequsnce, the commodity is so cheap
from its superabundance, that in the time of Sicard 1,000 eggs were sold for 30 or 40 medims,
making 3s. or 4s. English money. Indeed, the chickens were not sold from the stores by tale
but by measure ; according to Reaumur, by the bushel ! And it appears from travelers of the
present day. to be the custom in Egypt to purchase chickens by the basketfull." * M. Reaumur,
undor the French Academy, instituted experiments to prove that eggs could be hatched in
France as well as in Egypt ; but it was soon discovered that the two countries were placed in
diflercul circumstances in regard to climate, and the project was abandoned as being impractica-
ble. Plans of artificial hatching were tried with better success by M. Bonnemain, by a system
of supplying heat from hot water in pipes; but the French-Revolution put an end to the experi-
ment. It is worth observing, in passing, how strange it is to hear of the circulation of hot water
in pipes, as a steady source of heat, recommended at the present day as a novelty. \ To supply
the inhabitants of Great Britain and Ireland with fowls as the Egyptians are, namely, at the rate
of 4t) 1-5 fowls to each person every year, the number that would require to be hatched in the
rolaiive proportions of the two countries, would be 1,109,000,000 of fowls !
(lf)44.) A remarkable machine, exhibited in London some years ago, which I saw in the sum-
mer of 1839. was said to have attained the power of supplying the requisite degree of tempera-
ture for hatching for any length of time. It was the invention of Mr. William Bucknell, and
named the Eccaleobion, derived from two Greek words meaning " I give forth life." " Rationally
to hope for success in the artificial hatching of eggs," says Mr. Bucknell, "it becomes nece.ssary
to be in possession of a power completely to control temperature, independent of climate, seasons,
or changes in the atmosphere, and also uninfluenced by them. These invaluable properties the
Eccaleobion possesses, in a perfect and absolute command over temperature, from 300-^ Fahr. to
that of cold water; so that any substance submitted to its influence shall uniformly be acted upon
over its whole surface, at any required intermediate degree within the above range, and such
heat maintained unaltered, without trouble and difficulty, for any length of time. By means,
then, of this absolute and complete control over temperature, obtained by this machine, the im-
pregnated egg of any bird, not stale, placed within its influence at the proper degree of warmth
is. at the expiration of its natural time, elicited into life without the possibility of failure, which is
scmclimes the case with eggs subjected to the caprice of their natural parent." | Without at-
tempting to describe the machine, I may mention that it is capable of containing 2,000 eggs,
which are open to the sight through glazed doors, in different states of incubation, from the day
the egg is inserted into it, until the bird is seen to leave it in the act of being hatched. It may
be imcresiing, however, to relate a few of the facts regarding the condition of eggs in different
slates, as to their vitality, observed by Mr. Bucknell in his experience of the machine.
(1945.) Few eggs are worth the trial of hatching if more than a month old; their condition,
however, is greatly influenced by the season and the state of the weather. An egg retains its
freshness longest in moderately cool weather ; very hot weather destroys vitality in a few days ;
and an as.^ having been frozen is also worthless. Failures in hatching arise from want of im-
pregnation in the g^^ — from age, commonly called staleness, whereby life has become extinct —
from weakness of the vital energy of the eggs, produced by age, lowness of keep, or ill health of
the parent, in which ca.sc8 the chick partially develops itself, but dies before the full period of
incubation. Eggs may be brought to life, but unless the process of incubation be properly exe-
cuted, the birds will be weakly, ill-conditioned, and die in a short time afterward. To prevent
the yolk of weak eggs from settling by its specific gravity, and adhering to the shell, it is useful
to pa.ss the hand over them, so as to change their position every 24 hours. The q^^ of a strong,
healthy bird, at the time of its protrusion from the body, is completely filled with j'olk and albu-
men. If examined a few days after, by holding it toward the light, a small cell of air will be dis-
coverable at the larger end, which increases with the age of the egg. This waste of its internal
substance is occasioned by absorption of the atmosphere, through the pores of the shell, of the
more volatile parts of its contents. When the cell is large in aiiy egg, it is unfit for incubation ;
nevertheless, in a good c^s,, as incubation proceeds, this cell becomes considerable, produced
probably both from evaporation by heat and the vital action going on within the shell. It also
serves an important purpose in the economy of this mysterious process. An ess, will not hatch in
vacuo.
(1940.) The progressive series of phenomena daily ob.servable during the process of incubation,
in the egg of a common fowl, are curious and instructive. In an. impregnated egg, previous to
the commencement of incubation, a small spot is discernible upon the yolk, composed of a mem-
braneous sack containing fluid matter in which the embryo of the future chick swims. 1st Day :
At the expiration of 12 or 14 hours after incubation has commenced, the matter within the em-
bryo evidently bears a resemblance to a head— vesicles assume the shape of the vertebral bones
or the back. 2d Day : In 39 hours the eyes make their appearance — vessels joined together indi-
cate the navel— the brain, spinal marrow, rudiments of the wings, and principal muscles— the
heart is evidently proceeding. 3d Day : At its commencement the beating of the heart is visible
—some hours after, two vesicles containing blood appear, one forming the left ventricle and the
other the great artery— the auricle of the heart is next seen, and pulsation is evident. 4th Day :
\V ings a.s.sume a defined form— the brain, the beak, the front and hind parts of the head visible.
5th Day: Liver seen — circulation of the blood evident. 6th Day: Lungs and stomach distin-
' Mowbray'9 Practical Treatise on Domestic Poultry.
\ \'!^'\ I^'Pfi on»ry of the Arts and Manufactures, art. Incuhatinn, Artifieial.
I Bucknell a LccHleobion.
(429)
23S THE BOOK OF THE FARM SPRING.
griishable — full gush of blood from the heart distinct. 7th Day : IntestineH, veins, and upper man-
dible visible — braiu becomes coiiHiHlent. 8th Day : Beak opens — formation of flesh on the breast
9th Day : Ribs formed— gallbladder perceptible. lOih Day: Bill funned— first voluntary mo-
tion of the chick seen. 11th Day : Skull becomes cartilaginous — protrusion of feathers evident.
12th Day : Orbits of sight appear — ribs perfected. 13ili Day : Spleen in its pro[<cr jiosition in
the abdomen. HlhDay: Lungs inclo.sed within the breast. 15;h, I'jth, and 17tli Days : Mature
state approached — yolk of the egg still outside of the body. 18th Day : Audible sign of life out-
side the shell— piping of the chick heard. 19th. 20th and 2l8t Days : Increase of she and strength
— yolk inclosed within the body— chick liberates itself by repeated eflbrts made by the bill, sec-
onded by muscular exertion of the limbs.
(1947.) The embryo of the chick is not in everj- egg placed precisely in the same situation, bat
varies considerably. Generally it develops itself within the circumference of the broadest part
of the egg: sometimes it is found higher, sometimes lower; and when held before a strong light
has an appearance, when a few dajs old, somewhat resembling the meshes of a spider's web,
■with the spider in the center. As it increases in size, the bulk of the contents of the egg de-
creases, so that when the bird is completely matured, it has ample space to move, and to use its
limbs with sufficient eflect to insure its liberation. The position of the chick in the shell is snch
ti8 to occupy the least space. The head, which is large and heavy in proportion to the rest of the
body, is placed in front of the belly, with its beak under tlic right wing ; the feet are gathered up
likea bird dressed for the spit, yet, in this singular manner and apparently uncomfortable position,
the bird is by no means cramped or confined, but performs all the necessary motions and efforts
required forits liberation with the most perfect ease, and with that consummate skill which in-
stinct renders almost infallible. The chicken, when it breaks the shell, is heavier than the whole
egg was at first.
(1948.) " If chickens about 2 months old and upward," says Mr. Buckncll, " are turned in among
a brood of young birds that have no mother, they will sometimes take to brooding and tending
them with the delight of natural parents. The gratification being quite mutual, the young chicks
run after and strive with each other for their favors with the most untiring perseverance. Al-
though, probably, it is simply the pleasurable sensation derived from the genial warmth commu-
nicated by the young birds nestling under them which induces them to do it, it is nevertheless a
striking and highly interesting picture to witness these mimic mothers acting the part of foster
parents with so much apparent satisfaction, yet with the awkwardness with which a girl, in
similar circumstances, fondles her doll." I never witnessed such an instance of affectionate re-
gard, possibly because I never saw a brood of chickens deprived of their mother, but the senti-
ments conveyed in the following sentence I have frequently seen realized, and can testify to the
accuracy of observation and the correctness of the conclusions of Mr. Bucknell : •• There is no
difficulty," he says, " in teaching the young of the various tribes of gallinaceous fowl to eat and to
drink ; they perform these operations spontaneously, or from observation, as appetite prompts
them. Are not the facts of the extraordinarj' fecundity of these tribes, their requiring no assist-
ance in hatching, and their being self-instructed in the manner of taking their food, abundant evi-
dence that an All-wise Providence ordained these peculiarities expressly for man's advantage : as
in all those families of birds not so fitted for his use, they do not exist, and consequently cannot
be rendered by artificial means available for his benefit? Food is not necessary for the chick
until 12 or 24 hours after leaving the shell. Sickly and badly hatched birds seldom can be in-
duced to cat, and die from inanition. Birds but a few hours old recognize the person who feeds
them, and in a few days evince so many and such pleasing traits of confidence in her as their
protector and friend, following her steps, and clamorously repining at her absence, as must induce
m the most callous brea.st a delightful sensation of regard for their welfare."
(1949.) It is of some importance to farmers to have the question answered in a practical sense.
Whether the hatching and rearing of chickens is profitable ? Hear Mr. Bucknell's answer to this
question, as it affects artificial hatching: " Mr. Mowbray, in his standard work," says Mr. Buck-
nell, '• gives the con.sumption of food by birds in the highest state of condition as follows : ' By an
experiment made in July, 1806, a measured peck of good barley kept in a high style of condition
the following stock, confined, and having no other provision : 1 cock, 3 hens, 3 March chickens, 6
April and 6 May chickens, during 8 clear days, and one feed left.' Here, then, arc 19 birds, va-
rying in age from 2 months to their full size, consuming 1 peck of corn in 8 days, which, at Is.
per peck, gives a cost of 1| halfpenny per head, which, however, is considerably above the cost
of chickens for the first 8 weeks of their existence. But taking it at this high average, it gives an
expense of each bird of 9il. all but a fraction, for 14 weeks' keep, at which age they are in the
hichest perfection, being the most delicate and easy to digest of all other animal food. Where
they can enjoy the advantage of a good run, the expense would still be lessened perhaps J.
Now, what IS the price at a poulterer's, or in the London markets, of a fine fat chicken 14 weeks
old, or nearly its full size ? Never less than 28., and for 6 months in the year, or during the dear
season. 4s. or Cm. — which, adding to 9d. an additional 3d. for the value of tJte egg and extras, gives
the enormous profit of from 100 to .SOO per cent, dividend between the trader, the middleman and
the retailer. It need not be wondered at that such is the case, nor can it be otherwise while tht
present system coniinnos. A poulterer whose sale is not more than 10 dozen per week, must
kec() a man and a horse and cart, and attend the difTeront markets for his purchases. All these
things, with incidental expenses, will amount at least to 2 guineas per week, which 2 guineas
must be spread over the 10 dozen birds before he derives any profit for himself. Upon any artifi-
cial system, these expenses would be saved, and the 2 guineas thus thrown away would keep
1.000 birds, averaging all ages,' 1 whole week. Buildings and machinery, and other necessary
apparatus being provided, no objection exists as to the expenses of hatching. An Eccaleobion
machine might be constructed, only requiring regulation once in 24 hours, capable of hatching
throughout the year 10.000 eggs per month, (a week beini; allowed for removing and re-fitlingT)
while the co.-t ibr hatching during the month would probably be } caldron of "coke at £\ per
caldron, which would be the 1 20 part of 1 fanhing per bird. The expense for artificial warmth
1430)
THE HATCHING OF FOWLS. 239
daring the time the birds might require it, would be somewhat more — perhaps 1 farthing per
bird." *
" there are a few, however, which I could not with propriety introduce here, as they do not take
np their abode and breed in us. which nevertheless annoy us considerably. One of these is a
hexapod so minute that, were it not for the uncommon brilliancy of its color, which is the most
vivid crimson that can be conceived, it would be quite invisible. It is known by the name of the
harvest-bug (Acarus antumnaHs, Shaw), and is so called, 1 imagine, from its attacking the legs
of laborers employed in the harvest, in the flesh of which it buries itself at the roots of "the hairs,
producing intolerable itching, attended by inflammation and considerable tumors, and sometimes
even occasioning fevers." t
(1951.) In regard to the original formation of feathers in the chick of a bird, M. Raspail has the
following observations : " If we examine," he says, "the epidermis of a sparrotr, a.s it comes
from the egg, we shall find that we can isolate each of the small bottles, which the vesicles that
form the rudiments of hairs assume the shape of, as well as the nerve of which it seems to be the
terminal development. It might almost be supposed that the object viewed was the eye of a
mollusca, with its long optic nerve. The summit of this vesicle is open, even at its early period,
to afford a passage for a cylindrical bundle of small fibres, which are also cylindrical, and which
are nothing else than the barbs, as yet single, of the feather. If, afterward, "we examine a feather
at a more advanced period, we may, by a little address, satisfy ourselves that its tube is formed
and grows by means of spathae, one within another, of which the external ones project over the
inner ones, so that the tube seems as if divided by so many diaphragms. The interstices of these
diaphragms are filled with a fatty liquid, which condenses in them gradually, as the summits of
the spathffi approximate and adhere to each other." |
(1952.) Capons of the common fowl are formed both of the cock and hen chickens, when they
are fit to leave the hen, at about 6 weeks old. Chickens are transmuted into capons by destroy-
ing the testicles of the male and the ovaries of the female. The testicles are attached by a mem-
brane to what is called the hack bone 'of the carved fowl. They are destroyed by laying- the
bird on its near side, keeping it down, removing a few feathers, and making an incision'throu^h
the skin of the abdomen, and, on introducing the fore-finger through the incision, first the one
and then the other testicle is obliterated or removed altogether by it. In the case of the hen, the
ovary is nipped off by the thumb-nail, or cut off by a knite. The incision is stitched up with
thread, and little danger is apprehended of the result. The effect of castration is enlargement of
the body of the fowl, an increased delicacy of its flesh, but its flavor is in no way improved, at
least in none of the capons I have tasted. Time was when capons were more plentiful at the
table than chickens, so that even kain-rent was paid in them ; but the conversion of fowls into
capons is now abandoned as an unnecessary and troublesome operation, and will not probably be
resumed as long as a well-fed delicate chicken can be procured with little trouble. ||
[11 Our poulterers seem to make verj- slow progress in the art and mystery of caponizing. We
are not aware that it is now practiced or understood in Maryland at all, although 50 years ago
capons were made by a few old women in Calvert County for carrj-ing chickens. It bet'ins to
be done for improving fowls for the table in the neighborhood of Philadelphia, and in New- York
it is so little practiced that the hotel keepers have " capon chickens " announced in larg-e let-
ters on their bills of fare, and some of these probably never felt the knife until it was appHed to
their throats. It is to be lamented that the practice of caponizing were not more general— surely
he who pleases, ought to be able to command what a benevolent monarch said he would have all
his subjects enjoy, a fat capon. [^'^. Farm. Lii>.
• Bucknell's Eccaleobion. t Kirby and Spence's Introduction to Entomoloey, vol L
J Raspail's Organic Chemistrr.
(401J
240 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
SUMINIER.
" TTic sea<on now is all delight, " How sweet the fanning breeze is felt
Sweet smile ihc passing hours, Breathed through the dancing boughs ,
And Summer's plcusures. at their bight, How sweet the rural voices molt
Are sweet as are htr flowers ; From distant sheep and cows.
The purple mominc wakened soon, The lovely green if wood and hill,
The mid-da>'8 ijleaminK din, The hummings in the air,
Gray Evening with her silver moon. Serenely in my brea-t insii.l,
Are sweet to miuglu in. The rapture reigning there."
Clabe.
I H.WE represented Winter, in the agricultural sense, as the season of
dormancy, in which everything remains in a state of quiescence. In the
same sense I have said that Spring is the season of restoration to life,
in which everything again stirs and becomes active. Summer, on the same
principle, is the season of progress, in which nothing is begun or ended —
none of the greater operations of the field are either commenced or termi-
nated, but only advanced a step toward the consummation of all things in
Autumn ; and, therefore, the mere advancement of the greater operations
involves no change of principle, while the smaller ones present so varied
an aspect as to excite considerable interest.
The astronomical cause of Summer, as one of the seasons, and the safety
in which every living thing — whether animal or vegetable — progresses or
grows under its influence, are thus succinctly and well described by Mr.
Mudie. " Summer is the bloom of the year — the period during which all
the growing and living children of Nature, which wax and wane with the
revolving seasons, are in the spring-tide of their activity, and when all those
general agencies by which they are stimulated are working to the very lop
of their bent. Summer is, both in the literal and the meta])horical sense, the
season of blossoms ; and as the blossoms make the fruit, the time of them
is really the most important of the whole. In our middle latitudes, there
is a very beautiful instance of design and adaptation in this. The grand
stimulating agent in all is terrestrial action, at least in a natural view of it on
the surface of the earth, and the intensity of this action is made up of two
elements — the position of the twenty-four hours during which the sun is
above tlie horizon, and the altitude of the sun above that horizon. Both
of them, in either hemisphere, increase as the suu declines toward that
hemisphere, or rather as the hemisphere inclines to the sun ; though, as
the fir-^t of these is the apparent result of the second as a reality, our using
an expression on the other does not aflect the result. The increase or de-
crease of altitude is the same, with the same change of declination, in all
latitudes; but the variation in time above the horizon increases with the
latitude : consecpiently the higher the latitude the greater the change of
solar action with the same change of declination. The change in declina-
tion increases from the solstice to the equinox, and diminishes from the
equinox to the solstice. Thus the increase of solar action begins to slacken
at the vernal equinox in March, and gradually diminishes till it becomes 0
at midsummer ; after this the decrease commences. This, however, only
in so far as depends on the altitude of the sun ; for the other element, the
(432)
SUMMER. 241
time which the sun is above the horizon, goes on increasing till the lono-est
day, or day of the solstice. Thus, in the advanced part of the summer,
there is a diminished increase of the momentaiy intensity of the solar ac-
tion, and a lengthening of its daily duration. What is given to the presence
of the sun above the horizon is taken from its absence below it ; and thus,
as the summer advances toward the longest day, all that works by the action
of the sun works with his increase of intensity and for a longer time. Af-
ter the longest day is past, both elements of the s*)lar action diminish,
slowly at first, and more rapidly afterward, until the summer merges in the
autumn. Near the Equator the changes are comparatively small, and they
increase with the latitude ; and the ditferences in this respect are what may
be called the celestial differences of the character of summer in diflerent
latitudes ; but teirestrial causes modify them so much, that the practical
results as observed are very different from what the celestial theory would
give. Still, any one who thinks but for a moment will not fail to discover
how beautifully the season of bloom is secured from violent action either
in the one way. or the other. This is enough to convince us that the action
which goes on in the production of Nature during the summer is really the
most important of the whole year ; for it is performed with the maximum
of power in the agents, and the minimum of disturbance in their operation.
That resistance of winter, which but too often shrivels the young leaf and
blights the early blossom in the spring, is vanquished and completely stayed
from making any inroad till the seasonal purposes of Nature are accom-
plished ; and the ardor of the stimulating causes which have vanquished
the desti-uctive one, are slackened, so that they may not injure that which
during the struggle of the early part of the year they have preserved. All
this, too, is accomplished by means so very simple that their simplicity
proves the most wonderful part of the whole, for it is nothing more than
the planes of the annual and daily motions of the earth intersecting each
other at an angle of about 23^ 28' ; and the line of intersection passino-
through the equinoctial points of the diurnal orbit."*
The atmospherical phenomena of summer are of the most varied and
complicated nature. At one time the air is highly elastic, and feels balmv
and bracing, indicated by the high position of the mercury in the barome-
ter; at another the mercury descends, and almost always suddenly, to the
lowest point, accompanied Avith gusts of wind and a deluge of rain, form-
ing what is callled a tornado in the ti-opics. The heat of the air at one
time is so scorching as to cause us to seek the shade, and the theiTnometer
marks its intensity ; at another, a chilling gust, accompanied with a heavv
shower of hail, suddenly brings down the thermometer many degrees. The
air to-day is so calm and breathless that not a ripple is visible even on the
bosom of the great ocean ; to-morrow a hurricane raises the waves of the sea
to a state of agitation dangerous to the safety of the mariner. Not a cloud
is seen at times to stain the purity of the blue vault of Heaven ; at others
the thunder-cloud hovers over the earth, and blackens its surface with a
portentous shadow. These changes, in summer, are usually sudden and
of short duration, and they are requisite to preseiye the healthy state of
the air. Did rain not fall in quantities, the vapor absorbed by the great
capacity of heated air for moisture would accumulate beyond due bonds.
Were there no colder strata of air moving about to condense the
Avarraer, the wanner portion containing a large quantity of vapor in solu-
tion would always be elevated beyond the reach of the earth, and there
waste its latent heat. The thunder-storm of sheet-lightning passing from
cloud to cloud, the most common display of electric action in summer, re-
' Mudie"s Summer.
(481} 16
242 THE BOOK OF THE FAR3f SUMMER.
stores the electric equilibrium of the air, and the forked lig^htning relieves
both earth and air. Did not tlie hurricane at times force its way through
the calm and im-rt air, the same portion of the atmosphere would always
remain over the same locality, and become vitiated by the breath of ani-
mals and the exhalations of vej^etables. If the dews failed to descend upon
the grass, the pasture would soon become parched by the meridian fervor
of the summer sun. Thus, all the agencies of Nature are required to keep
the air in a healthy state for animals and vegetables, and these operate in
the most beneficial manner in summer — the season of the intensest action of
the solar rays.
As I have already entered very fully into the state of the weather in win-
ter, in Section 18, p. 1G3 to 197 of the 1st volume, I have less occasion to re-
vert to the subject here ; but the consideration of a few of the atmospheri-
cal phenomena which only occur in summer was pui-posely reserved until
the arrival at that season ; and these phenomena were, thunder and light-
ning, dew, hail, and easterly winds. The origin of the electricity of the
air was indicated at sufficient length from (299) to (312).. The piesence
of electric matter being accounted for, the rationale of a thunder-storm is
simple, and it is this : The electric fluid, as the agency of electricity is call-
ed, for want of a better name, derived from sources enumerated in the
above paragraphs, accumulates in the clouds of vapor. When two clouds,
thus provided with electric matter beyond their usual state, are not far
from each other, the electricity of the one becomes positive, that is, in an
active state ; and that of the other, as a necessary consequence, becomes
negative, that is, in a passive state. Why these opposite states of electri-
city always coexist when near each other, it is impossible to say ; but the
fact is established as an unvarying law of electric matter. When two clouds
thus in these opposite states are near each other, they attract and approach,
and when the approach comes within the distance in which the force of the
positive electricity is able to overcome the resistance of the air between
the positive and negative clouds, the fluid leaves the positive and enters in-
to the negative cloud in such quantity as to restore the equilibrium of both.
The forcible passage of the electric fluid causes a concussion in the air
between the two clouds, and the vibrations occasioned by the concussion
striking against the earth and mountains, cause the noise which is heard
in thunder. The time taken by the electric fluid in passing from one cloud
to another is inappreciable, but the velocity of sound is calculable. For
every 4^ sectmds of time which elapse after seeing the lightning to hear-
ing the thunder, the clouds are situate as many miles from the auditor. —
Far at sea, where there are no objects for sound to be reflected from, thun-
der is never heard ; whereas, in a mountainous country, it inspires terror,
though it is obvious that thunder, a mere sound, can do no harm, and light-
ning, which can do harm, does all the mischief it can do before we are made
aware of its danger.
The phenomenon of dew is familiar to every person who lives in the coun-
try. In the hottest day of summer the shoes become wet in walking over
a grass-field at sunset, and they may then become as effectually wetted asin
wading through water. The late Dr. Wells investigated the phenomena of
dew more closely than any other pei-son ; and his experiments, as detailed
in his insti-uctive essay on that subject, appear to have been very satisfactori-
ly conducted ; and the theory wliich he established on these experiments
is the one now embraced by philosophers. From that essay I shall first
relate a few of the circumstances which influence the production of dew ;
and then give Dr. Wells's theory of its formation, in contradistinction to
those of other philosophers. " Aristotle and many otTier writers," says
(482)
SUMMER. 243
Dr. Wells, " have remarked that dew appears only in calm and serene
nights. This remark of Aristotle, however, is not to be received in its
strictest sense, as I have frequently found a small quantity of dew on
grass, both in windy nights, if the sky was clear or nearly so, and in
cloudy nights, if there was no wind. If, indeed, the clouds were high and
the weather calm, I have sometimes seen on grass, though the sky was
entirely hidden, no very inconsiderable quantity of dew. Again, according
to my observation, entire stillness of the atmosphere is so far from beino-
necessary for the formation of this fluid, that its quantity has seemed to
me to be increased by a very gentle motion of the air. Dew, however,
has never been seen by me on nights both cloudy and windy. If, in the
course of the night, the weather, frorn being calm and serene, should be-
come windy and cloudy, not only will dew cease to form, but that which
was formed will either disappear or diminish considerably. In calm
weather, if tlie sky be partially covered with clouds, more dew will ap-
pear than if it were entirely covered, but less than if it were entirely
clear. Dew probably begins in the country to appear upon grass, in
places shaded from the sun during calm and clear weather, soon after the
heat of the atmosphere has declined ; and I have frequently felt grass
moist in dry weather several hours before sunset. On the other hand, I
have scarcely ever known dew to be present in such quantity upon o-rass
as to exhibit visible drops before the sun was very near the horizon, or to
be very copious till some time after sunset. It also continues to form in
shaded places after sunrise ; and if the weather be favorable, more dew
forms a little before, and, in shaded places, a little after sunrise, than at
any other time. The formation of dew, after it has once commenced, con-
tinues during the whole night, if the weather remain still and serene.
During nights that are equally clear and calm, dew often appears in very
unequal quantities, even after allowance has been made for any difference
in their lengths. One great source of their difference is very obvious, for,
it being manifest, whatever theory be adopted concerning the immediate
cause of dew, that the more replete the atmosphere is with moisture, pre-
viously to the operation of that cause, the more copious will be the pre-
cipitation of moisture in the atmosphere, must likewise tend to increase
the production of dew. Thus dew, in equally calm and clear nights, is
more abundant shortly after rain than during a long tract of dry weather.
It is more abundant during S. and W. winds, than during those which
blow from the N. and the E. Dew is commonly more plentiful in spring
and autumn than in summer ; the reason is that a greater difference is
generally found between the temperature of the day and the ni^ht in the
former seasons of the year than in the latter. Dew is always very copi-
ous on those clear and calm nights which are followed by misty or foggv
mornings ; the turbidness of the air in the morning showing that it must
have contained, during the preceding night, a considerable quantity of
moisture. I have observed dew to be unusually plentiful on a clear morn-
ing which had succeeded a cloudy night. For the air having, in the
course of the night, lost little or no moisture, was in the morning charged
with more watery vapor than it would have been if the night had also been
clear. Heat of the atmosphere, if other circumstances are favorable,
\yhich, according to my experience, they seldom are in this country, occa-
sions a great formation of dew. For, as the power of the air to retain
watery vapor in a pellucid state increases considerably faster while its
temperature is rising than in proportion to the heat acquired, a decrease
of its heat in any small given quantity during the night must bring it, if
the temperature be high, much nearer to the point of repletion before it
(483]
244 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
be acted upon by the immediate ct^use of dew, than if the temperature
were low. I always found when the clearness and stillness of the atmo-
sphere were the same, that more dew was found between midnight and
suniise, than between sunset and midnight, though the ])()sitive quantity
of moisture in the air must have been less in the former than in the latter
time, in consequence of a previous ])recipitation of part of it. The reason,
no doubt, is the cold of the atmosphere being greater in the latter than in
the prior part of the niglit."
Theories of the formation of dew have been proffered by many philoso-
phers, from the days of Aristotle to the time of Dr. Wells. ■" Dew, ac-
cordin"- to Aristotle," remarks Dr. Wells, is " a species of rain fomied in the
lower atmosphere, in consequence of its moisture being condensed by the
cold of the night into minute drops. Opinions of this kind, respecting the
cause of dew, are still entertained by many persons, among whom is the
very ingenious Mr. Leslie, of Edinburgh." This view is erroneous, be-
cause " bodies a little elevated in the air become moist with dew, while
similar bodies, lying on the ground, remain dry, though necessarily from
their position as liable to be wetted by whatever falls from the heavens, as
the former." Dufay concluded that dew is an electric phenomenon, but
it leaves untouched bodies which conduct electricity, while it appears
upon those which cannot transmit that influence. All the theoiies on
dew, to the time of Dr. Wells, omitted the important part that the pro-
duction of dew is attended with cold, and this is a very important omis-
sion, since no explanation of a natural phenomenon can be well founded
which has been built without a knowledge of one of its principal circum-
stances. " It may seem strange to many," continues Dr. Wells, " that
neither Mr. Wilson nor Mr. Six applied the fact of the existence of cold
to its production, to the improvement of the theory of dew. But, accord-
ing to their view of the subject, no such use could have been made of it
by them, as they held the formation of that fluid to be the cause of the cold
observed with it. I had many years held the same opinion, but I began
to see reason, not long after the regular course of my experiments com-
menced, to doubt its truth, as I found that bodies would sometimes become
colder than the air without being dewed ; and that when dew was found,
if different times were compared, its quantity and the degree of cold
which appeared with it were very far from being always in the 'same pro-
portion to each other. The frequent recui'rence of such observation at
length corrected the doubt of the justness of my ancient opinion into a
conviction of its error, and at the same time occasioned me to conclude
that dew is the production o{ a preceding cold in the sitbstance upon which
it appears." Dr. Wells's theory, therefore, is " that the cold observed
with dew is the previoiis occurrence, and, consequently, that the forma-
tion of this fluid has precisely the same immediate cause as the presence
of moisture u])on the outside of a glass or metallic vessel, where a liquid
considerably colder than the air has been poured into it shortly befoi'e."
As an obvious application of this theory, the experiments of Dr. Wells,
which led to its establishment, evince that of all natural substances grass
is peculiarly adapted to the exhibition of dew, inasmuch as it becomes,
under ordinary circumstances, colder than the air above it, by the radia-
tion of more heat toward the heavens than it receives in any way, and,
accordingly, whenever the air is calm and serene, dew may be seen on
grass, when it may not be observed on other substances.
But it has been alleged by Dufay that dew is the condensation of vapor
rising out of the earth upon the grass on it, because objects removed higher
from the sm^face of the earth, as trees, are exempt frem dew; and this is
(484)
SUMMER. 245
a very popular opinion ; but it is an erroneous one, and the phenomemn
can be explained on other principles, because the lower air in a clear and
calm evening is colder than the upper, and it contains more moisture
than the upper; and hence, on all these considerations, it will sooner de-
jiosit a part of its moisture. At the same time, it is true that vapor does
rise from the earth, and it may be condensed as dew ; for we find the
grass first becoming moist with dew, then the substances raised above it,
while both indicate an equal degree of cold ; but all the quantity of dew
from this cause can never be great, because until the air be cooled by the
substances attractive of dew with which it comes in contact below its
point of repletion with moisture, it will always be in a condition to take
up that which has been deposited upon grass, or other low bodies, by
warm vapor emitted by the earth, just as the moisture formed on a miri-or
by our breath is, in temperate weather, almost immediately carried away
by the surrounding air. Agreeably to another opinion, the dew found on
growing vegetables is the condensed vapor of the very plants on which it
appears ; but this also is erroneous, because dew forms as copiously upon
dead as upon living vegetable substances ; and " if a plant," as Dr. Wells
observes, "has become, by radiating its heat to the heavens, so cold as to
be enabled to bring the air in contact with it below the point of repletion
with moisture, that which forms upon it from its own transpiration will not
then indeed evaporate. But although moisture will at the same time be
communicated to it by the atmosphere, and when the difference in the
copiousness of these two sources is considered, it may, I think, be safely
concluded that almost the whole of the dew which will afterward form
upon the plant must be derived from the air; more especially when the
coldness of a clear night, and the general inactivity of plants in the ab- '
sence of light, both lessening their transpiration, are taken into account."
Hoarfrost is just frozen dew, but as it only appears when the surface of
the earth is sealed with frost, the vapor of which it is formed cannot, of
course, at the time, perspire from the earth.*
Another remarkable phenomenon in summer is hail. "The difficulty
for accounting for the retention of masses of ice in the free atmosphere,"
observes Professor Forbes, " is certainly very gi-eat. Perhaps no hy-
pothesis more satisfactory, certainly none more ingenious, has followed
that of Volta, who conceived, from the highly electric condition of the
atmosphere, almost universally attending the production of hail, that the
frozen masses were kept in a state of reciprocating motion between two
clouds oppositely charged with electricity, until the increase of the mass
rendered the force of gravity predominant, or the electric tension of the
clouds was exhausted by mutual reaction."+ As hail is a very curious
and highly interesting phenomenon, a few facts regarding its occurrence
and the forms of hailstones may prove instructive. " Hail generally falls
in the hottest hours of the day in Spain, Italy and France. It falls in Eu
rope generally in the day, and seldom in the night. It seldom falls in
winter, though at Plymouth, according to Mi'. Giddy, there seems to be
an exception. Thus, in the course of 21 years, the recurrence in each
month was, in
January 23 times May 7 times September 5 times
February 05 „ j^j.g 5 __ October 17 ..
^/arc'i 25 .. July 1 .. November 22 ..
^P"' 27 .. AugQst 0 .. December 43 ..
In August is absolute zero, and in December is the maximum. Rain falls
in all seasons, snow in winter, hail principally in summer. The appear-
* ^"^/io-? °^'^' ^^'^""^ edition, 1815. t Forbes's Report on Meteorology, vol. i.
246 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
ance of hail-clouds seems to be distinguished from other stormy clouds by
a remarkable sliading; their edges present a multitude of indentations,
and their surfaces disclose here and there immense irregular protuber-
ances. Hail seldom falls on mountains, which indicates lowness of clouds,
which Arago has seen cover the valley with fog, while the mountains were
clear above. The form of hailstones varies. They are nearly uniform
when they fall on the same level ; and in the same storm they have fallen
smaller on the tops of mountains than on the plains. Change of temper-
ature or wind changes the form of hail. On 7lh July, 1769, M. Adanson
observed 6-sided pyramids fall, but the wind changing to N.E., changed
them to convex lenses, and so transparent as to transfer objects without
distortion. Hail is sometimes attended with spongy snow, which may
have formed the interior of the hailstone, while its exterior was transpar-
ent ice. It has been supposed fiom this, that the different portions have
been formed under different circumstances. Leslie imagines the spimgy
texture to result from an atom of water having been suddenly frozen, and
particles of perhaps rarefied air suddenly driven into the center. The
pyramidal form fell at Aberdeen on 29th November, 1823. The usual
form of hail is a concentnc lamellar structure, with a stellular fibrous ar-
rangement. There is great difficulty in accounting for large masses of
ice in the atmosphere, as hail cannot take above 1 minute in falling from
low clouds."*
The forms of the clouds in summer are very distinctly marked. When
a deposition of vapor is taking place in the highest part of the atmosphere,
the cirrus, or curl-cloud, appears (283), and it sometimes soon disappears,
which is a sign of fine weather ; but instead of disappearing, it may de-
scend a little lower, and be converted into the cirro-cumulus (287), which is
the form of that elegant, light, flocculent cloud so often seen in a fine sum-
mer day. A farther deposition changes the small cloud into the larger
cumulus, called the day-cloud in summer, because it disappears into an-
other form in the evening. The cumulus or heap may may be seen dis-
tinctly represented in the plate of the Liecester tup, both above the animal
and above the horizon, where it frequently takes up its position for the
greater part of the day, resting on the vapor plane. When a large cumu-
lus rises from the horizon in the daytime, and shows white towering
heads, it is a sign of a storm or a fall of rain from that quarter ; and the
wind will change to that direction in the course of the next 24 hours. This
threatejiing cloud, is called cumulo-stratus. In calm, serene even-
ings in summer, the day-cloud or cumulus descends and spreads itself
along the bottom of valleys, or in hollows of the open country, covering
the ground like a lake as seen in moonlight, or with a partial sheet of
snow. This is the true stratus cloud. Tall objects, such as trees, steeples,
and even elevated ground, jut through it like rocks and islands in a lake.
The air is then perfectly calm, the temperature is delightfully warm, and
the intenseness of the silence is broken only by the snipe drumming in
its curious somersets in the air — by the harsh ventriloquous cry of the
corn-craik among the grass — or by the occasional barking of the watch-
dog at some distant homestead. The morning after such a night is
sure to usher in a bright and peerless sun, whose steady heat will soon
evaporate the sheet-like stratus-cloud from the valley and hollows, and ele-
vate it, in the form of the beautiful day-cloud, above the mountain-top or
the horizon.
The direction of the wind forms an important item in the consideration
• Encyclopedia MetropoUUma, art. MtttorologTi ■
(486)
SUMMER. 247
of the weather in summer; for in no other season does the slightest varia-
tion of the wind make so decided changes on the weather. If we assent
to the general conclusion in regard to the cause of winds, chat it is the par-
tial changes of temperature which are their chief general cause, we may-
expect the winds to be most variable in summer, since changes of tempera-
ture ai'e most likely to occur at that season ; and the change of the wind is
the most ready indication of the change of temperature, especially in the
upper portion of the atmosphere. In the torrid zone, while the barometer
seldom varies but in a trifling degree, in the temperate zone it is not
less fickle than the wind. This indication of a loss of weight in the at-
mosphere can arise only from a local diminution of its elasticity, most like-
ly from changes of temperature. But the most remarkable effect in rela-
tion to the wind in summer, is the constancy with which it blows from the
east in the early part of that season ; and so invariable is this phenomenon,
that every person who dwells on the east coast of Great Britain is quite
familiar with it, as every one feels the keenness of the east wind, and eve-
ry one knows the aptitude with which catarrhal affections are produced by
it. An explanation of this remarkable phenomenon cannot fail to prove
interesting ; and as a very rational solution of its recuirence has been giv-
en by Mr. Samuel Marshall, I shall copy his succinct but satisfactory ac-
count of it. After stating that the east winds in early summer usually
prevail from the middle of April to the 7th or 8th of May, or even to the
18th of May, and I may add that it continued all June in 1843, Mr. Mar-
shall then proceeds to account for the cause of the phenomenon. " In
Sweden and Norway, the face of the country is covered with snow to the
middle of May or longer. This frozen covering, which has been*' fcji-med
during winter, grows gradually shallower to the loth or 16th of May, or
until the sun has acquired 17° or 18° N. declination ; while, on the other
hand, the valleys and mountains of England have received an accession of
24° or 25°. On this account, when the temperature of Sweden and Nor-
way is cooled down by snow to 32°, that of Britain is 24° or 25° hio-her
than that of the preceding countries. Because, while the gi'ound is cov-
ered with snow, the rays of the sun ai'e incapable of heating the air above
32°, the freezing point. For this reason, the air of England is 24° or 25°
more heated than that of the before-mentioned countries. The air of Swe-
den and Norway will then, of course, by the laws of comparative specific
gravity, displace that of England, and, from the relative situation of those
countries with this country, will produce a N.E. wind. The current is in
common stronger by day than by night, because the variation of tempera-
ture is at that time the greatest, being frequently from 50° to 60° about
noon, and sinking to 32° in the night."* Some of the most obvious prog-
nostics of the wind in summer are, when the wind is variable, rain is not
far distant ; when it blows low, and raises the dust much, it has the same
effect ; but when there are small whirlwinds raising the dust along the
road or corn-fields, it is a sign of dry weather. I remember of seeing a
beautiful whirlwind, in a calm hot day, in the neighborhood of Berlin,
raise the sand of a field, the soil being mostly composed of that substance,
in a perpendicular direction to a great bight in the air. When currents of
air are seen to move in different directions, that which the upper current
takes \vill ultimately prevail. At times in summer, and particularly in the
evening, it is hard to say from which quarter the current comes, when a wet-
ted finger held up will tell the quarter, from the cold produced on it by con-
sequent evaporation of the moisture. The pleasant phenomena of the
* BrewBter'e Journal of Science, vol. viii.
(487)
248 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
land and sea breezes are distinctly marked in fine warm weather in
summer. When winds blow strongly from any quarter, even from the
warm west, for two or three tlays in succession, the temperature of
the air is much diminished, sometimes as much as 20^, and seldom less
than 10^.
So much for the aerial speculations of summer. Let us now notice the
humbler toils of the field. These, as I have already observed, require to
be advanced a stage toward their completion in autumn. The first opera-
tion which calls for the plowman's attention in summer is the turnip-land,
which is now drilled up, dunged, and sown. The culture of the turnip is a
most important and stimng operation, affording much interesting work in
singling and hoeing the plants for the greater part of the season. In the
bight of summer, young stock luxuriate on the riches of the pasture-field,
while forage plants, consisting of vetches, rape, or broad clover, are allow-
ed to grow until the general season of want, between the failure of pas-
ture and the premature consumption of turnip. Before stock take pos-
session of the pasture-fields, the hedger makes it a point to put the fences
in a complete state of repair, and to second his exertions, the carpenter
and smith make the field-gates secure for the season. Fattened stock are
seldom allowed to taste the pasture, they being disposed of ofi" the tur-
nips to the butcher or dealer. The fat cattle are almost always then sold.
Young cattle and cows are sent to the grazing field of the farm, though
turnip sheep are not unfrequently retained on grass until the fleece is clip-
ped from their backs (the season being nigh at hand,) and after that they
also are disposed of. The separation of ewe and lamb is now effected ;
and the respective marks of age, sex, and ownership, are put on each.
Horses now live entirely another sort of life, being transferred from the
confinement of the collar in the stable to the pei-fect liberty of the field,
and heartily do they enjoy themselves there. The brood mare now brings
forth her foal, and receives immunity from labor for a time. Hay-making
is represented by poets as a scene of unalloyed pleasure. No doubt lads
and lasses are then as meny and chirping as grasshoppers, but, neverthe-
less, in spite of buoyant spirits, hay-making, in sober truth, is a labor of
much heat and great toil — the constant use of the hay-rake and pitch-fork,
in hot weather, being no sinecure. Early as the season is, preparations are
made ift summer for the next year's crop. The bare fallow is worked and
dunged, and it may be limed too, in readiness for the seed in autumn. —
Summer is of all others the season in which the farmer most seriously
makes his attacks on those spoilers of his clean fields, and contaminators
of the samples of his gi-ain — the weeds. Whether in stocked pastures,
upon tilled ground, along drills of green crops, among growing com, or in
hedges, young and old, weeds are daily exterminated, and the extermination
is most effectually accomplished by the minute and pains-taking exertions of
female field- workers. For these purposes they are provided witli appro-
priate cleaning instruments. This is the season, too, in which his stock
and crops arc sometimes seriously affected by the attacks of insects. Where
building-stones are plentiful, and the risk great from the overflowings of
rivulets in wijiter, summer is also the season for the erection of stone dykes
as fences between fields, and of embankments along the margins of rivers.
The former afford a substantial fence at once, the latter form insuperable
barriers against an element powerful alike whether exerted for or against
Man's operations.
Every operation requires constant attention in summer, for, the season
being active in its influences, farmers must then put forth their enero-ies to
meet its rapid effects, whether these tend to forward or retard his efforts
(488)
SUMMER. 249
The long hours of a summer day, of which at least ten are spent in the
fields — the ordinary high temperature of the air, which suffuses the body
of the working man in constant perspiration — and the fatiguing nature of
all field-work in summer, bear hard as well on the mental as the physical
energies of the laborer, and cause him to seek for rest at a comparatively
early hour of the evening. None but those who have experienced the
fatigue of working in the fields in hot weather, and for long hours, can
truly appreciate the luxury of rest — a feeling truly described in these sim-
ple lines :
" Night is the time for rest.
How sweet when labors close
To gather round the aching breast
The curtain of repose —
Stretch the tired limbs, and lay the head
Upon one's own delightful bed !"
MONTGOMEBY.
The hours devoted to field-work vary in summer in different parts of
the country. On the borders it is the practice to go very early to the
morning yoke, as early as 4 o'clock, that the forenoon's work may be over
by 9, and that there may be time to rest in the heat of the day ; the after-
noon's yoking commences at 1 o'clock, and continues till 6 o'clock. There
are thus 10 hours spent in the fields. But in most parts of the country,
the morning yoking does not commence till 6 o'clock, and, on terminating
at 11, there are only 2 hours for rest and dinner till 1 o'clock, when the
afternoon's yoking begins. In other parts, only 4 hours are spent in the
moi'ning yoking, when the horses loose at 10 o'clock, and yoking again
from 2 to 6 in the afternoon, only eight hours are spent in the fields,
, and the men are employed elsewhere by themselves for 2 hours.
This is practiced where the plowmen are made to do the work of field-
workers, and where a large numbers of diaughts are kept. Perhaps the
best division of time is to begin the yoking at 5 o'clock in the morning,
loose at 10, yoke again at 1, and loose at 6 in the evening, affording 3
hours for rest to man and horse at the hight of the day, and 10 hours in
the field. Day-laboi'ers, when not dependent on the hoi'ses, as well as
field- workers, usually work from 7 to 12, and from 1 to 6 o'clock in the
evening, having 1 hour for rest and dinner. When laborers take their din-
ner with them to the field of their operations, this may be a good enough
division of time ; but when they have to go home to dinner, 1 hour is too
little for the pui'pose, and affords no time for rest between yokings, which
is to be deprecated, as neither men nor women are able to work 10 hours
without an interval of quiet rest. It would, therefore, be a better aiTange-
ment for field- workers to go to work at 6 instead of 7, and loose at 11 instead
of 12, when they have to go home to dumer ; but if they took their dinners
with them to the field, then 1 hour is sufficient for rest and dinner at the
same time.
Summer is the only season in which the farmer has liberty to leave
home without incurring the blame of neglecting his business, and even
then the time which he has to spare is very limited. There is only about
a fortnight between finishing the fallow, the turnip and potato culture,
and haymaking, and the commencement of harvest, in which the farmer
has leisure to travel. This limitation of time is to be regretted, because it
is proper that he should take a journey every year, and see how farm
operations are conducted in other parts of the kingdom. An excursion
of this nature is seldom undertaken by a farmer, who is generally a
man capable of observation, without acquiring some hints which may
induce the adoption of a pratice that seems good, or the rejection of
one which is bad. Such a iournev exhibits mankind in various aspects,
(489) -^ ^
250 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
and elevates the mind above local prejudices ; and as husbandry is
a pror^ressive art, a rami)le of a week or two, through different parts
of the countiy, cannot fail to enlighten the mind of the most expeii-
enced farmer much beyond anything he can observe by always remaining
at home.
21. THE SOWING OF TURNIPS, MANGEL-WURZEL, RAPE, CARROTS
AND PARSNIPS.
"They require the land to be well broken by frequent plowings and harrowiugg,
and also to be well dunged ; this is of great imjiortance, not only as the crop of these
Touu is thereby rendered larger, but as the land is thereby prtpared for carrj-ing good
crops of com." Coh;meli-a«
(1953.) The first great field operation in summer is the completion of
the preparation of the soil for the sowing of the turnip crop. This crop
commences the rotation of crops, is a substitute of bare-fallowing, and is
of the same nature, as regards the amelioration and working of the soil,
fis the potato crop, and therefore admits of the soil being manured ; and,
indeed, on account of all these properties, it is regarded and denominated
a falloic crop. Being thus a renovator of the condition of the soil, the
turnip crop necessarily succeeds the crop which terminates the rotation,
and beyond which the exhaustion of the soil is not peiTnitted ; and, being
a fallow crop, the preparation of the soil for it requires much labor, and
should therefore be begun as early as the breaking up of the stubble in
the beginning of winter. This fact is indicated in (916) ; and the differ-
ent modes of plowing stubble for fallow, according to the nature of the
soil, aie mentioned in (917), and the due precautions to be used to keep
the soil in a dry state all winter are stated in (9 IS). These constitute
the winter preparations for the turnip crop ; and those in spring are be-
gun by cross-plowing, fig. 312. Should potatoes have been planted in the
same field intended for turnips, the cross-plowing for the potato land
should be extended across the turnip land, if there is time for it ; but
should the time required for this extended cross-plowing encroach upon
that wliich is devoted to potato-planting, the turnip land should be let
alone, until there is leisure. From the cross-plowing to the drilling of the
land for the reception of the dung, the turnip culture is exactly the same
as for potatoes, with perhaps the exception that as there is more time for
working and cleaning turnip-land, it receives one or more plowings or stir-
rings with the grubber than the potato land ; and in this cleansing process
the grubber will be found a most efficient implement, and will save a
plowing, while it keeps the upper soil uppermost and in a fine loose state.
When turnip laud is maimred with farm-yard dung, the drilling is best and
most expeditiously done in the single mode, fig. 313; but as the drills
have to be kept in exact proportions, for the sake of the better operation
of the sowing-machine that is to follow, the best plowman should be de-
sired to make them. The position of the plow which makes the single
drills is shown at a, fig. 344 ; the ground occupied by one feering in drill-
ing is shown from a to e ; and the process of dunging, both in carting out
and spreading the dung, and in splitting the drills in the double way,
are conducted in the manner desciiln d for that figure, with the exception
of the potato planters at r and *. So far, then, the culture of potatoes and
(490)
THE SOWING OF TURNIPS. 251
turnips correspond, but after this point a considerable difference ensues,
which arises from the difference in the nature of the seed. After the soil
on the top of the drills has become a little browned with the sun, or riz-
zared, as it is technically phrased in some, or with a proper tid in other
places, the turnip sowing-machine, which sows 2 rows at a time, such as
the one described below by Mr. Slight, is then used, with one horse, for
sowing the seed. The soil should be dry at the top of the drills before
the seed is sown, because damp soil clings to the rollers of the machine,
and causes them to make bad work. One of these machines could sow a
great breadth of land in a day, but it is seldom that it can be employed
throughout a whole day, for two reasons : One is, that the soil is seldom
in a dry enough state in the morning to be thus sown ; and the other rea-
son is, that a sufficient quantity of land will not be dunged and split in
the course of a day to keep a machine going constantly, because one plow
can only split ^ more land in a day than it can plow, so that 3 plows will
only split 5 acres at most of drills over dung in a day, and thus 1 machine
could hold 4 plows splitting drills ; and as the dunging is carried on at the
same time, there are few farms so large as to employ 4 plows splitting
drills.
(1954.) The quantity of seed sown need not exceed 3 lbs. to the Eno^-
lish acre, nor should the quantity be much less, as thick sowing insures a
quick braird of the turaip plant, and the seed is not a costly article, beino-
usually from 9d. to Is. per lb. Fortunately, that the land may receive its
due labor, the different kinds of turnips cultivated require to be sown at
different times. Swedes, for instance, should be sown by the 15th of May
at latest, and if the land is ready to receive the seed by the 10th, so much
the better. Swedes will grow on any kind of soil, except, perhaps, what
is in a state of pure peat ; but they grow best in rich alluvial sandy loam
— best, because largest, and in that state this particular turnip is firmest
too. The yellow turnip follows the Swedes, and then the white, which
may be sawn any time in June. In England, white turnips are sown as
late as July, because, if sown earlier, they would come too soon to matu-
rity. The seeds of Swedish turnips are much larger than those of yellow
or white, and require to be sown through a larger hole in the canister of
the machine. They will retain their freshness for several years, and may
be confidently sown though kept for 3 years ; but it would be hazardous
to sow yellow or white turnip-seed after the first year ; they somehow
lose their vitality after that time. The reason why I give the preference
to the purple-top Swedish, the Aberdeenshire yellow bullock, and the
white globe turnips, will be found in paragraphs from (1022) to (1031) in-
clusive, and these turnips are figured in fig. 214, at the same place. At
the same time, you should partly be guided by the practice of the district
in which your farm is situate, what sorts you should sow on your first
coming into the district ; but you should hear very satisfactory reasons
why those kinds will not thrive in that particular district, and should even
experience their failure before you determine on preferring the culture of
other kinds. When I began to farm in Forfarshire, I was told that the
Swedish turnip would not thrive on such soil as my farm, a light turnip
soil, and that I would find the red-topped wliite the best ; but a very short
trial showed every one that Swedes and the white or green-topped globe
throve much better than the favorite red-topped, which is an early turnip,
no doubt, but a very spongy one on that soil. For my part, I would have
no fears of raising a good crop of Swedes on any ordinary soil by proper
culture, that is by giving them plenty of old well-made dung, and sowing
them early. Give Swedes 15 tons, or 20 good cart-loads, of dung in that
(491J
252 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
State to the imperial acre, and sow them before the 15th of May, and little
fear need be entertained of the crop on the most ordinary soil ; 12 tons of
well-ma<le dung will suffice for yellow turnips, and 10 tons of the same
for white globes ; but, of course, the more dung each of the kinds receive,
the larger crop may be expected.
(1955.) It is not an unusual practice in England to sow turnips broad-
cast on the fiat ground, instead of in rows, and on ridglets or drills, as in
Scotland ; and the reason I have heard stated in vindication of the broad-
cast method is, that it resisted the bad effects of drouth on the land in
summer. No doubt e.vcessive drouth in summer is inimical to the full de-
velopment of the turnip, and it is on this account that the turnip crop fails
so firequently in Germany ; but, for my part, I cannot see how a broad-
cast crop can escape drouth more certainly than one in rows, since the
plants have to giow and be thinned out to proper distances in both cases ;
and should the ground be foul with weeds it must be stined to get rid of
them in both cases; and as the work of weeding is done by hand instru-
ments in the case of the broadcast crop, it is, of course, not so effectually
done as with horse-hoes, in the case with the crop in rows ; while I can
see, that as the dung must be spread broadcast for a broadcast crop, it will
not have the same opportunity of pi'omoting the growth of the crop at it^
early stage as when it is deposited in rows, so that the means employed
defeat its own purpose ; because I think it cannot admit of doubt that the
same quantity of manure placed in bulk immediately under the seed should
promote the growth of the plant more rapidly than when it is spread over
a larger- surface of ground, and there can be no doubt, also, in regard to
the turnip plant itself, that the more rapidly it grows in its early stage, the
more certainly it will be free of danger from drouth and from some insects,
at least; for it is well known, in regard to the habits of some of those
which attack the turnip, that they become innocuous to its leaves after the
development of the rough ones. I do not aver that the sowing of turnips
in drills will render them invulnerable to the attacks of insects or to the
effects of drouth, but these evils being merely seasonal, the drill system
places the crop more immediately under the management of the cultivator,
inasmuch as it enables him to apply the whole powers of the manure at
once, and of cleaning the soil quickly with the assistance of horse-pcjwer.
Besides all this, the period of sowing the crop should be suited to the
climate of the locality. If drouth is too great in July, or the insects too
powerful, the crop should be so\\ti earlier, and though it should reach ma-
turity sooner than desired, it can be drawn and stored until the season of
its consumption arrives; or it should be sown later, such as in August,
when the genial climate of the South of England — where the nights are
warm as well as the day, thereby affording every day the gi-owth of two
ordinary days in Scotland, where the nights are always cold — is sufficient
to mature the crop before the end of October, which is as early as the tur-
nip crop is required for consumption in that part of the country, and where
till then the grass continues good. And were the soil })roperly cleaned
before the crop is sown, comparatively little labor would be required to
keep it so in the hight of summer, and of course the drouth would not
then much affect it. Or, a part of the turnip crop could be taken after
winter vetches, which, on being cleared off the ground in time by feeding
sheep, or by cutting, would enable the land to receive a short fallowing
for turnips before the end of July.
(1956.) Nor is a much earlier fallowing and cleaning of the turnip land
an impracticable thing in England, since the com crop is frequently cleared
from the fields by the end of August, when the stubble could be broken
(.492)
THE SOWING OF TURNIPS. 253
up, harrowed, cross-plowed, cleaned, drilled, and even dunged, before the
arrival of winter, as has been proved in Scotland, by the practice of Mr.
James Scougall, at Balgone, East-Lothian, the seat of Sir George Grant
Stittie, Bart., in the autumn of 1841, when he drilled and dunged good
turnip land, at 32 inches apart in the diill, and otherwise finished its till-
age. Purple-top Swedes were sown on the 10th of May, 1842, the plants
thinned to 15 inches apart, and the matured crop was dravioi and stored
by the middle of September following, when the ground was sown with
wheat. On comparing the produce of this mode of culture with the usual
one of laboring the turnip land in spring, and at the usual distance of 28
inches between the drills and 12 inches between the plants, the ground
prepared in autumn yielded, in 429 links measured along one drill, 82
stones of turnips, whereas that worked in spring yielded only 58 stones,
though the number of turnips in the former weight was only 238, while
that in the latter was 276, thus giving to each turnip a weight of 4 lbs. 13
oz. in the former, and of only 2 lbs. 15 oz. in the latter case. A single
horse-load of turnips selected from the ground prepared in autumn only
numbered 141 roots, and weighed as much as 109 stones, showing the
weight of each root to be 10 lbs. 13 oz.* This instance proves that land
for Swedish turnips may be prepared in autumn, and a heavy crop ob-
tained on drills as wide as 32 inches, and from plants 15 inches apart. A
somewhat similar success attended the trial of raising turnips on strong
clay land, at ordinary distances, by Mr. Peter Thomson, Peffennill, near
Edinburgh. So soon as the ground was cleared of tares, he cross-plowed
it with a deep furrow, well woi-ked it with harrows and gi-ubber early in
October, drilled it in the single way at 28 inches asunder, but, owing to
the unfavorable state of the weather, was prevented applying the dung
until December and January, which consisted of 32 single horse-loads of
street-manure per imperial acre, and which was covered in with the com-
mon plow. In March the soil was found in a fine state, but as it was
rather foul with weeds, the drills were harrowed a double tine, the ground
stirred between them with the single-horse grubber, and set up with the
double mould-board plow, and again set up just before sowing the seed
of the green-top yellow turnip on the 15th, and of the white globe on the
25th and 26th of May. The yield was 32 tons of turnips per imperial
acre, including tops, and quite free of mildew. The field had been dunged
5 years before, and twice since top-dressed with 8 bags of 4 bushels each
of soot to the imperial acre.t Were such modes of culture adopted in
the South of England, I have no doubt certain and abundant crops of tur-
nips would be raised in spite of drouth and insects, and the slovenly prac-
tice of broadcast culture would then give way to the more scientific mode
of the drill system.
(1957.) Besides farm-yard dung, a great breadth of turnips is raised
eveiy year with bone-dust. This manure is not only cheap, but insures a
good crop of turnips in ordinary circumstances, and its use expedites field-
labor very much. When the land is ready to be drilled up from the flat,
the drills are made in the double way (1741) ; and that is all the prepara-
tion the land requires for bone-dust, which is then applied by the bone-
dust sowing-machine, represented in Plate XXXI., and described below
by Mr. Slight. This machine deposits the bone-dust and turnip-seed a1
the same time, and finishes the sowing of the turnip crop. The quantity
of bone-dust used is commonly 16 bushels or 2 quarters to the imperial acre.
There is something in the action of bone-dust on the soil, and its conse-
quent power to produce a turnip crop, which I do not understand, the
* Mark-Lane Express, 17th October, 1842. t Ibid., 21st NoTsmber, 1842.
(493)
254 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
means being apparently so inadequate to produce the results obtained.
What I mean is, that up to a certain quantity used, this manure has evi-
dently a beneficial effect, but, lieyond that quantity, there is derived from
its use no apparent benefit, in as far, at least, as the crop is concerned. I
have tried to raise turnips with different quantities of bone-dust, varying
from 12, IG, 20, and 24 bushels to the imperial acre, and have found the
crop improved up to IG bushels, but any quantity beyond that, even to 24
bushels, produced no greater effect o"n the turnips in the same field, and
on the same sort of soil, than 16 bushels. . Nay, more. than this, my late
agricultural preceptor, Mr. George Brown, when he farmed Hetton Steads,
in Northumberland, raised as good crops of turnips as IG bushels of bone-
dust, with only 8 bushels of bone-dust, combined with an indefinite quan-
tity of sifted dry coal-ashes ; and yet 8 bushels of bone-dust, or an indef-
inite quantity of coal-ashes applied separately, produced a very poor crop
of turnips. It is, therefore, unnecessary, in so far as the crop of tuniips is
concerned, to sow more than IG bushels of bone-dust alone, or 8 bushels
with coal-ashes, or perhaps street-manure. Both coal-ashes and street-
manure, when proposed to be used with bone-dust, should be kept dry
under cover and sifted free of large lumps. It is truly surprising what an
effect on the soil so small a quantity of bone-dust produces. I have raised
a portion of the manured soil of a drill with my hand before the turnip-
seed had germinated, and found it agglutinated together in a lump with a
greasy matter, and the lump interspersed partly with white mouldiness,
and partly with minute fibres of plants. When the turnip-seed germitiates,
which it will do in 8 or 10 days, according to the state of the weather, its
radicle strikes into the greasy mass of earth, and sends out an immense
number of white fibres around and through it. Its cotyledons then expand
upward into two rudimentary, smooth leaves, and immediately thereafter
two true or rough leaves appear, and these last are called rough leaves,
because they feel rough by reason of the small spiculae which may be ob-
served to occupy the surface of every leaf of the common turnip. The
rudimentary leaves of the Swedish turnip are not lough but smooth, be-
cause the plant is not a true turnip, but a species of cabbage, which are
all smooth-leaved. The smaller bone-dust is ground the more effective it
is as a manure, because it then mixes more intimately with the soil, though
its action upon it continues for a shorter time ; and, on the other hand,
large or drilled, or inch-hones, as they are called, remain longer in the soil
undecomposed, but produce less immediate effect. On these accounts,
bone-dust is the more valuable manure for turnips, and inch-bones for
wheat. But even hone-dust has effect beyond the turnip crop ; it extends
its influence over all the crops of the rotation. I pulled 03^4 acres of tur-
nips raised with bone-dust, and 4 acres adjoining these in the same field
that had been raised with 15 loads of farm-yard dung ; and the crop of
turnips was not only better after the bone-dust than after the dung, but all
the crops that followed in the rotation, namely, barley, hay, pasture, and
oats, were also better in their respective years. Bone-dust, when pur-
chased in that state on shipboard, is almost always adulterated with old
plaster, brick-dust, ashes, &:c., and should therefore be purchased direct
from the giinder, one who is on the spot. There are now many bone-
mills scattered over the country. To avoid adulteration, an association of
farmers was formed a few years ago in Perthshire to import bones, rape-
cake, &c., and giind them at their own mills under the superintendence of a
manager in whom they have confidence, and in this way they continue to
supply themselves with genuine manures. Bone-dust is best conveyed in
sacks, and 40 bushels will fill a double-horse cart and sow 2^ acres impe-
(494)
THE SOWING OF TURNIPS. 255
rial. It weighs 47 lbs. pei- bushel. It should be immediately emptied out
of the sacks and kept in small heaps in a cool shed until it is used, as it is
very apt to heat, and one consequence of recent heating is to become
lumpy and troublesome to sow by the machine, though otherwise it is not
injured, but rather improved by it. In some parts of the country, par-
ticularly on the Borders, bone-dust is sown by hand either along drills
made up in the single way, which are then split in the double way, while
this plan imposes the trouble of a second drilling, or it is sown on the flat
ground and covered by drilling in the double way. In both cases, the
seed is sown afterward by itself with the common turnip-sowing machine.
The only reason I have heard in favor of sowing bone-dust by hand in-
stead of machinery is saving the cost of the machine ; but whatever ad-
vantao-e is gained by this saving, it is, I think, evident that the machine
must deposit the bone-dust much more regularly than the hand ; and as
to the cost of a machine the saving must be trifling, as hoppers for contain-
ing bone-dust can be attached and made to remove at pleasure from an
ordinary sowing-machine. I always used a machine of this form myself.
But in a case of this kind accuracy of work is a more potent considera-
tion than the cost of a small machine, even though it should be used but
for a few weeks every year. There is another consideration, too, of even
greater import, that the nearer bone-dust is placed to the turnip-seed the
quicker will the seed vegetate, and experience has proved that turaip-seed
may safely be placed among bone-dust. In sowing by hand, the manure
is not placed near the seed in as far as the sower knows, and when the
seed is sown by itself after the bone-dust has been covered up by the
drill, the sowing-machine is as likely to deposit it away from, as near to,
the manure, and hence a regular braird cannot be insured by the practice.
The oi'dinary bone-dust sowing-machine, as well as sowing by the hand,
deposits the bone-dust in a continuous line along the drill ; but a sowing-
machine has been lately invented, and is partially in use in Perthshire,
which deposits the bone-dust in small portions at regular intervals. The
argument in favor of this mode of depositing manure is the comparatively
small quantity required by it to pi'oduce a full crop ; and certainly when
bone-dust is either very scarce or very dear, this is a fair argument to use
in its favor. If by depositing as much bone-dust at given distances of 12
inches as would be deposited at those distances were 16 bushels per acre
sown in a continuous line, and if the quantities so deposited at intervals
of 12 inches are found to produce as well-gi'own turnips as a continuous
sowing, then the saving of manure must be as great as from \ to |^, be-
cause the intervals between the distances are not manured at all ; and
even if a greater quantity than usual were sown on the spots at intervals,
still a saving would be effected upon the whole ; and if these greater
quantities are found to produce a greater crop than the usual mode, then
the plumping mode, as this method of sowing by intervals is termed, may
be regai'ded as a valuable discovery. Still more experience of its results
is required before implicit faith can be placed in it as a practice fit for
general adoption ; although it must be owned that the anomalous circum-
stance regarding the action of bone-dust already noticed, namely, of its
maximum effect being produced by a given quantity, and not by indefinite
quantities — favors the pretensions of the plumping mode, and renders it
deserving of experiment. The very best method of using bone-dust in
small quantity, both for increasing the fertility of the soil and rearing a
good crop, is to sow the seed along with it in drills already manured with
farm-yard dung. The bone-dust secures a good and quick braird of the
plant, and the dung supports it powerfully afterward. This plan I would
(495)
256 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
recommend to be pursued, particularly in England, on the land prepared
for turnips in aulumn, and were it practiced we need not despair of raising
heavy crops of turnips, especially Swedes, on the strongest soils, and most
ceilainly tliey would be ol)tained after thorough-draining. On using lx)ne-
dust, it should be measured from the heaps in the shed in bushels, and put
into the bodies of close carts, which should be left at stated distances upon
the head-ridge ; it being exceedingly inconvenient to take bone-dust out
of sacks. A field-worker should take the charge of replenishing the hop-
pers of the machine as the steward returns with it to the head-ridge at
every bout, with a rusky, fig. 315, filled by the frying-pan shovel, fig. 176.
As bone-dust is apt to heat in heap, and although it is improbable that
you will keep bone-dust over the year, it being more profitable to put it
into the gi-ound, yet in case you should have any left over, or in case you
should purchase a lot cheap out of season, it may be proper to let you
know how to keep it in the best state until it is used for turnips or for
any other purpose. The mode of keeping it is this : Whenever you get
it you should put it on a dry pavement floor, as a damp one rots it fast
away. It will heat again, but not so violently as at first after being made,
and would heat again every time it is turned, which it should not be. It
should not be kept in bags, as it will soon rot them, as I have experienced,
nor should it be kept upon or under a wooden floor, as it will rot them
both ; nor should it be kept near horses and cattle, as they evince a strong
dislike to its smell, on feeling which, horses actually become restive and
troublesome. If new bone-dust obtained from the mill is desired to be
heated at once, which it should be when it is to be kept, the process is
much accelerated by the addition of a little sifted coal-ashes or earth, and
as much water as will make the whole mass only damp, and turning it
over several times until the entire mass is incorporated ; and in 48 hours
the heat will be so great as that you cannot hold your hand in it. The
heat will giadually subside, the mass become dry and in a good state for
passing through the sowing-machine. Heating has the effect of increasing
the weight of bone-dust from 47 lbs. to 49 lbs. per bushel, and this increase
is no doubt effected by the heating having taken off* the angles of the par-
ticles, and allowing them to come closer together in the bushel. The color
is also changed to blue and yellow, and on examination by the microscope;
the mass will be found full of mites.*
(1958.) The established manures for raising tuniips are farm-yard
dung, street-manure in the neighborhood of towns, and bone-dust. There
are many other substances which have been recommended for the same
purpose, such as guano, animalized carbon, &c. ; but as they are only of
comparatively recent introduction, and cannot be said to have yet estab'
lished their characters, I shall decline entertaining their pretensions here,
and shall rather notice what promise they hold out when I come to men-
tion the subject of making experiments in Agriculture.
Bone-dust . — The specific gravity of bone, as determined by Dr. Thomson, is as follows :
Osfcmorisof a sheep 20345 Ilium of an ox 1S353
Tibia of a sheep 20329 Human os humeri 1-7479
Vertebraj of haddock 1.6350
The nature of this remarkable substance, as a manure, demands attention. Bone consists of or-
ganic and inorganic matter, and these are found in the following proportion in the bones of those
animals which supply the largest quantity for manure, namely, the ox and sheep :
* Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. xiii
(496)
BONE-DUST AS MANURE.
257
Iliura of a
Sheep.
Ilium of
an O::.
Tibia of a
Sheep.
Vertebrffl of
Haddock.
Snout of f^ aw!
tish.deprived
of Teeth.
46-310
42-550
2-638
0-101
0-141
Organic matter or cartilage
C Phosphate of lime..
Carbonate of lime..
43'30
50-58
4-49
0-86
0-31
0-19
48 05
45-02
6-10
0-24
0-20
0-11
51-97
40-42
7-03
0-22
0-19
trace.
39-49
56-08
3-57
0-79
0-79
1 Soda
(^Potash
99-73
100-35
99-83
100-72
gs-ee"!
In an analysis made by Dr. Henry R. Madden, to ascertain the relative component parts of bones
and farmyard dung, the following results -were obtained, the bone being used in the state it is ap-
plied to the soil, and the dung consisting of a proportion of both stable and byre manure :
FARM-YARD DUNG.
Water 45-535
"a aj f Soluble in water 10-750
gjS ^ .. ..potass 14-250
^^ g (.Destroyed by heat 18-565
Salts of potass j
■- of«°'^'^ I 7-900
of lime
Silica J
Earthy phosphates 3-000
100-00
•s g
" <-
11
BONE-DUST.
Water 11-5
Solahle in cold water 47
.. hot water 5-5
.. weak potass 260
.. in strong potass 15-5
Destroyed by heat 60
Phosphate of lime 28-0
Carbonate of lime 2-8
100-0
Another analysis gave of azote in bone-dust 1-77 per cent., in farm-yard dung -45 ; so that in this
respect these substances stand comparatively thus :
Bone-duat. Farm-ysrd dung. Bone-dust. Fami-yard dung
Soluble matter 10-20 10-750 Azote 1-77 .450
Easily rendered soluble ...41-50 14-250 Total organic matter 38-50 33-565
Saline matter 55-00 10-900
Hence 1 ton bone-dust equals, as regards organic matter 1 ton farm-yard dung.
soluble matter 1 ..
easily dissolved matter 2-9 ..
azote 3-9 ..
saline matter 5 ..
earthy phosphates 18-3..
If all the various degrees in which bone-dust is superior to farm-yard dung be added together, 1
ton of it equals 30 tons of dung, but as only 16 bushels of bone-dust are applied to the acre, which
at 47 lbs. per bushel, weighs 7 cwt., this quantity is equal to 10^ tons of dung.* It is still a ques-
tior. whether the organic or the inorganic portion of bone-manure bestows the greatest benefit on
the land, and from its effects extending over more than one crop, some are of opinion, among
whom are Liebig and Sprenge), that its principal efficacy is in all cases to be ascribed to the
earthy ingredients, and especially to the phosphate of lime ; but it has been brought to light that
bones do not lose their organic matter entirely, though they should have been buried for years un-
der ground. Thus the bones of a bear and a stag, after being long buried, were found by Marchand
to consist of
Animal matter
Phosphate of lime
Carbonate of lime ;
Sulphate of lime
Phosphate of magnesia
Fluoride of calcium
Oxides of iron and manganese.
Soda
Silica
Bones of the bear buried.
Deep.
16-2
56-0
13-1
7-1
0-3
20
20
11
2-2
100-
4-2
62-1
13-3
12-3
0-5
2-1
2-1
1-3
2-1
100-
Femur of
a Stag.
7-3
54-1
19-3
12-2
21
21
2-9
100-
"The most striking change," as Professor Johnston observes, " undergone by these bones, was
the large loss of organic or animal matter they had suffered. The relative proportions of the phos-
phate and carbonate of lime had been comparatively little altered. The main effect, therefore,
produced by bones, when buried at the roots of trees, and their first effect, in all cases, must be
owing to the animal matter they contain— the elements of the animal matter, as it decomposes,
being absorbed by the roots with which the bones are in contact." Still, it is found that bones, after
Thomson's Animal Chemiatry.
(497). ir
t Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv.
258
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
having been boiled, and of course deprived of the greater part of their animal matter, make excellent
manure ; but as they at the same lime take uji a considerable quantity of water, which will cause
them to decompose more rapidly when -nixed with the soil, they will appear to act as beneficial-
ly, Professor Johnston conjectures, as unboiled bones. " He who candidly weighs the considera-
tions above presented, will, I think, conclude." says the Professor, " that the whole eflect of bones
cannot in any case be ascribed exclusively either to the one or the otlier of the principal constit-
uents. He will believe, indeed, that in the turnip liushandrj-. the organic part performs the most
permanent and most immediately useful office, but that the earthy part, nevertheless, affords a ready
eapply of certain inorganic kinds of food, which in many soils the plants could not otherwise easi-
ly obtain. He will assign to each constituent its separate and important function, being constrain-
ed at the same time to confess that, while in very many cases the earthy part of lonet applied
alone would fail to benefit the land, there are few cultivated fields in which the organic part ap-
plied alone would not materially promote the growtli of most of our artificial crops."* When
Dones are heated to reduesa in the open air, the ortranic part bums away, and leaves the white
earthy matter, in the form and nearly of tlie bulk of the original bone. It is verj- brittle, and con-
sists chielly of phosphate of lime, and is sold at the chemical works at 9s. per cwl. Bones of cat-
tle and otlier animals, and of fish, except whale-fins, whether burnt or not or as animal charcoai,
pay a duty by the new Tariff of 6d. per ton. The declared value of bones imported into this coun-
try in 1832 was Jt91,755 5s. 5d.; and the duty paid thereon was £'JiO 58. 9d.t I should suppose
there has been a considerable increase in the import since that period. The price of bones at Hall,
the great mart of their import, in 1843, was from i3 15s. to £4 per ton.
(1960.) Turnip-drills, like the other members of the class of implements employed under the
drill-system of cultivation, mark an improved state of the art. for in the early history of the turnip
culture, we find the broadcast method of sowing generally adopted, and in some parts of England
at tlie present day, where farming is otherwise well understood, we yet see the broadcast system
of sowing turnips not only practiced, but advocated as the most productive. That great aggregate
■weight of turnip may be produced in broadcast in particular soils and seasons, may be true, hot
doablless a greater certainty of success is to be obtained from the drill practice ; and it appears
now, from the latest English authorities,? that the former practice will soon be rooted out by the
unflinching hand of experience. In the early stages of the drill practice of turnip culture, the
breadth of land sown being but small, a single row hand-drill or barrow seems to have been gen-
erally used, but a simpler implement than even this has been employed — the hand-flask sower.
As the practice extended, machines of two rows were introduced, drawn by one horse, and this
in various forms continues to be the chief instrument employed iu sowing the seed of this im-
portant root
(1961.) The varieties of the turnip-drill are too numerous to be detailed here in full, nor would
it be profitable to follow all the fancies of machine makers, some of which have produced but cum-
brous and inconvenient vehicles, which, when their purpose is considered, are cumbrous not only in
their bulk, but in the multiplicity of their parts, and hence are complicated and lender, liable to de-
rangement and failure, and are marked by an absence of that simplicity of construction so desira-
ble in agricultural mechanics. In many of our more modem turnip. drills, however, there is to be
seen a marked simplicity of construction, tliat accords well with the objects in view, and this
holds especiall}' with those machines which are employed for sowing the seed alone ; and in none
more so than the machine now very geiieraliy known as the East Lothian drill, which I shall have
occasion more particularly to notice. The recent introduction of numerous granulated manures
has called forth a new classof machines, whose object is to deposit the manure along with the seed
either in immediate contact, or in close contiguity, and these compound machines have again in-
volved a dcL'ree of complexity of construction; for whenever a machine is required to perform
compound functions, a necessarily increased complication of structure is entailed upon it to a
greater or less extent, proportionate, perhaps, to ihe mechanicai talents of the fabricator. An ad-
ditional cause of complication iu the compound drills has arisen within the last few yeai's, from a
desire to economize the distribution of the modern expensive manures, by depositing small por-
tions of it at the points only where the future root is intended to grow, leavijg the intervals desti-
tute of manure. The propriety of thus dealing so niggardly with the soil iu withholding those
substances in abundance by which it is enabled to continue its fertilitj-, is at least questionable ;
but the experiment has effected what I am at present endeavoring to establish — the farther com-
plication of structure in tlie machines emploj-ed. The drill-sowing machines adapted to this pur-
pose are designated in Scotland plumpers, from their dropping their gifts on one point In Eng-
land they are better known by tlie name of dibbling-machines, or drop-drills.
[Of turnip and otherdriUs and complicated machinery' used in England, they have either been
excluded from use in this country on account of their cost and complexity, or they have been great-
ly simplified if not improved. The agricultural warehouses everywhere abound in drills of vari-
ous forms adapted to various purposes.
Although the cheapness of Indian com and the dryness of our climate will prevent the general
introduction of turnip husbandry on a large scale in this countrj-, the dearaess of labor adding an-
other objection, we are strongly persuaded that through all the mountainous ranges of the Southern
States, where morning fogs prevails through the summer so favorable to the grasses, they might
profitably cultivate the Swedisli turnip, to be employed in feeding their cattle, intended to be fat-
ted on grass the next summer. Turnip crops and sheds for sheltering and feeding tlieir cattle in
* Johnston's Lectures on Aericultural Chemiotry.
t McCulloch's Dictionary of Commerce, art. Bona.
X Journal of the Royal English Agricultural Society, voL it.
(498j
REPAIRING THE FENCES OF GRASS-FIELDS. 259
winter, would, we think, ou trial be found a great improvement on their present system. The ex-
tent of the country refen-ed to, the value of its industry, and our partiality for that branch of hus-
bandry, and some of those who pursue it, induce us to give what otherwise might have been
omitted with prejudice to the mass of American fanners. Ed. Farm. Lib.]
22. REPAIRING THE FENCES OF GRASS-FIELDS, AND THE
PROPER CONSTRUCTION OF FIELD-GATES.
" At neglected gaps
Burst scrambling through, and widen every breach.
A stake put timely in, or whinny bush.
Until the season come when living plants
May till the vacant space, much hai-m prevents."
Gkaham.
(1962.) The season being alraost an-ived when the grass is able to sup-
port stock, and of course, when the cattle are permitted to leave their win-
ter quarters in the steading, it is necessary to ascertain, in the first place,
whether the fences of the grass-fields are in such a state of repair as will
offer no temptation to stock to scramble through neglected gaps, much to
the injury not only of the fence, but perhaps of themselves, or at least much
to their disquietude ; and in the next place, to watch the period when the
grass is in a fit state to receive them. Sometimes a good deal of work isje-
quired to put grass-fields in a proper state for the reception of stock,
owing principally to the nature of the soil, and partly to the state of the
weather. On every kind of land the small stones lying on its surface
should be gathered by the field- workers and carted off for the use of drains,
or be broken into metal for roads. It may happen that the throno^ of other
work may prevent the assistance of horses and carts beino- o-iven for
this purpose, in which case the stones should be gathered together in small
heaps on the fuiTow-brow of every other single ridge ; but in doing this,
it should be remembered that these heaps occupy so much of the ground,
and, of course, prevent the growth of so much grass, that, on this account,
it is a much better practice to cart them away at once if practicable. When
carts are used the stones are thrown directly into them ; whereas in makino-
heaps, the stones require some care to be put together, and, of course,
waste time, and they have to be removed after all. Some farmers are re-
gardless of gathering the stones from any of their fields, even from grass-
fields which are to be in pasture ; while all acknowledge that fields of
grass which are to be made into hay ought to be cleared of stones to save
the scythes at hay-time. On clay soils there are very few, or perhaps no
stones to clear off, and in wet weather no cart should be allowed to go on
new gi-ass. As every field, whether of new or of bid grass, should be roll-
ed some time before the stock enter them, it is clear that the ground can-
not receive all the benefits of rolling as long as stones are allowed to re-
main on its surface. The best time for rolling is when the surface is dry
— mark you, not when hard and dry — for when grass, especially young
grass, is rolled in a wet state, it is very apt to become bruised and black-
ened. When dry, grass is elastic and able to bear the pressure of the roll-
er without injury. Light land will bear rolling at any time when the sur-
face is dry ; but plants are very liable to be bruised by the roller against
the hard clods of clay land, and in a soft state, on the other hand, clay k .d
[499)
260 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
is apt to become hanloned or encrusted by rolling. The rolling of heavy
land is thus a ticklish matter; but a good criterion to judge of its being in
a fit state for the roller, is when clods crumble dtjwn easily with the pres-
sure of the foot, and not press flat, or enter whole into the soil. The roll-
ing is uhvays given across the r'it\ge». The stones should be gathered, and
the land rolled at least a fortnight before the stock are put on gniss, to al-
low the grass time to grow after these operations, when it will be found to
grow rapidly, if the weather is at all favorable.
(1963.) Besides the fences, the gates o( grass-fields require inspection
and repairs, so as they ni;iy be put in a useable state for the season.
When any of the timbers, posts, or bars, are broken or wanting, or the
fastenings loose, the carpenter or smith should be made to repair them ;
and the posts on which the gates hang should lie made firm in the ground
when loose, or renewed when decayed. In putting up new gate-posts, the
firmest mode I have found, is to dig as narrow a hole as practicable 3 feet
deep for the hanging-post, and then to ram the earth, by little and little,
firmly around the post without any stones. Charring or pitching the part
under ground is a pretty good prevention from rot for some time. The
simplest mode I have seen of fastening field-gates is with a small chain at-
tached to the fore stile of the gate, to link on to a hook on the receiving-
post. The most convenient position for field -gates is at the ends of head-
ridges, which may be regarded as the roads of fields. Field-gates should
be made to fold back upon a fence ; to open beyond the square ; and not
to shut of themselves. When they shut of themselves, and are not properly
set when opened, and which requii'es gi-eater care than is usually bestowed
on these matters, they are apt to catch a wheel of the cart which is passing,
and, of course, to be shivered to atoms, or the post to be snapped asunder ;
and more than this, self-shutting gates are apt to be left unfastened by most
people who pass through them, and are therefore unavailing as a fence to
stock, especially to horses when idle, which seem to take delight to loiter
about gates, and they not unfrequently find out the mode of opening them.
One reason, perha])s, for horses loitering about the gates is to rub them-
selves, to prevent which, thorns are wattled into the bars : but independent
of this casual safety, every pasture-field should be provided with one good
ruhhivg-post at least, standing 6 feet in hight. The proper construction of
field-gates is generally very little attended to, if one may judge by those
usually to be seen in the country. Some judicious lemarks by Mr. Slight,
vrith appropriate figures, in reference to this much neglected subject, will
be found below, and which I hope will tend to the diffusion of an improved
form in this necessary portion of farm furniture.
(19()4.) The importance of field-pates, whether viewed as the means of pecurity to rrops and
live stock, or as a portion of the peri liable stock in trade of the farm, is an object di,'s<>rvinfj of
grave consideration. Hitherto, it may safely be averred that verj- little attention has been paid to
principle in the construction of field-gates ; and for tlie truth of this, we have only to look around
us, where the eye of the constructive student will detect probably not more than one in a hun-
dred of our field u'ates that are not plarint^ly defective as pieces of extremely simple constructive
carpentry. Defects in point of ("onstruction are not even confined to the field gale : we find them
in many of those ^aies of much higher pretensions, and where the hand of a master having been
at work, we might be led to exp».-ct something like an approach to the true and simple principle :
yet how s*!ldom does the eye. experienced in diicciing those geometrical and dynamia! principles,
on vrlrich alone a just and permanent system of construction depends, light ujjon a form that satis-
fies its discriminating glance. We do. indeed, occasionally meet with examples wherein is
evinced a correct knowledge of those arranRcments of the parts, in a rectangular frame, whether
of wood or iron, that at once secures permanency of form, and stability in the entire structure. In
Buch cases we are sure to fiiul that tlie jjroprii'tor possesses not only an educated mind, but one
that has not disiluined to stoop lo the drudgery of acc|uiring a competent knowledge of practical
mechanics, leading him also to sty the advantage of securing the assistance of mechanics whose
education qualifies them to perform their duties in accordance with the laws of that science. It
may seem trivial to api)ly remarks of this kind to such a simple matter as the construction of a
field-gate ; but assuredly there is no part of oar agricultural economy that points out so broadly the
THE CONSTRUCTION OF FIELD-GATES. 261
ignorance of our artisans in those important branches of their education, the elementary truths of
Greometry and Mechanics.
(19d5.) A gate, generally speaking, may be described as a rectangular frame ; there are excep-
tions to this definition applicable to gates as a whole, but to Jields-af^c>: there are none. A gate, to
be permanent, should Lie immutable or unchangeable in its form ; a simple rectangular frame with-
out uptillings, if they are placed at right angles to each oiher. is the most liable to change of any
connected structure of fiame-work. The triangle, on the other hand, is the most immutable or
lea.*! liable to change ; it is. in short, so long as the materials remain unchanged, perfectlj- immu-
table, but a gate in a form of a triangle would, in most cases, be very unserviceable, though a com-
bination of triangles may produce the requisite figure for a serviceable gate. If tlieu we take the
rectangular frame so essential to a field-gate, and apply a bar in the position of the diagonal of the
parallelogram, we immediately convert tlie original rectangular figure into two triangles, applied
to each other by their hypothenuse, and this gives us the true elements of a properly constructed
gate, all the other parts being subordinate to these, and adapted solely to the practical purposes of
the gate as a defence or for ornament. In many cases depending upon the material employed, an
opposite diagonal may be applied, dividing the gate into tour triangles ; but, in general, this is only
necessary where flexible rods of iron are applied as the diagonals.
(1966.) In looking at the construction generally of field-gates, \vc observe traces of an incipient
knowledge of the usefulness of a diagonal bar, but in very many cases it is applied with that un-
certainty of purpose that marks a doubtful and hesitating knowledge of the subject; we see it, in
short, applied in all the possible positions that may be conceived to deviate from the one, true, and
simple position — extending from an angle to its opposite — which is the simple and universal rule
applicable to gates. Let it, then, be borne in mind that the essentials of a field-gate, whether of
wood or iron, are a rectangular frame. consisting of the heel and head-posts, and a top and bottom bar
or rail, which four pans, properly connected at the angles, are rendered of an unchangeable figure,
by the application of one or more diagonal bars, and these diagonals should in no ca<:e be applied
short of the whole length between anj- two of the opposite angles. The upfiUing, whether of rails
or otherwise, as may be desired to attain any particular object, are mere accessories, and not in any
way tending to the stability or durability of the tabric.
(1967.) The choice of the material for tlie diagonal is of some importance, and here the maxim
of universal application in mechanical construction : •■ Tie with iron, and strut with wood," is es-
pecially applicable. The field-gates constructed entirely of wood, the diagonal should invariably
be applied as a stmt ; that is to say, it should rise from the foot of the heel-post, and terminate at
the <!?/; of the head-post. Placed in this position, the diagonal supports the head or swinging
end of the gate, by its resistance to compression, a duty which, from the area of its cross section
being considerable, and hence capable of resisting lateral flexure, it is well adapted to perform ;
while, at the same time, the above sectional property gives it a broad terminal resistance, where
it abuts upon the angles of the external frame. The same diagonal bar, if applied in the opposite
position, and performing a duty of a tie or stay, its great sectional area would avail but little, for,
though woody fibre is capable of resisting very considerable tension, larch-wood having, with
equal sectional areas, a power of resistance to tension equal to about | that of malleable iron of
medium quality: and though this wooden tie might be found to pos.sess in its aggregate section a
cohesive force greatly bejond that of an iron bar applied in the same position, for the wooden bar
would have a sectional area at least twelve times greater than could be requisite for an iron tie,
thus yielding an aggregate force double of the iron ; yet as the wooden tie must depend for its
connection in the structure, upon nails or bolts onlj-. its ultimate power of resistance to tensioH
depends not on its own sectional area, but on that of the nails or bolts by which it is fastened,
and diese again, may be very greatly reduced by the rending of the extremities of the wooden tie.
(196S.) The advantages of iron as a tie, and its disadvantages as a strut, are just the converse
of the foregoing. From the smallness of sectional area requisite in an iron bar applied in this
construction, as compared with its length, it is not capable of withstanding compression even to
the smallest extent without suffering lateral flexure, end this defect unfits it entirelj- for the pur-
pose of a strut. Applied as a tie the iron bar is perfect ; the cohesion is such that a very small
sectional area is sufficient for the purpose under consideration ; thus, a rod of ^ inch square even
of inferior iron will bear a tension, with safety, of two or three tons, \\hile the best quality will
bear six tons ; a rod of half this sectional area may, therefore, be held as sufficient for the diag-
onal tic of a gate, and as it can be fixed by bolts without risk of fracturing its ends, as in the case
of wood, its application in principle becomes as perfect as it is possible to approach. But though
this construction is in principle completely supported by the tie from any force tending to de-
press the head-post of the gate, there is yet a defect in practice : for a gate is liable, from various
causes, to be forced upward at the head-post. We have seen that a slender and flexible iron rod can-
not resist compression without flexure, and, therefore, a gate with only one iron diagonal tie will
still be practically imperfect, and it becomes necessary to apply an antagonist placed in the
position of a strut, but virtually performing the duties of a tie ari.sing from the antagonist eftects
of tlie two, the tendency of the one being to hold the head of the gate up, while the other
exerts an equal force to keep it down, whereby a perfect equilibrium is preserved within the
structure.
(1969.) In treating of the practical construction of field-gates, it is, perhaps, unnecessary to
dwell upon the strains that occur in the individual horizontal bars, because, if the principles incul-
cated above are attended to. all cross strains in the principal joinings are avoided ; and, except
when any extraneous force is applied, the strains are resolved by construction into those of direct
compression or of tension. Thus, in fig. SoS, which may represent the elements of a fly-gate, ap-
plicable to a drive or thoroughfare, and openinar either way ; if we take the heel-post a b and the
bar a c alone, and hinged in any manner at a and b ; and if the bar a c is 10 feet long, the breadth
of the heel-post at a .5 inches, and the parts being joined by mortise and tenon : suppose, then, a
load applied to the bar at c, the mechanical effect of the load would be a cross strain at k. tending
to break the bar directly across with a force equal to 24 times the load, exclusive of the eflect of
(501)
20:2
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
the bar itself, the bar a c forming here a lever of the first order, whose arm /i c is to the arm h a,
or the breadth of the beelpost, aa 24 to 1. By increasiiig the number of bars we do not alter the
Fig. 352.
THE ELEMENTS OF THE TRUSS IN A WOODEN FIELn-OATE.
total effect of the load, but simply divide it equally over the superinduced bars, supposing them
to be connected with a head-post at i. But reverting again to the single bar a c. and applying to
it the diagonal b c, we have now the triangular figure a b c, the parts of which being firmly
connected at their points of junction, the form becomes unchangeable, and the effect of the loai
at c is instantly altered. The effect of the load at c is now resolvable by the parallelogram of
forces into two others, the one of tension on the bar a c, the other of compression on the diagonal
b c, and taking the length <z /> as a representative of the gravitating or direct efiect of that load,
then the tension on a c will be to the absolute load as the length of a i is to that of a c, and the
compression on the diagonal will be as 6 c to i a. In this example the hinges of the gate are not
shown, but in actual practice the tails of the upper hinge stretch along part of the top bar, binding
it securely to the heel-post, while the bottom hinge may be made to form an abutment to the foot
of the diagonal.
(1970.) The practical insertion of the diagonal is also of some importance. Fig. 353 exhibits
one mode of performing this, where a b \s the strut half lapped upon the heel-post at bottom and
upon the head-post at top ; it is not an elegant mode of insertion, but it is efficient, in so far that
while it acts as a strut, it binds the top of the head-post to the top-bar, and prevents it from flying
off by the thrust of the diagonal.
(1971.) Fig. 354 exhibits another mode of insertion of the diagonal, which is perhaps preferable
to the former ; here the head of the diagonal
is attached to the top bar, half lapped upon it Fig. 35.3.
at h, and notched into the lovver edge as an r^
abutment, forming a very efficient strut, the
tension strain being brought entirely upon
the top-rail, which is always securely tied to
the hecl-posl by the tails of the hinges at c.
These examples are applicable to field-gates
where the bars are always much thinner than
the heel and head-posts, the latter being gen-
erally about 2J to 3 inches thick, and the for-
mer only \\ inches. In such cases the diag-
onal is slightly notched upon all the bars, and
deeper upon the heel and head-posts, where
the method fig. 353, is adopted ; but in no
case should the bars be notched except in
the edge of the top bar, where it receives
the head of the diagonal.
(1972.) I have hitherto alluded only to the
simplest efficient form of wooden field-gates,
in the cont-troctiou of which cheapness is al-
ways an object, and I have, in order to avoid
confusion of ideas, rcsti-irted the description
to the essential parts, the number of bars, or
other means of rendering the gate a sufficient
fence, is left to be filled up at discretion. In
making these upfillings the maker should
studiously keep in mind that no curv'ed bars
or timbers, of any description, should enter into die construction, either for ornament or ostensi-
bly for use.
(1973.) In the construction of wooden gates for drives or approaches, where utility is still the
chief object, strict attention shoulil siill be paid to the principles of construction, but a little more lati-
tude may be admissible in point of lini.sli and expense. For such purposes, the rails and posts
of the gate should be all of one thickness, or at most, the only difference should be a gradual
diminution in thickness toward the head, to lessen the effect of gravity on the hingi>s and gate-
post ; and for pleasant effect, there should not be more than three horizontal rails, with two diag-
(502)
EXAMPLES OF THE APPLICATION OF THE DIAGONAL
263
THE CONSTRUCTION OF FIELD-GATES.
onals ; and if it is necessary to have a closer upfilling-, it shonld be of an upright light balustrade
form. Fig. 355 is an example of this form of gate, which I adopted 26 years ago, and the ori-
Fig. 355.
WOODEN GATE SUITED FOR THE APPROACH TO A VILLA.
ginals then constructed are still good and serviceable, but it is considerably more expensive than
the common field-gate. The heel-post a b is 5 inches broad and 3 inches thick, while the head-
post c d may be reduced to 2 J inches if thought advisable. The top and bottom bars are formed
with abutment pieces at both ends, which are 5 inches broad, the intermediate parts being re-
duced to 3J inches ; the middle bar has the same breadth, but is made up in the middle with cor-
responding abutments, and the two diagonals, of 2 inches in breadth, are inserted in four pieces,
exactly fitted between the abutments of the bars. The hinges are of the common double-tailed
form, binding the top and bottom rails firmly to the heel-post, and the gate may be hung upon
pillars of stone, or of wood well secured. The best balustrade for a gate of this kind is rods of
iron ^ inch diameter, as in the figure, passed up through the bottom and middle bars and
the diagonals, the holes for these being easily bored with an auger after the gate is formed ;
but a simple and cheaper balustrade is formed of light wooden spars sunk into the bars and
diagonals.
(1974.) For all wooden gates, the method of bracing with light iron diagonals is to be preferred
to wooden struts, but to be effective two diagonals must always be applied. In some cases, they
may pass from one angle to its opposite in one length, but in others it is necessary to apply them
in four pieces, the connection at the center of the gate being effected either by a ring of iron, in
which the four ends are screwed, or by bolting the palmated ends of the four parts, two and two
together, through the middle bar, as applied at a; x fig. 355, one bolt securing the four ends, and
in either case the rods pass through the top and bottom of the heel and head-po.sts of the gate, and
are there secured by screw-nuts. It is obvious that iron diagonals would apply in this manner
to the gate, fig. 355, instead of wooden braces.
(1975.) Field-gates of wood, from the cheapness with which they may be furnished when im-
perfectly constructed, have been long in use, and in many localities continue to be more exten-
Bively used than any other ; but malleable iron is gradually taking the place of wood, and, from
its greater durability, may be expected to supersede wood entirely. In the construction of mal-
leable iron gates, we as frequently find malformations as in those of wood, such as placing all the
bars on edge except the heel and head-post, misplacing the diagonal, if single, and not unfre-
quentlj' applying bars variously formed in curves and fanciful figures, to serve the purpose of the
diagonals. The field-gate maker should be instructed to hold steadily in view that there is but
one position and form for that member of the structure that can be fully efficient, and these are,
the straight bar extending from the upper angle at the heel to its opposite angle at the head-post,
and, if the materials of the gate are light, to apply an antagonist diagonal crossing the first. In
framing the gate, also, the top and bottom bars should be set flat-ways, to enable the structure to
resist lateral strain from animals rubbing or pushing against it.
(1976.) One of the latest improvements in iron field-gates is the introduction of angle-iron, now
60 extensively u.sed in boiler-making, ship-building and other purposes. In the application of
the angle-iron to the construction of gates, the fabric acquires the rigidity of a massive wooden
gate, with all the tenacity and strength of the iron, while its weight is little more than that of
wood. Fig. 356 is a form of gate of this construction, which I have lately adopted, with some
alteration, from a design of Mr. William Dunlop, Edinburgh, and is manufactured by James
Slight & Co., Edinburgh. The external form is composed of four bars of angle-iron, measuring
IJ inches on each side, and to give security to the joinings at the four angles of the truss, the ends
of the bars are riveted upon cast-iron corner-plates, those of the heel-post a b being formed with
strong projecting pivots, by which the gate is hinged. Any number of interior bars may be ap-
plied to suit the objects of the gate. The figure exliibits the arrangement adapted to retain sheep
and lambs. The diagonal b d is contrary to the general rule, for it is apparently a strut, but being
a bar of angle-iron, of the same breadth as before, it possesses the stiffuess jf wood, to resist lat-
eral strains — and is hence properly adapted for a strut ; to render the bracing complete, the an-
tagonist diagonal a c is applied, and thi.s acting as a tie, is only a flat bar 1 inch by i inch. The
external frame is thus rendered unchangeable in figure by any force that may be applied to the
(503)
264
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
head-post in a vertical direction, cither opwnr.i or downward, short of what will fracture the
gate ; and the point f. whore the diaifonals cross each oilier at the center of the gate, becomes
alao immovable in the plane of the truss; hence the perpendicular bar/e g, being riveted to the
V'l"ln|"j.
THE FIELD-GATK WITH ANGLF.-IRON FRAME-WORK.
diagonal at e, acquires the same property, and by attachiner all the horizontal bars Xofe e at their
several crossings, each of them is rendered permanent in its position at that point, and no force
short of breaking down the gate can bend any of the parts upward or downward in the direction
of the bar/e ^, so long as this last remains attached to the crossing of the diagonals at e. In or-
der to give farther support to the horizontal bars by the principle of construction, we have only
to take a point where a diagonal crosses a bar, as at h. forming the opposite triangles e k i and
ah k, which, when the bar and diagonal have been connected, become also immutable, and the
perpendicular bar / h m being secured to the point h, and again to the different bars at their in-
tersection with / h m, the whole are again rendered immovable as in the middle. The support
given to the horizontal bars in the line / h m. would have been still more complete if there had
been only one intermediate bar below the middle one, as the three parts would then have met in
one point, as they do at /(, but two bars arc introduced to render the gate fencible for sheep of all
ages. The perpendicular bar n o p \s applied on the same principle as laid down for I h m, the
point of support in this case being o.
(1977.) Ill this construction of gates, the greatest possible amount of mutual support among the
parts is obtained with a given quantity of materials ; hence gates of this construction may be made
lighter than any other form where iron is the material employed, and yet have a greater amount
of strength. In this example, the dimensions of the angle-iron are \\ inches each way, and about
i inch thick -, all the other parts are ^\ inches broad by | inch thick, the ca.st iron corner plates
being, of couree, stouter, and the entire weight of the gate is 112 lbs. It may be of use to those
who make iron gales, but who have not taken time to study the first principles of their construc-
tion, to notice this farther remark. Any number whatever of additional upright bars to those
shown in fig. S.'ie would add strength orsnpport to the horizontal bars only on the principle of
superposition, or adding bar to bar, without the advantages which arise from the principle ofun-
changeablencss in the triangle when applied in the construction of framework, whether in a pim-
ple field-gate, or in the highosi branches of constructive carpentry in wood or in iron. In the one
case, the stress on the parts continue to act at right angles to the bars, tl)e direction in which they
are weakest, while in the other — the principle of throwing the frame into triangles— the whole
stress is llirown ujion one or more parts in the direction of their length, in which jxisition all bars
and beams are stmngest.
(1978.) An example of an ingenious construction of iron gale is given in Parnell's work on Road-
Making, which has been improved upon by Mr. Buist, now of Bombay, and described in the
Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society. These gates consist of a wrought iron
external frame, which is supported by a very perfect system of bracing, with diagonal ties of
iron wire, and filled up in a vnricty lif forms with the same material. Fig. :3.'i7 represents Mr.
Buist's gate with the fundamental lirares and ties, which he thus describes : " The framing a led
is fashioned like that of an ordinar>- gate ; e f, cr h. and k I are three light slips of iron parallel to
the ends of the gate, and riveloil to the upper and lower rails ; o/j i is a wire about the thickness
of a goose-quiU, fastened by a rivet at one end, and a screw and nut at the other ; it passes tlirough
boles in the slips e f. p h, luid k /, and si-rves as a brace to support the bar a h. In the same
manner d p c serves as a brace to d r, while the two sides of the gate being coupled together by
the slips cf, g h, and k I, the lower and unper mils have severallv the benefit of both braces. The
diagonals a c and d h keep the frame in shape, while a t d and 6 / r are braces to a d and b c, by
means of the light bar m n. It will bo seen that all the wires and straps which act as fills-op,
are either braces or supports, so that nothing can be more stifl" than the gate thus completed. It
weighs about 80 lbs., and costs XI 8s. Its dimensions are 0 fi ot by ,TJ feet, but may be made of
any size, the price varj'ing in proportion. It may be observed that a gate with one bolt, when
shut suddenly, vibrates for some time at the fore-foot ; tliis is obviated by two bolts coupled to-
gether, as intlio figure, near b and r, and acting simultaneously. It is also convenient for gates
opening into policy grounds, getting bolted when thrown back by means of a short stamp driven
into the ground, with a catcli at the bight of the lower bolt c."
(504)
THE CONSTRUCTION OF FIELD-GATES.
265
(1979.) Fig. 358 represents a gate of this construction filled up with wires in the form of rays
from a center. " The horizontal bar m n, and the braces a $ d, and b t c. oi fig. y.57 are here omit-
ted as superHuous. The rays consist of wires of the same thickness as before, and about 9 inches
^ /i I
THE ELEMENTS OF THE BRACING OF A WIRE FIELD-GATE.
from each other. Their lower extremities are up.set as nail-heads or rivets, and their upper ends
are fastened with a nut and screw. For the admission of the screws a strong iron arch is placed
in the corner of the gate, and fastened at each end with screw-nuts ; its range down the heel-post
Fig. 358.
THE WIRE FIELD-GATE WITH RAYED UPFILLINGS.
as compared with that along the upper rail, should be as the length of the gate is to its hight, which
in this example, is 18 inches down the heel-post, and 6 inches along the upper rail. A gate of this
form, and 9 feet bj' 3^ feet, costs £1 15s."*
(1980.) The wire-gates above described are admirable examples of the principles of trussed
frames, and for gates. So far as that principle gives them firmness and support, they can hardly
be excelled ; but there is one defect attendant upon the wire upfilling. its too great tenuity, which
renders the wires liable to derangement on being loaded with any cross-strain, such a.s a person
attempting to climb over the gate, and setting foot oli the wires. A diagonal wire undergoing
such treatment will be liable to stretch, and thereby lose its effect. Could such accidents be effec-
tually guarded against, these gates might be regarded as almost perfect. In regard to the expense
of the gates first described, the common wooden field-gates may be considered to range from 15s.
to 25s. The gate, fig. 355, about £\ ISs. ; and the selling price of the angle-iron-gate, fig. 356, is
about Xl 5s.
(1981.) Gate-pillars and fastenings. — For field-gates where hedges form the inclo.sures, the
simplest kind of gate-posts are those of larch or common Scots fir. They may be set in their
natural state, or peeled or dressed in any form to the taste and means of the farmer; but in what-
ever form the body of the post may be, the top should be cut off either in form of a cone or pyra-
mid, or a hemisphere, to prevent the lodgment of water on it. The simplest means of fastening
wooden gate-posts is by beating or pinning in the earth around them as described (1963), but the
most effectual and permanent mode is to form a pit of at least 2^ feet square, and of the same
depth, and the post being set in it, the pit is filled up with rubble masonryln mortar packed firm-
ly, and grouted round the post. This an expensive mode, but is more permanent, and a greater
durability of the timber is effected by contact with the lime.
(1982.) In the Isle of Man, though its agriculturists cannot boast more than ourselves of the per-
fection of their gates, Nature has supplied them with an admirable material for gate-posts. The
transition-slate with which the island abounds is found in one locality, Spanish-head, of a nature
that serves all the purposes of beams and planks of wood, and of this many, indeed, most of the
gate-posts are formed. In Scotland we have now in abundance a material equally suitable for
the same purpose, in the Caithness pavement, which is now applied for gate-pillars, and for which
no material can surpass it. They are built into the ground in the same manner as wooden posts,
and look very much like a plank of wood, but po.s.sessing strength, and especially durability, far
beyond wood. The crook-hinges are either fixed into them by passing through them as bolts
through a jumper-hole, or they may be put in the form of a hoop, and secured with wedges. For
Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv.
(505)
266 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
Geld-?ate<i bailt pillars of stone are seldom nsed, and only when the inclosores are formed of stone-
dykes, and these tnrrns are =o var!ou«. thnt it is c-it of pla^e to describe them here.
'(19S3.) The ia . "verted to : the crook and band hinges
are those chiefly ■ ' say that the hinc-e should be always
doable-tailed. Ti • - and many of them so simple and effi-
cient that it were ililticuil lo (Mini uut wliicL is tlie >iuperior. — J. S.]
(1964.) While treatiDL' offences and iron gates. I may mention a simple plan by which grass-
lawns, or the small plats asnally formed in front <if farmhouses, may be kept short witljont the use
of scvtlics, or incnrrine much trouble and expense. Let a bught be made of wire hurdles of the
form'of the sate fis. 3-57; and. that it may be movable, let the hurdles be fixed together. If the
plat is very small, one inclosure composed of 4 hurdles, forming a square of 9 feet, will suffice : if
11 is larser. anv number of such buL'ht? may be be employed. The use of these inclosures is to
fence 1 or 2 .«heep within each, so that when they have eaten down the inclosed grass, the bughts
OUT be moved forward, or backward, or sideways to a fresh division of grass, until the whole
er&BS-plat is eaten bare. The sheep may then be removed for a time till the grass grows, and again
broushi back. Or, since such bughts would be rather ornamental as otherwise, only as many sheep
may be inclosed within them as will just suffice to keep the grass in good order, and where they
may constantly grace the lawn. A few Leicester tups or tup lambs may thus be kept separate all
the'summer from the rest of the flock, and be prettj- objects on the lawn, while, at the same time,
thev may be doing good in keeping the grass in order, and top-dressing it
23. THE WEANING OF CALVES, OF BULLS. AND THE GRAZING
OF CATTLE TILL WINTER.
"Dissolved in pleasure, crowned with buds of May,
They, for a time, in their fat pastures play."
(19S5.) The cattle which were accommodated in their respective places
in the steading: at the besfinning of winter, continue to be treated through
the spring: months in the same manner as is pointed out in the 32d section,
p. 495 of the first volume. In fact, their treatment is throughout the same
until turned out to grass, which is usually some time in May ; unless varie-
ty of food may be regarded as difference of treatment. It is found that
cattle in a state of confinement in a steading, thrive better on a variety
than on the same food ; and yet when on grass they require no variety of
food, and thrive the better the longer they are kept upon it, except that a
change of pasture is desirable when it becomes bare. Grass is thus evi-
dently the natural food of the ox, and his anatomical structure is peculiarly
suited for it. "Whatever kind of food he is supplied %\nth in \nnter pailakes
of an artificial character, and that being only a succedaneum for grass when
it cannot be obtained, the food be receives should be made as palatable
to him as circumstances will allow, whether by variety or in in supeiior
quality.
(19S6.) The grass should be ready to afford a bite for cattle whenever
the turnips are all exhausted ; at which time the cattle ■will be found to
be in this state : The 2-year-olds, now 3-year-olds, will be full fat, and
ready to be di9|K>sed of to the butcher or dealer. The 1-year-olds and
calves will have gro^vn much to bone, and their condition \vi]\ have im-
proved in proportion to the quantity of nourishing food they have received
durinor the feeding season. The cows will all have calved, or should all
have calved, for a May calf is too late to bring up and form a part of the
herd ; they \vill be in milk, and in fresh condition to put to gi-ass. The
early calves will have just been weaned, and in excellent order to put on
grass ; and the remainder -will be in rapid progress toward weaning. These
cattle, in their respective states, are treated in summer in a different man-
ner from each other, and different from the way they were treated in win-
. ter, and they are treated thus.
(506)
GRAZING CATTLE TILL WINTER. 267
(1987.) The fat cattle are seldom put on grass, being disposed of to the
butcher or dealer, either at home or in markets held for the purpose.
Breeders of their own stock seldom dispose of their fat cattle until the tur-
nips are nearly consumed, being anxious to keep them as long as possible
for the sake of the excellent manure which the turnips afford. Those who
purchase oxen to fatten usually buy a larger lot than can be maintained
on full turnips till the grass is ready, in order to dispose of them before
the season arrives when fat oxen are usually sold. Such fatteners of cat-
tle dispose of their lots in whole, or in part, from the end of the year to
April, whenever the market offers them the most profit. As you are sup-
posed to breed and feed your own stock, you are supposed to retain your
fat oxen to the end of ~ May, when Swedish turnips are still fresh, sweet
and nutritious, though perhaps a little shriveled and even sprouted. There
are then plenty of opportunities to dispose of them, such as the weekly
markets of large towns, fairs for fat stock, butchers from the neighboring
towns, dealers from a distance, and shipment by sea to London, under con-
signment to a respectable salesman. Before disposing of your oxen, how-
ever, you should be acquainted with their weight ; otherwise you will not
know what to ask for them at the current market prices. Experience will
teach you to estimate the weight of an ox by the eye, not the actual live-
weight of the animal, but the weight of beef it will yield after deducting
fehe weight of what is called the ojal, that is, the weight of every part but
the beef and bones, such as the skin, head, entrails, and loose tallow. It
is understood that the farmer is entitled to the value of the entire weight
of the beef at the current pi-ices, and these are always understood to re-
late to the prices of the meat alone ; and that the profit of the purchaser
consists of the value of the offal, subject to the deduction of incidental ex-
penses before the animals are slaughtered. The available parts of the of-
fals are supposed to be equal to the value of l of that of the animal, so
that an ox of d£20 value should leave the purchaser =£4 profit, subject to
incidental expenses. But if the buyer is a good judge of cattle, and knows
their exact available weight of beef, which he will know to within a very
small fraction, he may make such a bargain with the farmer as will not
only cover his expenses, but leave a profit on the carcass over and above
the value of the offals ; and as dealers are constantly in practice, they gen-
erally contrive to make pretty good bargains for themselves, in as far as
their judgment is concerned, at the time the bargain is made, but their
purchases are subject to fluctuation of price, which may fall without an
adequate cause, and occasion them serious loss ; or they may rise and
leave them a handsomer profit than was anticipated, so that the profession
of dealers resolves itself into a speculation, which, if prolonged in its
issue, is involved in uncertainty. Dealers formerly made large fortunes
when breeders and feeders of stock could estimate the value of even
their own stock but indifferently ; but nowadays I believe few dealers
make fortunes, owing partly to competition, and partly to greater skill
on the part of the farmer, and partly to the great expense incurred on driving
their purchases to suitable markets, and in leading a roving sort of life.
(1988.) But assistance may be afforded you in ascertaining the weight
of your cattle until you are better taught by experience, and this consists
in measuring their hulk, or in weisrJdns; their live-wei^Jit. The live-weight
of cattle is easily ascertained by placing the animals upon a steel-yard, oi
which convenient forms have been recommended for fhe special purpose ;
but I am not aware that any of those which have been specially recom-
mended are as accurate or convenient as might be. The rule to determine
the quantity of beef by the live-weight is to multiply the gi'oss weight by
(507)
268
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
•605 of a decimal, if the ox is ripe fat, but if not so, by '5 of a decimal ;
that is to say, that the dfTals of an ox in ordinary condition weighs abont
as much as its beef and bones. An (tx should not be weighed innnediately
after it has fed, as it will weigh too ht-avy, but after it has chewed the cud,
and is ready again to feed. Ascertaining the weight by measurement is a
more convenient method than by weighing ; and when the measurement
is properly taken, and the ox of an ordinary size, it is about as accurate,
though every person cannot measure an ox, that process requiring judg-
ment to do it properly and accurately. Suppose fig. 358 to represent an
ox whose weight, sinking oflals, is de-
sired to be ascertained by measurement.
The mode is, measure with a tape-line
from the top of the shoulder a to the
tail-head c, and mark this for the length,
then mea;<ure rftnnd the body Vitf, im-
mediately behind the shoulder, and mark
this for the girth, and on consulting the
tables calculated for the purpose of af-
Fig. 358.
fording the results, the weight of beef
will be found. Upon what principle this
rule for measurement is founded I can-
not say, and suspect that it is entirely
empirical.
HOW TO MEASURE A FAT OX IN ORDER TO
ASCERTAIN HIS WEIGHT, SINKING THE
OFFALS.
The rules by which the tables are calculated seem to be these
two, namely : multiply the square of the girth in inches by the length in
inches, and divide the product by 7344, and the quotient is the weight in
imperial stones. Or, square the girth mfeet and multiply it by the length
infeet, and multiply again by the decimal '238, and the sum is the weight
in imperial stones. For example : Suppose the girth is 7 feet, or 84 in-
ches, and the length 5 feet, or 60 inches, the weight of beef in imperial
stones, according to Strachan's Tables, which are the most recent, is 57 sts.
10 lbs. by the former rule, and by the latter it is 56 sts. 4 lbs. These results
show that there is no fixed principle upon which either rule is founded.
(1989.) This seems a very simple process, and so it would always be,
were the form of the ox always perfect, which is very seldom the case, the
fore and hind-quarters, instead of being equal, being more frequently
otherwise ; and were the condition always the same. Therefore, the judg-
ment is called into exercise to make allowance for those differences. When
the fore-quarter seems heavier of the two, the line should be stretched
nearer the head than a, the exact top of the shoulder ; and so in like man-
ner, when the hind-quarter seems heavier than the fore, the line should be
stretched beyond c. In regard to the girth, it is no uncommon fault in an
ox to have the carcass gripped small behind the shoulder, so that the ex-
act girth of such a shoulder would be below the truth. It is very rare to
find the girth too much filled out. You thus see that judgment is required
to apply the tape-line to an ox ; and as an illustration of the practical ef-
fects of misapplying the tajie-line, I may state that 1 inch only added to
the girth and length given in the above example, makes a difl'erence in the
above weight of upward of 2 sts. The addition of 1 inch in the length is a
mistake which may easily be made by the ox merely standing with his head
down and back uj) ; and a similar position may may as easily cause an error
in the girth. Experience alone can make you ]>roficient in measuring. I
knew a steward in Berwickshire who had so much practice in measuring
and so frequent op])ortunities of verifying his measurements, that he meas-
ured any ordinary sized ox, whether fat or half lean, from 1 st. to ^ st. of itg
true weight.
GRAZING CATTLE TILL WINTER. 269
(1990.) To an ox from 40 to 70 stones the rule of measurement applies
pretty near, if it is applied with judgment, and it is but fair to the princi-
ple that it should be so applied ; but in weights both below and above
these figures the rule is usually at fault. I have no instances of error in
very small weights to adduce, but many of large ones, and shall adduce
only two. A Short-Horn white ox belonging to Mr. Boswell of Kingcausie
was exhibited at the Highland and Agricultural Society's Show at Aber-
deen in October, 1834. Its measurement was 9 feet 3 inches in girth, and
6 feet 2 inches in length. According to Renton's Tables, the farmer of
Dykeo-atehead, in Bervdckshire, the weight should be 126 sts. 9 lbs. ;
Strachan's Tables, 124 sts. 2 lbs. ; Ainslie's Tables, 122 sts. ; and Stewart's
Tables, 117 sts. The actual weight of beef yielded by it was 136 sts. 10
lbs., after being slaughtered by Deacon Sparks of Aberdeen, being 10 sts.
1 lb. more than the heaviest weight indicated by all these tables. This
difference of weight, at 6s. per stone, would make a loss to the feeder of
c£3 upon a single animal! A 2-year-old light-red ox, also belonging to
Mr. Boswell, and exhibited at the same time, measured 7 feet 10 inches in
girth, and 5 feet in length. Stewart's Tables give a weight of 80 sts. 3
lbs. • Renton's, 73 sts. 8 lbs. ; Ainslie's, 73 sts. ; and Strachan's, 72 sts.
The actual weight obtained by Deacon Sparks was 89 sts. 10 lbs., showing
the enormous difference of 17 sts. 10 lbs. between the real weight obtain-
ed and the lowest weight indicated by Strachan's Tables, and which, esti-
mated at 6s. per stone, would cause a loss to the feeder of c£5 6s. 3d. The
rule derived from live weight is also liable to err, or when applied to oxen
of inordinate weights. Thus, Lord Kintore's black ox, 7 years off, exhibited
on the above occasion at Aberdeen, weighed 28 cwt., or 224 stones. By the
rule of multiplying the live weight by the decimal '605, the dead weight
should have been 135 sts. 7 lbs. ; but when the ox was slaughtered by Mr.
Roo-er, Crown Street, Aberdeen, his 4 quarters weighed 173 sts. 4 lbs., or
37 sts. 11 lbs. more than anticipated, which, at 6s. per stone, made him
worth more by c£ll 6s. 8d. ! On the other hand, a small spayed heifer,
belonging to Mr. Boswell, weighed 88 sts. live weight, and should have
yielded 53 sts. 3 lbs., but her 4 quarters only weighed 49 stones.* In con-
sequence of such discrepancies, it would certainly be desirable were
means used to render the rules of measurement, as well as of weight, more
con-ect than they are ; and I see no way of effecting this desirable end
except by collecting data, by instituting a set of experiments in different
parts of the country, to measure and weigh every animal before slaughter-
ino", be it ox, sheep, or pig, be it large orsmall, for a given period, say 12
months, and see how far the results coincide or differ from the actual
weight of meat afforded by the 4 quarters.
(1991.) The fat cattle being disposed of, the pasture should be judi-
ciously distributed among the remaining stock ; and first, as to the cows,
they should be supplied with the best pasture, the object of keeping them
being to breed calves and to afford plenty of milk to bring them up ; the
moi'e milk they yield the better will the calves prove, and the more prof-
itable they will themselves prove after the calves are weaned. Cows in
summer are treated in a diffeient manner by different people, some taking
them into the byre at night, and even at all times of milking, whereas
others allow them to lie out all night, and milk them in the field. Which-
soever mode is adopted, it should be kept in mind that cows are peculiarly
susceptible of sudden changes of temperature, especially from heat to cold
and from drouth to rain, so that whenever cold or rain, or both together,
which is the most common circumstance, occur, they should be brought
* See paper by me on tliis subject in the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. v.
(509)
270 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
into the byre. For some time after they are put out to grass they should
be brought into the byre at night, where they are milked, and again in the
morning before they are let out to the field, and milked in the field at
mid-day. After the nights become warm I have found it conducive to
health, and it is both a rational and a natural plan to allow them to lie out
in the field all night, and to milk them there at stated hours, three times
every day, the shepherd or cattle-man taking it as a part of his duty to
bring them to a certain spot of the field to be milked, and which is usually
named the milking loan. This mode of allowing them to lie out always
in a sheltered field, no doubt imposes a good deal of labor on the daiiy-
maid and her assistant in carrying the milk to the dairy after the calves
have been weaned ; but I am persuaded it is an excellent system for the
health of the cows. Under it cows rise from their lair at daybreak and
feed while the dew is still on the grass, and by the time of milking ar-
rives, say 6 o'clock, they are already partially filled with food, and stand
contented, chewing the cud, while the milking proceeds. They then roam
and fill themselves, and by 9 o'clock lie down in a shady part of the field
and chew their cud until milking time an-ivcs at mid-day, when they are
ao-ain brought to the loan and milked. Again they roam fin- food, and,
when the afi;emoon is hot, will stand in the coolest part of the field whisk-
ing away the flies with their tail and ears. The evening milking takes
place about 7, after Avhich they feed industriously, and take up their lair
about sunset, and from which they rouse themselves in the moniing before
beinfT milked. Some people are apprehensive that cows must injure
themselves by eating grass which is wet with dew in the moniing ; but it
is a fact, which I believe is not so sufficiently known as it should be, that
bedewed grass before sunrise, and gi-ass after it is dried by the sun, are
alike uninjurious to animals, and it is only when the dew is in the act of be-
ing evaporated, immediately after sunrise, that grass proves injurious to
animals. Why it should be injurious at that particular state I do not pre-
cisely know, but imagine it to be so, because the giass then becomes sud-
denly cold i)y evaporation of the dew. When cows lie out, they have
nearly filled themselves by the time the dew is evaporated, and therefore
feel less impelled to eat much of the grass in the dangerous state ; where-
as, cows that are housed in fhe byre all night are usually milked about sun-
rise, and put out to grass just at the very time the dew on it is being
evaporated, and is, of course, in the most dangerous state ; and it is, more-
over, just then that cows feel the greatest hunger, and eat most grass.
The eflect of this state of grass is to produce hovcn (1294), and especially
on aftermath in autumn. Be the cause of injury what it may, it is certain
that cows let out to grass from the byre are far more liable to be affected
with hoven on wet grass than those which lie out all night, and especially
on new grass. The lying out at night, too, saves the trouble of providing
supper for the cows, which they must have when housed in the byre. But
whenever the weather becomes cold and wet, cows should be brought into
the byre at night, and supplied with supper, such as cut aftermath or
tares.
(1992.) The ireaning of calves should uot exceed one month after the
cows have been on grass, that is, by the end of June, for a calf later
weaned than that period has been too late brought into the world to be
worthy of belonging to the standing stock of a faiTn. As cows increase in
oift of milk after the grass has fairly passed through them, the late calves
should have as large an allowance of new milk, three times a day, as the
quantity obtained will allow, rcserA-ing a little for the use of the house.
The elder calves are off sweet milk by the time the cows go to grass, and
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GRAZING CATTLE TILL WINTER. 271
have received lythax (1685) with a little skimmed milk amono- it, cut
Swedish turnips and hay, until the grass is ready. These calves having
been in the court k, fig. 3, Plate III. of the steading, for some time, may
be put on grass when the cows are let out. The most convenient first
gi-ass field for calves is a contiguous paddock, from which they should be
brought into the couit for a few nights and receive turnips and hay, until
the grass has safely passed through them, and the weather prove mild and
dry for them to lie out all night in the paddock. The youngest calves
should now leave their cribs R, and pass a few days in the court k until
they become accustomed to the air and sun, when they also may be put
into the paddock duiing the day, and there supplied with their diets of
milk, and brought into the same court at night until they are able to lie
out all night. In weaning the youngest calves, the milk should be gradu-
ally taken from them until they "take with the grass, upon which thev
must then entirely depend. A little after all this has happened, say by
the middle of July, the pasture in the paddock will become rather bare,
and the whole lot of calves should then be taken to good pasture, where
they will have a full bite, for nothing can be more injurious for calves than
to place them on bare pasture to fall away in condition immediately after
weaning, and which they will assuredly rapidly do, and from which it will
be very difficult to recover them all summer. Calves may be gi'azed
among cows, or in a field by themselves. In their peregi'inations through
the field, it will be found that those which have been brought up and
weaned together will keep together for the gi-eater part of the season.
The older calves maybe 4 months old before they are weaned ; but as the
season of grass approaches, the younger ones may be weaned at an ear-
lier age, being seldom indulged with milk for more than 13 weeks, but it
should never be forgotten that the first month's nouiishment to a calf is of
much gi'eater importance to its future gi'owth and health, than any pe-
riod beyond 13 weeks, supported on a stinted allowance of inferior milk.
There are parts of Ireland where calves are brought up on buttermilk and
gruel, after the first 8 days they have received sweet milk, and it is boast-
ed that they thrive well on that beverage. This is possible, but they will
thrive far better on sweet milk.
(1993.) Bull-ca\\es should have good milk every day until the grass is
able to support them, in order to strengthen their bone, and maintain
their condition. When a number are brought up together, they should
be gi-azed by themselves on the best grass the farm affords, or they may
go along uath the cows, or they may go along with the ox-calves while
the quey-calves are with the cows. Under any arrangement, they should
not be allowed to accompany the quey-calves. I knew an instance of a
quey-calf being stinted at so early an age as to bear a calf at 15 months
old ; and I knew another quey-calf, one of my own, that was so injured
by a young bull-calf, that she was thereafter rendered incapable of im-
pregnation, though her season recurred periodically. To avoid every such
vexatious casualty, it is far better to keep apart young animals of different
sexes that are capable of breeding. When there is only a single bull-call
he may go with the cows, or with the young oxen.
(1994.) The young 1-year-old bulls should now be furnished with a
ring in their nose.* This instrument is useful not only in leading the
animal, but being constantly in use, in keeping his temper in subjection.
I have no doubt whatever that such a ring affords the most complete com-
mand over the most furious bull. In case of a bull becoming more irri-
tative and ti-oublesome as he advances in years, which many bulls are
•* The form of this ring will hereafter be given by an engraving.
(511) - / = =
272 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
inclined to be, the ring furnishes the means of curbing him at once, when
it would otherwise be impossible to get hold of his nose. It affords also
an easy meriiiH of suspending a light chain from the nose to the ground,
upon which the fore-feet are ready to catch the chain in walking, when the
nose receives so sudden a check that wlieiiever the bull attemj)t3 to i-un
at anyone in the field he pains himself Even a young bull in a field may
follow you at first in sjjort, and run at you afterward in earnest. The
ring is put into a bull's nose in this way : Let a ring of iron be j)rovided
of perhaps 2^ inches in diameter over all, and ~ inch diameter in the rod,
when finished. It should have a joint in it, to let the ring open wide
enough to ])as8 one end through the nose, and the two sides of the ring,
on being closed again after the operation, are kept together with two coun-
tersunk screws. An iron rod tapering to the point, and stouter than the
rod of the ring, should l)e provided. Let a cart-rope have a noose cast
firm at its middle, and put the noose over the bull's head, and slip it down
his neck, with the knot undermost, till it rests upon the breast. Any mor-
tared wall sufficiently low to allow the bull's head to reach over it will
answer to put him against ; or what is safer for his knees, any gateway
with a stout bar of wood placed across it as high as his breast. Place the
bull's breast against the wall or bar, and pass the rope from the lowest
part of the neck along each side round the buttock like a breeching, and
bring one end of the rope over the wall or bar on each side of the bull's
head, where a stout man holds on at each end, and it is the duty of both
these men to prevent the bull from retreating backward from the wall oi
bar. A man also stands on each side of the bull's buttock to prevent him
shifting his position. The operator having the iron rod given him heated
in the fire, just red enough to see the heated part in daylight, he takes the
bull by the nose with his left hand and feeling inward with his fingers,
past all the soft part of the nostrils, until he reaches the cartilage or sep-
tum of the nose, he keeps open the nostiils, so as on passing the hot iron
through the septum it may pass clear through without touching the outer
skin of the nostrils, taking care to pass the iron parallel to the front skin
of the nose, otherwise the hole will be oblique. Immediately after the
rod has been passed so far as to make the hole sufficiently large, and the
wound has been sufficiently seared, the operator takes the ring, opened,
and still keeping hold of the bull's nose with the left hand, passes it
through the hole, and on biinging the two ends together, puts in the
screws, and secures them firmly with a screw-driver. On being satisfied
that the ring turns easily round in the hole, and hangs or projects evenly,
the bull is then released. The ring, as it should appear in the nose, is
represented in the portrait of the Short-Horn bull. It cannot be too highly
finished or polished, and its cost in this state may be 2s. The ring should
not be used until the wound of the nose is completely healed, though it is
not uncommon to see the poor animal tormented, in the attempt of being
led about by the ring immediately after the operation, when every part of
the nose is still tender and sensitive. So alarmed do some bulls become
from the operation, that they hang back from the leading rope of the ring
with such force as to pull the ring through the nose ; but such a use is an
abuse of the rope, and rather than such a result shall occur the rope should
be slackened, and the animal relieved from pain as often and until he
learns to yield to the rope. The readiest and neatest way to attach a rope
to a bull's ring is with a swiveled hook, retained in its place by a spring,
and a rope should be kept for the purpose. On first ti-ying to lead a
bull by the ring, the drover should not endeavor to j)ull the animal along
after himself, but allow him to step on while he walks by his side, or even
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GRAZING CATTLE TILL WINTER. 273
behind him, with the rope in his hand. While so following, to relieve the
animal as much as practicable of the weight of the rope upon the nose,
the drover should throw tlie middle of the rope upon the bull's back, and
retain a hold of its end. Should he offer to step backward, a tap on the
shank with a stick will prevent him ; and should he attempt to run for-
ward, a momentary check of the rope will slacken his pace. On no account
should the drover attempt to struggle with the bull on the first occasion ;
on the contrary, he should soothe and pacify him, and endeavor to inspire
him with confidence in himself and the rope, and to show him that he will
receive no hurt if he will but walk quietly along. The animal, in the cir-
cumstances, will soon learn the nature of the tuition he is undergoing if
he is properly dealt with, but if tormented merely that the drover may
show his power over a powerful animal, it may be a long time, if ever, be-
fore he will learn to behave quietly when led. A useful instrument for
leading a bull by occasionally, when he has not been ringed, or for leading
a cow to the bull at some distance; or for taking away any single beast,
and at the same time retaining a power over it, is what is named the
bullock-holder. It consists of iron in two parts jointed, which are brought
together or se2:)arated by a thumb-screw passing through them. The ends
farthest from the joint terminate in a ring having an opening at its ex-
treme side, each end of which opening is protected by a small ball. The
arms of this ring embrace the septum of the nose gently between th-em ;
and the shank of the instrument being screwed close together, the balls
approach no closer than just to embrace the septum, and the nose of the
animal prevents them slipping out. The leading rope is attached to the
jointed end of the instrument, which is formed for the purpose into a small
ring.
(1995.) A bull that is serving cows is never in a better position than
when attending them in the field. He knows much better than either the
shepherd or the cattle-man when a cow is coming into heat, and he will
attend her faithfully until the proper time of service ; and I believe it is
a fact, that a bull which is constantly among cows in a field never teases
or abuses them so much as one that is taken to them for the occasion out
of his own house. At any rate, I have seen very striking instances of what
I have now stated. But a bull can only be left in the field where he is in-
tended to serve all the cows. It may be necessary, however, in the course
adopted by you for the improvement of your stock, that different bulls shall
serve the cows, in which case no single bull can have access to all of them
alike, and therefore cannot be grazed in the same field with them. When
a bull goes among cows he is usually quite safe to approach, and is quiet
within the fence ; but a bull is always troublesome by himself in a paddock
or field, or even among oxen. He is restless, often bellows, and few fences
will retain him when he is resolved on breaking through, especially where
he can snuff the cows at a distance. In such circumstances, it is much bet-
ter to confine him in his hammel or byre, and support him on cut forage
of some kind, such as clover, lucerne, tares, and the like. When so con-
fined, bulls, like watch-dogs always kept on the chain, dislike the approach
of any one but their keeper, and even a keeper has been known to fall a
victim to resentment. Some bulls become so prone to mischief when con-
stantly confined, that they will attempt to run on any one, when bi-ought
out of the house to serve a cow, the presence or smell of the cow in heat
having so maddening an effect upon them as to render them reckless. The
air and daylight together have an intoxicating effect upon them. Besides
the rope or chain in the ring, a safe precaution for the keeper, in such a
case, is to to have a stout stick about 6 feet loner, with a ewiveled hook
(613) 18 °
*
274 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER
on its end to fasten into the ring, and with this he will not only have a
better command over the ring than by the rope, but it will enable him to
keep the bull ((iVto a certain distance, the animal not being able to iijn at
him without first giving a warning of his intention by pushing the stick. Bulls
display a natural fondness for calves. Bulls that have served cows should
never be alhnved to herd together, as they will inevitably fight, and a serious
bull-fight is a terrific thing, seldom terminating before the infliction of serious
injury to both parties.
(1996.) The young cattle — the 1-year-old and 2-years-old — may be put
on the inferior pasture, that is, on the second and third year's grass ; in-
ferior, not because it is insufficient to maintain the stock in full condition,
but because new grass is usually considered the most nourishing on a farm
for the youngest stock, and most profitable for cows when bringing up
calves. Certainly it is the most succulent grass, and stock are fondest of
it, and it springs the earliest of any on a farm ; but then all the stock can-
not have new grass at the same time, and that part of the stock which are
not employed in reproduction, should receive the least valuable grazing in
summer, though the entire pasture may be very good.
(1997.) Grass land requires peculiar management to render it the most
available as pastui'e in every variety of season. The circumstances which
most injure grass are ovcrstockivg and continual stocking. The most ob-
vious plan, of course, of avoiding overstocking is to have no more stock
upon the farm than its grass will in summer maintain in good condition,
and to avoid continual stocking, the stock should not be allowed to remain
too long on the same field. I believe the safest principle upon which each
grazing field can be treated, is to stock it at once as fully as that it shall
be eaten bare enough in a short time, say in a few weeks, and then it
should be left unstocked altogether, haincd, as it is technically called, for
perhaps a fortnight, in order to allow the grass to grow sufficiently to af-
ford a bite for cattle. One obvious advantage of this plan is, that
the stock at periodic times during the grazing season will enjoy fresh
grown grass; and another is, that the same growth of grass will not be so
long depastured as either to cloy the appetite of the animals, or become
foul by being constantly trodden upon. That this is a rational and natural
mode of managing grass land is evinced by the fact that all stock delight
in consuming fresh grown grass, and all loathe grass which has been long
trampled and dunged upon, and the breath passed over it times out of num-
ber. There is another important consideration to be borne in mind in
conducting the grazing of grass land, which is, the modes in which differ-
ent kinds of stock crop the grass, one kind biting it close to the ground,
while another bites it high. The ox gathers each mouthfuU of grass with
his tongue before he cuts it with his teeth, and therefore requires the grass
to be some inches in length before he can obtain a full bite. Grass which
is not sufficiently long for this purpose, either before it is grown, or after
it has been eaten down, is in an unfit state for cattle ; they may live, but
cannot gain condition upon it, and as long as they are confined upon it will
lose so much time. Horses and sheep, on the other hand, crop grass in
quite a different way ; their lijis being very mobile and muscular, seize
the grass firmly, while the teeth cut it over, and in doing this they bite
very near the gro\ind. This is a remarkable peculiarity in regard to the
sheep, inasmuch as the arrangement of their teeth being the same as that
of the ox, but wanting them in the upper jaw, one would have expected
them to employ a similar mode of cropping ; but the difference in the form
of their lips explains the peculiarity, those of sheep being decidedly pre-
hensile, like those of the horse, while those of the ox are thick and inac-
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GRAZING CATTLE TILL WINTER. 275
live, but the ox's tongue is prehensile, and thus we see that it is the pre-
hensile organs which are the active agents in the collection of food. And
this is a wise distinction in the formation of these two classes of ruminants
in as far as it is suited to their respective natures — sheep being suited to
mountainous regions, where pasture is always short, and where they are
able to crop it with the assistance of their prehensile lips, notwithstanding
the want of teeth in the upper jaw; whereas the ox is better suited to the
plains and valleys, where grass grows long, and is therefore better suited
to be cropped by the scythe-like operation of the ox's tongue and teeth.
The practical conclusion to be drawn from these different distinctions in
the formatiou of these animals is, that the hoi'se or sheep should follow the
ox in grazing, or graze in company with him, but not precede him. When
they follow, the pasture will be eaten barer by the horse or sheejj than
when the ox left it ; and, when in company, it will be eaten barer by the
horse or sheep where the ox has eaten before, and it may first be topjied
by them before the ox has touched it. Of the two modes of treating the
horse or sheep, the latter is the preferable, because choice is offered them
to take the long grass as well as the short. The same reason, however,
that should graze the ox loith the horse or sheep should cause the separa-
tion of the horse from the sheep, and especially in the latter part of the
pasture season ; both kinds of animals biting close, will render the grass too
bare for the maintenance of both. Horses too, work-horses especially, seem
to have a greater dislike to sheep than to cattle.
(1998.) There is a difficulty attending the grazing of all kinds of stock
on a farm of mixed husbandry which I must mention, that as there is every
summer the same number of stock, there may not be the same quantity of
grass to support them ; for the same number of acres of grass, secured by
following a regular I'otation of crops, may produce different quantities in
different seasons — one year being scanty, another superabundant. The
number of stock, therefore, should correspond with the produce of an
average year. In such a case, a bad year very much stints the condition,
while a good year supplies perhaps even more than the same stock can
consume. The stinted condition cannot be alleviated by the sale of any
of the stock, as it is impolitic to disturb the equilibrium of the stock of sev-
eral years' produce which exist on the farm at the same time ; and if the
stock suffer hunger, as it did in the severe drouth of the summer of 1826,
there is no alternative but to make up the deficiency by hay, even though it
should be purchased for the occasion. On the other hand, superabundance
of pasture does no harm, for, independent of its maintaining the entire
stock in high condition, the rough aftermath will be of essential use to
sheep in winter. Of farms whose stock are purchased every year, the num-
ber can be regulated by the likelihood of the crop of grass, but even in
this case the season may turn out worse than was expected. Seeing, there-
fore, that no one can foretell the future state of any crop, the prudent plan
is, in evei-y case, to keep the number of stock under the mark which a farm
can support.
(1999.) One essential requisite in all pasture-fields is an abundant sup-
ply oi tvater for stock to drink. Both cattle and horses drink largely, and
sheep, grazing early on the dewy grass, do not require so much water to
keep them in a healthy condition ; still, when there is no dew, they do drink
water. The proper construction of a watering-pool is sadly misunderstood
in this country. The entrance to it generally consists of poached mud of
at least half a foot in depth, and to avoid this, the animals go into the wa-
ter before they drink, when, of course, it is at once rendered muddy. Not
unfrequently there is scarcity of water, and if there is just sufficient sup-
(515) •'
276 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
ply to prevent the pool being evaporated to dryness, the water is rendered
almost stagnant. So obvious are the objections to this mode of adminis-
tering so necessary and wholesome a beverage to the brute creation as
water, that all that seems necessary to an amendment of the system is to
point out its inconveniences. True, in some cases, tanks of wood or stone
are provided in fields, which are supplied from some adjoining spring, or
even pump-well, and, as far as the quality of the water is concerned, this
is a much better mode of supplying it than in pools; but this mode, good
as it is as far as it goes, docs not provide all the requisites of a good wa-
tering-pool. In hot days, a walk though a pool is very wholesome to the
feet of cattle, and in dry weather, a stand for some time among water is an
excellent preventive of that troublesome complaint, the foot-sore. The ex-
ternal application of water in this manner allays inflammation, and pre-
vents irritation, and permits animals to take their food in peace even in
scorching drouth. Besides the tank of a pump-well is not unfrequently
neglected to be filled — because in cold and rainy weather it is scarcely
visited by the cattle, in hot weathei*it is supposed to be viewed with the
same indifference ; and, even where tanks are duly attended to for cattle,
there are none set down at a lower level for sheep. A watering-pool
should be securely fenced, as cattle are very apt to push one another about
while in it, and for that reason it should also be roomy. It should be of
considerable length and narrow, to allow access to a number of animals at
the same time, if they choose to avail themselves of it ; and I have often
observed cattle delight to go to the water in company. Pools are usually
made too small and too confined. The access to them should be made
firm with broken stones in lieu of earth, and gravel placed on its bottom
keeps the water clean and sweet, while the water should flow gently
through the pool.
(2000.) The want of shade in pasture-fields is also a sad reflection on
our farmers. Observe, in summer, where the shade of a tree cast itself
Qver the grass, how gratefully cattle resort to it, and where a spreading
tree grows in a pasture-field, its stem is sure to be surrounded by cattle.
The stirring breeze under such a tree is highly grateful to these creatures ;
and such a place affords them an excellent refuge from the attacks of flies.
In cold weather, also, observe how much shelter is afforded to cattle by a
single tree, and how they will crowd to the most wooded corner of a field
in a rainy day, even in summer. Ought not such indications of animals
teach us to afford them the treatment most congenial to their feelings 1 1
am no advocate for hedge-row trees, even though they should cast a grate-
ful shade into a pasture-field, and still less do I admire an umbrageous plane
in the middle of a field that is occupied in cotirse with a crop of grain or tur-
nips ; but similar effects as good as theirs may be obtained from different
agencies. A shed erected at a suitable part in the line of the fence of a
field, would not only aff"ord shade in the brightest day in summer, but com-
fortable shelter in a rainy day, or in a cold night in autumn. Such an
erection would cost little where stone and wood are plenty on an estate,
and they could be erected in places to answer the purpose of a field on
either side of the fence when it was in grass. But no matter what it may
may cost, when the health and comfort of stock are to be maintained un-
impaired by its means. The cost of a shed may, perhaps, in this way be
repaid in the first year of its existence, and it would stand, with slight oc-
casional repairs, during the currency of a long lease. When such an erec-
tion is properly constructed at first, it is surprising how many years it will
continue to be useful with a little care. Let it be roomy, and its structure
light, as it may be roofed at a moderate cost with zinc, or composition of
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GRAZING CATTLE TILL WINTER. 277
some sort, or tiles, when they are manufactured in the neighborhood. It
may be troublesome to carry straw for litter from the steading to a shed
situate at a distance, but there is no occasion for straw for litter in summer ;
the rough grass from an adjoining plantation or ditch will supply litter,
and the dung at any rate should be shoveled up and can-ied away before
it becomes uncomfortable to the animals. I should like to see a farm with
such a shed erected in it for every two fields.
(200t.) The teats and udder of cows are at times subject to certain complaints in summer ; and
these are chapped tcaf.x, sore teats, tcarly teats, and cow-pox. Chapped teats consist of cracks occur-
ring across tlie teats, which when drawn downward, the cracks are forciblj' opened, and, of course,
inflict pain on the animal ; and the cows then become troublesome to milk. The easiest mode of
milking tliem while under this complaint, is that described by uievling in (1667), while stripping
aggravates the complaint. I do not know the certain cause of this complaint, laut suppose it to
arise fi-om leaving the teats in a wet state after milking ; and perhaps cows lying upon wet
ground may have the same effect. Sore teats are, when blotches of skin come off the teats, and
their ileshy substance becomes sores by exposure to the air. This complaint may arise from the
milker who strips seizing a particular part of the teat too hard, where an inflammation being set
up, terminates in the sloughing of the skin, and consequent exposure of the fleshy substance to
the air. AVarty teats, I conceive, may originate in the skin of the teats being ruftied b'y too much
force in stripping, or by too long a nail upon tlie thumbs ; and the warts produced in consequence
may be exuberances of tlie skin in covering the Injured parts. I am not sure that these conjec-
tures, for they are nothing more, will explain the cau.ses of these complaints, but I believe when
care is used not to abrade the skin or pinch the substance of the teat, but to keep it clean and dry,
these complaints seldom or never occur. As to the cow-pox, it is a constitutional disease, and can-
not be either induced or retarded. The pock makes its appearance both on the udder and the
teats of the cow ; and as milking must be performed frequently by all the teats, the operation
feels very painful to the cow and she of course, becomes verj' troublesome to milk. Ven,' soon
the pustules are rubbed otfby the operation, and their sites become skinless sores. Nothing but
the utmost gentleness will prevent the cow becoming distracted under the torture. After having
ran its course, the disease declines, the sores become less acute, and heal up by degrees. The
disease fortunately is not of frequent occurrence; I have only seen it once in tlie course of a
fifteen years' experience, and it affected all tlie cows I had at one time — 9 in number. I acquaint-
ed several of my medical friends of the existence of a disease, imagining that they would have
been glad of so favorable an opportunity of obtaining fresh vaccinating matter, but they treated the
offer with indifference. There was an ointment I found very efficacious in affording relief to
the cows when afliicted with the cow-pox, sore teats, or hacked teats. It consisted of fresh
butter melted and burnt in a frying-pan, and mixed with half its quantity of tar. While hot it
was poured into a gallipot, and* applied cold to the affected parts. The tar had the effect of keep-
ing off ilie flies, while the burnt butter never became drj-. The ointment was washed off with
warm water before milking commenced, and the udder and teats dried with a soft linen cloth ; they
were again bathed \yith warm water after milking, again dried with the soft linen cloth, and the
ointment again applied. Calves, after being weaned, are subject, toward the end of summer, to
a disease commonly called the _;V/^«^/t'Z/o«, which, when oxen take it upon the loins, is named
\he chhie-feUoH. It is notliing else than acute rheumatism, ending in a resolution to low fever,
and .so severe is it at times upon calves, that they cannot bear to be moved when lying stretched
out all their length upon the ground. Had cattle sheds to retire to whenever a cold dash of rain
came in the evening of a cold daj-, even in summer, this disease would perhaps never occur. Its
treatment is removal to tlie courts and -sheds of the steading among straw, bleeding, moderate
purging, with fomentation, and embrocations of liquid blister, forciblj- and long nibbed in, of the
swelled joints. Another effectof the samefrebile affection on calves in autumn is the quarter ill or
evil. •' Its characteristic .sj-mptoms are general disturbance of the circulation, and feeble, rapid
piilse, weakness, prostration of strength, determination of blood to particular, but in different in-
stances and epidemics, very different parts, producing pain, and manifesting a tendencj' to in-
flammation, but of a degenerate kind, so that the verj' texture of the tissue becomes disorganized.
The progress of the disease is often rapid, and the result very fatal. In some cases the tungs or
heart are attacked, and in others the liver, bowels, or even some external part of the body."" Its
immediate cause is plethora, or fullness of blood in the system, which shows its effects in this man-
ner: " When the supply of food is greater than tlie exigencies of the system requires," as Pro-
fessor Dick observes, " an animal usually becomes fat, but still may be tolerably healthy. When,
however, a sudden change is made from poor to rich feeding, not "fatness but plethora maj' be the
consequence ; more blood is formed than the system can ea.sily dispose of, and it becomes oppress-
ed. The effect is often witnessed in cattle and sheep, which, after indulging for a time in luxu-
riant pasture, take what is called a .'ihot of blood. All at once they become verj' ill ; some part of
the body swells, becomes puffy, as if containing air, and in two or three liours'the animal is dead,
from the quarter evil already described. Upon dissection a large quantity of black and decom-
posed blood is found in the cellular membrane, which during life'was distended."* This disease
is of frequent occurrence on farms where fine stock are bred, and fi-om the above description of
its nature, there is no wonder that the best calves first fall victims to it. As its name implies, the
disease attacks the hind quarter, and its effects are as sudden as described. Since its cause is
known, calves should not be put at once on strong foggage from a comparatively bare pasture,
nor, for the same reason, should calves in low condition be put on rank foggage ; the transition,
both as regards the pasture and the state of the calves, should be gradual. As a preventive, Bone
' Dick's Manual of Veterinary Science.
(517)
'Zi6 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
farmers iDtrodnce a eeton into the dewlap of all their calves before patting them od foggage in an-
tamn. The ase of the aeton is to prodace counter-irritation. The seton consiiits of a piece of tape
or soft cord pas^ei) under a portion of the skin by a seton-needle ; the ends may be tied together,
and the cord may be moved every oiiicr day (rum side to side, being previously lubricated with
oil of turpentine or blister-plaster, and in this way tht amount of irritation may be regulated. As
to the cure, I believe everj- one is unavailing after the disease kax been obserrcd to exi*t ; but as a
remedial measure applied by anticipatiun, large bloodletting with purging of repeated doses will
reduce the pletlioric tendency of the animal system. Perhaps a cribfuU of hay. with some salt,
placed in a fogpage field, would not be a bad alternative for calves to resort to at times, in order to
modify the etiects of the succulence of rank aftermath.
24. MARES FOALI.NG, OF STALLIONS, AND OF HORSES AT GRASS.
" Yet when from plow or lumbering cart get fipee,
They taste awhile the sweets of liberty:
fen sober Dobbin lifts his clumsy heel
And kicks, disdainful of the diny wheel "
Bloomfield.
(2002.) Whenever field-labor commences in spring, whether with bean
or oat-seed, draught-horses are indulged with hay instead of straw, and
their allowance of com is increased. The hay is supplied to them at
will, and a strong work-horse is supposed to eat about 1^ stones, or 33
lbs. a-day, and some will eat even more. The oats are increased to 3
feeds a-day, which at 40 lbs. the bushel, will weigh 71 lbs., but if the
measure is heaped, which some farmers will allow to be done with horse-
corn, the feeds will weigh S lbs. The quantities of hay and com here speci-
fied are supposed to be given in their ordinary state, but when given in a
cooked state, I have already described their treatment in (1351) to
(1353) inclusive.
(2003.) The hay-stack is seldom broken upon until the horses get hay
in spring. Its site in the stack-yard is marked by an n in Plate IV., fig. 4,
of the steading, and the hay-house is contiguous to it at H, the apartment
which also contains the corn-chest y, and the whole adjoins the work-hoi-se
stable O. When the hay is to be used, as much of the stack is brought in as
will fill the hay-house, and thence distiibuted to the horses.
Every portion cut off the length of the stack should be 4 '^'
or 5 feet, and they are cut off* \vith a hay-hnife, fig. 360,
which represents the usual form of that instmment. It
will be obser\-ed in the figure, that the line of the back
of the blade is not so much as at right angles to the han-
dle, a position which gives the cutting edge of the knife
an inclination to the line of section, which, when the knife
is used alternately up and down in a pei-pendicular mo-
tion with both hands, causes it to cut a longer space than
the breadth of the blade. The person who uses the knife,
usually the steward, while it is the field-workers who car-
ry the hay and fill the hay-house, sets himself on his knees "^ hat-kvife.
upon the part he is cutting off, with his face to the body of the stack. This
form of knife requires considerable strength in its use, and unless the edge
is kept remarkably keen \\\\\\ a whet-stone, and the hay is firm, it does not
make good work. The hay-knife I prefer is of the form of the dung-
spade in fig. 308, which, being used when standing, can be wielded with
more force and make a deeper cut ; and it cuts equally well in both direc-
tions, whereas the common knife cuts only in one direction — to the right.
(518)
MARES FOALING. 279
(2004.) There is considerable waste of hay as it is commonly used in
hay-racks *, fig. 7. The plowmen stuff the rack not only full, but squeeze
the hay firm, from a mistaken notion that they cannot give too much at a
time to their horses ; but when horses find it in this compressed state, and
are unable to select the morsels they want, they toss out a considerable
quantity among the litter, with which, after being trampled upon, and re-
fused to be eaten, it is thrown into the dung-yard. True, the cattle there
will eat it, and prefer it much to straw, because of its being hay and hav-
ing a saline taste, so that it cannot be said to be entirely lost, yet the ob-
ject of supplying the horses only upon hay is frustrated. If it is desired
to give hay to cattle also, it should be given them in a dii-ect manner. To
avoid waste, therefore, small quantities should be put into the racks at a
time, and these frequently ; but the best way to prevent waste is to chop
the hay and bruise the corn, and the mixture will also go a greater length
in feeding the horses. Young horses should also receive hay after the stack
has been broken up, straw becoming too hard and dry after March ; and
hay, besides, serves to improve their condition, and prepare them for grass.
They should also get a little corn every day, until grass time, as nothing
tends so much to enlarge and strengthen the bone, and confirm the spirit
of young horses as corn. So much am I convinced of the truth of such a
result, that I entirely agree with the observation of the late celebrated
Nimrod (Mr. Apperley), that the belly of the young horse should be the
measure of his corn. It is to the niggardly disposition, in regard to corn,
which farmers eviuce toward their young horses, that is to be ascribed the
number of weak horses that are met with on farms ; for the greatest
abundance of corn administered to the adult state, will never compensate
for its want when the animal was in the state of adolescence.
(2005.) May is the particular month in which drauglit-viares usually
drop their foals. They continue to work until the immediate symptoms
of foaling are observed. These are great loosening of the ligatures on
each side of the root of the tail, and the appearance of a waxy-like matter
projecting from the point of the teats. As it is impossible to predict a
mare's foaling within a few hours, it is proper to put her into a loose-
house or a box by herself, and to watch her every night. Too many fai'm-
ers contemn such precautions, and allow their mares to foal in their stall
in the stable, to the risk of having both them and their foals kicked by the
other horses. That watching is necessary at night, even in a loose house,
is evinced by a fact mentioned to me by the late Mr. Airth, Mains of Dun,
Forfarshire, of a mare of his which, having been neglected to be watched
at night, or even removed from the stable, was found in the morning lying
on the floor with her womb protruded and the foal smothered in it. The
mai-e shortly after died in great agony. It is a remarkable fact that few
people have observed mares to foal, even though watching for the purpose,
for somehow they contrive to foal when left by themselves for even a few
moments. I have endeavored for successive years to witness the foaling
both of blood and draught-mai;es, and was always disappointed. A mare
will eat with heartiness until the pams of labor seize her, when she sud-
denly lies down, foals easily, quickly, forcibly, requiring no assistance, and
starts to her feet almost immediately after parturition, takes up with,
though licks but little at her foal, and soon begins to eat again. The foal
is not long of gaining its feet after a few staggering attempts on its long
legs, but some time elapses before it can steady itself, so as to lay hold of
the teat. It should be assisted in this its first attempt, in order to get
filled with milk, after which it may lie and sleep among straw until it be-
comes dry. The placenta soon drops from the mare, and should be imme-
(519)
280 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
diately removed. The thin pellicle which covers the foal is, when dried,
very like the finest gut-skin used by gold-l)eaters, and it forms a very good
protection from the air when applied as a plaster over the surface of a
green wound. The mare should have a drink of lukewarm water and oat-
meal, and a few handsfnll of corn, after partuiition, and, on partaking of
which, she may be left with the foal. For the sake of increasing her milk
she should be put to gi-ass immediately after foaling, if she is not on grass,
and should remain there without being put to work for a month ; by which
time she will have recovered her tone of body sufficiently to bear again
the fatigue of labor. The sort of work for a mare having a foal should
be of a nature to interfere but slightly with the more important operations
of the farm ; because having to suckle the foal every half yoking, she
should be employed singly, such as at sowing and scuffling turnips, scuf-
fling potatoes, and leading grass or other forage. When the mare is again
made to work, the foal should be left by itself to rest in a well-littered
apartment of the steading until it become accustomed to be alone, rather
than in a court or hammel, out of which it may attempt to escape and in-
jure itself Should there be two mares with foals, both should be worked
tof^ether ; the treatment of both being alike, little inconvenience will arise
to work, from being taken to their foals out of yoke together (3141). A
stout mare wU be able to perform her own share of summer work, and
bring up a foal at the same time ; but should she be in a weakly state,
which she will be when becoming old, or is overworked, she should be put
either to very gentle work, or to work only in half yokings, or one yoking
a day, or be idle altogether and constantly with her foal. She should not
be neglected of com, however, though idle at grass with her foal. It is
seldom that any illness attacks a draught-mare while bringing up a foal,
and it is as seldom that anything is the matter with a foal. I had one
work-foal, however, which, though safely and easily foaled, and seemed
lively enough, could never stand upon its feet, or lay hold of a teat, and it
died in the course of a day after it was foaled, though fed on cow's milk.
A mare when thus deprived of her foal, should be occasionally milked,
and kept on dry food for a few days, until the tendency of the milk to se-
crete subsides. The mare will be ready to receive the horse in 3 weeks,
or a month at farthest, after parturition, and the first symptom of heat is
fiequent twitching of the vulva, and emission of a clear fluid. When a
mare is touched in this state, she immediately presses toward the object
that touches her.
(2006.) In presenting a mare to the stallion, caution should be used to
prevent her striking him with her heels when she refuses his attentions;
and this consists simply in holding her by the head with a bridle across
the outside of the stable door, while the stallion is kept within, and allowed
to snuff" and pinch her flank. If she takes the teasing kindly, presses
closer toward him, twitches the vulva, and emits, she is in proper heat, but
if she squeal and kick whenever he touches her, she is in an unfit state for
him; but the tickling of the horse for a time not unfrequently confirms
the season of the mare when it at first evinces a doubtful issue. If in sea-
son, she should be taken to an open piece of level ground, and held by
the head as long as the horse covers her, and the time occupied by a
stallion in covering is much longer than by the bull or tup, which is in-
stantaneous. A horse which is safe to use requires no encouragement
from his leader, but many need some assistance from him. Making a
mare stand to the horse by a twitch on her nose is an unnecessary act of
cruelty ; for if she will not voluntarily receive him she will not become
impregnated by a.ny force that can be used against her. One cover is quite
(520)
HORSES AT GRASS. 281
sufficient at a time. In about 3 weeks it will be seen whether the mare
has held to the horse ; and should she again exhibit symptoms of season,
simple and safe expedients may be used to secure her holding, such as
throwing a bucket of cold water upon her rump the moment the horse
leaves her, or drawing blood from her neck vein while the horse is cover-
ing, or, what is better than all, unless the season is going rapidly off her,
retaining the horse all night and offering her a fresh cover in the morning,
or, to adopt a different plan altogether, covering her with another horse,
or another kind of hoi'se — one or other of which expedients generally se-
cures the holding, unless the mare is past bearing, which casualty befalls
mares at very different ages. I was told by a man who led stallions for
many years, that the expression of a sigh, from both horse and mare, im-
mediately after an embrace, is an infallible sign of the mare proving in
foal. The circumstances which militate against a mare's holding in foal is
too high and too low condition. Whenever a mare is seen to eject semen
as soon as the horse has left her, she will certainly not hold. Sometimes
the fault is as much that of the horse as the mare, for when subjected to
much traveling, and is, moreover, not a good traveler, and has undertaken
more sei^vice than he can easily overtake, he is often so much fatigued
when brought to a mare, especially toward evening, as to be quite unfit
for effective service. When a horse is observed to be in a state of lassi-
tude, the very best policy for the farmer is to give the horse and his leader
a night's quarters, and let him cover the mare in the morning when he is
comparatively fresh. Many farmers grudge maintaining a horse and man
all night, but much better incur that small expense than run the risk of a
mare proving barren. When a mare has been covered 3 separate periods
without success, it is needless to persevere with her, as the foal will come
too late next season, and a late foal is as objectionable stock to bring up
as a late calf.
(2007.) The usual treatment of dranght-Jiorses in summer is to allow
them to lie out in the pasture-field all night, and give them cut grass be-
tween the yokings in the stable. Forage is supplied them, because the
time between the yokings is too short to fill themselves with grass on pas-
ture ; but on the Borders, where the first yoking is over by 9 or 10 o'clock
in the forenoon, the horses are put into the pasture-field until the afternoon
yoking at 1 o'clock ; and this plan saves all the trouble of cutting gi-ass
for the horses. The piece of grass allotted to horses is cut by the plow-
men, wlio each take the duty for a week by turns, and he quits the yoking
in time to allow him to cut the requisite quantity and cart it to the stable.
It is not his duty to supply the racks in the stable, except his own horse's,
but to empty the load of grass on some convenient spot near the stable
door — a dirty and slovenly practice. No doubt it is better to keep the
fi'esh cut grass in the open air than to put it into a house ; but still a crib
or inclosure could be made in a shady place conveniently near the stable,
to keep the grass fresh, and place it off the dirty ground.
(2008.) Grass is cut with the common scythe, which is so well known
an implement that a particular description of it seems unnecessary. A
few words, however, on the choice of scythes and of the maimer of mount-
ing them, may be useful to you. The handle, or snead or sneath, fig. 361,
a b, is made either curved to suit the sweep of the instrument by the hands
round the body, as in the figure, or straight, and the suitableness of both
for work you shall learn when we come to consider harvest-work. The
curved snead is usually made of willow, which, being shaped in hot water,
and restrained, on being released when the wood becomes cold, retains
the shape. Of scythes there are various kinds : the common kind keeps
(521)
282
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMETt.
Fig. 361.
its edge but a short time, and in the long run is, I believe, more expen-
sive than the jmtint kind, which consists of a steel plate ri-veted between
2 small rods of iron, and wliich plate will continue to cut keenly until it
is worn to the back-bone. The length of the blade of scythes varies from
28 inches to 46 inches, and the price of the
common kind varies between these lengths
from 2s. 4d. to 3s. 3d. each, and the patent
from 3s. 2d, to 4s. 8d. each. There are be-
sides these, other kinds termed crown, la-
beled, and extra-warranted scythes. Bent
sneads cost from Is. 3d. to Is. 6d. each,
straight ones Is. each. The straight are
made of any sort of wood ; I have seen
good ones of larch. Scythes are shai-pened
with strickles and stones. The strickles are
made of fine sand imbedded in an adhesive
medium laid over the surface of a piece of
wood of square or flat shape, and cost
6d. each. They are used to smooth the
edge after the stone, and serve of them-
selves, for a time, to keep the edge keen ;
and they are always attached to and car-
ried along the upper end of the snead at d,
by a T headed nail and spike. Scythe-
stones are either square or round, are
formed of the same sandstone as grind-
stones, and cost 4d. each. They are only
occasionally used to set a new edge on the
blade. Ragstones cost 4d. per lb. The
blade of a scythe is mounted in this man-
ner : the snead is furnished with an iron ring at the end, to which
the blade is attached ; the projecting hook at the butt-end of the blade
is imbedded flush into the snead by taking away a portion of the
wood, and the ring is then slipped over the imbedded hook, and is held
tight in its position by an iron wedge as at a. The peculiar position
which the blade bears to the snead is determined by measunng the
length of the blade a o straight along the snead from a to d, where is
fastened the handle for the light hand, and the same length from d, to c
fixes the point of the scythe, so that a d c forms an equilatei'al triangle ;
and of course the l)]ade stands at an angle of 60° with the snead. Theory
would advise the placing of the j^ld^c of the blade parallel with the ground,
when the scythe is held as intended for cutting ; but practice requires the
cutting edge to be a little elevated above the ground, and above the back
of the scythe which sweeps along the surface of the ground ; and the rea-
son for keeping the edge elevated is, that it would not only be apt to run
into the ground if swung parallel with it, but the scythe would be worked
with greater labor, as the stems of the plants to be cut would present an
obstacle directly at right angles against the blade, whereas the edge set
upward cuts the stems in an oblique direction. The blade is still farther
secured in its position by the grass-nail^ which is hooked by one end into
e hole in the blade, and is nailed through an eye by the other to the snead ;
and a great use of the giass-nail is to prevent any plants cut from being
entangled between the blade and snead. The left-hand handle e is placed
to suit the convenience of the workman. I shall reserve remarks on the
mode of using and sharpening the scythe until we treat of harvest-work.
(522,
THE PATENT SCYTHE WITH BENT
SNEAD.
HORSES AT GRASS. 283
(2C09.) Objections have been made to pasturing grass at all by any spe-
cies of stock, inasmuch as the same extent of land will maintain a gieater
number of aniinals when cut and given them in houses or yards. To ex-
press this proposition shortly, soiling is a more profitable and less waste-
ful mode of using grass than pasturing. Although there is much truth in
the observation, it is too generally expressed to be true in all cases. In
the case of mountain-grass it is evidently an impracticable proposition to
use it by soiling. Much cattle and sheep must, therefore, be allowed to
pasture ; and with regard to much of the old grass of the low country a
great part of the summer would elapse before it would be fit for the op-
eration of the scythe. What is to become of stock in the mean time 1 The
only other grasses left are the cultivated kinds, such as clover and rye-grass,
and that from irrigated meadows. Of these two kinds it is quite possible
to procure a supply of cut grass from water-meadows by the time the
Swedish turnips are exhausted in the beginning of June ; but the culti-
vated grasses are not fit for cutting by that time except in the neighbor-
» hood of large towns. What, again, is to become of stock in the mean
time 1 Some other plants than clover and rye-grass must be cultivated to
support the stock till that period ; perhaps lucerne and Italian rye-grass
might be cultivated for the pui-pose, but both cannot be cultivated every-
where, for lucerne will not thrive in Scotland, and before either could be
cultivated anywhere for an extensive system of soiling, a different system
of husbandry will have to be contrived, and a system to produce early
forage in a late climate will not be easily discovered. In regard to the
comparative extent of a ground required for soiling and pasturage, it has
been alleged to be 3 to 1 in favor of soiling; that is, 33 head of cattle
were soiled from 20th May to the 1st of October, 1815, on 171 English
acres, and which number of cattle, it was said, would have required 50
acres to pasture them.* On the face of this statement I would say, that
any 33 head of cattle that could be maintained on 17^ acres of cutting
grass, would as easily be maintained on the same land on 33 acres of pas-
ture— 1 acre of pasture to an ordinary sized ox being quite sufficient to
maintain it from May to October. So that the proportion is reduced from
2 to 1, which I believe is near the truth in regard to the maintenance of
Oxen. In regard to work-horses, it is different, for they will certainly re-
quire a much greater extent of ground in cutting grass than in pasture.
To cut grass, however, for all the cattle on a large farm, to lead it to the
steading, and to supply them with sufficient litter in summer, is what I con-
sider an impracticable thing, were it for no other reason than that the crop
of grain on any farm that admits of its grass being pastured cannot afford
sufficient straw to litter stock the whole year; and if sheep are to be in-
cluded in the soiling system, where is the steading that could afford them
accommodation ] Nor is the objection against grazing of the manure of
animals being entirely lost, altogether valid, because land that is constantly
grazed will support stock to an indefinite time ; whereas where grass is
cut and canied off evexy year, the time will soon arrive when the grass
can no longer be cut xmtil manure be applied to the ground. Does not
this circumstance of itself show that the dung dropped on pasture is not
entirely lost, and that the land derives considerable advantage from being
pastured ] I have often thought that all the work-horses on a farm might
be supported in the steading night and day upon cut grass. I have tried
the experiment twice myself, but failed in both cases, at one time for want
of cutting gi-ass, the second cutting having entirely failed that year, and
the other for want of straw for litter until the arrival of the new crop.
♦ See Sinclair's Code of Agriculture, and Notes.
(523)
284
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
The straw might have been economized in the stable, but the stable in
summer, even with open doors, ventilators, and no hay-loft, is insuffera-
ble ; and the horses required far more straw to keep them dr^- in the ham-
mel on cut grass than they did on straw and corn in the stable in winter.
Taking all these untoward circumstances into consideration, they led to
the conviction that soiling on a large scale is impracticable ; and until
early growth of grass, as well as a late growth of aftermath, and plenty of
straw, are assured to the farmer every year, I cannot see how soiling can
be established as a regular practice in husbandry on a farm of even mod-
erate extent. Oft a small scale where only a few animals of every kind
are kept, I conceive that soiling might be practiced with advantage, and
it behooves all small farmers to make their grass land go as far as possible.
(2010.) Work-horses, when on grass, are subject to few distempers, the principal being an-
noyance from a host of iiisccts. and among these the common horse-fly or cleg, and the bot-tiy,
are the most troublesome. The cleg delights in warm and sultrj- weather ; is most active on
the wing during the day, and therefore most troublesome to horses and cattle when they stand
most in need of repose. They are particularly excited and eager for blood when the aimo.«phere
is in a warm and humid state, such as it usually is after a thunder shower; and it is this circum-
stance which has obtained the specific name oi phtv talis for the cleg. Another pest to the horse
is the great spotted horsebot, Gasterophilus equi, seen at a. fig. 362. It is about 7 lines in length ;
Fig. 362.
THE HORSE-BOT GASTEROPHILUS EQUI.
general color clear yellowish-brown : thorax inclining to gray ; abdomen rust-brown, with a
tinge of yellow ; wings whitish ; and legs yellowish. The antennae are inserted in the cavity of
the face, as seen at h, the second joint large and kidney-shaped, the remaining three forming a
naked bristle as at c. The eyes are equally distant in both sexes ; mouth either entirely want-
ing, or consisting merely of an indistinct line or opening. This insect takes no nourishment of
any kind ; in fact, the alimentarj- canal has no opening at its anterior extremity. It flies in com-
pany, producing a humming sound. "The female having selected the individual to which her
treasure is to be intrusted," savs Mr. Duncan, " she continues to hover about for a short time till
the egg be propelled through tfie oviduct, and placed in tlie pincers at the extremity of the anal
tube. Thus pre[iarcd. she makes a sudden descent upon the horse — her body carried nearly in
a perpendicular direction, and the ovipositor curved forward — and deposits the egg upon a liair,
to which it instantly adheres by means of a glutinous matter secreted along with it This process,
which is performed with so much expedition that the fly can scarcely be said to alipht on ilie
horse, is repeated at inter%al8 till the whole of the mature eggs are discharged." These eggs,
which are very numerous, 400 or 500 being sometimes placed on a single hair, are somevChat
pouch-shaped, and shatreened with transverse and longitudinal strioe, as seen at d. Under tlie
guidance of an instinct which cannot be sufficiently admired, the fly almost invariably attaches
her eggs to some part of the fore quarter of the horse, the inside of the knee and the shoulder be-
ing the spots most commonly selected, so as to be within the reach of his mouth, for he is himself
to be made the unconscious instrument of conveying them into his stomach, where r.lone they can
be brought to maturity, the temperature of a horse's stomach being as high as 102= Fahrenheit.
Even when beyond the reach of the mouth, the eggs are not necessarilj- lost, for the horses are
in the habit of licking each other, and a horse free from hots may thus receive them from another.
" \Vhen the eggs are mature, " continues Mr. Duncan, " it would seem that the lar%a» make their
appearance verj' soon after they are touched by the tonpue, the warmth and the moisture both
contributing to their immediate development. Indeed, if the larvae were not disclosed before
reachinir tlie stomach, or verj- shortly after, the eggs would very soon pass into the alimentary
canal. The larvae fix themselves by hooks to the inner tissue of the stomach, where they remain
in security, uninjured by the powerful action of the gastric juice, and enjoying the warmth of a
(524)
SHEEP-WASHING. 285
tropical climate." A small ^oup of these larvas adhering to the coat of the stomach are repre-
sented by e. Their color is pale reddish- yellow. Their only food seems to be the humor secreted
by the internal membrane of the stomach, or it may be the chyme, the latter undergoing a farther
elaboration to adapt it to their system. Bots take up their quarters in the stomach in the end of
summer or autumn; and pass the whole winter and spring months there, without undergoing any
change, save gradually enlarging and advancing to maturity. When that is complete, they cease
to retain their hold, pass into the intestinal canal, and are ejected by the anus. On account of the
many ordeals which this insect has to pass in its transformation, perhaps not 1 in 100 of the eggs
ever arrive at the perfect state of fly. The red-tailed horse-bot, Gasterophilus hamorrhoidahs,
though only half the size of the preceding, is nevertheless a greater torment to the horse. The
female parent fly deposits her eggs on the lips of the horse, and this operation is attended with
so much pain, that no sooner does it make him aware of the presence of the fly, than he tosses his
head and gallops oft' to a different part of the field, or, if he has the opportunity, betakes himself
to the water, where his tormentor generally leaves him, having a peculiar dislike to that element.
Indeed all the tribe of gadflies have, and, to avoid them, it is not uncommon to see numbers of
cattle lying on the sea-shore until the approach of tide alone compels them to retire. When this
fly succeeds in fixing an e§^, the horse rubs his mouth against the ground or upon his fore-legs in
great agitation, frequently striking out with his fore-foot, which occasionally comes in contact
with the jaw, and serves but to increase his irritation. The larvse are taken into the stomach, and
fix themselves there, exactly in the same manner as the greater hot. When they reach the in-
testines, they remain a long time, casting anchor again in the rectum, where they cause great un-
easiness to the horse, causing him to kick frequently, and even rendering his movements awkward.
These bots should occasionally be looked for in horses that have been out at grass the preceding
year, at the extremity of the anus. The only speedy remedy for getting quit of them is in back-
raking by the anus. The more rare_ species are the Gasterophilus nasniis, salutiferus, and
Clarkii. Mr. Bracey Clark was of opinion that the presence of bots in no way injured the horse,
but on the contrary, by stimulating the stomach, they tend to prevent colic, gripes, and other in-
digestions which aflect the head of the horse and produce staggers. " The appearance of exan-
themous eruptions on the skin," he says, •' and the formation of local abscesses, from the same
cause of partial irritation, often relieve a general disorder of the sj'stem. The mucous membranes
of the skin possess this power, when irritated, in the most eminent degree, and to these the larvae
of the CEstri are applied. Irritating the membranes of the stomach in other animals would ex-
cite nausea and vomiting ; but the horse not possessing this power, his stomach is peculiarlj- fitted
for the stimulus of such animals."* An annoying insect of less importance is the Chrysops ccbcu-
tiens, which is of a bright color, and though frequent in some parts of England, is not so great a
pest there as to horses on the Continent. Another fly, the Stomoxydce calcitirans, is in size and
markings not unlike the common house-fly, Musca dovicstica. This insect attacks various animals,
as well as man himself, and becomes very troublesome in certain localities. It attacks the legs,
and its punctures are attended with great pain, especially in damp, moist weather. Another an-
noyance to horses is the forest-fly, Hippobosca equina. " The attacks of this insect." says Mr.
Duncan, " are principally confined to horses. It occasions no other harm than an extreme degree
of irritation, and if the flies are numerous, the animal is apt to become unmanageable. It insinu-
ates itself by a sideling, crab-like motion beneath the hair, and anchors itself to the skin by means
of its largely-toothed claws. It also runs about among the roots of the hairs with great ease, cre-
ating an insufferable titillation, which is still more increased by the frequent insertion of its pro-
boscis into the pores of the skin. The places to which it prefers attaching itself are the under side
of the belly, beneath the tail, and on the under side of the jaws. The insect is so flat, tough, and
unyielding, that it is by no means easy to kill it by pressure, and it is, moreover, tenacious of life.
It is said that horses long accustomed to its attacks become, in some measure, indifferent to them ;
those which have never experienced this plague, which is enough to render some animals almost
frantic, may be saved from it, according to M. Kollar, by the following application. Take of
mineral earth 8 oz. and of lard 1 lb., and make them into a salve. Some of this salve is to be
rubbed on here and there upon the hair, and worked in with a wisp of straw. After 24 hours the
salve is to be washed off with warm water, in which brown soap has been dissolved. Care must
be taken that the horse does not catch cold."
25. SHEEP-WASHING, SHEEP-SHEARING, AND THE WEANING
OF LAMBS.
" Gay shearing time approacheB. First, howe'er,
Drive to the double fold, upon the brim
Of a clear river — gently drive the flock —
And plunge them one by one into the flood."
Dyeb.
(2011.) I have said that as lambs become strong enough to be put to
pasture, they always get new grass, in order to increase the miUc of the
* Clark's Essay on Bots.
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286 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
ewes (1835). The new grass, to be pastured by ewes and lambs, should
be selected with iudgment, and that intended for hay should first be stock-
ed, because it i.s found that new grass, if moderately eaten down in spring,
stools out, and afiords a thicker cutting at hay-time, than if it had not been
so pastured. For the same reason, the new grass intended to cut for horses'
forage, should also be earlier pastured than what is to be pastured all the
season, not only to give both it and the hay-giass time to attain their gi-owth
when they shall be wanted, but to give the pasture-grass time to become
so strong as to support being pastured. None of the new grass should be
eaten too bare, even the part which is to be pastured by the ewes ; and
rather than commit such a mistake, even in a late season, the ewes should
have a hasty i-un over the best of the older grass for a fortnight or so, till
the hained new grass has revived. After the castration of the lambs (1841),
there is nothin«T to do to them until the ewes are washed preparatory to
shearinor the wool for them, and which is done about the beginning of June
(1843).°
(2012.) When the turnips are all consumed, and the time has anived
for the last of the turnip land to be plowed up for barley (1852), the /toggs
receive a change of treatment. The u-ether-hoggs are either sold to the
dealer of the turnips, or put to grass till shorn of their wool, and then dis-
posed of; but the ewe-hoggs are always retained on the farm, because it is
they which supply the waste of ewes, and are, of course, clipped of their
wool in due time. The circumstance that determines which of these ways
the u-e/Jier-hoggs should be treated, is the state of the wool and mutton
markets. If you find, on examination, that the hoggs are so forward in
condition as to realize as much money off the turnips, with cunent prices,
as they probably would after being kept for a month on giass, and
washed and clipped, it is, of course, more profitable to dispose of them
at once ; and, independent of this circumstance, should you fear the gi-ass
to prove insufficient to support them well till they are clipped, there is a
necessity for parting with them immediately off the tuniips ; but should
you find that you have grass to maintain their condition, and that the wool
market is likely to be brisk, it would, of course, be advisable to clip them.
It is of less importance to increase the condition of the eu-e-hoggs off the
turnips by putting them on the best grass, nevertheless they should
not be allowed to faU off in condition, for fear of injuring the quality of
their wool. If you determine on selling the wether-hoggs, y(m should first
ascertain their value ; and in attempting this you will at once perceive,
that a sheep wearing its coat of wool cannot be subjected to the ordinary
rules of measurement ; nor can its true weight be found by weighing it
alive, because the weight of the wool enters as a disturbing element into
the calculation, and the value of that material depends on very different
circumstances from that of mutton. A new cli})ped sheep, however, may
either be measured or weighed, and its value ascertained pretty nearly. —
The eye and the hand must be employed to judge of the weight of a rough
sheep ; and there is no more certain way of acquiring a conect judgment
of its weight in that state, than by first handling the sheep in the way I
have before described, and weighing the 4 quarters after it is slaugh-
tered. An average sized sheep of a large flock thus treated will enable
you to form a pretty correct idea of the average weight of the whole, and
the market price of mutton per stone is quoted in all the newspapers of
the day.
(20i3.) The season for washing sheep having arrived, a fit place should
be selected for the purpose. It should consist of a natural rivulet, or,
where that is wanting, of a large ditch, having both its banks clad with
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SHEEP-WASHING.
287
clean sward. The next step is to form a damming across the rivulet, if it
is not naturally sufficiently deep of water to conduct the operation of
washing. The bottom of the river or ditch should be hard and gravelly,
and the water in it pure, or it will not answer the purpose ; as a soft and
muddy bottom, and dirty water, will injure the wool more than do it good.
A damming may be made either entirely of turf-wall built across the stream,
though that imposes considerable labor and waste of grass, or with an old
door or two or other boarding placed across the bed of the stream, sup-
ported by stabs against the weight of water, and the chinks at the bottom
and sides filled up with turf; and over which, when the water accumu-
lates, the water falls. In constructing this dam, the overflowing should be
as great as to cause such a current in the pool as to carry away quickly all
impurities, such as earthy matter, greasy matter, small locks of wool, and
scum. One side of the pool is occupied by the unwashed, and the oppo-
site by the washed sheep. They are confined in their respective places
by flakes, fig. 216, or nets, fig. 217. To prevent any sheep taking the wa-
ter of themselves, which they are apt to do when they see others in before
them, the fence should be returned along the sides of the pool as far as
the men who wash the sheep are stationed. Fig. 363 brings out all these
Fig. 363.
SHEEP-WASHING.
particulars pretty well. The damming a a, by means of doors and stabs,
and turfing, retain the water until it ovei-flows. The net on each side of
the pool is returned so far down both its sides. The depth of the water is
seen to take the men to the haunches — the proper depth.
(2014.) Everything being thus prepared at the pool, the sheep are also
prepared for the washing. The lambs not being washed, and to save
trouble with them at the washing pool, they are separated from their moth-
ers, and left in a court of the steading until the washing is over. The
ewes, hoggs and dinmonts are all taken to the pool in a lot. They should
be driven gently, and not allowed to be at all heated. The ewes wiH be
troublesome to drive, being always in search of their lambs ; but, notwith-
standing this annoyance, they should not be dogged, and rather give them
plenty of time upon the road' They should be driven along the road most
free of dust or mud. The men who are to wash also prepare themselves
by casting their coats, rolling up the sleeves of their shirts, and putting on
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288 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
old trowsers and shoes to stand in the water with. The shepherd and
other 2 men are quite cnoucfh to wash a laig»," number of sheep thoroughly,
but, if the stream is very broad, another may be required to save time in
handing the sheep across. These 3 men are repre.scnted in the figure, e
.being the shepherd, and the last man to handle the sheep, and d and c his
assistants. At least 2 men are required to catch the sheep for the wash-
ers, of whom 1 is seen at b. On an occasion of this kind the men receive
a gratuity of bread and cheese, and ale, and also a dram of spirits as a
stimulus,' as at h, where the dog is seen to keep watch. Indeed, some
stimulant of this kind is requisite for men who stand for hours in the wa-
ter, the lower half of their body being chilled by the water, and the upper
half being heated by the work. If they were provided with large fisher-
men's boots, they would less require such a fillip.
(2015.) The washing is performed in this way : While the 3 men are
taking up their positions in the water, the other 2 are catching a sheep ;
and, to render this fatiguing work more easy, the fold should not be made
larger than to contain the sheep easily. A sheep is caught, and is being
presented by b to the first washer c, who takes the sheep into the water,
and, allowing its wool to become saturated with it, turns it over upon its
back, keeping up its head, and taking a hold of the arm of a fore-leg with
either hand, and of the wool on the opposite side of the head with the
other. He then dips the sheep up and down, to and fro, and from one of
its sides to the other, slowly, causing all the wool to wave backward and
forward, as if rubbing it against the water. In doing this the water be-
comes very turbid about the sheep, and he continues to do it till it clears
itself, when he hands the sheep to the next washer d, standing in the mid-
dle of the stream. Whenever c gets quit of one sheep, another should be
ready by the catchers for him to receive into the water. The second
washer d holds and manages the sheep in the same manner, and then
hands it to the shepherd e, and is immediately ready to take another sheep
from the first man. It is the duty of the shepherd to feel if the skin of the
sheep is clean, and every impurity removed from the wool. The position
of the sheep on its back is favorable for the rapid descent of eaithy matter
fi-om the wool. Wherever he feels a roughness upon the skin, he washes
it off with his hand ; and wherever any clots are felt in the wool which
have escaped the other washers, he rubs them out. The belly, breast, and
round the head, he scrubs with the hand. Being satisfied that the sheep
is clean, he dips it over the head while turning it to its natural position,
when it swims ashore, and gains the bank at g. Its first attempts at walk-
ing on coming out of the water are very feeble, its legs staggeiing under
the weight of the dripping fleece ; in a little after it frees itself from the
water entirely by making its fleece whirl like a large mop. It will be ob-
served in the figure that the 3 men do not stand abreast across the water,
but in eschelon ; and they stand so for this reason, namely: the sheep be-
ing in the dirtiest state when in the hands of the first man c, his standing
farthest do\vn the stream allows the dirtiest water to flow away at once,
and not come near the stations of the other men. The sheep being in a
comparatively, clean state when it reaches the second man <?, the water
from it cannot render that more dirty which runs past the first man c. In
like manner, the same sheep, when with the shepherd c, can but very
slightly render the water impure to those below it, and, being washed
highest up the stream, gets an immediate supply of the cleanest water for
finishin"' its washing. This is the way in which sheep are washed in the
Lowlands ; and from 2 to 3 scores may be washed in 1 hour, according to
the size of the sheep, the activity of the washers, and the supply of water
(52tf)
SHEEP-SHEARING. 289
Tups are washed 2 or 3 weeks before the rest of the flock, and dipped as
long before to allow time to their wool to grow ; and, as they are usually
in high condition, their new wool rises soonest, and, of course, soonest al-
lows the old fleece to be taken off". After washing, sheep should not be
driven along a dirty or dusty I'oad, nor should they be put into any grass-
field having bare earthy banks, against which they might rub themselves.
In fact, they should be kept perfectly clean until their fleeces are taken
off: How long they should be kept depends on the state of the weather;
for the wool must not only be thoroughly dry, but the ijolk, as the natural
oil of the wool is called, must return again into it. Perhaps 8 or 10 days
may suffice to produce both these effects. But another circumstance, more
important than either, should receive attention before the wool is clipped,
which is, that the new wool be I'isen from the skin before the old be at-
tempted to be taken off". Disregard to this state of the fleece will make
good clipping very difficult to accomplish, and it will certainly deteriorate
the appearance of the fleece. You need be under no apprehension of the
wool falling off" when the new growth commences, for wool will remain for
years upon the sheep's back if not clipped off", and the sheep be in a clean
and healthy state. How many years the fleece may continue to grow I
do not know, but I have seen a 3-years' fleece. Lord Western showed
Anglo-Merinos, at the Show of the Royal English Agricultural Society at
Oxford, in 1839, the fleeces of which, when clipped, weighed, I think, 20
lbs. each.
(2016.) A place under cover should be selected for clipping the fleeces.
The straw-barn L, fig. 4, Plate IV. of the steading, is a very suitable place
for the purpose. The end next the chaff"-house r, between the two doors,
will answer for the clipping process, and the remainder will contain the
sheep under cover until they are returned clipped to the fields again. The
clipping floor is prepared in this way : Let clean wheat straw be spread
equally over the floor 2 or 3 inches thick, and spread over it the lai-ge can-
vas barn-sheet, the edges of which should be nailed down tight to the
floor. The use of the straw is to convert the floor into a sort of soft cush-
ion for the knees of the clippers, as well as for ease to the sheep. A
broom should be provided to sweep the cloth clean. A board 2\ feet
above the floor should be provided to wind the fleeces upon, and it may-
be placed along the wall of the bani opposite to that occupied by the clip-
pers. A space near this should be cleaned, and a sheet spread upon it,
for putting the rolled fleeces upon. The remainder of the barn should be
cleared of dust both from the floor and walls as high as the sheep can
reach, and a little clean straw strevni upon the floor for them to lie upon.
(2017.) The instrument by which the wool is clipped off" sheep is named
loool-shears, as seen in fig. 364. They re-
quire no particular description farther Fig. 364.
than to explain that the bend or botvl a,
which connects the two blades, acts as a
spring to keep them separate, while the
pressure of the hand on each side of the "^s?^ °^**^°*-===*4,ai_iii-a^>
handle b overcomes and brings the blades the wool-shears.
together. There are wool-shears which
have additional springs placed between the handles h to separate the blades
more forcibly, but are not so agreeable to the hand as the simple bent
spring a. Sometimes the spring of a is so strong as soon to tire the hand,
to relieve which a piece of cord is wound slackly round the handles. —
Strong shears are more easily worked if held near the blades ; but if held
upon their sharp edges they will soon hurt the hand. When not in use,
(585) 19
290 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
the blades are held together by their points being passed through a ring
of leather. A rag-stone is used to shai-pcn wool-shears. The cost of the
shears is from 2s. Gd. to 3s. 6d. each. A shepherd requires 2 or 3 pairs to
do other j'jbs, and he makes it a rule to use clipping-shears on no other
occasion than at regular shearing.
(2018.) In case of dew or rain in the morning, it is customary to bring
into the bam as many dry sheep on the previous evening as the clippers
will shear on the ensuing day. About 1 score of Leicester sheep to each
clipper is considered a very good day's work. It is a fi-equent custom for
neighboring shepherds to assist each other; and though the plan does not,
perhaps, expedite the entire sheep-shearing of the country, yet a number
of men clipping at the same lime makes work seem lighter, and it gets the
clipping of any individual flock the sooner through. It is seldom that a
steward can clip sheep, but it is an accomplishment not unfrequently pos-
sessed by a hedger ; and, if the cattle-man has been a herd, he can lend a
hand as far as he is able, and in this way a party of clippere is mustered
upon the farm itself. Clipping being both a dirty and heating work, the
coat should be stripped, and the oldest clothes worn ; and the hat and the
vest are commonly thrown aside. Garters or tight knee-breeches will be
found very irksome pieces of dress in clipping. There is an order fol-
lowed in the classes of sheep as they are clipped — the tups are taken first,
then the hoggs, and lastly the ewes ; and, where there are dinmonts or
wethers, they follow the tups. The reason for adopting this order is, that
as tups are highest in condition, and having been earliest clipped the sea-
son before, their fleece rises earliest in this ; and, if they are to be let in
autumn on hire, the sooner they are washed and clipped, they will then
show in better wool. Hoggs, too, being forward in condition, should, be
ready before ewes, as the latter lose their flesh by suckling, or require
longer time to bring the yolk again into their old ^vool, and for the new to
rise. The object of washing the sheep perfectly clean will be apparent at
shearing, for if the shears grate upon anything, they will make bad work ;
and if any dirt is found on clipping, either upon the skin or fleece, the
shepherd is alone to blame who had the sheep last through hands, and had
the charge of them afterward on pasture.
(2019.) Clipping is done in this way: Whenever a sheep is caught in
the barn, every straw or dirt on the wool or hoofs should be taken away
before it is laid on the canvas carpeting. Clipping consists of 3 stages,
the^^r*^ of which is represented in fig. 365. After setting the sheep on its
rump, and, on the supposition that the clipper is a right-handed man, he
goes down on his right knee, and leans the back of the sheep against his
left leg a. Taking the shears in his right hand, and holding up the sheep's
face with his loft, he first clips the .short wool on the neck, and passes down
the throat and breast between the fore-legs to the belly. Then placing the
fore-legs under his left arm, as seen at b under c, the belly is left exposed
to be next shorn across from side to side down to the groins. In passing
down here, while the shears d arc at work, the left hand e is engaged
keeping the skin titjht where it is naturally loose. The scrotum y is then
bared, then the inside of the thighs g ff, and then the under side of the tail
h. The.se complete all the parts of this position. For clipping this part
of the slieep, small .shears, as in the figure, will suffice ; and as the wool
is short and of a detached character on the under side of a sheep, it is best
clipped away by the points of the shears, as by (L
(2020.) The shears are used in a ]iarticular manner, to be safe alike to
the fleece and the skin of the animal. The essential thing is to keep the
points always clear of the skin, for, if held do\vnward, they vrill inevitably
(586)
SHEEP-SHEARING.
291
run into it ; and, should such a prick be made when the hand is about to
close, the consequence will be that a large piece of the skin will almost be
clipped out before the clipper is aware of what he is about. This is a
Fiz. 365.
THE FIRST STAGE OF CLIPPISG A SHEE
common en*or committed by new clippers, and it is a great offence in any
clipper's hands. The only way to avoid this serious injury to sheep is to
rest the broad part of the shears only and always upon the skin. In this
position, with the skin drawn tight by the left hand, the shears are made
to move forward with a hold of the wool not exceeding 1 inch in breadth,
in very short and frequent clips, taking care only to bring together the
broad parts of the blades from where they are seen to separate in fig. 364
to as far as c, keeping the points always apart. The form of the carcass
of a sheep being round, it is clear that the shears cannot make a long clip
by bringing the points of the blades together at every stroke, without cut-
ting the wool with the points at a considerable elevation above the skin.
Very short clips, no doubt, make slow work, but rather work slow with
short cuts than injure the wool with long. Experience will teach you to
make longer clips effective when you know how to manage the shears dex-
terously.
(2021.) Fig. 366 represents the second stage of clipping. Its position is
gained by first relieving the fore-legs from the first position, fig. 365, and,
gently turning the sheep on its far side, the fore-legs c are put under the
right or clipping arm f, while the clipper, going on both knees, supports
the shoulder of the sheep upon them, thus giving the animal an easy re-
clining posture. You may rely upon this fact, that the more at ease the
animal feels, the more readily will it he quiet to be clipped. Supporting
the head of the sheep with his left hand, the clipper first removes.the wool
from behind the head, then around the entire back of the neck to the shoul-
der-top. He then slips its head under his left arm, as a under g. Having
the left hand thus at liberty, he keeps the skin tight with it, while he clips
(5ST,
292
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
the wool with tlie right, from where the clipping in the first position was
left off to the back-])onc. In the figure the fleece appears to have been
removed about half way down the carcass ; the left hand b is laid flat,
Fig. 3C6.
THE SECOND STAGE OF CLIPPING A SHEEP.
keeping the skin tight, while the right hand e holds the shears at the right
part and in the proper position. The clipper thus proceeds along the thigh
and the rump to the tail d, which is entirely bared at this time.
(2022.) Clearing the cloth of the loose parts of the fleece, the clipper,
holding by the head, lays over the sheep on its clipped side, and still con-
tinuing on his knees, slips his left knee a, fig. 367, over its neck to the
ground, while his left foot h, resting on the toe, supports the left leg c
over the neck of the sheej), and keeps its head d down on the ground.
This is the third position in clipping. The wool having been bared to the
shoulder in the second position, the clipper has now nothing to do but to
commence where it was left off" in the first position, and clear the fleece
entirely to the back-bone, meeting the clips where they were left off in
the second position, the left hand c being still at liberty to keep the skin
tight, while the right hand f uses the shears along the whole side of the
tail. The fleece g is now quite freed from the sheep. In allowing the
sheep to rise, care should be taken that its feet do not become entangled
in the flaece, for in its eagerness to escape from the unusual treatment it
has just received, its feet will tear the fleece to pieces. Immediately that
the lot of sheep in the bam is clipped, it is taken to the field, and another
brought in its place.
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SHEEP-SHEARING.
293
(2023.) A new clipped sheep should have the appearance of fig. 368,
where the shear-marks are seen to run in parallel bands round the carcass,
from the neck and counter a, along the ribs b, to the rump, and down the
Fig. 367.
THE THIRD AND LAST STAGE OF CLIPPING A SHEEP.
hind leg c. When pains are taken to round the shear-marks on the back
of the neck d ; to fill up the space in the change of the rings between the
counter and the body at e ; to bring the marks down to f to the shape of
the leg ; and to make them run straight down the tail, a sheep in good
condition so clipped forms a beautiful object. A sheep clipped to perfec-
tion should have no marks at all, for they are formed of small ridglets of
wool left between each course of the shears ; but such nicety in clipping
with shears is scarcely possible, and, at any rate, the time occupied in do-
ing it would be of more value than all the wool that would be gained. It
should be borne in mind, however, that the closer a sheep is clipped, it is
in a better state for the growth of the next year's fleece.
(2024.) I have introduced so many illustrations on this subject, in order
to show the most easy positions that can be assumed in clipping, both to
man and animal, that those positions may easily be compared with the
common ones. On making this comparison, it is necessary to look again
at the first stage of the process, fig. 365, the common practice being to
place the sheep upright on its tail, and the clipper to stand on his feet,
supporting its back against his legs — an insecure and painful position for
the sheep, and an irksome one for the man when he bows down to clip
the lower part of the animal. Again, in the second stage, fig. 366, it is
customary for the man still to remain on his feet, and the sheep upon its
rump, while he secures its head sideways between his legs, in order to
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xJ94
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
tighten the skin of tlie entire side which is now bent outward. The skin
is thus certainly tiglitened, but at the expense of the personal ease of the
animal ; for the hand can tighten the skin as well, as shown in figs. 366
and 367, by h and c, while the bowing down so low, and as long, until he
Fie 36?.
A NEW-CLIPPED SHEEP — THE PARALLELOGRAM SHOWING ITS SYMMETRY.
clips the entire side, cannot fail to pain the man's back. The third posi-
tion is nearly the same in both plans, with this difference in the old one,
which keeps the right leg bent, resting on its foot — a far more irksome
position than kneeling on both knees. The treatment of the fleece I shall
consider in a separate section ; and the mode of washing and clipping
Highland sheep will be found below. I may here remark that sheep-
shearing is usually held as a merry season, a sort of harvest in which an
allowance of good victuals — beef and broth and beer — is usually awarded
to clippers engaged at their fatiguing task.
(2025.) Clipping makes such a change on the appearance of sheep that
many lambs have difficulty at first in recognizing their mothers, while a
few forget them altogether, and wean themselves, however desirous their
mothers may be to suckle them ; but as the ewe is content with one lamb,
many a twin which does not follow her is weaned on this occasion. It
should be the shepherd's particular care to mother the lambs frequently
after clipping ; but I am aware of the difficulty of bringing an old lamb
and ewe together, without much disturbance to the rest of the flock ; and
besides, the shepherd cannot attend constantly on the clipped portion of
his flock while engaged with clipping the rest, and this being the case
constitutes another reason, besides those previously given (2018), for clip-
ping the ewes last. Leicester lambs are weaned at the end of June or be-
ginning of July ; and the process is simple and safe, as most of them by
that time chiefly depend upon grass for support. All that is requii^ed is
to separate the lambs from the ewes, in fields so far lying asunder as to be
beyond the hearing of the bleatings of each other. Where there is the
convenience, lambs should be put on hilly pasture for some weeks at this
(590)
SHEEP-SHEARING. 295
time, the astringent quality of which gives an excellent tone to their sys-
tem, and renders them more hardy for winter. Some farmers even hire
rough hill pasture for their lambs, but where such cannot be had, they
are put on the oldest, though good pasture, for a few weeks before the af-
termath is ready to receive them,
(2026.) The ewes, when separated from their lambs, should be kept in
a field of rather bare pasture, near at hand, until their milk be dried up.
They must be milked by the hand, for a few times, till the secretion ceases
— once, 24 hours after the lambs are taken away — again, 36 hours there-
after— and the third time perhaps 2 days after that. Even beyond that
time a few may feel distressed by milk, which the shepherd should re-
lieve at intervals until the udders become dry. Indeed, milkino- after
weaning of lambs, is essential to the safety of ewes, and I fear it is not so
effectually performed as it should be until the udders go dry. The dan-
ger to be apprehended from its neglect is the plugging up of the teats
with caseous matter, deposited therein by the milk which should have
been drawn away ; and which plugging, in the next lambing-season, will
probably prevent the natural flow of the new milk ; and the consequence
will be that inflammation will be set up in the udder, and the ewe either
take puerperal fever, that is, ndderclap, or garget (1847), and die, or her
lambs be so restricted of milk as to be half starved. Ewes are milked in
a very different manner from cows. A long, narrow bught, formed of
hurdles on both sides is erected along a fence close to the gate of a field
near the steading or dairy, and it should be no larger than to contain all
the ewes in a crowded state. The ewes being driven into the buo-ht head
inward, women proceed with the milking, which is accomplished by hold-
ing a small handy, that is, a small vessel formed like a milking-pail, in the
left hand, and, squatting down behind the ewe, the milk is stripped clean
from the teats alternately, with the right hand into the handy. The
milker requires to be always on her guard, and remove the handy the in-
stant she sees the ewe showing the least symptom of voiding either water
or fceces, and a ewe is very apt to void the former whenever she is touched
behind for the first time. Every ewe is turned out of the bught by the
shepherd as it is milked, to prevent its coming in hand again. Time was
when ewe-milking created a great stir in the farm-house for the making
of ewe-milk cheese, and so much anxiety did housewives evince to make
it, that the ewes were milked till they were perfectly lean to supply a suf-
ficiency of this soz't of milk. Better ideas now prevail, and farmers very
properly will not allow their ewes to be milked oftener than is requisite
to render them completely dry. It was misplaced economy to reduce the
condition of the entire ewe flock for the poor boast of making a few strong-
tasted cheeses,
(2027,) When lambs cease to bleat for their mothers, they should be
marlced and buisted, not only to identify them with the flock of the farm
on which they are bred, but is a record of the particular blood from which
they are descended. The markings are Tit^ftned to the ears, and consist
of small pieces being cut out, or slits made in the tips, with a knife, from
the fore or back margin, or of holes made with punching-nippers, or of a
combination of both sorts of marks. The female stock are always marked
on the near ear, and the male on the far one. Thus, a single round hole
is punched through the near ear of all the ewe-lambs, and a similar hole
through the far ear of the wether-lambs ; and should any of the ewe-lambs
be considered fit for breeding tups, they either receive an additional hole
through the near ear, or a bit cut out from a margin of the same ear, cor-
responding to a similar mark on their dams or sires, to distinguish their
(591)
29G
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
THE nXCHISG-SIPPERS.
Fig. 370.
particular blood from the rest of the flock. Twin ewe-lambs receive a hole
through both ears. Tup-lambs receive no f^ir-marks, their long tail serv-
ing the puipose till they aif weaned, when they are at once transfeired to
the tups. Individual tups are so easily identified, and their descent so well
known by the shepherd, tliat they require no marking. Fig. 309 are the
j}unc/ihfi{-nippcr.s, al' which ihe
inverted hollow cone r/, having
its small end sharpened, is em-
ployed to cut the hole out of
the ears ; and, to save the ears
from being unduly pinched, a
pad of horn b is inserted into
the straight under-arm of the
nippers, the pieces nipped out
rising out of the orifice c. The
figure at once shows how the
instrument is used, being sim-
ilar to the one used by shoemakers to punch holes into the lappets of shoes,
through which the shoe-strings are passed, and it costs 2s. 9d. Buisting
consists of stamping a letter or letters, expressive of the initials of the
name of the owner or of that of the farm, or of both. The buist or mark
is effected by a simple instrument a, fig. 370, which
carries the capital letter S. This mark is made on the
same principle as the ear-marks, the near side indicat-
ing the female, and the far side the male sheep. The
material of which the buist is made is boiled tar, made
viscid by a little pitch. The sheep to be buisted are
put into a convenient apartment of the steading, and
handed out one by one, and kept steady by holding the
head and rump by the hands ; and a knee being placed
against the opposite side causes the side to be marked
to project. The buist is then dipped lightly into the
melted tar, to prevent its dripping ; and, to make the
mark vivid, it should be applied with some force, and
with the entire surface at once, to compress the wool
equally, and then quickly withdrawn. The wool must
be quite dry, or the tar will not adhere to it. All new-
clipped sheep are buisted in this manner ; and though
but a temporary mark, being in time obliterated,
though not on short wool, it serves the present purpose
well. To my taste, the buist looks best on that point
which is the roundest part of the rib, but others prefer
it on the shoulder, the rump, or the loins. In fig. 370
is another instrument h, the branding-iron, also bearing
the capital letter S. It is sometimes used, and, on be-
ing heated in the fire, is applied to brand the letter on one side or other
of the nose, or on one of the horns, of Black-faced sheep, or on the horns
of Highland cattle, in lieu of the punching-nippers or knife, and it makes
an indelible mark. To save twice handling of the lanil»s, they should be
marked and buisted at the same time — one person makinor the marks, an-
other applying the buisting-iron. The buist costs 3s., and the brand 4s.,
though a smaller instrument, as the letter has to be cut out of the brand
like that of a die, and it must be made of the best iron to stand frequent
heating. These are all the operations to which sheep are subjected in
summer.
(592)
THE BCISTISO-IRK.V AND
BRANDl.VO-lRO.N.
SHEEP-SHEARING.
297
THE HEAB-CAP, or HOOD, FITTED ON THE SHEEP.
(2028.) Scalded Heads. — Sheep are much infested in summer with flies. A. s a protection to
the head a,s;ainst them, the simple cap, or hood, as seen in Hg. 371, is effectual. It may be made
of stout linen, and fostened
with 4 tapes tied crosswise uu- Fig. 371.
der the chin, or of leather, and
buckled at the same place. —
Leicester tups should not be
without these caps in summer,
especiallj' when grazing near
wo<id3; and, as tups are occa-
sionally apt to box each other,
any little portion of skin whicli
maj- thereby be abraded on the
head will receive immediate
protection from the cap.
(2029.) Doddering. One
great means of warding off tlie
attack of the fiy on hoggs is
doddering, especially in locali-
ties obnoxious to iiies. This
operation consists of clipping
away all the wool off the tail
and between the hind-legs. —
Should hoggsscour.which they
are not unapt to do when put
on foggage immediately after
being weaned, and when there
is no rough moory or hilly pasture to put them upon previously for some weeks, the removal of
the wool will prevent the discharge remaining about the animal, and, of course, deprive the fly
of one object of attraction. The use of docking the tails of sheep is now made obvious (1841).
(2030.) Those who have many horse-chestnut trees, ^scu/us hippocastanum, may be pleased
to learn that their fruit, which is considered worthless, and even poisonous in this countrj-, though
both opinions are erroneous, may be usefully employed in feeding sheep. " While I was at Ge-
neva in the autumn of 1837," says a correspondent, " I observed every one collecting carefully the
fruit of the horse-chestnut, and on inquiry I learned that the butchers and holders of grazing stock
bought it readily at a certain price per bushel. I inquired of my butcher, who himself kept a
very extensive grazing farm, and he told me it was given to those sheep in particular that were
fattening. The horse-chestnuts were well crushed — something in the way, so I understood, that
apples are — previous to cider being made. In Switzerland, they are crushed or cut up in a ma-
chine kept solely for that purpose ; then about 2 lbs. weight is given to each sheep, morning and
evening. Sheep eat it greedily ; it must be portioned out to them, as too much would disagree
With them, it being of a very heating nature. The butcher told me that it gave an excellent rich
flavor to the meat. The Geneva mutton is noted for being as highly flavored as any in England
or Wales."*
(2031.) Sheep on hill-pasture delight in summer to spread themselves over, and to go to the
highest point of their range. Ewes are restricted in their range by the lambs, which, when young,
show little inclination to wander afar, but rather to lie down and sleep after being satisfied with
milk. Hoggs keep much together, and on that account do not wander far from their morning
lair, wherever that may be. Wethers, on the other hand, attain the hight of their pasturage at an
early period of the day, and remain till dusk. You thus see, when sheep of different ages are
brought up together, how usefully they distribute themselves over their entire pasture ; and where
only one class of sheep are reared, they extend their range according as their age increases, or
their food becomes bare. On contiguous estates, where there is no march dyke to define their
common boundary, it is quite possible tliat the flock of one property may occasionally trespass on
the pasture of another. Should this happen in the early part of the day, the shepherds should not
dog off the strange sheep, as that may render them restless even for days; but wait till nightfall,
and then point them gently over the march to their own ground, where they will take to their
usual lair. Sheep usually select a spot for resting at night, and it will mostly be that which is
safest for them, especially if the sheep are aged, and well acquainted with the ground. In fine
weather they should not be disturbed in thus selecting their lairs, but in case of threatening storm
they had better be directed to the sheltered side of the pasture, or even near the stells, if need be.
Within inclosed fields in the Lowlands, sheep can hardly go wrong in summer in selecting their
lairs for the night.
(2032.) The figures of the bull's ring and bullock-holder not having reached me when their use
was described in (1994), I here give them before concluding the account of the treatment of stock
in summer. Fig. 372 represents the- bull's ring in an open state, ready to be inserted into the
bull's nose, the joint a allowing the two sides of the ring to open as wide as the end b may be in-
serted into the hole burned into the septum of the nose. Fig. 373 shows the ring closed, after it
has been fastened into the nose, a being the joint, and b the two ends of the ring lapped over and
secured together by 2 countersunk screws. The ring is formed of 5-inch .rod-iron, and its diam-
eter over all is 2^ inches, and it should be highly finished.
* The Gardener's Chronicle, 2l8t October, 1843.
(593)
298
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
(2033.) The BHllockhilder is well represented by fij^. 374. where a is the joint which allows
its two parts to open so far as each to enter a nosiril of the animal. The lever nut c brings the
two kuobbed points b as close as to cnibraoo and hold fimi the soptam of the nose. The leading
rein is fastened to the under ring e. This form of bullock-bolder would allow the points i to b«
Fi«. 374.
Fie. 372.
Fig. 373.
THE bill's RI.VG I.V A STATE TO BE
INSERTED INTO THE BULL's NOSE.
THE BV^LL S ItING A« KASTENED
I.V THE bull's .VOSE.
THE BVLLOCK-
HOLDER.
screwed to anv degree of tightness, nntil they meet each other ; and it is, in my opinion, so far
obiectionable,'as the screwing mav be carried as far by a rash hand as to hurt the animal when
the instrument was moved inthe least desrree to either side. Another form which I have seen
and approve of, never allows the two knobs b of the instrument to be screwed closer than just to
embrace the septum of the nose, allowing the holder to swing from the nose at ease while it holds
the nose firmly whenever the animal attempts to move away. The cost of a bullock-holder of
either of these forms is 4s. each.
26. ROLLING THE FLEECE, AND THE QUALITIES OF WOOL.
" Come, gentle swains, the bright unsullied locks
Collect': * i * •
Be faithful ; and the genuine locks alone
Wrap round; nor alien flake, nor pitch enfdld ;
Stain not your stores with base desire to add
Fallacious weight."
Drsa.
(2034.) Whenever a fleece is clipped from the sheep, a field-worker
should be ready to roll it up. I have already said that a board should be
provided to roll the fleeces upon, and it may be erected either in the clip-
pine-bam, or any other adjoining apartment, such as the corn-barn ; but
the most convenient place for it is beside the clippers, as is also the stance
for the roUed-up fleeces to lie upon till the end of the day's work, when
they are removed to the wool-room. Suppose the board to be placed in
the clipping-barn, the fleece, whenever separated from the sheep, is lifted
unbroken from the cloth, and spread upon the board on its clipped side.
The winder examines the fleece that it is quite free of extraneous sub-
stances, such as straws, bits of thorn, of whin, or burs, and removes them,
and she also removes, by pulling off", all locks that have lumps of dung
adherino- to them, and which have escaped the notice of the washers. The
farmer should be very particular in giving instructions on the purity of the
fleece, as the purchaser cannot unloose every fleece he buys ; and should
he find as much filth in the fleeces after purchase as to warrant the belief
that it had been purposely left in them, he may either rehnquish his bar-
gain, or make a large deduction from the price — in the former case imply-
(594)
ROLLING THE FLEECE. 299
ing fraud on the part of the farmer, and in the latter diminishing his profits.
And besides the disgrace, any person who attempts to commit fraud in
the case of wool is liable to be merced in heavy fines when informed
against, which he puts in the power of the purchaser of the wool to do.
The winder being satisfied that there are no impurities in the fleece, folds
in both its sides, putting any loose locks of wool into the middle, and
making the breadth of the folded fleece from about 24 to 30 inches, ac-
cording to its size. She then begins to roll the fleece from the tail toward
the neck as tightly and neatly as she can, and when amved at the neck,
draws the wool there as far out, twisting it into a sort of rope, as will go
round the fleece, hold its own end firm, and make the ejitire fleece a tight
bundle. The fleece is then easily carried about, having the clijiped sur-
face outside, which, being composed of wool saturated with yolk, exhibits
a shining, silveiy lustre. Fleeces are by no means all alike either in struc-
ture or color. Those of ewes, for instance, will be found thin and open
in the locks, of pale color, and feel light in hand ; those, again, of hoggs
will be close and long in the pile, of a rich color, and the rolled fleece
will feel heavy and be bulky in hand. Neither will all the fleeces be alike
entire and in proper condition. An occasional fleece may want some part,
having been shed off"; and another may be coated, that is, have its wool
felted together like a piece of very thick cloth ; while another may be a
black fleece. Whenever any such difference is observed in a fleece, it
should be laid aside. The infeiior stray locks, and those clotted with
dirt, should be put into a basket by themselves, to be afterward washed,
dried, and used at home for various purposes, such as in repairing of sad-
dlery. Every day's- clipping is carried into the wool-room, at W in the
steading, fig. 4, Plate IV., which enters by a stair firom the straw-bam.
Previous to being occupied, the room should be completely swept of all
dust from its floor and plastered walls, and washed clean and dried. The
fleeces are built up on the floor at a little distance from the wall, putting
the hogg and ewe fleeces in separate divisions. The whole are covered
with clothes, and the shutters of the windo^v closed. The reason for
these precautions, which are too seldom attended to by farmers, is, that
the cloths keep off" dust, prevent too quick evaporation of the yolk of the
wool, which, if allowed, will diminish its weight, and the window-shutters
being closed excludes the light, which obscures the bright lustre of clipped
wool. The odd fleeces and locks should not be brought into the wool-
room at all, but the former sold, and the latter prepared for use immedi-
ately, as their unclean state creates an effluvium which induces the wool-
moth, the Tinea sarcitella of Linnaeus, to come into the wool-room.
(2035.) Wool is a ticklish article for a farmer to keep long. If the
wool-room is too dry, the natural moisture, occasioned by the yolk, evap-
orates, and the fibres become curled, and feel harsh ; and on the other
hand, if it is too damp, which is its usual condition, the fleeces become
compressed, feel clammy, and affected with gi-een and yellow mould. The
wool-moth then takes up its residence, in summer, among such fleeces, and
breeds numerous larvae, which subsist on the very fibres of the wool, and
of course entirely destroy their character. There are farmers who have
no wool-room, but keep their wool in the granary or an outhouse, where,
of course, either of these effects are aggravated. The best means that I
know of preserving wool for a length of time in the fleece, is to keep it in
a wool-room with a wooden floor, packed in the pack-sheet, in which it
will be out of reach of dust, light, and moths, and where no more air and
light need be admitted than is desirable. If it is meant to keep wool only
for a few weeks, the means spoken of in the last paragraph are all that
(595)
300
THE BOOK OF THE FARJI SUMMER.
are requisite. The safest plan for the wool-grower is so sell it ever)' year
at the current prices, which are determined at the gi-eat wool fairs that
take place in summer in many parts of the country, where wool-dealers
attend, and wliuse proceedings are duly reported in the newspapers.
(203G.) When a wool-dealer purchases wool from a farmer, he sends
his own people to pack it in his ou-n pack-sheets. Wool is weighed and
packed in this way : wool is sold in Scotland by the wool-stone of 24 lbs.
avoirdupcjis, and it is weighed out in double stones of 48 lbs., each being
called a wciir/i. Usually 7 Leicester hopg and 11 ewe fleeces make 1
weigh. In England, wool is sold by the lb. and weighed out by the fod
of 2 stones of 14 lbs. each, or 28 lbs. In weighing out, the above number
of fleeces may not exactly weigh the double stone ; and, as fleeces are
never broken to equalize the scales, a few small weights are used to
balance the scale either on the side of the wool or of the weights, at
each weighing. In this way the weight of the number of scalefulls
required to fill each pack are conectly ascertained, a memorandum
being taken of the number of weighings. While a simple and large
beam and scales for weighing the wool is erecting, the pack for contain-
ing the fleeces is also making ready, so that they may be packed imme-
diately from the scales, and save much handling. Pack-sheets are made
of thin canvas, of the shape of an oblong rectangle, about 8 feet long when
empty, and open along one side. A small stone being placed in each end
of the opening of the sheet, a rope for each end being suspended from the
ceiling, the stones form knobs which prevent the comers of the sheet slip-
ping through the ropes, as at a a, fig. 375. The sheet d is suspended just
Fig. 375.
THE WEIGHING AND PACKING OF WOOL.
to swim above the floor. Two men, b and c, then get into the sheet, anc
placing the fleeces, as handed to them by the woman e, in regular order
lengthways across its bottom, trample them down ^\^th considerable force
especially at the corners, where they are pushed down with both feet set to-
gether, while both hands are holdincr firm by the outside of the comer of
the sheet immediately under the tying, as shown in action by the man b
The second layer of fleeces is laid contrary to the first, that is, in length
along the sheet, placing 2 or 3 fleeces parallel in the breadth of the sheet ;
but the fleeces at the ends are always placed across the length of the sheet,
in the same position as before, and pressed down in the same manner.
The sheet is thus filled with alternate layers of fleeces to the top, when
(596)
THE QUALITIES OF WOOL. 301
the packers leave it, and then loosening the ropes, and reserving the small
stones for the next sheet, immediately close the mouth of the pack ; for if
left open, the elasticity of the wool will cause the fleeces to rise so far as
to render the closing afterward impracticable, and a pack is difficult to
close at any time. With the aid of hand-cramps, inserted into the oppo-
site sides of its mouth, the edges are brought together, and are so held by
iron skewers being passed through both edges. When a farmer is pack-
ing wool on his own account, it is as well to know that common table-
forks answer as well as hand-cramps for pulling the edges of the pack-
sheet together, and for keeping them as close as skewers. The edges be-
inf thus brought together, they are permanently secured by sowing with
packing-needle and stout twine, and the skewers are removed as the sew-
ing proceeds. Thus, one pack is filled after another. A pack of wool _/
contains 10 stones, that is, 240 lbs. Any wool I have seen packed in the
Highlands, was not put so regularly into the sheet as I have described ;
the fleeces were crammed in and trampled down in the most in-egular and
promiscuous manner. I once had an opportunity of seeing merino wool
packed on a large scale at Leipsic. The sheets were made of horse-hair,
and, during the packing, were occasionally subjected to the pressure of a
long pole of wood acting upon them as a lever. The pole was fastened
at one end by a ring to the ground, and heavy weights were suspended,
and a rope passed from the other through a ring in the ground, to keep
good what the lever had gained. The wool was packing for Great Brit-
ain, and was to be conveyed in large wagons, each drawn by 8 stallions,
to be shipped at Rotterdam. In the rest of the cut the wool is seen piled
up at g, and the man i is in the act of weighing a scalefull with the large
beam and scales h.
(2037.) Even on the slightest inspection of a fleece on the sheep's back,
one can perceive that it contains wool of different qualities ; the coarser is
evidently below and the finer above ; but none but wool-staplers would
discover 10 different qualities of wool in the same fleece. As a general
description of a fleece, I may mention that the finest wool is upon the
shoulder and along the top of the back to the rump ; the next best is be-
low the shoulders, along the ribs to the rump — the coarsest being on the
haunches — and that below the belly is short and detached, and cannot be
classed with the rest. Each of these parts have their respective qualities,
which wool-staplers classify, in order to satisfy the wants of their custom-
ers, the manufacturers. The subdivision of the fleece by wool-staplers,
after they have purchased the wool from the farmers, is technically in these
terms: Prime — choice — super — ^head — downrights — seconds — fine abb —
coarse abb — ^lively — short coarse or breech-wool. It would be well for
wool-growers to receive lessons from wool-staplers on the essential prop-
erties which constitute good wool, that they may be able to judge whether
the wool which they grow be intrinsically good or bad, comparatively im-
proving or deteriorating, or to what species of manufacture it is best suit-
ed. According to present practice, wool-growers, I believe, demand prices
for their wool on the faith of markets, without knowing whether their wool
is really worth a high or low price.
(2038.) Good wool should have these properties : The fibre of the sta-
ple— a staple being any lock that naturally sheds itself from the rest —
should be of uniform thickness from root to point ; it should be true, as the
phrase has it: the finer the wool, the smaller is the diameter of the fibre ;
the fibre should be elastic, and not easily broken ; its surface should have
a shining silvery lustre ; and it should be of great density or specific grav-
ity. Of a staple, all the fibres should be of the same length, otherwise the
(597)
302 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
staple will have a pointed character ; the end of the staple should be as
bright as its bottom, and not seem as if composed of dead wool ; the entire
staple should be strouc, and its strength is tested in this manner : Take
the bottom of the staple between the finger and thumb of the left h^nd,
and its top between those of the right; and, on holding the wool tight be-
tween the hands, make the third finger of the right hand play firmly upon
the fibres, as if in staccato on the strings of a violin, and if the sound pro-
duced be firm and sharp, and somewhat musical, the wool is sound ; if the
fibres do not break, on repeatedly jerking the hands asunder with consid-
erable force, the staple is sound ; if they break, the wool is unsound, and,
what is remarkable, it will break at those places which issued from the felt
of the sheep when the sheep was stinted of meat or had an ailment ;
though it will not break at every place simultaneously, because the weaker
part, occasioned by the greater illness, will first give way. A good fleece
should have the points of all its staples of equal length, otherwige it will
be a pointy one ; the staples should be set close together ; and it should
be clean. One essential good property of wool is softness to the feel like
silk, which does not depend on flneness of fibre, but on a peculiar property
of yielding to the touch at once, and readily returning to the hand. There
should be no hairs in wool — neither long ones, which are easily distinguish-
able from wool, and give the name of bearded to the fleece ; nor short
ones, soft and fine, like cat^s hair, which are not easily distinguishable from
wool, and are denominated Jceinps. The long hairs are frequently of a dif-
ferent color from the wool, but the kemp hairs are of the same color; and,
of the two, the latter are much the more objectionable, as being less easily
detected.*
(2039.) Keeping all these properties in view, it is clear that a farmer
who breeds sheep having fleeces with pointy staples, thinly set on, and of
unequal lengths — who stints his sheep of food at one time, and overfeeds
them at another, thereby producing wool of unequal size, and therefore
untrue — who, moreover, does not wash his sheep clean, or, having so
washed them, allows their wool to be again dirtied before being clipped,
thereby creating much waste to the manufacturer to bring the wool again
to a clean state — the farmer who manages his sheep and wool so as to pro-
duce these effects, injures himself to an incalculable extent.
(2040.) Ii is remarked by Mr. Culley that " tlie Herefordshire sheep that have the finest wool
are kept lean, and prodnce \\ lbs. each ; if better kept, tliey grow larger, and produce more
wool, bat inferior m quality ."t This is true of every breed of sheep, and particularly of the Me-
rino, ■whose prnpenniti/ to leanness caused their culture to be abandoned in Great Britain, as be-
ing unprofitable. Their wool did not so much deteriorate in this cold climate, as there wa-s no
possibility of getting mutton upon their carcass. But, though leanncs.s produces wool of finer
qualitj- than high condition, yet the remark is only strictiy true when applied to breeds which
vield fine wool in every state of condition; for no degree of leanness will cause a coarsc-wooled
breed of sheep, such as the Black-faced, to pro<lnce _fiue wool. To obtain any given qnaJitv of
wool, therefore, it is necessary to possess the breed that produces it, and then the wool will be
finer or coarser in comparison as the sheep are kept in low or high condition. There is uo doubt
that the general quality of wool in this countrj' has become coarser than it was years ago ; not
because tliL breeds of sheep have deteriorated — for, on the contrary-, they have all fraproved — but
because the animals are now kept throughout the year in much higher condition ; and tliis result
might have been anticipated, for, if there is any analogy between the vegetable and animal econ-
omy, we know that well manured soil will produce flax of thicker and lorfger fibre than the same
soil in poor condition : so. in like manner, sneep when in high condition produce wool of thicker
and loncer fibre than whf^n lean. During the improvement that has taken jilace in the breeds of
sheep, a counteractini? influence, as I conceive, has been at work to retain the wool of finer qnal-
itv than the high condition would produce — 1 mean the influence of shelter; and though it may
only be of a negative character, preventing uncqnal evaporation of the yolk of wool, by warding
offcold and drjing winds, yet, in preventing these, iu effecu are positively beneficial.'inasmucn
as Mr. Luccock observes that " the silky softness, like most other good qualities of the fleece, de-
pends very much upon the breed of the sheep, and the mialtlv of yolk irhich they constantly af-
ford." It is difficult to sav whether the density of the fibre o( wool, that most desirable property,
depends on eome general law connected with the breed, or the circuiustances in which the fibre
» See Luccock on Wool ; Ed. 1905. t CnUey on Live-Stock— iVotc
(.598)
THE QUALITIES OF WOOL. 303
is produced ; for the mere coarseness or fineness of the fibre does not affect its specific gravity
as, for instance, the close full-grown wool off the shoulder of a sheep does not differ materially iu
density from that from the thin and hairy breech ; and hence, perhaps, the density does not de-
pend on the breed. I am inclined to believe that soil and climate very much affect the general
condition of fleeces, for we find wool grown in the chalky districts of England much drier and
coarser than that which is produced on fine, soft hazel loam ; and wool grown upon turnips ap-
pears to me coarser than when grown on grass in the same soil in similar condition. This fact is
undeniable, that fleeces from the same breed, reared even in similar circumstances, differ much in
density. The conclusion to be inferred from all these considerations seems to be, that whatever
induces the greatest secretion of yolk, whether it be breed, condition of animal, nature of soil, or
climate, will produce fibre of the greatest specific gravity ; and hence on grass on a deep mellow
soil in good heart, and in a sheltered situation, a breed of sheep, capable of continuing in good
condition throughout the year, should produce the densest and the finest quality of fibre of wool.
If these views be at all correct, you can easily perceive how much depends on the judgment of
tlie farmer himself, to produce wool that will possess the greatest number of good qualities.
(2041.) Chemically, " wool has not yet been subjected to a rigid examination," says Dr. Thom-
son ; " but, from the experiments made on it by BerthoUet, there is reason to conclude that its
chemical qualities do not differ much from those of hair. When growing upon the sheep, it is
enveloped in a kind of soapy matter, which protects it from the attacks of insects, and which is
afterward removed by scouring. Vauquelin has examined this matter, and found it to consist of
the following ingredients : A soap of potash — carbonate of potash — a little acetate of potash —
lime — a very little muriate of potash — and an animal matter."*
(2042.) Mr. Youatt has examined the external structure of ■wool with the microscope, and has
ascertained that the surface of the fibre is covered with a sort of scale ^vhich fonns a series of ser-
rations along the entire length. The general outline of the woolly fibre consists of a central stem
or stalk, probably hollow, or at least porous, and possessing a semi-transparency not found in the
fibres of hair. From this central stalk there springs at different distances, in different breeds of
sheep, a circlet of leaf shaped projections. It is thus ascertained that wool possesses a property
common to all independent horny fibres which issue from the felt of animals— namely, an irregu-
larity which constitutes a certain degree of roughness upon their surface from the root" to the point.
Hence, both physically and chemically, wool and hair are analogous substances. Some of the re-
sults of Mr. Youatl's investigations with the microscope, in conjunction with the micrometer, were
these :
Diameter. Serrations.
Merino wool yto ^^ inch, and 2,400 in an inch.
Picklock yi^ . . 2,560
Saxony -gig- .. 2,720
Leicester ^-L .. 1,860
Deccan, black ToVo - • 1,280
Odessa yfo - • 2,080
Wallachian yig .. 2,080
Australian yfg- .. 1,920
New South Wales -J-j . . 2,080
Mr. Arthur's ylo . . 2,400
Van Diemen's Land ys-q
South-Down g-l^ . . 2,080
AViltshire -^ .. 1,860
Ryeland yl^ .. 2,420
Cheviot, hill-fed -^ . . 1,860
good pasture 1,440
Norfolk 5-1^ .. 1,600
Lincoln -^ .. 1,280
Irish ^ .. 1,920 ..t
Another instrument besides the micrometer, named the eirometer — the invention of the late cele-
brated optician, Dolland. of London, and which reads off diameters to a very minute fraction of
an inch, is used for measuring the diameters of wool, and it may be employed by an inexperi-
enced hand with less chance of error than a micrometer. It produces a double image of the fibre
which are brought in contact, and the result is then read off from a circular index.
(2043.) Wool is well known to have a felting power, but it is unknown in what that power
consists. A coated fleece is a natural instance of the felting tendency of wool. Mr. Youatt seems
to believe that the discovery of the serrations on tlie fibre of wool accounts for its felting property.
* Thomson's Animal Chemistry. t Youatt on Sheep.
(599)
304
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
•' It is a carious and interesting point that has been established," he soys. " the existence of an
irregularity «f form in the wool, accounting for and noccRsarily giving it a felting power — is there
a variation in this structure correspondiiiir with the degri-o of felling power? " Mr. Boyd, of In-
nerleithen, Peeblesshire, is much dispo»»'d to question Mr. Youalt's views. "Mr. Youatt asserts
with much confidence," he remarks — and in this remark Mr. Boyd is supported by Mr. Luccock
— '• that the telling properties depend entirely on the structure of the wool. During an experi-
ence of many years I have found this not to be the fact, and therefore stale, without fear of contra-
diction, that in many instances it is impossible to estimate the extent of the felting properties in a
variety of wools, until they have been submitted to the actual lest of cxperimeiil ; and I am de-
cidedly of ojiinion," ho adds, '• tJiat however perfect the structure of wool may be, if produced in
the absence of an oily or saponaceous substance, it cannot po.<ises8 the recjuisite properties of a
clothing material."" "Mr. Boyd is again supported by Mr. Luccock, when the latter says, " Ifthe
wool-grower be anxious to promote the growth of fleeces in which the felting quality greatly pre-
vails, I sliould recommend, from the little knowledge at present possessed, that he attend closely
to the supply of natural, rich, and nutritions yolk, which the pile receives while growing." I
confess that Mr. A'ouatt's theory to account for the felting pmperty of wool, in reference to the
action of the serrations on the surface of the fibre upon one another, appears to me unsatisfactorj*.
On the authority of Mr. Luccock, the application oi moifture, warmth and pirssiirf are necessary
to bring the felting property of wool info action. " Without tlie aid of moisture," he affirms, "it
remains perfectly dormant ; the warmth and pressure are required to quicken the process." And
he adds, "the degree of heat required to make the felling property act with the utmost force is
considerably below the boiling point of water," and that '• a higher temperature loo.-ens the text-
ure of the thread, and increases the elasticitj- of the hair, thus giving it a disposition to start from
the substance of the cloth and spoil its surface."! If the action of the serrations on the fibres is
the priii('i[>al means of felting wool, it must be proved that they change their structure on beinfif
imnicrgcd in water of a temperature near the boiling point, which has not yet been done. It is
also known that wool, after being combed with heated iron combs, will not felt ; and yet the fig-
ures given by Mr. Youatt, of combed and uncombed wool of different varieties, indicate no sncn
decided change by combing, on the structure of the serrations, as to warrant us in believing that
in the one stale wool shall felt, and in another it shall not.
(2044.) Having mentioned the application of the microscope to the structure of wool, it may
prove instructive to show, by the same instrument, in what manner wool grows. '• If the f(Ptu8
of a sheep," says M. Raspail. " taken when it is of the length of about 4 J inches, and preser%-ed in
alcohol, be examined, it will be found studded with globules of uniform size, elegantly arranged,
and almost at equal distances, round certain white spots disposed in quincunxes, which seem,
even at this early period, to indicate the places where the hairs are to grow. On the epidermis
of the temple, in.stead of thin white spots, we find vesicles projecting in the form of bottles, or
rather of urns, whose sides are granulated in the same manner as tlie epidermis. These vesicles
are the rudiments of hairs."|
(2045.) The number of sheep in the empire, estimated by Mr. Macculloch, from different soarces
of information, is the following :
In England 26,148,463
In Scotland 3,500,000
In Ireland 2,000,000
Total .31,648,463|]
By a statement made by the late Mr. Hubbard, an eminent wool-stapler in Leeds, the number
of packs of wool grown every year in England is 463,169, of 240 lbs. each, or of 111,160,560 lbs.,
which gives an average weight to each fleece, including tliose of lambs, of 4i lbs.$
(2046.) The term Merino, applied to a particular breed of sheep and variety of wool, is of ob-
scure origin. Mr. Southey informs us that " Merino is an old Leonese title, still presened in
Portugal, though long since obsolete in the other kingdoms of Spain. Perhaps it is a mongrel
diminutive of the Arabic title mir or emir, likely enough to have been formed when the two lan-
guages, Spanish and Moorish, were, as it were, running into each other. Mirquchtr, the augment-
ed title, was in use at Ormuz. Merino would be sufficiently explained by supposing it a dimin-
utive graile. The old laws of Spain define it thus : ' He is a man who has authority to administer
justice within a certain district.' The first mention of this office is in the reign of Bermudo II.
The Merinos then commanded the troops of their respective provinces in war : but. before the
time of Henriijue II., it was become w holly a civil office, and the title was gradually giving place
to that of Alguacil, mayor. Most i)robahly the judge of the shepherds was calle<l the Merino, and
hence the appellation extended to the flocks nndcr his care." It is the general opinion that Me^
rino sheep came to this countn,- from Spain, and so they did at the end of the last century ; but it
appears that Jinciroolcd sheep were sent from England to Spain a verj- long time ago. That
sheep were sent from England to Spain at a known period is certain, for Mr. Youatt quotes from
the chronicles of Stowe, that " this yere (1464) King Edward IV. gave a license to pass over cer-
tain Cottesirohh' sheep into Spain." And he quotes Baker also, who says : " King Edward IV.
enters into a league with John, King of Arra^on, to whom he st>nt a score of Costal ewes and
four rams — a small prcsepf in sliow, but great m the event for it proved of more benefit to Spain,
and more detrimcntnl to Encland, ilian could at first have been imagined." The wool of the
Cotteswolde sheep of the present day is long, and not remarkable for fineness. Perhaps the old
Colteswolde wool was finer than the present, because the latter has been much crossed with the
Leicester. But if the old Cotteswolde conferred so much benefit on Spain, it may be feirly in-
[|{ Recent estimates make the number from 50 to 70.000,000. Ed. Farm. Lib.]
* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xlv. f Luccock on Wool.
J Raspail'g Organic Chemiatry, 5 MaccuUoch's Dictionary of Commerce, art. Wool.
(600)
MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE. 305
ferred that the wool of Spain was not so fine as that of England at the time. But sheep were ex-
ported from England to Spain prior to the reign of Edward IV., as Mr. Southey intimates that
" Fernan Gomez de Cibdareal, in one of his letters (Epist. 73), mentions a dispute between two
Spaniards concerning rank in the presence of Juan II., 1437. It was objected tauntingly to one
of them, that he was descended from a judge of the shepherds. The reply was, that this office
had always been held by hidalgos of great honor, and that ' King D. Alfonso had instituted it in
the person of Inigo Lopez de Mendoza, when the English sheep were first brong-ht over to Spain.' "
This dispute occurring in 1437, and refeiTing to an ancient title of honor which had been conferred
as far back as tlie time of the introduction of English sheep into Spain, and a taunt being given
in 1437 to a def:cendant of a judge of the shepherds — that is, of a Merino — thereby implying that
he, the descendant, was at least of the second or third generation, it is clear that the English
sheep referred to could have no reference to the Cotteswoldes exported in 1464, as mentioned by
Stowe. " How long was it before the Merino fleece became finer than that of the original stock ?"
asks Mr. Southey ; and he replies, " Brito, who wrote toward the close of the 16th century, says,
in praise of the wool grown about Santarem, it is so fine that it may vie with that of England.
(Monarchia Lusitania, f. i., p. 93.) If the Spanish wool had been as fine then as it is now, he
would hardly have drawn his comparison from the English."* While these facts are recorded
in Spanish literature regarding the origin and ancient quality of the wool of Spain, the opinion
of Mr. Youatt seoms much too strongly expressed, when he says that " Europe and the world are
originally indebted to Spain for the most valuable material in the manufacture of cloth." And.
again, " The chunahs, therefore, may be descendants of the English sheep," namely, those sent
to Spain in 1464. " mixed with the common breed of the country ; but farther than this England
cannot, with any degree of justice, urge the claim which some have done, of being instrumental
in producing the invaluable Spanish wool."t And yet, as we have seen, sheep were probably
sent from England to Spain long before that date, or even long before 1437; for if the King Al-
phonso, mentioned above as having instituted the order of judge of the shepherds, be Alfonso the
Wise, King of Leon and Castile, who is stated to " have digested a code of excellent laws, and
rendered his name famous in history by his patronage of the arts and sciences,"'! he reigned at the
early period of from 1252 to 1284. And another fact mentioned by Mr. Southey — wl^en Catherine,
daughter of John of Gaunt, was e.-^poused to Henrique III., she took English sheep with her as
her dowry — fixes another exportation of sheep to Spain about 1390, a considerable while prior to
the Cotteswolde exportation of 1464 ; and, if the English sheep had been of an inferior descrip-
tion to those of Spain, it is not likely that the future dueen of Castile would have taken them
with her as her own dowry. In concluding this subject, Mr. Southey puts this doubting query:
" Can there possibly be any truth in the remark of Yepes (t. 7, § 134), who says : ' Daily experi-
ence shows US that, if a lamb is suckled by a goat, the wool becomes hard and hairy ; and, on the
contrary, if a kid is suckled by a ewe, the hair becomes soft?' "
27. THE MAKING OF BUTTER AND CHEESE. ||
•' And now the Dairy claims her choicest cnre,
And half her household find employment there :
Slow rolls the chum — its load of clogging cream
At once foregoes its quality and name :
From knotty particles, first floating wide,
Congealing butter 's dashed from side to side ;
Streams of new milk through flowing coolers stray,
And snow-white curds abound, and wholesome whey."
Bloomfield.
(2047.) The dairy operations on a farm of mixed husbandry are limited,
both in regard to the season in which, and the quantity of materials by
which, they can be prosecuted. Until the calves are all weaned, which
can scarcely be before the end of June, there is no milk to spare to make
butter or cheese, but what of the former may suffice for the inmates of the
farm-house ; and as some of the cows, at least, will have calved 4 months
before all the cows are free to yield milk for the dairy, a full yield of milk
cannot be expected from them even when entirely supported on grass. —
But though thus limited, both in regard to length of time and amount of
milk, there is ample opportunity for performing every dairy operation, ac-
cording to the taste and skill of the dairy-maid. For example : Butter
[II The dairy products of the United States in 1840 were put down at $.33,787,008.
Ed. Farm. Lib.]
* Southey's Omniana, vol. U. t Youatt on Sheep. t Bigland's View of the World, vol. ii.
(601) 20
306 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
may be made from cream, or fi-om the entire sweet milk. It may be made
up fresh for market, or salted in kits for families or dealers. Cheese may
also be made from sweet or skimmed milk, for the market; and any vari-
ety of fancy clieese may be made at a time — such as cream-cheese, imita-
tion Stilton, Gloucester, or Wiltshire. With all these means at command,
to a moderate, indeed, but available extent, it is quite possible for the
dairy-maid to display as much skill and taste in her art on a mixed as on
a dairy farm — not only in these respects, but in the endless forms in which
milk may be served on the table of the farmer. In short, the only advant-
age a dairy-farm possesses over one of mixed husbandry is, that all its
dairy operations are conducted on a larger scale.
(2048.) The milk-housc, large enough and otherwise convenient and
suitable for a farm of mixed husbandry, may be seen represented in plan
at VI, fig. 32; and the cheese-room adapted to the same is seen in plan at
1i, fig. 33. The moJe in which a milk-house should be fitted up, is de-
scribed in (231), as well as a cheese-room in (237).
(2049.) The vtotsih with which a dairy should be supplied, comprise a
large number of articles, though all of simple construction. The milk-
dishes are composed of stone- ware, wood, metal, or stone.* The stone-
ware consists of Wedgewood and common ware ; the wooden of copper-
work, "of oak-staves bound with hoops of iron; the metal of block-tin, or
of zinc ; and the stone are hewn out of the block, and polished. Besides
these, utensils formed of a combination of materials are used, such as
wooden vessels lined with block-tin or zinc, and German cast-iron dishes
lined with porcelain. Of the whole variety, the stone and wooden ones
lined with metal, are stationary, and the rest movable. All milk-dishes
should be of a broad and shallow form, for the purpose of exposing a large
surface with a shallow depth of milk, in order to facilitate the disenf^age-
ment of the several parts of the milk. There seems to be a difference of
opinion, which of those substances have the greatest influence in disen-
gaging the greatest quantity of cream from the milk. I have heard it
maintained at one place that stone is much the best ; at another, that wood
is the best ; at another, that stone-ware is preferable to all others, and of
the two kinds of stone-ware that of the common ware is better than
Wedgcwood's ; and at another, that zinc is by far the best ; from all which
difference of opinion I would infer that the subject has not been satisfac-
torily ascertained by comparative experiment, and which I believe to be
the case ; but I am sure that different management, even in the same cir-
cumstances, will produce very different results in this product of milk.
Independently of the consideration of cream, however, other circumstances
should be regarded in making choice of milk-dishes. Wooden ones re-
quire much labor to keep them thoroughly clean, though they are the least
liable to injury in the use. Metal ones also require much cleaning, and
are liable to be bruised ; and it is not questionable that they are unwhole-
some for milk, if not kept thoroughly clean. Tin produces no injurious
salt with the acid of milk ; but the salt produced by the action of lactic
acid upon zinc, is believed to be in a slight degi'ee poisonous to the human
stomach. At all events, the thought of kicjumr milk in metallic dishes is
unpleasant to the mind. Stone-ware is easily frangible, but is, neverthe-
less, so cheap, so easily cleaned, and so safe in use, that it forms the most
convenient material f(ir milk-dishes to every class of country people. The
advantage of Wedgewood ware consists in its hardness, and the durability
of its glazing. The price of dishes of common ware, of 15 inches in di-
[* Better if made of glass, with thoir capacity stamped in the making. Ed. Farm. Lii>.]
(602)
MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE. 307
ameter, is 9d. each ; of Wedgewood's ware, from 12 inches to 24 inches,
from 2s. to 8s. each ; of wood, 16 inches diameter and 4 inches deep, 2s.
each, and of zinc, IS inches in diameter, 3s. 9d. each, and others are 3d.
per inch more or less, as the diameter increases or diminishes from this
size.
(2050.) The other utensils are : Creaming scallop, for taking the cream
off milk ; a jar for containing the cream until it is churned ; a Wedge-
wood one, with top and opening in it to he covered with muslin, to keep
out dust and let in air, costs from 6s. to 7s. 6d. ; a churn, of which there
are many forms, all of which will be found described below by Mr. Slight ;
a flat wooden kit, to wash butter in ; scales and weights for weighing but-
ter, whether in pounds, fractional parts of a pound, or in the lump ; jars
or firkins for packing salted butter ; moulds for forming prints of butter
for the table ; covered dishes for holding fi-esh butter in pounds ; a tub
for earning the milk in when aboiit to make cheese ; a curd-cutter, and a
curd-breaker ; a drainer to lay across the cheese-tub while the whey is
straining from the curd ; cheese-vats for giving the form to cheese ; a
cheese-press, a figui'e of the most convenient and powerful form of which
is given below ; a furnace and pot for heating water and milk ; and a sup-
ply of spring-water is an essential concomitant to a dairy.
(2051.) A word or two on churns. The old-fashioned upright hand-
plunge-churn is now confined chiefly to the use of small farmers and cot-
ters ; but, when inanimate power is applied to the making of butter, the
upright churn is yet used by many dairy farmers who conduct their opera-
tions on a large scale. About 20 years ago the barrel-chum was much in
vogue, and it was very well suited for making butter, as it kept all the
cream in constant agitation ; but the trouble required to keep it clean,
from its inconvenient form to get within it, has tended to bring it into dis-
repute. It is now su^^erseded by the box-churn, whose constiiiction ad-
mits of its being easily taken to pieces and cleaned. Of the two forms of
box-chum, I prefer the one in which the agitators move horizontally, be-
cause it can be filled to any degree of fullness, without danger of the cream
or milk working out of the journal-holes of the axle. Long ago, small
chums were in repute ; though they fell into desuetude, but lately have
again come into use, and for making small quantities of butter they are
admirably adapted. Various constructions of small churns, intended to
regulate the temperature of the cream, have of late been proposed, some
of which are noticed below.
(2052.) A word or two also on cleanliness. Unless the milk-house is
kept thoroughly clean, in its walls, floors, and shelves, the milk will be-
come tainted ; and in order to keep them clean, the floor and shelves
should be of materials that will bear cleansing easily and quickly. In
most farm-houses the shelving is of wood, and the floor of pavement or
brick. Wooden shelves can be kept clean, but are too warm in summer.
Stone shelving is better, but must be polished, otherwise cannot be suffi-
ciently cleaned; and to be kept clean, requires at times to be rubbed with
sandstone. Marble shelving is the best of all for coolness and cleanliness,
and they are not so expensive as many imagine. Polished pavement
makes a more durable, easier cleaned, and cooler floor than brick. There
should be ample means of ventilation in the dairy when required ; the
principal object, however, not being so much a constant change or a larger
quantity of air, as an equality of temperature through summer and win-
ter. To obtain this desideratum, the windows, which should face the N.
or E., should not be opened when the temperature of the air is above or
below the proper one, which, on an average, may be stated at 50° Fahren-
(603)
308 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
heit. Tlie milk-house should be thoroughly dry ; ihe least natural damp in
the walls and floor will emanate a heavy fungus-like odor, very detrimen-
tal to the flavor of milk and its products. The utensils should all be kept
thoroughly clean, and exposed to and dried in the air. Some daiiy-maids
are so careless in this respect, that 1 have seen seams of green and yellow
rancid butter left in the corners and angles of chums, and a heavy smell
of dirty woolen rags pcr>'adhig wooden utensils. However effectual
woolen scrubbers may be in removing greasiness left by milk and butter
on wooden articles, they should never be employed in a dairy, but only
coarse linens, which should always be washed clean in hot water without
soap, and dried in the air. All the vessels should be quickly dried with
linen cloths, that no feeling of clamminess be left on them, and then ex-
posed to the air. In washing stone-ware dishes, they should not be dried
at that time, but set past singly to drip and dry ; and they should be rubbed
bright with a linen cloth when about to be used. If dried and set into
one another after being washed, they will become quite clammy. The
great objection to using stone milk-coolers is the difficulty of drying them
thoroughly before being again used. No milk-house should be so situate
as to admit the steam rising from the boiler which supplies hot water for
washing the various utensils ; nor should the ground before its windows
contain receptacles for filth and dust, but be laid out in grass, or fiimished
with evergreens. It is said that the odor from the blossom, of the com-
mon elder, Snmbvcus nigra, in summer is a complete muscafuge, if I may
be allowed to coin a word.
(2053.) The articles which engage the dairy-maid's attention within the
dairy are milk, butter, and cheese ; and, first, as to milk. I have already
said that the milk is drawn from the cow into a
pail (1670), the most convenient form of which is Fig. 376.
given in fig. 376, and the size of which may vary
to suit the pleasure of the dairy-maid. It is made
light, of thin oak staves bound with iron hoops,
and costs from 2s. 6d. to 5s., according to the size.
The milk, in being drawn from the cows, is put
into a tub, and left to cool ; but not to become so
cold or stand so long as to separate the cream.
The tub should be placed in the air, and out of
reach of animals, such as cats and dogs. After it
has co(jled, the milk is passed through the milk-
sieve into the milk-dishes, and as much, only is put
into each dish as not to exceed 2 inches in depth.
To know at once the age of milk in the dishes,
one mark or score should be made with chalk on
.1 T 1 • (.11 1 1 1 1 • 1 THE MILKIXG-PAIL.
the dishes just nlled,to show that they contanithe
last drawn milk, or fj-eshest meal ; a second mark is made, at the same
time, on the dishes containing the meal before this ; and a third is put on
the dishes containing the milk drawn before the second meal, and which
constitutes the third meal, or oldest milk. If the cows are milked
three times a day, when the first mark is put on the dishes of the evening
meal, those of the morning meal of the same day will have 3 marks, to in-
dicate its being the third meal previous, and the dishes of the mid-day or
second meal will have 2 marks. At every meal all the utensils that have
been used should be thoroughly cleaned, and set past dry, ready for use
when required.
(2054.) The next care of the dairy-maid is taking the crcarn off" the milk.
In ordinary weather in summer the cream should not be allowed to remain
(604)
MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE. 309
Ion O'er on the milk than 3 meals — that is, when a fi-esh meal is brought in,
the cream should be taken off the dishes which have 3 marks, when the
milk will be 20 or 22 hours old ; but, should the weather be unusually
warm, the milk should not be allowed to be more than IS hours old, or
that having 2 marks, before the cream is taken off it. For example : in
ordinary routine, the cream of the previous mid-day's milk should be taken
off in the morning, and at mid-day the milk of the previous evening would
be creamed, and so on ; but, when the weather is very warm, it would be
well to anticipate the creaming of one meal, and take the cream of the two
oldest meals at one time, and in this way take off all the cream that can
be got every 18 hours. The reason for using this precaution in taking off
cxeam is, that the milk should on no account be allowed to become sour
before the cream is taken off, because the cream of sour milk makes bad
butter. Let sweet cream become ever so sour after being taken off the
milk, and no harm will accrue to the butter. Not that sour cream off sour
milk is useless, or really deleterious, for it may be eaten with relish by it-
self, as a dessert, or with porridge. The cream is skimmed off milk with
a thin, shallow dish, called a skimmer ov creamer. It may be made of wood
or of stone-ware ; and, of the two substances, the ware is preferable for
cleanliness ; and, of ware, Wedgwood's or porcelain is the best, being
light, thin, hard, highly glazed, and smooth. There is no other way of
taking cream off dishes but with a skimmer ; but in stationary coolei's, of
metal or of stone, a spigot is drawn cautiously from a hole in the bottom,
through which the milk runs slowly down into a vessel, and the cream is
left on the bottom of the vessel ; and this manner of separating the cream
from the milk is said to be the most effectual ; but, of course, the skimmer
can be used for creaming the milk in coolers, as well as other dishes. The
cream, when taken off the milk, is put into a cream-jar, in which it accu-
mulates until churned into butter. Every time a new portion of cream is
put into the jar, the cream should be stirred, in order to mix the different
portions of cream into a uniform mass. The stirring is usually done with
a stick kept for the purpose, but spoons of Wedgwood ware are made for
doing it. The cream soon becomes sour in the jar, and it should not be
kept too long, as it is apt to contract a bitter taste. Twice a week it should
be made into butter, however little the quantity may be at a time. The
skimmed milk is put into a tub and made into cheese ; but, if a cheese is
only made every other day, the milk kept for the following day should be
scalded befor.» it is put into the tub,
(2054.) On Converting cream into Mittcr, the first act is to put the chum
into a proper state. It is assumed that the churn when last used was put
aside in a thoroughly clean and dry state. This being the case, a little hot
water, about 2 quarts, should be poured into it to scald and rinse it. In
summer it should be rinsed with cold water after the hot, but not in win-
ter. Some people sprinkle a little salt into the churn before the ci'eam is
put into it, but whether it does any good or not I cannot say. The chum
being thus prepared, the cream is strained into it through a bag of coarse,
open sort of linen cloth, well known under the name of cheese-cloth. This
cloth is always kept in a sweet state, no soap ever being employed to wash
it. It is dipped in water, and then held over the churn ; and, on the cream
being slowly poured into it from the jar, the greater proportion will run
through into the churn ; but the clotted part, which will contain in it dust,
drowned flies, moths, and spiders, and other impurities, which it i-s impos-
sible to keep out of an open cream-jar, the cloth will keep back, on being
gently pressed. In the small hand plunge-churn, and in a barrel-chum, a
churn-cloth is required to be put round the mouth of the former, and un-
^605)
310 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
der the bung of the latter, to prevent the cream being throwii out in churn-
ing. The temperature at which cream is put intci the chura has a consid-
erable influence on the time which the butter will take to make, and also
on the weight of butter obtained from a given quantity of cream. It has
been found that fti'P Fahrenheit is the temperature which best attains these
ends, and it is one easily attained in a cool apartment early of a summer's
morning. The churning should be done slowly at first, until the cream
has been comj)letely broken — that is, rendered a uniform mass — when it
becomes thinner, and the churning is felt to be easier. During the break-
ing of the cream a good deal of gas is evolved, which is usually let off by
a small spigot-hole, if the chura be tight, such as a baiTel-chuni ; but in
other churns, which have a cover, the air escapes of itself When the mo-
tion of churning is rotatory, it should be continued in the same direction,
and not changed backward and forward. I am not sure that a satisfactory
reason can be given for continuing uniform motion, but the opinion is that
the butter is formed more simultaneously, and that the backward and for-
ward motions are apt to make the butter soft. It is certain, at all events,
when the motion is uniform and rather slow, the butter, whenever it is
formed, is felt to stop the motion of the agitators at once. After the cream
has been broken, the motion may be a little increased, ai\d continued so
until a change is heard in the sound within the churn, from a smooth to a
harsh tone, and until an unequal resistance is felt to be given to the agita-
tors. The butter may soon be expected to form after this, and, by increas-
ing the motion a little more, it will form the sooner, and, the moment it is
formed, the motion should cease. The rate of motion in churning butter
is of some importance, for, when performed too slowly, a longer time will
be spent in churning than is necessary, and the butter will be strong-tasted ;
and, on the other hand, when the motion is too rapid, the butter will be
soft and frothy, when the churning is said to have burst. In very warm
weather, and when the cream is put in too warm, the churning is liable to
burst with any degi-ee of fast motion, and hence the judgment is required
to be exercised in the circumstances. I suppose that the most proper mo-
tion in churning has never been ascertained by experiment, and to deter-
mine which would probably be tedious, but it would be worth while being
tried. When butter forms from cream in |^ of an hour to 1 hour churning,
it is satisfactory work ; when it comes much sooner it will be soft, and
when much later it will be strong-tasted. The temperature, by agitation
during churning, rises 3^ or 4°.
(2055.) Immediately on Iijiing forrfted, butter should oe taken out of the
churn and put into the butter tub, one of a broad and shallow form, to be
worked u]). A little cold water being first put into the tub, and the tub
set in an inclined position, the butter is spread out, rolled up round the
edges, and pressed out by the palm of the hand, in order to deprive it of
all the buttermilk — for the least portion of that ingrculient retained in it
would soon render it rancid. The milky water is poured off, and fresh
poured in, and the butter is again washed and rubbed as often as the wa-
ter becomes milky. -If intended to be kept or disposed of in a fresh state,
the large lump is divided and weighed in scales in 1 lb. or ^ lb. lumps
each, and placed sejiarately in the tub among water. Each lump is then
clapped firmly by the hand and formed into the usual form in which pounds
and half-pounds of butter are disposed of in the part of the country in
which your farm is situate. For the table any reqiiisite number of the
pounds should be moulded from the lump into prints according to taste,
or rolled into forms with small wooden spades, figured or plain. The
(606)
MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE. 311
made-up butter is then floated in jars with covers, in a clear, strong brine
of salt and water, fit to float an egg, made ready for the purpose.
(2057.) Objections have been urged against the use of the hand in mak-
ing up butter, and small wooden spades recommended to be employed for
the purpose ; and the use of water has also been objected to making up
of butter, as it is said to deprive the butter of its pleasing aroma. A wo-
man who has hot, clammy hands, should never become a dairy-maid, for,
butter being very susceptible of taint, its flavor will, no doubt, be injured
by the heavy smell of sweaty hands ; but clean, cool hands — rendered so
by washing in warm water and oatmeal, not soaj>, and then rinsed and
steeped in cold water — hands so prepared will make up butter far cleaner
and more solid than any instrument, whether of wood or of any other ma-
terial ; and as to cold water injuring butter, there can be no such strong
affinity between a fatty matter like butter and cold water, as that the lat-
ter shall dissolve any essential ingredient out of the former ; at all events,
water will more effectually take away any milky substance from butter
than any dry instrument that can be used, or even all the art the hand
alone can accomplish. Let the trial be made both ways, and their com-
parative efficacy be tested by keeping the butter fresh, and seeing which
will keep the longest siveet.
(2058.) If the butter is intended to be salted, it is somewhat differently
treated. After being washed clean, as above described, it is weighed in
the scales, and salt is immediately applied. Practice varies much in the
quantity of salt given to butter, so much as from 1 oz. of salt to 1 lb. of
butter, to ^ oz. of salt to 1^ lbs. of butter : 1 oz. to 1 lb. is too much — it is
like curing butter with as little ai't as a salt herring — ^ oz. of fine pure salt
being quite sufficient; and this quantity is intended for keeping-butter, for
as to powdered butter for immediate use, ^ oz. to 2 lbs. is quite sufficient.
In the process of salting, the butter is spread out in the tub, and the salt,
g-round fine, is sprinkled over it by little and little, and the butter rolled
up and rubbed down with the side of the hand until the whole mass ap-
pears uniform, and is considered to be incorporated with the salt. To in-
sure uniform salting, only half the salt should be applied at once, and the
butter lumped and set aside until next day, when the other half of the salt
should be rubbed in. Whatever of brine or milk may have subsided from
the lump, in the mean time, should be poured off". The salted lump is then
put into the jar or firkin on the second day. One great advantage of de-
ferring the making up of butter until the second day is that, without it, the
butter will not assume that firm, smooth, waxy texture, which is so charac-
teristic a property of good butter. Butter when kitted is pressed firmly
down in all points, and great care taken that it be particularly pressed
with the side of the finger round the circumference of the jar, and its sub-
stance made solid, and its surface flat and smooth. If a former churning
of butter had been put into the jar, its surface should be raised up into
regular furrows, that the new lump of butter may be commingled with
what was put into the kit before. The compressing of butter, then, into
the kit, is of great importance, inasmuch as, if the least cell of air be left
in its mass, or get access by the side of the kit, it will wind the butter —
that is, impart to it a rancid taste. After the kit has been filled within an
inch of the top, the butter is made smooth, and covered with a new piece
of wetted white linen or cotton cloth. To secure its goodness, butter
should be salted immediately on being made.
(2059.) The state of the kit should be particularly examined before it is
used for packing butter. If composed of stone-ware, it is easily cleansed
and rendered sweet. A wooden kit that has been used before should be
(607)
312 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
filled with water for some time, to render it water-tight by the swelling of
the edges of the staves. It should then be repeatedly scalded with hot
water, and exposed to the air, and, just before being used, should be rinsed
with cold water, and a slight sprinkling of salt scattered over its bottom.
A new wooden kit requires somewhat different treatment, because the odor
from the new wood will impart a disagreeable flavor to the butter. It
should be filled with water mixed with garden mould, or with lime-shells
and water, for some days, and the mixture occasionally stirred ; after which
it should be thoroughly scrubbed and cleansed with hot water, and rinsed
with cold water, and salted before being used.
(2060.) The quality of the salt has a material effect on the taste of the
butter that has been salted with it. Ordinary sea-salt contains a consider-
able proportion of other salts which are bitter, and, of course, they will
have effect upon the butter as well as the true salt. " It is easy, however,
to purify the common salt of the shops from these impurities," says Pro-
fessor Johnston, " by pouring 2 quarts of boiling water upon 1 stone or 2
of salt — stirring the whole well about, now and then, for a couple of hours,
and afterward straining it through a clean cloth. The water which runs
through is a saturated solution of salt, and contains all the impunties, but
may be used for common culinary purposes, or may be mixed with the
food of the cattle. The salt which remains in the cloth is free from solu-
ble salts of lime and magnesia, and may be hung up in the cloth till it is
dry enough to be used for mixing with the butter or with cheese."*
(2061.) Butter assumes a texture according as it has been treated. When
burst in the churning, it is not only soft but frothy, and, on being cut with
the knife, seems as if it could be compressed into much less bulk. When
churned too rapidly, especially in warm weather, the chuniing may not
advance to the degree of bursting, but the butter will always continue sofi^,*
and never assume a firmness, though worked up with ever so much care,
and in the coolest manner ; and, when one piece is separated from another,
they are drawn asunder with a jagged surface, and stick to the knife that
cuts them. Soft butter will not keep long, whether salted or fresh. When
over-churned — that is, when the churning has been continued after the
butter had been formed, it becomes soft, not unlike the state when it is too
rapidly churned. When properly churned, both in regard to time and
temperature, butter becomes firm with very little working, and is tena-
cious ; but its most desirable state is that of waxy, when it is easily mould-
ed into any shape, and may be drawn out a considerable length before
breaking. It is only in this state that butter has the rich nutty flavor and
smell, which impart so high a degree of pleasure in partaking it. To
judge of butter, it is not necessary to taste it — the smooth, unctuous feel,
on rubbing a small piece between the finger and thumb, expresses at once
its richness of quality ; the nutty smell indicates a similar taste; and the
bright, glisteniiig, cream-colored surface shows it to be in a clean state.
(2062.) What I have stated in reference to the making of butter, applies
especially to that obtained from cream alone, and from cream in the usual
state for butter — namely, after it has become sour by keepin A but butter
can be obtained from sweet cream as well, though chuniing^enders its
buttermilk sour, as well as that always is from sour cream. To have but-
ter in perfection from sweet cream, it should be churned every dav ; and,
as the supply of cream daily is usually very limited, a smaller churn than
usual is most convenient to be used ; and for this purpose there is, per-
haps, none better than the table-churn figured hereafter — by l\m peculiar
• Johnston's Lecturea on Agricultural Chemistry.
(608)
MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE. 313
construction of which, being placed in a vessel, the temperature of the
cream can be regulated in all seasons. I see it alleged in adveitisements
of churns of similar construction to this, that butter may he made from
cream in 10 or 12 minutes. I have made several experiments w-iih such
a table-chum, in churning cream at different temperatures, and \\-ith differ-
ent velocities, but never obtained good butter in less than 30 minutes ; and,
when formed so quickly as in 15 minutes, the butter was as soft as froth.
I have heard it alleged that butter of the finest quality cannot be obtained
from sweet cream ; but the alleeation, I suspect, is made by persons who
have little experience of butter from sweet cream. So far am I from co-
inciding in this opinion, that I know butter of the richest quality, and of
the finest flavor and appearance, can be made from sweet cream. Ti^'ere
this butter not necessarily good, would the nobles of the land have it upon
their tables every morning ? It is true that sweet cream requires longei
churnine than sour — still, butter is obtained from it in from 30 to 40 min-
utes ; and, if it is an unprofitable mode of using cream, that is a different
question. For my ovm taste, I would never desire better butter, all the
vear round, than that churned every momins: in a small chum from sweet
cream. Such butter, on new baked oat-cake, cooled, with a little virgin
flower-honey, and a cup of hot, strong coffee, mollified with crystalized
sugar and cream, such as the butter had been made from, is a breakfast
worth partaking of, but can seldom be obtained.
(2063.) Besides cream, butter is made from street milk ; but, to obtain
which, a large chum is required, and the churning continued for a long
time, seldom less than 3 hours. When the quantity of milk is large, power
other than human, whether of steam, water, or horse, is employed to move
the chum. The butter obtained from this method is very good. The ob-
vious objection to this method is, the labor imposed in agfitating a gi-eat
quantity' of milk, and in consequently having a large quantity of butter-
milk ; which, however, may easily be disposed of in towns, and may even
be converted into very good cheese. The method has its advantages in
the uniform character of the butter which it affords in all seasons, from the
certainty of obtaining a churning at the proper temperatiire, which is re-
quired to be higher than that of cream, being 65^ Fahrenheit, and easily
obtained, in A\'inter and summer, by the addition of hotter or colder water
among the milk. Churning from sweet milk is thus a comparatively sim-
ple process. The milk is poured into coolers at first, and from them " it
is drawn off by siphons into vats sufilciently large to contain both the eve-
ning and morning meals; and the vats are then put by, to stand totallv un-
distui-bed. till the whole acquires a sufiicient degree of acidity. The time
required for this purpose varies a little according to the heat of the weather
and the temperature of the milk-house. The point is ascertained by the
formation of a strong, thick brat or scum on the siurface, when this becomes
uneven." All the milk is not of the same age, but this does not affect the
quality of the whole. The times of churning are these : " The milk of
Sunday and Monday is churned on the Thursday morning : that of Tues-
day, Wednesday, and Thursday mornings, on the Saturday evening ; and
that of Thursday evening. Friday and Saturday, on the Monday morning."*
(2064.) In churning either ingredient the residuum is huttermilJc, which,
when obtained in large quantity from milk, may be disposed oi in towns,
or converted into cheese ; and. when derived in small quantity from ci-eam,
a part may be used for domestic purposes, and the remainder mixed with
the food given to the brood-sow.
Transactions of the Highland and Agricaltsral Society, for July, 1343.
(609)
314 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
(2065.) It is now time to say something on the making of cheese. On a
farm of mixed husbandry, as much skimmed milk cannot be procured ev-
ery day as to make a cheese of ordinary size, but there may be one made
every other day. To save skimmed milk from souring in warm weather
till the next day, it is necessary to scald it — that is, to put it into a furnace
pot, and heat it sufficiently, and then let it cool. The nre shAuld be a gen-
tle one, and the milk should be so carefully attended to as neither to burn
nor boil, nor be made warmer than the finger can bear. After being thus
heated in the morning, the milk should be poured into a cheese-tub, to
await the cheese-making of the following day. Tlie skimmed milk of next
morning is poured into the same tub, except about ^ of it, which is put
into the furnace or another pot, and made warm for the purpose of ren-
dering the entire milk of the tub sufficiently wann. The heat is applied
slowly to the pot ; the milk occasionally stirred with a stick, and made as
warm as the finger can hardly bear. This warm portion is then poured
into the tub, the contents of which are thereby made as warm as new milk
— that is, about 110'^ or 112^. The various degrees of heat here referred
to are in rather vague terms, but 1 believe no specific degi-ee of heat is
required in scalding, provided the milk is not allowed to bum at the bot-
tom of the pot, and is prevented from boiling ; for, if it boil, the milk will
coatjulate instantly, and be useless for cheese-making, because the cheese
will then be hard or flinty ; and, so far as these two points are concerned,
the ready and practical test of the finger is sufficiently accurate. On the
contents of the tub being mixed by stirring, the rennet or earning is added
to the milk, which is allowed to stand some time to coagulate, with a cloth
thrown over it, to keep the proper heat.
(2066.) In the meanwhile, I shall describe the method of preparing the
rennet, or reed, or earning. A calf's stomach is usually recommended for
this purpose ; but as calves' stomachs are not easily obtained in districts
where calves are reared, a pig's stomach, which can be easily obtained on
every farm, will answer the purpose equally well — and, indeed, many be-
lieve that it makes the stronger earning of the two. WHien the pigs are
killed for hams in %vinter, their stomachs should be preserved for rennet,
and they are preserved in this manner : Let the inside skin of the stom-
achs be taken out ; the opei'ation is somewhat troublesome, but may easily
be done by an experienced dairy-maid. Any curdling in it is thrown
away, as being unnecessary', and tending to filthiness ; and the skin is then
wiped clean with a cloth, not washed. It is then laid flat on a table, and
rubbed thickly over with salt on both sides, and placed on a dish for 4
days, by which time it has imbibed sufficient salt to preserve it. It is then
hung stretched over a stick near the fire to dry and won, and in the dried
state is kept for use as rennet by the next season. Some people place a
layer of clean wheat straw on the skin, after it is salted, and roll the skin
over if. to keep it open — tie a piece of paper around it, and then hang it
up near the kitchen-fire to dry and won. This plan is good enough, but
not better than the other. When the rennet is to be used, a strong brine
of salt and boiling water, sufficient to float an g^^, is made and sieved
throuffh a cloth, and allowed to cool, to the amount of 3 imperial pints to
each skin. One skin is allowed to remain in that quantity of brine in a
jar, with its mouth covered with bladder, for 3 or 4 days, when the coag-
ulating strength of the brine is tested by pouring a drop or two into a tea-
cupfull of lukewarm milk ; and, when considered suflficiently strong, the
brine is freed of the skin, bottled and tightly corked for use. The skin is
again salted as before, and spread over a stick to dry and won, and is
(610J
MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE.
315
Fig 377.
THE CUKD-CUTTKR.
again ready for use when required. Half a tea-cupfull of this rennet will
coagulate as much milk as will make a 15-lb. cheese.
(2067.) When the milk is sufficiently coagulated, which it wll be in half
an hour, the curd is cut in the tub with the curd-cutter, fig. 377, which con-
sists of an oval hoop of copper a h, 9 inches long
and 6 inches wide, and 1^ inches deep, embracing
a slip of copper, of the same depth, along its longi-
tudinal axis a b. The stem c of round copper rod
rising from each side of the oval hoop unites at c,
and after attaining in all 18 inches in length, is sur-
mounted by a wooden handle d, 9 inches in lengtli,
but 6 inches would be enough, by which it is held
either by one or both hands, and on the instrument
being used in a perpendicular direction, cuts the curd
into pieces in the tub. Some people break the curd
at first with the hand, but this instrument cuts it
more effectually. On being cut, the curd lets out its
whey, which is drained off by means of a flat dish
being pressed against the curd-cloth, linen of open
fabric, spread upon the curd. As much of the whey
is removed in this way as practicable, and the curd
will be left comparatively dry, when it receives an-
other cutting with the cutter, and the whey again
expressed from it. The curd is then lifted out of the tub, and wrapped
into the curd-cloth, which, in the form of a bundle, is placed upon a drainer
lying across the mouth of the tub, and the whey is pressed out of it by
main force. This is the laborious part of the operation, and to save both
time and labor in large cheese dairies, the bundle of curd is placed in a
large cheese-vat, and subjected to pressure in the cheese-press to get quit
of the whey. The curd becomes very firm after this pressing, and must
be cut into small pieces by some instrument before it can be put into the
cheese-vat. In most small dairies, I believe that the hand alone, or a table-
knife, is employed to divide the curd, but a simple implement, such as rep-
resented and described below, effects the purpose with comparative ease
and sufficient minuteness. The curd, being made small enough, is salted
to taste with salt ground fine. In some parts of the country, such as in
Cheshire, and in Holland, cheeses are salted by being floated in a strong
solution of salt in water, which no doubt penetrates the new formed cheese,
but it seems an uncertain mode of giving any desired degree of saltness.
After being salted, the curd is put into a cheese-cloth, spread over a cheese-
vat, and firmly packed into the vat higher than its edge, and on the curd
being covered with the cloth, the vat is placed in the cheese-press and sub-
jected to pressui-e, upon which a quantity of whey will probably exude by
the holes in the bottom of the vat. In a short lapse of time, 2 hours or
more, the cheese is turned out of the vat, a clean and dry cheese-cloth put
in, the cheese replaced into it upside down, and again subjected to in-
creased pressure in the press. Should whey continue to exude, the cheese
must again be taken out of the vat, and a clean cloth substituted ; in short,
a clean cloth should be substituted, and the pressure increased, as long as
any whey is seen to exude ; but if the prior operations have been properly
performed, the exudation should cease in about 12 hours, after which the
pressure is continued until the press is wanted for a new cheese on the
second day. Fig. 378 shows the common cheese-vat or cJiessart, as it is
called, the form being varied according to that adopted for the cheese. This
vat is built in elm staves, as beinoj less liable to burst with pressure. anJ
(611)
316 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
Strongly hooped, and is furnished with a sub-
stantial bottom, pierced with holes, to allow
the whey expressed to flow away, and a strong
wooden cover cross doubled. It is of advan-
tage that the cover fit the vat exactly, and that
the vat have as little taper interiorly as possi-
ble. In some parts, as in Cheshire, cheese-vats
are made of tin, with holes in the bottom. The
old and inconvenient form of cheese-press, as
well as the new and convenient one, are both
found ficrured and described below by Mr.
C,,. , > , . r . • * 1 V. THE CHEESE-VAT.
Slight. In some dairy distncts large cheeses
are subject to immense pressure. In Cheshire the cheese is subject to
three presses, the first giving a pressure of -1, a second of a ^, and a third
of 1 ton weight. There the cheeses being unusually large, are bound
round with fillets of linen until their form attains consistency.
(2068.) After the cheeses have been suflficiently pressed, they are put
into the cheese-room h, fig. 33, which should not be exposed to too much
heat, drouth, or damp, as heat makes cheese sweat ; drouth dries them
too quickly, and causes them to crack ; and damp prevents them harden-
inor and. wonning:, and causes them to contract a bitter taste. Cheeses be-
ing exposed to a cool, dry, and calm air upon the shelves in, will dry by
degi-ees, and obtain a firm skin. The skin becomes harder by being dip-
ped in hot water, but I see no benefit to be derived from such a practice.
They should be wiped with a dry cloth, to remove any moisture that may
have exuded from them, and turned daily. To expedite the process of
turning and rubbing, a cheese-rack, such as is figured below, has been in
use in England, and found to answer the purpose. New cheeses, as they
are made, are set in the rack, while as many of the oldest are removed
from it and placed upon the shelves. Some cheeses burst, and throw out
a serous-like fluid, which accident happens in consequence of the whey
which was left in it fermenting, and which should have been pressed out.
Any cheese that changes the shape which the cheese-vat gave it, should be
suspected of some organic change taking place within it ; but if such a
cheese does not crack, so as to admit the air into it, it may soon become
ripe and mould, and prove of fine flavor. The inconvenience of cracks
in cheese, is the facility afforded to the cheese-fly to enter and deposit its
eggs ; and to prevent their egress, the cracks should be filled up every day
with a mixture of butter, salt, and pepper, made to a proper consistency
with oatmeal.
(20G9.) But the casualties which I have mentioned are less hkely to be-
fall skimmed-milk cheese, the making of which I have been describing,
than new or sweet-milk cheese. These are made exactly in the same
manner with the milk as it comes from the cow. One day's milk being
in.sufficient for a cheese, the fresh morning's meal is mixed with the meals
of the previous day, the oldest part of which will have thrown up a cov-
ering of cream, which is mixed through the milk, and the entire gatherings
are heated with a portion of the mf)ming's milk. The rennet is applied
in the same manner, but in rather larger quantity. Greater difficulty \n\\
be found to squeeze the whey entirely from the curd than with the skim-
med milk, and it is the difficulty of expressing all the whey out of them
which renders sweet-milk cheeses more liable to ferment, and burst and
lose their shape.
(2070.) I have ^aid nothing of employing annotto or arnotto for dyeing
cheese, because I think it a very useless piece of trouble which cheese-
(612)
MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE. 317
farmers impose upon themselves. It is employed in Gloucestershire to
the extent of 1 oz. of arnotto to 1 cwt. of cheese; and in Cheshire, Sdwts.
to 60 lbs. of cheese, and it costs from Is. to Is. 6d. per lb. Arnotto is a
precipitate from maceration of the pulp which covers the seeds of the Bixa
orellana of Linnaeus. It is manufactured in two forms, one in flags or
cakes of 2 lbs. or 3 lbs. each, of a bright yellow color, soft to the touch, of
good consistence, and comes from Cayenne wrapped in banana leaves, and
is much used in giving an orange tint to silk and cotton goods, but which
is not permanent ; and the other kind is called roll arnotto, which is small,
not exceeding 2 oz. or 3 oz. each, hard, dry, and compact, of a brownish-
color outside and red within, is brought from Brazil, and is the kind used
in the dairies. The duty on the roll kind used to be c£5 12s. per cwt., and
is now 4s.* When employed it is put into the milk before the earning,
and it is prepared by rubbing down the requisite quantity in a bowl of
warm milk. All the quantity employed is said to impart no peculiar fla-
vor to the cheese, and this being the acknowledged case, of what utility is
it 1 for as to the appearance of cheese, I suppose it will be allowed that
Stilton and Dunlop cheese look as well on a table as that of Gloucester
and Cheshire. Marigold flowers, saffi'on, and carrots, are also employed
to give color to cheese.
(2071.) The yield of dairy-cows varies so much, even in the same circumstances, that no aver-
age result can be depended upon. I have had covrs of the same breed give from 8 to 17 Scotch
pints aday, that is, from 16 to 34 quarts; and I have known a cow of a crossbreed give 60 quarts
a-day. So is the variation in respect of the quality of the milk. I have had cows whose milk
would only yield a thin film of cream in the course of '24 hours, while that of the others would
almost admit of its cream of the same age being lifted oif with the fingers. But though I can say
nothing satisfactory on this head, I may state a few of the circumstances which are supposed to
have a controlling influence on the quantity and quality of the inilk of cows.
(2072.) The circumstances which alFect the quantity oi milk are the breed; the smaller breeds
yield the smaller quantity, and the yearly quantity of the large and smalt breeds may vary fi-om
4900t to 2400^; quarts ; the kind of food, cows fed on succulent food, such as moist meadow-grass,
brewers' and distillers' refuse, and new sown grass, will yield a larger quantity of milk than when
fee' on hay and roots, and old pasture : and the time from calviner, which, according to a state-
ment of Mr. Alton, causes a variation from 1200 quarts in the first 50 days, to 300 quarts in the
sixth 50 days after calving.||
(2073.) The circumstances which affect the quality of milk are more various. The bi-eed has
an effect ; the small ones yield richer milk than the large, in which respect the small Kerry cow
is superior to the large Yorkshire. The kind of food, hay, corn and oil-cake, produce richer milk
than turnips and straw, and yield more butter ; and bean-meal and tares afford more cheese than
oil cake, corn, potatoes and turnips. In the time from calving, it is well known that the first
milk of a cow, called the biestings (1677), is much richer than the ordinary milk which the cow
afterward gives. It has a different composition from milk, and acts as a purgative to the new-
born calf, which is of essential use to it at that period of life, in removing the sticky sort of dung
called ihe meconivm, from its bowels. You thus see how erroneous is the practice of those breed-
ers of calves who throw away the biestings as injurious. In 7vet and cold weather the milk is less
rich than in dry and warm ; and on this account more cheese should be obtained in cold, and but-
ter in warm weather. The season has its effect; the milk in spring is supposed to be best for
drinking, and hence it is then best suited for calves ; in summer it is best for cheese, and in au-
tumn for butter; and hence, perhaps, autumn butter keeps better than that of summer, because it
contains less of the caseous principle. Cows less frequently milked than others will give richer
milk, and consequently more butter ; morning's milk is richer than the evening's ; and the laft
drawn milk of each milking, at all times and seasons, that is, the afterings or strokings, are well
known to be the richest part of the milk, and the first drawn the poorest. A cow, before she is
asrain in calf, gives richer milk than when she is pregnant, a portion of the secretion which sup-
plies the richer milk being, no doubt, withdrawn to support the foetus. A well formed cow will
give more and better milk than an ill-formed one. Old pasture will produce richer butter than
new. Cows kept constantly in the byre are said to give richer milk than those allowed to go at large
at pasture, but the latter are supposed to yield more cheese ; — the exercise, perhaps, preventing
the due proportion of the richer secretion. Many other circumstances may be known in different
localities to affect the quantity and quality of the milk of cows ; but a sufficient number are here
related to show how perplexing a thing it is to conduct a dairy in the most profitable way.
(2074.) The phenomena accompanying the changes in milk are well known to every dairy-maid,
but few of theni know that the constituent parts of milk are only mechanically commixed ; and
this must be their state even in the udder of the cow, otherwise the afterings, which had occupied
the upper part of the udder, would not be the richest portion of the milk, nor the first drawn the
* McCulloch'8 Dictionary of Commerce, and Ure's Dictionary of the Arts, art- Annatto.
t Dickson on Live Stock, vol. 1. J Alton's Treatise on Dairy Husbandry. H lb.
(613)
318
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMyWER.
poorest All. therefore, that is renuired to separate the different parts of milk is rest and time.
The cream or fatty part floats to the surface in the course of a few hours; in a little longer time,
according to the state of the temperature, the caseous portion becomes sour, and in a still greater
leni-'ih of time the acidity beconiLs xo powerful as to coagulate the milk in one mass, and in a still
greater lapse of time the'coagulati-d mass s<'parates into two parts, one becoming firmer, or cheese,
the other again fluid, or whey. The rationale of this natural process is thus w ell given by M.
Raspail : — " Milk, when viewed by the microscope with a power of only 100 diameters, exhibits
spherical globules, tlie largest of which are not more than .0004 of an inch in diameter, and which,
from their smallness, ap()ear of a deep black at the edtrcs. These globules disappear on the ad-
dition of an alkali, such as ammonia, and the milk then becomes transparent If the proportional
quantity of milk be more considerable, it forms a coagulum of a beautiful white color, on the ad-
dition of concentrated sulphuric acid. This consjulum docs not arise simply from the adhesion of
the globules to each other, but it may be plainly seen by the microscope, that the globules are
evolved in a transparent albuminous membrane, which has no appearance of a granular structure.
Milk, then, is a watery fluid, holding in solution albumen and oil, by the agency of an alkaline
salt or a pure alkali, and having suspended in it an immense number of globules which are in part
albuminous and in part oily. The albuminous globules must lend to subside slowly to the bottom
of the ve»i*el by their specific gravity, while the oily globules must have a tendency to rise to the
surface. But ilic oily globules being dispersed in myriads amid equally numerous albuminous
globules, they cannot rise to the surface, without taking with them a greater or less number of the
globules of albumen Hence, at the end of 24 hours, we find on the surface of the milk a crust
composed of 2 layers, the upper one of which contains more butter than milk, while the lower
contains more milk than butter. This separation will take place equally with or without the con-
tact of the air. The liquid part which lies under the crust contains the dissolved albumen and
oil, with a portion of the sugar, ilie soluble salts, and a certain quantity of the albumen and oily
globules."" Cream cannot rise through a great depth of milk. If milk is, therefore, desired to
retain its cream for a time, it should be put in a deep narrow dish ; and. on the other hand, if it is
desired to free it most completely of its cream^it should be poured into a broad flat dish, not much
exceeding 1 inch in depth. The quantity of cream which any given milk contains can be easily
measured by the Galactomeler. which consists of a narrow tube of glass not more tlian 5 inches
in length. 3 "of which are divided into 100 parts, and on being filled with milK to the top of the
graduated scale, whatever number of degrees the thickness of the cream embraces, will be the
per ceutage of cream yielded by the milk. For example, if the cream covers 4 lines of tlie scale,
it is 4 per cent, if 8 lines, 8 per cent The evolution of cream is facilitated by a rise, and retard-
ed by a depression, of temperature. At the usual temperature of the daii^- at 50^ Fahrenheit,
all the cream will probably rise in 36 hours, and at 70^ it will, perhaps, all rise in half that time ;
and if the milk is kept near the freezing point the cream will rise very slowly, because it becomes
partially solidified. Milk boils and freezes about the same temperature as water. Milk may be
prevented becoming sour by being kept in a low temperature; in a high temperature, on the
other hand, it rapidly becomes sour. and. at the boiling point, it curdles immediately. The acid oi
milk is called the lactic acid, and, in its nature, resembles acetic acid, the acid of vinegar.
(2075.) Milk contains many very ditferent substances in its composition, to each of which may
easily be traced the origin of its various properties. I shall give the composition of biesting, aloiig
with" that of milk, from tlie analyses of MM. Henri and Chevalier, in order to shew the great dif-
ference between them. It appears that biesting contains nearly 3 times more casein tlian milk,
and only a trace of sugar of milk, no salts, and a large proportion of macas; and more than 9
times more casein than mare's milk :
Jccord,ng to Henri and ChevatUr.
jtccnrdinff
to Luuciu$
and Bondt.
Co
Bintin^t.
Milk.
Am.
GoaL
....
1 Woman.
Mare.
C isein
150.7
20.0
26.0
trace.
803 .'3
44.8
31.3
47.7
6.0
870.2
18.2
l.l
60 8
3.4
916.5
40.2
33.2
52.8
5.8
868.0
45.0
42*0
50.0
6.8
856.2
1.^2
35.5
65.0
4.5
879.8
16.2
trace.
87.5 .
1 896.3
Sugar of Milk
:>alt.s
Water
1000.
lOUO.
\000.
1000.
1000.
1000.
1000.
Butter gives its richness to milk, sugar its sweetness, casein its thickness, water its refreshing
property as a drink, and salts its peculiar flavor. Of tlie different kinds of milk enumerated above,
the superior sweetness and thinness of mare's milk are accounted for by the large proportion of
sugar and the small quantity of casein it contains. " The change which takes place when milk
becomes sour, is, therefore, easily understood," as well observed by Professor Johnston. •' Un-
der the influence of the casein the elements of a portion of the milk-sugar are made to assume a
new arranLrement and the sour lactic acid is the result There is no loss of matter, no new ele-
ments arc called into play, nothing is absorbed from the air, or given off into it, but a simple trans-
position of the elements of the sugar takes place, and the nev\- acid compound is produced. These
changes appear very simple, and yet how dillicult it is to conceive by what mysterious influence
the mere contact of this decaying membrane, or of the casein of the milk, can cause the elements
of the sugar to break up their old connection, and to arrange themselves anew in another prescrib-
' Raspall's Organic Chemistry.
(614)
MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE. 319
ed order, so as to form a compound endowed with properties so very different as those of lactic
acid."
{'2076. ) " Cream does not consist wholly of fatty matter (butter)," observes Professor Johnston,
"but the globules of fat, as they rise, bring up with them a variable proportion of the casein or
curd of the milk, and also some of the milk sugar. It is owing to the presence of sugar that
cream is capable of becoming sour, while the casein gives it the property of curdling when mix-
ed with acid liquids, or with acid fruits. The proportion of cheesy matter in cream depends upon
the richness of the milk, and upon the temperature at which the milk is kept during the rising of
the cream. In cool weather the fatty matter will bring up with it a large quantity of the curd,
and form a thicker cream, containing a greater proportion of cheesy matter. The composition of
cream, therefore, is very variable — much more so than that of milk — and depends very much up-
on the mode in which it is collected." In warm weather, therefore, the cream should be rich
though thin. Cream, at a specific gravity of 1.0244. according to the analysis of Bei'zelius, con-
sists of
Butter, separated by agitation 4.5
Curd, separated by coagulating the buttermilk, 3.5
Whey, ..92.0
100.
(2077.) " 5 !<(!ter," says Professor Johnston, "prepared by any of the usual methods, contains
more or less of all the ingredients which exist in milk. It consists, however, essentially of the
fat of milk, intimately mixed with a more or less considerable proportion of ca.sein and water, and
with a small quantity of sugar of milk. Fresh butter is said to contain about 1-6 of its weight
(16 per cent.) of these latter substances, and 5-6 of pure fat. according to Chevreul. How much of
the 16 per cent, usually consists of cheesy matter," may be seen by this statement : — " two sam-
ples of fresh butter from cream, examined in my laboratory, have yielded only 0.5 and 0.7 per cent,
respectively. This is certainly a much smaller quantity than I had expected. Does butter from
the whole milk contain more ?"* The proportions of butter yielded by milk varies considerably,
from 1 lb. of butter to 15 quarts of milk, as in Holstein, to 8 quarts of milk of the Kerry cow.t
(2078.) Curd in a state of purity is named casein. " Casein has many properties in common
with the albumen of blood," says Dr. Thomson, •' and, like albumen, may be obtained in two
states, namely, uncoagulated, when it is soluble in water, and coagulated, when it is insoluble in
that liquid. ■ It is precipitated from its aqueous solution by acetic acid, which is not the case with
albumen. It is coagulated by a boiling heat, but slowly ; separately in films, which collect upon
the surface of the liquid. Coagulated casein subjected to pressure to free it from the whey con-
stitutes cheese. If cheese consists of nothing but casein, it has a bluish-white color, is very hard,
almost like horn, and is quite insipid. Good cheese is always made from milk still retaining its
cream. It is impossible to state the proportion of casein which exists in milk, because it varies
80 much, not only in the milk of different animals, but also in that of the same animal at different
times. According to Berzelius, 100 parts of skimmed milk, which he analyzed, contained 2.8 of
casein." The average proportion of curd to milk is thus given by Dr. Dickson, — "Exact and re-
peated trials have shown that about 15 gallons of milk are necessary for making about 11 lbs. of 2-
meal cheese, and that 1 lb. of curd is produced from 1 gallon of new milk. And as the food af-
forded by the extent of from 2^ to 3| acres of land is commonly suppcsed sufficient for the sup-
port of 1 cow the year round, by taking the medium of 355 lbs. of cheese for each cow, the quan-
tity of cheese produced by 1 acre will be 118 lbs., which is supported by the authority of many
statements. But during the summer season, cows will afford from 14 lbs. to 20 lbs. of cheese, or
more, in the week, when no butter is made."|
(2070.) Whey has a yellowish-green color, and an agreeable and sweetish taste, in which the
flavor of milk may be distinguished. Almost the whole curd may be separated by keeping the
whey for some time at a boiling temperature. " It still retains its sweet taste," says Dr. Thomson,
"but much of the milky flavor is dissipated. If it be now evaporated over the steam-bath, it de-
posits a number of crystals of sugar of milk. Toward the end of the evaporation, some crys-
tals of chloride of potassium, and some of common salt, make their appearance. According to
Scheele, it contains also a little phosphate of lime, which may be precipitated by ammonia."
" The sugar of milk constitutes, at an average, about 3.5 per cent., while the saline ingredients do
not exceed 0.22, or 2-9 of a per cent, of whey. The water, of course, constitutes about 93.3 in
the 100 parts."
(2080.) Schwartz found that 1000 parts of cowa' milk left 3.697 of ashes, and of woman's milk
4.407, composed of
Cow's. Woman's.
Phosphate of lime, 1.805 2.5
Phosphate of magnesia, 0.170 0.5
Phosphate of iron 0.032 0.007
Phosphate of soda, 0.225 0.4
Chloride of potassium 1,350 0.7
Soda, combined with lactic acid, 0.115 0.3
3.697 4.407
(2081.) There are a number of other facts given by Dr. Thomson connected with milk in vari-
ous states, worth mentioning. The constituents of skimmed milk, for example, according to the
analysis of Berzelius in 1808, are
* Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry.
t Journal of the Royal EngUsh Agricultural Society, vol. i. t Dickson on Live Stock, vol. L
(615)
320 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUM5IER.
Water 92.875
Curd, not free fruni butter, 2.800
Supar of milk 3.500
Lactic acid, aiid the lactate of potash 0.600
Chloride of r)ota."»siun 0-170
Phosphate of jKJtash 0.025
Phosphate of liiue aod magnesia, with a trace of iron 0.030
100.000
Brisson states the specific gravity of varioas milks: but it is important to remark, that it varies so
much even in the milk from the same animal, that it is impo.sKible to give a correct mean. The
specific gravity of cows' milk is the lowest, being 1.0.324 ; its whey is, of course, siill lower.
1.0193 ; and that of ewe.s' milk is the hiehest. beine 1.0409. La.'i.saigne examined the specific grav-
ity of cows' milk at various distances of time before and after parturition, at a temperature of 46^
Fahrenheit and the results were generally, that at 21 days before parturition it was highest, be-
ing 1.064 ; and lowest at 6 days after parturition, being 1.033. The cow, from 42 days before to
30 days after parturition, was fed on the same kiml of food, namely, beetroot, hay. and straw.
Lase^tigne also ascertained the quantity of cream yielded by the same animals at different times.
There was no difference in the ratio beiwecn the bulks of cream and whey from the same cow,
fed on beetroot, hay, and straw, from 42 days before to 4 days after parturition, when the quanti-
ties were 200 volumes of of cream to 800 of whey ; but by 30 days alter parturition, the volume
of cream had dcrrenfcd to 64. and that of whey had increased to 93C, and by that imie the water
in 100 parts of milk had also increased to 90.0. LassaitTje made a curious reniarK respecting the
milk of a cow. which he examined at 10 different periods. 4 of these before and 6 alter parturi-
tion. The milk examined during the first three of the former periods, namely, 42 days. 32 days,
and 21 days before parturition, contained no casein at all. but in place of it albumen : no sugar of
milk and no lactic acid, but a sensible quantity of uncombined soda. The milks examined 11 days
before and just after parturition, contained both albumen and casein, while milk 11 days before
parturition, and always after it, contained free lactic acid and sugar of milk, but no free soda.
The milks examined 4 days, 6 days. 20 days, 21 days, and 30 days ajler parturition, contained
casein and no albumen. It would appear from these observations that the milk of the cow is at
first very similar to the serum of blood, and that the casein, sugar of milk, and lactic acid, to which
it owes much of its distinguishing characters, begin first to make their appearance in it about 11
days before parttirition.
(2082.) A great deal more might be given in detail of experiments made in different parts of
the countrj' on churning butter at different temperatures, and of the various recipes for making
the innumerable variety of cheeses to be found in this country ; but as those experiments are
merelj- so many isolated attempts to illustrate particular points, without reference to general prin-
ciples" their results are unsatisfactorj-. In like manner the numerous experiments in the labora-
tory on milk and its constituents have as yet led to no improvement in practice. The field, there-
fore, to the practical and chemical experimenter is still open, and it might be usefully explored
by their combined labors, with a view to the establishment of general principles on the best mode
of keeping dairy stock, and of evolving their products, in a superior degree than hitherto attain-
ed. As one instance of a want of common understanding on this subject, I may adduce the nu-
merous forms in which the cheeses of Scotland are made, whether in the homely kebbiick, or in
the finished new-milk cheese intended for city epicures. Everj-where else but in Scotland the
place of origin of a cheese may be told by its form. A Parmasan. a Gruyere. a Gonda. a Kanter,
an Edam, a Cheshire, a Gloucester, whether double or single, a Wiltshire, a Cheddar, or a Stilton,
can be named at sight, but who can tell where a Scotch cheese, whether of skimmed milk or new,
whether poor or rich, comes from, until examined by a ronnaisseur? for its Stilton or Wiltshire
form would not necessarily imply an imitation of those celebrated substances. There should be
some settled conventional forms adopted for the identification of the respective classes of cheese
of this countrj-, that they may pass current in commerce without suspicion and challenge. I shall
finish this interesting subject with recipes for making a number of pleasant dishes from milk, all
of which are in the power of every farmer to have in summer as a cool diet. Curdi arc obtain-
ed by simply earning a dishfull of new milk. When served up with grated loaf sugar, sprinkled
over the curd deprived of whey, it has the appearance of a prepared dish, and is eaten with
sugar and cream. A sour cos is a dish of milk allowed to stand with its cream until the milk be-
comes tliorousrhly coagulated by sourness, and the sour cream and milk arc eaten together. Plain
cream, whether sweet or sour, is an excellent accompaniment to oatmeal or barleynieni porridge,
ortosowens. The clnulrd cream of Devonshire is prepared by strainine the new milk into a shal-
low dish, into which a little warm water has previously been put ; and after allnwing it to stand
from 6 to 12 hours, it is carefully heated over a slow fire or hot plate till the milk approaches to
the boiling point, but it must not actually boil, or the akin of cream be broken. The dish is then
removed to the dairy, and the cream allowed to cool, when it may be u.-^ed as crenm or made
into butter. Milk oatmeal porridge is more agreeable to the palate than water porridge, and
when eaten with cream forms a rich diet. HaJf churned cream is better with oatmeal porridge
than plain cream, having a slicht taste of acidity. Xeiruntrathed butter is a great treat to break-
fast. Hatted kit is one of the pleasantest preparations of milk. Make 2 quarts of new milk
scaldins hot. and pour upon it quickly 4 quarts of fresh buttermilk, and let it stand, without stir-
ring, till it becomes cold and firm. Then lake off the hat or upper part, drain it in a hairseive,
»nd put it into a shape for half an hour, and ser%o with cream. The slight acidity of tliis dish,
with the rich sweetness of the cream, and the addition of a little sugar, combine to make this a
verv delicious dessert. Float-irhey is another preparation equally good as hatted kit. and more
delicate. Pour in all the whey drained from the new-milk cheese that has just been made, into a
small furnace pot ; apply a slow fire, and raise the whey near the boiling point, but not to let it
boil, else the curd will fall to the bottom. During the neatinir, a scum of curd forms upon the
(616)
MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE. 321
surface of the whey. Take, then, 1 quart of fresh buttermilk, and pour it gently over the scum
and pool- as much more buttennilk till the scum has attained some thickness and consistency.
After pouring in some cold water to lower the temperature of the whey, thereby rendering the
scum more consistent, skim off the scum upon a hair-sieve, put it into a mould, and on turning it
out a short time after, serve with sugar and cream. A treacle ponxet is made by boiling a little
milk in a pan and putting a table-spoonfuU of treacle or molasses into it. On removing the curd
the whey is ready for use for a sore throat or cold. White-wine whey is made exactly in a simi-
lur manner, but is sweetened in addition. To make Irish two-milk whey, put § of sweet milk
into a saucepan, and make it boiling hot, then pour in \ of buttermilk, gently stirring it round
the edges of the pan. Let the whole come to a boil; take it off the fire, let it settle, and
strain off the whey, which is an excellent drink in fever. Cream may be used as an emul-
sion with all sorts of preserved fruits, and it enhances the flavor of every kind of fruit used with
it; and there is, perhaps, no form of cream more agreeable or more generally admired, than
blaiic milage flavored witli almonds. Iced cream flavored with pine-apple is a delightful cooler
in wann \\eather. 1 conclude with a recipe for making cream-cheese. •■ One pint of cream be-
ing mixed with 12 pints of noonday milk, warm from the cow, a little rennet is added, and when
the curd is come the whey is poured out gently, so as to break the curd as little as possible. It is
then laid in a cloth, and put into a small sieve ; the cloth is changed every hour during the day,
and in 2-1 hours it will be fit for use. It may be served on a breakfast-plate with vine-leaves un-
der it, and it will keep perfectly good only one day."*
(2083.) Notwithstanding the immense quantity of cheese made in this country, a large importa-
tion of foreign takes place every year, not less than 132,000 cvvt. chiefly from Holland. The old
duty of 20s. per cwt. is retained iDy the New Tariff.!
(2084.) Cheese is liable to many casualties besides those already alluded to as arising from fer-
mentation, chiefly from the attacks of animals. When yet quite fresh, the cheese-fly fPio-
phila caseij, a, fig. 379, is ready to deposit its eggs in the deepest crack it can find by means of
Fig. 379.
CHEESE-FLY AND MAGGOT — PIOPHILA CAS EI ; AND WHEAT-STEM-FLY — CHLOROPS PUMILIONIS.
an extensile abdominal tube. The specific distinguishing characters of this insect are. in the
words of Mr. Duncan, " about 2 lines in length, the whole body of a greenish-black color, smooth
and shining; front of the head reddish-yellow, paler yellow on the under side ; thighs ochre yel-
low at the base and apex ; tibiae deep ochre, the first and last pair black at the apex ; anterior
tarsi black, the others ociirey. with 2 last joints and the claws black ; wings clear and iridescent,
slightly tinged with rust-color at the base ; halteres ochrey."t The cheese-maggots produced
from tills fly are commonly caXXed jumpers, and it prepares itself for jumping as seen at b. "When
it prepares to leap, our larva first erects itself upon its anus, and then bending itself into a circle,
by bringing if* head to its tail, it pushes forth its unguifomi mandibles, and fixes them in 2 cavi-
ties in its anal tubercles. All being thus prepared, it next contracts its body into an oblong, so
that the two halves are parallel to each other. This done, it lets go its hold with so violent a jerk
that the sound produced by its mandibles can be easily heard, and the leap takes place. Swam-
merdam saw one, whose length did not exceed the fourth part of an inch, jump in this manner
out of a box 6 inches deep, which is as if a man 6 feet high should raise liimself in the air by
jumping 144 feet! He had seen others leap a great deal higher."|| When cheese i)asses its
stage of ripeness, it is liable to become mouldy, if kept in a damp situation, which all ripe cheeses
should be to retain their moisture and flavor, and where the latter is much enhanced by the pro-
duction of blue mould. It is possible to inoculate new cheese with the blue mould of old, and
thereby at once impart the flavor of ripeness. This process is easiest done by insertina: rolls of
moulded cheese, extracted by the .scoop or spyler, into holes previously made in the new cheese
by the same scoop, an instrument usually employed by cheesemongers to taste cheese. ^ Toward
* Dalgaini's Tractice of Cookery. t JrcCullooh's Dictionary of Commerce, art. Cheese.
t Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. ii. 1| Kirby and Spence's Introduction to Entomology, vol. ii.
§ Prize Essays of the Highland and Agiiculturai Socictj-, vol. ix.
(681)
322 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
a still farther period of decay, cheese is attacked by the well-known, and, by Bome, the highly-
prized cheese-mite (Acarut tiro of Linnipus). " We often wonder how the choesc-mite is at
hand to attack a clieciH; wherever deposited ; but when we lenm from Leewenhock that one
lived 11 weeks jrummed on its back to the point of a needle without food, our wonder is dimin-
ished," say Kirby and Spence. Both chccse-maegotJi and mites, when numerous, destroy cheese
rapidly, by crumbling it into small pieces, and by emiltinir a liquid substance, which causes the
decayed parts to spread speedily. They may easily be killed, however, by exposure to strong
heat or by plunging the cheese'in some liquid capable of destroying the larvrp. without commu-
nicating any disagreeable Havor. such as \\hisky. Hats and mice are remarkably fond of, and
commit sad' havoc among, old cheese. Nothing but a cat can deter them from a cheese cellar,
where poison cannot be employed with impunity.
(2085.) [The process of churiiing. or agitating milk and cream for the production of butter, is
perfbrmed in such a variety of machines, and in vessels so variously formed, each of which has
Its advocates, and, probably, with but little difference in the principal results, that it becomes a
qaestion of no small difficulty to answer, which of these numerous forms is the best. That there
■will be sliL'ht differences is at the same time sufficiently apparj^nt. but these will arise more from the
capacity of the vessel, as affecting temperature, than from peculiarity of structure, and probably,
also, from other conditions aH'ccting llie chemical changes that take place during the process. It
will also be obvious, on a full consideration of the subject, that causes of dirterence will arise, to
some extent from the circumstances attending the more or less perfect nature of the agitation
produced, as arising from the peculiar formation, and tlie motions, whether of ilie containing ves-
sel or of the agitators.
(2086.) The peculiarities of form may be viewed nnder four distinct classes. 1. Those in which
boili the ffuid and the containing vessel, with its agitators, are in rotative motion ; 2. In which
the containing vessel is at rest, and the agitators in rotative motion horizontally: .3. In which the
containing vessel is at rest, and the agitators in rotative motion vertically ; and 4. Wherein the
containing vessel is .still at rest, and the agitator having a rectilineal vertical motion.
(2087.J In the first clxss are to he noticed those machines acting by their gyration on a center,
Buch as the old barrel-churn, wherein the contained fluid will have a tendency to acquire a mo-
tion of rotation approaching to that of the ves.sel ; and if this rotation were continued always in
the same direction, the process would be very much retarded from a deficiency of agitation ;
hence, in such machines, very frequent changes in the direction of the rotative motion is abso-
lutely neces.sary to the completion of the process.
(20S8.) The second cla."!s embraces those iu which the ves.«el is permanent, and an agitator of
two or four arms revolves horizontally within it. If the vessel is cylindrical the agitation will be
imperfect, for the fluid will very s<'on acquire a motion en mnitsc, and will be carried forward by
the arms of the agitator, undergoing such agitation only as will arise from the central portion,
acting by the centrifugal force, having always a tendency to fly toward the circumference of the
revolving mas.s. This wi!l no doubt ultimately, though slowly, produce the requisite eflect, but
it will be more speedily accomplished if the vessel is of a square form ; for in that case the rota-
tion of the mass will be interrupted at every angle, and eddies formed therein of such force aa
will not only cause disturbance ot' the fluid in these angles, but in doing so will produce corre-
sponding counter-motions in the entire mass. From such causes, churns of this class and of the
square form arc found, especially on the large scale, to be very efficient, though, from the incon-
venience of adapting manual power to a horizontal motion, it is seldom resorted to iu the small
scale.
(2089.) In the third class of machines, where the vessel is also permanent, but having the agita-
tors revolving in a vertical direction, the agitation is regular, iind pervades at all times the entire
mass of fluid ; and in this respect there is little if any dift'erenee in effV'ct. whether the bottom of
the vessel bo Hat or cylindrical, nor is there any necessity for changing the direction of motion.
We accordingly find that whether on the large or small scale, chums of tliis class find favor in
almost all localities.
(20!'0.) The fourth class of this usseful machine is the upright or plunge chum. The vessel in
this is also permanent, and its hight, unlike all the others, is considerable, as compared with its
breadth. As a matter of convenience, it is always made cylindrical, or rather slightly conical,
which last property is given to it for tlie convenience of hiwjiing. for in every other rcsprct its
tapering form is a defect. The plunsrer must necessarily always move vertically, without any
rotative motion, and. when extended throughout the entire column of fluid, the agitation must be
as complete as it is possible to attain. Plunge or vertical churns, therefore, are by ninny held as
the most perfect for tiie production of butter, as well as for saving time in the operation : but
there are objections to it a.-i regards fitness for the adaptation of manual power. It is obvious to
even a careless observer, that the human arm, if applied directly to the npri^'ht staftof this chum,
the body being also upriglit, will be emidoying that power under the gieatist possible disadvan-
tages. The muscles of the ann acting, as they do, in all cases under great natural disadvantages
in respect of their levorasjc. will, in their peculiar position, he deprived of nearly all aid which
the muscles of ilie trunk in many i)ositions are calculated to give out to assi^^t lliose of the arm ;
hence it is that the labor of working these chums by hand, is found so oppressive that the opera-
tor is unable to keep uji a constant action; and the principle on which the churn is based is
blamed for that delay in the operation, that ought rather to he attributed to the defect in the me-
dinm through which the power is applied. In proof of this, we lind that when animal, or any of
the inanimate powers, are applied to the vertical chum, it attains a character superior to all oth-
ers, both as to time arid production, ani! this character is sustained throughout some of the best
dairj' districts in .Scotland. The advantages of applying hand [lower throuch a proper medium
are also observable in the case of this chum, when snrh power is applied through a winch-handle
with a fly-wheel. Examples of this arrangement have been attended with the best eflbcU, and
with much ease, as compared with the direct application of the power to the plunger rod.
(2091.) In proceeding to the details of the chumine machinery, the first class embraces those
(682)
MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE.
323
machines that act by their i^yration round a center, the fluid and the containing vessel revolving
together, or partially so ; of which the common barrel-churn may be taken as the type. The bar-
rel, which is of capacity suited to the dairy, is sometimes provided only with a large square
bung-hole, secured by a'clasped cover, by whicli it is charged and emptied ; while in other cases
one of its ends is movable, and made tight by screwing it down on a packing of canvas cloth.
In all cases it is necessary that the interior of the barrel should be armed with three or more lon-
gitudinal ribs of wood standing as radii toward the center, and perforated in various forms ; these
constitute the agitators of the chum. Each end of the barrel is furnished with an iron gudgeon
or journal strongly fixed to it. and to one of them is applied the winch-handle by which the ma-
chine is turned ; while it is supported on a wooden stand, having bearings for the two journals.
More than one imperfection attends this construction of churn ; from the circumstance of its rotatory
motion, it will always have less or more of a tendency to carry the fluid round with the barrel
and the agitators, more especially if a rapid velocity of rotation is given to it ; and to counteract
this tendency, it becomes necessary to reverse the motion at every few turns, which is of itself an
inconvenience. There is, besides, the great inconvenience of getting access, either to remove
the butter that may adhere to the agitators, or to cleanse the interior of the barrel. This is espe-
cially the case where there is no movable end ; and even with this convenience for cleaning, the
trouble of opening and closing the end is considerable. To those imperfections it is, no doubt,
chiefly owing tliat this churn, once in high repute in East-Lothian and Berwickshire, has gradu-
ally fallen into comparative disrepute ; and from these circumstances, it has been deemed neces-
sar,' to give figures of this class of churn.
(2092.) Tlie machines to be here noticed under the second class, are of a less varied character
than any of the otlier.s, are seldom, if ever, used with hand-labor, but are generally worked by
horse-power, and chiefly in town-dairies, or in those around Edinburgh. From the comparatively
small importance of this churn, it has been deemed necessary to give a figure of it; but its struc-
ture is so simple, that the following description will convey a tolerably correct knowledge of its
construction to the mechanical reader. The horse-path, especially in towns, where space is valu-
able, seldom e.xceedB 16 feet: the horse-beam, with yoke, is fixed to an upright central shaft,
which carries a si)ur-wheel placed at a hight of about 3^ feet from the floor, the wheel being about
4 feet diameter. One, or sometimes two, churning vessels are attached to the machine ; their di-
mensions vary with the extent of the dairy, but for one of 25 or 30 cows, where much of the pro-
duce is sold as .sweet milk, the vessel may be 2 feet 8 inches square and 2 feet 8 inches deep ; they
are placed securely on the floor at a proper distance from the central shaft, to suit the spur-wheel.
A foot-step of metal is placed in the center of the bottom, and a cross-head is attached to two up-
rights fixed on opposite sides of the vessel. The foot-step and cro.s.s-head serve as the two bear-
ings for an upright spindle, which carries the four-armed agitator, and a pinion of 3^ inches di-
ameter adapted to the spur-wheel. These parts, and a close cover for the vessel, complete the
machine, which is, therefore, extremely simple, and in a dairy which is too extensive for manual
power being applied effectually to churning, while want of space may preclude the adoption of
more bulky niachines, the one here described may be resorted to with advantage.
(2093.) In the same class stands the tnhle cA ?//•«. remark-
able for its elegance and cleanliness, and which, though
adapted only for the lighter purposes of the butter-dairy,
I have considered as deserving a place here. This utensil
is represented in fig. 380 in perspective, exhibiting it in the
most recently improved form, with outer case to contain
hot or cold water. This churn has for the last few years
been broucht prominently before the public as a recent in-
vention ; but on close inquiry, I find that the merit of its
original introduction is due to the late celebrated Mr.
Wedgewood, and that it has been in u.se for a period of 30
or 40 years. The containing vessel is still formed of the
Wedgewood stoneware ; and, as I am informed by Mr.
Child of Edinburgh, the indefatigable purveyor of elegance,
utility, and comfort, in the china, stoneware, and glass
trade, it was in great request about 30 years ago. its lately
extended appearance being merely a revival. The chief
part of the utensil is the Wedgewood receptacle (/, formed
of the finest and strongest white glazed ware of that man-
ufacture ; they are of various sizes, from 1 to 4 gallons ca-
pacity ; it is furnished with a varni.shed wooden cover i.—
The outer ca.se c is made of zinc or of tin plate ; it is 2
inches wider than the churn, furnished with handles d. and
two ears to which the iron cross-bar e is attached by two
thumb-screws e and d, serving to secure the cover to the
top of the vessel. A brass socket / is fixed in the cover,
and an iron spindle armed with three vanes is fitted to turn
in the socket, a wooden pulley is usually placed in the po-
sition of the wheel ^ on the top of the spindle, and when
secured there it holds the spindle and cover in constant
connection. The common drillbow is the usual medium „ ,.o,,„v,
of power, the string of which being held in tension by the the wedgew.jod tabi.i, churn.
elasticity of the steel-back or bow. any movement backward or forward of the instrument will
cau.«e the pulley and spindle to revolve, and the movements are effected by applying the hand to
the handle of the drill-bow. When the cover and spindle have been secured by the screws e d.
and the bow-string applied as above, which is effected by bending the bow until the string is suf-
ficiently relaxed to allow of its being laid once round the pulley, the bow is then allowed to ex-
(683j
324
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
Fig. 381.
pand, and the operation proceed§. It has been rtated (20^'7) that vessels in this class, if cylindrio-
al, do not produce the ettl-cts of churning ho sj»e«Mlily a.*" if the form were square,
to obviate which the motion of tlie a;;italor muHl be frci|ueiitly reversed in the
cylindrical vessel. The drillbow niniion is ndmimbly adapted to the reversing
process ; for in punhinp the bow forward by the hand, the agitator will be
made to revolve 2 or 3 times, llie number being in the projiortion of the length
of the string to the proportion of the pulley; and in drawing them back the
same number of revolutions will be performed in the opposite direction, and so
on till the process is completed. Fig. 381 is a view of the agitator, a a a are
the vanes of strong tinpluie with perforations, b is that part of the spindle that
falls within the s<><-ket. and c that on which the pulley or the wheel is fastened.
(2094.) The drillbow being rather an awkward medium of power, especial-
ly in non mechanical hands, an attempt has lately been made to substitute for
it, in this casHJ, the common winch handle turning horizontally. This arrange-
ment is exhibited also in fig. n.-^O, where A is a toothed beveled wheel of 4 inch-
es diameter, on the axle of which the handle i is fixed, and it works into the
wheel g fixed on the top of the agitator spindle in the place formerly occupied
by the pulley, the two standards // being fixed on the cover b, to carry the
axle of the "wheel h. By this arrangement two turns of the handle t produce
the same result in the agitator as wa.i done by one stroke of the bow, and the
motion of the handle being reversed at every second revolution, the ultimate
effect is the same as before, and the manual operation is more ea.sily effected in thk agitator.
the one case than in the other. With a view to determine whether the alter-
nate motion may not be dispensed with even in a cylindrical vessel, I have instituted experiments
in which the interior of the vessel is armed with combs, and the agitator being converted to a
like form, but having its prongs or teeth adjusted to the intervals of those of the vessel ; with this
apparatus I have found that like quantities of milk and cream, and with the same temperature,
yield their butter in the following times :
In the plane cylindrical vessel, with the agitator always moving in one direction, butter was
not obtained in 55 minutes. In the same vessel, with the agitator moving alternately right and
left, at every two revolutions, butter was obtained in 25 minutes. In this same vessel, fitted as above
described, with counter agitators, but with the agitator moving in one direction only, butter was
obtained in 20 minuie.'i. From these results it appears, that, even with a cylindrical vessel, if prop-
erly armed, the process is performed in a shorter time than with the inconvenient reversed motions.
(2095.) It is well known that a certain elevation of temperature is acquired by the fluid in the
process of butter-making, and that the process is accelerated by producing this temperature arii.
ficially, from the application of heated water. For this purpose also, a practice is becoming prev-
alent to apply the water e.xteraally to the ve.ssels containing the milk and cream, and not in mix-
ture with them. Fig. 380 exhibits the application of this process to the utensil now under con-
eideration, where c is the water case formed of tin plate, zinc, or of wood, at the bottom of which
is fixed a circular stand to place the receptacle a upon, that the water may be under as well as
around the receptacle. Wood, from its non-conducting quality, is perhaps belter adapted than
any metal for a water-case. Water brought to the proper temperature is poured into the space
between tlie ca.se and the retaining vessel, and if found necessary to increase or diminish the tem-
perature, part of the contained water is drawn ofl' below by a spigot, and hot or cold added to re-
store the requisite degree of heat. Experience seems to point out. that, in operating on tlie large
Bcale in vondtti vcxneJs, no extraneous heat is required, the naturally acquired heat appears to be
Bufticient, especially if aided in winter by the admixture of a small quantity of moderately heat-
ed water, and the nonconducting quality of the wooden vessel retains it; whereas the stoneware
vessel will be continually abstracting heat, and giving it off by radiation, if not surrounded by a
medium of equal temperature.
Fig. 382.
(2096.) Clnirits of the third class are
much more numerous than the two
former, and though in them.selves not
differing much in the essential points,
they yet exhibit a variety of struc-
ture in their details. They are usual-
ly distinpuishod by the name of bo.r-
churns, though the class embraces not
only the cubical and oblon? box, but
also the cylinder or barrel, the dis-
tinctive character beine an agitator
revolving in the vertical direction
within a stationary case of any form.
(2097.) To illu.strate this clas.s, I
have selected, first, the box hftnd-
churn, in very general use. The
present example, fig. 382. is 18 inches
m length, 11 inches in width, and 20
inches in depth, inside measure.
Birch or plane-tree are the best mate-
rial for the jjurpose, and it requires
to be very carefully Joined so as to be
^ater-tight. As before noticed (2088)
it isof very small moment whether the
bottom is formed to the circle of the ag-
itator, or remains fiat, in as far as the
(684)
THE BOX HAND-CHURN.
Mi^KING BUTTER AND CHEESE.
325
Fig. 383.
prodaction of the batter is to be considered ; but for the process of cleansing, the curved bottom will
present some little advantag:es; a cover of the same material is fitted close in the top of the box.
with convenient handles. The agitator, fig. 383, is of the u.sualform; the dimensions of its parts
are unimportant, except that they have sufficient strength, and present sufficient surface to pro-
duce the requisite degree of agitation in the fluid. The tvro pairs of arms are half lapped at the
center, and the cross-bars mortised into them ; the dimensions in length and breadth being such
as to allow it to move with freedom within the box. At the center a perforation is made through
the sides to admit the iron spindle, which, at this part, is a square bar, fitting neatly into .socket-
plates of iron let into the agitator on each side, as seen in the figure at a. Tiie farther end of the
spindle projects about an inch beyond the agitator, and is rounded to form a journal, which has
its bearing in a close brass plate-bush or socket, which is sunk into the side of the box, and fixed
with screws. The outward end of the spindle is furnished with a conical journal, the smallest
diameter of which is equal to the diagonal of the square part of the spindle, and is furnished with
a raised collar or ruff; the conical journal lying in a thorough brass plate-bush, leaving the collar
outside, but embraced by a cup of the bush, upon which a coupling-ring is screwed, covering the
collar, and. pressing home the conical journal, preventing thus the spindle from being withdrawn
until the coupling-ring is removed. The spindle extends be-
yond the collar about '2^ inches, and is here formed into a
square stud, upon which the eye of the winch-handle fisship-
ped when in work. In rigging this apparatus, the agitator is
placed within the box, and the spindle is pushed through
the outer bu.sh and the agitator, until its two journals rest in
the bushes; the coupling-ring is then screwed on to the out-
er bu.«h, until the spindle with the agitator just tunis round
with freedom in the conical bu.sh. To prevent the ring from
turning round by the Inotion of the spindle, a smooth ring or
washer of steel maj' be interposed between the collar and the
brass rina:. Various other modes of securing the spindle are em-
ployed, but in all, the object is to prevent leakage at the bush.
To prevent taint from galvanic influence al.so, it is not uncom-
mon to apply bone or other animal substance for the bu.shes.
(2098.) Churns of this kind are made of all sizes, without
any change in the princi[ile of their construction. They are
applied to all kinds of power, and the capacity is proportioned
to the e.Ktent of tlie dairy : but the enlire capacity of the churn
must be in general about double the quantity in gallons, of the fluid intended to be acted upon.
In operating with the box-churn, it may be filled to the hight of the spindle, or, if that member
is well fitted, the milk may rise considerably above it, though in general practice it rises but little
above. To adapt the churn to power, it is only necessary to put a pulley for a strap, or a chain,
upon the end of the spindle, in place of the handle; or the spindle may be attached to another
shaft, having the proper velocity, by means of a slip-coupling. The velocity of the agitator must
depend upon the size of the churn ; one of 24 inches diameter may make 60 revolutions per min-
ute on the average, but may be higher or lower in different stages of the process.
(2099.) A new churn of this third class has been lately introduced, and meets with much favor
in the north of Ireland. It is believed that its introduction from France is due to Mr. Blacker of
THE AGITATOR OF THE BOX-CHURN.
Fig. 384.
THE IRISH BOX-CHURN.
Armagh, who is ever zealous in the advancement of objects tending to the improvenient of bis
country ; but the manufacturing of it is conducted by Mr, li. Robinson, Lisbum. This chum is
(685j
32 b'
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
represented in figs. 384 and 385 ; the first a perspective of the machine as it appears when in
■work, the second a cross section, showing the chief peculiarity of its construction. In the prin-
ciple of its operation, this chum is the same as the one last described, but, like Uiat alluded to un-
der our second class, it is furnished with a case for containing water to reirulate the temperature.
It differs also from the common l>ox-chum. in having tJie spindle or axis of the agitator passing
through the len^h, in.«ti-ad of the breadth, of the containing vessel.
(ilOO.) In construction, fig. 384 rc|iresoiits a hand churn of ordinary- size; the containing vessel
is of an oblong form, with a Bcmi-cylindrical bottom, its length a A is 22J inches, the breadth b c
14 inches, and the dt'plli to the axis of the semi cylinder 11 ^ inches, the entire depth being 21
inches, all inside measure. The sides and ends are formed of birch or plane-tree, 1^ inches in
thickness, securely joined at the ancles ; the ends of the vessel thus constructed descend to the
full depth of the semi-cyliuder, while the sides are only 12 inches in deptli. The bottom is form-
ed in two plates of zinc, tl)e edges of which are secured to the outer and inner faces of the sides,
by means of close nailini:. and also to tlie ends, making watertight joinings all round, in the man-
ner seen in section at d and e, fig. 38.1, where the space d f e, between the outer and inner plates,
form the receptacle for the water. In llie edge of one side there is inserted a funnel g, by which
llie water is introduced into the receptacle by passing down through a small bore in tlie side of
the vessel, and the spigot h serves to draw off the water when required. A wooden cover is fitted
into the opening in the top. with knobs for the convenience of lifting it out. The chamber thus con-
structed is set in the iron frames i i i, which are attached to each end of the box, with screw
nails, and are farther securt^d by the stretcher-bolts k, and furnished with stud-handles / /. for the
convenience of lifting the chum.
(2101.) lu fig. 385 the agitator is also seen in section, whereof jti m, Ac, are the four arms, the
three transverse bars in each arm being in this
case round rods.which are here shown cut across Fig. 385.
by the section, as is likewise the square spindle g
passing through the center. The spindle is
formed and inserted in the same manner as
described for the box-churn (2097), and dif-
fers only from it in the mode of securing it in
place. In this machine the spindle is pressed
home by a perforated oblong plate, as seen in
fig. 384, which pas.sing upon the outward end
of the spindle till it rest asaiu.«t the collar, it is
then passed upon two stud-bolts fi.xed in the
end of the ves.sel, having a screw-nut on their
point, which presses the plate and the spin-
dle, by means of the collar, home to the conical
bush with any degree of tightness ; and the
winch-handle is then applied to the extreme
end. It will be obser\-ed that both this and
the last described chum require being placed
upon a stand or table about 2J feet high when
■worked by the hand, in order that the handle
may be brought to a proper hight for the full
effect of the liand. When cither of them are
worked by power, tliey are then most con-
Tenienily set on the floor of the dain.'.
(2102.) InUie fourth class of our .subdivision,
there is only to be considered the plunger _
churn; for in this class there is no variety, e.x- 12 g (, TooL 1
cept as to the dimensions. The means of work- , . i . . \ ^. i . i -t
ingtheplunger.aiid the different media through tka.vsverse section of the irish churn-box.
which the power is applied, whether of man or
of animals, are of a character much more varied than in all die others put together : and all these
varieties st-em to have been suggested with a vie\\' to overcome llie very unfavorable position in
which a man applies his force directly to the plunger-rod of this chum. Among these varieties
of construction in the mechanical media through which power, of whatever kind, may be a]iiilied,
we find all possible varieties of the lever and its combinations, the loaded pendulum, with com-
binations of the lever and of rack-gearinc. crank and lever, and crank with connecting-rods ; but it
would be profitli'ss to enumerate all the forms that have been devised for the improvement of
this par.icuiar kimi. and much more so to attempt to describe tliem. I will, therefore, rest satis-
fied with one that hau long been in extensive use, and is equally well adapted to the hand or to
power of any kind.
(2103.) The upright or plnnsre chumine-rettel, is always a piece of cooper-work varj-ing in ca-
pacity, according to the extent of the dairj' in which it is to lie employed, from 10 to 130 gallons.
It is built slightly tapering upward for the convenience of being titrhlly hooped, having a strong
bottom and a movable cover, which may l>e fastened down with an iron clasp-hoop ; a per-
foration is formed in llie center of the cover for the passage of the chum-staff or plunger-rod,
and this is surrounded by a wooden cup, to prevent the lashing over of the Huid in the act of
churning. The plunger or agitator, which is attached to the bottom of the plunger-rod, is a cir-
cular reticulated frame of wood : the meshes may be from 1 j to 2 inches square, and the bars
formine the reticulation about { inch thick and 1 J inches deep, the whole embraced by a wooden
hoop, whose diameter will just enter the top of the chum. The structure of the jilunger is by no
means important, the only ess»'ntial point l>eing. that it shall not present too much resistance to
the passase of the fluid Uirough its interstices, nor too little to give it a too easy passage, which
might render the agitation so sli^jht as to be ineffectual ; a good medium is to rnake the horizon-
(636)
m
•
•
m
9
U
•
m
• • •
•
• •i
m
•
^^^
a
tn
m.
MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE.
327
tal area of all the interstices IS times the area of the solid parts, and this rule will apply to the
agitators of all churns. Such is the simple constraction of this churning vessel, which is capable
ol adaptation to any kind of power, and to any extent of dairj-.
(2104.) As an example of the application of power to the plunge-chum, the accompanying
illustrations are taken from those extensively used in Lanarkshire and the neighboring counties,
where they are usually worked by one horse. It will suffice at present to show the internal me-
chanism, leaving the horse-wheel and intermediate gearing for another occasion. Fig. 386 is a
Fig. 386.
Sr,
12 6 0
THE PLUNGE-CHURN WITH POWER-MACHINE.
side elevation of the churn, and the mechanism required within the chum-room of the dairj'. It
is here represented as being for hand-power, but the arrangements of the machine, so far as here
exhibited, are the same whether for man or horse. Fig. 387 is a back view of the same, and the
same letters apply to the corresponding parts in each figtire. The floor-line of the chuming-room
is represented by the line a a, and 6 c is an upright frame of cast-iron, which is bolted to the floor.
The frame consists of two cheeks, which are bolted together on the flanged bars d, d : it is 5 feet
9 inches high, and 16 inches wide. The reciprocating cast-iron lever e/ is supported by its ful-
cra on the top of the frame, by means of a center-shaft-passing through the lever. The length
from the fulcrum to the head / is 4 feet 2 inches, and from the same point backward to the ex-
tremity is 2 feet 3 inches; a counterpoise is here placed upon the lever to bring it nearly to an
equilibrium. The connecting-rod gh\s, jointed upon a bolt that is fitted to move along the oblique
groove sr i formed in the lever, and the crank k is formed on a shaft that turns in bearings in the
upright frame ; its throw is 8 inches, less or more, proportioned to the bight of the churning-ves-
sel. and the foot h of the connecting-rod is fitted to the crank-pin. / is a light sheei* of malleable
iron, whose forked ends embrace the head of the connecting-rod, which is also forked at the
head : and the pin of the groove passes through all the three. The adjusting-screw m, with its
winch handle n, is supported in a swivel socket in the bracket o; while its screwed end m works
in the bend of the sheers /, which is screwed as a nut to receive it, for the purpose of shortening
or lengthening the distance m g, and so changing the position of the head of the connecting-rod.
The head /of the lever is mounted with a pair of side-links ;j /), jointed on a cross-head in / : the
links are again jointed on a wooden cross-head ?/, into which the head of the plunger-rod q is m-
serted. andfixed by a pin or key ; these side links, jointed as they are at top and bottom, produce
a very imperfect parallel motion, but sufficient to answer the rise and fall of the plunger-rod.
The liandle s is fixed on one end of the crank-shaft, and on the other is placed the fly-wheel t, to
equalize the motion of the lever, and compensate the inequality of the resistance to the plunger in
its ascent and descent. The churning-vessel r is 3 feet high, with an average diameter ot 15
inches, and its capacity about 23 gallons. In extensive dairies, it is common to have two chum-
iug-vessels attached to the machine, in which case the wooden cross-head w is elongated so as to
receive the head of the plunger-rods of both vessels, the vessels standing side by side during the
operation.
(2105.) When this machine is in operation, the revolutions of the crank produce a reciprocating
(687}
328
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
Fig. 387.
action in the connecting-rod. which is commanicated to the lever, and thence to the plangrera;
and it will be seen that, by moving the head e of the connecting-rod in the obliqae groove of tbe
lever, the strokes or rt'ciprocaiiona of the iilunjrcr will
be long or short as the juint at e is moved upward or
dow^nward in the croove ^ i. It is foand from expe-
rience that tliere art- advantaces to-the process deriva-
ble from this ; hence, at tlie commencement of the op-
eration, the head of the rod e h i» kept at the lower ex-
tremity of tbe slit, producing the shortest stroke ; as
the fluid becomes heated, and from the consequent effer-
vescence, its bulk is increased, the stroke is grad-
ually lengthened by taming tl)e handle n of the screw ;
and by thus shortening tiie distance e m, the pin at ff
is brought to the head of the slit, producing a stroke of
the greate.*t lensth : and when the efler\-esceiice ceases,
and tlie butter haa bccun to form, this state is reversed,
the stroke is gradually shortened, till tlie process is fin-
ished with the shortest stroke.
(2106.) The application of power to this machine is
easy and commoilious. It may be effected by a pulley
placed on the crankshaft instead of the handle s, and
so driving with a strap or a chain ; or it may be driven
by a spur-wheel placed on the same point, calculated
to the speed that may be afl'orded by the pow er, u heiher
horse, water, or steam. The usual rate of the plunger
in these churns is about 50 to 55 double strokes per
minute, subject to the nsual variation that is required in
the different stages of the process. The price of the
hand-machine, as in the figure, is from £6 to £S ; and,
•when completed with horse-wbeel and gearing, it is
from £15 to £18.
(2107. j Besides the four established classes of chums
now described, there are a few other anomalous cases
which have of late years been brought forward by in-
ventors, and iliough they ultimately may be found to
fiossess merit, they cannot yet be received as of estab-
ished character. The machines to which I here allude
may be named -'oscillating chums.'' They possess no
distinct agitator, but produce their effects by a species
of oscillation produced in the fluid. Among these may
be mentioned a vessel of an oblong form, placed upon
skids, cur\-ed in a manner that when the vessel is
touched with even a centle force, it will assume a mo-
tion resembling the well-known swing of a child's cradle, which will thereby produce a constant
succession of irregular oscillatory motions in the contained fluid, which will produce the effect of
churning.
f210?.| Another of these forms is an upright cylindrical vessel containing the fluid, and which
is attached by its bottom to a crank revolving horizontally. The vessel is restrained from re-
volvine on its own axis, but is made to describe a small circle, and everj' point in its base will
virtually describe that circle which will be equal to that described by the crank that pives it mo-
tion. The effect of this oscillatine motion in the vessel is to produce oscillation in the flui.i. which
will ultimately make gjrations witliiu the ves,«el. combined with an undulatorj- motion, that will
again produce the effect of the chum. In the first of these proposed machines, the motion would
be so easy and equable that there
BACK VIEW OF THE PtCSGl-CHURH
WITH POWER-MACHt.SE.
appears no mechanical ditficulty Fir. ^f'".
in the scheme : but in the second,
when >*'e consider the mass of fluid
that may be contained in the ves-
sel, and then the wlnile put in that
kind of motion that may be dc
scribed as reciproratintr-oircular.
which, when combined with the
tmequal effects of the undulatory
motion on the fluid within, would,
it is feared, require cither a much
stronger fabric than is usually
allotted to such operations, or oth-
erwise the machine would be
very liable to derangement and
to fracture. A churaing-nia-
chine, on this principle, was ex-
hibited at the Show of the ,,,,,,,„„. . ,
Hoyal Agricultural Improvement Society of Ireland, held at Belfast m August, 1843, and excited
considerable interest from its apparent novelty.
f210'.i.| The utensils and machines yet remaining to be described in tbe cheese-making
department of the dairy, consist principally of the curd-breaker, cheese-press and cheese-
tamer.
(688)
THE CCRD-BREAKIR.
MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE.
329
THE SECTION OF THE CURD-BREAKER.
(2il0.) The ctird-brcaker,* of which fig. 388 is a plan, and fig. 389 a transverse section, consists
of a hopper-shaped vessel a b,
17 by 14 inches at top, and 10 Fig. 3S9.
inches deep. It is fixed npon
two bearers e e, which are set
upon a stand or tub when in
operation. A wooden cylin-
der f, havin? an iron axle,
which passes through the bear-
ers e, and is turned by a winch-
handle d. The axle is kept in
its bearings in c by means of
slots k on each side, which
slide in grooves in the bearers,
and are held in their place by
a slider at h. The cylinder is 7
inches long and 3^ inches in diameter, studded all over with pegs of hard wood I inch square, and
projecting j inch. These pegs or teeth are set in eight regular zones round the cylinder, each
zone containing 18 teeth. Two wedge-shaped pieces c c are attached to the sides of the hopper
below, serving at the same time to reduce the opening between the cylinder and the hopper, and
to carry a row of pegs similar to those of the cylinder, but falling into the spaces between the
zones of pegs, as seen in fig. 389. In using this machine, it is placed over the tub or other recipi-
ent for the broken curd ; the hopper is filled with the curd that requires to be broken ; and while
one hand is turning the winch-handle, which may be turned either way, the other hand maj' oc-
casionally be required to press the curd down upon the cylinder. To prevent the curd being
passed beyond the ends of the cylinder, it is covered at each end, to the extent of \ inch, with an
overlap of the sides of the hopper.
(0111.) The cltecsc-press comes next in the order of business, and of that machine the varieties
are very numerous, though they may be all resolved into three kinds, namely, the common old
stone-press ; the combined lever-press, of which the varieties are the most numerous, embracing
from the single lever, through the various combinations of simple levers, to the more elaborate
Fig. 390.
THE STONE CHEESE-PRESS.
one of the rack and levers ; and the atmospheric or pneumatic press. An essential characteristic
of these presses must always be, that the load, in whatever way produced, shall, when left to itself
have the power to descend after the object being pressed, as that may sink by the expression of
the whey trom the curd. or' j j r
* Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. iv.
(689<
330
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
(2112.) An example of the first of these is chown in fig. 390; it cnngista of a strong frame of
wooil. of which a in the sill, 2 feet long, 18 inches broad, and 4 inches thick ; two upriphiH hh are
niorti.sed or dovt'tiiilt'd into it ; these arc each ti inches broad by 2J inches thick, and 3 feet high,
and are connected at to|) by the crossheud c mortised upon the posts. A cubical block of stone
A e is squared to puss freely between the posts; nn iron stem of 1 inch diameter is fixed into the
upper surface of the block, and the upper end of it being screwed, is passed through tlie centre
of tlie top bur. and the levernut / is a|iplied to it for raising or lowering the block. In each end
of the block a vertical groove is cut corresponding to the mid<ile of the posts; and a baton of
wood is nailed u[pon the latter, in such form and jiosition as will admit the block to rise and fall
freely, while it is prevented falling to either side. When put in operation, the block is raised by
means of tin- .«crew until the cheese-mould, with its contents, can be placed unon the sill a under
the block. This being done, the nut is screwed backward till the block rests lighth- on the cover
of the mould ; it is let down by small ariditions. as the cuni consolidates, until it is thought safe to
let tlif eniiif \\fiL:lit press upon the mould, which is done by withdrawing the uut /. In.steadof
the solid block of stone d e, which, when left to itself, will always produce the same pressure, it
is better to have one block ti nr into which the susjiending bolt is fixed, and the remainder of the
mass made up of smaller pieces, as shown in the figure, by which means the amount of free pres-
sure can be regulated to the particular size and slate of the cheese ; or blocks of cast-iron are
sometimes used in the form last described, which are more commodious, and less liable to be broken.
(2113.) The next class of this machine, ffie lerer-prest, to speak in general terms. pos.s«!sse8 the
eill of the former in .«oine shape or other, but generally of wood, with two uprights as before ; but
instead of a heavy block of stone, a simple movable sill of plank is emi)loyed, having an iron
or a wooden .'<tem attached to it, upon which simple or com]iound levers are made to act in pro-
ducing the pressure. An improved form of this lever-press was brought out by the Shotts Iron
Ck)mpany,* made entirely of iron, of a more commodious and compact construction than had
hitherto been attenii)ted. and, with slight alterations, is here presented as the type of the class.
(2114.) The combined h'vrr cheese-
press of iron is represented in the Fig. 391.
perspective view, fig. 391, and is
constructed in the following man-
ner: a a are a pair of cast-iron feet,
on which the machine is su|)portcd ;
they have a socket formed at the
crown to receive the malleable iron
pillars h h. The sill plate c is 18
inches in diameter, cast with two I
perforated ears, through which the
feet of the pillars 1/ h also pas.s, and
secure the sill to the feet. — tht; cross
lines in the sill in<licato channels for
the escape of the expressed whey.
The niovable sill d is of the same
size as the one below, with corres-
ponding ears perforated and fitted
to slide on the pillars, and having
the rack-bar f fixed in its centre.
A top frame e, 18 inches by 9 inches,
and 3 inches deep, is seated upon
the top of the pillars, where it is fix-
ed by two screw-nuts, anrl adapted
to carry the g:earing of th(! machine.
The action of the rack and its sill is
efl'ected in the following manner :
The ratchet wheel ft is fixed upon
an axle that has its bearings in the
top frame ; on the same axle is fix-
ed a pinion of eight teeth, not seen
in the figure, which works in the
wheel i of twenty-four teeth, fixed
upon an axle which has its bearing
also in the top frame ; and this axle
carries also a pinion of eight teeth,
which acts upon the rack, but is also
hid from view in the figure. The
ratchet-wheel «- stands clear of the
top frame about an inch, and its axle
is prolonged beyond the wheel
double that extent. The lever A- is
forked at the extremity p, and the
terminations of the furcation are re-
ceived upon the axle of the wheel
g, — the wheel being embraced by
the fork of the lever, but the lever iiioving freely upon the axle. The furcation is also lengthened
toward k to an extent that receives a pall at h ; between and in the throat of the fork, the pall is
jointed upon a pin that passes through both,— the edge of the pall pointing downward to catch
* Prize Kssays of the Highland and Agrirullural Society, vol. x.
(690)
THE COMniNED I.EVEK CHEESE-PRESS.
MAKING BUTTER AND CHEESE. 331
the ratcliet, while it has a knob-handle standing upward, by which it can be conveniently disengag-
ed from its wheel. A small winchhauiile / is also fitted upon the axle of the ratchet-wheel, and
a pin seen near h is adapU'd to a perforation in the top frame, by the insertion of which the de-
Bcent of the lever is checked, when 8uch is required, and this completes the mechanism of tlie
press.
(2115.) In prensing with this machine, the cheese-mould is placed upon the lower sill, and the
lever beiiiar supported on the pin at h. the winch-handle is turned to the left, depressing the rack
and its sill till the sill presses upon the cover of the mould. The lever is now lifted by the hand,
and the pall allowed to take into the ratchet ; while the lever, being loaded by the weight, will
cause the ratchet to turn, auJ produce the descent of the rack. If necessary, this is repealed
asain and again, till a considerable pressure is produced ; and if it is wished that a continued
pressure is to go on, the lever is again raised considerably above the horizontal line, and left to
descend gradually, following the consolidation of the cheese. If it is wished that the load shall
not follow the shrinking of the cheese, the pin h is inserted, which, when the lever comes to rest
upon it. checks farther descent. The amount of pressure is also regulated by the disposal of the
weight m in the difterent notches of the lever. The usual selling price of this machine is ,£4,
when constructed of iron, as in the figure ; but with wooden framework, and the rack and other
gearin? of cast-iron, the price is £3 5s.
(■2116.) In the third division of the cheese-presses there is not such a variety as in the others,
and what does exist is of recent introduction. I have to notice only one — the pneumatic cheese-
/)/-d'.<.< of the late Sir John Robison of Edinburgh — as an elegant application of Science to a homely
though important domestic purpose. The principle here applied is the pressure of the atmo-
sphere, brought to bear, with any degree of force compatible with that natural pressure, upon
the curd when placed in the mould, by exhausting a vessel placed below and in communication
with the mould, by means of a pipe descending from the bottom of the mould to a receiving-
vessel. To this pipe of communication a small air-pump is attached, and the mould having, be-
sides its true bottom, a movable one of wire or of wicker-work, the curd, wrapped in a cloth, is laid
upon the pervious bottom, and gently pressed with the hand till it fill the vessel all round. The
pump is worked a few strokes to produce a partial vacuum in the receiver and below the curd,
when the atmosphere, by its pressure on the surface of the curd, causes the whey to separate
and descend into the receiver. The pressure may be continued or increased at pleasure by a
few more strokes of the pump, until the cheese has acquired sufficient consistency to allow of
its being handled, when, as recommended by Sir John, it is to be removed from the mould and
placed within another of close wire-work, with a weight placed over it to complete the consolida-
tion.* The whey that is discha-ged from the curd while under the atmospheric pressure, being
collected in the receiver, is drawn off" bv means of a stop-cock.
("21 17. 1 There falls yet to be taken notice of an important article in the cheese department of
the dairy machinery — the tumbling cheese-rack, or cheeae-turner. This machine is the invention
of Mr. William Blurton, of Fieldhall. Uttoxeter, and its merits are believed to be sufficient to war-
rant its adoption on dairy-farms. The object of the machine is to save much of the labor re-
quired in the daily turning of a large number of cheeses in the drying-room, and this it does very
effectually, for with a rack containing 50 cheeses, they are turned over in very little more time
than would be required to turn a single one.
(•2118.) Fig. 392 is a view of the cheese-turner, as constructed to stand alone, and on its own
feet : though this is not the best mode of constructing the machine. It consists, first, of an exter-
nal frame a b c d. of which the two parts a b and c d are 6| feet high, and 7 inches by "21 inches;
they are here represented each with a cross foot a and c. and connected at top by a top-rail b d.
If constructed in a cheese-room, the posts sliould be at once ii.Ked to the floor at bottom, and to
the joisting or tie-beams overhead, becoming thus a fixture in so far as regards the external
frame. The second part of the machine is a movable frame or rack, formed by the two interior
posts e and/, which are framed upon the 1'2 shelves g h i, &c. ; the posts are 6 feet high, and are
again 7 by i^ inches, the shelves being 7 feet long and 14 inches broad, or more, according to the
size of the cheeses manufactured, by 1 inch thick. The shelves extend to 5| feet in his^'ht over
all. and are tenoned into and lipped over the posts, and each shelf is finished on both sides with
a knife-edged lath, nailed along the back edare : these laths are 2 inches broad, and \ inch thick
at the back, thus inci-easing the thickness of that edge of the shelves to 1^ inches. As the figure
represents a rack that will contain 5 cheeses on each shelf, a corresponding number of pairs of
vertical laths, k, k, &c., are nailed upon the back edge of the shelves. The.se laths are 1^ inches
broad and 1 inch thick, chamfered off to one side to the thickness of 5 inch or thereby at the edges,
against which the cheeses are laid, and are checked upon the shelves, and securely nailed. The
shelf-frame thus formed is provided with t\vo strong iron gudceons or pivots fixed in the side-
posts at mid-bight, and these are received into corresponding holes in the outer or bearing-posts,
so that the shelf-frame swings poised upon the two pivots ; and it is farther provided with an iron
latch at top and bottom on one end, by which it may be tilted and secured with either the shelf
g or e /uppermost. The catches of the two latches are both placed at top on the external post
at one side, suited to the motion of the shelfAame, and to prevent its being turned with the back
edge of the shelves upward.
(2119.) When cheeses are placed upon the shelves, it will be found that the knife-edge laths
keep them free of the body of the shelf, and thus permit air to pass under them, while the pair of
vertical laths keep the cheese in its proper position on the shelf The bight between the shelves
is such as to leave a free space of 1 inch between the cheese and the shelf above it; and what-
ever number of cheeses may be lying upon the shelves, the simple act of lilting the frame will
place every cheese which wax resting on a shelf on its opposite side, vpon that shelf which im-
mediately before was abcn-e the cheese, but by the tilting is now beloic it. It will be observed
that the vertical laths serve to prevent the cheeses from falling out while the frame is tilting, and
* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agiicultural Society vol. s.
(691)
332
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SU3IMER.
each cheem has only to fall one inch in that operation, or from the one shelf to the other, in a re-
versed position.
(2120.) It will be also observed lliat the fixed external frame is beat adapted for an extenslTe
Fie. 392.
THE CHEESE-TUR.NER.
cheese-room, where the racks may be placed in rows extending the length of the room, leaving
free passaee between the rows. The width of the passaees requires to be equal to half the hieht
of the shelf-frame, or .3 feet ; a room, therefore, 20 feet wide would contain 4 rows of such raclis ;
and if the leueih were equal to 10 diameters of the cheeses, or containing that number in ilie
leneth. the room would contain in all 440 cheeses in the best piossible condition for their being
prepared for market, havine free ventilation, and access for the dairy-maids to handle and wipe
any cheese at any time. We have no experience of this cheese-rack in Scotland ; but, judging
from its apparent capabilities, there is much reason to think that it might be employed with ex-
cellent eflect in the extensive cheese-dairies of Ayrshire and Galloway. The price of a portable
rack, as here figured, capable of holding 55 cheeses, is £4.— J. S.]
28. THE DOUBLE MOULD-BOARD PLOW.
(0121.) [The double mould-board ploir, is an implement essentially requisite in the cnltivation
of the turnip and potato crop. 'When duly constructed, it is highly efficient in the formation of
the drills or ridgelcts for either of these crops, selling up at each turn the half of a ridgelet on
each side, while the common plow, or onehorso plow so much employed for this purpose, sets up
only a half ridgelet at each turn, doing, therefore, but half tlie work. In a variety of forms also,
it is much employed in the earthing-up of the potato crop ; tor this purpose it is frequently made
of wood, but m all cases the iron jilow is to be recommended.
(2122.) Fig. 393 is a representation of a common double mould-board iron plow equipped for
the purpose of earthing-up. The framework of it is pretty much in form of the common plow,
except that the beam a lies right in the central line of the whole plow. The bridle b is variously
formed according to the taste of tlie maker, but always poseessiug the properties of varying the
(692)
DOUBLE MOULD-BOARD PLOW.
333
point of dranght upward and downward, as well as right and left. The breast d is & shield form-
ing part of the cast-iron body-frame afterward described. The share e is plain on both sides,
epear-pointed, and set upon the head of the cast-iron body-frame. The right and left mould-boards
Fig. 393.
THE DOUBLE MOULD-BOARD PLOW.
ff are hinged to the edge of the shield d with drawing hinge-pins, and they are supported be-
hind by a jointed iron-strap affixed to the back of each mould-board, and which slide through a
socket in the body-frame, where the tails of both straps are secured by means of a pinching-scre^v,
setting the mould-boards at anj- required width behind. The handles §■ are bolted on each side
of the beam, as seen at / /, and are supported near the helves by the usual stretcher and bow.
The dimensions of the plow^ are : from the breast d to the point of the beam 3 feet, 6 inches,
from d to extremity of mould-board f, 2 feet 6 inches, and from d to end of helve 6 feet 6 inches.
The hight of the mould-board, where it joins the shield, is 12 inches, and at the point/ 10 inch-
es; length of share 16 inches. The mould-boards of such plows are liable to great variation in
their form : some of them have little or no twist, and others variously contorted. Those of the
present figure have been selected as possessing all the requisite qualifications for an eartbing-up
plow. At the fore-edge, where they join the shield, the surface is nearly in a straight line, and
along the upper edge they are slightly convex ; from these two lines they twist gradually, round-
ing away below tosvard the tail, so as to leave the furrow of a round-botlomed trough shape.
\Vhere the double mould board is employed for forming the ridgelets, the mould-board is made to
fit the shield d, as in the figure ; it then stretches away to a length of 2 feet 6 inches along the up-
per edge, the point / being at a hight varying from 11 to 14 inches above the sole-line. At this
point the depth of the mould-board is only 6 inches, so that the lower edge runs off at a consider-
able elevation, and the surface having not more than 3 inches of twist, it is the lower edge only of
the board that effects the purpose of laying up the earth to form the ridgelet. In working the
plow, for the purpose of forming drills, there is frequently a marking-bar jointed to the beam im-
mediately before the breast d ; the bar folds to either side, and having an adjustable double-edged
scraper fitted to it, a rut is drawn on the surface at the proper distance for the centre of the next
farrow.
(2123.1 The plow just described and represented, is convertible into a scuffling or cleaning plow,
or horse-hoe. To effect this, the hinge-pins of the mould-boards are withdrawn, and the mould-
boards removed, when we have an implement represented by fig. 394, which exhibits the body-
Fig. 394.
THE BODY OF THE DOUBLE MOULD-BOAKD ALTERED TO A SCUFFLING PLOW.
parts of the same plow upon an enlarged scale, and from which portions of the beam and han-
dles are cut off. Here a is the remainins portion of the beam, and b b those of the handles, ex-
hibiting also their junction with the tail' of the beam. The body-frame c c, is of an irre^nlar
rhomboidal form, whereof the front bar forms the shield ; its breadth from right to left behind is 3
inches, running off forward to a sharp edge, and is hollowed out behind. The top bar c, by which
U is bolted to the beam, is 2i inches broad, and 1 inch thick ; the sole-bar c is formed flat below,
(693)
334
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
to receive the plaiu eole-iihoc m, and Uie hind bar is formed to receive the malleable iron docket L,
through which the tails of the uiuuld board straps are passt-d. and secured by the pinchine screw
/, when these are in use. To complete the implement for the purpose of scuffling, the two -wing
bars ^ g are jointed to a stud that projects frimi the beam on each side al k. A quadrant bar/", 2
feet long, and IJ by j inch is attached by bolts to the two stilts at /, and the ends of the wmg-
bars having a mortif-e formed lo receive the quadrant, are moved upon this to any required width,
and secured by the screws i i. A second mortise is punche<l in each wing-bar to receive the
scuffling coulters h h ; these are 2 inches broad by ^ inch tliick, thinned oft' to a knife-edge in
front, and bent inwani below till the points stand 6 inches to the right and left of the shanks. A
double-feathered share e is now fittetl to the head of the body-frame, which completes tliis simple
horse-hoe, and ihe change from the one state to the other is effected in a few minutes, for, in re-
turning it to the double mould board stale, it is only necessary to remove the scufflers and the
feathered sliare. The dimensions of the body are, hisiht at the breast from the sole to the top of
the beam 14 inches, length of sole 2 feet 6 inches, including the feathered share. The effect of
this horschoe in the soil is to loosen the eartli between the rows of drills, or if foul, to under-cut
all the weeds that exist in that space, or to such breadth as the two scufflers may be set ; the up-
right part of these coulters jierforming a species of paring along the sides of the two contiguous
rows. If the land is in good order, and tolerably clean, stirring it witli this scuffler will be suf-
ficient; but if overrun with weeds, one or other of the drill harrows or grubber will be found
necessary to prevent a re-vegetation of the weeds, and the following will be found to answer this
purpose well.
(2124.) The common driUsrruhhcr, fig. 395, is a light and convenient implement drawn by one
horse. It consists of a central beam a b c, the neck part of which a 6 is Id inches long, the body
Fig. 395.
THE COMMON DRILL-GRUBBER.
part 3 feet 6 inches ; and of the two wings h d, which are extended to c c. forming the handles,
the length from d lo c is 3 feet 4 inches. The neck part of the bea^ is 1 J inches square, and peen-
ed. or rounded, and this strength is carried past the first tine : the remainder of iliis bar, as well
as of the wings, is IJ inches deep by j inch thick, the handles becoming lighter backward. The
beam i.s punched at the front for the pas.-'age of the stem of the wheel, and at b for the fixin? of
the two joint-plates for the wings, as well as for the front tine; and it is also perforated horizon-
tally at the end c, for the quadrants of tlie wings. The wing-bars require to be ven,- neatly forged
in forming the swells, in which the tine holes are lo be punched, and also for the joint at h w hece
they are hingetl to the beam, between the two joint-]>laies, which, being riveted dead upon the
beam, leave a chamber on each side for the reception of the ends of the wing-bars, and through
these their joint-bolis are pa.s.«ed. The wing-bars are each furnished with a quadrant-bar riveted
into the wings at (/ d ; the tail of the quadrants passing through the mortise at c are secured by
a pinching-screw fixing the wings at any required width. To the point of tlie beam is affixed a
simple bridle f with a cross-web and shackle, giving a small range of yoke right and left : the
rise of this pomt is lu inches above the line of the body of the beani. The front wheel, whose
office is to regulate the depth of the c-rubbing. is usually 8 or 9 jnches diameter, set in the sheers
of the stem, which maybe 20 inches long, and is IJ inches broad by j inch thick. The tines e- are
1.5 inches long, the body being 1 ^ inches broad by ^ inch thick, forged \\ itli duck-feet not exceeding
2J inches broad and pointing slightly forward. In many localities tliis implement is used for all
the purfKises of horse-hoeing, except the process of paring or of earthing-up. and having cheap-
ness as well as utility as a recommendation, it is very generally approved of. It is, however,
subject to variety in the different districts where it is employed ; in .<ome it is shortened to five
tines, in others lengthened out to nine, and in many cases the tines are plain-pointed, or not ex-
ceeding 1 inch broad. It is frt-(piently also made with the tines standing in zigzag position;
but except in the second pair of tines, this is of little importance, ae those behind the second are
sufficiently far apart to prevent tliem getting choked w ith weeds. The price of this grubber is
about £2" 10s.
(212.i.) In this class of implements, we find a very handsomely constructed one, known a«
(694)
THE WILKIE DRILL-GRUBBER.
335
Wilkie's drill-grubber and harrow, which is here represented in fig. 396. The implement is.
however, of older date, and seems to have been invented by a Banffshire farmer,* the original
having been constructed with wooden framing until Mr. Wilkie adopted the iron instead of wood.
Fig. 396.
WILKIE DRILL-GRUBBER AND HARROW
This implement is constructed with a beam a b, and a pair of handles c c attached to the tail of
the beam, one on each side, in the way formerly shown in fig. 394. It has no proper body-frame,
but is merely a skeleton, the grubbing parts of it being the three tines or coulters d, e.f. The
foremost of them, d, is set in a coulter-box in the beam, the two others, e andy, are continuations
of the two wings, which are hinge-Jointed to the side of the handles as at g, and where they are
kneed downward at h, they are perforated for a quadrant bar, on which they are moved outward
or inward, and are secured by the pinching-screws at A. The front tine terminates in a double"
spreading feather or duck's-foot point of about 11 inches in length, and 8 inches in breadth at the
heel ; tiie two back tines are flat on the outward sides, and feathered inward ; their effect on the
soil is therefore somewhat similar to that of the scuffler, fig. 394, paring and undercutting ; but
the implement is furnished with an appendage in the attached harrow i, which completes the
operation at one turn. The harrow consists of two bars jointed to the middle of the quadrant-
bar which sustains the back grubber tines, and are suspended by a small quadrant attached to
each of the bars i, from the first stretcher of ihe handles at k, and each of the harrow-bars carries
three common harrow-tines, but somewhat longer than usual. The harrow is, besides, capable
of adjustment to depth by means of its suspenders, and to breadth by means of its two small quad-
rant-bars. The reifulation of depth is aided by the wheel /, which may be from 8 to 10 inches in
diameter, hung in the sheers «, which is jointed to the beam at a, and is capable of being shifted
up or down upon the cross-head o of the beam, and fixed by a bolt at w, passing through the per-
forations of the cross head, to which also a shackle and hook are attached for the draught.
(2120.) It requires no demonstration to show that the principle of this instrument is good — grub-
bing or scarifying to undercut all weeds, which are immediately brought to the surface by the
action of the harrow, to w^ither and die — but it is believed that defects of construction exist in it
that in some measure mar its utility. In stitt' soils the broad feather shares will with difficulty be
kept in the ground ; and. from their great length and breadth, will have the effect of consolidating
that part of it which they pass over, into a hard crust. The harrow is an important, part of the
implement, but adds considerably to the draught; and the implement, upon the wliole, is too
heavy for one horse being able to produce efficient work with it : by lightening the entire struc-
ture, and altering the form of the tine, it might be rendered a very useful horse-hoe. Its general
dimensioiis, as constructed by Mr. Wilkie, may be shortly stated. Length of beam from cross-
head to coulter box "2 feet 10 inches ; thence to quadrant of the back tines 1 foot 10 inches, and
thence to end of handles 4 feet 6 inches ; hight of beam at coulter box 16 inches, at quadrant 14
inches, and at the point 18 inches. The depth of the beam at the coulter box is 2^ inches, and its
breadth 1 inch, from which point it tapers off forward and backward ; the handles are 1| inches in
depth by | inch in breadth. The length of the harrow-bars is 2 feet 9 inches, and the length of
the tines 10 inches ; the weight is 145 lbs. ; and the price of the implement is £4 1.5s.
(2127.) The foregoing constitute a series of green-crop horse-hoeing implements, that possess
all the principal points requisite for this operation ; but there are numerous varieties of all the
types here exhibited, though all are referable to one or other of them. It is, or ought to be, an
essential point in all im[)lements of this kind, that they possess a principle of expansion and con-
traction, to suit the different widths of drills ; and, with few exceptions, this is the case. In many
of those in use, however, the mode of expansion is attended with an inconvenience arising from
the shortness of the expanding wings, which throws the coulters or tines out of parallelism, and
thus proves detrimental to their perfect working in the soil. This inconvenience is more felt in
those implements which have their tines formed like those of fig. 396, and least of all when the
scuifliug-tines are employed as in fig. 394. Mr. Wilkie, with his usual ingenuity, has invented,
some years ago, an implement of this class, in which the expansions and conti-actions are effected
by means of a parallel motion applied to tlie tines, as exhibited in the following figure.
(2128.) Fig. 397 exhibits Mr. Wilkie's horse-hoe with parallel motion ; it is very similar in figure
to the last, but the two back tines have their tails jointed at a, b, c. d, to two transverse parallel
bars, which traverse, to a small extent, upon pivots placed in the middle of their length, attached
to the tail of the beam. By moving these bars upon their pivots, from the position of a right an-
gle with the central line of the beam, the one tine is pushed forward and the other backward,
which must cause the points a, b, c, d, to approach the central line, and along wilh these the
points of the tines, preserving a perfect parallelism, and capable of being secured at any required
' Agricultural Report for Banffshire.
(695)
336
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
width by pinchinp-screws. This is the most perfect moiic of adjustment for tlie tines of a hoe of
this construction — three-lined — but it does not apply to those with more than three, and i«, withal,
perhaps, too refined fur a field implement The self-cleaDsiiig form of the tine which is exhibited
Fig. 397.
WII.K1E S HORSE-HOE WITH PARALLEL MOTION.
here, and in fig. 396, in the two back tines of each, has been often dwelt upon as of much im-
portance ; but the truth of the matter seems to be, that though that particular form is beneficial in
the great field-grubber, it seldom occurs, and ought never to be the case, that a drilled field-crop
ifl so overrun with weeds as to require a self-cleansing tine. — J. S.]
29. HAY-MAKING.
" as they rake the green appearing ground,
And drive the dusky wave nlong the mead,
The russet hay-cock rises thick oehiiid,
In order gay."
Thomson.
(2129.) Hay is made both of sown and of natural meadow-grasses. The
sown gra.'^ses are employed for hay in Scotland, and of these the hay con-
sists of red clover ( TrifoUum pratcnse), and rye-grass ( Lolium pcrenne J ;
for although the white clover ( Trifulium rcpens) is sown along with the
seeds of the other two, it scarcely forms a part of the first year's gi'ass,
and constitutes no part of the hay, which is always taken fi"om the grass
of the first year. As hay is thus taken from the first year's grass, it mat-
ters not whether the rye-grass made into hay is annual or perennial. Tlie
annual yields the heavier crop, but the perennial the finer quality of hay.
The natural grasses constitute the hay of England and Ireland. These
two sorts of hay are certainly veiy different in appearance, the sown
grasses showing the strong and stiff stems of the red clover and rye-grass,
and especially when the rye-grass is annual, while the hay from the nat-
ural grasses is soft and woolly to the feel, and more odorous to the scent,
because the sweet-scented vernal-grass ( Avthojranthum odoratvmj always
forms a component part. In so far as their nutritive properties are con-
cerned, if both are equally well made, there will probably be no material
difference ; but this fact has been established in Scotland, that the sown
grasses are more nutritive for young stock, both sheep and cattle, than
natural grasses, and for that I'eason we may liold it as true that their
hay will also be more nutritious for young stock ; and in like manner the
hay of natural grass should be more nourishing to old stock than from that
which is sown ; and hence natural hay is best for cows.
(2130.) I have heard farmers express the opinion that sown grasses re-
quire a different treatment on being made into hay than natural grasses.
If the object is to obtain rye-grass seed while hay is being made, then, of
course, the two processes should be different ; but if the object is to make
(696)
HAY-MAKING. 337
the best hay from both the substances, then I cannot see why the processes
should be different. On the contrary, the nature of all the plants employed
beino- the same, the same treatment should produce in all the sams re-
sults ; and as the art of hay-making is merely to expel the water which
the plants contain without injury to their texture, the only danger to be
apprehended is excessive fermentation, Avhich is easily excited in warm
weather, and will proceed to a destructive extent, if not subjected to con-
trol. Still hay-making varies according to the means used for conducting
it ; for if manual labor alone is employed, one process should be adopted,
but when mechanical assistance is received, the process should be modi-
fied accordingly.
(2131.) First, then, as to hay-making with manual labor alone. The
implements required for the purpose are few and simple. The grass is
cut with the common scythe, fig. 361 ; and the cutting is either let to la-
borers by the piece, or the plowmen of the farm do it, should there be
spare time from horse-labor between the sowing of the turnips and the
hay-harvest. The grass will be better and more expeditiously cut down
if let by the piece, as the contractors will exert themselves more, and
work more hours, than plowmen who have charge of horses can be ex-
pected to do. The usual cost of cutting grass for hay is 2s. 6d. or 3s. per
imperial acre. On commencing to cut a field, the direction toward which
the clover leans, or, should it be thin and upright, the quarter of the wind,
which always influences the direction of thin grass, should be attended to ;
and in both cases the grass should lean away from the mower. It always
makes the best work for the grass to be mowed across the ridges. It is
fair work for 1 man to mow 1 acre every day ; and I may here remark, it
is no good sign of the weight of the crop if the mowers go over more
ground every day. The other implements used in manual hay-making
are forks and rakes. Forks are shown in fig. 279, and rakes are figured
and described below ; and of the two kinds I prefer the right-hand figure,
as being the neatest and lightest.*
(2132.) Let us next consider the making of hay with the aid of horse-
labor and suitable iviplements, the employment of which makes a consid-
erable difference in the process. The tedding-machine, represented in
Plate XXXI. fig. 3G8, is used to ted hay, and which it best does by pass-
ing across the swathes, taking up and teasing and scattering them on the
ground in the most regular manner. It is alleged that this machine is
only suited to ted natural grass, but why so is not obvious, for its struc-
ture is capable of laying hold of any kind of grass. It would indeed shake
rye-grass too much that is intended for seed ; but I have already said it is
impossible to obtain good hay and good seed from the same crop. If the
object be merely to ted grass, this machine will doubtless ted sown grasses
as well as natural, when they are cut at the proper age. After the grass
has thus been tedded, it is allowed to dry in the sun and wind all the
forenoon. In the afternoon the hay-rake, whether the common horse-rake
or American hay-rake, both of which are represented and described be-
low by Mr. Slight, is employed to rake the tedded grass into a windrow
across the 4 ridges which intervene between every fifth ridge which con-
tains a row of cocks. Where the crop of grass is very thin, the horse-
rake might carry the grass into a windrow over more than 4 ridges upon
the fifth ridge ; but with an ordinary crop it could not, perhaps, accom-
plish this, and much less with a heavy crop. After the grass, therefore,
[* Here follow minute directions for hay-making, not applicable to our countrj-, from various
circumstances, which the reader can imagine. The difficulty with us is to get the grass or the
ground. The process of curing is simple enough. ^^- Farm. Lib.\
(697) 2«
338 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
has been withdrawn across the 4 ridges, manual labor is employed to put
it into grass-cocks, as in the case with manual labor. It will be observed
that few people, and especially women, are required to conduct hay-
making in this way, the heavy part of" the duty consisting of making the
cocks as often as requisite, which is best done by men.
(2133.) A large oblong hay-stack should be biiilt in this way : In the
first place a dry stance should be chosen, for a damp one will cause the
destruction of several stones of hay at the bottom of the stack. The
stance should be raised I foot above the ground with large stones inscribing
the circumference, and the interior filled up with stone shivers or gravel
beat firmly down. Upon this space the stack should he built by 2 men,
who are supplied with armsfuU of hay by a number of field-workers,
whose duty is not merely to can-y the hay but to tramp it under foot in a
regular manner from one end of the stack to the other. The 2 men, each
occupying a side of the stack, shake and build up what is called a dace of
the hay befine them as high as their breast, from one end of the stack to
the other ; and after half its length is built up in this manner, the women
go upon it and trample it, and if they hold by one another's hand in a row
their walking will prove the more effective. The breadth of the stack is
a little increased to the eaves. The hay is forked from the ground by 2
or 3 men, and when the stack has attained an inconvenient bight for this
purpose, there are 2 or 3 modes by which hay may be carried to greater
hi^ht ; one is by placing short ladders against the stack, and a man on
each, some way above the ground, with liis back to the ladder, where he
receives the forksfull of hay from the forkcr on ibe ground, and raises
the load above his head u])on the stack. Another mode i.s for men to
carry back-loads of hay up long ladders, and eni])ty them on the
stack. A third is to erect a scaffolding of planks upon a couple of
tresses of 6 feet in bight, and to fork the hay off tlie scaffolding to the
stack as it is forked upon it from the ground. Of the 3 modes, the last
of the scaffold affords the most secure footing to the men at an eleva-
tion from the ground, and in the end is the most expeditious; and in all
the modes 4 men will be amply employed in forking up the hay to keep
2 builders in work. The hay is forked off the ground instead of the cart,
as the latter mode would hinder the horses too long to make them stand
till the cart is cleared of its hay by forking. The hay is, therefore, thrown
down upon the ground from the cart, and if the cart is constructed to tilt
up, the deposition of hay is easily effected ; and even from a whole-bodied
cart hay is easily thrown off by the forkers sticking their forks under the
load along one side of the cart, and pushing upward and from them to
the other side, one person holding by the wheel nearest the men to pre-
vent the cart upsetting. The position in which the load is thrown upon
the ground requires to be considerately chosen. The load should be
thrown away fro7n the spot upon which the men stand to fork, when the
hay will easily come away with the fork, because each stratum of hay, as
it was forked on the cart, then lies toward the men ; whereas, when the
load is thrown toicard the forkers, the inclination of the hay abuts against
them, and every forkfull must then be pulled away by main force. A
hight of 12 feet is enough for the body of the stack, and a breadth of 15
feet is convenient for a hay-stack, and with these fixed dimensions, the
length may be made more or less, according to the quantity of hay to be
stacked. With these dimensions a new-built stack of 40 feet in length
will contain about 2,000 imperial stones. After the body of the stack has
attained 12 feet in hight, the heading is commenced by gradually taking
in the breadth on each side to the ridging, which is elevated half the
(698)
HAY-MAKIIVG. 339
breadth of the stack above the eaves, and the ends are built perpendicular.
One man and one woman will only find room at the finishing of the top of
the stack. A few straw ropes are thrown over the stack to prevent the
wind blowing off its new-made top. The stack is left for several days to
subside, and unless it has been slowly built and firmly tiampled, it may-
subside in the body to the extent of 2 feet. Very probably heat may be
indicated in some part of the stack a few days after it is built, by a leanino-
toward that part, because heating causes consolidation of the hay. A prop
of wood placed against the place will prevent the stack subsiding much
farther, and the handle of a rake pushed in here and there into the stack,
will indicate whether the heating is proceeding upward or to a dangerous
extent. A gentle heating will do no harm, but rather good, by renderino- the
quality of the hay uniform, and horses do not dislike its effect. Salt has
been recommended to be used in hay, and when hay is in a damp state in
consequence of the weather, it is an excellent remedial measure against
mouldiness, and it may be sown by hand upon every dace of hay laid
down by the two builders. The proper quantity of salt is to be used, ac-
cording to the state of the hay, has never been correctly ascertained, and
must, therefore, be left to your own judgment according to circumstances.
Salted hay is very much relished by all kinds of stock, and especially by
cattle.
(2134.) When the hay has fairly subsided, and the heat, if any, is no
longer felt, the stack should be thatched,; and as a preparatory operation,
the sides and ends are neatly pidJed straight from angle to angle of the
stack, with a small increase of breadth to the eaves. This operation sim-
ply consists of pulling out the straggling ends of the hay, which give a
rough appearance to the sides and ends, in order to render them smooth ;
and its use is to save the hay pulled out which would otherwise be bleach
ed useless by exposure to rain, and to prevent rain hanging upon them
about the stack. The heading or thatching consists of straw drawn straio^ht
in bundles, held on by means of straw-ropes. AVhen a hay-stack is to be
thatched, the drawn bundles of straw, and the straw-ropes, should, of
course, be prepared in time ; and yet it is a matter not of unfrequent oc-
currence for farmers to allow the hay-stack to stand unthatched until the
corn harvest, for want of straw ; or even to allow the hay to be left in ricks
on the field till just on the eve of harvest. Straw, in some instances, may
indeed be scarce, but in that case rushes and other tall-grown wild plants
form an excellent substitute, both for thatch and ropes. Ferns and heath
are good materials for thatch. The thatching should be carried on both
sides of the stack simultaneously by 2 men, and begun at the same end.
The men being mounted on the head of the stack, the bundles of straw
are handed up to them on a fork one by one as they are needed, and each
bundle is retained in its place on the roof, beside the thatcher, by leaning
against a graip stuck into the hay. The straw is first placed over the
eaves, handfull after handfull from the eave to the top of the stack, each
length of the straw being overlapped by the one immediately above it.
When the thatcher feels a hollow or soft part with his feet in the head of
the stack, he makes up the part by some of the hay that was pulled out of
the stack, to save the wasting of thatch straw in filling up such hollows.
The straw is thus laid from the eaves to the ridge of the stack to a breadth
as far as the thatcher can reach at a time with his arms. When the men
on both sides meet at the ridge, straw is laid along the stack upon the
ridge, to cover the terminal ends of the thatch on the sloping roof, and to
support the ropes which keep down the thatch. When this breadth, of
perhaps 3 feet, or a little more, of the thatch is laid down, its surface is
(699)
340 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
switched down smooth by the thatcher \frith a supple willow rod, and then
a rope is thrown across the stack at its very end, and another parallel to it
at 18 inches apart, and made fast at both ends, in the mean time, to the
sides of the stack. Other ropes, at right angles to the first, are fastened
18 inches apart to the hay at the end of the stack, and supposing the side
of the roof to be 11 feet along the slope, 6 ropes running horizontally will
be required to cover the depth of the slope, leaving a space of '9 inchep
from the ridge for the jilace of the uppermost rope, and the rope at eacl
eave is put on afterward. Each of these horizontal ropes is twisted onct
round every peipendicular rope it meets, so that the roping when com-
pleted has the apjiearance of a net with square meshes. As every subse-
quent breadth of thatch is put on, the roping is finished upon it, the ad-
vantage of which is, that the thatching is finished as it proceeds, and placed
beyond danger from wind or rain, or disturbance from after work. If the
stack stands N. and S., the E. side should have a thicker thatching than
the W., as being most liable to damp, and the thatching of both sides
should be thicker toward that end of the stack which is farthest from the
steading, as it will stand longest, and the process of thatching should ter-
minate at the end which will be first broken upon» that is, nearest the
steading, because the thatch will come away more freely when removed
in the opposite direction from which it was put on. The horizontal ropes
at their termination are fastened into the hay at the end of the stack. The
eave is finished by laying a stout rope horizontally along the line where
the roof was begun to be taken in, and twisting it round each perpendicu-
lar rope as it occurs ; when each perpendicular rope is broken off at a prop-
er length and fastened firmly to the hay immediately under the eave, and
after the eave-ropes have thus been fastened down, the projecting ends of
the thatch over the eave are cut straight along the stack, and give to the
beading a pretty finish. Another mode of roping the thatch is to place
the ropes in a diagonal direction across the stack, and when one set of
ropes cross the other diagonally, the effect is lozenge-shaped, which looks
well ; but roping in this fashion requires the thatcher to place all the straw
upon the roof before he guides the ropes over the ridge of the stack, to do
which he must stand upon the ridge and step backward upon it — a plan
which allows the wind to have liberty to blow off the thatch before it is
roped at all, and also obliges him to trample down the ridge straw to a
certain degree.
(2135.) On the other hand, when the stack is built under cover of a rtcA--
cloth or shed, the hay may be led in by a cart-load at a time, employing
only 3 hands, for the builder forks the hand-cocks in the field to the cart,
and the carter forks the hay to the builder off the cart, while the same
field-worker who rakes the bottoms of the hand-cocks in the field car-
ries the hay to the builder on the stack, each forkfull of hay, in this
case, l/eing thinly scattered over the stack, is easily trampled down,
and has time to subside before another load is put over it on the
following day. Where the rick-cloth is used, the stack should be
thatched on its removal ; but where a shed is erected, no thatching is re-
quired.
(2136.) Hay is sometimes Iniilt in round stacks, which are kept of a cyl-
indrical form for 7 or S feet from the ground, and then teiTninated in a ta-
pering conical top, and thatched. Such stacks contain from 300 to 500
stones of hay. This form of stack is convenient enough when a whole
one can be brought at once into the hay-house, but should the stack be of
such a size as to be necessary to bisect it perpendicularly, the remaining
half is apt to be blown over ; or should its upper half be brought into the
(700)
HAY-MAKING. 341
hay-house, the under part must be protected by a quantity of straw kept
down by some weiq;bty articles, and in such a case it is seldom that these
aie put on with sufficient care to keep out rain and resist wind. Upon the
whole, the oblong form of stack admits of being most conveniently cut for
use, and left at all times in safety; because a section of any breadth can
be cut from top to bottom to fill the hay-house.
CJiriT.) Tlio rule for asccrtainingr the number of stones of hay in oblong: stacks is simple enough,
but not so for conical stacks. To find the weight of hay in an oblong stack : — To the hight. from
iho ground to the eaves add one-half of the hight of the top above the eaves for the mean hight,
t'lpii nniliiply the mean hight by the breadth, and then multiply the product of both by the length.
Divide the uross product by 27, and the dividend will give the number of cubic yards in the stack,
and that number of yards multiplied by the number of stones of hay in a cubic j-ard, will give
the weiu'ht of the stacks in stones imperial. It is not easy to state the exact number of stones of
hay in a cubic yard, as that must varj- according to the compressed state of the hay, the weight
actually varying from .5 stones to 9 stones per cubic yard, according to the age and size of the stack,
and the part of the stack from which the hay is taken ; but perhaps 6 stones may be near enough
the mark of the weight in a new stack, 7 stones in one that has stood for some months, and 8 stones
in one that has stood over years. The contents of a round stack with a conical top may be ascer-
tained in this waj- : — Take the hight of the round part from the ground to the eaves, and add to it
one-tliird of the perpendicular hight of the conical top above the eaves for the mean bight of
the stack. Take then the mean girth, which, if the stack is vi-ider at the eaves than at the ground,
is ascertained by taking the girth at the eaves, and also at the ground, and dividiuu their sum by
2. Square the mean girth, and multiply the product by the decimal .079.i, which will give the
area of the base of the stack. Then multiply the area by the mean hight, which will give the
contents of the stack in cubic feet, divide the contents by 27, which will reduce them to cubic
yards, and then multiply the yards by the supposed number of stones of hay in the yard, and the
capacity of the stack will be found in stones. To know the contents of a conical "stack or coll,
take the girth at the ground in feet, find the area of the circle in the ordinary way, and multiply
the area by one-third of the hight. The contents thus found in feet reduce to yards, and then
multiply by the number of stones in a cubic yard. But the simplest plan in all such cases is to
use any of the Tables which are published for the purpose of saving tedious calculations, such as
those of Anslie or Strachan, the latter of which, however, are not extended far enough to com-
prehend stacks of the largest dimensions.
(2138.) A crop of hay varies from l.'iO to 300 stones per acre, according to the season and the
nature of the soil. On light gravelly soils the crop is never heavy, but its qualit\' is generally
fine, and on good clay it is usually heavy, and the plants large and strong, the clover predomina-
ting. For quantity and quality combined, a deep mellow clay loam may be regarded as the best
texture of soil. On thin clay, and on thin light soil resting on retentive clay, the clover is fre-
quently thrown out by frost in spring, and the hay then consists chiellj- of rye-grass, and on the
same soil the same effect is produced by severe drouth in May. Good hay should consi.st of
equal quantities of clover and rye-gra.ss, feel pleasant to the hand, and smell fragrantly, and, when
well prepared, possess a liirht brownish-green color; but as it is commonly prepared", the color ia
usually light brownish-yellow. Haj- of natural grass, when well prepared, is darkish green in
color, feels soft, is generally of fine quality, and highly fragrant. Grass usually loses tvi'othirds
of its weight on being made into hay.
(2139.1 Of 3060 grains of white clover, as much as 2430 grains were water, 100 grains nutritive
matter, and the remaining 470 grains were insoluble matter. The nutritive matter in the 100
grains consisted of 77 of starch, 2 of sugar, 7 of gluten, and 14 of bitter extract and saline matter.*
" When green grass or clover, approaching to maturity," says Professor Johnston, "is first cut
down, it contains a considerable proportion of starch, sucrar, and gum still unchanged into woody
fibre, as it would mostly be were the plant allowed to become fully ripe." Here you see the pro-
priety of cutting down grass for hay before any of its seed approaches to maturity, because lat-
terly it contains woody fibre instead of the nutritive ingredients just mentioned. But even when
sueculent grass is " left to dry in the open air. the circulation proceeds to a certain extent, and,
under the influence of light, woodj- fibre continues to be formed in the upper part of each stem,
until it becomes completely dry." And " it may even be a matter of doubt whether the process
of change does not often proceed after the hay has been carried off the field and stacked."! All
which considerations tend more and more to prove that the longer grass is allowed to stand after
the plant has attained its full stature, the less digestible or nutritious the hay will become ; and
more than this, the longer the process of making the grass into hay is delayed, the more woody,
and, of course, the less nutritious the hay will be. Every quick process of converting grass into
hay is, therefore, better than any slow one. There is a very quick mode practiced in Saxony,
which is this: — The grass that has been cut down during the day is put into large cocks late in
the afternoon. A very strong fermentation soon ensues, which coiitinues all night until the morn-
ing, when the work-people return to the field, by which time the cocks have contracted much in
bulk, and the steam rises briskly from them. They are then thrown down and scattered on the
ground, and their contents allowed to remain all day exposed to the sun and air. and by the after-
noon the hay is so dry and won as to be fit to be stacked, and accordina-lv it is gathered from the
ground and carried to the stack. The new-mown grass of the day is put into large cocks in the
evening, to be treated the next day in the same manner. This mode of liay-making might be fol-
lowed in this country, provided w"e could trust our climate : but should the next morning prove
a rainy or even a damp one, the contents of the cocks would inevitably be rotted. The modes of
* Sinclair's Hortus Gramineus Wobumensis.
t Transactions of the Highland and Agi-icultaral Society for October, 1843.
(701)
342 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
Iiayiniiking, bolh manually uikI nicc-liaiiirollv, wliich I hnvi; ilewriljeii above, are bolli expeditioas,
as are aluo tlie modes destrib»d by Mr. Little, Curleogill, and Mr. Miller of Forest, boib in Dnm-
fripsstiire.*
(iHO.) As bay is u.funlly made in a tliriftless manner, and as firaiw is more nourishing to stock
than bay, and as g(X)d food ran be rooked for horses in winter without hay. I have often thought
it a loss" to farmers to make bay at all. The grass would pay better on being grazed, and the land
would be retained in Intter heart. In the vicinity o( large towns, it may be expedient to make
hay, and yet when the crop proves heav_y the prioe is low — the average may be stated from the
trump-rick at Hd. j)er stone ot 'J-Jlbs. 1 have seen the price as low as 4d. and as high as Is. 4d. per
stone; but when the price is high, the crop is deticicnt, and the quality of the hay bad. Taking
the heaviest crop of :iOO stones ut M.. it will yield X\0 an acre, but 220 stones is nearer the mark ;
and yet grass lets for cutting X12 or £\4 per acre in the neighborhood of Edinburgh, without in-
curring any trouble to the farmer. 1 am sure if half the labor spent in making hay were bestow-
ed in winter in cooking food for the hor.«cs, farmers would derive a profit from the exchange.t
(2141.) [Of the hai/mahitif! implements, the wylhc (2t;i5), and fig. 361, and the hay-fork, fig.
279, having been already alluded to, I have now to notice a machine w liich is extensively em-
ployed by the English farmers in the preparation of mcadowhay. or hay prepared from tlie mix-
ed natural gra.-wes, in conlradislinction from the artificial, or rye-grass ami clover hay.
(2142.) The English hay-tedding machine, which is represented in perspective in Plate XXXI.
fig. 360, consists of a skeleton carriage, having a scries of revolvinir rakes occupying the place of
the body. The carriage is composed of the transverse bar a, ft feet in length, into which the
horse-shafts b h are tenoned. An iron stay -bar c c on each side connects and supports the shafts,
and the stays are continued backward, and attached to the center of the bo.\ that carries the
axle of the carriage-wheel on each side. The length of the bars c from <i to the center of
the axle-box is 3 feet 10 inches, and the bars arc 2| by \ inch. The carriage-wheels d d are 3
feet 10 inches diameter, and turn upon arms cast on a circular box, into which the nave of the
wheel, armed with a ratchet c, is received. The ratchet wheel c. thus attached to the nave of the
carriage-wheel, takes Iiold of the spur-wheel/ by means of a pall, and carries it round when the
machine advances, but slips hold on backing or turning. The spur-wheel/ works inio the pinion
fr. which is mounted on the end of the hollowshaft A, extending from side to side of the machine ;
and though in the figure, for the sake of distinctness, the spur-wheel and pinion are exposed to
view, they are in the machine closely boxed uj) in a cast-iron casing, which, for perfect and safe
working is necessary to prevent entanglement from the hay falling between the wheel and pin-
ion. A bar of IJ-inch round iron pa.sses through the hollow .'iliaft /), and has its end fitted lightly
into the outward side of the case that contains the pinion "-, and there fixed firmly with a screw-
nut on the outside of the case ; and the hollow shaft and pinions being firmly connected by thin
flanges (which are left out of the figure), they revolve round the central rod or shaft as one body,
the rod having turned bearings where the pinion embraces it. The two rake-wheels i t are 2
feet 8 inches diameter, and of very light construction ; they have eyes sufRciently large to pass
over the end flanges, of about? inches diameter, of the hollow shaft, to which the pinions c- are
attached by means of their flanges; and, to fill up the large eyes of the rake-wheels, the shaU h is
swelled out at the points of bearing. The rake-wheels, fixed dead upon the shaft /*, are no^ff
armed with the eight rakes ^ A: ; these are wooden bars .'i feet 6 inches long, and 2 J inches square,
each carrying 10 light iron teeth about 7 inches in length. The rakes are attached to the wheels
by a tumbling joint m vi, &c., and are held to the work by the si)rings .' only ; by which arrange-
ment, when any undue resistance is opposed to a rake, such as a stone or other obstruction, the
rake falls back till the obstruction has been passed, when the springs immediately return it to its
working position.
(2143.) It will be observed that there is no thorough axle in the machine, as tlie revolution of
the rake occupies the place where that member should exist; hence the axle-arms or heads are
simply studs projecting from the box which contains the machinery e,f, g. and hence ahso the
necessity for the connecting-bar which passes through the hollow shaft ; that, together with the
* See I'rize Essays of the Ilighlund and Agriculturnl Society, vol. xiv.
[t We have before us a letter from Henry Ancrum, of Ashley, Missouri, in which he says : — " I
have tried a great many experiments on animals. I have kept 20 Durham cows, 7 horses, and
other stock, in a situation where hay was $25 a ton, in the highest health and condition without a
blade of hay ; and the result of my investigations and trials is, that cooked food in winter is the
cheapest and most wholesome,
I have found tliat it is pretty indifferent as to the quality of the food by which tlie alimentary ca-
nal is filled, if ample, proviiled a certain quantity of concentrated food is given containing nitro-
genous substances, and a small quantity daily suffices. No animal can be brought easily and read-
ily to his highest pitch of perfection on one kind of food alone. The great secret is to keep up
the animal heat in the winter. Where this is strictly attended to, any inferior food at discretion,
and given with staled regularity, will make an animal fat I have seen oxen of the largest size
made completely fat with a modemte allowance of hay, with cabbages of the Anjou kind ; but
these animals were fed with the greatest regularity, curried, kept extremely warm, and the chill
taken ofT the water in cold weather. How many millions are lost in the United States by not
keeping up the animal heat in the winter ?"
These suggestions, sustained by modem experiments on the nature and action of food, we con-
sider important, as going to show that good hay is not so indispensable as may be imagined by
those who have it not within their reach or to whom it would be very costly. Ed. Farm. Lib]
(702)
HAY-MAKING. 343
bar a and the longitudinal bars c c, being the only parts which constitute the framework of the
machine. Besides tlie capability of backing, without turning the rakes, there is provision for dis-
engaging them when the machine is advancing. To effect thisf the pall which is attached to the
spur-wheel/, for the purpose of deriving its motion from the ratchet-wheel of the nave, is held in
action by means of a spring pressing on the tail of the pall, and the disengagement of the whole
machinery from the carriage wheel or first mover, is effected by a small tumbling lever affixed
also to the spur-wheel, and fitted to bear upon and throw the pall out of gear with the ratchet of
the carriage-wheel nave. The machine is also furnished with the means of elevating and de-
pressing the center of the revolving-rake, and, of consequence, bringing the rake-teeth neOTer to,
or farther from the ground, and this is effected by turning round the circular boxes that contain
the gearing to the extent required, which is then fixed by means of a quadrant bolted to the bars
f , c ; a small portion of this quadrant, which is a part or fiange of the gearing-box, is seen with its
bolt-holes at e on the left, and at i on the right of the figure. When in operation the machine is
drawn by one horse, or sometimes two horses, and the result of the combination of the gearing is
that the revolving-rake makes 4^ revolutions for one of the carriage-wheel. The latter being 3
feet 10 inches diameter, will pass over 12 feet or thereby in one revolution, and the rakes being 4
feet 6 inches diameter over the extreme points of the teeth, will describe a circle of about 14
feet in circumference, and this revolving 4^ times for one of the other, the points of the teeth, will
pass through 63 feet while the carriage has moved over 12 feet, and as there are 8 rakeheads,
there will be 8X45=36 contacts with the substance which is to be lifted, in a space of 12 feet, or
one at every 4 inches. From this calculation it will be seen that the hay under the operation of
this machine will undergo a process of teazling or tedding of the most perfect description ; it will
be separated and tossed about until no two stems of the plants will be left in contact, and by this
exposure the drying process is effected in a period greatly shorter and more effectually than could
be done by any number of hands. Thus, if we suppose the horse to walk SJ miles per hour, and
the machine to cover 6 feet in breadth, we have a surface of 1^ acres nearly covered in an hour.
(2144.) The following machines, though not confined to the hay-field alone, but are also em-
ployed in the grain harvest, are very frequently employed in hay-making, for the sole purpose of
colleciing the hay into heaps after the tedding process has been gone through.
(2145.) The h/itid hay rake is an implement of great simplicity, but though almost elementary
in its construction, it has been subjected to numerous variations, chiefly in one point, with a view
to improve its construction. It consists of a head c d, fig. 399, g h, fig. 398, of from 24 to 27 inches
in length, made of hard wood 1^ inches broad in the middle, tapering a little to each end, and from
1 to 1 ^ inches thick. Tiie head is armed with twelve or thirteen wooden teeth a or e, made of oak
or ash f inch in diameter, and. when first made, about 3| inches long. They ought to be formed
Fig. 398. Fig. 399.
THE HAND-RAKES.
with a slight swelling in the middle, or rather towards one end. the shorter end being adapted to
fit into holes previously bored at 2 inches apart centres ; and vihen the teeth are driven into their
holes the swell on the tooth fills up the hole tightly, giving the tooth much greater strength than
if it were quite cylindrical. The teeth are then properly .secured by wedging, and the wedges
and ends dressed off; the points of the teeth are likewise dressed off to a uniform length, 2^ inches
or thereby, and sharpened off from the back. The shaft or helve, which is 5^ feet long, is usually
made of ash, but as lightness is an object, its thickness ought not to exceed 1| inches, dressed
neatly smooth and round except where it enters the head ; here, and for a length of 12 inches, it
is usually kept square. This part of it is either let into the middle of the head by a tenon, as in
fig. 399, or it is split as in fig. 398, and enters it by two tenons. It is in this point of the construc-
tion that the variations have occurred, and from the slightest consideration it will be evident that
the single tenon alone, as in fig. 399, is defective and weak ; hence the grounds for the variation,
to afford some additional support to the simple tenon, and fig. 398 exhibits one mode of accom-
plishing the object ; the helve is split with a saw from the end backward to J. at which point it is
prevented from splitting farther by the application of a rivet put through the termination of the
split part, or, what is much better, an iron ferule, as in the figure, is drawn tight upon it; the fork
is then opened, the ends adapted to the respective mortises and secured into the head of the rake.
This is apparently a very simple mode of accomplishing the object, but it is not by any means a
perfect one. Were it possible to make the two parts / g and / h free of curvature, the object
would be attained ; but as this cannot under the circum.stances be done, the head and the helve
will have a very unstable attachment to each other, and a consequent weakness of parts ; neither
is It less expensive than other and better methods, though the rake of this form is always light m
hand, which is its only commendation. A semi-circular bow of bent ash wood has been often ap-
plied, passing through a hole at b, fig. 399, and entering the head at c and d, but this, by reason of
its curved figure, is also especially defective, besides weakening the helve. Equally so is a hght
iron bow of the same curvature, but, instead of passing through the helve, it is simply attached to
(703)
344 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
it. and to tl.e head with a nail at each of these points. This will be better in degree than the last,
from tlie greater rigidilv ol the iron, but is not better in principle. The true and only mode of
applying the bow is that exhibited in fig. 399, where the parts b c and // d are perfectly ctraipht,
and formed of verv Wizhl iron rod •. it need not exceed \ inch .liameter, flattened at the two exirem-
tties and at the i-oiiit h into a small flat palm, and fixed to the helve and the head by a screw-nail
at each point. This part of the rake is called Uie stay or brace, and in the last deacnbed form u
as perfect as the case will admit of o i. n • • • i
(2144) To have said po mnch on an implement so simple and of such small intrinsic value may
appear trilling, but the hav rake is not so much the object here as the development of the pnnci-
ple on which depends the strengthening and supporting the parts ot any form oMrame-work.
whether of wood or iron, bv the aid of .fiagonal slays or braces. This single member in all con-
structions is of such importance that no opportunity should be lo.st in impressing the principle on
the mind of all, whose business or interest lies in Uiose departments of Mechanics where its ap-
plication is required. , -en-
(2147 ) The American hny rake, is so called from its having been an importation trom Amenca.
This implement is represented in fig. 400, in perspective, and lying in the workmg position. It
Fig. 400.
6 C
THE A.MERICAN HAT-RAKE.*
consists of a beam or head a n, 9J feet long and about 4 inches square ; it is perforated with 18
square morti.«e.s, into which the transverse bars or teeth b h, c c, ice. are firml\- fixed. These
teeth are about 3 feet 10 inches long, or 21 inches on each side of the head a a. and are about 1^
inches square on the body, slightlj- tapering to each end, where they are rounded off to a blunt
point, but chiefly upon that side which is to lie next the ground, and this constitutes the body of the
rake. It is drawn by a horse yoked to the drauirhtframe d e. of which d and e are two naturally-
bent bars of wood about 3J feet long and 4 inches by 2J inches at the butt end ; at the butt they
are worked out to the end in a semicircle half embracing the head a a. which is here dre.«sed in-
to a cylindrical journal, and the bars d e are secured to the journals by a strap of iron passing
round each and nailed or bolted upon the bans, leaving them freedom to traverse upon the jour-
nals. The stretcher-bar/ is mortised into d and e at a distance of not less than 2 feet from the head
a a. The handle-frame by which the implement is guided has the two bars g and h A\ feet long
and is 2J feet apart ; the bars being attached to the head in the same manner as described for d e.
The two bars g, h. are also connected by 2 stretchers, and upon the lower one is appended the
light pendent and movable frame /. the depth of which from the stretcher, to which it i.s appended.
to the bar i is 10 inches, and is jointed to swing freely on tlie stretcher. The bar i ot this last
frame is put in connection with the drauL,'ht-frame, by means of the connecting-rod i k, which is
jointed movable at both ends on round journals, and strapped as before. The stretcher on which
the frame i is appended is prolonged at each end to receive the catch-bars /, on the outside of tlie
frame g h. one of which bars is seen at /. jointed on the prolonged stretcher, the position of which
18 2 feet 3 inches from the journal of the head a. The catch-bars are 3 J inches by IJ inches at /,
but diminish for\vard to IJ inches square at the point, where they abut upon an iron stud, which
is presented at two of the opposite corners of the rake-head, at each side of the handle-frame,
serving an essential purpose in the manacement of the implement.
(214*?.) In the workin? of this rake, it lies nearly flat on the ground, and when the draught-
frame is at its proper hiirht, the connecting-rod / k keeps the hanging frame ju.st within the ex-
tremity of the teeth that are then behind, and nearly bearing upon them. In this position also,
the point of the catch-bars / is quite free of the studs of the head or beam, and by pressing down
the handle-frame, the pendent i will come down upon and depress the teeth that are looking back-
ward, raising at the same time tho.-je in front, such as for the purpose of passing over any obstruc-
tion. When, on the contrary, it is wished to depress the front teeth, the handle-frame is raised
till the points of the catch bars press aizainst their studs, which will depress the front-teeth ; and
by continuing to elevate the hainlle-frame, the connectiug-rod. from change of position in the bars
i%,i I, and //. will push the pendent i beyond the extremity of the teeth behind, when, the front
teeth taking the ground, and nothing to resist the rising of those behind, the rake will immediate-
ly tilt over, the fore and hind teeth changing places ; but. in other respects, everything will be
the same as before. The effects of the motion and tilting, it is evident, will be. tliat in the pro-
gressive state the rake collects the hay or straw upon it chiefly in the front part ; and when the
attendant sees that the rake is filled, he raises the handles and tilts the rake as above described,
leaving the collected mass at the spot where the tilt occurs.
[* Invented by Moses Pennock of the Society of Friends, in Delaware. Men's names have
been immortalized bv acts of much less pablic service. Ed. Farm. Lib.]
(704,
THE FLAIL. 345
(2149.) A slight consideration of this implement will show the effectual and convenient manner
in which its work is performed ; but it will also probably occur to the observer, that, for pro-
gressive motion, it is by no means so well adapted as for collecting and depositing the products.
The heavy transverse bar, or head of the rake, is drawn forward in the worst po;:sible position, or
vi'hat is called bi'oad-side on ; and it appears very obvious that this defect could be removed by
simply applying a pair of low light wheels to the ends of the head; their diameter need not ex-
ceed 8 inches, aud they should be very light. Perhaps it may be owing to this defect that the
American hay-rake has of late j'ears not been in such high repute as formerly.
(2150.) The Flail, tig. 401, is an implement of considerable antiquity, and of vei-y extended ap-
plication. Till about 80 years ago, it was the sole implement employed in Britain, and to this day
is nearly so over a great part of Europe, for threshing out the grain from the straw. Though
falling rapidly into disuse in England, it is nevertheless an important impleinent in many oth-
ers, and therefore claims our attention in common with thoise of higher pretension. The flail con-
sists of two parts, the hand-staff or helve a b, and the supple or beater b c ; the first is a light rod
of ash about 5 feet in length, slightly increased in breadth at the lower extremity, where it is per-
Fig. 401.
forated for the passage of the thongs that bind the beater to it. The beater is a rod of from 30 to
36 inches in length, frequently also made of ash, though a more compact wood, such as thorn, is
better adapted for it. If not properly applied, the ash beater will very soon separate into thin
plates, which are portions of the concentric layers of the wood, and their separation ai'ises from the
beater falling upon the flat or convex side of these annular layers — or the reed of the wood, as vul-
garly called. To prevent this disintegration of the wood, the beater should be constructed to fall
upon the disc of the segmental portions of the reed, which is easily accomplished in its formation.
The usual form of the beater is cylindrical, but frequently thickened a little toward the extreme
end, the diameter being from 1^ to 1^ inches. For the most part, it is attached to the hand staff by
a strap of leather, or more frequently of hide untanned ; when mounted in this manner, the beater
is formed with two projecting ears, standing at right angles to the side on which it is intended to
fall, and about \\ inches from the end by which it is attached, serving the purpose of retaining
the end of the beater within the strap. The strap is about 8 inches long and 1^ inches broad ; it
is bent over the end of the beater, and the tails brought to embrace the sides of it beyond the ears.
The strap being previously perforated with four holes in each tail, it is bound by a thong of leather
laced throvigh the holes and round the neck of the beater ; the upper turn of the lacing thong
catching the ears, prevents the strap from slipping off. The strap, thus applied, forms a loop
standing about 1 inch beyond the end of the beater ; and through that, and the perforation in the
end of the hand-staff, another and stronger thong is passed several turns and secured, forming thus
a kind of loose swing-joint that allows free action to the beater in its gyration round the head of
the thresher, and its descents upon the threshing-floor. Another mode of mounting the beater is
by applying a strap of iron in place of leather, which is fixed to the wood by riveting, leaving a
loop as before, which must be nicely rounded and smooth, to prevent the too rapid chafing of the
thong by which it is bound to the hand-staff, in the same manner as described above. The figure
here described exhibits the iron strap. In constructing a flail, a very general practice prevails,
which is, to have the beater club-shaped, or thickest at the farthest extremity c — intended, no
doubt, to give the better effect to the blows ; but when we consider the effects arising from the
manner of wielding the instrument, any additional weight at the extremity seems misapplied. —
The greatest amount of useful effect will be produced by the beater when every j)oint in its
length strikes the floor with an equal amount of momentum or force ; but there will be a constant
tendency to a larger amount of momentum at the extremity c than at any, other point, and a club-
shaped beater will always augment this tendency, for the greater velocit3- of the extreme end,
during the gyration of the instrument, multiplied by its greater weight, must give an undue pre-
ponderance of effect to that part of the beater, thereby lessening the general effect upon the work
(705)
346 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
under perfomiance. The opposite mode, which is also practiced, to make the beater thinner to-
ward the extremity, a.i exhibited in the figure, is more consonant lo the laws of d\-namic8. and
there can be no doubt that its practical efiect« will be equally Tavoreble as compared with those
of the club-shaped beater.* — J. 8.]
30. SUMMER-FALLOWING, AND LIMING THE SOIL.
" The bare fallow brings to teeming foyson."
Meascbx fok MzAStnix.
(2151.) Although summer-fallow occupies the same division of the farm
as green crops — turnips, potatoes, tares — yet it may most characteristically
be reo^arded as the first preparation for the crop of the following year ; it
is a transferience of a portion of the land, with the labor bestowed upon it,
from one year to another ; it forms the connecting link between one crop
and another. But although the preparation of the soil for a part of the
crop of two consecutive years are conducted simultaneously by means of
summer-fallow, yet the ciops which occupy the soil thus simultaneously
prepared are committed to it at verj' different periods — the green fallow
crops being sown early in summer, while the sowing of the fallow crop on
the summer-fallow is delayed to autumn ; so that before the latter makes
its appearance above ground, the foi-mer have almost advanced to matu-
rity. Since the crop on summer-fallow is delayed to autumn — till the eve
of commencing another agricultural year — the practical effect of the delay
is to dispense with a crop for a whole year on that part of the fallow-break
which is summer-fallowed, and, on this account, such a fallowing is com-
monly called a bare-faWow. As an entire crop is dispensed with, bare-fal-
lowing should impart such advantages to the land as to compensate for the
rest and indulgence which it receives ; and so, in fact, are its advantages
felt on some sorts of soils. But the truth is, after all, that bare-fallowing
is a neces.'iitous operation in soils that will not cany green or summer
crops; and if such soils will not carry them, they must be operated on so
as to be made suitable for a crop which they will not only bear to perfec-
tion, but will pay the expense of the operation. The sort of soils alluded
to are heavy clays ; and why will f/iei/ not bear green summer-crops ? A
satisfactory reason cannot be given ; but the fact, as developed by expori-
ence, is, that their nature is unkindly to the growth of plants commonly
used in a green state ; and their heavy, wet and obdurate nature prevents
them, at any rate, from being prepared in time for sowing such plants.- —
Could clays be altered in their nature by any means, they might be em-
ployed in raising summer crops as well as the naturally more kindly soils ;
and such a change has l>een effected on many clay soils which were for-
merly incapable of rearing them ; and the change has been effected by
ameliorating their texture by thorough -drainincr, skillful tillage, and liberal
mantirina: and liming. In this way the bounds of bare-fallow have been
much circumscribed, and those of green crops as much extended. Still
the heavier class of clays — the deep alluvial clay.s — have not yet been ame-
liorated to the degree of bearing green crops profitably, so they must con-
tinue to be bare-fallowed ; but more than this, part of even the ameliorated
[* This implement is still much used in the Eastern States. Col. Chapman, President of the Sara-
toea Agricullura! Society, still uses it on the ground of employment to the poor men who do the
work. Ed. Farm. Lib.]
(706)
SUMMER-FALLOWING, AND LIMING. 347
soil of almost every farai is necessitated to be bare-fallowed, for want of
an adequate supply of farm-yard manure. Farms in the vicinity of large
towns maybe amply supplied with extraneous manure, to make up f )r the
deficiencies of the farm-yard ; but as most farms are beyond the reach of
such assistance, it may be alleged that bare-fallowing, to some extent, is
practiced every year upon every farm ; though the limits of compulsory
fallowing have been much circumscribed of late years by the purchase of
extraneous manure from distant sources, which are easily conveyed, and
sold at prices that aftord a profit. Those manures — and I only allude to
them here — are bone-dust and guano. These, superadded to draining
and deep-plowing, have afforded the power to cultivate green crops upon
soils which were naturally unfit for them ; and, without such auxiliaries,
soils suitable for their growth would be obliged to be bare-fallowed, to al-
low time to collect the reqiiisite quantity of manure to support their fertil-
ity. Until manure is, therefore, obtained in sufficient quantity, bare-fallow
must exist ; but whenever that desideratum shall be accomplished, many
farms will dispense with bare-fallow altogether. But there is a natural
obstacle to the increase of manure in farms themselves; for it so happens
that the greatest quantity of straw, which is the great source of fertilizing
manure, is afforded by land the least fitted for green crops ; and, on the
contrary, land best fitted for gi-een crops aflbrds the least quantity of straw.
Turnip-soils cannot supply as much straw as to manure, to the degi'ee and
in the state it should be applied to green crops, little more than ^ of the
fallow-break ; whereas clay soils affiird as much straw for manure, in the
state in which it may be applied to them in bare-fallow, as sufficiently to
manure the fallow-break.
(2152.) The land subjected to bare-fallowing should have the strongest
texture ; be foulest of weeds, if any there be ; and be situate farthest from
the steading, that the caniage of turnips may be rendered as short as prac-
ticable. The winter treatment of the fallow land is the same as that for
the summer crops, and this has already been described in preparing the
soil for potatoes (1870) and turnips (1953). If one fuiTOW — that of two-
out-and-two-in, or of four-out-and-four-in — has been given to the fallow-
break after cross-plo^ving, it will be as much as time can afford from work-
ing the potato and turnip land; and when it is found that the fallow-break
will not likely be worked for some time to come, it is better to let it lie in
the rough state left by the plow, than to render it smooth with the harrow ;
because, should dry weather ensue, the air will more easily affect rough
than smooth land ; or should it prove wet, the rain will less likely render
rough land tough, than land in a compact and smoothened state; and, in
strontj soil, rain most advantageously moulders down rough clods.
(2153.) When leisure is again afforded to pay attention to the fallow-
break from the advanced working of the turaip-land, the state of the fal-
low-soil should be particularly examined. Should the weeds in the soil
consist principally of fibrous and fusiform-rooted plants, they will be easily
shaken out by the harrows in dry weather; but should the running roots
of weeds be found to have threaded themselves through hard, round clods,
these will not be so easily detached, and it requires considerable skill in
the farmer to conduct his operations so as to detach them with the least
application of labor. It is inattention to these states of the weeds which
causes so much unnecessary work in the subsequent part of summer in
cleansing fallow land. If clods containing portions of the running roots
of plants are knocked ever so much about in dry weather, they may be
broken into smaller fragments ; but the roots in them will be subdivided
into as many pieces as there are broken clods, and the land will be as far
(707)
348 THE BOOK OF TFIE FARM SUMMER.
from being cleaned of weeds as ever; nay, the greater number of parts in
which the roots are divided, so many more chances have the weeds of
being disseminated over the land.
(2154.) In such a case, which is of frequent occuiTence on strong land,
the best plan is to allow the roots to grow for a time, and the force of
vegetation will have sufficient power to break the clods, or will render
them easily so by the roller, to reduce the clods by rolling after such a
shower of rain as shall have nearly penetrated them. A precaution in the
use of the roller should, however, be here observed. When most of the
soil is in a mouldy state, rolling the hard clods found on it, will only bury,
not break them. Rcdling, with a view to breaking large clods, should
therefore be performed when the soil is in a firm state, against which the
clods will be reduced to powder. After such a rolling, the land should be
haiTowed a double tine, first one way and then across another way. The
weeds and weed-roots will then be seen upon the surface. It is not expe-
dient to srather weeds immediately on their being collected by the har-
rows, as a good deal of fresh soil adheres to them. A day or two of
drouth should intenene, and the weeds will then be easily shaken free of
soil by the hand. It has been recommended by wiiters to gather the
weed.s of fallow land by a raking implement, such as the American hay-
rake, ficr. 400 ; but every instrument of the kind will rake together clods
as well as the weeds adhering to them, and if these are canned away with
the weeds, the land will be impoverished by the loss of its finest soil ;
whereas the hand which throws the weeds into convenient heaps, can at
the same time shake them free of soil. In collecting weeds, the field-
workers should be ranged in a row as when weeding com, eveiy two
throwing the weeds into the same heap ; and the rows of heaps should be
placed as far asunder as to allow a cart to pass between them, and take
awav 2 rows at a time. Many writers recommend the weeds to be burat
on the trround. No doubt, weeds wll burn readily enough when dry, and
the ashes of weeds constitute good manure, but, for my part, I never saw
heaps of weeds thoroughly burned, and have seen their remains scattered,
again to render the land foul. I agiee with Lord Kames, that it is better
to make a vegetable compost with weeds, than to destroy them by incine-
ration, and with him readily demand, "What better policy than to convert
a foe into a friend ]" It is impossible to determine beforehand how many
times fallow land should be plowed, haiTOwed, grubbed, and rolled, to
render it clean ; but it should be borne in mind, to incur the least expendi-
ture of labor in accomplishing the object fully. It was once the practice
to work fallow land until it was reduced to the state of meal ; but experi-
ence has long established it £is a fact, to be better for the ensuing crop of
wheat to preserve a good-sized clod upon the surface of the ground in
winter, however much the ground may be othermse pulverized. The
land must have been very foul, the weather very unpropitious, or much
time wasted, if the fallow land is not ready for the manure by the begin-
ning of August, before the chance of haiTest interfering with the process
of manuring.
(2155.) The usual mode of laying dung on falloic land is to feer the
ridges (660), cart on the manure in heaps, spread them, and plow the
manure in. So far as I have observed, the manure is spread over a large
portion of the suiface some time before it is plowed in, when, of course,
much of its moisture will be evaporated. I very much prefer another mode
of plowing in the dung, which is, to angle-drill the land in preparation
for the dung ; that is, to set up the land in single drills (1735), and fig. 323,
from the flat without any feering, beginning at one comer of the field,
(708)
SUMMER-FALLOWING AND LIMING. 349
and terminating at the opposite one : the plow making the drill in one
bout, the cart depositing the manure for 3 drills, 4 women spreading it
immediately after the cart, and the plow following and covering up the
dung in one drill in another bout (exactly as represented in potato-
planting, fig. 344), is a process which so quickly and completely covers
in the dung, while in possession of its moisture, that it should be univer-
sally adopted. The land remains in the drilled state until prepared for
the wheat seed in autumn.
(2156.) Fallow land is not dunged so heavily as that for green crops, not
so much from fallowed soils not bearing heavy manuring, as from want of
manure. From 12 to 15 tons the imperial acre is an ordinary manuring
for fallow. The manure need not be so well fermented as for green crops,
as there is usually sufficient time for its fermentation in the gi'ound before
the wheat is sown. If there is not sufficient time, it should be fermented
before its application, as it is not expedient to sow wheat to stand the win-
ter in soil rendered hollow by rough dung. In strong carse clay, the ma-
nure is often applied in a state little removed from wet straw , and yet it
seems to answer well in such a soil.
(2157.) While treating of fallow, it is necessary to notice the liming of
land, as lime is commonly applied at that period of the rotation of crops,
though by no means applied every time the land is fallowed. It has al-
ways been a favorite practice with farmers to apply lime in as caustic a
state as practicable ; because, perhaps, it is then in the state of finest pow-
der, and easily commixes with every species of soil. When obtained from
the kiln or from shipboard, it is in lumps, light in weight, and is techni-
cally called lime-shells. There is a difference in the practice of disposino-
of lime-shells while in preparation for the soil. Some lay down the shells
in small heaps upon the feered ridges, while others lay them in large
heaps along a head-ridge. It is clear that shells cannot be laid at once
upon the land, unless the land had previously been sufficiently fallowed ;
and as land occupies a considerable time in being fallowed in a proper
mannei", it is also clear that no considerable quantity of lime can be driven,
after the fallow is ready, unless the kilns are situate very near; and, at
any rate, it is unnecessary to lay the lime upon the land, but at a short
period before the wheat is sown. Besides, when shells are placed in heaps
on the ridges, they must remain a considerable time there till reduced to
powder by the air, when the lime will have lost a considerable portion of
its causticity by union with the carbonic acid of the air, unless a good deal
of rain shall have fallen to hasten its slaking. To preserve the shells
intact, till needed, they should be put in large heaps, the outer surface of
which may become neutralized by the action of the air, but the interior of
which will not be so affected. Meantime the land is worked as opportu-
nity offers, while the heaps occupy a head-ridge,
(2158.) A week or so before the lime is applied, water is poured on the
large heaps of shells, in order to reduce them to a state of impalpable
powder. The water will all be absorbed by the lime, which will, never-
theless, continue quite dry, thereby indicating that the water has disap-
peared by reason of its chemical union with the lime. A great quantity
of heat is evolved during the time the lime takes to fall to powder ; and
when that last has been accomplished, the heaps will have swelled to more
than three times their former size, when the lime is said to be slaked, and
is then in its most caustic state. While the slaking is proceeding, the
land that was manured in drills is cross-haiTOwed a double tine, to make
it flat ; after which the ridges are feered ; and the lime is then spread
along the feered ridges. The lime is spread in this way : The frying-pan
350 THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
shovels, fig. 176, are the best implements for filling carts with, and spread-
ing lime on land. A calm day should be chosen for the purpose, but
should there be an air of wind, the single-horse carts should be so placed
at the heaps as that the lime-powder which floats in air should be blown
awav fi"om the horses and men. P<jwdered lime is heavy, but all that can
lie upon a shovel is so light that one plowman takes a heap, and with
one of his horses in a cart, for a yoking at a time, fills his own cart, and
spreads the lime from it upon the land, with the shovel. The liming should
be conducted against the wind ; and when a number of men take from dif-
ferent heaps, they should so aiTange themselves along the feered ridges as
that the cart farthest down the wind takes the lead in spreading. In
spreading lime, the man walks along the middle of the feered ridge, and
casts the shovelsfull right and left from the middle toward the feering fur-
rows, which will, of course, become, by plowing, the crowns of the future
lidges. The man who can cast the shovelsfull with either hand will
spread lime better than one who is light or left handed only. The lime
should be spread eienhj over the surface, but it may be spread thicker on
one part of the field than another, accfirding to the nature of the soil.
On light knolls it may be spread thinner than in hollows, where the soil
is either deeper or stronger. Progressively as the lime is spread, ridge
after ridge, it is harrowed in and mixed with the soil ; and immediately
on the entire field being limed, the ridges are plowed with a light furrow,
to bury the lime as little as possible, and which constitutes the seed-fuiTow
of the future crop. It will be observed, from what has been said on the
manuring and liming of fallow land, that the liine is spread alcove the
dung, and some time after its application. This relation between the
two substances is held, because it is conceived that, as dung has a natu-
ral tendency to rise to the surface, and lime to descend, this is the proper
relation they should bear ia the soil. Whenever rain falls, the liming
should be discontinued.
(21.59.) It is proper to put a cloth over the horse's back and the harness,
and the men may cover their face with crape, to save its orifices being cau-
terized bv the quicklime. The horses, when loosened frc>m work, should
be thorousjlily wisped down and brushed, to free them of every particle
of lime that may have found its way among the hair ; and, should the men
feel a smarting in their eyes or nose, a little sweet thick cream will l>e felt
as an agreeable emollient ; and the same application will prove useful to
the hoi-ses' eyes and nose.
(2160.) The quantity of lime that should applied depends on the nature
of the soil, the lighter soils requiring the less, and the stronjier soils the
greater quantity. On light turnip-soils, some think 120 bushels to the im-
perial acre sufficient, while I have used 150 bushels with benefit. I have
seen as much as .510 bushels applied to the impeiial acre, wheat-land, with
manifest advantage. But perhaps from 150 to 240 bushels may be con-
sidered fair average quantities, according to the nature of the soil. On
weak moory soils, 75 bushels are, perhaps, enough to commence its im-
provement with. The sort of lime should determine the quantity applied,
the stronger being used in less quantity than the weak. The English lime
is much more caustic than the Scotch. It is not customary to apply lime
often to land, a farmer not thinking it expedient to apply it oftener than
once in a lease of 19 years, on account of its expense. Its common price
is 3s. per boll of 6 bushels; consequently its entire cost, at those quantities,
will be from c£3 15s. to ^6 per acre for the best sea-borne English lime,
exclusive of carriage ; the Scotch sells for 10s. per cart-load of 4 bolls,
including carriage for 10 miles.
("10)
SUMMER-FALLOWING AND LIMING. 35]
(2161.) Lime is applied at different periods of the year, accordino- to
the state of the land. On summer-fallow it is applied immediately before
the Avheat is sown in autumn. It is also used immediately after taking
up the potato crop in autumn. It is applied to the land cleared of
turnips by sheep, just before the sowing of the barley-seed in spring.
It is also applied before the turnip-seed is sown in the beginning of sum-
mer ; and it may be applied to lea immediately before being plowed
for oats in early spring. I do not say that it is immaterial to the proper
use of lime to choose the season in which it is applied, convenience often
determining that point as much as propriety ; but experience has taught
that it is used to manifest advantage when spread on land in summer-
fallow, and for barley-seed immediately after the ground has been cleared
of turnips by sheep.
(2162.) Lime is usually procured in summer and autumn, as the kilns
are only kept in activity in those seasons, so when it is intended to apply
it in spring, it is necessary to procure it in autumn, and keep it all winter ;
and to preserve it in the desirable state in winter, the heaps of shells should
be covered with a thick coating of earth, and every crevice that appears
in it should be immediately filled up. I am quite aware of the opinion of
some farmers that lime is equally efficacious in the soil in the effete as in
the caustic state, and Lord Kames was of that opinion ; and, therefore,
precautions to presei-ve it in a caustic state in winter may, by them, be
deemed unnecessary ; but as the general opinion runs in favor of quick-
lime, and which opinion I support, I have treated the subject accordingly,
until experience shall instruct us better. There is this advantage, how-
ever, in using quicklime, that it is much moi'e easily spread upon, plowed
into, and mixed with the soil than effete lime.
(2163 ) It is supposed that light and heat, together with cleansing and •working, have a benefi-
cial effect upon soil. That these agencies promote fertility in some way, perhaps by affording
facil'ty to the union of oxygen witli the soil, appears certain, for a smaller quantity of manure
will raise as large a crop with bare-fallow as a greater quantity without it ; and yet this particular
result is only obtained from a peculiar class of soils — namely, the strong clays, for all turnip-soils
actually become more fertile by the overshadowing of a luxuriant crop of leaves than by bare-
fallowing.
(0164.) The action of lime upon land seems generally well understood by farmers. They con-
ceive that lime operates in tuo ways upon soil, namely, mechanically and chemically. Mechani-
cally/, it subdivides the adbe.sive portions of obdurate clay ; hence it was customary in the Carse
of Gowrie, when the high price of grain remunerated the outlay, to apply lime to the land every
time it was bare- fallowed, that is, every 6 or 8 years, according to the rotation of crops pursued.
I suspect that liming is not now so frequent there as it was wont to be. Chemically, lime unites
with vegetable matter, and a'^sists in its decomposition ; hence it has been found to act very bcne-
ficiallj on all (few/' soils. It renders loose soils more firm. In strictly chemical language, quick-
lime acts as an alkali, and this property has led some writers to assert that green vegetables are
not decomposed, but rather j)reserved, by caustic lime — a result which cannot be experienced by
the practical farmer in the soil; because, as caustic* lime very soon becomes a compound of a
hydrate and a carbonate in the soil, the properly of this latter state is to accelerate rather than
retard the decomposition of vegetable matter. As the consideration of this subject would lead us
into a long discussion, I must content myself with quoting only a part of the account of the theory
of its action by Professor Johnston, in order to show that the opinions of farmers is not far astray
on this subject, which, in some respects, is yet but obscurely understood. ''Lime acts in two
ways on the soil," says the Professor. " It produces a mechanical alteration, which is simple
and easily understood, and is the cause of a series of chemical changes, which are really obscure,
and are as yet susceptible of only partial explanation. In the finely divided state of quicklime,
of slaked lime, or of soft and crumbling chalk, it stiffens very loose soils, and opens the stiffer
clays ; while in the form of limestone gravel, or of shell-sand, it may be employed either for open-
ing a clay soil, or for giving body and firmness to boggy land. These effects and their explana-
tion are so obvious to you that it is unnecessary to dwell upon them. The purpo.ses served by
lime, as a chemical constituent of the soil, are at least of four distinct kinds. 1. It supplies a kind
of inorganic food, which appears to be necessary to the healthy growth of all our cultivated plants.
2. It neutralizes acid substances which are naturally formed fn'the soil, and decomposes, or ren-
ders harmless, other noxious compounds which are not unfrequently within reach of the roots of
plants. 3. It changes the inert vegetable matter in the soil, so as gradually to render it useful to
vegetation. 4. It causes, facilitates, or enables other useful compounds, both organic and inor-
ganic, to be produced in the soil, or so promotes the decomposition of existing compounds as to
(711)
352
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
prepare them more 8pceilily for entering into the circulation of plants."* In conclusion on this sub-
ject, when we consider lliat 1 ton of limestone is reduced in wcif,'ht to a little more than 1 1 cwts of
shells hy bnrnintr, we cannot hut admire the 8imi)le art which renders so valuable a material avail-
able to the purposes of the farmer, even when it i.s situate at a considerable distance from his farm.
(2105.) As fiillowed land is usually ni.auurL-d alonu' the foercd ridges by depoi^iting the loads into
heaps. I might here give a Table sfiowingihc number of heaps each cart should affoni in manur-
ing an acre with a given number of cartloads; but as heaps of manure are so indeiiiiite a stan-
dard of measure, such a table wduld practically prove of little service. A much more accurate
plan is to number tln> ridges on an acre in each field, and at evcrj- i>art of a Hold where the ridL'es
are changed in Icnirth, as I liave recommended before (3P6). and try and lay down the manure
on the first ridge in the proportion it is proposed to manure the acre, and by the time the second
ridge is gained, the man who hawks out the dung, fig. 34."}, will have found out how close the
bawksfull shoulil be laid down, and how large the heap.s, if any, should be made.
(2166.) (Of the pulverizing implements used at all seasons, there have been already described
the grubber, Plates XXIX and XXX, brake (1797), and the common land roller, tig. 327 ; but
U>ere remains a cla.ss of implements of the same nature, which, though not numerous, are yet of
considerable importance : they come al.«o under the denomination of rollers, but are peculiar in
their con.struction, and are particularly adapted for being used in summer-fallowing. The object
of Uiese machines being to break down the more indurated clods in clay soils, they are fitted to
act either by abrasion, or by disintegration, or both combined. One of' the simplest of them is
the common plain roller, armed with strong and broad iron spikes, the latter splitting the clods,
while the weight of the roller produces tlwir farther abrasion : this implement, however, stands
low in the scale of efficiency when compared with others which I have to notice.
(2167.) Crosskill's clodcrnshine roller is one of the most efficient implements of this class, and
is here represented in fig. 402, which is a view of the machine in the working state ; but to cou-
Fig. 402
crosskill's clod-crushing roller.
yey any idea of its construction we mast exhibit it somewhat in detail. With this view, fig. 403
is a side elevation of one of the individual wheels or plates that go to form the body of the roller,
and consists of a ring or web of 30 inches diameter over the
extreme points; the web is 2J inches broad and |-inch thick,
formed into angular-pointed teeth. The ring is supported on
the four feathered arms, and an eye formed in the center 3
inches in depth and 2J inches diameter, fitted to move easily
on the axle of the roller. Corresponding to each tooth of the
wheel, 8tad.s are cast on each side of the web, which project
1 inch from it, as seen in fig. 404, an edge view of the wheel.
where a a a a are the projecting studs, and b the ej-e, show-
ing also the feathers of the arms. The wheels thus formed
are threaded, to the number of 28, upon % round axle. 2J
inches diameter, upon which they are at liberty to turn sepa-
rately, making up the body of the body of the" roller a a, fig.
402, to a length of 6 feet. A ca.st-iron end-frame b is then
placed on each end of the axle, and these are bolted to the
wooden transverse bars c c, and to these last also the horse-
Bbafts d (/are bolted. The a.\le is pnilonged at each end e to
an extent of 4 or .1 inches, forming the arm on which the car-
riace-whcels are filaced for the removal of the mller from one
field to another. The carriage-wheels are also of ca.st-iron, 3
feet diameter, plain of course on the sole ; and when these
ore to be placed or removed, a hole is dug in the soil under
each wheel, until the wheel turns freely round and can be
moved on or off the axle, the roller then resting on the ground ;
but when the caiTiagewheoIs are shipt on the axle and
bronchi on level ground, the whole weight is borne by them,
■while the body is 3 inches clear of the surface. In this state
it is traveled from field to fitdd, and. when about to be
worked, the carriage-wheels are removed by the process just described.
" See the whole of the xviiih Lecture of Johnston'* Lectures on Agricultural Cbcmisti-y, for a careful
exnminRiion of the pniperties of Lime in reference to its eWects on the soil. This, in my opinion, is the most
valuable monograph on Lime, ae a material used in Agriculture, that baa ever appeared.
(712)
SIDE VIEW OF O.NE WHEEL OF
THE CLOD-CRUSHER.
Fic. 404.
' 6
EDGE VIEW OF THE WHEEL.
EIJILDI.NG STOiNE-DYKES. 353
(2168.) The effect of such a roller uimn ronyli clay land may be easily conceived, and that
where such a great number o( poiiU^ are l)roiit:lit into covitiut with the indurated clods' the result
must be their reduction to a state approaoliiiii: to the srranular, especially if the operation is re-
peated. The etlect is entirely different tVoin that of the |)lain roller, for with it, if a clod does
not crumble at once with its pressure, it i.s forced downward into the soil in a still solid state •
whereas, with the one now described, the numerous points, acting like so many wedges, will
almo.st infalhbly split such a clod into numcrou.s fragments, and repetitions of the process will
produce a well pulverized surface.*
31. BUILDING STONE-DYKES.
" It ifl by artificial calms that fields
Are wanned ; and walls but slightly check
The sweeping blast."
Gbahaji.
(2169.) After the general principles upon which inclosures should he
made have been explained, it is unnecessary to dwell on the subject of"
field-fences when treating of stone-dykes, but describe at once the best mode
of constructing them. It may be premised that many dry stone-dykes in
fhis country are constructed on erroneous principles, the stones being laid
in an irregular manner, and more with a view to give a smooth face than
a substantial hearting to the wall. The coping, too, is often disproportion-
ately large for the body of the wall, which is not unfrequently too narrow
for its bight. I suspect that many dry stone-dykes are built by ordinarv
masons, who, being accustomed to the use of lime-mortar, become regard-
less of bedding the loose stones of a dry dyke as firmly as they should be,
and, of course, are unfitted to build one. It is true that a proper form of
stones is a great assistance to the builder of stone-dykes — flat, thin stones
being the best: but flatness and thinness are not the only I'ecjuisites ; thev
should also have a rough surface, by which they may adhere to one an-
other in the wall ; and no material, on this account, is so well adapted for
the purpose as those derived from sandstone-boulders of gravel deposits,
which split with the pick into flat stones of requisite thickness when first
taken from their matrix, and, on being exposed to the air, become dry and
hard. A builder of dry stone-dykes should, therefore, be brought up to
the profession ; and, when he has acquired dexterity, he will build a sub-
stantial wall, at a moderate cost, which will stand upright for many years.
(2170.) Dry stone-dykes are measured by quarters, that is, quarters of
a yard of 9 inches each. A 5-quarter dyke is tlie usual bight of a field-
fence — that is, 45 inches, or 3 feet 9 inches to the under side of the cover
upon which the cope-stones stand — the cover and cope-stones usually
measuring 12 inches, so that the dyke stands altogether 4 feet 9 inches in
hight. The dyke, when finished, is measured by the rood of 36 square
yards upon its face under the cover, so that every 30 yards of a 5-quarter
dyke will be 1 rood in length. The usual thickness of such a dyke is 2
feet at the base, and 15 inches under the cover. But the best way to con-
tract for the erection of stone-dykes is by the rood of 36 cubic yards, when
every temptation on the part of the builder to contract the breadth, and
[* A very simple and most useful contrivance, not generally known, for pulverizing cloddy land
is a "drag-log" of say 12 or 14 inches square, according to the hight of the wood and the work
to be done, and 5 feet long, more or less, with tongue or shafts fastened on the top of it. This,
dragged over the surface by a yoke of oxen or other suitable force, will at one operation produce
a degree of pulverization of which few would have any idea who had not witnessed its effect.
Any, the roughest carpenter can make it Ed. Farm. Lib.]
(713) 33
354 THE KOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
make the heart of the dyke hollow, will be removed. A dyke that has 2
plain faces is called a double-faced dyke ; and one with 1 face, as when
built against a sunk-fence, is called a single-faced dyke. A double-faced
5-quarter dyke recjuircs I ton of stones for every stjuare yard of its face —
so that 36 tons of stones are reciuired for every rood of 30 yards long. —
The expense of quarrying that (juantity of stones is about 10s. the rood;
the carriage of them at a reasonable distance beyond 1 mile is also lOs.
the rood ; and the building is commonly undertaken, when the stones are
good, at lOs. a rood also ; so that such a dyke costs 30s. the 30 yards, or
Is. for every yard in length. The tools of a dry-stone dyker are few and
inexpensive, consisting only of a mason's hammer, a fi-ame as a gauge for
the size of the dyke, and cords as guides for the straightness and thickness
of the dyke. A dyker cannot continue to work in wet or in very cold
weather, as handling stones in a state of wetness is injurious to the bare
hand; on which accounts, dry stone-dykes are commonly built in summer.
(2171.) The line of fence being determined on, it is marked off' with a
row of stakes driven firmly into the ground. The upper soil, to the depth
it has been plowed, is removed from the line to form the foundation of the
dyke, and it may be driven away, or formed into a compost with lime near
the spot for top-dressing grass. When driven away, it should l)e so imme-
diately, and not lie to annoy the builder. When the surface consists of old
firm sward, especially of moory turf, the dyke may be founded upon it ;
but, in forming foundations, it should always be borne in mind that dykes
are apt to sink into soft, earth of every kind to the injury of the dyke, not
merely in curtailing its hight as a fence, but in twisting its structure and
causing it ultimately to fall : so, when the soil consists of vegetable mould,
it sliould be removed altogether, and its intrinsic value in a compost will
amply repay the trouble of removing it. After the foundation has been
formed by the removal of the earth, the stones should be laid down on
both sides as near the line of foundation as jiracticable, for it is of consid-
eral)le importance to the builder that the stones be near at hand. Indeed,
when stones are laid even as far as 2 yards from the foundation, the builder
incurs loss of time in throwing them nearer ; but, on the other hand, no
stones should be thrown into the foundation, as they will have to be re-
moved by the builder before he commences operations. Where hirge
boulder-stones exist, they form excellent material for the foundation of
stone-dykes, and should be laid close to the foundation before the building
stones are brought. The simplest mode of conveying large boulders is
upon a sledge, shod with iron ; and it is better for putting on and taking
out than a common cart, the bottom and sidt>s of which are apt to be in-
jured by such boulders. Indeed, when many stones (if ordinary kinds are
intended to l)e driven for buildings, the carts should receive an extra tem-
porary bottoming and lining with deals of common Scots fir, or deals of
willow, which are better, as being softer and less liable to split. A pair
of horses, yoked as in a plow, will draw a very heavy boulder upon such
a sledge.
(2172.) Every preparation being thus made, the builder proceeds to his
work — or rather 3 builders together, as they make the best work, and as-
sist each other with stones which one would be unable to manage. They
begin by settinj^ up the frame a, fig. 405, in the foundation of the proposed
line of dyke. The frame is made of the breadth and hight of the proposed
dyke under the cover ; and it is set in a perpendicular position by the
plummet c, attached to it. A corresponding frame should be placed be-
yond the point at which the dyke commences ; or 2 stakes, such as d and
e, driven into the ground, having the same inclination as the aides of the
BUILDING STONE-DYKES.
355
frame, answer the temporary purpose of an auxiliary frame. In uneven
ground, a space of ^ a rood, or 15 yards, between the frames, is a sufficient
^♦^retch of building at a time ; but, on even gi'ound, a rood may safely be
Fig. 405.
Fie. 406.
THE FRAME AST) COMMENCEMENT OF BUILDING A STOSE-DYKE.
taken in. The cords ^g and l. i are then stretched along the space be-
tween the frames, and fastened tn each frame respectively, to guide, as
lines, the side of the dyke straight, and to gauge its breadth. The frame
is held upright and steady by a stiff rail I:, having the nail projecting
through one of its ends /, being hooked on to the top-bar of the frame, and
a stone w laid upon its other end.
(2173.) When the dyke has a scuncheon for its end, a large boulder,
such as n, should be chosen as the foundation-stone ; and if no boulders
exist, a large stone should be selected for the purpose ; for no better pro-
tection can be afforded to the end of a dyke than such a foundation, espe-
cially if the scuncheon forms at the same time one side of a gateway to a
field. Another boulder, or large stone, should be placed at a little distance
from the first, as at o, and the smaller stones are used to fill up the space
between them, until the space is raised to the hight of the boulders. There
is a great art in laying small stones ; and it is, in fact, this part of dyke-
building which detects the difference between a good and bad builder. —
In good dry building, the stones are laid with an inclination downward,
from the middle of the dyke, toward each face, as seen at a to a, and h to
h, fig. 406. This conti'ivance causes the rain
which may have found its way down through
the top of the dyke to be thrown off by both
sides ; and, to susta. " the inclination of the
stones, small stones tJiu^ be packed firmly un-
der their ends in the very heart of the dyke ;
whereas stones, when laid tlat, require no
hearting to place them so, and may receive
none, to the risk of the dyke bulging out in
both faces. It tends much to the stability of a
dyke to have what is called a thorough-band
stone c d, placed across it at such a hight from
the ground as represented in the figure. In
like manner the cover e f acts as a thorough-
band at the top of the dyke ; but in laying the
cover, the leveling of the dyke to form its bed
should not be made of very small and very
thin stones, as is too often the case, as these have little stability, being ea-
sily shifted from their position, easily broken, and, of course, constantly
endanger the safety of both cover and cope. Thorough-band stones are
frequently left projecting from one or both sides of the dyke by some build-
ers, merely to indicate that they are thorough-bands ; but the practice is
objectionable, inasmuch as projections serve as stepping-stones for tres-
passers to climb over the dj^ke. Fig. 407 shows how a scuncheon should
be formed of in-band a a a, and of out-band stones bbb, hammer-dressed,
(715)
SECTION OF STONE-DYKES, SHOWING
HOW THE STONES SHOULD BE LAID.
356
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
Fig. 407.
SCUNCHEO.N, COVERS, AND COPE OF A STO.SE-DTKI.
and firmly bedded upon one another. The covers c should project 1 or 2
inches beyond the face of the dyke, to protoct the top. They should be 2
inches in thickness, and without a flaw throughout their length, which
should be 2 feet at least, that
their weight may keep them
firm, and their size cover a
large space of building. In
forming the cope, a large stone
should be placed at tlie end, as
d, in order to keep down the
cover, and act as an abutment
against which the smaller cope-
stones may be wedged. Other
large stones, such as c, should
be placed at short distances
from each other, and upon the
joining of two covers, to keep
them both secure. Thinner
stones should then be plf^ced
between these on edge, and
wedged firmly, with small
stones driven between them
with a hammer ; but the wedg-
ing should be delayed until a
considerable length of coping
is finished, which will be the better able to resist its force. Fig. 407
shows how the stones should be laid in the body of the dyke, those placed
uppermost covering the joinings of those beneath them ; and small, thin
stones are introduced here and there in the finishing to act as wedges be-
tween the large ones. The cope-stones should be nearly all of the same
bight.
(2174.) In building a stretch of dyke, such as the rood above referred
to, it is customary to can-y up the building at both ends, as well as at the
middle, of the stretch to the leveling of the top, before the intermediate
spaces are built up, because those parts being built almost independently,
act as pillars in the dyke to support the intermediate building plumb ; and
they are convenient for pinning the cords into while the intermediate
spaces are being builL
(2175.) When a few stretches of a dyke have thus been finished, the
surplus stones, if any, should be removed, and laid where they are wanted;
but should there be a deficiency, stones should be immediately brought,
to allow the builder to fini.sh one stretch before he proceeds to another.
The debris of stones caused by the hammer should be removed either to
drains or roads.
(2176.) These are all the particulars to be attended to in building dykes
for ordinary purposes ; but there are a few modifications which require
attention in order to render dykes, as a fence, convenient. 1. The first I
shall mention is an opening left for the passage of sheep from one field to
another, where the access between them by road is at a distance. Fig. 408,
though a mere elevation, obviously shows how such an opening is made.
A bunch of thorns or whins, or a board, closes the opening when no longer
needed. iSuch an opening gives sheep access to pasture banks, or to a
grass-field from their turnip-breaks in wet weather in winter, and it allows
ewes to go to a turnip-break for a few hours every day from the g^ass-
field they are grazing in. For such purposes, an opening of from 3 feet
(716)
BUILDING STONE-DYKES.
357
to 3^ feet will suffice
2. Another convenience is seen in fig. 409, con-
sisting of a gap near the top of the dyke, which map be useful as a stile in
the line of a foot-path, or a gap at the side of a cover, for hounds and
fHE OPENING IN DYKES FOR SHEEP.
huntsmen to enter with ease ; and here tlie whipper-in may stand on the
out-look for'"^a burst. "When not constantly in use, such a gap is easily
fenced with a bunch of thorns or whins.
Fig. 409.
THE STILE OR GAP IN A DYKE.
(2177.) Dykes such as I have been describing, namely, of 5 quarters in
hight, will fence horsey. and cattle, and Leicester sheep, but will not con-
fine Black-faced she^^' For these, higher walls must be built, or expe-
dients used to make ordinary dykes confine them. Some of these expe-
dients are shown in fig. 410, where part of an ordinary dyke with its cope
Fig. 410.
SOME EXPEDIENTS FOR INCREASING THE HIGHT OF STONE-DYKES.
is seen ; and the expedients consist, 1. Of cope-stones a, b, c, d, and e, set
on edge to a considerable hight, say 9 inches or 1 foot, above the ordinary
cope-stones. In one case, such as that of the stones a, h, c, fillets of wood
are laid along notches formed on their top, and wedged into them. In the
case of the stones c, d, e, a strong rope of straw, laid somewhat loosely
over the notches, and danoflinor occasionally with the wind, form a suffi-
(717) ^ ° *'
358
THE BOOK OF THE FARM SUMMER.
cient scai*e to sheep. 2. Another expedient, where the dyke is built
against rising gi'ouna, consisting of plantation or of cultivated land, is to
sow a few seeds of whin or broom in the soil behind the dyke, and cause
their shoots to push forth between the cope-stones, and grow into bushes,
/* and ^, in front of them. 3. Where good stones for covers are scarce,
and where turf is tough and heathery, thick turfs cut of the size of the top
of the dyke, and laid firmly and neatly on, make very good covers, and
will last a long time. Cope-stones are placed upon the turfs, which afford
them a fimi bed ; and as heath and other wild plants, including the grasses,
continue to grow in the turf, they serve to raise the hight of the dyke,
and enhance its appearance as a fence.
(2178.) When dykes run at right angles into one another, and are
erected simultaneously, they should be built in connection; but where a
new dyke comes against an old one, the old one should not be touched,
and the new built firmly beside it. Where 2 dykes cross and the place is
naturally wet, or water may be easily brought to it, a watering-pool to
serve 4 fields may be easily foi'med ; and there are two ways of making
such a pond : — When the ground is firm, and the water shallow, the 2
dykes may cross, as in fig. 411, and allow the water to pass through them,
and form a watering-pool in each field, such as a, b, c, and d out of a sin-
gle pond. Where a pond e, fig. 412, already exists, and its water is too
Fig. 411.
Fig. 412.
Fig. 413.
UOW TO FORM A WATKBINO-
POOL TO FOUB FIELDS.
BOW TO FORM A WATERING-POOL
COMMON TO FOCB FIELDS.
A CLUMP OF TREES AT THE
MEETING OF DTKES.
deep for dykes to traverse, the dykes must terminate at its edge and con-
vert the pond into a watering-pool common to 4 fields. When the pond
is used by only 1 field at a time, it should be fencec^Jrom the other 3 fields
by means of hurdles, as J", g, and h ; but when it i^Tsed by more than 1
field at a time, a fence should be nin across the pond, beside the hurdles
in the fields not occu])ied by stock. Where the ground is firm, and there
is no prospect of obtaining a site for a watering-/>oo/, the dykes should be
made to cif)ss, and a well sunk in a corner of one of the fields, with a pump
in it of such hight as to supply all the fields with water in tanks by means
of a spout. This expedient I used successfully on one occasion. Where
the ground is firm, and no water wanted at that spot, the dyke should be
built curved, as from /, to k, from k to I, from / to m, and from 7n to ?', fig.
413, and the space included between them planted with trees for orna-
ment and shelter. There will be here little waste of land, even should it
be of the finest quality, as the corners of 4 adjoining fields always contain
ground that cannot be reached by the plow, while the plow can pass along
such curves as near as to a straiijht fence. In building cm-vatures in dykes,
builders charge ^ more per rood than for plain work.
(2179.) A stone-dyke is in the highest perfection as a fence immediately
from the hands of the builder; but every day thereafter the effect of the
atmosphere upon the stones, at all seasons, and the accidents to which
(718j
BREAKING IN YOUNG SADDLE-HORSES. 359
they are liable by trespasses of individuals, and the violence of stock, ren-
der it necessary to uphold their repairs frequently ; and this consideration
should cause the best suited materials to be selected for their original
erection.
32. BREAKING-IN YOUNG SADDLE-HORSES.
" Which with a snaffle you may pace easy."
Antonv and Cleopatra.
(2180.) As I have mentioned how your saddle-horse should be groomed
(1398) i would wish to say a few words on breaking him in. And, in the
first place, I may remark that, judging by the conduct of roadsters one
meetB with every day on the public roads, we may fairly conclude that the
profession of horse-breaking is not well understood in this country ; and
the conclusion need create no surprise, when we observe those who be-
come horse-breakers to be generally cast-off grooms unable to procure a
permanent situation, just as we occasionally see a discarded plowman
become a spadesman, to save himself from starving ; but it ought to excit^e
even wonder to see farmers, who ought to be somewhat acquainted with
the nature of horses, employ such persons to break-m their saddle-horses,
merely because they demand a small fee, and undertake to finish a horse
in all his paces in the course of 2 or 3 weeks. In fact, the farmer grudges
the time beyond a few days, any horse requires to be broke-in, and acts
as if he conceived the animal should know the art of carrying him by in-
stinct when he himself may have been practicing horsemanship all his
days 'and never perhaps become a horseman after all. Notwithstanding
the folly of employing inexperienced men, I am convinced were men of
experience, address, and character to undertake horse-breaking m a per-
fect manner they would receive encouragement from the farmer. Mo
miracle is required to break-in a horse ; he is naturally docile, and may be
tawrht to do anything, as those who have witnessed the evolutions of the
late'^Ducrow's stud with wonder and delight can believe ; but the horse
is naturally fearful, and, endowed with an undying memory, he never for-
gets any circumstance, however trivial, which may have aroused his fears.
If the breaker, therefore, proceeds on the principle of subduing what he
calls the horse's temper, by a constant endeavor to curb him, he may tame
him for a time, but will never break him in ; and even this subjection will
only last as lono- as the horse finds he cannot obtain the mastery over his
rider who, on some occasion, may be a timid one ; whereas, were it
shown to the horse that no imtation awaits him m the stable, or on being
ridden he will place confidence in his rider, will regard him with attach-
ment, and will take him everywhere, even through danger by the gentlest
touch of the rein, or exhortation of the vo'ce. Why should the Red In-
dian of North America never put a bridle on his horse s head, and only
have a piece of cord round the under jaw, by which to pull him up m a
gallop, and guide him, with the greatest nicety, in the hottest pursuit alter
buffaloes, by the palm of the hand against the side of the head ; as much
so as to enable him to point the arrow with unerring aim into the heait ot
his prey ] Why should the Arab's horse come into his tent Jike one ol
his family, lie down and rest, and never think of running away from his
master when his services are required 1 Does the horse of the accom-
plished European display the least degree of such confidence m his rider ?
(719)
360 THE nOOK OF TIIK FARM SUMMER.
Is it possible that a savay;-e knows better how to break-in a horse than an
European 1 The <liffei ence between the cases can be explained in a few
words; the savai^e makes his horse his companion and friend, the civihzed
man treats his as his slave. And can any doubt, were the same gentle-
ness, kindness, attention to his wants, which secure to the savage the will-
ing assistance of his horse, bestowed by the civilized man on his horse
when young, would also inspire him with confidence 1 Every one has felt
the satisfaction ui' riding a horse one knows thorougldy. It should also be
borne in mind as an incentive to kind treatment, that were horses gene-
rally well broke-in, they could not be spoiled by even bad riders, for their
paces would be so jileasant the rider would have no inducement to try
and mend them.
(21S1.) The age of 3 ycais seems an excellent one for breaking-iu a
saddle-horse. The colt .should be set to grass in the end of May, and
taken in to break by August at latest, by which time the grass will have
operated beneficially upon him as medicine, and there will be sufficient
time to teach him his paces and put him in working condition before
the fall of the year, when horses are apt to become soft, and catch
cold; but were he kept longer at grass, his conditiun might become so fat
as to endanger his constitution, were it suddenly reduced to working order.
(2182.) The first thing, in bringing a horse into the stable, to which
he should have been accustomed from his foalhood, is to give a gentle
dose of medicine to clear the bowels of a load of grass. A second dose
may be repeated in a week. A little new-made hay with oats is the best
food as a transition from gi'ass to hard food. The first treatment with the
cavesson and bridle being the same as that described from (1909) to
(1911) for breaking-in the draught-horse, I need not repeat it here. I
may mention, however, that much lunging in a circle is not advisable for
a young riding-horse, though horse-breakers are very fond of giving him
this sort of exercise, because it saves themselves a good deal of traveling;
the motion round the circle being apt to cause the colt to contract a long
step and a short. The circle is of most use in training to canter, when a
leading foot is requisite to be used in that sort of action. The first tuition
should be a straight-forward pace, as on a lea-field, and the only pace a
walk, which should be taught to be both free with an easy head, and short
with a tight rein. During the period of the walking-tuition, a great many
useful lessons should be taught the colt, such as turning off you and to
you — backing, whether quickly or slowly — leading, whether by the side
of the head with the hand on the bridle-bit, or in front with a slack rein —
standing still, whether for a short or long time — suffering to be tied to any
object, such as a gate or tree — passing objects of terror, or of uncertainty,
causing tlie animal to become acquainted with everything it does not seem
to recognize — becoming accustomed with the crack of the long, and the
touch of the shoit whip — lifting the fore and hind legs when desired — and
suffering the groom to go about him and arrange the breaking-Harness.
With all these matters the young colt will become much sooner fo/niliar-
ized, by the breaker going constantly about with him on foot as a compan-
ion on the road and the field, than when mounted on his back. In the
stable, too, the same system of tuition should be followed out, such as suf-
fering a person to go up on either side, and in any way — suffering to be
groomed, and rather liking it than ojiposing it, as is too often the case —
drinking out of a pail in the stable and at the pump, or out of a trousfh or a
brook — taking up with a dog in the stable or on the road — bearing, without
a startle, the fall of the pail-handle, the broom, or anything else — lifting the
feet at the pail to be washed — being led by the forelock to the door, or
(720)
BREAKING IN YOUNG SADDLE-HORSES. 361
the pump, or anywhere. These and many other things, the colt can be
taught to know in and out of the stable before he is mounted at all. Thus
familiarized, he will allow himself to be mounted without any trouble ; and
all the assistance of boys with whips, and of men to hold down the oppo-
site stirrup, recommended by Mr. Youatt, dispensed with. * Tom Mid-
dlemiss, the horse-breaker whose name I mentioned before (1910), never
required any assistance to mount a young horse, nor did any person
ever see him mount one for the first time. The truth is, no fuss should
be made about the colt ; but when a number of persons are about him
when anything is done, there cannot be but fuss, and he cannot fail to be-
come apprehensive. He will soon confide in one person, the breaker who
is constantly about him, but he will not confide in a number of persons al
the same time, nor will he confide even in his breaker, when others are
eno-aged along with him ; and hence no considerate horse-breaker will
permit any one to be near him, to distract the attention of the colt, when
he is subjecting him to tuition of any kind. When mounted, the colt
should bear his^rider in standing for some time before he is urged to walk,
as it will habituate him to stand at all times when mounted until his rider
is ready to move. Every one must have felt the annoyance of mounting
a horse" that will not stand. His first pace should again be a walk, which
havino- accomplished well with a rider, the trot should be taught. It is
said that trotting is not a natural pace for a horse, he either walks or starts
off at a canter. However this may be, trotting is an indispensable pace
on our roads. On teaching trotting, horse-breakers are very apt to de-
generate the pace into a jog, the most dangerous of all paces for a young
horse in causing him to trip, and the most difficult to break a horse from,
when contracted, A short, hitching walk, ready to break into the jog allu-
ded to, is as bad as the jog itself, and is a favorite pace with horse-breakers
in chewing off their wards as fast walkers ; but in such a pace a young
horse is almost sure to dig a toe into the ground, and if a stumble is not
the consequence, it is not the man's fault. Let the walk be a sound walk,
and a trot a fair trot, and let no bastard pace be permitted to spoil both.
It is not easy to teach a young horse to canter from a trot in a straight
line, as he is more apt to start off to the gallop ; but a few lessons in the
circle will give him an idea of a canter, as he will there learn to point the
leadino- foot. There is some risk at first in making a young horse reduce
a canter into a trot, the actions being so very different, he seems at a loss
what to do, and would rather halt. The tightening of the rein by degrees
is the only way of reducing the pace in safety, as it likewise is from a fast
to a slow trot. A sudden halt might throw the colt upon his haunches,
and irrecoverably bring him over upon his back, and such an accident as
this the colt will never forget, and, in fear of it, may become restive when
pulled up suddenly at any time afterward. Every maneuver that may
occasion any sort of accident to the colt should be avoided by the rider
with care, and counteracted with firmness. Thus day by day the young
horse acquires experience in the management of himself on the road, or
in the field, but this series of experiences is a work of much time to both
man and horse — of much patience and. perseverance to the man — of much
endurance and irksomeness to the horse ; and more than all this, much of
the benefit derived from the horse-breaker will be in a manner lost, if the
future rider of the horse does not guide him in a similar manner, and with
equal care for some time to come. If considerations such as these do
not induce the owners of horses to employ only men of skill and character
in breaking them in, I do n't know what stronger motive can be placed
before them to do it. * Youatt on the Horse, edition of 1843.
(777)
362 THE BOOK OF THE FARM AUTUMN.
AUTUMN.
" Ye balmy breezes ! wave the verdant field ;
Autumn I aU your bounties, all your lustre yield ;
That fruits and herbage may our farms adorn,
And furrowed ridges teem with loaded corn."
Fbrgusson.
In contemplating the nature of the different seasons, we have seen
"Winter the season of dormancy, in which all Nature desires to be in a
state of repose — Spring, the season of revival, in which the returning
power of Nature inspires every created being with new vigor — Summer,
the season of j>fogress, in which Nature puts forth all her energies to in-
crease and multiply her various productions — and, now, we see Autumn,
the season of completion and of consequent decay, in which Nature, in
bringing the individual to perfection, makes provision for the future pres-
ervation of the kind. While, therefore, the natural action of spring and
summer is single, that of autumn is of a compound character. " Thus, if
we follow out the study of the autumn in a proper manner, it leads us to
all the revolutions that have taken place in the surface of our planet; and
in this way, a plant of which we can, in a few months, see the beginning,
the perfection, and the decay, becomes to us an epitome of the system of
gi'owing Nature in its widest extent, and through its most prolonged dura-
tion. This is the grand advantage while studying the productions of
Nature in their connection, and the events and occurrences of Nature in
their succession, has over the mere observations of the individual substance
and the passing momeut ; and it is this which gives to the law of the sea-
sons so high a value above all the beauties of the seasons taken in their
individual character."
Autumn brings fruition, in which the toilsome labors of the husbandman,
for the preceding twelve months, find their reward. It is the season in
which hope is lost in the possession of the thing hoped for, and because
of a harvest of plenty, it is the season of gratitude. " It is this which
makes tlie principles of seasonal action thicken upon us as the year ad-
vances, and the autumn to become the harvest of knowledge, as well as
the fruits of the earth. Nor can one help admiring that bountiful and
beautiful Wisdom which has laid the elements of instruction most abun-
dantly in the grand season of plenty and gratitude." But grateful as the
husbandman must always feel for the bounties of Providence, so much
labor is bestowed, so much anxiety is felt by him, as regards the effects of
the vicissitudes of the seasons, before " he gathers his wheat into the
gamer," that the reflections which the consummation of harvest is calcu-
lated to give rise to are, I fear, narrow, and even selfish. " For as the
annual harvest which we obtain from the earth is received by us as result-
ing from that in which we have a right of property, a merit in labor, or
both united, we are apt to forget the part which Nature has in the pro-
ductiveness of the year, and look upon the whole produce as the return
of our own capital and our own skill, just as we do in any mechanical
work or mercantile speculation. That this is the true state of the case is
proved by the habitually proverbial fact that the cultivators of the ground,
for what purpose soever they may cultivate, are always complaining of
(778)
AUTUMN. 363
the weather, as the grand enemy by which all their labors are frustrated,
and all their products diminished. They are nowise at fault themselves
but the ' weary weather ' never will be obedient to their dictates. What
with rain, what with drouth, what with heat, what with cold, each thrust-
ing itself forward at the time when its opposite would have been by far
the more beneficial, the crop they get is always 'below a fair averao-e,'
and what they do get is got in in spite of the weather, and not by means
of its cooperation. It is in vain that the fable of the farmer — into whose
hands Jupiter gave the management of the weather, and who, by having
rain, and drouth, and sunshine, and snow, when and where he wished,
brought his land into a state of such utter sterility, that he was fain to
plead more earnestly than ever that so dangerous a power might be taken
out of his hands — has stood On the record against them from remote anti-
quity; for the majority contend stubbornly that all the merit is their own,
and that all the blame falls upon the weather, which, notwithstanding all
the examples which have been set before it, and all the experience it must
have had, ' will not understand and obey the rules of good Husbandry.' "*
The colors displayed by the autumnal setting sun are exceedingly rich ;
one form of the phenomenon not uncommon at that period is attempted
to be penciled in Plate XIV ; but a far finer picture is to be seen in these
words of a revered bard, who can feel intensely as he can describe beau-
tifully :
'• A cloud lay cradled near the setting sun ;
A gleam of crimson tinged its braided snow. ^
Long had I watched the glory moving on
O'er the soft radiance of the lake below.
Tranquil its spirit seemed, and floated slow ;
E'en in its very motion there was rest ;
While every breath of eve that chanced to blow
Wafted the traveler to the beauteous West.
Emblem, methought, of the departed soul,
To whose white robe the gleam of light is given ;
And, by the breath of Mercy, made to roll
Right onward to the golden gates of Heaven,
Where to the eye of Faith it peaceful lies,
And tells to Man his glorious destinies."
Wilson.
Objects in the horizon — trees, houses, and ruins — are projected in bold
relief against the clear, deep sky of a calm autumnal evening at sunset.
Such a scene as this — if gemmed, moreover, with the radiant and lustrous
evening star — affects the mind to thoughtful meditation, not untinged with
melancholy.
The temperature of autumn is high — August, in Scotland, affcirdino- the
highest average of the year, on account of warmth in the night as well as
the day, though the sun is not more hours above the horizon than in
March — but Autumn follows the radiance of Summer, while Sprints just
escapes from the frigidity of Winter. Such is the heat that it is no un-
common occurrence for reapers to be seriously affected by it in the harvest-
field.
The labors of the field partake of the compound character of the season
itself. Just as one crop is reaped from the ground, part of the succeeding
one is committed to the earth ; the autumnal wheat of two successive
years being sown and reaped about the same time. The toil endured in
harvest is almost incredible. Only conceive the entire bread-corn sufficient
to support the population of such a kingdom as this to be cut down and
carried, in minute portio- j, in the course of a single month ! The usual
season of reproduction among the animals of the farm is spring ; but the
most useful animal of all, the sheep, forms an exception to the rule, Autumn
being the season in which the ewes are drafted, and the tup is allowed to
* Mudie's Autumn.
(779J
364 THE BOOK OF THE FARM AUTUMN,
go with them. There seems in autumn a tendency in the animal frame to
disease ; sheep are liable to hepatitis, calves to quarter-ill, the horse to
colic and even inflammation in the bowels, and stallions and geldings be-
come dull in spirit. Perhaps the feeding nature of aftermath, on which
all animals live in autumn, may cause a tendency, in the animal system, to
predominant secretion of one of the fluids, and thereby predispose the sys-
tem to particular complaints. If there is probability of truth in this sur-
mise, preventive measures should be sought for and obtained ; and oil-cake
seems to possess this property. One preventive remedy against annoy-
ance from parasitic insects and from cold to sheep, is bathing or smearing.
The sports of the field all commence in autumn. The long-contem-
plated gatherings in the hills, on the noted 12th of August, in quest of
grouse — game, par excellence, of which our country should be proud as its
only indigene — cause every shelling to afford shelter to many who, at
other seasons, indulge in the far different enjoyments of urban luxuries.
Parti-idge-shooting comes in September, sometimes even before the com
is cut down, and is followed by hare-hunting in October ; and after all the
fields are cleared of their valuable produce, the inspiring " music " of the
pack is heard to resound through hill and dale.
The great event of autumn — the hai'vest — naturally claims a prepon-
derating share of the husbandman's solicitude ; and until this important
issue of all his toil is secured beyond danger, he cannot rest in quiet. He
looks around him, night and day, regarding the " face of the sky," and
acts with circumspection. He sees his whole year's bread at stake, and
feels that its safety depends on his own skill ; and should he fail to exer-
cise this alight, he would never cease to blame himself. None is more
anxious to follow this advice than he :
"The wind, the rain, the sun,
Their eenial task have done.
Wouldst thou be fed,
Man, to thy labor bow,
Thrust in thy sickle now.
Reap where thou once didst plow —
God sends thee bread.'"
MONTGOMEBT.
When every straw is safe in the stack-yard, and the stack-yard gate closed
for the season, then, and not till then, is he satisfied of his task being fin-
ished, and enjoys undisturbed repose.
Now that we have surveyed all the seasons as they present themselves
in this country, we must own our climate to be anything but genial. The
frequent changes to which it is daily susceptible render the culture of the
soil always a difficult, and not unfrequently an irksome occupation. Those
vicissitudes, no doubt, sharpen the intellect of the farmer, and perhaps
have been the chief means of eliciting the high skill which is so universally
acknovyledged to be exercised in the Agriculture of this kingdom. Such
skill will always have a field for exercise, for our insular position will sub-
ject our atmosphere to perpetual changes dependent on different condi-
tions of heat and moisture produced by the state of the sunrounding ocean.
Notwithstanding the farmer is held to his task by a frowning climate, he
would rather wish to have a smiling one, and sometimes envies the bright
skies which lie hears illumine the Continent. There is much truth in the
desire expressed in the following obsei-vations, lightly as they are put to-
gether, for no one but enjoys fine weather, which is, indeed, always the
source of gratulation when it occurs : " It may be very well for a lover to
declare in the presence of his mistress that
" All seasons and their change
All please alike ;"
(780)
PULLING FLAX AND HEMP, AND THE HOP. 365
but to common mortals, occupied with the ordinary affairs of life, there is
no truth in it. Who in his senses ever affirmed that the fogs of Novem-
ber were as delightful to him as the balmy breath of May 1 If any one
has, as I have, a horror of icicles, and who would never have the mild
temperature of the air interrupted by the presence of a hoar-frost, let him
migrate with the climate. Let him spend the month of January in Portu-
gal ; February in the Madeiras ; March in Spain ; April in Sicily ; May
in Lapland ; June in Italy ; July in Switzerland ; August in France ;
September in England ; October among the forests of America ; Novem-
ber in Crete ; and December in the islands of the Cape de Verd. By this
rotatory motion he may enjoy a delicious temperature, and revel in honey-
suckles and roses all the year round."*
33. PULLING FLAX AND HEMP, AND THE HOP.
" Now pluck up thy flax, for thy maidens to spin ; " Lo ! on auxiliary poles, the hops,
First see it dried, and timely got in." Ascending spiral, ranged in meet array I"
TussEB. Phillips.
(2183.) I propose here merely to speak of flax as to its treatment
in suminer, and the mode of harvesting it ; for as to its treatment after-
ward as an article of manufacture, that is beyond my province. The
only care required by the growing crops of flax in summer is weeding,
and in its early stage of growth it will be much injured if weeds obtain
the mastery. To obviate this inconvenience, and, indeed, to save alto-
gether the trouble of weeding, it has been recommended to sow the
land at the time of sowing the flax-seed wath grass-seeds, or to sow the
flax-seed in di'ills ; but neither expedient is so suitable for flax itself as
land kept clean by weeding a broadcast crop ; for as equality of fibre is
of the utmost importance to the value of flax, sowing it in drills admits the
air unequally to the crop, and the fibre of the plants on the oxitside of the
drills would thereby be much coarser than that of those in the interior. —
And as to sowing grass-seeds, even the low-growing white clover among
flax, it should make no difference to the flax-plant whether it was choked
by a valuable or a worthless plant, since both would equally be weeds in
reference to it.
(2184.) Besides the common weeds which infest the soil, according to
its nature, thei'e are others specially found among flax ; of these, one is
the common gold-of-pleasure, Camelina sativa, the seed of which is im-
ported among flax-seed ; and the plant may be known by its attaining
from 2 to 3 feet in bight, having small yellow flowers, and very large
pouches on long stalks. But a more troublesome weed than this is the
flax-dodder, Cuscuta Europoea, inasmuch as it adheres parasitically to the
flax plant, and, of course, injures its fibre ; while the gold-of-pleasure may
be pulled out before the flax is ready. The habits of the flax-dodder are
these : " It is a plan* which germinates in the gi'ound, and sends up a slen-
der, thread-like stem, which, twisting itself about, soon touches one of the
stems of the flax among which it is growing. As soon as this takes place,
the dodder twists itself round the flax, and throws out from the side next
* Note-Book of an Oxonian— JoAn BuU, for 5th August, 1843.
(781)
366 THE BOOK OF THE FARM AUTUMN.
to its victim several small processes, which penetrate the outer coat or cu-
ticle of the flax, and act as suckers, by which the parasitical dodder appro-
priates to its own use the sup which has been prepared in the Jlax, upon
which the growth of the Jlax depends. The tlodder then separates itself
from the ground, and relies solely upon the flax for its nourishment, pro-
ducing long, slender, leafless stems, which attach themselves to each stem
of flax that comes in their way. Thus large masses of the crop are matted
together, and so much weakened as to become almost useless. This plant
produces great quantities of seed, which is usually threshed with the flax-
seed, and sown again with it in the succeeding year. Several years since
I took considerable trouble to ascertain if all foreign flax-seed was mixed
with that of the dodder, and was led to the conclusion that the American
flax-seed is nearly free from this pest, and that thai from Russia, and espe-
cially Odessa, is peculiarly infested with it."* The weeds, when very
young, are picked out by hand from the flax by field-workers ; and, in do-
ing this, the kneeling down upon the flax does it no harm. If weeding be
once effectually and timeously done, the weeds will not again much trouble
the crop ; and, though it should cost several shillings the acre, the increased
value of the crop will repay it all. Before leaving the subject of weeding,
I may remark that, though the American flax-seed be free from dodder-
seed, it is far inferior in giving a crop to that imported from Riga, the
Riga-kind, which also bears the name of Belgian seed, from the Belgians
sowing it. And I may also remark that sowing flax on clean land will
save much of the cost of weeding — that is, after a green crop, as turnips
and potatoes, the cleansing of which will have rendered the soil compara-
tively clean for flax. If flax be thus cultivated in lieu of a corn-crop, its
culture may be practiced without much deterioration to the land ; but if it
is determined to regard flax as a green ci'op, and cause a corn-crop to fol-
low it, the land will in time assuredly feel the scourging effects of such a
system, and oblige its cultivators to abandon it altogether.
(2185.) The pulling, steeping and drying of flax are simple enough, and
are pi'ocesses generally well understood ; but Mr. Henderson's account of
managing the crop, whose sample of Irish flax obtained a gold medal from
the Agricultural Improvement Society of Ireland, at their meeting at Bel-
fast, in August, 1843, being the most practical, and at the same time suc-
cinct, I have met with, I shall transcribe it. 1. And, fii'st, as to test of
ripeness, Mr. Henderson says : *' I have found the test recommended by
Mr. Boss to ascertain the degree of ripeness that gives the best produce,
with the finest fibre, perfect. It is this : Try the flax every day Avhen ap-
proaching ri])eness, by cutting the ripest capsule on an average stalk across
(horizontally), and when the seeds have changed from the white, milky
substance which they first show to a greenish color, pretty firm, then is
the time to pull. 1 he old prejudice in favor o^ much ripening is most inju-
rious, even as regards quantity ; and the usual test of the stalk stripping
Kt the root and turning yellow sliould not be depended on. Where there
is one man that pulls too green, five hundred over-ripen." 2. When prop-
erly ripened, flax should be pulled in this way : " I use the Dutch method
— say, catching the flax close below the boles ; this allows the shortest of
the flax to escape. With the next handful the puller draws the short flax,
and so keeps the short and the long each by itself, to be steeped in sepa-
rate ponds. It is most essential to keep the flax even at the root end, and
this cannot be done without time and care, but it can be done, and should
always be done. The beets should always be small, evenly sized, straight,
* Gardeners' Chronicle and Agricultural Gazette for 10th Fchruary, 1844.
(782)
PULLING FLAX AND HEMP, AND THE HOP. 367
and even, and should never be put up in stocks or windrows, but taken to
the pond the day they are pulled, or the day after at longest, especially in
bright weather ; for tht discoloration produced hy the sun on green flax will
n-ver he removed till it goes to the bleacher, and will give him some trouble
also." 3. Next comes the steeping, which is a most important process,
and is the one least understood by growers of flax in this country. You,
perhaps, require to be informed of the object of steeping the flax-plant. —
The stem of flax consists of two parts possessing very different properties :
the one, the outer, is fibrous, and affords the substance of flax ; the other,
the interior, is pithy, and is got rid of by fermentation in steeping, loosen-
ing its hold of the fibre. There is also much mucilage to be got quit of ;
and the sooner flax is put into steep after being pulled, the more mucilage
will be dissolved from il. If steeping is so long continued as to affect the
texture of the fibrous coating, the flax will be injured ; and should it not
be as long applied as the pithy matter may be easily loosened, much labor
will be afterward incurred in getting quit of it. Proper steeping, then, is
an essential and delicate process, and on this account Mr. Henderson's in-
structions are valuable : " Flax is subject to injury from neglect in every
process, but in this especially. The water brought to the pond should be
pure from all mineral substances, clean and clear. The water of large
rivers is generally to be preferred ; but spring-water, which has run some
hundred yards, becomes soft;, and will have deposited any mineral impuri-
ties it contained ; immediately from the spring it seldom does well. If the
water be good and soft, it is injurious to allow it to stagnate in the pond
before steeping. I put in two layers, each somewhat sloped, with the
root-end of each downward : one layer at a time is said to be safer, and,
perhaps, is so, though I have tried both and seen no difference. The flax
should be placed rather loose than crowded in the pond, and laid carefully
straight and regular. Having an abundant supply of water, I do not let
any into the pond till the first layer is in. I cover with moss-sods (from
the turf-banks) laid perfectly close, the shear of each fitted to the other. —
Thus covered, it never sinks to the bottom, nor is it affected by air or light.
It is generally watered in 11 or 13 days. A good stream should, if possi-
ble, always pass over the pond — it carries off impurities, and does not at
all impede due fermentation ; flood and all impure water should be care-
fully kept off. The Dutch test of being sufliciently watered is certain and
perfect ; at least, I never found it otherwise. It is this : Try some stalks
of average fineness, by breaking the woody part in two places, about 3
inches apart, at the middle of the length ; catch the wood at the lower end,
and if it will pull (downward) for those 3 inches freely, without breaking
or tearing the fibre, it is I'eady to take out. This trial should be made ev-
ery day after fermentation subsides, for sometimes the change is rapid. —
Flax is more frequently injured by too little than too much of the water.
Great care and neatness are necessary in taking it out. Broken or crum-
pled flax will never reach the market. Spread the day it is taken out, un-
less it is heavy rain — light rain does little harm ; but, in any case, spread
the next day, for it will heat in the pile, and that heating is destructive. —
The most particular cause of injury in steeping is exudation of water from
the sides or bottoms of the pond. Stripe and discoloration are mostly im-
puted to the quality of the water brought to the pond ; while, in 9 cases
out of every 10, the water oozing from the sides and bottom of the pond
itself is the cause. Even if such water were pure, which it seldorn is, it
is injurious ; but when impregnated with iron or other materials, it does
immense harm. If such ponds must continue to be used, the injury may
be partially amended by draining around the sides and ends, at 6 or 8 feet
(783)
368 THE BOOK OF THE FARM AUTUMN.
distance, and 18 inches deeper than the bottom of the pond, and filling the
drains with stones. No other thing I know of does such extensive injury
as this springing of water within the pond." 4. Flax " should be spread
even, straight at its length, not too thick, and well shaken, so that there
shall be no clots ; indeed, if possible, no 2 stalks should adhere. I have
ever found it injurious to keep it long on the grass ; it is in the steep the
wood is decomposed; on the grass the fibre is softened, and the wood lit-
tle, if at all, affected. I rarely let it lie more than 5 days, sometimes only
3 ; this year it had only 3 days, and I never had better flax. It should
never, if possible, be spread on the ground flax grows on — it claps down,
and the clay and weeds discolor it ; clean lea, or lately cut meadow, is the
best." 5. " Lifting, like all other operations, requires care and neatness
to keep it straight to its length, and even at the roots. This operation is
too frequently hurried and coarsely done." 6. If the steeping and grass-
ing have been perfect, flax should require no fire ; and, to make it ready
for breaking and scutching, exposure to the sun should be sufficient ; but
if the weather be damp, the flax tough, and must be wrought off", then it
must be fire-dried. Such drying is always more or less injurious ; but, if
it be put on the kiln in a damp state, it is ruinous — it is absolutely burnt
before it is dry. All who can afford it should keep such flax over to the
ensuing spring or summer, putting it dry into stacks — then it will work
freely without fire-heat." 7. In the concluding remarks of Mr. Hender-
son, there is much good sense : " The proper culture and preparation of
flax require more care, exertion and expense than the old, slovenly meth-
od ; and those who will not give those requisites would do wisely to abstain
from growing flax altogether. Any other crop will abide more negligence.
So much has been said and written of late of the advantage of flax-culture,
that it is to be feared some may be led to carry it to an undue extent, and
sow it on land not fitted for it ; indeed, this is already often done, and I
know of nothing more injurious to the farmer. Flax is proverbially either
the very best or the very worst crop a farmer can gi'ow."*
(2186.) The crop of flax, after it is dried, is bulky for its weight; and
yields from 3 to 10 cwt. per imperial acre of dried plants. From 30 to 40
stones, of 14 lbs. each, the acre, o? dressed flax, is considered a fair crop,
and \i fine quality, will fetch perhaps c£90 a ton ; that is, from 4 to 5 acres
are rotjuired to furnish 1 ton of flax, and a return obtained of from <:£18
to c£22 ])er acre, exclusive of the expense of preparing it by beetling,
scutching, and hackling, and may still leave from ^10 to cfIS an acre of
profit, which is a large one ; but should the flax prove coarse by improper
management, or be injured in drying, much waste will be occasioned in
dressing it, and the profit reduced to perhaps ^ of these amounts. So the
obsen-ation of Mr. Henderson, of flax being either the best or worst crop
for the farmer, thus receives corroboration ; and it should also be borne
in mind that flax, like the potato crop, leaves no straw for manure to the
land.
(2187.) Hemp is a crop scarcely cultivated in Scotland, and its culture
in England is confined to the southern counties, being a plant indigen-
ous to the south of Europe and India. Being tall of growth in com-
parison to flax, it receives no injury from weeds, but, on the contrary,
smothers by overtop])ing them. This plant is best cultivated in drills.
The crop is pulled and watered, and dried like flax, the weight of pro-
duce dressed being little more than flax, from 40 to 45 stones the impe-
rial acre, and the profit derived from it, after deducting expenses, seems
• Dublin Farmers' Gazette.
(784)
PULLING FLAX AND HEMP, AND THE HOP. 369
to be from =£5 to <£6 per acre, though Lord Somerville, in sanguine
expectation of extending the culture of this plant in England, estimated
it at d£8. The dried refuse of the stems of hemp, after the fibre has
been separated, is used as fuel, and may be converted into chaicoal fit
for gunpowder. The seed yields about 3 quarters per acre, and from
it is expressed an oil " employed with great advantage in the lamp, and
in coarse painting. They give a paste made of it to hogs and horses
to fatten them ; it enters into the composition of black-soap, the use of
which is very common in the manufactux'e of stuffs and felts ; and it is
also used for tanning nets." The common hemp is raised in India, not
for the sake of its fibre, but for the intoxicating quality of its seeds when
eaten green and fresh ; the hemj) of commerce of that country is derived
from a different plant.*
(2188.) The hop is not cultivated in Scotland but as an ornamental plant
in the shrubbery, because the climate is not sufficiently warm to develop
its cones, constituting the ripe fruit, which is its useful part. The culture
of the hop is confined to the south of England, where, in 1835, the extent
of ground occupied by it was 53,816 acres ; and its culture is very differ-
ent from that of usual field-ci'ops. When a new hop-garden is formed,
the ground is t7enched to the depth of 2 feet ; and as the plants occupy
the ground several years, their roots strike to a considerable depth, where
the more of better soil they find near the bottom of the trench, the better
they grow, for as to the surface soil, it can be manured at any time, and
in many ways. The plants, previously raised from seed, as being more
hardy in constitution than raised by cuttings, are placed in quincunx order,
at 5i feet distance each way, which give 1,440 plants to the imp. acre. The
hop-plant being diceclous in its nature, that is, having different sexes on dif-
ferent plants, 1 male is planted among every 10 female plants. The female
plants only bear fruit, which has the form of solitary cones or strobiles, ovate
and pendulous, composed of membraneous scales of a pale-green colour, each
containing one round flattish seed of a bay -brown color, surrounded with a
sharp rim, and compressed at the top. Being climbers, as the plants shoot
up, they are tied to and trained along poles pushed endwise into the ground
beside them ; and in the first year's growth of the bine the poles used
may be short ; but afterward, when shoots spring from the old stock, 3
bines are preserved from each shoot and trained up upon 3 poles placed
around each plant-hill, with their upper ends divergent, that the air and
sun may find their way into the centre of each cluster of plants ; and the
poles are, besides, so set as to allow the forenoon sun to reach the plants,
and also to receive as little injury as possible from the prevailing wind of
the district. The poles are from 16 to 18 feet the longest, and 14 the
shortest; and as 3 are required for every hill, 4,320 are wanted for every
acre. The best poles are of yew, next of chestnut, then larch, ash, willow,
oak cut in winter, Scots fir, birch alder, beech, in the order enumerated.
They last from 3 to 5 years, according to the wood, and cost Is. per foot
per 100 poles ; that is, poles 18 feet long will cost 18s. the 100, or nearly
<^39 per acre ; and as about 500 poles are wanted every year to keep up
the stock, their wear and tear costs about c£4 1 Os. the acre. In order to
lessen this great annual expense, it has lately been suggested to stretch a
stout wire along each alley, to which the poles should be fastened. The
advantages of this plan are said to be, that poles of much less value than
those usually employed may be used, injury from gales of wind avoided,
and the alleys being open to the influence of the sun and air, the mould,
* See Wisset's Treatise on Hemp, which contains all that can be said on the subject. Quarto edition,
1808.
(785) 84
370 THE BOOK OF THE FARM AUTUMN.
that fatal disease of the hop, prevented; and it is said that a garden of 9
acres at Hailing, near Rochester, is cultivated in this way. Poles are
carefully laid aside at the end of every hop-season. The bines, as they
slioot up, are tied to the poles by women, who use dried rushes for the
purpose. The ground receives culture to keep it clean and open till the
season of picking or gathering the flowers anive, which is commonly the
first week of September. The hop properly so called, is picked from
the bine by the hand; and, to facilitate that process, the bines are
cut over at 3 feet from the gioundj and the poles raised and laid on
their side in a convenient position and place for the pickers. Whole fam-
ilies of laborers are employed at picking, i-eceiving l^d. per bushel, at
which rate a family of 5 will earn from 7s. to 10s. a-day. There being
1,440 hills in the acre, and allowing 1 bushel of hops to each hill, and 1^ lbs.
to each bushel, the acre will yield 19 cwt. 32 lbs.; but the crop is some-
times not i of that quantity. Indeed, so precarious is the crop of hops,
that, at Binstead, in Hampshire, a farmer gi-ew 4^ cwt. on 10 acres, in the
year lS2o, and in the following year, 1826, he realized 9 tons from the
same land ! This diversity of crop is greatly owing to the effects of in-
sects, of which a considerable variety and in great numbers affect the hop-
plant, and also of blight or mould, occasioned by damp or confined air.
When ripe for picking, the hop is of a lightish-green color, and gummy to
the feel when in the highest perfection. In a few days longer it becomes
brown and strong-tasted. At Farnham, in Kent, the hops are always
picked in the perfect state, and every injured flower is put into a separate
basket; and, on this account, the Farnham hops always command the
highest price in the ^narket. This hop is eagerly sought after by pale-ale
brewers ; while the brown, stronger-tasted hop is better liked by porter-
brewers. After bein? picked, hops are immediately subjected to artificial
heat in a kiln to be dried, so that they may keep; and to show the value
of a delicate-colored article in the market, the brown samples are strongly
fumigated with sulphur, to give them a fairer and more equal appearance.
It is surprising that purchasers who are judges of hops, and aware of such
a practice, submit to it, unless they themselves employ it as a means of
deceiving customers who never saw hops gi-owing, and know not how they
are treated. What would be thought of a corn-farmer, were he to fumi-
gate the barley he had to dispose of with sulphur, in order to make the
bright-colored, overripened, and stained samples look all alike 1 If light-
colored hops are indispensable to the brewer, let I/ijn manufacture his com-
modities as he ])lcase8, but let the farmer deal only in the genuine produce
of the soil. If he must have fair-colored hops, let him pick them in due
season, and exercise his skill in a legitimate way, and eschew every spe-
cies of deception. The drying is effected with coke and some charcoal,
the drying heat being 112^ Fahrenheit ; and costs, including every ex-
pense, 14s. the cwt. After being dried, hops are laid in a heap, to sweat
and grow tough, and there they lie longer than merely to cool ; for they
must feel moist and clammy, and be squeezable in the hand, before they
are bagged, when 5 lbs. of fresh hops will weigh only 1 lb. when taken
from the kiln. A Z»rt^ of hops weighs 2i cwt. ; and is fixed by statute 4
feet wide, 7^ feet long, and to contain 51 yards of cloth, weighing 51 lbs.,
which usually costs 6d. per yard. A Kent poc/;et is 3 feet wide, 71 feet
long, weighs 4 lbs., and contains usually 11 cwt., but 2 cwt. of Farnham
hops. Such a pocket will occupy a man from 3 to 4 hours to tread the
hops into firmly ; and to tread 4 of them in a day, at 9d. per cwt., is a vei7
good day's work ; and in doing which he becomes covered with vellow
dust, to which powder Dr. Ives asciibed the whole virtue of the* plant.
(786)
PULLING FLAX AND HEMP, AND THE HOP. 371
Hops cannot be tread too firmly into the bags, for the more the air is ex-
cluded the better ; and, for this end, the use of the Bramah hydraulic press
is recommended. It is not an easy matter to keep hops when they shrink
in the bags, and the air finds admission to them, and they then lose from
5 to 10 lbs. per cwt. ; but the greater quantity of sulphur and saltpetre
employed in the drying, the worse will hops keep. Damp is ruinous to
them. In most cases, the price of old hops drops down to the half of
that of new. Hops containing the most seed will retain their weight the
longest.
(2189.) The [excise] duty on hops is 2d. per lb., and it amounted to
de409,055 in 1835, on the produce of 53,816 acres, being 49,086,600 lbs.,
or Si- cwt. per acre. Small as this impost appears, it made that year a
direct tax upon the land on which the hop grew, of ^£7 19s. 6ld. per acre !
I never could understand why hops should be subjected to direct taxation,
when all other agricultural productions are exempt from it. I can see the
plea upon which a duty on malt may be urged, of its truly being a manu-
factured article ; but the tax on hops is a direct impost on the produce of
the soil. Whatever benefit is derived from this impost to the revenue,
from which nearly =£4,000 a year must be deducted for its collection, is
more than counterbalanced by the spirit of gambling engendered in specu-
lators, who make purchases solely in accordance with the palpable amount
of duty to be exacted. Offers made to farmers, resting on this contin-
p-ency, lure them also into that vice, and frequently make them suffer; and
they cannot avoid the temptation, for the casualties affecting hops are so
iincertain, that the prospects of a crop may be blighted or secured in the
course of a few days. Thus, in 1834, the hop was so much affected by
the aphis, that the whole amount of duty was struck at about c£100,000
over all the districts ; but on thunder-showers falling and destroying the
insects jMs;' in time, and the weather afterward proving very favorable to
the gi'owth of the plant, actually raised the duty, which was paid, to
c£329,936, thus indicating an increase in the value of the apprehended
crop of more than 3 times. Were there no duty, the farmer would dis-
pose of his hops, when he realized them, as he does any other crop. The
expense of forming a new hop- garden is =€15 13s. per acre, including a
half-year's rent. The yearly expense of maintaining an acre of hops is,
up to picking time, including rent, &c., c£17 8s.; picking, drying, and in-
cluding duty on 6 cvvts., .^15 2s. ; together, =£32 10s. It is not an uncom-
mon practice to let the working of the ground, the poling of the hills, and
the tying of the bines to the time of picking, to laborers at .£3 JOs. per
acre.*
(2190.) Flax (Linum nsifatissimumj, from ihe Celtic L!in, a thread, in the class and order
P^^ntandria Pentasrynia. of Linnffius, and in the natural order of Linete, is a native of many parts
of Europe, as well as of Nepaul and North America, in corn-fields, and is said to be originally
from Egypt. It has been cultivated for an unknown length of time in Britain, of which it is now
considered a naturalized inhabitant ; and it is cultivated both for its fibre and oil, and the husk
of the seed, after the oil has been extracted from it, is employed in the fattening of live-.stock.
(2191.) "Mr. James Thomson and Mr. Bauer," relates Dr. Thomson, "have shown that the
Jibres of flax are transparent cylindrical tubes, articulated, and pointed like a cane ; while the
filaments of cotton are transparent glassy tubes, flattened, and twisted round their own axis. A
section of a filament resembles, in some degree, the figure 8, the tube, originally cylindrical, hav-
ing collapsed most in the middle, forming semi-tubes on each side, which give to the fibre, when
viewed in a certain light, the appearance of a flat ribbon, with a hem or border on each edge.
The uniform transparency of the filament is impaired by small irregular fissures, probably wrin-
kles arising from the desiccation of the tube. In consequence of this difference between the
structure of linen and cotton fibres, Mr. Thomson and Mr. Bauer were enabled to ascertain that
the cloth in which the Egyptian mummies are wrapped is always linen, and never cotton. It is
clear from this, that the opinion entertained by some, that what is called in our translation of the
Old Testament/fte linen of Egypt, ought to be the cotton cloth of Egypt, is erroneous. We have
"^ See Lance's Hop-Farmer, edition of 1838, for a great deal of information regarding the culture of this
interesting plant.
(787)
372 THE BOOK OF THE FARxM AUTUMN.
no evidence from the cloth wrapped about aacient mummies, that the Egyptians \u those earij
times were acquainted with cotton." '
(2192.) Large qnanlities of flax-seed, commonly called linseed, are annually imported into this
country. It is imported for the purposes of growing the flax crop, and for crushing into oil. Vi-
tality not being certain in the flaxseed raised in this country, it is necessary to receive a supply
from abroad, and of all foreitrn kinds, that from Holland i.« the preferable for seed, while our own
answers for crushins into oil. '-Crushing-seed is principally imported from Russia, but consid-
erable quantities are also broiii.'ht from Italy and Egypt. Of 2.7.59,103 bushels of linseed imjiorted
in 1S31. 2,210.702 were brousht from Ru.s.sia, 172.099 from Prussi.i, 106.294 from the United States.
105,448 from Italy, 98,847 from Egypt. .=»3.738 from the Netherland.«,'t &c. By the New Tarifl,
the duly on forcien linseed, and that from British possessions, is only nominal, being Id. per quar-
ter. T^e prices by the quotations in February, 1844, are from 50s. to 608. per quarter for English
sowine. ami from 2.")S. to 37s. for Baltic crushing.
(2193.) Linseed contains a great proportion of mucilage, and. when converted into jelly, con-
stitutes an excellent nutriment for Slock. The process of making the jelly is this: "The pro-
portion of water to seed is about 7 to 1. Having been steeped in water 48 hours previous
to boiling, the remainder is added cold, and the whole boiled gently for 2 hours, keeping
it in motion during the operation, to prevent its burning to the boiler, thus reducing the whole
to a jelly-like, or rather a gluey or ropy consistence. After being cooled in tubs, it is given with
a mixture of barley-meal, bran, and cut chaft'; a bullock being allowed about 2 quarts of the jelly
per dav, or .wmewhai more than 1 quart of seed in 4 days ; tliat is, about 1-16 of the medium
allowed of oil-cake."t
(2194.) The mucilage of linseed does not belong to any of the genera of gums ; but its nature
has not yet been ascertained. Its general composition and elementary constituents were ascer-
tained to be these, by Gnerin-Varry :
General 'Composition. I ElemetOary ConstituenU.
Soluble gum 53-70 1 Carbon 34-30
Insoluble 2989 t Azote 7-27
Ashes 711 Hydrogen 5-65
Water 10-30 Oxygen 52-78
Total.. 10000 Total 10000
The ashes contained carbonates of potash and lime, phosphate of lime, chloride of potassium, sul-
phate of i»otash, oxide of iron, alumina, and silica.||
(2195.1 The oil aff"orded by linseed is in the proportion of 22 per cent., that is, about 15 gallons
of oil from 1 quarter of seed, at a weight of 7i lbs. to the gallon ; the remainder is oilcake. The
best oil is that which is cold-drawn ; and I suppose that the best oilcake is obtained from this
process, as having most oil in it. The warm-drawn oil is obtained by healing the seed by steam
to a temperature ef^O- P"ahrenheit ; and as the heat liquefies the oil, no doubt more is expressed
from the seed, and the oil-cake cannot be so rich. Both the cold and heated seed are put into
woolen bags, and pressed by means of the hydraulic-engine or a wedge, and the cake, on being
taken out of the bag. is alreadj- quite firm ; its weight at most is 8 lbs., and sells for £9 10s. to
XlO per 1.000, or 1 J farthings per lb., and the foreign from £5 to £6 10.S. per ton, or 2J fanhingi
per lb. From ihis difference in the price, it would appear that the foreign is the more valuable
oil-cake, owing, perhaps, to its being manufactured by imperfect machinery, which cannot extract
so much of the oil out of it as our own ; but be this as it may, I am not aware that any experi-
ments have ever been made on tbeir comparative fattening powers. A substitute for oilcake, or
what is called Hutchinson's patent oil-cake, is compounded, I understand, of 3 cwts. of linseed-oil
and 1 ton of barley-meal, and is sold at Xl2 per ton. 1 have given the proportions of Mr. Warnes's
compound, which is similar, in (1264).
(2196.) Oilcake, independently as an article of food, is an excellent medicine for live-stock,
preventing constipation in the bov^-ela and giving to the hide a siceetness of coal unattainable by
otlier means. Mr. Wilson of Edington Mains, in Berwickshire, tells me that ever since he has
given oilcake to his calves aAer beinir weaned, they have not been affected with that fatal com-
plaint the quarter-ill. already described in the latter part of (2001), and he has experienced this
beneficial effect for 6 years without any external application of setons. By administering oil-cake
to my cows after calving. I certainly prevented tbeir being affected with red-water (1699).
(2197.) Hemp f Cannihi* RnHvn f is in the cla.ss and order Dicecia Pentnndria of the Linnapan
system, and of the natural order Urliraceir, or nettle tribe. Being a dioecious plant — that is, hav-
ing the sexes in different plants — it is necessary to have a mixture of both sexes in the same plot
of ground, if seed is desired to be raised and collected; though, I presume, for the* purpose of
raising the fibre merely, that condition is not Tequisite; but as apparently similar seed produces
plants of different sexes, a mixture of the sexes cannot well be avoided in practice. The male
plant is more slender and delicate in appearance than the female, which bears the seed ; and,
though this is the usual distinction of sexes in plants, yet, strange to say that, in speaking of the
hemp-plant, most writers denominate the plant which I/ears the seed the male — owing, perhaps,
to its more robust appearance, in comparison of the tnie male, which is, of course, barren of seed.
On this misapplication of the sexes, it has been well remarked : •' We are the more surprised that
botanical writers should fall into the error, or rather copy this blunder from one work into another,
for so many ages, without correcting a mistake that inverts the order of Nature."^
(2198.) the' principal use to which hemp is applied is the making of cordage of all kinds, the
fibre being both strong and durable. A first-rate man-of-war is said to require 80 tons of rough
• Thomson's Organic Chemistry of Vegetables. t McCulloch's Dictionary of Commerce, art. FUu.
X Don's General Dictionary of Hotany and Gardening, art. Linum, vol. i.
II Thomson'* Organic Chemistry of Vt-gt-tahles.
\ Phillips's History of Cultivated Vegetables, voL i.
1768)
REAPING RYE, WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS, PEASE, &C. 373
hemp to supply her witli her necessary tackle. Taking; 40 stones the imperial acre as a good
crop, 4 acres are requii-ed, at that rate, to raise 1 ton ; so that a man-of war cousiimes at least one
year's produce of 3Q0 acres of hemp for au outfit of cordasre ! •• By this cordage." savs Coles,
quaintly, in his Paradise of Plants. " ships are g'uided, bells are rung, beds are corded, and rosues
kept in awe." Old cordage is converted into paper, and should, tlierefore. never be destroved.
(2199.) The Hop (Humtihis Inpdhisj, like hemp, stands in the class and order of Linnaeus,
Diacia Pentandria, and natural order Urticacea. It is not a native of Britain, nor was its use
known in this country till the reign of Henry VIII.. in 15-24.* when it was used in the composi-
tion of malt liquor — tlius franking tlie truth of au old English distich, that
" Hops, Reformation, Buys, and Beer,
Came into England all in one year."
It had not become a favorite with the people for many years after that period ; for Walter Blith
records, in 16.53. this remarkable popular error, only 000 years ago — and such errors are rife in all
ages of the world —that " it is not many years since the famous city of London petitioned the Par-
liament of England against two nuisances ; and these were, Newcastle coals, in regard of their
stench. &c., and hops, in regard they would spoil the taste of drink, and endanger the people.'t
It would appear that this public expression of dislike against hops had prevailedln hish quarters,
for their use was forbidden by act of Parliament in the reign of James I., though the mandate was
little attended to ; and, by the time of Anne, public opinion had so entirelychanged, that hops
were considered so superior to all other bitter principle, that brewers were prohibited from using
any other, under a peualtj- of £20. Hops had not thriven for some time after their introduction
iute England ; and, even so lately as 169.i. enough svas not grown to serve the countrv, for 510
cwt. were tliat year imported from Flauders and Holland. For many years past this country has
been able not only to supply itself, bnt to export hops, and few foreign hops are imported. In
1832 there were 703,153 lbs. exported, and only 11.167 lbs. foreign imported ; but even this small
importation was aot required for home consumption, for in the same year the much ereater quan-
tity of 50,113 lbs. of foreign were exported. The English hop is accounted the best in the world.
Hops may be used medicinally : a hop-pillow will insure sleep to a patient in fever, when all
other expedients will prove ineffective. The tender shoots of the hop in spring maj' be used as
a pleasant, bitter salad.
(2200.) The yellow powder of hops was named Inpnlin by Dr. Ives, which Messrs. Paven and
Cbavallier found, by analysis, to contain the following substances: Volatile oil 2, bitter principle
12.5. resin 52.5, silica 4, and of di-acetate of ammonia, gum, bi-malate of lime, traces of fatty matter,
and some salts, unascertained portions of each. In another analysis, they found it to contain 13
per cent, of the weight of the cones, but, deducting 4 per cent, of foreign "matter, there was left 9
per cent, of lupulin. When distilled with water, it gives about 2 per cent, of its weight of color-
less volatile oil, to which hops owe their peculiar smeD. This oil dissolves in considerable quan-
tity in water, and it seems to contain sulphur.^
34. REAPING RYE, WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS, BEANS, AND PEASE.
" Here, stretched in ranks, the swelled swarths are found
Sheaves heaped on sheaves here thicken up the ground.
With sweeping stroke the mowers strew the lands —
The gatherers fuUow and collect in bands ;
The rustic monarch of the field descries.
With silent glee, the heaps around him rise."
Pope's Homeb,
(2201.) We are now amved at the most important of all field opera-
tions— that for which every other that has hitherto been described has
been merely preparatory — the grand result, to attain which the farmer
feels the gi-eatest anxiety, and which, when attained, yields him the great-
est happiness, because it bestows upon him the fruit of all his labor ; but
the fruit will be gi-eat or small, in proportion — all other things being alike
— to the skill and industry he has displayed during the course of the pre-
paratory year ; for no adage conveys a stronger truth than this, when ap-
plied to the farmer, " As he has sown, so shall he reap." If he have dealt
with the land in a penuiious spirit, laboring with inadequate means, stint-
ing manure, and grudging seed, he will reap a scanty produce, a deceitful
crop, and grievous disappointment ; but should he have done all that skill,
* Beckmann'g History of Inventions, vol. iv. f BUth's Improver Improved.
X Ihomson s Organic Chemistry of Vegetables.
(789)
374 THE BOOK OF THE FARM AUTUMN.
industry and liberality could effect, he will assuredly reap a bountiful re-
ward, for the earth is ever grateful of kindness. Not having yet experi-
enced it, you can hardly conceive the difi'erence between these two posi-
tions of the farmer ; in the latter case, the very rustling of exuberant straw,
while the crop is handling, is delightful to his ear, and his heart is made
glad when he sees every one bestowing with heartiness the severe labor
required in cutting down and carrying in a heavy crop. In the former
case, on the contrary, the boneless straw is easily squeezed in the hand of
the reaper — tlie light, scanty-grained heads are almost disregarded by him,
and a single cart-load clears a large space of the field. Such a contrast is
indeed lamentable, and unfortunately may be made every hai^vest ; but it
is true, nevertheless, that the contrast is becoming less striking yearly —
for it is within my own recollection that 9 bolls, or 54 bushels, barley are
now as easily raised ;is 7 bolls, or 42 bushels, were 20 years ago ; and
should the present spirit of inquiry continue, and lead to still more amend-
ed practice, it is certain that the range of comparison between former and
present croj)s will be still more naiTowed ; and to the furtherance of this
there is, besides, this great stimulus to improvement of poor soils, that the
effect of amended practice is far more apparent on them than on better
soils.*
(2202.) As harvest-work requires a greater number of laborers than usu-
ally live on a farm, it is requisite you should hire beforehand a band of
reapers on whom you can rely on remaining with you all harvest, and not
tioist to the chance of a casual supply. No doubt farms in the immediate
vicinity of large towns can obtain a great number of reapei'S daily, who go
to their own lodgings in town at night ; and the convenience of obtaining
a day's work at good wages, within a few minutes' walk of their own
homes, will tempt most of the inhabitants of towns to prefer farms near
them ; and this being the case, farms so situate may not require a hired
band, but depend on the chance of finding reapers from day to day. —
When harvest-work goes on in a regular manner through the country, this
is an easy and simple mode of conducting harvest-work ; but should a
great proportion of the crop become sooner ripened than was expected, or
the weather endanger the safety of the standing crop everywhere, the gen-
eral demand for hands renders the farmers near towns no better off tlian
those at a distance, for town reapers will then go anywhere for higher
wages. The farmers near towns may, no doubt, then give higher wages
as well as others ; but the excitement of raising wages renders reapers un-
settled, and their chief anxiety then is to inquire where the highest wages
are to be obtained, not who the ])ossessor is of the nearest farm. In such
circumstances, the farmers near towns must put up with the services of the
infirm, the young, and tliose who are burdened with household cares. The
safest plan, therefiire, for ci-enj farmer to follow, is to hire a band of reap-
ers, proportioned to the extent of work to be performed, to remain with
him all harvest, and to obtain auxiliary hands, as he wants them, on any
hiring-day in the ntigliborinfj town.
(2203.) Rcopina-sriithcs being of different forms, and having to be
mounted in a peculiar nianner, are figured and described hereafter, and the
mode of using them I shall soon describe.
[* The aarae spirit of inquiry 'i« producing like results in some parts of the United States ; but
there is no sort of industry that experiences as much difficulty in commanding the use of the cap-
ital necessarj- for its advancement — except it he in the New-Enpland States, where facititics exist
for the incorporation and loaning out of capital, and where consumers employed in every trade
are close alongside the producers, ready to demand and pay for every species of tlie fruit of agri-
cultural industry, from an onion to an ox. Ed. Farm Lib 1
(T'JO) ■ ■■■
REAPING RYE, WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS, PEASE, &C. 375
' (2204.) Before proceeding to employ reapers in the field, it is requisite
you should know when corn is fit to be cut ; for if cut down too soon or
allowed to stand too long, loss of produce will be incurred. It may be
laid down, as a general rule, that corn in a healthy state comes to maturity
first in the ear, and then in the straw ; and when it does not, that is, when
the straw becomes matured first at the root, then, of course, the grain suf-
fers premature decay. Whenever a crop is observed to be in the latter
state, it need not be allowed to stand longer on the ground, as it can de-
rive no more benefit from the soil, and its grain will won as readily in
the stook as on foot ; and so, in like 7T)anner, whenever the ear is observed
to be sufficiently ripe, the crop should be cut down, as the straw will won
more rapidly in the stook than standing on the gi-ound. The only matter
of doubt, then, in the case is, when the ear is sufficiently ripe. The most
ready way of judging of this, in wheat and oats, is the state of the chaff",
and of 2 or 3 inches of the top of the straw under the ear ; if all these are
of a uniform straw-yellow colour, and feel somewhat hard in the ear, in
the oat, and absolutely pi-ickly to the hand, in the wheat, when grasped,
they are ripe ; or the grain itself may be examined, and should it feel firm
under pressure between the finger and thumb, it is ready for reapinp^ ; or
should the neck of the straw yield no juice when twisted round by the fin-
ger and thumb. Barley should be of uniform yellow color in the grain
and awns, and the rachis somewhat rigid; for as long as it moves freely
by a shake of the hand, the gi-ain is not suflficiently ripe, nor will it be ol
uniform color. It is not equally prudent to reaj) all sorts of o-rain in the
same degree of maturity. When wheat is reaped before it is suflficiently
ripe, it is apt to shrink, and have a bluish tint in the sample ; and when too
ripe, the chaff" opens from the grain, which is apt to be thrown out by the
least agitation of the air ; and some sorts of white wheat are very subject
to be thrown out by the wind, even before reaching the point of maturity.
When very ripe, wheat bends down its ear, opening the chaff", and becomes
stiff" in the neck of the straw, indicating that Nature intends the grain to be
shaken out. Red wheat is less liable to be shaken than white ; but any
kind will shake out when too ripe, provided the plant is in good health,
and the grain of good quality ; for as to immature grain, it is difficult to
make it leave the chaff" even when hardened, and the spelt wheat has so
tenacious hold of its capsule, that it is difficult to be disengaged from it
even by the blows of the flail, fig. 401. It may be supposed that, when-
ever the ear and the entire straw ai-e of uniform yellow colour, the plant
is no more than ripe, and so it is ; but by the time the straw has fully ri-
pened to the root, the ear will be rigidly bent, and ready to cast its seeds
with the slightest violence. The same rule may be applied to barley as
to wheat, that is, whenever the neck of the straw is ripe, it is time to cut,
for when too ripe, the ear bends itself down, diverging the outward row
of awns nearly at right angles with the rachis, and is apt to be snapped
off* altogether by the wind. In regard to oats, the same rule also applies ;
but there is much less risk of cutting oats unripe, in comparison to al-
lowing them to stand till perfectly ripe, as they are easily shaken out
by the wind, — the chaff" standing apart from the grain. When bean-
straw turns black, it is fit to cut, and so is pease-straw, when the pease
become firm in the pod. In every case it is much safer for the crop to
be cut before it is ripe than after it has become too ripe, as I shall show
below.
(2205.) With all these preliminaries aiTanged, and with your mind satis-
fied that the crops ai'e in a fit state for reaping, proceed with the reapers
to the harvest field, and conduct the reaping in the best manner for each
(791) ^ ^
376 THE BOOK OF THE FARM AUTUMN.
respective sort of grain. And, in regar*! to this, I should remark that the
harvest-field will not be properly conducted unless a person is appointed
to superintend the reapers ; for to none of the reapers can such a task be
deputed, as his own occupation is sufficient to occupy all his attention.
The steward is the person who should undertake this duty, unless you un-
dertake it yourself It is his duty to mark the time to commence work,
and to leave it, and of the hours of meals and of rest ; it is his duty to re-
strain the impetuous, to urge the slow worker, and to keep every one in
the best spirit for work ; and it is his duty to see the ground neatly cleared
of the crop, and the crop itself judiciously handled. The man who flilfills
all these duties as they should be dunng the entire harvest, accomplishes
no easy task, either of body or mind. He should not be mounted on
horseback, but be on foot, ready to keep everything right ; for it should
be remembered that a single minute's loss of work of a large band of reap-
ers, causes a great loss in the gross amount of work. The farmer himself,
when not superintending, may move about on horseback ; but a horse is
a troublesome companion to a man who has to move about close to work-
people in a harvest-field.
(220G.) Reaping with the scr/the is a nice operation, and requires consid-
erable skill. The scythes should be mounted as figured hereafter, and made
fit for work some time before being wanted in the harvest-field. There
should be a number of small articles always ready in the field in case of
accident, the pi'ocuring of which wastes much time, when not at hand.
These are, a small hammer for fastening the wedges of scythe-ferules and
of rake-handles ; bits of old sole-leather for bedding the tines of the scythes
upon; pieces of cord for tying anything; small large-headed nails for fix-
ing the stays to the snead of the scythes ; a large coarse file for rubbing down
the turned-up point of a scythe, when it happens to come against a stone;
a sharp knife for cutting bits of leather, and for removing any raggedness
upon the rakes or cradles.
(2207.) The various forans of scythes are the cradle-scythe, the straight-
sneaded scythe, and that with the bent snead, fig. 361, already described ;
and the greatest favorite among mowers is the cradle-scythe, because it is
easiest to wield by the arms, and does not twist the lumbar I'egion of the
body so mucli as the two common scythes; and I may remark that it is
this last effect which forms the gi-eat objection against the scythes in ordi-
nary use. And yet it is not easy to see why the use of the cradle-scythe,
which is borne by the arms alone, in front of the body, and which does not
admit of being balanced in one hand like the other scythes, should be less
fatiguing to woik with; yet there is no doubt of the fact, and on that ac-
count more \vork is done with iL
(2208.) In commencing^ to cut a field of corn with the scythe, that side
should be chosen from which the com happens to lie, if it be laid, and, if
not, then the side from which the wind blows. The scythe makes the low-
est and evenest stubble across the ridges, and then also most easily passes
over the open-furrows. Other things being favorable, it is best to begin
at that side of a field which is on the left hand of the mowers. If all these
conveniences cannot be conjoined, as many as can should be taken ad-
vantage of. The giound should have been rolled, and all large stones
removed in spring, otherwise tlie scythes will run the risk of being injured
in the face by stones, and even by clods.
(2209.) I have already said that reaping with the scythe is best exe-
cuted by the mowers being in what is called heads, namely, a head of
.3 scythesmen, 3 gatherers, 3 bandstei-s, and 1 man-raker, or of 2 scythes-
men, 2 gatherers, 2 bandsters, and 1 woman-raker. On a large farm the
REAPING RYE, WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS, PEASE, &C.
377
lieads may consist of the former, and on a small one the latter number.
The best opening that can be made of a field for scythe-work, is to mow
along the ridge by the side of the fence, which is kept on tlie left hand,
from the top to the bottom of the field ; and while one head is doing this,
let another mow along the bottom head-ridge, the whole lenglli of the field,
and thus open up 2 of its sides. After this, the first head commences
mowing at the lowest corner of the standing corn, across 6 ridges, or 30
yards, which is as far as a scythe will cut corn with one sharpening. Sup-
pose all these preliminaries settled, the scythesman who is to take the
lead first sharpens his scythe. In shaipening a scythe for cutting corn,
the scythe-stone has to be put frequently into requisition, for unless the
edge is kept keen, the mowing will not only be not easy but bad ; and
unless a scythesman can keep a keen edge on his scythe he will never be
a good mower, and will always feel the work fatiguing to him. The
sharpening should always be finished with the straik or strickle. The
stone need not be used at every landing, the strickle answering that pur-
pose ; but whenever the scythe feels like a drag on the arms, the stone
should be used. In mowing, it is the duty of the mower to lay the cut
corn or swath at right angles to his own line of motion, and the straws
parallel to each other, as at a, a, a, fig. 414, and to maintain this essential
Fig- 414.
THE MOWING OF CORN WITH THE SCYTHE.
requisite in corn-mowing, he should not swing his anus too far to the right
in entering the sweep of his cut, for he will not be able to turn far enough
round toward the left, and will necessarily lay the swath short of the right
angle ; nor should he bring his arms too far round to the left, as he will
lay the swath beyond the right angle ; and, in either case, the straws will
lie in the swath partly above each other, and with uneven e7ids, to put
which even in the sheaf is waste of time. He should proceed straight for-
ward, with a steady motion of arms and limbs, bearing the greatest pai't
of the weight of the body on the right leg, which is kept slightly in ad-
vance, as seen at b, b, b. The sweep of the scythe will measure about 7
feet in length, and 14 or 15 inches in breadth. The woman-gatherers
c, c, c, follow by making a band from the swath, and laying as much of
the swath in it as will make a suitable sheaf, such as d, d. The gatherer
(793) ^
378
THE BOOK OF THE FARM AUTUMN.
is required to be an active person, as she will have as much to do as she
can oveitake. The bandster e follows her, and binds the sheaves in the
manner already described, and any 2 of the 3 l)andsters,^yi set the stooks
g together, so that a stook is easily made up among them ; and in setting
them, while crossing the ridges, they should be placed on the same ridge,
to give the people who remove them with the cart the least troulile. Last
of all comes the raker //, who clears the ground between the stooks with
his large rake ?', described below, of all loose straws, and brings them to
a bandster, who binds them together by themselves, and sets them in bun-
dles beside the stooks. This is better than putting the rakings into the
heart of a sheaf, where they will not thresh clean with the rest of the corn ;
and, moreover, as they may contain earth and small stones, and also infe-
rior grain, from straws which may have fallen down before the mo\ving, it
is better to thresh bundles of rakings by themselves. The figure exhibits
the 3 kinds of scythes in operation.
(2210.) A scythesman will cut fully more than 1 imperial acre of wheat
in a day. Many farmers affect to believe that the scythe is an unsuitable
instrument for cutting wheat ; but I can assure them, from experience,
that it is as suitable as the sickle, and that mown sheaves may be made to
look as well as reaped. No doubt mowing wheat is severe work, but so
is reaping it. Of oats, 1 scythesman will mow fully 2 acres with ease.
The oat crop is remarkably pleasant to handle in every way ; its crisp
straw is easily cut by the scythe, and being hard and fiee, and generally
not too long, is easily bound in sheaf and set in stook. Nearly 2 acres
may be mown of barley; but the gummy matter in the straw, which gives
it a malty smell, causes the stone to be frequently used in mowing barley,
and the straw being always free, the bands are apt to break when rashly
handled in binding the sheaves.
(2211.) One mode of setting up com
to dry quickly is in gaits, tliat is, the
band of the sheaf is tied loosely round
the straw, just under the corn, as at a,
fig. 415, and the loose sheaf is made to
Btand upon the lower end of its straw
being sjiread out in a circular form, as h
to c, and they are set upon every ridge.
The wind whistles thiough the open
sheaf, and even the rain passes through,
and docs not hang upon it. The expe-
dient of gaiting, however, is only prac-
ticed in wet weather, and even then only
should the crop, if allowed to stand, be
endangered by a shaking wind. It is
confined also to a particular kind of crop,
namely, oats — wheat and barley never
being gaited, because when wheat gets
dry, after being cut in a wet state, it is
apt to shake out in binding the gaits;
and when barley is subjected to the rough
usage of binding, after being won, the heads are apt to snap off altogether,
and, besides, exposure in gaits would injure its color, and render it unfit
for the maltster, Oats are protected by a thick husk, and the grain is not
very apt to shake out in handling, excepting potato-oats, which are seldom
gaited, the common kinds only being so treated. But, for my part, I
would not hesitate to gait any sort of oats when wet with dew in the morn-
(794)
Fig. 415.
7
A OAIT OF OATS.
REAPING RYE, WHEAT^BARLEY, OATS, PEASE, &C. _379
.— r;;;;^;;!;;^^^^ with rain, rather than lose a few hours' woik of
f;ino- everT^orning, or at nightfall. Gaits, it is true, are very apt to
set against each other but ^^^ ^^^^ ground, and it will be
■. taw bri"; ian' and Li, does rot vequive long exposure .n the
Md and on .fat acconnt the stooks "-<> ".°;l«^''°°t ^'by „„,„, ^ek-
?l?aili,f.T ^aruXtSeVat^nd 'Seve'.^ -m thvou.h
ward akm| the salKsu ^^^ ^^^^^ ,l,emselves straw-
Tones a^eCuiredlorbanis , bn, when n,ixed with pease the pea-straw
whi.?™::r4 IrcfwSS'laid i,, bu„a,ef. not bound in sheaves, unt„
"fi,'r)''1t"S;t:btred:rnr1,°ff:iroingstatenrents.tbat™^^^^^^^
i. it !n„rh the cheapest mode of cutting down corn, and on that account
lou'ld be nleSy adopted ; for the itetn of harvest expenses ,s a heavy
snouiu ue u 1*;^ 1,/ „„A pverv legitimate means should be used to
one tn the 5™''',:„''°^tr'w„uU deprive^he inhabitants of a farm of work,
iTould hetoet re Imend ; bSt when the farmer, as a. present sttua-
Lris very dependent on the public market of labor t° secure h,s whole
'yt-: ro^uc^e is justified in the ende^^^ to -^^^^^^
Ll'p-e i:nrrtt mlXr^Su? throwing his horses idle fo,^^ a long
ISitrdTrTtroiS^^^^^^^^^
=,trfca,;rrfere.!;r"&^^^^^
crnincr to state bv his own experience, that that is no detriment to tlie corn
f^fhrob;:t!;rSsappears^s woi^-people become ^^^^^^J^
implement. Such a roughness would not f^'\^''l^.ZT'^^^^^^^
lay the swathes at right angles to their hne of ^'^''^^' .^""^ ^^^' ^^XnAs-
to lift the swathes efen, and lay them down m armsfull even ^-^l^l^f^^
and though it is scarcely possible for work-people to bestow utmost atten
l^there not, in .any of the United Stat., an opening for -pe"-^^^^^^^^^^^ 1^^
valion of the bean and pea crops? Indian corn, n ,s true, P^^'^^^'^-XCnty of beans and
crops much relied onin Europe ; but when we consider the -^ --^^'^"^ '^..J^ ,„ ,, ,,e de-
peas, we have room for surprise that neither should be even enumerated a^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^
cennial return of our agricultural produce.
(795)
380 THE BOOK OF THE FARM AUTUMN.
tion at all times, yet pi-actice makes great proficiency in this matter, which
compensates, in a gi-eat measure, for want of constant attention. I found
this effect produced after em])loyinf^ the same hands at the same work for
successive years, and who at leui^th became as neat and clever at their
respective works as I could wish them. Besides the actual economy in em-
ployinn^ mowers, only conceive the advantage of being able to carry in the
corn after it has been exposed in the air to win only half the usual time.
Reaped oats require to stand in the stook a fortnight before they will keep
in the stack ; mown oats, in the same weather, may be carried in a week.*
Barley, when reaped, is scarcely fit for leading in less than 3 weeks ; when
mown, it may be put into the stack in safety in 10 days. And as for mown
wheat, about 3 days will suffice to win it. It is an eiTor to suppose, as is
too commonly imagined, that a mown stook takes in rain: on the contra-
ly, I have frequently ascertained that it takes in rain less than a reaped
one. In one instance I remember of a field of potato-oats being finished
cutting, that heavy rain fell the next day, and continued without intermis-
sion for 3 days, the last of which was very windy, and the wind had changed
from E. to W., when it faired. About ^ of this field had been reaped with
the sickle, and the reason that implement was used in it all, was to give a
little harvest-work at threaving to a few elderly men and women, cotters,
and hinds' wives who, having to attend to young children, could not un-
dertake the regular work of a harvest-field. Impressed with the common
belief that a mown sheaf must take in rain, I went to the field after the
rain had ceased, to ascertain the state the stooks were in, never dimbting
they would be soaked, while the reaped ones would be comparatively dry ;
but judge of my surprise when the fact was the very opposite, the mown
sheaves not being wetted to the heart, while the east side of the reaped
sheaves were soaking to the bands. On consideration, 1 accounted for the
difference of the phenomena in this way : [n reaped sheaves, and espe-
cially when cut by threave, the straws are straight and hard pressed, be-
tween which the rain finds its way into the heart of the sheaves ; while
the straws in the mown stooks, being somewhat bent and broken and in-
terlaced on the surface, this texture prevents the rain penetrating, and is
rather serviceable in throwing it off. Besides this property, mown sheaves
are evidently more pervious to air than reaped,
(2215.) An advantage of another kind obtained in mowing corn should
not be overlooked, which is the veiy short stubble left in the field, and the
larger quantity of straw carried to the stack-yard. The following state-
ment may be depended on, as being the result of experiment :
Cm. qr. Ibft.
Weight of straw per acre, when cut to 0 inches of the ground 26 1 0
8 .. .. 23 1 6
12 .. .. 21 0 2
So that ^ cwt. of Straw is left per acre on every field by every 1 inch of
stubble. When we know that the value of straw is commonly about 28s.
per ton, or 15s. per load of 3G trusses, we cannot but feel surprised at the
barbarous mode of using the wheat-straw in some places of England — in
first reaping the ears of com, and then mowing the straw.
(2216.) It is not easy to state, with sufficient accuracy, the proportion
which the straw and grain bear to each other — nor, of course, the ratio
realized by the farmer, which must depend on the mode of cutting adopt-
ed by him. I have received the following statement of their relative
weights in the neighborhood of Edinburgh, from Mr. Andrew Gibson, of
[* Depending, of course, on climate and weather. Ed. Farm. Lib.]
(796)
REAPING RYE, WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS, PEASE, &C. 381
the Dean Farm, whose good farming is well known : From a crop of
wheat, of 40 bushels to the acre, or of 2,600 lbs., at 65 lbs. per bushel, the
straw will weigh 9 kemples of 440 lbs. each, or 3,960 lbs., affoi-ding just ^
more weight of straw than of grain. From a crop of barley of 60 bushels,
weighing 56 lbs. per bushel, or 3,360 lbs. per acre, the weight of straw is
7 kemples, or 3,080 lbs., being jL more weight of grain than of straw. —
From a crop of 60 bushels of oats, at 45 lbs. per bushel, or 2,700 lbs. per
acre, the weight of straw is 8 kemples, or 3,520 lbs., being ^ more weight
of straw than of grain. These are all average quantities. In ordinary
crops at a distance from towns, the proportion between the grain and the
straw is supposed to be — for, I believe, it has not been satisfactorily ascer-
tained by experiment — the grain ^ and the straw ^ of the entire weight
of the crop.*
(2217.) There is another curious inquiry connected with this subject —
namely, the proportionate weight of roots and stubhle left in the field after
the crop is reaped. In reference to the roots of natural grasses left in the
soil acting as manure. Professor Johnston observes that " the same is the
case, to a greater or less extent, with all the artificial corn, grass, and le-
guminous crops we grow. They all leave their roots in the soil ; and, if
the quantity of organic matter which these roots contain be greater than
that which the crop we carry off has derived from the soil, then, instead of
exhausting, the growth of this crop will actually enrich the soil, in so far
as the presence of organic matter is concerned. No crops, perhaps, the
whole produce of which is carried off the field, leave a sufficient mass of
roots behind them to effect this end ; but many plants, when in whole or
in part eaten upon the field, leave enough in the soil materially to improve
the condition of the land — while, in all cases, those are considered as the
least exhausting to which are naturally attached the largest weight of roots.
Hence the main reason why poor lands are so much benefited by being
laid down to grass, and why an intermediate crop of clover is often as
beneficial to the after-crop of corn as if the land had lain in naked fallow."
The remarks here given are not all connected with our present subject,
but they show the partial compensation which white crops return to the
soil by means of their roots. The Professor then gives the results of some
experiments of Hlubek, conducted on a small scale, with a view to ascer-
tain the quantity of roots left in the soil by plants after their parts above
ground had been removed ; and though the experiments were made with
a few of the natural grasses, after they had been made into hay, I shall
transcribe them, as the results give the proportion between the roots and
stems of gi'amineous plants.
[* Obvious as is the usefulness of facts thus exactly ascertained, how few farmers in our
country have been at the pains to inquire after them for his own government. The relative
weight of grain and straw will depend on various circumstances. On the fertile lands of Prince
George's and other counties, where the soil is deficient in clay, and yields heavy crops, say
from 40 to 60 bushels of Indian corn, you hear them complain that their wheat runs to straw.
In such cases the proportion of straw to grain would probably be much larger than is here desig-
nated. It is, however, obvious that every farmer should, in the commencement of his career,
ascertam these matters for his future government. Every farmer can make a near approach to
the quantity oi grain he makes on his estate ; and having done that he will have the satisfaction
to know how much provender he has for his stock, and how much .of the fertilizing properties of his
land has been carried and sold off in the grain crop, and how much remains to be returned to the
land. This relative weight of grain and of fodder needs to be nicely and thoroughly ascertained
aa to Indian corn. Ed. Farm. Lib.\
(797;
382
THE BOOK OF THE FARM AUTUMN.
English and SciEirrinc Najus of Grasses.
Tall fescue — Fesfuea datior
Sl)eep'8 fescue — Fesfuea ovina
Timothy — PUeum pralenite
Roach cock's foot — Dartyhit glomerata
Pei^nnial rj-e-prass — I.olium peremie
Meadow fox-tail — Alopecuru* pratetuU
Couch — Tntim m repem
Annual meadow-grass — Poa annua
Soft and smooth brome-grass — Bromu$ mollis and racemosut.
Sweet-scented vemal-g^rass — Antkoxanthum odoratum
Graas.
124
90
90
202
50
106
120
Fr«b.J Ury.
of dry
Rnolx to
ion lb*,
ol Hay.
56
22
..
80
56
17
2-2lf
50
24
70
--
Iba.
61
266
60
33
300 I
70
116
111
105
93 I
I
" The fourth column of the above Table," observes Professor Johnston,
" shows how large a quantity of vegetable matter some of the grasses im-
part to the soil, and yet how unlike the different grasses are in this respect.
The sheep's fescue and perennial rye-grass — besides the dead roots which
detach themselves fi-om time to time — leave at the end of the fourth year
a weight of living roots in tbe soil, which is equal to 3 times the produce
of that year in hay- If we take the mean of all the above grasses as an
average of what we may fairly expect in a grass-field, then the amount of
living roots left in the soil when a 4-year old giass-field is plowed up, will
be equal to i more than the weight of that year's crop." The mean of the
Table gives a weight of 121 lbs. for every 100 lbs. of crop ; and if we take
this as a rule for estimating the weight of roots left in the ground by the
cereal crops mentioned above in reference to their weight of sfraw, and if
we take their respective weights of grain and straw as given above, the
following will be the entire weights gi'own of those crops :
(Gi^in 2.600 lbs.
Of Wheat J Straw 3,960 ..
(Roots 4,779 ..
Tons. cwl. qrs, !be.
(■Grain 3,360
Of Barley, ^ Straw 3,080 ..
(Roou 3,726 ..
11,339 lbs. = 5 1 0 17
Of Oats,
(■Grain 2.700
^ Straw 3.520
(Roots 4.259
10,166 lbs. = 4 10 3 2
10,479 lbs.
4 13 2 7
(2218.) Although it is perfectly true •what Professor Johnston says in
his concluding remarks on this head, that " this burying of recent vegeta-
ble matter in the soil, in the form of li\'ing and dead roots of plants, is
one of those important ameliorating operations of Nature which is always,
to some extent, going on where vegetation proceeds : it is one by which
the practical man is often benefited unawares, and of which — too often
without understanding the source whence the advantage comes — he
systematically avails himself in some of the most skillful steps he takes
with a view to the improvement of his land,"* it is, nevertheless, of greater
benefit to the farmer to cut his crops as near the surface of the ground as
possible, thereby putting it in his own power to return the straw to the
soil in a state of manure best suited to the wants of the crop, than to cut
the stubble high, merely because the soil will derive benefit from it, as an
organic substance, when it happens to become decomposed in the soil,
(2219.) That one period of their age is better than Another for reaping grain crops, has been
proved by very careful experiments made by Mr. John Hannam, North Deighton, Yorkshire.
Without entering into the details of these experiments, it will be sufficient to give only their re-
sults. Of wheat reaped at various times, the following were the advantages and disadvantages
derived :
Jobnfton'8 Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry and Geology.
(798)
REAPING RYE, WHEAT, OATS, BARLEY, PEASE, &C. 383
No. 1, reaped quite green on 12th August, and stacked 26th August, gave a return of £11 17s.
No. 2, reap^^'^reeft on 19th August, and stacked 31st August, gave a return of £13 Gs. per
No. 3, reap^cTraw on 26th August, and stacked 5th September, gave a return of £14 18s.
No. 4. re&^ednot quite so raw on 30th August, and stacked 9th September, gave a return of £14
No. 5, reaped" «>e^on 9th September, and stacked 16th September, gave a return of £13 lis.
8d. per acre.
Hence a loss of £l 14 8 per acre upon No. 1 as compared with No. 5.
0 5 8 .. No. 2 .. No. 5.
!! earn of 16 4 - No. 3 .. No. 5.
* 15 8 .. No. 4 .. No. 5.
" " 3 10 .- No. 3 .. No. 1.
Hence, also, wheat reaped a fortnight before it is ripe gives an advantage on every point, viz :
In weight of gross produce, of 13 1-5 per cent.
equal measures, nearly 2
equal number of grains, nearly 2^
In quality and value, above ^5
In weight of straw, above 5
Besides these other advantages are, straw of better quality, a better chance of securing the crop,
and a savins in securing it. On the other hand, wheat, reaped a vwnth before it is ripe, gives an
advantage of 20 per cent, in weight of straw compared with the ripe, but suffers disadvantage in
every other point, namely :
In weight of gross produce H 5-13 percent.
equal measures, above 1-3
equal number of grains, above 13 1-6
In quality and value, above 4-5
(onoQ ) These mav seem trivial advantages and disadvantages, when confined to the area of a
4 000 000 acres of wheat grown annually, producing 12,000,000 quarters of grain, of which | are
allowed to become ripe ; when we consider that by cutting this sooner we should produce an in-
crease of 15 1-7 per cent, of flour, and realize an increased value of 7s. 6id. upon every quarter
nroduced- and that we should produce food for 1,362,857 persons over and above what we now
produce and an extra annual income of £512,491 : and when we consider that this increase would
be so much added to the wealth of the country, that it is equal to the proceeds, at 3 per cent., of
an estate worth £17.083.033 : and that the increase of our population demands an increased sup-
ply of food, I would ask. what is our duty in this case ?"* _ , . r 11
"(-looi ^ Upon one occasion I cut down a few stocks of potato-oats when quite green, though tuli
in the ear to allow carts to pass to a place destined for the site of a hay-stack ; and, after standing
till the rest of the field was broutrht in, thev were threshed with the flail by themselves, and the
sample thev produced was the most beautifully silvery grain I ever saw ; but. not having made
the experiment with any view to the crop. I pursued the investigation no farther, and cannot say
what effect so ver%- early reaping had produced upon the quantity and quality of meal.
l.-,^o■^ ) [The first and" most important operation of the harvest season being the reaping ot the
crop~~I have now to proceed with the description of the machines and implements used in that
iutere^tiuT operation. It is more than probable that, in the dawn of Agriculture, the tmy crop of
<Taiu was^plucked bv the roots from the earth without the aid of any instrument other than that
most comprehensive" one, the human hand ; but the inconveniences attending this mode must
have been soon superseded bv the adoption of the reaping-hook, or sickle, which is coeval with
the most remote history. It is" believed that instruments or machines of a more complicated form
than the sickle have been resorted to by some of the nations of antiquity ; but of these we have
no certain historical iufonnation : and when it is considered that, even in modern times, with all
our advantages of mechanical knowledire, and the numerous appliances of mechanical experience
and skill we have, as vet, failed in producing a really effective reaping-machine, we are led to
the conclusion that nothing of the sort in a perfect form had ever been achieved by the ancients.
Durinff the last sixty years, many attempts have been made to produce a perfect reaping-ma-
chine "but, with few exceptions, they have proved abortive, and the problem, in its ful|«'^t extent,
remains j-et unsolved; but, nevertheless, several of these attempts have been attended with at
least partial success— a success which has extended to the reaping of grain when it stands erect,
or even slightly inclined, if all in one direction— but have all failed in making satistactory worK
when the crop has been lodsed by rains, or contorted by winds. The step which has been maae
in achieving even this muclfis. however, of importance, and holds out a prospect ot the pioDaDU-
ity that we shall yet see a reaping-machine adapted to the reaping of at least a very large propor-
ti"on of our fields, in the situation^in which they are found in general, when ready tor tne sicKie.
But as none of these machines can be considered perfect in their present state, 1 deem it unneces-
sary to enter into any minute details of their construction here, and will only give a summary
* See Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vols. xii. and xiii., for the detailed particulars of Mr. Hannam's
interesting experiments.
(799)
384 THE BOOK OF THE FARM AUTUMN.
view of their principles, and liie Icadinp; features of their ronstroction. with a reference to writers
\\ho8e more detailed information may be obtained bj- those who desire to prosecute the subject
(2223.) The first reapins-machine that came before the public with any claim to efficiency was
that of Mr. Smith, of Deanmon, about the year 1814-1.5. when it was tried before a. joint-committee
of the Highland and Aexicultural Society, and of the Dalkeith Farming Society, the latter having
previously ottered a premium of X500 for a perfect reaping-machine.* On that trial, the machine
operated with very considerable effect ; but though much approved ol, in a general view, was
not considered so complete as to warrant the committee to award the premium. Mr. Smith's ma-
chine continued for a number of years to be the only one at all effective ; but. as it did not pos.'W'ss
all the requisite qualities for perfect reaping, it did not come into actual use beyond a very limited
extent. The cutting principle in Smith's original machine is beautifully simple, being a plain,
Bmooth edired, annular knife, of about 6 feet diameter, and 6 inches broad, attached by arms to an
axle, with which it revolves with a velocity that makes one revolution for every 2 that the ma-
chine travels over the ground. The cutter was .surmounted by a light sheet-iron drum, or rather
frustum, of an invertedcone. about 3 feet in hight, which serves as the collector or gatherer of the
machine ; and this was attached to. and revolved along with, the cutter and its axle. The motion
of the cutter and gatherer was derived from a pair of carriage- wheels fixed upon an axle, which
carries a toothed bevel-wheel, and from this last by a pinion and horizontal shaft, at:d second pair
of bevel- wheels, the last of which was fixed upon, and gave motion to. the cutter-shaft. The car-
riage-wheels, with their axle, bore all the framework and gearing of the machine, with a slight
preponderance forward ; and this preponderance was borne by a small roller, placed under the
ftjre-part of the framework, near the center of the cutter, serving to preserve the uniform bight
of the cutter from the ground — a pole projected backward from the body of the machine, to which
two horses were yoked, one on each side, by a splinter bar, pushing the machine before them ;
and, as the pole projected a few feet behind the horses, it served as a rudder to the machine in
the hands of the driver. The circular cutter here adopted is, perhaps, the most perfect method
of performing the act of cutting the grain, which is done by it in a very successful manner — the
machine being provided with apparatus for cutting higher or lower, as the crop may require. —
The gathering process is less perfect — the cut grain is carried round hy the motion of the drum
to the left side, where, as soon as it is clear of the standing corn in front, it falls outward, forming
a continuous swath at one side of the track over which the machine has passed.
(2224.) At a subsequent period, Mr. Smith effected various improvements on his reaping-ma-
chine : and in 1837 it was exhibited in operation at Ayr, before a committee of the Highland and
Agricultural Society, where it performed to the satisfaction of all present, both in cutting and
gathering ; but, at the same time, it showed marks of unwieldiness, especially from its great
length, which is about 20 feet, that still rendered its general application doubtful. The chief point
of its improve nent. at this trial, lay in the gathering-drum being now adapted to revolve separate
from the cutter, with a velocity at its periphery equal to the progressive velocity of the machine;
and in the drum also being armed with rake.s. or wooden teeth inserted all over its circumference,
which supported and carried the cut grain round to the proper point of discharge.
(2225.) The next machine of importance, in the order of time, is that of Rev. Patrick Bell,
DOW minister of the parish of Carmylie, in the coantj' of Forfar. It appeared in operation in
1827-8, and received the sanction of the Highland and Agricultural Society in 1829. by a premium
ofi;.50.t For several years thereafter this machine retained considerable repute, and a consid-
erable number of them were made, and successfully applied in the counties of Fife and Angus,
but after all this apparent success, it has also fallen into disuse, like its predecessor. Mr. Bell's
machine acts upon the clipping principle, the cutter being a series of scissors, the upper blades
of which are immovable, and of the form of isoceles triangles, whose bights are 10 inches, and
bases about 4 inches, adapted to cut on both edges. The lower blades are of a similar form, each
jointed upon a pin, in a position corresponding to the space between the upper blades, and their
ehank or bandies are all jointed to a traversing bar, put in motion by a crank: there are ten pairs
of such scissors, and by the above arrangement, the whole are made to cut simultaneously right
or left. The motion of the cutter is communicated from the carriage wheels, as in Smith's ma-
chine, there being two principal wheels for that purpose, and two minor wheels to bear up the
cutters and fore part of the machine. The gathering process is accomplished by an endless web,
which is placed above and behind the cutter, revolving either to right or left ; it receives the grain
as it falls from the cutter, and is repularly carried to one side, and dropped in a continuous swath,
as before. To insure the falling of the cut grain upon the web, there is a light four-leaved vane
placed in front of the machine, and is made to revolve by means of a band ; the leaves of tliis vane
jiress gently upon the yet uncut grain, gathering it toward the web, until it is .severed below by
the scissors, when the web carries it off'. For several years this machine bid fair to become a
favorite ; the work was well performed wherever the com stood upright, and that it would work
among laid corn was not expected of it ; yet it is now seldom seen in the field, and the only cause
to which its failure can be attributed, is the complicated structure of the cutter. A cutter con-
sisting of such a number of parts, each of which requires the most perfect adjustment to render it
effective, being, besides, liable to unequal wear, renders it yet more liable to derangement ; and.
fariher, as the derangement of a smgle blade of the cutter is sufficient to destroy the usefulness
of the machine: and the rectification of the defective blade requiring a workman of superior tal-
ent, it must have become both troublesome and expensive to effect such repairs; and this, added
to the risks of delay in an important eeason, Beem to have contributed to the gradual disuse of
the machine.
(2226.) Soon after the introduction of Mr. Bell's reaping-machine, there appeared another com-
petitor, Mr. Joseph Mann, Raby, near Wigton, Cumberland.} Mr. Mann's machine appears to
have been constructed, after many years' labor, so early as 1826, but it was not exhibited in Scot-
* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. x. Preliminary Notice,
t Quarterly Jouraal of Agriculture, vol. i. } Ibid., vol. iv.
f800)
REAPING-MACHINES. 385
land till 1832, at tbe Highland Society's Show in Kelso, where it was tried before a Committee
with a success verv similar to those that had gone before it. Though not affording entire satisfac-
tion it nevertheless possessed some points of considerable importance. In construction it was
more compact than some of the previous machines ; and, from the simplicity of its movements,
■would be less expensive. It was drawn by one horse, walking before the machine, and by the
side of the standing corn, cutting a breadth'of from 3^ to 4 feet, and would, therefore, cut nearly
10 acres in 10 hours. The cutter was on the revolving principle, but instead of being circular, it
formed a polygon of 12 sides, each side of the polygon being a separate blade, ea.sily removed
and changed The gatherer was the revolving cylindrical drum with rakes, afterward adopted
by Mr Smitli of Deanston. before alluded to; but in Mr. Mann's machine the drum revolves at a
considerably higher velocity, making 26 revolutions in a minute, while the cutter makes about
^00 In this nfachine, therefore, the velocity of the rake teeth is 400 feet per minute, or nearly
double that in Mr. Smith's improved form. This high velocity of the rake carries away the cut
grain in a thinner layer upon the rakes, but it requires the application ot a comb to strip the com
from the rakes, and thus secures its being always dropped at one point m the machine. The mo-
tion of the cutter and rake were obtained from one of the carnage-wheels as m the others ; but
here they were communicated by pitch-chains, and the front part of the machine was supported
by a ca.stor-wheel, to the stem of which the horse-shafts were attached, the castor-wheel runumg
by the side of the 'standing corn. I am not aware of this machine having ever made farther pro-
gress ; though 1 do consider that it possesses some advantages over any that have yet been tried,
and if fully matured, might have superseded its competitors.
(0007 ) In viewing the subject of the reaping-machine, three things have to be specially consid-
erecf" 'The expense of the machine, the expedition it may eflect in reaping the crop, and the
saving in expense that may be effected by it. The last described machine could certainly be
procured at a price not exceeding £30. The same machine was. perhaps, not capable of reaping
an acre per hour consecutively ; its effect may, therefore, be restricted to 8 acres per day, bemg
about I'^i days to every 100 acres. It will follow, therefore, that on a large larm two machines
might be'requisite, making an outlay of £60. To qualify this outlay, the expense of reaping fas
ascertained by Bell's machine,) has been estimated, including the expense of bmding up the
sheaves at as per acre ; while the minimum expense of reaping by the hand is taken at 78. per
acre and the maximum may run to 12s.,* but taking the mean at 9s., gives three times the ex-
pense of machine-reaping. For 100 acres, therefore, cut by hand, the expense would be ±45,
while that by the machine is only £15, giving a saving of the entire price of the machme in one
year But suppose the price of a machine could be saved even in two years, the advantages
would be very great, under the supposition that an effective machine could be procured for £30.
It is de.serviu'' of consideration, also, that although no reaping macliine is to be expected capable
of cutting down the crops in every possible state, yet we may infer that, even on a farm of or-
dinary extent such a breadth of crop may be found, in almost any season, capable of being cut
by a machine, as would save half the expense of its purchase. To obtain an effective and durable
reaping-machine i.s, therefore, yet an important object to the farming interest.! • , ,
(22''8 ) In the present times, it may be safely averre.l that the only means of reaping is by the
sickle and the sc]/the. The first is a very simple, but, at the same time, so far as it goes, a very
efficient in.strument. It is employed in various states, not differing
much in general form, though exhibiting marked differences in the Hg- 4ib.
detail ; but these varieties are confined under two very distinct —
forms, the toothed and the smooth-edged sickles. Fig. 416 repre-
sents the toothed sickle, an instrument so well known that it re-
quires little de.?cription here. The blade, in the common toothed
sickle, is principally made of iron, but with an edging of steel ; the
teeth are formed by striking with a chisel and hammer, in the man-
ner of file-cutting, the cutting being only on the lower side ; but
when the blade has been bent to the proper form, tempered, and
ground on the smooth side, the serratures are brought prominently
out on the edge of the blade ; and as the striking of the teeth is
performed in a position ubiique to the edge of the blade, at an angle
of about 70"^, the .serratures on the edge acquire what is called a
hook toward the helve, thus causing the instrument to cut keenly in
that direction when drawn through the standing corn. When the
blade has been thus finished, a wooden helve of the simplest form
is fitted upon the pointed tine formed at its root for that purpose.
The toothed sickle is made with various degrees of curvature and
of weight, but chielly as represented in the figure, and it has been the toothed sickle.
the subject of several patents, chiefly depending on the formation
of the blade. One of these is only of two or three years' standing, and promises to be an i™"
portant one. Messrs. Sorbv & Son, of Sheffield, are the patentees ; and the principle upon which
their patent is based is a blade of rolled cast-steel swedged into a form that gives a sufficient de-
gree of stiffness to the blade, without the increase of weight that accompanies the thick-backed
or the other patent ribbed-back sickles. In the new patent, the advantage of a small quantity ot
the very best material— cast-steel— ia combined with extreme lightness and a due degree ot
strength and stiffness, the latter arising from the swedged or moulded back.
(2229.) The smooth-edged sickle, or scythe-hook, as sometimes called, differs from the tormer
[t For practical remarks on the two most promising machines in use in the United States, see
the letter from Mr. Bowling, of Virginia, in the present (March) Number of the Monthly Journal of
Agriculture. ^^^ ^«'-"'- ^^■'\
» Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. iv.
(801) '*5
386
THE BOOK OP THE FARM AUTUMN.
Fig. 4] 7.
in being broader in the blade, and longer wiihal, but in curvature it resembles the former ; and
its chief difference lies in being ground on both sides, to form a fine and thin sharp edge. Like
the toothed sickle, the blade has undergone various improvements; and Mr. Sorby's cast-steel
Bwedge-blade is also extended to the sniooth-edgcd sickle.
(2230.) In the formation of the sickle, the curvature of the blade is a point of more importance
than to a careless observer may appear; and though the ordinary reaper is seldom qualified to
judge in this matter, he may feel pleased to be informed that there is a certain curvature that will
give to the muscles of his right arm the least possible cau.se for exertion, while there are other
curves that, if given to the blade of the sickle, would cause him to expend a great amount of un
necessary exertion in the arm, and a consequent unnecessary fatigue would follow. Fig. 417
which represents the smooth-edged sickle, has a curvature ap-
proaching very near to that which, in tliix in.«trument, may be
termed the curve of lenxl exertion ; and throughout that portion
of the sickle that performs the cutting process, it pos.scsscs this
peculiar |>roperty, from the following circumstance, that lines
diverging from the center of the handle of the sickle at <?, and
intersecting the curve of the cutting-edge, all the diverging lines
will form equal angles with the tangents to the curve at the
points of intersection. This property gives to the cutting-edge
a uniform tendency to cut at every point in its length, without
any other exertion than a direct ptt/l upon the helve ; were the
curvature less at any point, a pressure of the hand would be re-
quired to keep the edge to the work, and were the curvature
greater at any point, or on the whole, the exertion to make the
cut would be greater, as it would then become more direct, in-
stead of the oblique drawing or sawing cut, which, in all cases,
is the most etFectivc. and productive of least resistance.
(2231.) A moile of using the smooth-edged sickle has of late
years come into some repute, known in Scotland by the provin-
cial temi dinging-in (striking-in). In this process the sickle is
not drawn through the straw, but is struck against it, somewhat
in the manner of using a scythe ; indeed, the practice originated the smooth-edged sickle.
in the attempt that was made some years ago to introduce the
Hainault scythe in the harvest operations of this country, but without success. In the (dinging-
in) practice, the left hand is employed, with its back toward the right, in slightly bending down
the grain, and holding it to the blow of the sickle. A man practiced in this mode of working
will do one-half more work than is usually done in the common way ; but the stubble is left less
regular, and, except by very expert hands, there is a want of tidiness in the process.
(2232.) The scythe is also extensively used as a reaping instrument, but more especially in Eng-
land, and in some of the northern counties of Scotland, chiefly for the barley and oat crops,
though in some localities, also, for wheat. The common hay-scythe is used for this purpose, in
most cases, with the addition only of a very light rail or cradle, sometimes attached to the handle,
and in other cases to the heel of the blade, as in the annexed cat, fig. 418, which is the common
Fig. 418.
Fig. 419.
THE COMMO.S REAPINO-SCrTHE.
THE CRADI.E-SCVl Hi: KlIU i;e.\1'ing.
Bcy the, fitted for reaping. In the scythe mounted in this manner, the use of the rail or cradle
will be obvious, being the collecting of the swath into a compact body, and depositing the same
in as regular a manner as possible, preparatory to the binding of it into a sheaf.
(2233.) For a considerable period, a scythe mounted in a diflerent form has been in nse for the
purpose of reaping, and it is believed that its introduction can be traced to Banffshire or Aber-
(802)
REAPING-MACHINES. 387
deenshire, where the scythe is rather extensively used for reaping. About ten years ago this
form of scythe came more prominently before the public,* and, for a time, gained considerable
repute under the name of the Cradle-scythe. Of this form of mounting a reaping-ecythe, there
are many varieties; bat they all agree in one point, that of having two short helves, the one
branching out of the other, instead of the common long helve or snead. Fig. 419 is a view of the
cradle-scythe in one of its most approved forms, wherein a is the scythe-blade, b the principal
helve, to which the blade is attached in the usual way, the hook of the tine being sunk into the
wood, and an iron ferule brought down over the tine, binding it firmly to the wood ; but the blade
is farther supported by the addition of the liglit .stay c. termed by mowers the grass-nail. The
minor helve d is tenoned into the former, and the two handles ef wee adjusted by wedges in the
usual way, to the bight and mode of working of the mower. The cradle or rake consists of a
little wooden standard g, about 8 inches high, jointed to the heel of the blade, so as to fold a little
up or down across the blade ; into this are inserted three slender teeth, following the direction of
the blade, and may be from 6 to 15 inches long ; the head of the standard is supported by a slen-
der rod of iron, which stretches about 18 inches up the handle, where it is secured by a small
screw-nut, capable of being .shifted up or down to alter the position of the standard and its teeth
to suit the lay of the corn. The standard or rake-head was at one time recommended to be made
in the segment of a circle, t for which there seems no good reason, either practical or philosoph-
ical ; but the idea was seized upon, and the cradle-scythe mounted in that form was widely dis-
tributed ; but instead of this supposed improvement tending to increase the favorable opinion of
scythe-reaping, the practice seems rather on the decline ; and there is good reason to believe that
this malformation of the rake may have had no small share in producing a dista.ste for scythe-
reaping as a practice ; whereas, under proper management, and a judicious choice of imple-
ments, there can be no doubt of considerable advantages being attainable from scvthe-reapitog,
as compared with the sickle.
(2234.) It is believed by very competent judges, that the figure here given of the cradle-scythe
possesses all the advantages that are derivable from using this instrument; and, in addition to the
details already given, I may add that the length of the blade is from 3 feet 4 inches to 3 feet 6
inches ; the left or principal helve is about 4 feet, the other 3 feet, measuring direct from the heel
in both cases ; the distance between the helves, where the handles are applied, is 24 inches ; and
in setting the blade the following rule is to be ob.served : When the framed helves are laid flat
on a level surface, the point of the blade should be from 18 to 20 inches above that surface, and
measuring from a point on the left helve, 3 feet distant from the heel of the blade in a straight
line, as at b, the extremity of the blade should be also 3 feet di.stant from the point b. Iron has,
in many cases, been substituted for wood in the construction of the helves ; but it does not, by
any means, appear to be so well adapted to the purpose as the wooden helves; when construct-
ed of iron, if they are made sufficiently light, there is too much elasticity in the fabric, which is
fatiguing to the workman, by reason of the tremor produced at every stroke of the scythe.
(2235.) As essential appendages of the scythe,there must be kept in view the scythe-stone, with
which it is kept in proper cutting order: a soft, fine-grained sandstone is the proper material from
which it should be selected; and as for applying it, it were difficult in words to describe the
proper mode of doing so, but the following may suffice to give the uninitiated some notion of the
process. The scythe is placed on the left side of the mower, with the point of the blade resting
on a small stone on the ground, the heel of the blade and helve being supported by the left hand ;
the scythe-stone, which is about 10 inches long, is grasped by one end in the right hand, and is
thus applied, crossing the blade. The effect of the sharpening is produced by makins sliding strokes
with the stone along the blade on each side alternately, upward and downward f but the down-
ward strokes only, or those toward the point of the blade, should be the effective ones, the return-
ing stroke of the stone touching the blade but lightly. The object of this mode of treatment is
based on the principle that the scythe cuts after the manner of a saw ; though the teeth are not
very prominent, still the fine serrature is there ; and, to make it cut with the best effect, it must be
hooked toward the point of the blade, or in the direction of its motion, when cutting ; and the ap-
plication of the stone, as above described, produces this direction of the minute teeth in the cutting-
edge. The strokes of the stone cannot conveniently be carried over the whole length of the blade
at one throw of the hand, hence the sharpening begins at the heel, and proceeds downward ; but,
from the position described, there still remain a few inches at the point untouched ; and, to reach
this part with the stone, the mower lifts up the blade, by seizing it about the middle with the left
hand, and bringing it to a horizontal po.sition — the helve still resting partly on the ground, and
partly against his body, he is enabled to complete the process of sharpening. Throughout this oper-
ation, it is to be specially observed that, in applying the stone, it must always be held flat upon
both sides of the blade ; if this is not attended to, either the edge will not be improved, or it will
be rounded off. and the consequence of this last effect will be that the scythe will speedily be unfit
for cutting until it be re-ground.
(2236.) The strike or strickle, which is also used in the sharpening of the scythe, principally for
giving it a finer edge — though this is very frequently a mistaken notion — is formed of a piece of
hard wood, about 15 inches long, one end of which is shaped into a handle ; the body of it is some-
times IJ inches square, but in most cases it is about 2 inches broad, by | inch thick. It is coated
over with granulated emery, imbedded in a cement such as glue ; and, to produce the best effects,
the emery should be of a medium degree of fineness. The strickle being a light instrument, it is
always attached to the helve of the scythe, and is, therefore, always at hand, ready to be applied
in the event of any accidental injury to the edge of the scythe being sustained ; while the stone,
from its greater weight, can only be resorted to at the landings, where it lies in readiness.
(2237.) The hand stublile-rake. — The gleanings of the stubble is an object of considera-
ble value, and, to secure it for the benefit of the farmer, different implements are employed.
* Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. v. t Ibid., vol. yi.
(8031
388
THE BOOK OF THE FARM AUTUMN.
The principal and the most effective of them is the horse-rake ; bat, in the absence of
that machine, the hamlrake is found to serve a very good purpose. Fig. 420 is a representa-
tion of this rake, and it is of very
simple construction, the form be- Fig. 420.
ing precisely that of the hay-rake,
but of enlarsjed dimensions. The
head, a ^. is 5 feet long, and should
be made of good, tough ash, '-' j by
2 inches ; the helve c d may be 6
feet in hight, of the same material,
and furnished with a handle e that
can be fixed in any desired posi-
tion, by means of a ferule and
wedge. The helve is tenoned in-
to the head, and supported by the
iron brace /, c, ^. The teeth are
of iron, 7 inches in length, and set
at 4 inches apart, but formed in
the lower part so that the bend
rests on the ground, preventing
the points of the teeth penetrating
and mixing the earth with the
gleanings. The best method of
fixing the teeth is by a screw-nut,
as in the horse-rake, as they are
thereby easily removed in the case of being broken, without risk of injuring the head,
advisable to have the ends of the head hooped, to prevent splitting. — J. S.]
THE HAND STUBBLE-RAKE.
It is also
35. CARRYING IN AND STACKING WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS, BEANS,
AND PEASE ; AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF CARTS.
" Inwardly emiling, the proud farmer views
The risine pjTamids that grace his yard,
And counts his large increase ; his bams are stored,
And groaning staddles bend beneath their load."
SOMEBVILLE.
(2238.) It is necessary that reaped com remain for some time in stock
in the field, before it will keep in large quantities in the stack or barn. —
The length of time will, of course, depend entirely on the state of the
weather; for if the air is dry, sharp, and windy, the corn will be ready in
the shortest time — while in close, misty damp, it will require the longest
time ; but, on an average, for wheat ] week, and for barley and oats 2
weeks, will suffice. In this respect, the superiority of the mown over
reaped corn manifests itself — mown wheat being ready for the stack in 4
or 5 days, and bailey and oats in 8 or 10 — the chief cause of the difference
being the loose and open state in which mowing leaves the straw in the
sheaf.
(2<J.39.) Mere dryness to the feel does not constitute all the qualities re-
quisite for making new cut corn keep in the stack. The natural sap of the
plant must not only be evaporated from its outside, but also from its inte-
rior ; and the outside may feel quite dry, while the interior may be far
from it; and the knowledge of the latter property constitutes the whole
difficulty of judging whether or not corn will keep in the stack. There is
one criterion by which whether or not a sheaf is fit to keep may be ascer-
tained with almost certain success, which is, that if the sheaf feel quite dry,
the straws be loose and easily yield to the fingers, and the entix-e sheaf feel
light when lifted off the ground by the hand thrust through the middle of
the hand, the sheaf is ready ; for if it present all these qualities at the band,
where it is most compressed, the rest will be sure to be won. While vnn-
(804)
CARRYING IN AND STACKING CORN.
389
nincr it is as probable that the sap of the cereal grams is come ted into
woody fibre, as that of clover on being converted into hay (21o9).
r204oTThe winning of corn is comparatively an easy matter, when the
wiathe'"is d J; but, in windy and showery weathei the stooks are apt o
be blown down and become wet, and incur the trouble of setting up again
sniead olt even in dry weather, when a large proportion of young grass
spiead out, e^en "J / ^ ,^j^ ^1 i^ ^o,vn it is quite practica-
lui:t:ZZ-':^T^egZsZon, l by ..,e g^thejevs shaking the
to cut the stubble as high as the grass would be preposterous. An extia
W t-ft, would^e i-equire=d for this P-P-— ^^^ ^^P^^ «" ^^-
ery 2 ridges. Corn wins in no way so quickly a. in gait., hg 4 0
(2241 f While the first reaped corn is wmnmg in the field, the stack
vard should be put in order to receive the new crop, by removing every-
*o dinl spLe o*;- .round is appropriated to t. "■■< - '-""^traw ope",
every 2 rows of statbels, as already commented on a (,0). '""'" "P*'
Zuld also be provided for covering tbe barley-stacks, m case of thieat-
""S^rThe description of ^ HatAel or staddlei. given in (70) and a
perspe ve view in fig. 24, which is a fram.ng "f"""^.?" Vans a sola
remain in a permanent form upon stone props, made up of 3 parts— a sole
r a pHla" c and bonnet d. It has been brought to my notice that a better
tm'oJ'tShel would be to have the frame in 2 p.eces to remove mo a
<,bpd and be protected from the weather, when not m u^e. buch a mova
Se frame ^o'uld answer the purpose as well as a pernianent one ; but
when removed, the props should require to be ^•^"^°?;^5J^\^°' "^^^^^^^^^^
they will be driven over, and perhaps broken or a ^".7^^"^^^^^^^.^^' '/d
and their replacement would create a good deal ^^.^'^f ;!^ " ^^^^" ^y of
and this is i species of trouble, perhaps more «^^;;5"^^ ^^^^^ ^^^.e 'X^^
the wood of a frame 1 year or 2 sooner than it would othei wi=e ^^^- J '
the props could be made of one piece of cast-iron, ^^^-^^.^^^^f^^ ™uT,
are ; and, where stones are scarce, this material seems ^"^b^;Pf ";^.''^^^/^ 1
where stones are plenty, they make cheaper P^ops than ca.t-uon and al
though cast-iron ones would be easily removed, the ^^^^' ll^^'^^ ^^^
rest would still be liable to be broken, and the setting ^^^"^ ^S^^^ °^^
Lvel would impose considerable trouble and expense. So that, on tbe
390
THE BOOK OF THE FARM AUTUMN.
whole, such a slathel as is shown in fig. 24 will, in my opinion, answer well
for ordinary farms. The framing is made heavy, the scantlings being 9
inches in the side — a size which the Scots fir easily attains, because it is
to be permanent in its position, and to last a long time, remaining service-
able for a lease of 20 years ; but, of course, where larch is abundant,
smaller scantlings will be handier, equally strong, and last perhaps longer.
Stathels require no straw to render them fit for building stacks upon.
(2243.) A stool of straw for a stack is made in this way : Stick a fork a,
fig. 421, upright in the ground in the center of the intended site of the
Fig. 421.
THE FORMING OF A STOOL FOR A STACK ; THE LOADING OF A CART WITH SHEAVES
BUILDING OF A STACK.
AND THE
Stack. Put a quantity of dry straw around the fork, and shake it up as
you would do the litter of a horse, spreading it out to about the size and
form the stack should occupy on the ground. Take a long fork h, with the
radius of the stack marked upon its shaft — embrace the upright fork a be-
tween its prongs, and, holding its shaft at the specified distance of the ra-
dius, push in or pull out the straw with your feet, as seen from c to d, into
the shape of the circle described by youi-self in walking round the circum-
ference cf the stool.
(2244.) Having made these preparations, on the supposition that the
corn is ready to be carried in and stacked, the fir*t thing is to provide an
efficient person to fork the corn in the field to the carts — a man being the
best for the work, as he is able not only to wield the sheaves with ease,
but possesses dexterity to ])lace the sheaves in the position most convenient
for the plowman to build them on the cart; for, throwing sheaves in any
manner upon the cart makes the forking no easier for the forker, while ii
gives the plowman much additional trouble to turn the sheaves upon the
load, where his footing is not very secure. A loss of 2 or 3 minutes in-
cun-ed in this way in loading each cart makes a considerable loss upon the
day's work. The steward should build the stacks, unless he is specially
engaged with the reapers in the field, when another man should be hired
(806)
CARRYING IN AND STACKING CORN. 39]
to stack ; but on a large farm more than 1 stacker may frequently be re-
quired at a time. When more than 1 stacker is employed, each should
have the same head of carts leading to him, even when both heads are
leading from the same field, that the corn may be regularly supplied to
him.
(2245.) The cart is the vehicle employed in caiTying in corn. The
common cart, mounted with a framing called tops, is used in some parts
of the country ; while, in others, the corw-cart, different forms of which
^re represented and described below by Mr. Slight, is employed, the
body of which is put on the axle and wheels of the common cart, and
provided with ropes to hold on the load. Of the two sorts of carts for
this purpose, I prefer the corn-cart, as it carries the load lower to the
line of draught ; and it is provided with a plank, called the lead-tree,
for the plowman to stand upon when forking off the lower part of the
load.
(2246.) The horses are usually yoked double in leading time, as there is
only one man to each pair of horses ; and there may be inequalities in the
fields and roads which require the force of 2 horses to surmount. As I
have had occasion to mention the price of the harness required for the
plow, I may here enumerate those for the cart. In addition to tlie collar
and bridle, there are —
Saddle and girth 22 lbs. weight, worth £1 2 0
Breeching 10 .. ..100
Two back-bands and girth 8 .. .. 0 16 0
Cart-chains 14 .. at 7d. per lb. 0 8 2
Stretcher. ..- 0 3 0
Total 54 lbs. £3 9 2
In Forfarshire the trace-horse is harnessed in a different manner. A
broad strap is hooked to the back of the upper part of the collar, and ter-
minates at the other end in a crupper, and a haunch-strap passes down in
each side to support the trace-chain. This plan supports the stretcher
well, and prevents it falling so low as the hocks of the horse in the turn-
ings, but it confines the action of the horse by buckling the shoulder and
tail together, and when the bearing-rein is passed over the harness, the
horse's head is very much confined. Hai-ness leather is best, in the long
run, though dearest at first. Double cart-ropes measure 24 yards, single
12 yards, and cost 4-^d. per lb. Hemp and Manilla reins cost 51d. per lb.
There should always be double reins used with the cart, whether the
horses be yoked single or double. The double reins ai'e connected at the
end with a tie and loop to hang on any hook, or slip below any part of
the harness. With the collar and bridle, the shaft-horse carries 5S-1- lbs.
of harness, and the trace-horse 34^ lbs.
(2247.) In carrying the crop off the ground, the object is to do as little
injury as possible to the land with the cart-wheels, especially to young
grass ; and for this reason, as well as forming an excellent guide, the
horses should walk in the open furrow between the ridges in every alter-
nate furrow, while the wheels pass along the furrow-brow of the ridge on
each side. When corn is cut with band-won reapers, the stooks of 2
ridges being placed on 1, the cart clears the produce of 2 ridges, and the
same may be the case with mown corn, provided the bandsters are in-
Btructed to set the stooks in the same manner upon the ridges while work-
ing across them. In threaving, the stooks being set on every ridge, the
former is obliged to go from one ridge to another to clear 2 ridges, which
occasions much loss of time.
(807)
392 THE BOOK OF THE FARM AUTUMN.
(224S.) A corn-cart is loaded with sheaves in this way : The body e,
fitr, 421, is first filled with the sheaves lying with their butt-ends toward
the shaft-horse's rump at one end, and the back end of the cart at the
other. When the com is on a level with the frame or shilments of the cart,
the sheaves are then laid across the body of the cart in a row along both
sides of the frame, with the butt-ends projecting as far beyond the frame
as the band, as at f and g ; the sheaf on each corner of the frame being
held in its place by being transfixed upon a spike attached to it. Another
row of sheaves is placed above the fin-^t, and the comer ones kept in their
places by a \%-isp of corn, held fast by the band being placed under the
adioining sheaf Sheaves are then placed along the cart with their butt-
ends to both its ends, in order to hold in the first laid sheaves, and to fill
up the hollow in the middle of the Icjad. Thus row after row is placed,
and the middle of the load filled up till as much is built on as the horses
can conveniently draw, 12 large stooks being a good load. It should be
ascertained that the load is neither back-laden nor too heavy upon the
horse's back ; and, indeed, if the cart has been evenly laden according to
its form, there is no risk of either inconvenience being felt by the shaft-
horse. A load thus built will have the butt ends of all the sheaves on the
outside, and the corn-ends in the inside.
(2249.) The roj)es are then thrown over the load to keep it from jolting
off the cart upon the road, and in necessarily crossing gaw-cuts in the fields.
There is usually a rinsr in the back-bar of the cart to which the rope is
fastened by the middle, whence it is wound round each back-stay ;
but fastening the rope round the back-stays will answer without a ring.
The ropes are then thrown across the load diagonally to the opposite an-
gles in the front of the cart, and one end is made fast to each shaft, with
as much force as the forker can exert on the ground, with the assistance
of the plowman on the top of the load. The crossing of the ropes pre-
vents the load splitting asunder over the sides of the cart, while it is jolted
along the road. Some plowmen profess to show their dexterity in build-
ing loads of com, and of bringing them to the stack-yard without the as-
sistance of ropes; but there is no use of running the risk of losinertime
by breaking the load and strewing the road with sheaves. Such a fate at-
tended the first load I tried to build even with the assistance of ropes.
When the com is mown, a woman is usually employed to rake the ground
on which the stooks stood, because they were set upon the giound at the
time of mowing before it was raked.
(2250.) When com is fit for stacking, the canning is continued from
break of day to twilight, provided there be no heavy dew at morning or
night. From a little after sunrise to a little after sunset, the corn may be
taken in with great safety. It is customaiy, in some parts of the country,
to keep the horses in the yoke when employed at leading, and feed them
with com from nose-bags, while the carter is taking his cinner, and to
g^ve them green food, such as tares, while the cart is unloading at the
stack. . In other parts the horses are taken out of the yoke, watered, and
put into the stable, where they receive their corn while the men are at
dinner. This is the best way for the horses, though it usually puts off one
hour of the best part of the day before the horses again take the road,
whereas half an hour in the other case is quite sufficient for the men to
dine, and the horses to eat their feed of corn. Some horses are apt to
take fright, owing, no doubt, to the mode in which they had been broke
in, when the bridles are temporarily slipped off their head for the pui-pose
of taking the bit out of their mouth, to allow them to eat the tares with
freedom ; and, to avoid such an accident with a horse known to be easily
(808J
CARRYING IN AND STACKING CORN. 393
fi-ightened, its bit should be made to fasten with a small strap and buckle
to the near side of the biidle.
(2251.) A load of tares is brought to the steading fresh in the morning
for the horses. They are not fit for the use of horses until the pods are
pretty well filled with grain, prior to which state they are apt to purge and
weaken them, when subjected to much work in the cart, as in the time of
carrying in corn. For cows it matters not how succulent tares may be, as
they yield much milk on them ; and, indeed, no other green food is so
productive of milk,
(2252.) In setting a loaded cart to the stool or stathel of a stack, it
should be studied to let the plowman have the advantage of any wind go-
ing in forking the sheaves from the cart. The stack should be built in
this way : Set up a couple of sheaves against each other in the center of
the stathel, and another couple against them in the other direction. Pile
others against these in rows around the center, with a slope downward
toward the circumference of the stathel, each row being placed half the
length of the sheaf beyond the inner one, till the circumference is com-
pleted, when it should be examined, and where any sheaf presses too hard
upon another, it should be relieved, and where there is slackness, another
sheaf should be introduced. Keeping the circumference of the stack on
the left hand, the stacker lays the sheaves upon the outside row round
the stack, putting each sheaf with his hands as close to the last set one as
he can get it, and pressing each sheaf with both his knees, as represented
at h, fig. 421. When the outside row is thus laid, an inside one is made,
wdth the butt end of the sheaves resting on the bands of the outside row,
thereby securing the outside sheaves in their places, and at the same time
filling up the body of the stack firmly with sheaves, as seen at i. A few
more sheaves may be required as an inmost row still, to fill up and make
the heart of the stack its highest part. It is of immense benefit to a stack
to have its center well filled with sheaves, as it is the heart-sheaves which
retain the outside ones in their places with an inclination downward froni
the center to the circumference ; and this position of the outside sheaves
is necessary to prevent the rain finding a passage along the straw into the
very heart of the stack, where, of course, it would find its way easily,
were the sheaves to lie with an inclination downward to the center of the
stack, and where it would soon spoil the corn. The sheaves are then said
to take in j>en-wet. The number of rows required to fill the body of a
stack depends on the length of the straw and the diameter of the stack.
In crops of ordinary length of straw, such as from 4^ to 5 feet, a stack of
15 feet diameter is well adapted; and 1 inside row, along the bands of the
outside one, with a few sheaves laid across one another in the center, will
make the stack completely hearted. AVhere much wheat is raised, and
which often reaches from 5 to 6 feet in length, the stack should be 18 feet
in diameter, to give room for hearting. In a stack of 15 feet, the breadth
is rather too much for the plowman to fork heavy sheaves across to the
stacker, when the stack attains a certain hight, and when the load in the
cart becomes low ; and the stacker should always receive the sheaves
within his reach, as he cannot rise from his knees to take them without
much loss of time, and risk of making bad work. To expedite the build-
ing, a field-worker h should stand on the stack, to pitch the sheaves with
a short fork to the stacker in the position they are wanted by him, to save
him the trouble of turning them, as the sheaf Z is shown in the cut. By a
little management, the field-worker may receive every sheaf as the plow-
man pitches it from his fork upon her fork, and prevent it falling upon the
stack until she throws it in its proper position beside the right hand of
(809)
394 THE BOOK OF THE FARM AUTUMN.
the stacker ; and in doing this she should not give him more sheaves than
1 by 1 as he builds them ; nor should she receive them faster from the
plowman than the stacker can build them, for no time is gained, but lost,
in piling more sheaves upon the stack than the stacker can dispose of.
The proper relative })(isitioiis of the plowman m and the field-worker /, for
thus giving and receiving the sheaves, are endeavored to be represented
by those figures in the cut,
(2253.) As every cart is unloaded, the stacker descends to the ground,
by means of a ladder, and trims the stack, by pushing in with a fork the
end of any sheaf that projects farther than the rest, and by pulling out any
that may have been j)laced too far in. It seems to be considered necessaiy
to make the stack swell out as it proceeds in higlit, if we may judge from
common practice ; but it is not necessary to swell it out in the building, in
order to throw ofl" the drops of rain from the eaves — for the spreading of
the eaves by the stack itself, in settling down after it has been built for a
few days, is quite sufficient to throw off the drops. The leg of the stack
may, therefore, be carried up nearly perpendicular.
(2254.) As the stack rises in bight with cart-load after cart-load, the
ti'imming cannot conveniently be done with a fork ; a thin, flat board, about
20 inches in length and 10 inches broad, nailed firmly to a long shaft, is an
appropriate instrument for beating in the projecting ends of the sheaves,
and giving the body of the stack a unifoi-m roundness. A stack of 15 feet
in diameter should ultimately stand 12 feet high in the leg; andan allow-
ance of 1 foot, or 1^ feet, for subsidence, after the top is finished, accord-
ing to the firmness of its building, is generally made. The bight is meas-
ured with the ladder, and, allowing 2 feet for the bight of the stathcl, a 15-
feet ladder will just give the required measure of the bight of the leg be-
fore the top is set on. The eaves of the stack are formed according to the
mode in which it is to be thatched. If the ropes are to be placed lozenge-
shaped, the row of sheaves which forms the eaves is placed a little within
the topmost outside row ; and, after the top is fully finished, its slope will
be the same as that of a roof — namely, 1 foot less of pei-pendicular hight
than half the diameter. In finishing the top, every successive row of
sheaves is taken as much farther in as to give this requisite slope ; and the
beveled bottoms of sheaves, as they stand in the stook, answer this purpose
well — the hearting being particularly attended to in every row, till the
space in the center of the stack is limited to an area upon which 4 sheaves
can stand with their tops uniting, and their butt-ends spreading out to give
a conical form to the top ; and these sheaves are kept firm in their place
against gusts of wind with a straw-rope wound round them and fastened
to the sheaves below. If the thatching is made with heavy ropes, running
from the rop of the stack to its eaves, the eaves-row of sheaves is made to
project 2 or 3 inches beyond the upper rbw of the body of the stack, and
the slope of the top is foiTned from the point of projection of the eaves,
and the top finished as in the other mode. The field-worker remains on
the top as long as she has footing to hand the sheaves to the stacker. —
Thus, as one stack is finished, another is founded on the adjoining stathel,
and, as one is finished on a stool of straw, another stool should be ready to
have another founded upon it.
(2255.) There is seldom leisure to thatch stacks as long as there is com
to carry in, and the finer the weather the less leisure will be found. A
damp day, however, which prevents leading, answers very well for thatch-
ing, as the straw is not the worse of being a little damp ; but in heavy rain
it would be improper to thatch and cover up so many wet ends of sheaves
as the top of a stack contains. But, before thatching can be carried on,
(810)
CARRYING IN AND STACKING CORN. 395
preparations should be made for it some time before — that is, straw should
be drawn in bundles, and ropes twisted ready to be used ; and a rainy day
in harvest cannot be better appropriated than to such purposes. The straw
is drawn in handsful out of one another, till the individual straws become
parallel, when the handsful are carefully laid together till as much as a
thick bundle is drawn, and the bundle is then tied in the middle with a
piece of straw-rope, which is the quickest mode, or with a thumb-rope.
(2:^56.) Straw is twisted into rope with different instruments and in dif-
ferent styles. The simplest instrument is the old-fashioned throw-crook.
It is used in this way : The left hand holds by the ring at the end of the
shank, and round the point of the head is received a wisp of straw from
the person who is to let it out to be spun. The right hand holds the
middle of the shank loosely, and causes the head to revolve round an
axis, formed by the imaginary line between the head and ring, and the
twister walks backward while operating with the instrument. The person
who lets out the straw sits still on a stool, or on bundles of straw, and,
using the left hand nearly closed, restrains the straw in it till sufficiently
twisted, and then lets it out gradually, while the right hand supplies the
straw in equal and sufficient quantities to make the rope equal throughout,
the twister taking away the rope to the requisite length as fast as the spin-
ner lets it out. The spinner then winds the rope firmly on his left hand
in an ovoidal ball, the twister advancing toward him, as fast as the spinner
coils the rope, with a hold of the end which secures the ball firm. In the
Borders the spinner lets out the straw with both hands, while stooping
with his head down and his back turned to the twister ; but the I'ope made
in this manner is always thick and rough, compared to the other mode. —
A woman is usually employed as the twister, and a man as the spinner.
It is great ease to the left hand of the twister to have the crook fastened
round her middle with a piece of stout straw-rope. The best sort of straw
for rope is that of the common or Angus oat, being soft and pliable, and it
makes a firm, smooth, small rope. An ordinary length of a straw-rope
may be taken at 30 feet. Counting every interruption, a straw-rope of
this length may take 5 minutes in the making — that is, 120 ropes in 10
hours: a man's wages 20d., and a woman's lOd., making together 2s. 6d.,
will make the cost of twisting a single rope just 1 farthing. Straw-ropes
are twisted in quite a different way, with a machine similar to the one used
by rope-makers to twist their cords. In using it the twister sits still,
while the spinners carry the straw under their arm, and move backward
as they let out the straw. The spinners then wind the rope upon
the left hand, and advance, during the winding, toward the machine,
where they are ready to begin to spin again. Usually 3 spinners let
out to 1 twister, and as they can spin as fast with this machine as with
the crook, the cost of making each rope will be less than that given
above ; but an inconvenience attends the use of this twister — when one
of the spinners breaks his rope, he is thrown out of work till the others
begin a new rope ; and all the spinners must let out with the same ve-
locity, otherwise one will make a longer or a harder-twisted rope than
the other.
(2258.) It is the duty of field-workers to fetch bundles of straw and
straw-ropes to the thatchers as they are wanted.
(2259.) Having the materials ready — drawn straw and straw-ropes — the
covering or thatching of a stack is done in this manner : On the thatcher
ascending to the top of the stack by means of a ladder, which is immedi-
ately taken away, a bundle or two of straw is forked up to him by his as-
sistant, a field-worker, and which he keeps beside him behind a graip, as
(811)
396
THE BOOK OF THE FARM AUTUMN.
noticed in covering the hay-stack (2134). The straw is first laid upon the
eaves, beyond whicli it projects a few inches, and then in an overlapping
manner upward to tlie top. Where a butt-end of a sheaf projects, it should
he beaten in, and, where a hollow occurs, it should be filled up with a lit-
tle additional straw. In this manner the straw is evenly laid all round the
top of the stack, to the spot where the thatcher began. Suppose he has
laid the covering on the top of the stack, fig. 422, all round to the line from
a to h, before closing up
which he makes the top f^'S- 422.
a, consisting of a small
bundle of well-drawn long
straw, tied firmly at one
end with a piece of cord ;
the tied end is cut square
with a knife, as shown at
a, and the loose end is
spread upon the covering
and forms the finishing to
it. To secure the top in
its place, a straw-rope
is thrown down by the
thatcher from a to d, the
end of which his assistant
on the ground fastens to
the side of the stack. —
After passing the other
end of the same rope
round the top, he throws
it downin the same direc-
tion, where it is also fast-
ened to the stack. In like
manner, he throws down the lozenge mode of roping the covering of a stack.
both the ends of a rope
from a to c, where they are also fastened hy the assistant. These 2 ropes
are seen at e and f. Having thus secured the top, the thatcher closes in
the covering from a to h, when the ladder is placed to receive him. Tak-
ing the ladder to c, he inclines its top over the covering of the stack, and
secures its lower end from slipping outward by a graip thrust against it
into the ground, He then mounts and stands upon the ladder at the re-
quisite hight above the eaves at c, and there receives a number of ropes
from his assistant, which he keeps beside him, between the ladder and the
stack. Holding on by the end of a coil of rope, he throws the coil from
where he stands at c down in the direction of d, to his assistant, who, tak-
ing it in hand, allows the thatcher to coil it up again upon his hand, with-
out ruffling the covering of the stack, till of sufficient length to be fastened
to the side of the stack. The thatcher then throws the other newly coiled
end in the same direction of d, where, on his assistant taking hold of it,
the thatcher retains the rope in his hands by the double, and places it in
its position at g, a little way below e, and keeps it in its place till the as-
sistant pulls it tightly down and makes it fast to the stack like the other
end. Thus the thatcher puts on every rope below g, till the last one on
that side has reached h. He then takes the ladder to d, where he puts on
every rope below f, till they reach the last one, i. Ropes thus placed fi-om
opposite sides of a stack cross e^ch other in the diamond or lozenge shape
represented in the figure. It will be seen that a windy day will not an-
(812)
CARRYING IN AND STACKING CORN. 397
8wer for laying on the covering of stacks. To give the thatch-straw a
smoothness, it should be stroked dowoa v\dth a long, supple rod of willow ;
and to give the ropes a firm hold, they should receive a tap here and there
with the fork, while the assistant is pulhng the last end tight. The thatch-
er is obliged to throw down the rope at first coiled, and to coil up again
the second end before it is thrown down, because the loose ends of straw-
ropes would not descend within reach of the assistant. The ends of the
ropes are fastened to the stack by pulling a handful of straw from a sheaf
a little out of the stack, and winding the rope round it ; and the knot thus
formed is pushed between the rope and stack, and keeps the rope tight. —
On such a stack, which is 15 feet diameter at the base, 17 feet diameter at
the eaves, 12 feet high in the leg, and 6^ feet high in the top, 10 ropes on
each side are quite sufficient to rope it.
(2260.) It is seldom that the covering of a stack is finished when the
straw and ropes are first put on — the stack being placed beyond danger,
others are covered to the same state, and the finishing is left till more leis-
ure is found ; and, indeed, all the stacks to be early threshed seldom re-
ceive the finishing work at all. Many farmers only finish the outside rows
of stacks. However, as I am speaking of the subject just now, I shall de-
scribe the finishing process at once. An eaves-rope, k I, fig. 422, is spun
long and strong enough to go round the stack. Wherever 2 ropes from
opposite directions cross at the eaves-rope, they are passed round it, and,
being cut short with a knife, are fastened to the stack, immediately below
the projecting part of the thatch over the eaves. Thus the 2 ends of all
the 20 ropes are fastened to the stack, and the thatch is cut with a knife
round the eaves, in the form shown from dhy b to c.
(2261.) Another mode of roping the covering of a stack is shown in fig.
423, where the covering being put as described above, ropes are put over
the crown of the stack all round,
from a to h, a to c, a to d, &c. —
These ropes, at their crossing over
the top, are fastened together by a
rope, which is tied above them, and
cut off in the form of a rosette, as
at a. The ropes which cross these
are either put on spirally from the
top a, till they terminate at d, or
put on separately in bands, paral-
lel to the eaves-rope ef. In either
case they are twisted round each
crown-rope, from the top to the
eaves, as h is seen twisted round,
a d, a c, and a b, by g, till it reach-
es the point h again. The crown- a stack.
ropes, such as a b, a c, and d d, are
made to pass round the eaves-rope ef, and fastened to the stack under the
projecting covering ; and the covering is cut short round the eaves, from
€ to f, in the manner desciibed above. This mode of roping, though re-
quiring fully more ropes than the last, perfectly secures the thatch against
the strongest winds ; though the crown-ropes may be fewer in number than
shown in the figure.
(2262.) There is still another mode of roping the covering of a stack,
and it is applicable to the heads of all stacks whose eaves are formed of a
row of sheaves projecting beyond the body of the stack. It is shown in
fig. 424, and is in common use in Berwickshire. The first thing done is
(813)
Fig. 423.
THE NET WORK MODE OF COVERING AND ROPING
398 THE BOOK OF THE FARM AUTUMN.
to put a strong eaves-rope round the stack, below the projecting row of
slieaves from a to b. The straw is then put on much the same way as be-
fore described, but rather thicker, and it projects farther beyond the eaves.
The tops of the finishing sheaves
of the stack are pressed down, ^^^- ^~*-
and a rather hirge, hard bundle
of short straw is placed upon
them, to serve as a cushion for
the ropes to rest upon, and which
is put on after most of the cover-
ing has been laid on. The thatch-
er then perches himself upon the
top of the hard bundle, where he
receives the ropes as they are
wanted, and, on being thrown to
him, he catches them readily on
the point of a long fork. Some the border method of covering and roping
dexterity is required to throw a ^ corn-stack.
coil of straw-rope to the top of a
stack. The best position to do it is to stand as far from the stack as to see
the thatcher fully in the face, and clear of the head of the stack ; then, lo
take the coil by the small end, pitch it upward with a full swing of the arm
toward the thatcher's feet, and he will catch it firmly on the prongs of the
fork ; if aimed to a higher level, the fork will be almost certain of missing
it — the critical position of the thatcher not allowing him to turn his body,
but only to move his arms. Uncoiling the half of a rope, the thatcher
throws it past the eaves to his assistant, who fastens that end, and while
this is doing he throws the other half of the coil down in the opposite di-
rection, across the top of the stack, to another assistant, who fastens it to
the stack at ihe opposite side : 1 assistant may suffice, by tying first one
end of the rope, and then the other ; but, with 2 assistants, this mode of
roping is conducted with great celerity. Thus, rope after rope is thrown,
to the number of 30, before the top of stack is sufficiently roped, as seen
in the figure, from c to d, e, f, &c. The n.pes, where they cross at the
top, are tied together with a piece of straw-rope, to prevent their slipping
offi The difficult part of this mode of roping is in finishing the eaves —
which, if well done, looks remarkably neat, but, if otherwise, is apt lo have
a slovenly appearancie. In finishing, the ends of the ropes are loosened
from the stack, and passed between the eaves-rope and stack, and, on be-
ing bro.ught upward, are passed behind the ropes themselves, about 8 or 9
inches above the eaves-rope. The end of the first rope, suppose c d thus
fastened, with the part of the covering which projects beyond the eaves,
are brought along the face of the eaves, and the second rope r f is placed
over them before it is passed below the eaves-rope and turned upward, and
passed behind itself The end of the first rope, that of the second, and the
projecting covering, are then all brought along the face of the eaves, and
the third rope c y is placed over them, and treated like the 2 preceding,
and thus all the way round the stack with both ends of the 30 ropes. The
last finish is made by bringing the ends of the 2 or 3 last ropes along the
face of the eaves, behind the 2 or 3 first ropes. It will be observed that,
while the end of one rope fails to go beyond its length, the end of another
rope is gained, so that the band of ropes along the face of the eaves re-
mains about the same breadth round the stack. The ropes between the
eaves and top are held down by 4 or 8 ropes, a h b, g i, k i, which are 80
(814)
CARRYING IN AND STACKING CORN. 399
thrown across as to quarter the top of the stack, and their ends are fastened
to the eaves-rope.
(2264.) There are still other modes of thatching stacks, such as sticking
in handsful of straw into the butt-end of the sheaves, and keeping them
down with stobs of willow, or with tarred twine, both in imitation of the
thatching of cottages ; and they are modes in which the use of straw-ropes
are dispensed with altogether. Whichever may be the plan adopted, the
chief object should be to secure the corn in the stack in a dry state, with
the least trouble and expense. Of all the modes in practice, I see none
more efficient and better-looking than the lozenge-shaped ropino- of fio-
421. o r 1 o o-
(2264.) Where rough grass is found on a farm, such as on a bog which
is partially dry in summer, I would suggest its being mown and sheafed,
for covering stacks. A day or two spent in mowing such grass, after the'
harvest is over, are well spent, even at the rate of wages and food of ordi-
nary harvest-work. Not only does this stuff save the drawing of good
straw where it is scarce, but of itself forms good covering for stacks which
are sooQ to be threshed; and, by the time it has serve°d the purpose of
thatch, it will be dry enough to litter courts, and thereby add to the ma-
nure-heap. Reeds might be used in the same way, where they do not find
a profitable market as thatch for cottages.
(2265.) These are the usual modes of stacking and covering stacks of
vvheat, barley and oats, in good weather ; but in wet weather many expe-
dients in stacking are tried to preserve the corn from heating, and it is ne-
cessary you should be made acquainted with them to put them in practice
when required. The most common expedient is to erect a pyramid of 3
small trees or weedlngs of larch or Scots fir, tied together at the top, and
fastened together by the sides with thin fillets of wood. Around this'pyr-
amid is the stack built, and its use is to form a hollow space in the center
of the stack, into which the air may have access. These structures are
commonly called bosses. When placed on a stathel, the air enters them
directly from below, but, when on the ground, it is requisite to form an
opening from the outside of the stack to the boss, by means of a low tres-
sle ; and if a tressle is placed on each side of a stack, and the position of
both chosen with regard to the direction from which the wind most pre-
yails, a complete circulation of air may be maintained through the stack.
The greatest inconvenience felt in the use of this form of boss is that, on
the stack subsiding, its sharp point is apt to pass to one side of the center
of the top, and thereby to give a high shoulder to the stack ; and it is well
known that rain is almost certain of entering a stack by such a shoulder.
(2265.) In wet weather corn is built in small stacks even in the stack-
yard ; and should the weather prove settled wet, a dry moment should be
seized to put 2 or 3 stooks into what are called hand-huts in the field, that
IS, small stacks built by hand, by a person standing on the ground. Some-
times corn is built on a head-ridge of the field, instead of being carried to
the stack-yard, as the same strength of men and horses will stack more
corn in this way in a single fine day, than carry it to the stack-yard ; and
the stacks derive more benefit from the air in the field than in the yard.
Ihese stacks are_ also thatched in the field, and carried to the threshing-
niachine some time during the winter. It is not an uncommon practice
of some farmers to build a portion of their crop in the field every year ;
but the practice is not commendable, for, besides the trouble and dirt
created in can-ying straw for thatch to the field, as much confusion and
dirt are created in carrying the corn to the steading in winter, when some
of it cannot fail to be shaken out of the sheaves, and when the stacks
(815)
400 THE BOOK OF THE FARM AUTUMN.
wanted cannot, perhaps, be brought in for a track of bad \yeather ox
throui^h deep snow. A scheme may bo justifiable under pecuhar circum-
stances, which would be wrong in ordinary practice ; and this is one of
them.
(2266.) Of the 3 species of cereal grains, barley is most liable to heat in
the stack, partly owinj^ to the soft and moist quality of its straw, and
partly because clover is always mixed with it ; and, on these accounts, it
is advisable, in most seasons, to make barley-stacks smaller than others,
both in diameter and bight, and always to support them with prismatic
bosses. Much care should be bestowed, not only by the use of these ex-
pedients, but on building barley-stacks safely with proper hearting, to
prevent heating; for the least touch of heat spoils it for malting purposes,
and mailing barley always carries the highest price in the market. Be-
sides injuring the grain, heating compresses barley-straw very firmly to-
gether, and, in fact, soon rots it. When a single stack only is seen to
heat, it may be instantly carried into the barn and threshed, the air attend-
ing which will cool both grain and straw ; but when a number show symp-
toms of leaning on one side, about 24 hours after being built, or exhibit a
depression in the top, a little above the eaves, you may suspect heating
not only to have commenced, but to have proceeded to a serious degree.
An incipient symptom of heating is when moisture is observed on any part
of the top of a stack early in the morning, delicately indicated by cob-
webs, before the sun has evaporated it ; and, when heated air is felt, or
steam seen to rise from the top of a stack, the symptom is unequivocal.
Heated barley lubricates the parts of the threshing-machine with a gummy
matter. Oats are less apt to heat than barley, though their heat is stronger.
If there is the least sap remaining in the joints of the straw, oats will be
sure to heat in the stalk. Heating gives to oat straw and grain a reddish
tinge, and renders the stravv quite unfit for fodder, and the grain bitter
and unpalatable, both to horses, in the shape of corn, and the people in
that of meal. Wheat seldom heats, but, when it does, the heat is most
violent. I never saw stacks of wheat heated but once, when it was fool-
ishly led into the stack-yard the day after it was reaped. Partial heating
will be induced in stacks by leaning over after being finished in building,"
when the compressed part may be expected to heat ; and to avoid the
tendency of a stack leaning to one side or another, a safe practice is to
set props loosely round a stack, to guide it in its subsidence, especially if
it has been rapidly built ; but it should be borne in mind that if one prop
is pushed harder in than the others, it will cause the stack to swerve from
it. Some stacks begin to sway the moment the top is put on, and such
should be supported with props to keep them, right.
(22G7.) Tn filling a stack-yard, respect should be had to the convenience
of taking in the stacks to be threshed as they are wanted. As barley is
the sort of grain first disposed of in the market, the barley-stacks should
be built nearest the barn, except those intended for seed. Wheat, except
in very fine seasons, is seldom firm enough to be presented to market till
the spring, and on that account may be built on the outside of the stack-
yard, and wheat-stacks grace a stack-yard well. Oats are wanted at all
times, for horses and fodder, and should, therefore, be always at hand, as
the stack-yard becomes cleared. Consideration in these particulars saves
a great deal of trouble and confusion in bringing in stacks to be threshed.
(2268.) With regard to the carrying of beans and pease, they are usu-
ally the last of being brought into the stack-yard, and particularly beans.
The bundles of pease are turned in the field till they are won, when they
are rolled up in smaller bundles, and tied by a wisp of their own straw.
(ei6)
TWISTING STRAW-HOPE. 401
Pease-Straw is very apt to compress in the stack, and, of course, to beat,
and should therefore be built with bosses, either in round stacks or oblong
ones, like a hay-stack. The largest stack of corn I ever saw was one of
pease, which was 150 yards in length ; but there was an opening in it, in
which any person could have walked upright through the entire length of
the stack. When pease become very dry in the field before they are led,
the pods are apt to open and spill the corn, particularly in sunny weather;
and to avoid this loss, the crop is usually brought quickly into the stack-
yard, and built in ventilated stacks. Beans are a long time of winning
in the field in calm weather. As it is desirable to have the land they
grf)W on plowed up for wheat, they are not unfrequently carried to a lea
field and stodked upon it, till ready to be stacked. Being hard and open
in the straw, they keep pretty well in small stacks, though not quite won,
and the risk of keeping is worth running in dry weather after much rain,
when the pods are very apt to burst and spill the corn on the ground. In
building pease and beans, the sheaves are not laid with nicety, nor do the
stacks receive much trimming, the pease none at all, the beans with the
back of a shovel. Thatching pease and bean stacks is conducted in the
same manner as described above ; but less pains are bestowed in finishing
them off. As, however, a good deal of corn is exposed on the outside of
those stacks, the thatching is not unfrequently brought down their legs,
and kept on by rcfpes.
(2269.) In connection with this latter subject, I may mention that when
corn is mown in a slovenly manner, a good deal of heads of grain may be
observed exposed to the air on the outside of the stacks ; and to save these,
the stacks are shaved down with the blade of a scythe, fastened length-
wise on a shaft, upon the barn-sheet laid upon the ground to receive the
shaved-off corn. This process not only saves the grain, but gives a smooth-
ness to the appearance of the stack, and prevents the mixing of sprouted
grain among good samples from the body of the stack, and which mix-
ture would inevitably occur were the grain on the outside allowed to be
exposed to the weather. The shaving, it is obvious, should be done im-
, mediately after the stack has subsided, and even before, if there is ap-
pearance of rain ; and it is easily done, and does not occupy much time..
(2270.) These are all the particulars which occur to me to say on bring-
ing in the crop. In conclusion, I may advise you not to imitate those
farmers who, because they are gratified on having their crop safe in the
stack-yard, seem regardless of the state of the stack-yard itself, and leave
it for a lonp^ time littered with the refuse of the thatching straw, which,
when it becomes wetted with rain, is not only useless as litter elsewhere,
but soon heats, and causes an unpleasant odor around the stacks. The
spare straw should be removed immediately after it is of no use in. the
stack-yard, either to the straw-barn, if it is drawn and bundled, or, if loose-,
into the sheds of the hammels, where it will be I'eady for littering the cat-
tle that may soon be expected to occupy the hammels for their winter
quarters. The ground should be raked clean; the air will then become
sweet, the stacks have free circulation of it among them, and the poultry
will have the opportunity to pick up every particle of grain that had fallen
upon the ground. This act of cleanliness being done, the stack-yard gates
may be shut, and the labors of the farm, in so far as they concern the
crop, may be said to have been brought to a termination.
(2271.) [The tkrmecrook, fig. 425, is an instrument that has been long in use for the purpose of
spinning or twisting straw-ropes, and is one of those primitive inventions that required only the
cutting of the first crooked sapling that might come to hand : for though our figure represents an
artificially formed implement, any piece of bent material will answer equally well, all that is re-
quired being such a form as will give it the character of what we now denominate a crank, and
(873) 36
402
THE BOOK OF THE FARM AUTUMN.
to have a swivel-joint at the end, to allow it to turn freely and independent of that appendaee by
which it is attached to the body, or to the left hand of the person who turns it The implement
represented in fie. 425 is made of a piece of toa^h ash, about 3J feet lone; the beut part is
thinned off until it is capable of being bent to the curve, and is there retained by the iron stay a,
the part b being left projecting beyond the stay, for the attachment of the first end of the rope
that is to be made. The end c is fumislied with ferule and swivel-ring, by which it is attached
to the peracm, by a cord passed round the waist In using the implement, the rope-maker is sta-
donar}', usually sitting beside the straw, and the spinner moves backward as the rope extends.
Pig. 425.
Fig. 426.
THE THKOW-CROOK.
THE STRAW-ROPE SPINNER.
(0272.) The straic-rope spinner, fig. 426, is a machine of recent introduction to the operations
of the harvest season, and is of considerable importance in facilitating the process of straw-rope
making. Comparing it with the old instrument, the throw-crook, the advantage is considerable ;
for with that two people must be occupied in the making of one rope, whereas with the spinner
four people only are required to make three ropes, being a saving of one-third of the time occu-
pied by the old practice. The spinner has been constructed in various forms, though exhibiting
but two distinct varieties of the machine — the first distinguished by the spinner being stationarj-,
and the rope-maker moving away from it : the second by the rope-maker being stationary, and
the spinner moving away fi-om him. The first kind is found to be the best in practice, and I have
therefore chosen an example of it for illustration. Fig. 426 is a view of the machine, consisting
of a sole-frame, o, a, measuring about 2 feet each way. with an upright post b tenoned into tlii
sole, and carrj-ing the cross-head c d. The cross-head is a hollow box or case, adapted to contain
the machinerj- of the spinner, consisting of 5 light spur-wheels, about 6 inches diameter, placed as
Been in the case c d. Of these, the central and the two extreme wheels are mounted npon axles,
which terminate in the hooks e, e, e ; tlie other two wheels being merely placed intermediate, to
produce revolution in the three principals in one direction. A winch-handle, f, is fixed upon the
axle of the central wheel, on the side opposite to the hooks; and, to prevent the machine from
moving with the strain of the ropes, a few stones, or other weichty substances, are laid upon the
Bole-firaroe. The machine is then put in operation by the driver turning the handle, and the three
rope-makers, each with a quantity of straw under his arm. commences his rope by binding a few
Mraws round the hook appropriated to him.<!elf. He then proceeds backward, letting out the
straw as ha advances, and the rope takes the twist, until the length required is completed, when
each man coils up his rope into an oval ball.
(2273.) Some machines of this form are mounted on wheels, thereby coming under the charac-
ter of the second kind, when the rope-maker is stationan.- ; but great inconvenience must attend
any attempt at working in this manner. Another form of the machine adapted to work, as one
•f the second kind, is that which is strapped to the body of the driver, he moving away from the
stationary rope-niakers. This method also is attended with inconvenience, especially to the driv-
er, who, baving tiie machine strapped in front of his body, the handle being at the end. and the
machinery consisting of bevel-gear, having the external form of the cross-head alone of fig. 426,
the handle is brought so near to his bo<iy that much of tlie muscular force of the arm is lost by this
misapplication. By using a well constructed machine for straw-rope spinning, not only is there a
saving of expense efiected. but the ropes are much better twisted, and. of course, stronger than
those made by the old implement. The price is from .12 5s, to X2 10s. — J. S.]
(2274.) Cart-ropes last according to tlie care bestowed on them. When used with the corn-
cart they should never be allowed to touch the ground, as earthy matter, of whatever kind, soon
causes them to rot On being loosened when the load of com is to be delivered to the stacker,
they should be coiled up before the load is disposed of, and the coil suspended from the back part
of the cart quite clear of the ground. A soft rope holds much more firmly, and is less apt to eat,
than a hard one.
1874)
DRAFTING EWES AND GIMMERS. 403
36. DRAFTING EWES AND GIMMERS, TUPPING EWES, AND BATHING
AND SMEARING SHEEP.
" But rather these, the feeble of thy flock.
Banish before the autumnal months : even age " The ewes, being rank,
Forbear too much to favor ; oft renew. In the end of autumn turned to the rams."
And through thy fold let joyous youth appear."
Dyer. Merchant op Venice.
(2275.) When last speaking of sheep, the lambs were weaned and buist-
ed. One of the processes among sheep in early autumn, in the beginning
of August, is drafting ewes and, ghnmers — that is, separating those to be
disposed of from those to be kept. Drafting, however, applies only to a
standing flock of ewes, By a standing flock is meant a fixed number of
ewes, which are made to rear their lamb year after year. Instead of hav-
ing a standing flock, some farmers are in the custom of buying every year
a flock of ewes big with lamb, receiving the lambs from them, and dispos-
ing of both ewe and lamb at such a season as best suits the market for
those respective sorts of stock. The ewes ai-e sold in autumn to be fed on
turnips, and the lambs are disposed of, after being weaned, to rearers of
sheep who breed none. Such a one is called a flying-jiock. Of course,
flying-stock require no drafting ; where all are disposed of, none obtain
the preference of being kept.
(2276.) There are various marks of deterioration which determine the
drafting o^ ewes. Bareness of hair on the croicn of the head, which makes
them obnoxious to the attacks of fly in summer — deficiency in eyesight,
which prevents them keeping with the flock, and choosing out the best
parts of pasture and best points of shelter — ill-shaped teeth and jaws, which
disable them from masticating their food so well as they should — loant of
teeth from old age, when, of course, they cannot rope sufficient food to sup-
port their lambs — hollow neck, which indicates breeding too near akin —
hollow hack, which implies weakness in the vertebral column, thereby ren-
dering them unfit to bear lambs to advantage— ^/?ai! ribs, which confine the
space for the foetus within the abdominal region — a drooping tail-head,
which affects the length of the hind-quarter, a space occupied by superior
flesh — had feet, which prevent traveling with ease along with their com-
panions— roimd and coarse hone, which indicates coarseness of flesh — thin
or short coat of wool, which lessens the clip and the profit of wool — dis-
eased teat or udder, which diminishes the supply of milk for the future
progeny — scarcity of viilk, by which lambs, not obtaining sufficient nour-
ishment in the early period of their existence, are stinted in growth, and
weakened in constitution — carelessness of disposition, which induces neglect
of the lamb, particularly one of twins, which is in consequence ill-nursed —
producing worthless lamh, by which profits are much diminished — missing
being in lamh, a failing which is apt to recur in any future year — casting
lamb, a propensity likely to recur every year — rottenness, which is, of
course, objectionable in every animal that produces young — shortness of
breath, which prevents them seeking their food, and eating so much of it
as they should — tendency to scouring, or the opposite, the former imposing,
weakness, the latter inducing inflammation — delicacy of constitution, which
disables them from withstanding the ordinary changes of the weather —
diminutitje stature, or inordinate size, which destroys the uniformity of the
(875)
404 THE BOOK OF THE FARM AUTUMN.
flock. This is a long list of faults incidental to ewes, and yet every one
may be observed, and which every breeder of sheep is desirous to get rid of.
(2277.) It is not at all probable that any flock of ewes presents all these
objectionable qualities in one season ; but, notwithstanding this favorable
circumstance, it is not in the power of the breeder to draft every ewe hav-
ing an objectionable property every year, because, the farm supporting a
stated number of ewes, the extent of their draft depends on the number
oi good substitutes which may be obtained from the gimmers ; for it is ob-
vious no good object is attained by drafting a bad ewe, and taking in its
stead a bad gimmer. The number of gimmers fit to be transferred to the
ewe flock should therefore be, in the first instance, ascertained, and a cor-
responding number of the worst ewes drafted.*
(2278.) In drafting gitnmers, many of the above faults may be observed
in them also, though every fault arising from lamb-bearing cannot possibly
affect young sheep. The faults incidental to gimmers are, bareness of hair
on the crown of the head — ill-shaped teeth and jaws — hollow neck — hol-
low back — flat rib — low tail-head — bad feet — round, coarse bone — thin
and short fleece — rottenness — shortness of breath — tendency to scouring,
or otherwise — delicacy of constitution — and diminutiveness of stature and
inordinate size. These faults are numerous enough, but not likely to be
all observed in the same year, and less likely in the same individual. —
Most of them may be got rid of by rejecting females which have more than
one of them, and by employing tups free of them all. When the external
form is improved, the constitution is also strengthened. Gimmers, when
they become ewes, are moreover likely to be deficient in milk, careless of
their young, and produce small lamb ; but these faults disappear in the
succeeding year — and should this not be the case, the ewe, though young,
healthy, and fresh, should be drafted. Thus, ample drafting can alone in-
sure a sound, healthy, well-formed, young, and strong-constitutioned flock
of ewes.
(2279.) After being drafted, the ewes and gimmers are buisted [marked]
with tar (2027), those to be retained, on the near rib, and those drafted,
on the far.
(2280.) Tups require but little preparation on being put among ewes.
If their skin is red in the flanks when the sheep are turned up, they are
ready for the ewes, for the natural desire is then upon them. Their breast,
between the fore legs, is rubbed with keil or ruddle, on being placed
among ewes, that they may mark their rump on serving them. It is the
duty of the shepherd to mark every ewe so served, that he may obsei-ve
whether or not the season retui'ns upon her, and to be prepared for the
day of her lambing when it arrives. The period of gestation of the ewe
is 5 months, and as the tup is usually put among the ewes from the 8th to
the 11th October, the first lambs may be expected to appear on the 8th or
11th of March following. A young, active tup, a shearling, will serve 60
[* In our Eastern States, where more care and exactness prevail in all branches of hasbandry,
it is probable thai flocks of sheep are periodically overhauled, and all that are defective from age,
or disorder of any kind, drafted and in some way disposed of; but, in the Middle and Southern
States, very gross neglect is observable, almost universally on this point. Now, every farmer of
true spirit will endeavor to attain all practicable excellence in whatever he undertakes — in the
quality of his flocks as well as of his implements — in the purity of his butter as in the plumpness
of his grain; and nothing requires more searching vigilance than the health and condition of his
eheep. It is with them, especially, that a single rotten or diseased individual may infect the whole
flock ; and no inducement, no false calculation of economy, should induce him to retain such an
animal, even for a day, after it is discovered. His character, aa well as his interest, forbids it
Ed. Farm. Ltd.]
(876)
TUPPING EWES. 405
ewes, an old one 40 ewes. Tup-hoggs are not used, not having attained
maturity nn any particular, though one is sometimes put among ewes to
make an old tup more active. When tups are too fat, they are apt to be-
come lazy, and will only willingly serve a very few ewes ; and when this
is the case, it is better to put him in a field by himself with a few ewes,
selected to suit his particular qualities, than to urge him to over-exertion
by means of a tup-hogg, because several of the ewes served by him in
such case may miss being in lamb. A tup-hogg so employed is seldom
allowed by the tup to serve a single ewe, being driven off wherever he is
seen to go with one; but as a sure prevention of his serving, a piece of
cloth is sewed to the wool on the under part of his belly. Tups, when
too heavy, are apt to contract spavin in the hock joints, in consequence of
the great weight of the carcass upon the hind legs, in the act of serving
ewes. Most of the ewes will be tupped during the second week the tup
is among them ; and, in the third, they will all be served. It is likely that
some of the first served ewes will retui-n in season, and these should be
specially notfced by the shepherd, as it is not improbable they will be-
come tup-eikl. The ruddle requires to be renewed almost daily, and even
oftener, when the tupping is active.
(2281.) Tups are not selected for ewes by mere chance, but according
as their qualities may improve those of the ewes. Wlien ewes are nearly
perfect, they may be selected for breeding-tups. A good ewe flock should
exhibit these characteristics : strong bone, supporting a roomy frame, af-
fords space for a large development of flesh — abundance of wool of good
qriality, keeping the ewes warm in inclement weather, and insuring profit
to the breeder — a disposition to fatten carh/, which enables the breeder to
get quit of his draft-sheep readily — and being prolific, which increases the
fiock rapidly, and is also a source of profit Every one of these proper-
ties is advantageous in itself, but when all are combined in the same indi-
viduals of a flock, that flock is in a high state of perfection. Now, in se-
lecting tups, it should be observed whether or not they possess one or
more of those qualities in which the ewes may be deficient, in which case
their union with tha ewes will produce in the progeny a higher degree of
perfection than is to be found in the ewes themselves, and such a result
will improve the state of the future ewe flock ; .but, on the contrary, if
the ewes are superior in all points to the tups, then, of course, the use of
such tups will only serve to deteriorate the future ewe flock.
(2282.) After 3 weeks have elapsed from putting the tup among the
ewes, he should be withdrawn ; because lambs begotten so long after the
rest, will never coincide with the flock. Tups should, afi:er serving, be
put on good pastui'e, as they will have lost a good deal of condition, being
indisposed to settle during the tupping season. The ewes and gimmers
may now be classed together, and get such ordinary pasture as the farm
affords. During the autumnal months, they will find plenty of food in the
pasture fields, but in winter, rather than be fed on turnips, a rough pasture
field should be reserved for them. When they have no such pasture, they
will require to be put on a break of turnips for 2 or 3 hours every day ;
but it should be borne in mind that a fat ewe always bears a small lamb,
and is very subject to inflammatory fever after lambing, from the recovery
of which, if she ever recover, the probable result will be scantiness of
milk. Swedish turnips will produce this effect on ewes more readily than
other kinds, therefore a few white turnips should be reserved for them as
long as practicable, should they receive turnips at all.*
* See paper by me on Drafting Sheep, in the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. in.
(877)
406 THE BOOK OF THE FARM AUTUMN.
(2283.) Immediately after the arrangements for tupping the ewes are
made, part of the sheep-stock undergo a preparation for being put on tur-
nip, and the preparation consists of bathing them with a certain sort of
liquid. Sheep are affected by a troublesome insect, the keb or ked, or
sheep-tick, which increase so much in numbers as the wool grows,
toward autumn, as to become troublesome to sheep ; and were means
not taken to remove them, the annoyance they occasion the sheep
would cause them to rub themselves upon every object they can find, and
in thus breaking their fleece deteriorate its value to a considerable
extent. Another reason for bathing sheep is, that on experiencing so great
a change of food as from grass to tunii])s, cutaneous eruptions are apt to
appear on the skin, even to the extent of the scab, which would deterio-
rote the fleece even more than the rubbing occasioned by the ked. The
liquid, then, which would be of service, should combine the properties of
killing the ked with certainty, and of preventing eruptions on the skin,
without injury to the staple of the wool ; and these eflects are attained by
the use of tobacco-liquor and spirit of tar, the former instantly destroying
the ked, and the latter acting as a presei-vative to the skin. The former
precaution is necessary to be exercised on all classes of sheep, but the lat-
ter is the more necessary on sheep bought to fatten on turnips, as traveled
sheep are almost always affected with cutaneous eruptions, an^ especially
Black-faced sheep direct from the hills, after they have been on turnips
for some time. As a matter of safety, then, for your own flock, however
clean it may be, every sheep that you buy from another flock, whether in-
tended for feeding on turnip or for augmenting your own flock, should be
bathed immediately on its arrival on your farm, and before it can possibly
have had time to contaminate your own sheep.
(2284.) The materials used in the bath are tobacco, spirit of tar, soft
soap, and sulphur vivum. The tobacco is best used in the state of leaf,
but I understand it is illegal for tobacconists to sell tobacco in the leaf.
Being used in the proportion of 1 lb. of tobacco to every 20 sheep, it is
put into a boiler with 1 quait of water for every 1 lb. of tobacco, and
boiled gently for several hours. The tobacco is then wning out, and re-
turned again into an empty boiler with -^ quart of fresh water for every 1
lb., and boiled as long as any coloring matter can be obtained fiom it,
when it is wrung out and thrown away. The entire water will have
boiled in to 1 quart to 1 lb. of tobacco. This forms a decoction of tobacco
which is much better than an infusion. The soft soap is used in the pro-
portion of 1 lb. lo every 20 sheep, and is dissolved thoroughly in a sufficient
quantity of warm water. The sulphur vivum is pounded fine and mixed
with the soap in proportion of i lb. to 20 sheep, and it combines Avith the
soap in some degree, but when both are mixed with the tobacco-liquor,
the sulphur is apt to be thrown down in the original state of powder. I
don't know of what particular use the sulphur vivum is, for the greater
proportion of it is certainly precipitated to the bottom before it is used,
unless its sulphureous property may serve to prevent the ked breeding
again for a time ; but if this is its only use, the flour of sulphur should be
more efficacious. The tobacco-liquor is put into a tub, and the solution
of soft soap and sulphur vivum are intimately mixed with it. The bath
thus made is administered by means of a tin flask capable of easily hold-
ing 1 quart, and provided with a long spout, by which to pour it along the
shedded wool of the sheep. The spirit of tar is poured into the flask of liquor
when about to be used, in the proportion of -^ a wine-glass to 1 quart, and
stirred. Some people use stale urine over and above these materials, for
the professed purpose of making the bath stronger, but I cannot see how
(878)
BATHING SHEEP.
407
it can strengthen any of these ingredients ; for, as to any caustic effect
upon the skin, a small addition of the spirit of tar will have a much great-
er effect than the urine. If the urine is employed with a view to its am-
moniacal vapor destroying the insects, that may be a good plea for its em-
ployment in summer to prevent the extension of insect vermin ; but in
autumn, when the keds are entirely destroyed by the spirit of tar, and will
not again appear till spring in a new progeny, the urine seems useless in
winter.
(2285.) This is an effectual bath, and is not expensive ; the tobacco be-
ing 3s. 6d. per lb., a bottle of spirit of tar Is. 6d., soft soap 6d., and sulphur
vivum Is. per lb., give a cost of 5s. 6d. for 20, or 3^-d. per sheep. But it
should be mentioned, in regard to this bath, that, though in very common
use, it tinges the color of the wool, and is more expensive than some other
baths to be adverted to hereafter.
(2286.) An useful implement in bathing sheep is the hathing-stool, fig.
427, which is made of the best ash. It consists of a seat a, for the shep-
Fig. 427.
THE BATHING-STOOL FOR SHEEP.
herd to sit on while bathing the
sheep, 1 foot square ; the sparred
part is 3 feet long, and 30 inches
wide in front from h to c, its great-
est width being across at d. The
legs e, e, &c., are 18 inches high,
attached by means of iron rods
passed through their upper part
and the frame of the stool, and
secured with nut and screw.
(2287.) The hathing is conduct-
ed in this way : A sheep is caught
and placed on the stool on its bel-
ly, with its 4 legs through the
spars, and its head toward the
seat a, on which the shepherd sits astride. The wool is shed by the shep-
herd, with the thumbs of both hands, from one end of the sheep to the
other ; and, when he has reached the farthest end of the shed, an assistant,
a field-worker, pours the liquor from the flask equally along the shed, while
kept open by the shepherd with both hands. The sheds made are 1 along
each side of the back-bone, 1 along the ribs on each side, 1 along each side
of the belly, 1 along the nape of the neck, 1 along each side of the neck,
and 1 along the counter. From these sheds the bath will cover the whole
body. The sheep is turned on the sides and back to obtain easy access to
all these several parts. Additional liquor is put on the tail, head, scrotum,
inside of the thighs, brisket, root of the neck, and top of the shoulder, be-
cause these are parts most likely to be affected by scab, and are chiefly the
seats of the nidi of insects. The shepherd and his assistant will bathe 40
sheep in a day. Dry weather should be chosen for bathing, else the rain
will wash away the newly applied bath ; and coarse clothes should be worn
by those who administer the bath, as it is a very dirty process. When the
sheep are lying on their back on the stool, their legs are not tied, so the
assistant should be aware of receiving a kick from the hind feet on the
face or on the flask.
(2288.) Shortly after bathing, the keds may be seen adhering to the
points of the wool dead ; and, when sheep are much infested by this ver-
min, the fleece may be seen speckled thick with their bodies. Sheep are
differently affected with keds ; and those which recover from a lean or
stinted state to one in better condition, on a change of food, are most liable
(879)
408 THE BOOK OF THE FARM AUTUMN.
to be overnin with them, as cattle are with lice when improving in condi-
tion on turnips. This being the case, the ked may be expected to increase
rapidly on sheep that have been some time on turnips, and hence the ne-
cessity of bathing sheep before being put on turnips. HoQrgs are most lia-
ble to their attack, because, perhaps, they get most rapidly into condition
after being some time weaned.
(2289.) The rliseasrs incident to sheep in antumn are yellows and rot. both arising: from a disof
dered state of the same organ— the liver, and iiinintr. Tlie i/elloirs is jaundice, exhibiting yellow-
ness of the eye. the mucou.s membranes, and the urine. Bleeding, and purging with aloes and
calomel, are "the appropriate remedies. Fat draft ewes which have fed some time upon aftermath
are most liable to the disease. Inflammation of the liver is the cause, in which the pain of the
affected part is very obscure, and the natural language of the sufferer not very expressive, nor is
the symptomatic fever marked. Here a striliing analogy is noted between the lower animals and
man. inasmuch as there is generally a sympathetic pain in the right shoulder, so strongly marked
as often to be mistaken fortlie principal disorder, and treated acconiingly. Whenever j-ou observe,
therefore, a lameness of the right Ice of any fat slwep on foggage, you may suspect the existence of
yellows, and examine the inside of the eyelid, and observe whether any yellowne.«s exists there.
(2290.) The tot la a far more serious disease, causing the death of numbers of a flock in a very
short period. Deficient food in summer, and a flush of rank wet grass in autumn, occasion min
to the health and constitution of sheep. In the wet and cold season of 1817, when sheep could
not obtain a mouthful of good food in summer, and when the autumn arrived, accompanied with a
flash of wet herbage, I knew a farmer in Cheviot who lost 300 Cheviot ewes in the course of 2 or
3 weeks. The early symptoms of rot are very obscure, a circumstance much to be lamented, as
in the first stage alone does it often admit of cure. '• The animal is dull," observes Mr. Youatt ;
" lagcing behind his companions, he does not feed so well as usual. If suspicion has been a lit-
tle excited by this, the truth of the matter may easily be put to the test ; for if the wool is parted,
and especially about the brisket, the skin will have a pale yellow hue. The eye of the sheep be-
ginning to sicken with the rot, can never be mistaken ; it is injected, but pale, the small veins at
the corner of the eye are tursiid, but they are filled with yellow serous fluid, and not with blood.
The caruncle, or small glandular body at the corner of the eye, is also yellow. Farmers, very
properly, pay great attention to this in their examination or purchase of sheep. If the caruncle
is red, tiicy have a proof, which never fails them, that the animal is healthy. If that body isrrkttt
they have no great objection or fear — it is generally so at grass ; but if it is of a yellow color, they
immediately reject the sheep, although he may otherwise appear to be in the ver}- best possible
condition ; for it is a proof that the liver is diseased, and the bile beginning to mingle with the
blood. There is no loss of condition, but quite the Contrarj'; for tlie sheep, in the early stage of
rot, has a great propensity to fatten. Mr. Bakewell was aware of this, for he used to overflow
certain of his pastures, and when the water was run off, turn those of his sheep upon them which
he wanted to prepare for the market. They speedily became rotted, and in the early stage of the
rot they accumulated flesh and fat with wonderful rapidity. By this maneuver he used to gain 5
or 6 weeks on his neighbors."
(2291.) It is alleged, that wlien sheep have access to salt, they are never known to be affected
with rot; and I have as little doubt that, were oil-cake put freely within their power in such a
season as I have alluded as having occnred in 1817, they would escape the malady. Change
of pasture from a wet to a dry situation may be the means of even curing the rot, when the change
has been effected at an early statre of the disease. All land that has been irrigated in sum-
mer, and produces a rank growth of grass in autumn, should be avoided by sheep, as being the
very pest-house of rot. Some land, in its natural state, will affect sheep with rot when
grazed upon it, such as soft, spongy soil, having a clayey tendency, and never free of
moisture. In so far as this last cause of rot is concerned, draining has had the effect of rendering
land sound which was known to have rotted sheep in a short time. In the prospect of such aa
evil, when inevitable, sheep cannot be long kept on the same farm, but must be sold in the course
of a few months; in short, tenants, in their fear, are obliged to keep a flying-stock, especially of
ewes, for these are the most easily affected portion of the flock. The application of lime has ren-
dered land sound which was subject to rot, even after it had been drained. Sudden frost and thaw,
alternately, in spring, produce rot, according to the old proverb —
" Mony a froet, and mony a thow,
Retaken mony a rotten yow."
(2292.) The liver of rotten sheep always contains the well known animal the Jluke, so named
from its striking resemblance to a flounder. Its nature has not yet been satisfactorily examined.
It was named Fascioln by Linnrrns, and Distoma hepaticum by Rodolphi. Its intestinal ducts
contain great numbers of grains of a pale red color like sand, which are supposed to be its eggs ;
and as no difference of sex has been observed, it is believed to be a hermaphrodite. It is sup-
posed that its eggs find their way t6 the grass, from which sheep receive them into their stomach,
and thus are supposed to find their way into the liver. The eggs are found in the biliary ducts,
in the intestinal canals, and even in the dung of healthy sheep, and they swarm in the dung of
rotten ones. Much more could be saiil on the subject of rot, but I must refer vou to authorities.*
(2293.) ■' Pining," says the Eitrick Shepherd, ■ is a very descriptive Scotticism, from the verb ;
for no creature can have a more languishing and miserable look than a sheep affected by thisma-
Hgnant distemper. Well may I describe it, for in the last 9 years I have lost upward of 900 sheep
by its ravages. It is quite a new disease on the Border ; for I was 20 years a shepherd and never
* Youatt on Sheep, Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, voL t. and vol. tI. Parkinson on Live Stock,
▼ol. i
(880)
LIFTING AND PITTING POTATOES. 409
eaw an instance that I can remember of with certainty, nor did I ever hear its name save from
Galloway, where it was called the vinquish, and where it has been prevalent for ages. It was
likewise known long ago in some of the districts of the middle Highlands. It is a strange dis-
temper. On the genuine pining farms, the sheep do not take it by ones or twos, but a whole
flock at once. It is easily distinguished by a practiced eye, the first sjmptoms being lassitude of
motion, and a heaviness about the pupil of the eye, indicating a species of fever. I wish I had
science to describe it in a pathological manner, which I have not. and therefore shall not attempt
it : but at the very first the blood is thick and dark of color, and cannot by any exertion be made
to spring: and when the animal dies of this distemper, there is apparently scarcely one drop of
blood in the carcass. It lives till there does not seora to be a drop remaining: and even the ven-
tricles of the heart become as dry and pale as the skin. This simple fact may, I hope, enable men
of science to comprehend its nature. It is mo.st fatal in a season of drouth ; and J uoe and Sep-
tember are the most deadly months. If ever a farmer perceive a flock on such a farm having a
more than ordinary flushed appearance by rapid thriving, he is gone. By that day 8 days, when
he goes out to look at them again, he will find them all Ij'ing, hanging their ears, running at the
eyes, and looking at him like so many condemned criminals. As the disease proceeds, the hair
on the animal's face becomes dry, the wool assumes a bluish cast, and if the shepherd have not the
means of changing pasture, all tho.se aftected will fall in the course of a month."'
(2'J9-1.) The rationale and cure of this fatal disease are thus attempted to be given by a writer.
"Thedisea.se called pining, seems to arise from an enervated and costive habit of the animal,
which may be produced by a want of proper exercise, in conjunction with feeding in pasturesof
an astringent nature. The principal di-stricts in which this disease is found to prevail, are the
green pasturesof the Cheviot mountains, the chain of hills running through the S. W. parts of Rox-
burghshire, the pastoral districts of Selkirk and Peebles shires, and some other districts of Scot-
land, as Galloway. Under the old practice of keeping the sheep in flocks, as they are termed, hir-
«eZs, of weaning the lambs in the months of July or August, and afterward of milking the ewes
for 8 or 10 weeks, the pining was unknown in most of these districts ; but under this mode of
treatment, the sheep were frequently subject to diarrhea — a disease diametrically opposed to
pining. The farmers oftho.se pastoral districts have generally improved upon the older methods
of keeping their sheep. They find it to be more profitable to allow the whole flocks to pasture
together indiscriminately and undisturbed. The lambs remain unweaned, until they wean
themselves, which generally does not take place till the month of December. By this mode of
management, the ewes and lambs are found to be of a higher comparative value than all the sum
realized by the sale of cheese made from the milk of the ewes ; besides, the ewes'are not subject
to various accidents arising from so frequently collecting them together for the purpose of milk-
ing. But under this undisturbed state of management, in all cases where dry astringent pastures
are produced, such as on the sienitic porphyry of the Cheviot range, the pining made its appear-
ance. That such pasture promotes this disease, is farther strengthened by the fact that it is more
common in dry than in wet seasons ; and most so at that season of the year when, by the influence
of the sun, the plants are less juicy: or early in autumn, when the grasses which have pushed to
seed become less succulent. The disease is not known on the whole of the clay slate range of the
Lammermoor Hills, where heath prevails, occasionally interspersed with green pastures, and
where the hirsding practice is pursued. Nor is it known to exist in general on green succulent
pastures, or even heaths, growing on calcareous or sandstone grounds, where the nature of the
food and the exertion of the animal in procuring it appear to counteract the progress of the dis-
ease, arising from the inactivity of the digestive function. If we suppose these to be the predis-
posing causes of this disease, the prevention or remedy will suggest itself either under the head
of food or treatment. Should it be deemed inexpedient to adopt the mode of keeping the flocks
in hir.sel.s, a change of place, and, consequently, of food, is necessary to accomplish this purpose.
The salutary effects of a variety of food on the animal system are well known. When sheep
affected with this disease are put upon a heath, it has frequently the desired effect; but when the
animal is much overcome with the disease, its state of languidness may prevent it from taking such
a quantity of food as will produce a reaction upon the animal functions. The most effectual cure,
therefore, in all cases, is a change to a more rich and succulent pasture."*
37. LIFTING AND PITTING POTATOES.
"If planted in fair rows
They marshaled grew, the plow will best perform
The reaping task : amid the tumbling soil
The vegetable mine, exposed to view,
The gatherer's basket fills."
GUAHAM.
(2295.) The harvest-work of a farm cannot be said to be completed un-
til the potato crop is taken out of the ground and secured against the win-
ter's frost. By October the potatoes may be expected to be ready for lift-
* Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, voL ii.
(881)
410 THE BOOK OF THE FARM AUTUMN.
ing. The fitness of potatoes for lifting is indicated by the decay of the
haulms : for as long as these appear at all green, you may conclude the
tubers have not yet airived at maturity. In an early season potatoes will
ripen before October ; and though the weather should continue fine, the
best plan is to let them remain in the ground till the com crops are entire-
ly harvested. Immediately after the fields are cleared of corn, the pota-
toes should be taken up and secured, to allow the land to be plowed up
for wheat ; indeed it will happen, under all circumstances of weather, thai
the corn will be ready to be cut down and carried in before the potatoes
are fit to be taken up.
(229(3.) 'J'here are two modes of lifting potatoes, namely, with the plow
and with the potato-graip. The plow is the most expeditious, though I
believe the ground is best cleaied of tubers with the graip. With either
instrument a large number of people to gather the potatoes are required,
each of whom should be provided with a small semi-spheroidal shaped
basket, with a bow-handle, to gather the potatoes into, and then to put
them into sacks or close-bodied carts. When a farmer lifts potatoes on
his own account, they are usually put into a cart and carried direct to the
pits. When he lifts them on account of a purchaser, or a number of pur-
chasers, they ai-e measured on the spot fi'om the basket, and put into
sacks, in which they are easily delivered. When lifted for shipment to
the London market, they are first riddled into sizes, then measured or
weighed on the spot and put into carts, and taken to the ship's side. The
potato-riddle is made of wire, with meshes from 1|^ inches to 1^ inches
square, and, if rimmed with oak, costs 2s. 6d. each. The riddlings, or
small potatoes, are used on the farm. Potatoes are usually sold by weight,
and a given weight represents the measure of a boll ; which boll, again,
dififers in weight in different parts of the country, thereby rendering the
imperial weights and measures act, in this instance, nugatory. A boll is
20 stones of 14 lbs. to the stone, in some parts of Scotland, and it is 40
stones in others ; and, to contradistinguish them, the small boll is called a
single, and the large a double boll. The produce of a crop of potatoes
varies amazingly — from 30 to 100 single bolls per imperial acre. It is
singular that the price does not vary nearly so much — from 4s. 6s. the sin-
gle boll, being the limits between dear and cheap prices. Taking 60 bolls
[16,800 lbs.] as the medium produce, and 5s. as a medium price, the gross
return from an imperial acre of potatoes will be c£15 [$75]. If the ex-
pense of lifting the crop is taken at 30s. per acre, the return will be t£13
10s.; a large sum, certainly, but then it should be remembered that pota-
toes leave no straw for manure, and require, on the contrary, a large quan-
tity of manure to raise even a tolerable crop. They incur considerable
trouble in their delivery ; and, being a perishable commodity, cannot be
kept beyond a given time.
(2297.) In employing the j^^oer to take up potatoes, the common one,
witli 2 horses, answers well ; but as the potatoes run the hazard of being
split by the coulter when it comes in contact with them, it should be taken
out, the sock being sufficient to enter the plow below the drill, and the
mould-board to turn them out of it. The plow in going up splits one diill,
and in returning splits the next, but no faster than a band of gatherers, or
field-workers, if numerous enough, but if not, assisted by hired laborers,
can clear the ground of them into the baskets. In free soil, potatoes are
easily seen and picked up ; heavier soil is apt to adhere to them, in which
case it is a good plan to make a stout field-worker shake those portions of
the earth turned up by the plow, which still adhere in lumps, with a po-
tato-graip, and expose the tubers. Potato-gathering should not be con-
(882j
Lifting and pitting potatoes.
411
tinued so late in the evening as that the tubers cannot be easily seen ; nor
should it be prosecuted in wet weather, which causes the earth to adhere
to them, and renders them undistinguishable from the earth itself. Of
course every one, the smallest tuber, should be taken off the ground, not
only on the score of economy, to realize the whole crop, but to remove
them as a weed from among the succeeding crop. After the field has
been gone over in this manner, the harrows are passed a double tine to
bring concealed tubers to the surface, when they are gathered by the peo-
ple, and to shake the haulms free of soil. These after-gathered potatoes
are usually reserved for pigs and poultry. Whenever the field is cleared
of the crop, the haulms are gathered by the field-workers and carried to
the compost stance, to be converted into manure, and these are the only
return which the potato crop makes to the soil.
(2298.) A simple instrument, fig. 428, which may be substituted in the
plow for the mould-board for turning
potatoes out of the drill was contrived
by Mr. John Lawson, of Elgin. It con-
sists of 6 malleable iron bars, the outer
ones |- of an inch square, the inner ^ an
inch in diameter, joined together in the
form of a brander, 26 inches long from
a to b ; 5 inches in breadth from b to c,
at the fore part, where is a plate of iron ;
27 inches in length from c to d; and 18
inches in breadth from d to a. This
brander is attached to the right side of
the head and stilt of a plow, in lieu of
the mould-board, by the screws e, e, and the fore-end, b c, being placed
close behind the sock, as seen at a, fig. 429, which shows the plow mount-
Fig. 429.
Fig. 428.
THE POTATO-RAISER OR BRANDER.
s THE POTATO-RAISER ATTACHED TO THE PLOW.
ed with the brander, having its upper angle at a, fig. 428, 8 inches, and
the plane of its face so bent down as to* have the lower angle d only 4
inches above the sole of the plow. The openings between the rods will
thus be rather more than 2^ inches at the widest end of the brander, be-
tween a and d. The mode of operation of the brander is, that while the
earth partly passes through it, and is partly placed aside by it, the potatoes
are wholly laid aside, so there are few of them but are left exposed on the
surface of the ground.
(2299.) " This plow," says Mr. Lawson, " is drawn by one pair of horses,
m the same manner as the common plow. In working it, the plowman
inserts it into the potato-drill so as to have the whole of the potatoes on
his right-hand side. He then proceeds along the drill, splitting it up in
the common Avay. The earth is then thrown to the right-hand side, and
the potatoes lie scattered on the surface of the ground behind the plow.
Women follow, provided with baskets, into which they gather the potatoes,
and throw the stems upon the drill which lies to the right hand of the one
(885) ^ °
412 THE BOOK OF THE FARM AUTUMW.
from vvliich they are gathering the potatoes. The reason why the potato-
stems are thus removed is tliat as soon as the potatoes which lie on the
surface are gathered, the plow returns, and again proceeds as before,
through the part of the drill in which the potatoes lay, still turning the
earth to the right-hand side. This second operation raises to the surface
any stray potatoes which the first may not have turned up, and the pota-
toes thus raised are gathered by the women who attend for that purpose.
The second operation may be delayed till about 12 drills are turned over
by the first operation, and the j)otaloes gathered. The plow may then be
put through these 12 drills the second time. liy this there will be a saving
of labor, as a smaller number of women will gather the potatoes by the
second operation, while the greater number of them may remain with
another pUjw in its first movement. If the stems of the potatoes be very
strong and luxuriant, a few of the women might be directed to go along
the drill anJ pull them out of the ground, at the same time plucking off
any potatoes that may adhere to and come along with the stems. If this
is done, the plow will turn up the greater part of the potatoes by going
only ovcc through the drill ; but, in going twice, it will do it in the most
satisfactory manner. A man with 1 pair of horses will thus pass over the
ground as quickly as with the common plow. In light soils this plow per-
forms its work in a very efficient manner. It pulverizes the soil in an ex-
traordinary degree, and scarcely leaves a single potato in the soil. I have
never before been able to clear my fields of potatoes so effectually as by
this implement, or at nearly so small an expense."*
(230U.) When potatoes are taken up by manual work, it is done with
the fotato-graip, fig. 430, the prongs of which are flattened.
Being rather severe work to use this graip, men are employed ^^'s- ^•'°-
for the purpose, 1 man taking 1 drill, close beside that of his
fellow-workmen, while 2 gatherers to every man are ready to
pick up the potatoes he turns out into the baskets. In using
the graip, it is inserted into the side of the drill, and below
the potatoes, with a push of the foot, and the graipful of earth
thus obtained is turned on its back into the hollow of the drill,
exposing the potatoes to view on the top of the inverted
earth, wheiuce they are gathered. The men then pass the
prongs of the graip here and there through the inverted graip-
ful and the soil on the drill, to detect and expose to view every
tuber lurking beneath the soil. In this manner, 1 man and 2
women will take up, of a good crop of 80 bolls of 20 stones per
acre, 20 bolls a day, which will cost 3d. per boll at the follow-
ing wages : 1 man 2s., and 2 women at Is. 6d. each per day,
without food=5s. per day, or 20s. per acre. Such gi-aips cost
28. 3d., and when handled 38. each.
(2301.) In regard to the storing of potatoes, there is no dif-
filculty in the early part of winter, when a low temperature pre-
vails, and vegetation is lulled into a state of repose. Potatoes
may therefore be kept in almost any situation in the early part of winter ;
but then, if damp is allowed to surround them for a time, it will inevitably
rot them, and if air finds easy access to them at all times, the germ of
vegetation will be awakened in them at the first call of spring. To place
potatoes beyond the influence of those elements as long as convenience
suits, they should be stored in a diy situation, and be covered up from the
air ; and no mode of storing affords more ready means for both those
requisites than the ordinary forms of pits in dry soil.
* Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, toI. viii
(886;
THE POTATO
GRAIP.
LIFTING AND PITTING POTATOES.
413
(2302.) Fig. 431 shows the two different forms of the ordinary potat(>-])its,
the one being conical, the other prismatic in shape. The conical form is
usually employed for pitting small quantities of potatoes, and is well suited
for small farmers and cotters ; the prismatic is the form commonly adapted
for storing large quantities. For both sorts, a situation sheltered from the
north wind should be selected, and the ground should either be so dry of
itself as to absorb the rain as it falls, or so inclined as to allow surface
water to pass quickly from the site of the pits. The site should be conve-
niently situated for opening the pits and admitting the carts to them, and
so near the corner or side of a field as not to interfere with its being
wrought in winter.
(2303.) A conical pit of potatoes is formed in this manner : If the soil is
of ordinary texture, and not very dry, let a small spot of its surface be
smoothened with the spade. Upon this spot let the potatoqs, as they are
taken out of the cart, be built by hand in a conical heap, not exceeding 2
feet in hight ; and the breadth which a cone of that hight will occupy, so
as not to impose much trouble in piling up the potatoes, will not be less
than 4 feet, and is more likely to be 5 feet. The potatoes are then cover-
ed with a thick thatching of dry, clean straw. Earth is then dug with a spade
from the ground in the form of a trench around the pit, the inner edge a,
fig. 431, of the trench being as far from the pile of potatoes as the thick-
ness of the covering of earth to be put upon it, which is to be considered
sufficient at 1 foot. The first spadeful is laid around the potatoes on the
ground, and the earth chopped fine and beaten down with the spade, in
order to render the earth as impervious to cold as possible, and the drier
the earth is, the less effect will frost have upon it, and the less distance
will it penetrate through it. Thus spadeful after spadeful of the earth is
taken from the trench and heaped on the straw above the potatoes, until
Fig. 431.
— -.^
THE CONICAL AND PRISMATIC FORMS' OF POTATO-PITS.
the entire cone a i c is formed, which is then beaten smooth and round
with the back of the spade. The top of the cone at b will then be about
3 feet 3 inches in hight, and the width of the cone from c to a about 7i
feet. The trench round by a c should be cleared of earth, that no surface
water may lie near the pit, and an open cut should be formed from the
lowest side of the trench to allow the water to go away most freely.
(2304.) When the soil is naturally thoroughly dry, the site of the pit
may be dug out of the solid ground a spade depth, for storing the potatoes
into what would then really be a pit, and then the apparent hight of the
pit above the surface of the soil will be small ; but unless the soil is as
thoroughly dry as sand or gravel can make it, the potatoes should be piled
upon the natural surface of the ground.
"■ » (885)
414 THE BOOK OF THE FARM AUTUMN.
(2305.) The pritmatic, or long pit, d efg, fig. 431, is formed exactly in
the same manner, with the exception that the potatoes in it are piled in a
straisfht line along its sides d h, instead of round, as in the case of the coni
cal pit ah c. The hight of the pile of potatoes should not exceed 2^ feet,
and its breadth will spread out to about 7 feet, and allowing 1-5 inches for
thickness of straw and earth, the hight of the finished pit will be 3 feet 9
inches, and breadth 9 feet 6 inches. The direction of a long pit should
always .be N. and S., in order to place both its sidies within reach of the
sun's rays.
(2306.) It is considered that when fresh potatoes are heaped together
in large quantities, a certain degree of fermentation ensues, which
increases the temperature of the mass so much as to awaken vegetation in
the tubei-s, and the existence of long sprouts so frequently found covering^
the top of the heap of potatoes when a pit is opened in spring, is adduced
as a proof of the effects of such an increase of temperature ; and the thick
covering of dry straw usually placed above potatoes in pits is also consid-
ered a gieat means of retaining within the bounds of the pit the heat
evolved from the potatoes, and hence a plan has been suggested, of having
openings left along the upper parts of pits through which such heated air
may escape. The openings are left by drawing small bundles of long
straw, tied at one end with a piece of cord, and cut square like a rosette
on the top of a corn-stack a, fiff. 422, and which are placed upright, and
project upward at short intervals along the top of the pit, before the earth
is thrown upon the straw near its ridging, and the earth is put round, and
beaten down, and finished smoothly, beside the projecting part of each bun-
dle. These vents may be seen at i and k, in fig. 431
(2307.) It is truly remarked by Sinclair, that " the varieties of the potato are verj- numerous, and
the confusion of their names inextricable." Without attempting to particularize any one variety,
I would say generally, that as an article of food, the potato is now universally cultivated, and this,
no doubt, chiefly from the facility with which it may be raised, the pleasantness of its taste, the
simplicity of its cookerj-. and the nourishment which it affords. According to a statement of Sin-
clair, it appears that in several varieties of potato fit for human food, the nutritive matter varies
from two hundred to two hundred and sixty grains in 64 drachms ; that those quantities of nutritive
matter contained from 169 to 204 grains of starch, and from 31 to 61 grains of albumen, mucilage,
and suear*
(230^.) As compared with grain, " Cobbett"s assertion, that ■wheat produces more nutritions
matter per acre than potatoes, is now completely disproved. Later exi>erimenis have sho^vn
that it is ven.- near the truth to estimate the proportion of the nutritive power of wheat to that of
potatoes as about 7 to 2 ; or, in other words, 2 lbs. of wheat afford as much sustenance as 7 lbs.
of potatoes, though it may be doubtful whether they afford so much nourishment ; for. by calculating
the produce of the two crops, it has been determined that 1 acre of wheat will produce sustenance
for 3 persons as long as 1 acre of potatoes affords it to 6 5-6 persons. This is on the supposition that
the power of nutrition of a plant is only in proportion to the quantity of farinaceous and glutinous
matter contained in it But this is by no means certain. We have not been able to discover what
it is that renders one substance more proper for food than another. ... In estimating the amount
of aliment afforded by potatoes and grain, we sliould rather calculate according to the mass of
vegetable matter capable of satisfying a full-grown person I may add that potatoes, from
some peculiarity in llie mixture or degree of condensation in their nutritive matter, seem to pos-
sess an advantaire over all grains as constant food. It is well known that potatoes and water
alone, with common salt, can nourish men completely ; we have hundreds of instances, in many
parts of Ireland, where the people have lived constantly on this diet from necessity, and yet have
been robust, healthy, and lone lived as persons fed plentifully on animal food. Now, I know of nc
meal derived from grain used as the ^neral food of any naiiozi, witboot being mixed with other
kinds of alimentary matter, as oil, fruits, whey, or milk.''t
* Sinclairs Hortos Gramineus WobnrBensis.
t Quarterly Journal of Agriculttire, vol. v^ a paper enumerating the various uses to which the Potato may
be applied.
(886)
LIFTING AND PITTING POTATOES.
415
(2309.) The potato has been subjected to careful analysis by different chemists, and these are a
few of the results :
Starchy
Fibrin.
Starch.
Vegeta- 1
ble Albu- Gum.
men.
Acids
and Water.
Salts.
Analyst.
Red Potato.
Kidney
Large Red.
Sweet
germinated .
sprouts
Peruvian..
English ..
Onion
Voigtland
I Paris
7-00
6-80
2-80
8-80
6-00
8-20
5-25
6-83
8-38
7-13
6-79
15-00
15-20
0-40
9-10
12-90
15-10
15-00
12-91
18-75
15-41
13-30
1-40
1-30
0-40
0-80
0-70
0-80
1-88
1-04
0-90
1-25
0-92
4-1
3-7
3-3
5-1
75-0
73-0
93-0
81-3
78-0
74-3
760
77-5
70-3
74-3
Einhoff.
Lampadius.
73-12 Henry, Jr.
Of these constituents of the potato, it will be obser\'ed how large a proportion the water bears,
and the remainder is chieflv composed of fibrin and starch. Hence, potato differs essentially from
wheat and barley, by containing no gluten, and approaches in some measure to the nature of rje.*
Of the dry constituents, starch is frequently used in the manufacture of wheaten bread, the potato-
flour giving to the loaf when stale, a tendency to excessive crumbiness. Potato -flour does not
injure bread as an article of food ; but still it is an adulteration, and its use constitutes a fraud on
the public, when the same price is demanded for the loaf partly made of this cheap material as
for one of wheat alone.
(2310.) Potato-starch may be converted into tapioca. The tapioca of commerce is derived from
cassava, a preparation made in the We.st Indies, the tropical regions of America, and on the Afri-
can coast, from the root of tlie manioc (Jatropha manihotj, an euphrobaceous plunt. "The cas-^
sava cakes sent to Europe, which I have eaten with pleasure," says Dr. Ure, " are composed al-
most entirely of starch, along with a few fibres of the ligneous matter. It may be purified by
diffusion through warm water, passing the milky mixture through linen cloth, evaporating the
strained liquid over the fire with constant agitation. The starch dissolved by the heat thickens
as the water evaporates; but, on beinir stirred, it becomes granulated, and must be finally dried
in a proper stove. Its specific gravity is 1-530— that of the other species of starch. The product
obtained by this treatment is known in commerce under the name of tapioca ; and being starch
very nearly pure, is often prescribed by physicians as an aliment of easy digestion. Atolerably
good imitation of it is made by beating, stirring, and drying potato-starch in a similar way."+ An
acquaintance of mine, a farmer in Forfarshire, Mr. James Scott, Beauchamp, instead of disposing
of his potatoes, of which he nsed to raise large quantities every year, converted them into tapioca ;
thereby saving a great deal of carriage which the delivery of potatoes occasions, and retaining
the refuse of the manufactured potato, upon which he fed a large number of pigs, and which,
moreover, afforded a good mash to the horses.
(2311.) " When potatoes are boiled, they lose from 1 to IJ per cent, of their weight. The juice
which may be separated from them is sweet-tasted. The meal is insoluble even in boiling water,
though potato-starch forms a transparent solution with hot water. Thus it appears that by boil-
ing, the albumen, fibrous matter, and starch combine together, and form an insoluble compound."
Simple as the matter appears, it is not every cook who can boil a potato well.
(2312.) " When potatoes are exposed to the action of frost, it is well known that they become
soft, and acquire a sweet taste. This taste is succeeded by a sour taste, owing to the rapid evo-
lution of acetic acid, and the root soon passes to pntrefaction. From the experiments of Einhoff,
we learn that the sugar is formed at the expense of the mucilage ; for the other ingredients were
found in potatoes sweetened by frost, in the usual proportion. "He considers this sweetening pro-
cess as connected with the vegetative powers of the root." " Dr. Peschiez of Geneva has de-
scribed the presence of mucous sugar and of gum in the potato. This explains why it is capable
of undergoing the vinous fermentation." The acids contained in potatoes in the natural state
were ascertained by Einhoff to be a mixture of the tartaric and phosphoric acids. He also ob-
tained from 1,820 parts of dried potatoes, 96 parts of a grayish-white ash. Of these, 64 parts were
.tolnhle in water, and 35 insolubleX A minute analysis of the ash of potatoes is given by Professor
Johnston, including that of the haulms. In 10,000 lbs. there were found of —
In the roots.
Potash 40-28 lbs.
Soda 23-34 ..
Lime 3-31
Magnesia 3-24 ..
Alumina 0-50 ..
Oxide of iron 032 ..
In the tops.
81-9 lbs.
0-9 ..
129-7 ..
17-0 ..
0-4 ..
0-2 ..
In the roots.
Silica 0-84 lbs
Sulphuric acid 5-40 ..
Phosphoric acid .. 401 ..
Chlorine 1-60 ..
In the tops
89-4 lbs.
4-2 ..
19-7 ..
50 ..
Total 82-83 lbs.
308-4 lbs.
It wdl be observed what a large proportion of potash, lime and silica the tops of the potato plant
yield. " These roots," as observed by Professor Johnston, and the observation applies to turnips,
carrots and parsnips, as well as to the potato, " contain very much water, so that, in a dry state,
the proportion of inorganic matter present'in them is very much greater than is represented by
* Thomson's Organic Chemistry of Vegetables
t Ure's Dictionary of the Arts and Manufactures, art. Cassava.
X Thomson's Organic Chemistry of Vegetables.
(887;
416 THE BOOK OF THE FARM AUTUMN.
the above nanibers. I have, however, given the quantities contained in the crop as it is carried
from the field, as alone likely to be of practical utility. The crops of tlicite various sorts varv very
much in different localities, being in some pluces twice, and even thrice as much as in ot"ber8 —
every 10 tons, however, which are carried off the u'round. contain about 9 times the weight of sa-
line and earthy matters, indicated by the numbers in the Table."*
(2'Ji:i.) 6'o/«n//ia was discovered by M. Desfiisw.'s in the fruit of the common potato, and M. Otio
discovered it also in the potato itself, after it had been allowed to germinate, and this substance is
an acrid narcotic poison. " Its existence in the potato after germination," says Dr. Thomson, " is
an inierestini; fact, and should lead to the cautious use of that important vegetable after germina-
tion has commenced."
('-'314.) '• It is well known that a spirit can be extracted from potatoes. From this spirit Me.ssrs.
Bertillon and (Juietand extracted a volatile oil, being a colorless, limpid liquid, having a strong
imell. hot. acrid tasle, and being very soluble in alcohol." t
(231.'''.) The particles of potato-starch are irregular ellipsoids, varying in size from 1-300 to 1-3000
of an inch ; those of wheat being separate spheres of 1-1000 of an inch: so that it would be an
easy matter to detect potato-flour among wheaten flour with the microscope.
38. SOWING AUTUMN WHEAT, AND THE CONSTRUCTION AND
PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURAL WHEEL-CARRIAGES.
" now ceaseless is the round
Of rural labor ! Soon ns on the field
The withered haulms and suckers crackling blaze,
And with their far-extending volumes load
The wings of Autumn's latest lingering breeze.
The WHEATEN SEED-TIME all your care demands."
Gbaham.
(2316.) How ceaseless, indeed, is the round of i-ural labor! No sooner
does the farmer secure his crop, the progress of which toward maturity
has excited his most lively solicitude during the course of a whole year,
than he begins to sow the succeeding one, and strives to prepare as much
land for it before winter sets in as he possibly can secure. The crop
usually sown in autumn is reheat, that plant being able to bear the vicissi-
tudes of winter in our latitude, though barley and tares are also sown at
the same time in some parts of England, where they stand the winter well,
but neither can withstand a Scottish winter.
(2317.) You have just seen (2312) that the constituent parts of the haulm
of potatoes consist of large proportions of potash, lime, and silica — ingre-
dients useful to many of the crops which follow in rotation after a summer-
fallow ; and though incineration is the means by which the chemist discov-
ered those substances in potato-haulms, yet I \yould advise you to make a
compost ')f them, as I did befoi-e (1613), rather than convert them into a
" crackling blaze," as described in the motto, inasmuch as their inorganic
constituents can be secured equally well by fcnnentation as by incinera-
tion, while their organic constituents are not dissipated, but thereby pre-
served for use.
(2318.) You will recollect that we left off the working of summer-fallow
after the land was dunged (2155), and when the land was to receive no
lime. It is now our business to fini.sh the summer-fallow, by the sowing
of autumn wheat, the crop for which the land was specially prepared by
fallow. The first process is the leveling of the drills which cover the
dung, by harrowing them across a double tine ; and, unless the land is of
very strong clay, 1 double tine will be sufficient for the purpose. Afler
the land has been harrowed level, any root-weeds that have been brought
* Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry and Geology.
f Thomson's Organic Chemistry of Vegetables.
(868)
SOWING AUTUMN WHEAT. 417
to the surface should be removed, but the surface-weeds will soon wither
in the sun and air. The land should now be feered, to be gathei-ed up
(650), fig. 133, into ridges, and if it has been thorough-drained, or is other-
wise sufficiently dry, 1 gathering-up will make a good seed-bed ; but
should it be too wet for once gathered-up ridges to lie safe all winter, the
ridges should be twice gathered-up (665), fig. 139. The second gathering-
up, however, should not be done immediately after the first, but after such
an interval of time has elapsed between them as to allow the land to sub-
side, and the subsidence will be much hastened by a fall of rain. Should
the fallow-land have been dunged in the usual way, that is, the dung
spread upon the surface, and plowed in, with feered ridges, the feerings
should have been so made as to leave a ^ ridge at the side of the field,
that now, when the land is about to be plowed for the seed-furrow, the ^
ridge is converted into a whole one, and the field thereby made fit to be
continued in that form.
(2319.) But a practice has come into use since the introduction of the
grubber. Plates XXIX. and XXX., which possesses some advantages, on
strong land, in certain circumstances, which is to cover in the sown wheat
Avith the grubber, instead of first plowing the land for a seed-fuiTow, and
to finish the work with a slight harrowing. When the grubber is contem-
plated to be thus used, the land, in summer-fallowing, should be feered in
ridges, as if for the seed-furrow, when covering in the dung, as the subse-
quent grubbing will not alter the form of the ridges farther than to
reduce their crowns, and fill the open-furrows a little. When a tough,
waxy clod is expected to arise on plowing strong land, rather wet below,
for a seed-furrow, or when there is appearance of unsettled weather,
the grubber will be found useful in keeping dry the meliorated soil on the
surface, and also in getting quickly through with the wheat-seed.
(2320.) Land that has grown heans is usually gathered-up for the seed-
furrow at once, and sown immediately, as the season is far advanced by
the time the bean-crop is carried in and stacked ; but the seed-bed would
certainly be in a better state for wheat were the land allowed to subside
for a few days before the seed is sown. Where the land is strong, and
the ridges are sufficiently rounded, the grubber may be used on bean-
stubble, as on fallow-land, for covering in the wheat sown broadcast on it,
but for this purpose a 4-inch grubber is required, the vsurface being fin-
ished with a slight harrowing. The grubber will succeed in this very well,
in as far as the wheat is concerned, and it has a great advantage in a late
autumn in getting through the work expeditiously ; but on strong land,
not thorough-drained, and in a comparatively flat state, grubbing will not
succeed on bean-stubble; at least, the wheat-seed would incur consider-
able risk of being rotted in that state of the soil all winter, and the
land itself of becoming soured ; and the land would not escape the
effects of such an injury, even though it should be fallowed the succeed-
ing year.
(2321.) The land which has grown potatoes should be plowed for a seed-
furrow, because, having been laid flat for the culture of this summer crop,
the grubber cannot be employed with advantage in the case, as that im-
plement leaves the land as flat as it found it. The land only receives 1
furrow after potatoes ; and it should have time to subside a little, though
the usual practice is to sow the wheat upon it as soon as plowed. The
reason why I have frequently recommended the subsidence of the land be-
fore being sown with seed is, that wheat thrives better in soil having a lit-
tle firmness in it than in the loose state the plow leaves it.
(2322.) When the land is naturally strong enough to grow wheat, but is
(889) «r
ft
\
418 THE BOOK OF THE FARM AUTUMN.
somewhat soft, and so wet below as to make it apt to throw out the wheat
plant in spring, the best plan is to make a seed-bed by ribbing with the
small plow, fig. 320, and (174S). The wheat is sown broadcast over the
ribs, and hanowed in with a d()ul)le-tiiie along (1769). The ribbnig gives
the wheat a deeper bed in the soil than mere harrowing, and a deeper
hold of the soil in spring, and it has also the advantage of stirring only
the dry surface-soil ft)r the seed-bed. It can only be practiced, however,
on land that has been ridged up for a seed-bed for a considerable time,
as the small plow does not make good work on new-plowed land, it,
small as it is, going too deep, and making the drills too wide ; and it is
never employed on land that has not been ridged, being unfit to turn up
land in a hardened state.
(2323.) Another mode of preventing the throwing out of the wheat plant
in sj)ring on soft land, otherwise well adapted for wheat, is, first, to feer
the land into ridges, sow the wheat broadcast between the feerings, and
cover it in with a light seed-furrow, leaving the land unharrowed and rough
all winter.
(2324.) Whether harrowed or not, it is of great importance to leave
wheat land rough all winter, that is, with a round large clod upon the sur-
face. These clods afford shelter from wind and frost to the young plants,
and when gradually mouldered by frost, serve to increase the depth of the
loose soil, and protect the roots of the plants from frost. Indeed, when-
ever the land is hanowed as fine as meal with autumn wheat, the rain
never fails to batter its surface into a crust, and the frost heaves it up in
spring like fermented dough ; and this action raising the plants along with
the soil, they are exposed on the surface after the frozen earth has subsi-
ded, on being thawed by sunshine (1772). Such an effect, however, can
only occur where a considerable quantity of moisture exists under the sur-
face of the soil, ready to be acted on by frost. Draining, then, is the only
safeguard against the young wheat plant being thrown out of the earth in
spring. As the ground is desired to be left in a rough state in autumn, no
Uiie is, of course, then made of the roller.
(2325.) Autumn wheat is almost always sown broadcast in Scotland, ex-
ept, perhaps, in the neighborhood of large towns, where it is sown with
tV drill, Plate XXVII., figs. 325 and 32G ; and the reason why the drill is
used ill that particular locality is the facility afforded by the drilled rows
to hoft till' land free of surface weeds, which invariably make their appear-
ance wWie the street manure is used. In England wheat is very gener-
ally drillajj for the reason just given, and surface weeds seem more gener-
ally numenius and troublesome throughout England than Scotland. Sow-
ing broadcast is represented by fig. 322, and is fully described from (1756) to
(1766). I he machines for sowing grain in drills will be found fully de-
scribed by Mr. SU^ht from (1824) to'(1829).
(2326.) Wheat Vi j^ic/dcd at this season, as well as in spring, before it
is sown, and tlie reasons for treating it thus, as far as they are known, as
well as the best method of doing so, will be found described in (1754) and
(1755). -T 6 . \ J
(2327.) Almost every year some new variety of wheat, of great reputa-
tion, is offered to public notice, and no doubt a good variety may thus oc-
casionally be obtained. B>it the safe plan for you to follow is'to adhere
to that variety, or those varieties, which have succeeded in the district in
which you farm; because one variety may succeed well in that locality,
and not another. It is right to try experiments in growing new varieties
which are well recommended, and you should give such experiments ev-
ery justice ; but until the fact is proved by yourself or your neiehbors, that
(890J ®
SOWING AUTUMN WHEAT. 419
the recommended wheat is a good one for your locality, it should not be
extensively cultivated. The good properties of wheat are : heavy weight,
fine sample, prolific per acre, and plenty of clean straw. A good weight
is from 62 lbs. to 66 lbs. per bushel ; it is now, however, as easy to obtain
65 lbs. as it was a few years ago to get 63 lbs. a bushel. Years ago, 24
bushels per acre were considered a fair crop on ordinary wheat land ; it
is now as easy on the same soil to raise 32 bushels. The greatest differ-
ence in these results has been realized in the course of years, from the in-
ferior, not the superior classes of soil.
(2328.) There are other modes than those 1 have mentioned of sowing wheat on fallow ground.
One of these is dibbling, and there are various ways of dibbling wheat. One is to make a hole
not exceeding 2^ inches dee[), with a dibble not so thick as that used for planting potatoes in gar-
dens, to drop 1 seed or 2 into it, and to cover them with earth with the foot; the holes being made
4 inches apart, and 7 inches wide between the rows. But this is a very slow process. A more
expeditious plan is to use an implement of a cylinder of wood 6 feet long, 4 inches in diam-
eter, and divided lengthways by the middle, to make into 2 dibbles. Pins of wood of a conical
form, 3 inches long, are (driven perpendicularly at 4 inches apart into the apex of tiie curved side
of the split cylinder. This implement forms a number of dibbles, by being laid along the ground
with the pins downward, wliich are pushed into the ground with the pressure of the foot, to make
as many holes as there are pins. The implement being removed by means of a handle attached
to its flat side, boys or girls drop 2 seeds into each hole, and cover them with earth. Ano'her and
more certain plan of dibbling is this: a flat, thin board of wood is provided with holes 4 inches
apart in the row, and the rows 7 inches asunder. This i.« laid flat on the ground, when small dib-
bles are pui^hed through the holes to the requisite depth of 2i inches into the soil, the depth being
determined by a shoulder on the dibble ; 2 seeds are then dropped into the hole as each dilsble is
withdrawn ; and when the board is lifted up from the space it occupies to another space in ad-
vance, the earth is brought over the holes and seed by the foot. It is asserted by those who
have sown wheat by dibbling, that about one bushel is sufficient seed for one acre, and that
the produce will be 5^ quarters per acre ; that is, the produce bears a proportion of 44 to 1 of the
seed sown.*
(2329.) Another mode of .sowing wheat has a similar effect in the appearance of the growing
crop as ribbing with a small plow, and this is accomplished by using the coynmon plow with a
single Iwrse. and depositing the seed, and along with it, if necessary, any species of manure dust,
such as rape-dust, in the furrow. The seed is dropped out of a hopper placed in the bosom of the
plow, and the quantity is regulated by a grooved axle, made to revolve by a small wheel, which
receives its motion by being carried along the ground with the plow. The immediate effect of
this operation is to cover the seed-wheat with the plow-furrow, to prevent its being thrown out
by the frost in spring in soft and spongy land, and to cause the crop to grow in rows 9 inches
asunder. The pulverized manure is sown at the same time and in the same manner as the seed,
out of the same hopper in which a division is formed to separate the seed from the manure, and
both fall through spouts, one placed behind the other. Such a drill has already been described bv
Mr. Slight in (1770) and (1771). The advantages resulting from this mode of sowing wheat vh
spongy clay soil are, that the horse does not tread on the seed, and the seed requires no covering
in by the harrow. It is necessary, however, to caution you in the use of rape-du.st and guai'O in
contact with seed, as both are apt to affect the vitality of seeds, without the intervention of a little
soil, or the previous mixture of a little earth. t
(2330.) Another mode recommended for cultivating wheat is trannplandng. It is proposed to
sow a small portion of ground with seed early in the season, and take up the plants as 'hey grow,
divide them into single plants, and transplant them. By thus dividing the plants as tl'cy tiller into
single plants at 4 periods of the season, a very small quantity of seed will supply as many plants
as would cover a large extent of ground. Though wheat no doubt bears transplanting very well,
yet as the scheme implies the use of much manual labor, it is questionable if it ivill repay the ex-
pense. The proposed method has been tested by experiment, and the question of comparative ex-
pense stands thus : Suppose 440 grains of wheat are sown on the 1st of July, by the beginning of
August each seed will afford 4 plants, or in all 1,760 plants.
At the end of August these will produce 5,280 ..
In September these again 14,080 ..
And in November these last will produce 21,120 ..
The time occupied in sowing the 440 grains, and dividing and transplanting the produce of tbem,
stands thus :
" July, sowbg 440 grains
August (beginning), taking up 440 plants
dividing into J, 760 ..
planting 1,760 ..
Angust (end) taking up 1,760 ..
dividing into 5,280 ..
planting 5,280 ..
September taking up 5.280 . .
dividing into 14,080 ..
-- planting 14,080 ..
Hours.
Minutes.
0
20
0
20
1
10
3
30
1
28
3
30
10
33
4
24
9
23
28
9
• See Mark-Lane Express for February, 1843. t See Mark-Lane Express for November 24, 1842.
(891)
420 THE BOOK OF THE FAR.M AUTUMN.
Boun. Minute*.
November taXinj? ap 14,080 plants 11 44
dividing into 21,120 .. 14 4
planting 21,120 .. 42 14
130 49."
Nearly 13 days.
Of these 13 J days, 4} davsniav be reckoned for women and boysoccnpied in taking up and divid-
ing tiie plants, wtiicli, iitlOd. jiorday, will rost 3s. ltd. The remaining 9 days are for men trans-
planting at lOs. per week. Is. Hd. a day. which will coat 15.s. more; in all 188. 9d. per acre. As
the saving of seed was estimated at iSs. f.d. per acre, the expense of transplanting would thus
be greater than the saving etlecitd. It appear.'*, besides, from Mr. Palmer's small but well-con-
ducted experiments, that 10 plants out of 4^ died, which is a large proportion, leavine more than
1-5 of the ground blank, while the return of the produce does not w arrant tlie supposition that the
remainder would make up the deficiency ; the 2J lbs. of grain from the space of ground experi-
menied on is not more than 20 bushels per acre, and still, after adding { to this for the destruction
of seeds occasioned by birds, the whole amount, only 2.') bushed would not be a full crop. Taking
2d. an hour as the fair cost of a man's labor, the cost of transplanting would be £\ 128. 9d., to set
against the 18s. 6d. of seed saved ; and supposing the plants to be set as far apart as 1 J feet, the
cost would still be £l 48. 8d. per acre. ' In my opinion," says the experimenter. '■ the onlv
way of executing this plan is to dibble in the seed, 2 grains in a hole, about 4 inches from each
other, tlie plmits to be taken up when they arc in a proper slate, and divided into .5, which would
be as nianv on an averase at that time as could skillfully be made, and then planted out at once,
■where thev are to remain, thus fit-tting rid of all the intermediate dividings. The number of
grains of wheat required for 1 rood would be 42.240. which would not exceed 1 pint at farthest,
as I have asceilaiued by actually counting that quantity ; and, coiisequently, 1 pint of wheat will
plant 21,120 holes. If each hole gives 5 plants on an average, which may be reasonably expect-
ed, there would be at the dispo.sal of the farmer 105.600 plants, a quantity sufficient to plant 5
acres, at 17 J inches apart. If fanners were to adopt a system of this kind, there is little doubt but
it would soon gain ground in the country. Seed for 5 acres, sown in the usual way. would cost
about £4 12s. 6d., whereas 1 pint of wheat would only cost about 1 penny. The plants may be
taken up, separated, and planted again by 50 people in one day ; 25 taking up, dividing, and sup-
plying 25 planters, allowing each to plant 4,224 per day, and this might be wholly done by boys
and girls at 6d. per da5- ; consequently, the farmer's saving, exclusive of the original cost of dib-
bhng 1 rood, would be £3 7s. 5d. per every 5 acres, as thus :
" Cost of seed-wheat for 5 acres £i 12 6
Cost of 1 pint of seed-wheat £0 0 1
Dibbling it in i of an acre 0 0 0
Taking up and planting 1 5 0
15 1
£3 7 5 "•
(2331.) The object of these various modes of sowing wheat is the saving of geed — a great object
" inly, when it is borne in mind that 1-14 of the whole grain grown in the country is consigrned
B earth in .seed. From the statemeut ju.st given in regard to the transplanting of wheat, it
. ears that 4 English pints of wheat are capable of supplying a sufficient number of plants for 1
acreVy By ordinary drillintr. 3 pecks are enough seed for 1 acre, according to a statement of Mr.
HewlW Davi.s. whose wheat crops average 4 J quarters per acre on poor soil, which is manured
when tn» green crops are sown, and by sheep eating green crops off the land. His profits from
farming Stem to arise solely from the economical system of management he pursues. "The soils
I culiK-ateX he says, " are naturally vcr^- poor. Two of my farms are principally gravel, and
most of oneVa moorish, boggy gravel, extremely spongy in winter, and very apt to bum in sum-
mer, and forilWrlv in the slate of, and similar to. the heaths at Bagshot and Blackheath. The
other is a veryliijy farm, with but few inches of .soil, on chalk. The.se farms have l>een greatly
improved by ih«rltee of the subsoil and trenching plows ; but they are only kept in profitable till-
age hy the i;eiterol\^Hom y of the system.''^
(2332.) But practiWj has always tended against the use of a small quantity of seed ; and the
practice is sanctione(fyy the fact that, though large quantities of seed are usually sown, in many
seasons the youne platn^couie up rather scanty. There is a circumstance attending the germin-
ation of seed which may %ccount lor much of the .seed being destroyed by the insect tribe, espe-
cially if the weather be stK;h as to cause its germination to be tardy. The circumstance I allude
to is the nutritive matter of \Jie s<>e(l, which constitutes its largest proportion, speedily becoming
fluid after being sown, by abiorption of moisture, then milky in its aspect and sweetish in ito
taste. In fact, a good denl of stccharine matter is always evolved in the process of germination.
Now, as all creatures are known to be fond of suu'nr, the germinating seeds become a ready prey
to hosts of insects constantly existtng in the soil ; and should the jiro^ress of frerminaiionbe re-
tarded, by any cau.se external to iheaeed. we can easily conceive ttiat mjurj- derived from insects
may soon render the seed u.«eless for the purposes of vegetation ; for, if the nutritive matter be
extracted, there is nothin? to nourish the rudimentary plant, as it is not then sufficiently devel-
oped to draw nourishment from the soil.
(2333.) Fig. 432 represents a grain of whent maLrnified, and so dissected as to show its compo-
nent parts. It consists of 2 skins, an outer and an inner — a a the outer, and h the inner, skin ; b
is where the nutritive matter, called the albumen, is situate, and it constitutes the whole seed, and
* The Gnrdener's Chronicle for October, 1843.
t Bell's Weekly Messenger for Sept. 1S43 ; and see also Mr. Davia'i pamphlet on the same subject
(892)
SOWING AUTUMN WHEAT.
421
Fig. 433.
is mostly hid beneath the skins ; c is the little scale or cotyledon through which the nutritive mat-
ter passes in the sweetish state, when the grain is germinating, and by which it is rendered most
fit for the nourishment of the little plant ; d is the rudimentary plant, at
the base of which 3 tubers may be seen, from which as many roots or
stems, or both, will afterward proceed ; and e is the point where all the
3 — the nutritive matter, the little scale, and the rudimentary plant — are
united. All these parts are essential to the growth of the .seed ; for,
when any one of them is absent by accident or design, the seed fails to
spring.
(2334.) The seeds of almost every species of plant naturally possess
such a structure that only 1 stem can prc.ceed from them ; but in the
grasses, and more particularly in the cereal gras.ses — that is. those w^hich
yield corn — there is observed a remarkable departure from this form of
parts. In them the embryo plant is usuall3' thickened toward its base,
and so organized that, instead of 1 stem. 3 or 4 usuallj' spring from 1
grain ; awl. in other cases, a number of stems so great has issued as al-
most to exceed belief The peculiarity mentioned may be observed at
d. fig. 432, which is the rudimentary plant, having 3 projectious in the
lower part, while in another seed there would have only been 1 ; and
from each of these a rootlet or a stem, or both, will proceed when the
grain is placed in the soil. Fig. 433 represents the grain in a state of the compo.vent parts
germination, 1 shoot a having left the sheath, another b is just evolved, of a grain of wheat.
and a third c remains unevulved ; and d d ai'e the rootlets. It is this
peculiarity of structure which compensates, in some degree, for the loss arising from the destruc-
tion of seed. The germination of autumn wheat takes place in about 17 or 19 days. The force
of the vegetation of a single seed is so great as to be able to raise
a weight of 200 lbs., as has been proved by the process being
made to split hollow balls, in the .same manner as the Florentine
academicians measured the expansive force of freezing water.
(2335.) There is a valuable property in the gron th of wheat
which I must not omit to mention, which is, that the wheat plant
pushes out 2 sets of roots, the one from the seed, and the other
from the crown of the plant, from which the leaves originate. —
The seminal roots asd, fig. 433, pu.sh out from the seed wherever
it may have been sown, provided the depth does not exceed 7
inches: but the coronal roots always push out as at a, Mg. 433,
very near the surface of the soil, not much exceeding 1 inch be-
low it. The existence of those 2 sorts of roots clearly indicates
the nature of the plant to bear sowing both in winter and spring ;
and the relative position of the roots indicates the differences of
culture which should be given to the plant in winter and spring.
In winter, wheat-seed should be pretty well covered with soil,
say 4 inches, in order to be placed beyond the influence of frost,
but in spring it should be sown nearer the surface " The first
or seminal root," says a writer in the Georgical Essays, quoted
by Colonel Le Couteur, "is pushed out at the same time with the
germ — which, together with the farina, nourishes the plant until
it has formed its crown." " In the spring, when the crown has
become sufficiently large, it detaches a number of strong fibres,
which push themselves obliquely downward. These are the
coronal roots. A small pipe preserves the communication be-
tween them and the seminal roots, and it makes an essential part
of the plant : and is observed to be longer or shorter, according
to the depth that the seed has been buried. It is remarkable,
however, that the crown is always formed just within the sur-
face ; its place is the same, whether the grain has been sown
deep or superficial. I believe I do not err when I call this vege-
table instinct. As the increase and fructification of the plant'depend upon the vigoroas absorp-
tion of the coronal roots, it is no wonder that they should fix themselves so near the surface, where
the soil is always the richest. From an attention to this circumstance, we are led to explain the
operation of lopdressijigs:' . . . . " Wheat sown superficially," continues the same writer,
"must be exposed to the severity of the frost, from the shortness of the pipe of communication.
The plant in that situation has no benefit from its double root. On the contrary, when the graiu
has been perfectly covered, the seminal and coronal roots are kept at a reasonable distance. The
'^^°'^^9' oemg well nourished during the winter, sends up numerous stalks in the spring. On the
tdlering of the corn, the goodness of the crop principally depends." Spring-sown wheat, having
no time to tiller, may therefore be sown nearer the surrace. and also thicker than autumn sown.
Viewed in this light, drilled wheat in spring should grow more equally than seed covered in with
the harrow ; for, as this writer justly observes, "a field of wheat, dibbled, or sown in equidistant
rows by the drill-plow, always makes a better appearance than one soM'n with tiie harrow. In
the one, the pipe of communication is regularly of the same length, but in the other it is irregu-
lar, being eifher too long or too short." I would say, with Colonel Le Couteur. that the exact
depth at which wheat should be sown is a question of local experience, bearing relation to the
nature of the soil and climate.
(2336.) As to the natural tillering of wheat, some varieties evince extraordinary powers in that
respect. Colonel Le Couteur mentions that " one plant from a single grain of a downy variety, in
1633, threw out 32 tillers ; all produced ears, with an average of 50 grains to each, or ] 600 grains
(893) ' o 6 o
A PLANT OF WHEAT IN THE
STATE OF GERMINATION.
422 THE BOOK OF THE FARM AUTUMN.
from 1 — an enormous produce,'' as the Colonel regards it, bat judiciously adds, " which no field
cultivation could be fairly expected to attain, as it is not the extraordinarj- quantities which art
may produce, either by extreme care, tubdivifion, and trantplantatian. that should be brought
under the consideration of farmers ; but the Jair and legitimate mode of husbandry, attainable to
all who will devote to its pursuit that industry and inquiry without which their art is a mere me-
chanical o[H.'ration, throwing in a little seed into the ground, and leaving Nature to do the rest."*
(2337.) Early sown wheat, when growing luxuriantly in autumn, is (Sometimes affected by slugs
in damp weather. Mr. Wentworih. of Harlow, gives this recipe for doctroying them : '• Provide,
fresh from the kiln, as much lime as will allow 5 bushels to the acre. Slake it 2 days before sow-
ing; choose a calm and mild morning: commence sowing early enough to finish before daylight;
and 1 man can sow 1 acre per hour, sowing 2 yards at a cast." Turnip-leaves have been recom-
mended to be laiil upon wheat, and, as slugs readily take shelter under them, they can thus be
collected and destroyed. Of the 2 modes of desu^ction, 1 should conceive the quicklime to be
the more efficacioas, especially in moist weather.
39. EGGS.
•' Mine honest friend.
Will you take eggs for money ? ''
Winter's Tale.
(2338.) The treatment which every kind of poultiy should receive in
autumn is that recommended in spnng (1939), to be followed in summer.
Geese, ducks and turkeys should only hatch in spring and the early part
of summer; for late hatchings of these never produce birds worth rearing,
as they cannot attain in the same season a tolerable size and degree of
fatness. But common fowls may be hatched throughout the summer, and
even to a late period in autumn, and the chicks be reared to a useful state.
What can constitute a more delicate dish than a chicken, boiled, roasted or
broiled, at any season, but especially when the productions of the garden
are in the highest state of perfection, in summer and autumn 1
(2339.) Hens are fond of making their own nests and bringing out broods
in corn-fields, and at the roots of hedges and shrubs ; and u-hen hens have
their libert)/ during the day, it is impossible to prevent their following this
inclination, which is common to all, under the best regulated system ; and
80 high a value do I set upon liberty to these creatures, on the score of
health and strength of body, and flavor in flesh, that 1 would rather run
the risk of losing a few broods in the year, by the fox and polecat making
free with a self-set hen or two upon nests of their own seeking in corn-
fields, than see them cribbed in summer within a court of the largest di-
mensions.
(2340.) One of the daily cares of the hen-wife in summer and autumn
is the gathering of eggs. Whenever a hen is obsen-ed to show a desire
to lay, a nest should be provided for her in a quiet and convenient place,
and if she is directed to it at the commencement of her laying, she will
continue to frequent it ever after, if undisturbed ; but a nest is not re-
quired for every laying hen, as several will lay in succession in the same
nest, some hens laying earlier in the day than others ; and so tenacious are
they of their right to particular nests, that two hens will not unfrequently
occupy the same nest at the same time.
(2341.) Every place is not equally suitable for a hen's nest. In other
places than the hen-house, hens are not fond of laying their eggs on a
level with the ground, though a quiet corner in a shed under some shelter
is not unfrequently selected by themselves for the purpose ; but they
* Le Couteur on Wheat ; and it is but justice to Mr. Lawson. of Elgin, to state that he detected this pe-
culiarity in the germination of wheat, when too deep gown, so long ago as 1827— as may be seen by refer-
ring to No. VI. of the Old Series of the British Farmers' Magazine.
(894)
EGGS. 423
usually prefer to be elevated above the ground, such as in the mangers of
stables, or in a trough of a shed or hammel, or upon the top of the wall
of a stable, byre, or outhouse, immediately below the roof. When nests
are 'made in such places as hens would themselves prefer, they are much
more likely to be frequented than when an opposite determination is taken.
One reason, perhaps, for their preference to the manger of the work-horse
stable is that in daily picking up morsels of food dropped there by the
hoi'ses, while the latter are at work in the field, the manger presents a
convenient place on the spot when the pressure for laying overcomes them.
(2342.) Ducks are very careless layers, dropping their eggs whei'ever
they seek for food, and these, when discovered by the pigs, are champed
up as the most delicate morsels that fall in their way. Common rooks
watch for such stray eggs, and carry them off even out of the courts of
the steading. To secure the eggs of ducks, the birds should be examined
before being let out in the morning, and those indicating hard with egg
should be confined in the hen-house till they have laid, and afterward let
at large.
(2343.) It should be the hen-wife's duty to visit every nest and collect
the eggs from them every day, and the period of creating the least dis-
turbance to the poultry in this duty is the afternoon, say between 2 and 3
o'clock, before the birds begin to retire to roost. A nest-egg should be
left in every nest ; because it is an old established fact, that all domestic
birds, at least, prefer to lay in nests containing eggs to those which are
empty. Eggs are most conveniently collected in small hand-baskets ; and
a short, light ladder will give easy access to all nests elevated above reach
fi'om the ground.
(2344.) Whether eggs are retained for use at home, or disposed of to
the egg-merchant, it is of importance to keep them in a fresh state for
some time. This end may be attained by preventing the air penetrating
the pores of the shell, and the yolk coming in contact with its inside. A
simple and effectual way of preventing the air penetrating the shell is to
rub the egg over with butter when taken warm from the nest ; and as
simple a way of preventing the yolk adhering to the inside of the shell is
to roll the egg from one side to the other every day. This treatment eggs
should daily receive, whether kept for your own use or sold to the dealer,
and it will preserve them in quite a fresh state for several weeks. But I
need hardly inform you that this is not the general mode of treating eggs
in farm-houses, whether intended for use at home or for sale, they being
commonly kept in promiscuous heaps, and used in the state when taken
from the nest ; and if they are habitually used on the day they are laid, no
unnecessary trouble is required to be taken with them. When trouble is
desired to be avoided with eggs, they are sold to the dealers every week
in spring and early summer, when most abundant ; but the price is then
very low, not above perhaps 4d. per dozen — a price unremunerative for
the least degree of care bestowed on fowls. If it is desired to render
eggs a remunerative item of farm economy, they should be presented in
a fresh state until the season of scarcity ai-rives, when, of course, they
would realize a fairer price. It is easy to preserve eggs to that season by
simply smearing them with butter immediately from the nest, and setting
them on their small ends among salt in barrels in a dry room. They may
be kept in this manner for 7 months, at least I have found them quite
fresh at the end of that period, so much so, that they contained the very
milk which constitutes the criterion of an egg being fresh when boiled ;
and how much longer they would have remained in that state I cannot
say, as I never tried the experiment farther. I have heard of an instance
(895)
424 THE BOOK OF THE FARM AUTUMN.
of egj^s packed in salt becpming so salted as to be useless ; but in this
case the salt might have been damp, and the eggs might not have been
greased at all. Both circumstances are matenal, for without grease air
cannot be excluded, and I know that new-laid eggs will soon become salt
when floated in hriiif. Eggs will also keep I'resh in a barrel of lime-
water ; but the dry salt, in a dry chamber, is a much more agreeable ma-
terial to put the liaiid among every day. In short, they may be kept in
any wav that will exclude tlie air entering the shell ; but whatever other
additional expedient is adopted, that of greasing them with butter imme-
diately fiom the nest should never be neglected.
(2.345.) Hens begin to lay about the beginning of March, and continue
to the beginning of October. They do not lay every day, that is, every
24 hours, some hiying every other day, and some missing (jne day in three.
Thev lay about 2 dozen of eggs at one period, then cease for 2 or 3 weeks,
and again lay other 2 dozen, and so on for the number of months men-
tioned. Of all these months, however, they lay most constantly in March
and April. After each period f)f laying they are inclined to sit on the
eggs, and when it is not desirable for them to incubate, it is difficult, in
most cases, to drive them from their propensity to ducking, as it is com-
monly called.
(2346.) Many cruel expedients are practiced by country people to pre-
vent hens clucking, such as ducking them in water, dipping them in water
for a few seconds, pulling feathers in a particular manner out of particular
parts of their body, and such like barbarities — all of which I believe to be
ineffectual, at least I never saw a single instance of their success. The
only effectual plan I know, without giving bodily pain to the animal — for
if it is desired to have hens to lay eggs in preference to hatching chickens,
it is requisite to remove from them the desire to sit — is to place them in
darkness, and there deprive them of food and water for 2 days and 2 nights,
and, in difficult cases, for the third day. The simplest means of accom-
plishing this is to procure a number of light-made tubs, each just large
enough to hold one hen within it when standing on her feet, and to have
its top and sides pierced with holes to afford air, but so small as to exclude
light, and to give them such an inclination as the hen may not see through
them. Such a tub is placed mouth downward over a hen, in a quiet place,
such as an out-house, and not in the hen-house. In this position, the de-
sire to sit will be removed from her in 2 days, and in obstinate cases in 3
days. It is not an uncommon practice to whelm an ordinary tub over a
number of hens, with one side of its mouth raised a little from ths ground,
the effects of which contrivance are to allow as much light to enter the
tub as to let the hens see to fight each other, and in many such cases they
are removed with their scalps bared to the bone, and even pecked and
trampled to death.
(2347.) Neither dogs nor children should be allowed to nin after laying
hens, as such treatment obliges them to lay their eggs before they are pro-
vided with the shell. Guinea fowls are incessant chasers of hens.
(2348.) Ducks are great layers, laying an e^^ almost every day. They
commence at the beginning of April, and cease at the season the bean
usually comes in bloom — in July.
(2349.) Autumn is the time to select hens for laying the eggs in the en-
suing winter. They should all be yi>ung, but of different ages, that a suc-
cession of layers may be maintained during the season, as I have men-
tioned before in (1473), and the food they should receive I have also
mentioned in (1939). Like the eggs collected in summer, those dropped
in winter should also be smeared with butter when taken from the nest.
(896)
EGGS. 425
Hens readily taken to the nests made for them at this season, evincing
Uttle desire to make them in the fields for themselves. Autumn is the
season of moulting with fowls. The only cave requisite under this peri-
odic visitation, is to keep the creatures warm at night, for chilhiess of air
may be looked for at nights in October.
(2350.) Pigeons will produce a young brood in every month in autumn,
and in this season of heat and abundance of food, both old and young
become full-sized and in fine condition. They sbould be fed in common
with other poultry ; but though this be regularly practiced, they are fond
of going to the fields in search of variety of food. Fields of new-sown
peas, oats, barley, and wheat, are eagerly visited by them in quest of grain
that has escaped burial by the harrow. Even the turnip-seed is eagerly
souo-ht for in a new-sown field ; and where the wheat crop is laid by the
weather, there they will congregate in flocks, and pick out every kernel
within their reach. For wheat and pease they will fly miles to obtain. It
is, no doubt, provoking to see corn nearly ready for the sickle destroyed
in the field by any kind of animal ; but a larmer regards the depredations
o/Vi«* oii>/j ^>/^eo«s in a pardoning mood.
(2351.) Turkeys and geese commit sad havoc in corn-fields situate near
the steading, for a week or two before harvest — a si^ht intolerable to the
farmer, not°so much on account of the quantity of grain actually consumed,
as for that scattered about and trampled down. When corn happens to
be growing near the steading, all the poultry should be confined within
court-yards for a time, and supported entirely by hand. A few sheep-
nets stretched over the court-walls of hammels, afford an easy means of
confining a large assortment of poultry, and of subdividing them into
classes.
(2352 ) The e^g, being a remarkable object, and produced in such abundance, and so univer-
sally esteemed as an article of food, a few particulars obtained by men of science of its nature and
constitution may prove interesting to you. „ , , , • . .
(2353 ) " The e^'^s of all birds," says Dr. Thomson, " so far as they have been examined, bear
a striking resemblance to each other. They consist of 4 ^a.ns.firs<t, the shell, which is white in
the eggs°of the common fowl, and of many other kinds ; but it is often colored or spotted of vari
ous colors, so as to give it a beautiful appearance ; second, the membrana pntamiiiis, a thin, trans
parent peilicle, immediately within the shell ; at the great end of the egg this membrane is de
tached from the shell, leaving a certain distance between them, which is filled with air ; third,
the white or albumen, a glaiiy liquid, consisting of albumen dissolved in water, and contained,
like the vitreous humor of the eye, in an extremely thin membrane, divided into cells : fourth, the
yolk, a thick and almost solid yellow matter, inclosed in a peculiar membrane ; this membrane,
by 2' ligaments, called chalaza, is tied to the membrane of the albumen, and thus the yolk is kept
in the center of the egg." . . , . p
(2354.) In regard to the constitution of these various parts, it appears trom an analysis ot
Dr. Prout, which was later tlian that of Vauquelin, that the shell of the common fowl consists of
Carbonate of lime, with a little carbonate of magnesia 97 parts.
Phosphate of lime and magnesia 1 - -
Animal matter • ^ - -
Total 100 parts.
The membrana, according to Hatchett, consists of coagulated albumen. The white, or albumen,
coagulates into a firm white solid, when heated to 159° Fahr. ; and when evaporated to dryness,
leaves about 14 per cent, of albumen. Dr. Bo.stock has shown that it contains also a little mucus.
The constitution of the white, according to him, is
Water 80
Albumen l^'^
Mucus •• '^'^
Total 100-
Dr. Prout obtained, by combustion, the following fixed constituents in 1,000 grains of the white of
egg, from 3 different eggs :
Sulphuric acid 0-29
Phosphoric acid 0'45
Chlorine 0-94
Potash, soda, and carbonates of potash and soda 2-92
Lime, magnesia, and the carbonates of lime and magnesia 0-30
Total 4 90
(897)
015
0-18 grains.
0-46
0-48
0-93
0-87 ..
2-93
2-72 ..
0-25
0-32
4-72
4-57 grains.
426 THE BOOK OF THE FARM AUTUMN.
M. Mulder lias proved that the sulphur and phosphorus are in the state of sulphur and phosphonis,
aud not in thai of acid ; and tliis was to huvc been expected, from the well known alkaline reac-
tion of the white of an egg. Dr. Prout'H analysis of the t/olk uf an egg which was hard boiJed in
distilled water, and weighed 316-5 grains, gave lliese results:
Water 170-2 grains or 53-78 in 100 parts.
Albumen .')5-3 .. 17-47
Yellow oil 91-0 .. 2^-75
Total 316-5 .. 100-00
According to Planchc, 1,000 parts of yolk of egg furnish, at an average, 180 parts of oil. This
oil con.«istK of stearin lU, and ot elain 90 parts-, the stearin is white and solid, and docs not stain
paper like oil. He found this stearin and the fat of fowls to agree verj- nearly. The elain pos-
sesses the character of a fixed oil. Chcvreul found 2 coloring matters in the yolk, the one rpti,
and the oilier j/il/oir. Lecanu. besides the stearin and elain, extracted from the yolk a cr^sialine
matter, which melted at 293^ Fahr., and which he considered as of the same nature with choles-
teriu from the brain. Dr. Prout determined the quantity of fixed consiitueuts in 100 grains of the
yolk, by incineration, in 3 ditierent eggs, thus :
Sulphuric acid 0-21 0-06 0.19 grains.
Phosphoric acid 3 56 350 400 ..
Chlorine 0-39 0-28 044 ..
Potash, soda, and the carbonates of potash and soda 0-50 0-27 0 51 ..
Lime, magnesia, aud the carbonates of lime and magnesia, 0-68 0-61 0-67 ..
Total 5-34 4 72 581 grains.
Whether the sulphur aud phosphorus exist in the yolk in the state of acids, or as sulphur and
phosphorus, is unknown. When we compare the fixed constituents of the white and yolk, we
cannot avoid being struck with the difference. The n-hite contains a much greater quantity of
fixed alkalies than of any other fixed constituent ; while in the yolk the most abundant constituent
is phosphoric acid, which amounts to from 35 to 4 grains ; or il w-e suppose it to exist as phospho-
rus, it varies in diflerent yolks from l-5o to 177 grains.
(2355.) The specific gravity of a new-laid egg varies from 1080 to 1-090; an egg, therefore, is
heavier than sea-water, the specific gravity of which is 1-030. When kept, eggs rapidly lose
weight, and become specifically lighter than water. This is owing to the diminution of bulk in
the contents of the egg ; the conseiiuence of which is, that a portion of the inside of the egg comes
to be filled with air. Dr. Prout kept an egg 2 years, and found that it lost weight daily, at an
average rate of 0744 grains. The original weight was 907-5 grains, and after 2 years' exposure
to the atmosphere, it weighed only 363-2 grains. The total loss amounted to 5443 grains, or con-
siderably more than half the original weight. The loss in summer was somewhat greater than in
winter, owing, no doubt, to the difference of temperature. When an egg is, therefore, emploj-ed
as a test of the strength of brine, the newer it is, the stronger is the brine that floats it. The rela-
tive weights of shell and membrane, albumen and yolk, are very diflerent. Supposing the original
weight of the egg to be 1.000 grains. Dr. Prout found the relative pro[iortions, in 10 diflerent eggs,
to be as follows : Shell and membrane 106-9. albumen 604-2, and yolk 288-9 grains. When an egg
is boiled in water, it lo.scs weight, i)articularly if it be removed from the water when boiling, and
be permitted to cool in the open air. The water will be found to contain a portion of the saline
constituents of the egg. The loss of weight from boiling is not con.stant, varying from 20 to 30
grains, supposing the original weight to have been 1,000 grains. The quantity of saline matter
obtained by evaporating the distilled water in which an egg was boiled, amounts, at an average,
to 0.32 grains. It is strongly alkaline, and yields traces of all the fixed principles found to exist
in the egg ; but the carbonate of lime is most abundant, and is obtained by evaporation in the
form of white powder.
(2356.) The source whence are derived the bones of the chick while in the egg, is still an object
of research. At the full term of incubation, important changes in the constitution of the egg are
completed. " The albumen." as Dr. Thomson observes, "has disappeared, or is reduced to a few
dry membranes, together with earthy matter. The yolk is considerably reduced in size, and is
taken into the abdomen of the chick, w-hile the animal has attained a -weight nearly equal to the
original weiu'ht of the albumen, together with that lost by the yolk, minus the loss of weight sus-
tained by the eirg during incubation The alkaline matters and chlorine have diminii-hed in quan-
tity, while the earthy matters have considerably increased During the last week of in-
cubation, the yolk has lost mo.st of its phosphorus, which is found in the animal converted into
phosphoric acid, and, combined with lime, constituting its bony skeleton. This lime does not ex-
ist in llie recent eug, but is derived from some unknown source during the process of incubation.
Mr. Hatchett made the curious remark, that in the ova of those tribes of animals the embryos of
which have bones, there is a portion of oily matter, and in those ova whose embryos consist en-
tirely of soft parts, there is none. In what way the oily matter contributes to tlie formation of
bone it is impossible, in the present state of our knowledge, to conjecture. Nor can any source
of the lime of the bones be pointed out, except the shell ; and it would be difficult to determine
whether the shell loses lime during the process of incubation."*
(2357.) M. Raspail, in investigating the nature of animal albumen by the microscope, as exem-
plified in the white of the egg, observes that '-the albumen of the pullet's egg is composed of an
insoluble and regularly organized texture, which contains in its cells a soluble substance much
more su.sceptible of alteration than the texture is. Chemists had previously acknowledged the ex-
istence of an albumen soluble in water, and of another w-liich was insoluble; but they had not re-
marked that these 2 sorts of albumen existed together in the white of eggs, and they had consider-
* Thomson's Chemistry of Animal Bodies.
(898)
THE POINTS OF LIVE-STOCK. 427
ed this substance as a variety of the insoluble albumen But the insoluble substance of the
white of an egg is rendered apparent only by degrees, and accordingly there is a period when it
can scarcely be distinguished in this respect from the soluble substance, and this is when the egg
is fresh, that is, recently laid. Hence, as I have already pointed out regarding the vegetable tex-
tures, the textures are formed by the aggregation of the particles of the soluble substance, oi", in
other words, the soluble substance is converted by solidification into the parietes of cells. All
these circumstances establish a complete analogy between gluten in vegetables and albumen in
animals."*'
(23.58.) Of the nature of egg and seed, the origin of animal and vegetable individuality, and of
the natural analogy between them, M Raspail thus expresses himself : " The egg and the seed
are cells detached from the texture of the mother, in consequence of an influence of an opposite
kind. This influence may proceed from an external body which we call the male, or from an in-
ternal cause which we altogether neglect to notice. The egg and the seed may more particularly
attract our attention, in consequence of their forms and dimensions ; but the slice of a polypus,
which becomes an entire animal, and the fragment of a potato, which produces a complete plant,
are sufficient to teach us that the generative faculty is preserved by the whole organic system, and
that the whole organized being is complete in any one of its cells."t
(2359.) The duty on the importation of Ibreign eggs is fixed by the new Tariff at lOd. per 120,
and 2^ii. from British Possessions. The trade in eggs is carried on to a very great extent in this
country. The importation from France is large, and the supply obtained in the west coast of
England and Scotland from Ireland is also great. About 20 years ago and upward, £30,000 worth
of eggs used to be sent from Berwick-on-Tweed to the London market in the oour.se of the year,
but since the interference of large importations from France and Ireland, that trade, I believe, has
almost dwindled away. The price of eggs is never high in the country, but in towns it is almost
always so. In the most abundant season, egg,s, that can be relied on as fresh, are never below 7d.
per dozen in Edinburgh, and in winter, especially at Christmas, when the confectioners iise large
quantities, they are as high as from ]4d. to 18d, per dozen.
40. THE POINTS POSSESSED BY THE DOMESTICATED ANIMALS
MOST DESIRABLE FOR THE FARMER TO CULTIVATE.
"From fairest creatures we desire increase,
That thereby Beauty's rose may never die ;
But as the riper should by time decrease.
His tender heir might bear his memory."
Sonnets, by Shakspeake.
The most difficult branch and the highest aim of farming is the breeding
and rearing of live-stock, so as to produce the most perfect animal that
shall yield the highest profit. It is very easy to maintain a flock or a herd
that will propagate its kind ; as the actual condition of many flocks and
herds in the country abundantly testifies. It is even easier to do this than
to cultivate arable land for the purpose of raising corn ; for the latter de-
mands and must receive more trouble, at all events, if not attention, than
a flock or herd of neglected animals, who will keep themselves alive if
food be within their reach, and who will propagate their kind even in due
season, if the sexes are not kept asunder.
I am not aware that the principles upon which the proper breeding of
animals should be based are understood by our farmers ; for I hold that
our stock have been brought to their present state of perfection, merely
from each farmer exercising his individual taste and judgment — by grati-
fying his eye and satisfying his mind — and not in pursuance of any fixed
principle he is acquainted with on the subject. There can be no doubt,
however, that the symmetry, disposition to grow and fatten, and the rela-
tive proportions of the different parts of animals, are entirely dependent
on laws which govern animal life ; and could these be understood, so as
to render their application easy, the breeder of stock would no longer in-
trust his success to uncertainty. The botanical physiologist and the chem-
* RaspaiVs Organic Chemistry. t Ibid.
(899)
428 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
ist have been very dilatory in proposing suggestions to the farmer, but the
animal physiologist has hitherto almost entirely neglected him. The phy-
sician and surgeon, on the other hand, have not ; for the veterinarian, now a
man of science, administers his prescriptions and performs his operations
with the confidence and ease of a proHtient. Pity the physiologist should
have almost neglected so extensive and fine a field as a breeding and rear-
ing fium presents for his peculiar pursuits, and where the functions of the
living and growing structure might so easily be observed, and their ef-
fects aflerwaid as easily demonstrated by post-morhin examinations. The
results obtained from such investigations would afford invaluable data
with which to compare the functions of the human structure ; and, forti-
fied by the investigations of the comparative physiologist, the human phy-
sician would treat diseases with increased skill. The anatomist acknowl-
edges the great importance of Comparative Anatomy to his profession ;
and the surgeon owns to have received many useful hints from the veteri-
narian, in the treatment of wounds and the conducting of operations of
magnitude and difficulty ; and so, in like manner, no doubt, would the
physiologist also acknowledge the importance of the observations he might
make on a breeding-farm, were he disposed to turn his attention to the
subject. Meantime the breeder of stock must go on, as he has hitherto
done, by the light of his own genius.*
From what I have said of what is known of the principles of breeding
stock, you will not expect from me so concise an explanation of them as I
have given of the methods of conducting the operations of the field ; and
wei'e it even possible, 1 could not find space here for the discussion of so
extensive a subject. Suffice it to give you a few of the rules which guide
the breeder in the treatment of his stock with a view to its improvement ;
and for your better ability to follow me in a subject which is yet confess-
edly in a state of confusion, I have selected a numerous group of illustra-
tions, in whose good points you should have confidence, because they were
all faithfully taken from the life, from individuals considered excellent by
competent judgres.
The great aim of breeders is that their stock shall possess fine symme-
try— shape, as it is commonly called — robust constitution — and a disposi-
tion to attain early maturity, which insures good quality of flesh, as well
as of wool in the case of sheep. Let us consider what each of those
properties means, and also the points by which the existence of each is
indicated in the animal.
Symtnctni or Shape. — The shape is the first object to be attained ; for
without fine symmetry no animal looks well, however passable it may be
in other respects ; but, in fact, when symmetry' is wanting, so are the other
goo<l particulars. In fine symmetry, the outline of the figure viewed,
whether on the side or at either end, or from above, should be rectangu-
lar. Fig. 273 represents the side view of a fat Short-Horn ox ; and it will
be obsened that the body nearly fills up the rectangle a h d c inscribed
about it. A fat ox will fill up the rectangle more fully than a lean one ;
but still a lean ox should have the rectangular outline. But it is not
enough for an ox to present the rectangular outline in the side profile
only ; it should have it in other positions, such as when viewed from be-
hind, as in fig. 274, where the same sort of outline may be obsen-ed within
the rectangle a h d c. True, this is a different rectangle from the other,
* The only phvsiologisu I am aware of who have made observations on breeding stock, were the lat«
Mr. Knight, and iiis valuable suceestions will be found in the Philosophiral Transactions ; and Mr. Walker.
whose original views on Physinlugy have been made public in several works : for as to the value of the
experiments of Sir John Sebright, nis scieniilic acquiremenu were not of so high an order as to inspire
practical men, at least, in the accuracy of his observations, and correctness of his conclusions.
(900)
SYMMETRY OF LIVE STOCK. 429
approaching near the square, while the other is oblong. I do not know
whether the rectangles of the side and the ends should bear a given pro-
portion to each other, as the outlines of the ox have never, I believe been
subjected to proportional measurement, though these could easily be as-
certained by employing an adjusting-frame ; but, judging from measure-
ments taken with the view of ascertaining the weight ol" beef in oxen
(19S8), it is probable that a fine symmetry gives, on the side profile, a rect-
angle of double the length of that of the end profile. The end profile,
viewed from behind, gives a rectangle equal, of course, to the depth of
that of the side profile. Another point of a well-proportioned ox is that
the breadth across the hooks from a to h, fig. 274, should be equal to the
depth from the hook a to the hook c ; that is, the hind profile should be
inscribed in a square. Now, an ox may be rectangular in its side, and
across its rump, and yet be of different shape across its shoulders,
when viewed from the front of the animal — it may, for example, be
narrow at the top of the shoulder, and wide below at the brisket. In
such a case the ribs will be flat, that is, fall quickly downward, and
not project square from the back-bone, as they always do in fine sym-
metry. Fig. 275 shows the front end of a fat round-ribbed ox fillino'
up the rectangle ; but though the top of the shoulder fills up the rect-
angle as well as the lower part of the body across the shoulder-points e f,
yet the rectangle may not be a square ; that is, the ox may be narrower
in front than behind ; and this is no uncommon case in many breeds
of cattle in this country, and many breeders maintain that this form
constitutes perfect symmeti'y, at least for certain purposes, as for milk.
This mode of reasoning, however, is not satisfactory ; for the idea con-
veyed by perfect symmetry is an equilibrium of parts. Now, we cannot
conceive an equilibrium of parts to exist in an ox whose fore-end is nar-
rower than its hind ; and where this disparity is found there is evidently
something wrong in the symmetry. For observe fig. 276, which gives the
top view of the body of an ox — a view which is never seen unless sought
for on purpose. Here, again, is the long rectangle as of the side ; but
when an ox is narrower before than behind, this figure would not be a
rectangle, but a trapezium — a figure no way associated with symmetry —
so that, for fine symmetry, it is not enough to have the front outline filling
up a rectangle, for that rectangle should be equal to that of the hooks, as
may be seen in comparing figs. 274 and 275 ; and as we have seen, in fig.
274, that the breadth of the hooks is equal to the depth of the hock, and
its rectangle is therefore a square, so we see, by fig. 276, that the breadth
and length of an ox, when seen from above, forms a rectangle equal to
that of its side, as seen in fig. 273. Perfect symmetry in the ox, there-
fore, implies that all the horizontal, as well as vertical lines inscribing its
outlines, are respectively parallel to each other ; and that these two sets
of parallel lines are at right angles to one another. On dividing the entire
area of the side view of an ox into 5 parallel and horizontal parts, f will
bejfound to be occupied by the body, and \ below the body.
This is the abstract view of symmetry, as applied to the ox ; but it is not
to be supposed that every ox fulfills these conditions ; for, even in the
figures referred to above, it will be observed that in the side view of fig-.
273 the brisket falls below h, and the flank rises a little at e. The brisket
h may be observed to drop below the horizontal line c d'vtx the front view
of fig. 275 ; and in the hind-view of fig. 274, it frequently happens that the
hocks, c and d, do not descend so far as to constitute a square figure with
the hook a h. Still the aim of the breeder should be to attain all the points
of the abstract model, and he should never rest satisfied until he attain them.
(901)
430 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
Nevertheless, it must not be imagined that the configuration of any ox in
any view should fill up the angles of the rectangles, inasmuch as the invaii-
able roundness assumed by the animal frame forbids such a form, which
would, in fact, destroy the beautiful blending of curved lines abounding
in the body, and deprive us of the highest enjoyment in looking at a sym-
metrical animal.
Of the states of ca<</e on a farm, that of the full-giown ox approaches
nearer than any other to perfect symmetry of form. If you compare the
picture of the ox in Plate VI., though that animal was then only 1 year 11
months old, with that of the bull or the cow, by imagining a rectangle in-
scribed around each figure, you will find his symmetry more correct than
that of the others. The bull in Plate XXXII. has the brisket drooping
even lower down than the ox, while his neck rises in a crest behind the
head. In Plate XV., though the side view of the cow is pretty similar to
that of the ox, the hind view is proportionally broader across the hooks,
while the front view is somewhat narrower across the shoulders. If the
broad hook-bones, with the narrow chest, are not entirely occasioned in
cows by calf-bearing, the disproportion between them is, at all events,
greatly increased by it.
So far in regard to the symmetry of the outline of the ox ; and as to the
filling up of the outlines, the remarks offered in (1309) will apply to cattle
in all states, though there •especially referring to the points of a fat ox.
There should be a straight back, round ribs, and full muscles in every state
of cattle, and the objectionable deviations from these points, mentioned in
(1311), are as much to be deprecated in the bull, the cow, the heifer, and
the calf, as in the ox.
Apply the rectangle to the figure of the sheep, and it will fit the more
closely the nearer the animal approaches to perfection. In fig. 462, the
rectangle ^ A i k is applied to the new-clipped body of a Leicester tup,
and though an old tup, and deviations from correct form may be expected
in old age, still the figure fills up the rectangle very well. Apply it over
the wool to the picture of the Leicester tup in Plate XXXIII., and it will
fit .still better ; and carry it to the picture of the South Down in Plate
XIV., and it will still apply ; though in this particular animal the wool
grew more than usually rank upon the top of the rump. Even the figure
of the lamb in the fig. 444, will bear the application of the rectani^le.
In regard to the end and lop views of the figure of the sheep, the ribs of
the Leicester breed are so very much rounded that they form cun'ed lines
down the sides of the rectangle, inscribing the hind and fore profiles ; and
along the sides of the rectangle, inscribing the view of the back from above ;
still the flatness across the back, and the straightness across below the chest,
fill up the lines of the rectangle. In other breeds, such as the Black-faced
and Cheviot, the rectangle may still be
applied.
To the figure of the ?torse the rectangle may also be applied, as the pic-
ture of the draught-gelding in Plate VII. may be imagined to be inscribed,
and of this class of stock the gelding is the best state for comparison, as
the f)X is that of cattle. The picture of the draught-stallion in Plate VII.,
will bear the same application ; though in this, as in all cases of stallions,
the neck rises to a high crest. * ♦ * But the end views, in the case of
the horse, bear difieient proportions to those of cattle, the hind view being
always broader, and broadest in the mare, approaching more to the square,
or like that of the ox, than the front view, which is always narrow. The
square-like hind view is very well seen in the left-hand dark figure of a
(90-2)
ROBUSTNESS OF CONSTITUTION IN LIVE-STOCK.
431
mare, in Plate XVII., and the narrow front view is as well observed in
the right-hand dark figure of a draught-horse, Plate VII. The compara-
tive breadths of the hind and front views approach nearer each other in
the draught-horse than in any other breed ; his drawing powers lying in
the shoulders, the muscles there become developed to a gi-eat degree,
while, in the saddle-horse, the propelling power is in the hind-quarter,
where the muscles become developed ; as the fore-quarter is only required
to support the fore-hand of the animal in action, the muscles there are all
light. For these reasons, it is obvious that the view of a horse from above
will not form a rectangle but a trapezium. In perfect symmetry the void
below the body is of the san^e depth as the body to the top of the rump ;
the length of the body from the shoulder-point through the center
of gravity of the horse to the hams is two times the depth of the body;
the length of the neck to' the withers is equal to the depth of the body from
the withers; and the distance from the fore-fetlock to the elbow-joint is the
same as from the latter point to the withers.
There are peculiarities in some of the points of the horse which deserve
to be mentioned. A horse with ears set high on the crown of the head is
of lively temperament, but is hasty of temper, and easily made afraid ;
while a horse with ears set wide apart is dull in action, but sagacious, and
easily taught.
Following the same rule, the rectangle will be found to apply to the
shape of the j^'g as to the other domesticated quadrupeds, as may be seen
hy a b d c, m fig. 434. The end views of the best formed pigs are quite
Fig. 434.
THE KECTANGLE TO ILLUSTRATE THE SYMMETRY OF THK PIG.
rectangular, though the generality of those met with in the country have
a tendency to a larger rectangle in the fore than in the hind view. The
view from above is also rectangular, except in the case of the pio-s havino-
thick shoulders.
Robustness of Constitution. — Having obtained a good shape, the next ob-
ject of the farmer with his stock, is to impart to them a strong constitution,
that is, to impart to them physical powers to do their work with ease, to
eat their food with good appetite, to digest it within a reasonable time, to
feel no fatigue with necessary daily exercise, and to withstand the weathei-,
whether hot or cold ; in short, always to enjoy good health, and be in a
growing condition. The following are indications of robust health which
cannot be mistaken : The skin loose upon the body, feeling soft and mel-
low, and covered thickly with long soft hair. The eyes full and clear, and
in the case of cattle, sheep, and pigs, the skin of the nose always bedewed
with moisture. The bones of the leg strong, broad, and flat, with the
(903)
432 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
sinews thick, strong, and distinctly developed ; the whole being closely
covered with the skin. This condition constitutes what is termed clean
limbs. The honi of the feet and horns smooth and shining, and indicating
healthy growth at its junction with the hair. The hair of the tail in cattle,
and of the mane and tail in horses, long, shining, and with a tendency to
crisp ; the wool of sheep waved, greasy, interlaced, and of fine quality. —
Ah)ng with these physical })roperties, the animal spirits are alive to every
passintr event, the senses acute, and the instinct sagacious.
All these indications of a sound constitution are obtainable by selecting
parents which possess them ; and they are sustained by kind treatment,
comfortable lodging, and abundance of good food. Neglect of a proper
selection of parents will produce, perhaps, the very opposite results. The
skin will become thin and covered with scanty hair and open wool. With
such a covering, the animal will easily be affected by the least change of
weather, be overcome with the heat of summer, feel uneasy in the cold of
winter, and be chilled by every shower that falls. A very small bone, how-
ever clean, is always accompanied with reduced size of carcass, though in-
dicative of great disposition to fatten. Should the bone become thick and
round, it gives a clumsy form to the limbs and head, and is invariably ac-
companied with dullness of spirit, and in the horse, in particular, with
want of action. Those conditions of the skin and bone are not so much
objectionable in themselves, as hurtful in their consequences. A thin-
skinned and a thick-boned animal is ill to maintain in condition. Thin-
skinned animals are easily affected by the weather; a fit of indigestion in
consequence frequently overtakes them, and their condition alternates be-
tween worse and better ; they are, in fact, tender in constitution. Thick-
boned animals never seem to relish their food, and show carelessness about
everything that concerns them.
Disposition to attain early maturity. — But the farmer's aim is not con-
fined to a good shape and robust constitution ; there must be a fineness
given to every point — every part must be finished off, as it were, mth
a polish. This fineness can only be supenmposed by parents derived
from a race which have long possessed all the fine properties — indi-
viduals whose pedigrees can be traced — whose breeding is accounted pure.
No matter whether the breeding be of the plebeian caste of the draught-
horse, or of the aristocratic family of the racer, — nor whether the
animals be horses, cattle, or sheep ; the breeding of all should be pure of
its kind.
The immediate effect in employing parents of pure breeding, is not so
obvious upon the carcass as upon the extremities. The head and limbs
first l>ecome finer; the fat disappears fi"om them ; the muscles expand into
a thin, broad form ; the tendons increase in strength; the bone becomes
harder and of finer quality ; the blood-vessels large and full of blood ; the
skin thinner, and drawn more tightly over the bone, so as to exhibit its
irregularities, and the tracings of the blood-vessels distinctly; the hair is
smoother and closer ; the nostj-ils more expanded ; the eyes more promi-
nent and clear ; the ears thinner, more capacious, set higher upon the
head, and more quickly moved about ; the action of the limbs quickened ;
and the animal spirits raised. All these changes may take place without
materially affecting the shape of the body or the strength of the constitu-
tion ; but the improvement of the extremities is rapidly followed by that
of the body ; the skin, though not thinner of itself, floats upon a thicker
mass of cellular tissue, which imparts to it the agreeable sensation of the
touch. The hair multiplies in numbers, becomes finer in quality, more
fixed in color, longer, and softer. The proportion of flesh to bone increases.
(904)
SELECTION OF PARENTS IN BREEDING LIVE-STOCK. 433
The fat is more generally and equally diffused over the body. The texture
of the muscles is finer and firmer in the fibre, and the tissue between them
becomes loaded with fat. In a word, such a total change is effected upon
the entire animal, that from being coarse, dull, clumsy, and sluggish, it be-
comes fine-spirited, handsome, and active ; and as it improves in personal
appearance, so it incieases in its tendency to grow, and to come sooner to
maturity in stature and condition.
Sclectinu of Pa?-ents. — You must not imagine, from this unintemipted
description of the improvement of parts in animals, that all those changes
are, or can possibly be, effected during the lifetime of one individual pa-
rent. The entire of those changes can only be effected in the cour&e of
generations ; but as all domesticated animals produce rapidly, that is,
within the course of every year, it is possible to effect great improvement
in the offspring during the lifetime of a female parent, by employing a
better male every year. To hasten the improvement more rapidly, better
parents of both sexes may be chosen as soon as the points of the proo'eny
show themselves, and which are appreciable in 2 years.
Of the two sexes, the properties of the male are more obviously im-
printed on the offspring than those of the female ; and it is on this account
that males are in most request among breeders for the improvement of
their stocks. High prices have been given, and high premiums are an-
nually offered, for superior males, whether stallions, bulls, or tups ; and it
is fortunate for the more rapid extension of the improvement of stock, that
the influence of the male thus bears sway in the propagation of his kind,
as by permission of polygamy one male may serve many females, and of
course extend his influence in the exact proportion to the number of the
latter ; whereas a female produces usually 1 in the course of a year. A
stallion serves from 60 to 80 mares, a bull 60 cows, and a tup 60 ewes in
a season, not once or twice only, but as often until the female prove with
young. Generally the female conceives at the first service of the male,
and at all events at the second ; but should her desire continue beyond
that time, it is better to withdraw her from breeding altogether, than run
the risk of having a late progeny, or none at all; for a late calf, lamb, or
foal, loses 1 year of its progress, compared with its earlier born compan-
ions. But the part which the male and female respectively undertake, in
the improvement of the progeny, differs widely, and is entirely dependent
on their state of breeding — the head and extremities being improved by
the highest, and the carcass and procreating powers by the lowest bred.
The highest bred imparts the small head, prominent eyes, thin ears, wide
nostrils, clean limbs, full blood-vessels, action, spirit, and intelligence ; in
short, all the parts which go to develop the mental qualities ; while the
lowest bred improves the shape of the carcass, by straightening the back
and rounding the ribs, extending the muscles, laying on the fat, enlaroinp-
the capacity of the pulmonary organs, and decreasing the size of the ab-
dominal. On distinguishing the parts more immediately imprinted by
each parent, it is obvious that the effects of the highest bred are more
striking than those of the other. Hence, a fine head, well set upon the
neck, a lustrous eye, a gay look, an engaging manner, and free action, are
more readily appreciated than a fine mould, sound constitution, touch, and
disposition to grow.
Few farmers commit a mistake in the choice of the male for improving
their stock. Breeders themselves pay particular attention to the produc-
tion of the male, and farmers who purchase or hire males never grudge
paying a high price for them ; and hence the male-breeding market is al-
ways at a premium. But many mistakes are made by breeders in the
(!>05) a^»
434 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
choice of the females to hreed from. In the case of horses particularly,
any sort of mare is considered good enough to produce a foal, and if she
happen to be unfit for work, or has met with an accident, such as having
swung her back, or has a bad leg, she is the one selected for breeding the
future labor-stock of the farm. The best stallion, it is true, will be put
to her, most probably the prize-stallion of the local agricultural show ;
but as to the mare herself, it is considered a great sacrifice of physical
power to breed from young fresh mares. Now, in acting thus, the farmer
commits a fatal blunder ; he is depriving himself of the use of superior
farm-liorses, which would not only work with ease to themselves and sat-
isfaction to him, and at the same cost of keej), but would do him credit
wherever they went. Instead of pursuing this system, he should select
1 or 2 of the best mares in his possession to breed from, and if he has none
possessing youth and beauty of mould, let him buy 1 or 2 at any pnce, if
such are to be purchased. Let them not be under 5 years of age when
the horse is first put to them ; for they will not have acquired their full
stature until that age. From that period let them bear a foal every year
till they attain 12 or 13 years, when they should cease to breed ; for old
mares, any more than old females of other classes of animals, cannot pro-
duce a vigorous progeny. For those 7 years the fresh young mares,
stinted to the best stallion that can be secured, will each produce, and
bring up, a foal every year, and perform, at the same time, their part of
the work with ease. Such foals will be strong in bone and constitution, and
be always in high condition, because they are the offspring of young mares
themselves, high in condition, and overflowing with milk ; and having been
brought up together will work better together. I speak not in this tone
for the purpose merely of condemning the practice usually followed by
farmers in breeding farm-horses, but having myself tried the system I
recommend, I can do it with confidence. I purchased from a dealer a
very excellent Clydesdale mare in St. John's Market at Perth, for .£42, a
large price for the time. She was 5 years old oft", and was altogether such
a mare, for mould and strength, as is seldom to be found in a market.
Next year she was put to a prize stallion, also of the Clydesdale breed,
and bore a foal every year till she reached 10 years of age, when, much
to my disappointment, she ceased to breed. Her first 2 foals were fillies,
and, when 4 and 5 years old, were sold at the sale, when I declined farm-
ing, for c£108, to convert into brood-mares. Her other 2 foals, colts, at 4
years old, realized c£'38 and c£44. I had other 2 mares which began to
bear foal at 7 years of age, 1 of which bi-ed draught-horses, which real-
ized from .£'35 to c£40, and the other was put to a coaching-stallion, and
produced excellent harness-horses ; 1 of them, a mare, was purchased by
a friend in Ireland, and proved one of the fastest goers in harness I ever
saw. I am ])erfectly certain the same results will be realized everywhere
by breeding from excellent young mares; and though 3 marcs out of 10
horses, which wrought my farm, bore foals every year, the work never
fell behind its season ; and they had as rough and heavy work to do for
several years, while improvements were in hand, as could be encountered
on any farm. The system pursued in regard to the breeding of cattle and
sheep is generally much better than that for horses, though 1 think that
cows are not generally so well selected as they should be; and one reason
is this : whenever a cow happens to be a good milker, she is kept to
breed as long as she is worth keeping for that purpose, without regard to
any other point of excellence ; and her calves may be good or bad, in pro-
portion as the points of the bull which begot them are so. Those who
keep a stock of cows for breeding bulls, of course, do not follow this haz-
(906)
SELECTION OF PARENTS IN BREEDING LIVE-STOCK. 435
ardous plan of producing valuable calves ; but I believe by far the great-
est number of cattle bred in this country are produced in this careless
manner; and the simple recital of the system is quite sufficient to account
for the great number of inferior cattle to be met with in all our public
markets.
The system of breeding I have recommended is applicable to every
kind of stock ; but modifications are allowable in it, and in fact expedient,
according to the particular object the breeder has in view. If his object
is simply to breed cattle and sheep for ordinary markets of fat and lean
stock, a useful lot of cows or ewes, with a good tup or bull, are all that
are requisite ; and once having obtained a desirable stock of either, and
not wishing them of finer quality, his solicitude will be confined to sus-
taining their character by preventing the least tendency to deterioration.
In such a case the females are commonly bred by the farmer himself, and
the male is purchased from a breed of superior class to his o^vn. So far
the practice is good ; but when a good cow, or a lot of good ewes, of the
same or superior character as the stock itself can be picked up now and
then, the opportunity should not be lost of infusing a fresh strain of blood
into the stock. A frequent change of the male is advisable in such a sys-
tem, as the stock will soon become too near akin to him. On the other
hand, those whose professed object is to breed animals to propagate their
kind, must bestow great care and skill to sustain their breeding-stock in
the hio-hest state of perfection. The least defect in the female, whether
arising from accident or inherent weakness, should be the instant signal
for her removal from the stock, and as to the male, the very best that can
be found should be purchased at any price. The best male in reference
to the particular case may not be the best animal of the stock from which
it is desired to purchase, because it should preeminently possess points
which will either iinprove or sustain those of the females which he is des-
tined to serve. The properties, therefore, which a male should possess
are entirely relative and not absolute ; for absolutely good points ought to
be possessed by the females before the breeder should attempt to produce
breeding-stock from them. To manage this part of his business well is a
very difficult task for the breeder ; and a single mistake committed in this
respect, for a single season, may cause him more trouble to rectify, and in-
cur greater loss than if he had been content with his own stock in the state
it was. It must be owned, however, that whenever a breeder discovers
a defect in any point in his stock, his desire to remedy it is natural ; and
whenever he finds an animal superior to his own, it is as natural he should
endeavor to possess it. If, for example, he thinks his own stock somewhat
slacker behind the shoulder than they should be, the remedy, he conceives,
is to use a male which is free of that deficiency. The usual practice is to
select a male for this purpose which is rather full behind the %houlder;
because, what more natural than to fill up a deficiency with a redundancy ]
Such an expectation, though natural enough, may lead to unexpected re-
sults ; for the use of the redundant point may give such an impetus in the
stock to rectify their deficiency, that its tendency to fill up may proceed
too fai-, even in one generation, and cause redundancy where there was
deficiency before ; but this is just the result which ought to have been an-
ticipated, if there is any truth in the breeders' maxim that " like begets
like." The employment, therefoi'e, of a symmetrical shoulder to rectify a
deficient one is the practice most consonant to reason and principle ; for
what more is wanted than to Jill up the deficiency behind the shoulder ;
and how should that be best attained but by using a model which is
exactly in the state which you wish the deficiency to assume 1 The
(907)
436 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
want of forethought to consequences of this sort has been the cause of
deterioratittn to many a good stock. Too many farmers attempt to pro-
duce breeding-stock, and they are tempted to proceed with the system
as long as they observe the progeny improve upon their parents ; and
as long as they are observed to improve, purchasers will be found to
pay good prices — for they like to purchase from a thriving stock — till a
point is reached beyond which improvement does not succeed ; and
this is considered the point of perfection, though it may be veiy far
short of it. The breeder's skill may be unable to cany him farther ;
and, on account of his want of skill, will be induced to present his
breeding-stock to the attention of other laeeders with the greater eaniest-
ness. Herein is concealed another source of error ; for it is clear, that as
long as a stock is itself far short of perfection, its offshoots cannot afford a
certain means of improving other stock. Trial may be made of it ; but
the result may be disapjiointment to the purchasers, and disgust to the
self-sufficient breeder himself. One circumstance alone, I conceive, would
justify a breeder in oft'ering imperfect stock for breeding, which is, being
situate in a country where crossing with other breeds might be carried on
with advantage. The conclusion of the whole matter, then, is that a stock
producing offshoots fit to breed from should have arrived at perfection, at
least to such a degree of perfection as the best stocks known ; and the ob-
ject of the owner of such a stock should not be so much to improve its
best animals — for that seems impossible — as to imjirove the inferior, and
sustain the quality of the best ; and before a stock can be brought to that
state of perfection, the pedigree of its best animals — for no stock contains
all its animals equally good — might be traced back for many generations.
Doubtless this is a severe criterion by which to judge the character of a
breeding-stock ; but when it is considered that its members are preferred
with a view to improve, or at least sustain, the breeding of membei-s of
another stock equally well bred as itself, it is necessary to fix a high stand-
ard of comparison, and nothing short of this will afford satisfaction. There
are many stocks of Short-Horn cattle and Leicester sheep whose character
will bear the strictest scrutiny by such a criterion.
Breeding in-and-in. — No wonder high-breeding produces such an im-
provement in stock as to render the head small, fine and beautiful, the
extremities elegant, the form handsome, and the disposition so accommo-
dating as that the animals grow and fatten without feeling disturbed at
what passes around ; in short, become so prepossessing as to make their
owners mistrust the stocks of others, and employ only their own to in-
crease its own numbers. It was this feeling which actuated Bakewell to
breed only from his own stock, after he had brought the Leicester sheep
and Long-Horn cattle to perfection. For a time Mr. Mason, of Chilton,
pursued the same course ; and there are breeders in England at the pres-
ent time who maintain that it is the best system, and will follow no other.
Perhaps a stock brought to the highest state of perfection, and at the
same time possessed of sound constitution, may be supported free of de-
terioration for many years by the peculiar skill of its owner ; and I can
conceive a high-bred stock, full of young blood, such as Bakewell's was
during his whoJe lifetime, to be increased and supported by its own mem-
bers though bred in-and-in, that is, supported by near kindred or consan-
guinity. There was one valid reason for Mr. Bakewell employing only
his own stock, which was, that there was no other so good as his own to
select fi'om ; and it would have seemed extraordinary in him, of all men,
to have employed any animal of acknowledged inferiority to his own ; but
I suspect no such libeity may be taken, with impunity, with a stock as
(908)
CROSSING LIVE-STOCK. 437
highly bred, but not so youthful in blood. At all events, many instances
have occurred in which many fine stocks have been ruined in character,
and have entailed irreparable loss on their owners simply by being bred
in-and-in. The immediate effects of employing parents nearly allied by
blood to propagate their kind are remarkable. The bone becomes very
small, of condensed texture, and fine quality. The skin is so thin as to
receive the appellation oi paj^ery, and so open of texture as to be sensible
to the least change of temperature ; and hence animals bred in-and-in are
very susceptible of catarrhal affections, and on which account they are lia-
ble to consumption and clyers. The carcass is much reduced in size,
and the disposition to fatten increases to such a degree that the ani-
mal may be said to be always in a condition to be slaughtered ; and it is,
perhaps, this tendency to fatten, which has proved the great inducement
with many breeders to tolerate the in-and-in system. The hair is short,
smooth, and thin-set, and the wool short, thin-set, and watery ; and both
hide and fleece lose a large proportion of weight. The body assumes a
change of form, the barrel being beautifully rounded, but seems stuffed,
as it were, within the skin. The extremities are very fine, the head and
hoofs small, the ears thin and broad, and the head of the sheep is almost
bare of hair, of a blue color, very liable to be scalded by the heat of the
sun, and attacked by the fly. The necks of both cattle and sheep are thin,
and droop with a downward curve from the head to the top of the shoul-
der. The points just enumerated show the unprofitable state into which
a stock may be brought by being bred in-and-in. Mr. Mason's fine Short-
Horn stock latterly showed symptoms of the bad effects of this system ;
and Mr. Robertson's stock at Ladykirk, which contained at one time by
far the finest Short-Horns in Scotland, suffered after his demise from the
same cause, as was apparent on the animals presented at the sale Avhich
dispersed them. Only cattle and sheep have been subjected by farmers
to be bred in-and-in, for their draught-mares are usually covered by
stallions obtained from a distance ; and of cattle and sheep, the injurious
effects of the system have only been observed in Short-Horn cattle
and Leicester sheep. The injurious effects- of the system have been felt,
it is true, in the racing-stud, and aie evinced by the racers of the present
day being unable to carry heavy weights, and run the long distances of
the horses of old. At present nothing but speed is regarded.
Now, that high-bred stocks exist in every district of the kingdom, there
is no excuse for pursuing the in-and-in system of breeding ; and the attempt
is the more inexcusable from the remarkable fact, brought to light only since
the distribution of high-bred stock, that its progeny, after being distributed
for a time, may be brought together to propagate their kind, and their off-
spring will exhibit no symptoms of in-and-in breeding. Such a result would
seem to indicate that change of soij and situation renovates the animal as
well as the vegetable constitution.
It may be proper to mention what relations are considered allied in
blood, in breeding in-and-in. Connection of the sire with his gi-and-dam,
dam, and sister, is improper. So it is even with his aunt, niece, and cousin-
germain. One should imagine that a breeder would feel repugnance at con-
necting so near a consanguinity as the former ; yet the union is too often
permitted to take place in the latter cases.
Crossiyig. — The union of different breeds of the same sort of animal is a
favorite scheme with many breeders, and, under certain conditions, pro-
duces good results. Those conditions are, that the male employed in the
crossing shall have the superior breeding of the 2 parents, and that the sit-
uation in which the cross-progeny shall be brought up shall be suitable to
(909)
438 1 HE BOOK OF the farm.
it. The first condition is usually complied with, but the second is as com-
monly disregarded ; and the consequence is, that the crosses attempted to
be brought up in situations quite unsuited to their nature have proved a
failure.
In the crosses commonly attempted in this country, among cattle the
Short-Horn bull, and among sheep the Leicester tup, have been employed
to serve the ordinary breeds of cattle and sheep. The eflects have proved
satisfactory ; for though the progeny could not but be expected to be in-
ferior to the sire, they are superior to the dam. The effects are : an en-
largement of the carcass, a finer skin, longer hair and wool, cleaner bone
and finer head, and tlie disposition to fatten greatly accelerated — all of
which are superior to the ordinary points of the breed ; but, of course, the
better the dam is, the more decidedly improved will those points be. In
effecting such a cross, it has been found that the higher bred the male is
the finer is the cross ; that is, the nearer will it approach his properties ; and
even an ovcr-brcd male, that is, one showing symptoms of having been
bred in-and-in, may be used with advantage in crossing. Where a supe-
rior cross-male happens thus to be produced, a strong desire is evinced by
the breeders to keep him entire for service, and to use him as a sire, in-
stead of expending money in the puixhase of a high-bred male. A more
short-sighted step than this cannot be taken by a breeder, because from
such a male he has no assurance that the progeny will be superior to the
dam. Indeed, he has no guaranty of what the state of the progeny will
be at all, for it may be worse than eitlier sire or dam ; and if such a disap-
pointment overtakes him, he has himself to blame, having left the whole
matter to chance. The employment of a high-bred sire, on the other hand,
will never lead to disappointment, as the pi'ogeny will assuredly be supe-
rior to the dam. It is this assurance which affords much satisfaction to
the breeder of high-b?ed stock, by which he can anticipate the quality of
his forthcoming young stock; and it is with high-bred stock alone that the
maxim of *' like producing like " is realized. Nevertheless, there are sit-
uations in which high-bred stock cannot be maintained as a breeding stock,
and in which nothing but crossing can be practiced when improvement is
desired ; but the desire for improvement has been earned by some breed-
ers beyond the bounds of prudence ; they have crossed the Black-faced
ewe with Leicester tups, in situations where the enlarged lamb has
been unable to subsist in winter ; and on this account the policy of
changing the Black-faced breed of sheep in high localities seems doubtful.
In lower situations, the Cheviot ewe, which inhabits the middle range of
green pasture, may be crossed with the Leicester tup with advantage.
Every crossing, however, should be prosecuted with caution, because the
result may overstep the intentions of the breeder. It is clear that if the
crossed stock is retained as females, which, in their turn, are served by
high-bred males, the time will arrive when the character of the original
stock will be entirely changed, and become unsuited to their native climate
and pasture, and will, in fact, have become the same breed as their high-
bred sires. It is quite possible to originate a race of Short-Horas and
Leicester sheep anywhere suited to their nature, by constantly employing
a high-bred bull and tup to serve cross-bred heifers and gimmers, genera-
tion after generation ; and were this practice generally adopted, the time
would arrive when tlje. original breeds which were crossed would disap-
pear altogether. Such a result would prove injurious to the breeder him-
self, inasmuch as the pasture would be unsuited for the stock he had
caused to be produced ; so that his best plan is to preserve the original
breeds in the higher parts of the country, and take the crosses to the low
(910)
THE POINTS OF HORSES.
439
country to be fed off. The temptation of larger profits has already-
caused the Cheviot to drive the Black-faced breed from the lovi^er pastures
to the highest, while the cross-bred Cheviot, with the Leicester, have de-
scended, on the other hand, to the low country, and there have met the true
bred Leicester. This result, upon the whole, has done good, as it has in-
creased the quantity of mutton in the market ; and the skillful pasturao-e
which the hills have received since a regular system of breeding has been
introduced, has caused them to yield a larger quantity of finer grasses.
The crossing of the Black-faced sheep has undergone a change ; the Lei-
cester tup is too heavy to serve Black-faced ewes on the hills, and to bring
those ewes to the tup in the low country is attended with ti'ouble and ex-
pense. Instead, therefore, of the Leicester tup being so employed, the
Cheviot tup has been substituted ; and though the cross is inferior — for
nothing can exceed the beauty of the lamb produced between the Black-
faced ewe and Leicester tup — it is a good one, and has enlarged the Black-
faced mutton. So long as crossing is conducted with the breeds in their
natural state, it will go on without confusion, but the moment cross-bred
tups are employed as improvers of stock, their interference will produce
confusion in the crosses, and throw discredit upon crossing altogether.
I purpose giving a short description of the animals whose portraits are
given in the Plates illustrative of this work, and shall make such T'emarks
on the form of the animals as to give you an idea of their leading points,
whether good or bad. In order to render reference to the figures in the
iPlates more easy, wood-cuts of their points have been provided, that they
may be more distinctly indicated.
Horses. — Among horses I shall take the draught-horse, fig. 435, and
Plate VII., as the standard of comparison. This gelding is of gray color,
was bred by Mr. Curry at Brandon, in
the county of Northumberland, and is the
property of Messrs. Ho wey and Co., the
great carriers from Edinburgh into Eng-
land. He is not a thorough-bred Clydes-
dale, having a dash of the coaching blood
in him, a species of farm-horse very much
in use on the Borders, and admired for
their action and»spirit. This gelding ex-
hibits such a form as to constitute, in my
estimation, the very pei'fection of what a
farm-horse should be. His head a is
small, bone clean, eyes prominent, muz-
zle fine, and ears set on the crown of the
head. His neck rises with a fine* crest
along the mane from the trunk b h to a, and tapers to the head, which is
beautifully set on, and seems tt) be borne by the neck with ease. His
limbs taper gradually from the body, and are broad and flat ; the knee k
is straight, broad, and strong, and the fore-arm i broad and flat — all excel-
lent points in the leg of a draught-horse, giving it strength and action. The
back of the fore-leg, from the fetlock-joint I to the body o, is straight, indi-
cating no weakness in the limb — a faihng here causing the knees to
knuckle, and rendering the horse unsafe in going down hill. The hind-
legs m, as well as the fore ones k and I, stand directly under the body,
forming firm supports to it. The body is beautifully symmetrical. The
shoulder slopes backward from h to b, the withers at b being high and
thin. The sloped position of the shoulder affords a proper seat for the
collar, and provides the muscles of the shoulder-blade s; so long a lever as
(911) ' °
Fig. 435.
^^«j»^£22
THE DRAUGHT-HORSE.
440
THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
to cause them to thii)\v the fore-legs forward in a walk or trot ; and with
such a shoulder a horse cannot stumble. The back, from bto c, is short, no
longer than to give room to the saddle. The chest, from b to o, is deep,
giving it capacity for the lungs to play in, and room for the muscles re-
quired in draught. The top of the quarter from c to d is rounded, the
flank, from c to n, deep, and the hind-quarter, from/to e, long. On look-
ing on the side profile of the entire animal, the body seems made up of two
large quarters, joined together by a short thick middle, suggesting the idea
of strength ; and the limbs, neck and head, are so attached to the body as
to appear light and useful. In a well formed horse, I may remark, tho
line from the fetlock / to the elbow-joint, at o, is equal to that from the
joint o to the t(»p of the withers b. In a low-shoulderetJ leggy-horse, the
line I o is much longer than the line o b ; but in the case of this horse, the
body b ois rather deeper than the leg / o is ipng, realizing the desideratum
in a farm-horse of a thick middle and short legs. The line across the ribs
from g toy' is, like the back, short, and the nbs are round. He is 16 hands
high, measures from a to i 35 inches, from i to c 33 inches, from c to d 19
inches, being in extreme length 7 feet 3 inches. Length of the face 25 in-
ches, breadth of face across the eyes 10 inches, length of ears 6^ inches,
breadth across the hook-bones 22 inches, girth behind the shoulder 80 in-
ches, girth of fore-arm 23 inches, girth of bone below the fore-knee 9i in-
ches ; the breadth of this bone shows the strength of the fore-leg of every
horse ; girth of neck at the onset of the head 32 inches, girth of muzzle 21
inches, width of counter 19 inches, and bight of top of quarter from the
ground G'S inches. In a draught-horse the collar causes the muscles to en-
large upon the shoulder, and the neck to become thin. This horse's name
is Farmer, his walk is stately, and he can draw 3 tons on level gi'ound, in-
cluding the weight of the wagon. He is a well known animal in Edinburgh,
and is generally admired.
Fig. 436 as here shewn is the portrait of the black draught-stallion
Champion, bred by Mr. James Steedman,
Boghall, in the county of Mid-Lothian.
He is of the true Clydesdale breed. He
gained the first prize at the Highland
and Agricultural Society's Show at Glas-
gow in October, 1837, and obtained pre-
miums elsewhere. He is a sure foal-
getter. He is fully 17 hands high, and
though otherwise a large animal, being
8 feet 7 inches in length, his action is
high and uncommonly light. On com-
paring him generally with the geldii<g
just described, though his body is longelv
ndr
Fig. 436.
THE DRAUGHT-STALLIO.-J.
both hind and fore quarters are long ant
deep, and exhibit a large display of muscle. His middle is somewhat
small, as is almost always the case -with stallions which have sen-ed many
mares. Like all stallions, his neck rises beautifully from his body h e, in
a full crest from b to a, evincing that castration has the effect of reducing
the size of the muscles of the neck of all geldings. The shoulder slopes
well back from e to b, giving freedom of action to the fore-legs, while the
muscle at m being fully developed, assists in imparting power to that ac-
tion. The hind-quarter, from g to b, is long and deep. The fore-leg is
straight, and short from knee to fetlock,/? to n, the bone under the knee
strong, and the fore-arm / flat and broad. The hind-legs o are remarkably
handsome. The sweep of line from the crown of the head along the back
(912J
THE POINTS OF HORSES. 44]
to the tail-head is truly elegant, giving a very fine top to the quarter, and
the plenitude of hair in the tail d k indicates gi-eat strength of back. His
eye is good, though somewhat small, the ratch of white down his face is
against his cast of countenance ; and having the 2 hind-legs white is also
against his general appearance. His disposition is remarkably docile, anff
his whole demeanor harmless. His constitution is good, and he is an ex-
cellent traveler. These are a few of his dimensions : from a to b 5\
inches, from i to c 30 inches, from c to d 22 inches ; in all 8 feet 7 inches
Length of face 26^ inches, breadth of face across the eyes 11 inches, length
of ears 6^ inches, breadth across the hook-bones 30 inches, girth behind
the shoulder 90 inches, girth of fore-arm 28 inches, girth of bone below
*^he fore-knee 12 inches, hight of top of quarter from the ground 67 inches
•J^irth of neck at the onset of the head 39 inches, girth of muzzle 24 inches
and width of counter 22 inches.
Fig. 437 as here shewn is the portrait of a brown mare belonging t(
Mr. George Bagrie, Monkton, near Dal-
keith, Mid-Lothian. She gained the fii-st Fig. 437.
premium at every show of stock she was
ever exhibited. The white ratch down
her face, and so much white on her legs,
detract from her general appearance ;
but notwithstanding these drawbacks, she
is an exceedingly handsome mare. You
have only to look at the Plate to observe
the beautiful flowing lines of her whole
contour, and also the gi'eat substance of
both fore and hind quarter. The rise and
crest of her neck from b to a, and from e
to a, are remaikably fine. The back from the draught-mare.
Z> to c is somewhat hollow, and there is a
corresponding depression of the belly at i, both the consequences of foal-
bearing, as well as a slackness of the flank in front of g, the usual defi-
ciency there of brood-mares. The top of the rump from c to (Z is also
very fine. The shoulder slopes well from e to b, indicating good action ;
the muscles are well developed on the fore-quarter from e to f, indicating
power in draught; and the ribs are round, and long fromyto g, a favora-
ble configuration in the brood-mare for giving room for the growth of the
foetus. The hind-quarter from ^ to A is long. The legs are placed directly
under the body, the fore-knee I being broad and strong, the back of the
fore-leg fi-om the fetlock m to the body straight, and the fore-arm k broad
and flat. I have no measurement of the dimensions of this mare, which I
regret, as losing a means of comparison with the gelding and stallion. Be-
side roundness and length of rib, a brood-mare should be wide across the
hook-bones and the pelvis, to afford room for the growth and subsequent
egress of the foal.
I have chosen a black stallion, brown mare, and gray gelding, as illus-
trative of the three colors most commonly seen among farm-horses. A
black stallion seems the generally favorite color, and a brown mare is not
uncommon, but the gi'ay color is less in vogue than it was 20 years ago ;
but why I cannot say. It is said that the feet of gray horses are more ten-
der than of horses of other colors ; and, for the same reason, whatever
that may be, it is alleged that white feet are more tender than any other
color. I once corresponded on this subject with the veterinary surgeon
of one of the regiments of Life Guards, the horses of which are black, and
(969)
442
THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
Fig. 438.
his Statement was that he had ncit observed any remarkable defect in those
horses which happened to liave white feet ; but that his attention had not
before been particularly drawn to the subject. It might be worth while
to ascertain whether or not it is found that the horses of the Scots Grays
are more liable to tender feet than those of other corps of a different coloi-.
Cattle. — 1 have already said so much on the points of cattle, that noth-
ing more remains to be advanced on that subject ; so I shall merely allude
to the particular ])oints exhibited by the animals represented in the Plates.
And, first, I shall take, as a standard of comj)arison, the Short-Horn ox,
fig. 438 given below. This was an ox from the herd of Mr. Wilson, of
Cumledge, in Berwickshire, who has long been known as a successful
breeder of Short-Horn steers. His stock comes to maturity and is fat-
tened off' at 2 years of age, when they commonly attain 70 stones impe-
rial. The ox in fig. 438 was 1 year 11 months old when his portrait was
taken ; and he was afterward shown at the Highland and Agricultural
Society's Show at Berwick-upon-Tweed, in October, 1841. He was of a
roan color, with a good deal of white.
His head was remarkably fine, with a
pleasant countenance, full eyes, and
small, slouching, shai-p-pointed horns.
Besides a fine head, he had a straight
back, round rib, deep flank, and full
neck-vein. His principal measure-
ments were, from e to a 27 inches,
from a to b 321, from J to c 21i inches,
in all 6 feet 9 inches ; and the girth of
the body behind the shoulder at J" 7
feet 3 inches. His measurement for
beef was 4 feet 6 inches in length by 7
feet 3 inches in girth, equal to 56 stones imperial ; so 1 should say from
these figures, that this ox was rather too short for a perfectly symmetrical
figure.
Fig. 439 given on page 443, is a portrait of a red and white Short-Horn
bull. This animal was bied by the late Mr. George Brown at Whltsome
Hill, in Berwickshire. He was got by a red and white bull belonging to
Mr. Robertson, of Ladykirk, named Valentine.* At that period, Mr.
Robertson's stock of Short-Horns was in its glory. The dam of this bull
was got by a red bull, never named, bred by Mr. Thomas Smith, now at
Buckden, then at Grindon, in Northumberland, and was a son of his old
roan bull Duke ; and at that period few farmers had so high a bred stock
as Mr. Smith. The grand-dam was one of twin quey-calves produced by
a heifer, purchased in calf by Mr. Brown from Mr. Mason, of Chilton.
One of the twin calves, when a 2-year-old quey, Mr. Brown sold to the
late Duke of Buccleuch for 50 guineas, and the other he retained for him-
self I purchased this bull When 1 year old from Mr, Brown for 20
guineas, and kept him at Balmadies, in Forfarshire, for 8 years, during
which time he proved himself a sure and excellent calf-getter, and evinced
a gentleness of disposition to every person who approached him, in a re-
markable degree for a bull. He had many good points — small head, lively
eye, small, fine, white liorn. He was well filled up behind the shoulder,
at J] fig. 439, a point in which many bulls are deficient. He had a long
quarter from g, a difficult point to attain in a bull, carrying the flesh of the
hocks d ; a thick flank e ; ribs round, forming a straight line from the
THE SHORT-HORN OX.
* For Valentine's pedigree, see Coates's Herd Book, vol. L
(970)
THE POINTS OF CATTLE.
443
THE SHORT-HORN BULL.
shoulder-point in front oi f, past g, to the margin of the round above d.
His fore-arm h was very strong ; neck-vein full ; and the crest of his
neck a fine and not lumpy, as is
too often the case in bulls ; his
hooks and back were remai'kably
straight and broad, measuring
across the hook-bones at h 36 in-
ches ; the rump between h and c
was full and round, and the tail-
head c was remarkably level and
fine, showing no undue develop-
ment of muscle, as is often the
case here — a deformity loo gen-
erally admired, and in so far
shows a prevalence of bad taste.
His neck and shoulders were
strewed over with curled locks of long hair, the entire body being thickly
covered with long soft hair ; the face was garnished with curled hair in a
line down in front of each eye ; and the roots of the horns were hidden
with long hair falling over the forehead. His hide was thick and mellow,
and the touch fine. He had a most robust constitution, never having had
a day's illness in his Ufe of nine years. Unfortunately I had no measure-
ment taking of him before he was killed fat, when the butcher, Mr. John-
ston of Arbroath, informed me he weighed 139 stones imperial, sinking
the oifals. His flesh was fine, much more like ox than bull beef.
Fig. 440, given below, are the portraits of three Short-Horn cows be-
longing to the Duke of Buccleuch, at Dalkeith Park, in Mid-Lothian.
They are all of pure blood, being descended from Mr. Robertson of Lady-
kirk's stock, when Mr. John Rennie had a part of them in his possession
at Phantassie in East-Lothian. The cow, a roan, whose side view is
Fig. 440.
THE SHORT-HORN COWS.
given, was in a lean state when the portrait was taken ; but the likeness
is the more valuable on that account, in giving an idea of the skeleton,
which in her case is very fine. She is the beautiful Kilmeny, got by
Match 'em. The hook-bone h is finely prominent, and at the same time
level ; the ribs e round ; the shoulder-blade d sloping ; the top of the
shoulder a broad : the neck-vein at g fine ; the muscle at /well develop-
ed ; the tail-head c level with the hooks; and the udder h hemispherical,
the teats being pendant at equal distances. The uncommon half-slouching,
half-projecting form of her horns, and a staring of the eyes, give her coun-
tenance, though her head is otherwise fine, a somewhat more austere
aspect than cows generally have. The front view of the re^ cow in the
middle is intended to show the breadth of the fore-quarter from p to r, the
roundness of the ribs at p, the depth of bi-isket at s, and the width of
space upon which the fore-legs stand. The hind view of the white cow,
(»7l)
444 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
on the I'ight, shows the broad space between the hooks from / to k, and
the same across the pelvis from m to n, 2 points essential in the cow, as a
safe breeder of full-grown calves. The form of the udder behind at o
shows the proper position of the 2 hind teats, and exhibits the loose, soft
skin above the udder, which is characteristic of good milkers.
The 3 colors, roan, red. and white, were purposely chosen to show the
common colors which the Short-Horns bear. Though thus divided into 3,
only 2 colors are. in truth, sported by Short-Horns, namely, red and white,
the roan being a mixture of the other 2. The roan is a handsome color,
and is, I believe, the general favorite now ; the fancy for color having gone
from the red to the white, and is now settled on the roan. Dark-red usually
indicates hardiness of constitution, richness of milk, and disposition to fat-
ten ; light-red indicates gieat quantity of thin milk, and little disposition to
fatten ; but the red in either case is seldom entire, being generally relieved
with white on the sides, and the belly, as in the case also of the bull de-
scribed above. White was considered indicative of delicacy of constitution ;
and to get quit of it, and at the same time avoid the dullness of red, the
roan was encouraged, and now prevails. I think I have obsen-ed that white
animals show the symptoms sooner than any other color of being bred in-
and-in.
A single black hair on the body, and particularly on the nose ; or the
slightest dork spot on the flesh-colored skin upon the nose, or around the
eyes, or the bonis tipped with black, at once proclaim that a Short-Horn
sporting either of these is not pure bred — all attestation to the contrary- be-
ing of no avail.
To show that careful breeding improves the head of every breed of
cattle, specimens of the heads of 3 celebrated breeds are given, one being
the Long-Horns, a breed not confined to England, as it extends over
Ireland, though it is only in England that fine specimens of the breed are
to be seen. This is the breed which the famous Bakewell improved in
Leicestershire, a few years before the Collings improved the Short-Horns,
by which they established to themselves a fame which eclipsed that of
Bakewell as a breeder of cattle ; not because they understood the princi-
ples of breeding cattle better than he did, but, fortunately for them, they
selected a better subject to deal with — the Short-Homs. Their fame, how-
ever, was not established at the cost of that of Bakewell, for he had already
acquired an imperishable name as a breeder, in the improvement of the old
Leicestershire breed of sheep ; but it must be owned that when the Col-
lings advanced beyond Bakewell as breeders of cattle, the advancement
was the more meritorious in being made in competition with so very for-
midable a rival. The Long-Horns were originally called Leicesters ; but
having long horns, they were so named
in contradistinction to the Durham breed, '^'
whose horns were short ; and, besides,
Bakewell's improved sheep were as often
called Leicesters as the Dishley breed.
The Long-Horn bull, a likeness of whose
head is here given in fig. 441, belonged
to Mr. R. Horton, in Warwickshire, and
was shown, and obtained the first prize
of his class at the Show of the Royal
Agricultural Society of England at Ox-
ford, in July, 1839, when he was 4 years
2 months old. It will be obsened that ^„, „„.„ „, . ,„r^-^=_
, -1 • ^ 1 -1 1 THE HEAD OF A LOyo-HORS BULL.
the muzzle is fine, the eye large and ex-
(972)
Boot of the Farm.
©MOB'lf WOKlJil ©@W©=
Plate XV
^^z=^=^^r^-
THE POINTS OF CATTLE.
445
Fig. 442.
pressive, the horns fine, tapering, and sharp-pointed, and the entire counte-
nance agreeable. His color was light-brown, brindled with black stripes.
The skin of the nose and around the eyes dark-flesh color. The slouch-
ing position of the horns is very common in the Long-Horn breed ; they
are brown, with a few reddish streaks, and tipped with brownish-
black.
Another breed to which much attention has been paid, is the Hereford,
which has long been famed for its excellent steers. Fig. 442 is the portrait
of the head of a Hereford ox which belonged to Mr. S. Druce of Ensham,
in Oxfordshire, and was shown at Ox
ford, at the Show of the Royal Agricul-
tural Society of England, in July, 1839,
when 4 years 4 months old. It will at
once be observed that the muzzle is fine,
the eye large and full, and the horns small,
tapering, and sharp-pointed. A white face
is quite common in the Hereford breed,
with white horns, and brownish red points.
The body is either dark or light-red and
white, a common color, or a dark rich
chestnut-brown, which is becoming fash-
ionable. The skin on the nose and around
the eyes is fine flesh-color.
The West- Highland has long been
famed in Scotland as a superior breed of
cattle. They have most of the points of
the Short-Horns in the body, which is covered with shaggy hair, that bids
defiance to the keenest blasts and the most drenching rains. Fig. 443
gives an idea of the head of an _j
THE HEAD OF A HEREFORD OX.
443.
ox belonging to Mr. Campbell
of Jura, which was shown with
another, as a pair, at the High-
land and Agricultural Society's
Show at Inverness, in October,
1839. It will be observed that
the muzzle is fine, eye large
and full, and the horns small,
tapering, sharp-pointed, white,
and tipped with black. The
color of the body is usually
black, sometimes red, and not
unfiequently dun. The black-
colored, in my opinion, makes
the most profitable animal t6
the feeder. The skin on the
nose, and around the eyes, is
always black.
There is a breed of cattle
extensively cuhivated in Scot-
land, the importance of which consists in affording milk for the purposes
of the dairy. It is a remarkable circumstance in the history of the breed-
ing of this race for the dairy, that the very opposite points have been cul-
tivated by its breeders, which I have described as being essential in the
opinion of the best breeders of every other race. The breed I allude to
is the Ayrshire. The points considered good in an Ayrshire bull, by the
(973J
THE HEAD OF A WEST-HIGHLAND OX.
446 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
breeders of that species of stock, are a broad, shoit head, the horns
spreading from the side of the head a httle in front, and tnrning upward.
The top of the shoulder sharp, back narntw, ribs, of course, flat, hooks
confined, hams thin, tail-head somewhat drooping, belly enlarged, and
lews very short. These are all points contrary to those of a good Short-
Hom ; and the points in which they agree are a straight back, loose mel-
low skin, large eye and small horn. The cows are best liked for a very
sharp shoulder and wide hooks and pelvis, in which case the ribs are flat
and the bellv large. The udder is desired to be hemispherical, well
forward, and provided with loose, soft skin behind.
I am satisfied that the points thus desiderated by Ayrshire breeders are
not necessarily promotive of the principal object they have in view,
namely, a large quantity of milk ; for though it cannot be denied that
Ayrshire cows are generally good milkers, it is attributable, in my opinion,
more to the great length of time they have been devoted to that particular
purpose, and which property has now become inherent in the breed, than
to the form which the breeders promote ; and my reason for thinking so
is this : it is well understood, in large dairies in large towns, that the
Short-Horns pi'ove the most steady milkers, that is, they continue to yield
milk in large quantities for a longer period than any other breed. When
they are not allowed to bear calves, they will continue to yield milk un
til they are fat enough for the butcher ; and when allowed to bear calves,
they will give milk to within 5 or 6 weeks of the time of calving. Now
it is averred by Ayrshire breeders, that the points cultivated in Short-
Horns are for the purpose of yielding flesh ; and the averment is quite
true ; but if the points which yield flesh are also favorable to yielding
milk, as the expei'ience of dairymen in towns has proved, and their pref-
erence of Short-Horns to othei-s testify, it is clear that it is 7iot in conse-
quence of cultivating points in the Ayrshire breed of entirely an opposite
character to those of the Short-Horns, that the Ayrshire yields so large a
quantity of milk ; but that it must depend upon some other quality, oth-
erwise the Short-Horns should yield little or no milk, but entirely flesh —
which is found not to be the case. I had a light-red Short-Horn cow,
which crave 17 Scots pints of milk at the hight of the gi-ass season, and
would scarcely go dry before calving; and have seen another roan cow,
which gave 30 pints a day for 3 months, and had to be milked for relief
5 times a day.
Horns of Cattle. — There is much to be observed in the set and form of
the horns of cattle. Small, short, slouching horns on a 2 or 3 year old
steer give a grave and majestic cast to the countenance. Horns rising
outward from the side of the head, and looking up, and bending backward,
never fail to impress one with the conviction that their bearer is an ill-
tempered brute, and ready to use them offensively on all occasions. Horns
curving laterally and horizontally forward, "give a finished appearance to
the top of the head, when viewed in front, as exemplified in the figure of
the lesser Short-Horn cow in Plate XV. When horns are long, and rise
outward, forward, and elevate their points, they impart a very majestic
mien to the ox, as shown in fig. 443 of the West-Highland ox. Some
horns are set looking backward behind the head, and give an idea of mal-
formation. A horn thick at the root never looks well, neither does one
that is blunted at the point ; and both kinds are associated with dull feed-
ers; nor do those which spring outward and then turn downward, look
well, as shown in the left-hand Short-Horn cow in Plate XV. A good
horn is small where it emerges from the head, and tapers gradually to a
fine point. A white horn is better than a dark-colored, and a finishing of
(974)
Eook of the i'ttria-
giK)^i?l'if t]©Kia ll3[l3iLio
Hate XXXI I
^Zl^^^
Booik of the b arm.
©M©S"f KlQIS'i^ (S)2Su
Plate Vr
^^;^^,V'>^'^_- --vi.^r-^ri^.Sy^iK^'fe^'-
THE POINTS OF SHEEP. 447
brown or black at the tip, according to the breed, is a good outset, though
many Short-Homs, especially of white color, have their horas all white,
and being short, do not seem obtrusive — indeed, in most Short-Horns the
horns serve more for ornament than purposes of defence. Oxen with
spreading horns are better feeders than those which contract toward the
front. Horns indicate the age of cattle. At 3 years of age the horn has
attained its state of uniform growth ; that is to say, it is uniformly smooth
from the root to the tip. Every year after the horn is protruded from
the head, with a notch on it, so that by counting the number of notches,
and adding 3 to the number, the age of the animal may be ascertained.
Tricks are practiced by fraudulent dealers, by filing down the notches, to
make the animal appear younger than it is ; but a slight inspection of the
hom will easily detect the fraud; and the period of the year, whether late
or early, in which the animal was born, will have some effect on the notches
of the horn.*
Sheep. — Of the numerous varieties of sheep cultivated in Great Britain,
1 have only selected 3 for illustration here, as these include all the breeds
bi'ought up in Scotland, though another has been partially introduced.
The three varieties alluded to are the Leicester, the Cheviot, and the
Black-faced, and the supplementary variety, as it may be called, is the
South-Down. The three varieties are well suited, not only for the climate
of Scotland, but also for the peculiar zones, as they may be termed, into
which the pasturage of that country is subdivided. The Leicesters are
adapted to heavy pastures and sheltered fields in low lands. The Cheviot
is equally well fitted for the middle range of green pastures to be found
in the pastoral districts of the South and North of Scotland. While the
Black-faced derive their chief support from the heathy pastures of the
mountains ; at least that range of country forms the nurseries of this hardy
race.
Plate XXXin. contains the portrait of a Leicester tup belonging to Mr.
Torr of Riby. * * This animal exhibits the peculiar properties of the
breed to which he belongs ; the principal of which are, a white face and
legs covered with hair, hornless head, and body enveloped in long wool.
The individual characteristics of this tup are, rectangular carcass, round
rib, small bone, fine head, small muzzle, large, full eye, and expressive
countenance ; but his ears are much shorter than usual. The head of
the tup is broader across the eyes than that of the ewe or wether, and
the skin becomes wrinkled upon the nose when he gets aged. The wool
is thick-set, long, of good quality, and the fleece covers the entire
body above and below — a mark of sound constitution, and a great
means of preserving the animal from the bad effects of the weather
above, and of the dampness of the ground below. A level broad back
from neck to rump, and across the ribs, is characteristic of the Leicester,
and on being turned up, a broad chest and fullness on the inside of the
hams. The touch should be equally mellow along the back, a hardness
in any part indicating a defect. In ordinary condition, the flesh above
the tail-head is nicked, which may be easily felt with the points of
the fingers; but when in high condition, which they should be at tupping-
time in autumn, the nicking should extend all the way from the shoulder-
top to the tail. The rib should also be well covered with flesh and fat,
and, indeed, a round rib is almost always so.
Fig. 444, given on page 448, contain the portraits of a Leicester eioe and
I'lmb belonging to Mr. Brodie, Abbey Mains, in the county of Had-
dington. The Leicester ewe's head is generally long, narrow, and clean,
* See a paper on this subject in the Quarterly Journal of Asriculture, vol. iii.
^975)
448
THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
with fine muzle, prominent eyes, and long, broad, thin ears. The bone is
small and fine. In this particular instance the l)ody is well-wooled and
formed. The counter^ is full; the shoulder well filled up behind at a ;
the rib at /"round and full , and the loin at v not hollow, as is sometimes
the case, particularly after ewes have home a number of lambs. In re-
gard to the wool it is full behind the ears on the top of the neck at Ic, thus
Fig. 444.
LEICESTER EWE AND LAMBS.
keeping these organs protected ; it is also fiill toward the cheeks at //,
which keeps the throat warm ; the belly is well covered with wool below
at h ; and so is the flank c ; the rump d has rather a redundancy, and it
affects even the shape; but gimmers, that is, ewes of their first lamb, often
produce a large quantity of wool on this point, which afterward reduces it-
self to an equality of the rest of the body ; but it is a good property in a
ewe to have plenty of wool on the rnmp, to protect the anal and vaginal
passages below the tail, and it is also an indication that the tail-head is
placed nearly on a level with the back. It is no uncommon occurrence in
a Leicester ewe to bear twin-lambs, nor is it uncommon to wean twins to
the extent of 50 per cent, of the whole flock, some of the ewes bearing
twins every year, while others only occasionally.
The Leicester breed of sheep has been cultivated with very gieat care
in Great Britain, since the days of Bakewell, who brought them in his own
lifetime to a very high degree of perfection. Many of the flocks in the
kingdom can trace their pedigree to that of Bakewell, with as much truth
as the purest stud of the race-horse, or the purest herd of Short-Horns,
though no Flock-Book has been kept to record the names of the most re-
nowned sheep ; a circumstance which excites in me much surprise. The
breed is desei-ving of the utmost attention that can be bestowed upon it, as
it possesses many valuable properties. The individuals are in themselves
handsome, displaying a beautiful contour, with a pleasant aspect. Their
disposition is so amiable that they have no desire to overleap a fence ; and
this disposition, no doubt, is fostered by their aptitude to fatten. The re-
sult of their condition is a large proportion of flesh to bone, and of useful
parts to the offal. Many people affect to dislike the mutton, as being too
fat and flavorless. The muscle is certainly larger-grained than that of the
other 2 breeds, and the fibres are intermixed with fat ; but though the
mutton may be disliked, for these reasons, by the higher orders, the breed
being generally of robust constitution the meat is always wholesome, and
acceptable to work-pe()j)le. Colliers, who eat a large quantity of meat, will
have none other. For these reasons, Leicesters are more profitable to the
farmer, where they can be reared, than any other breed. The wool is of
the most valuable description, not on account oi \\\q fineness of its quality,
(97fi;
THE POINTS OF SHEEP,
449
7
7
if
if
THE HEAD OF A CHEVIOT TUP.
for many sliort-wooled sheep have much finer wool ; but its ereat lenfth
as well as its tolerably fine quality, renders it useful in the manufacture of
all fabrics which require combing wool, and in which worsted is employ-
ed. This wool seems peculiar to the British climate ; for in no other coun-
try have sheep-breeders succeeded in raising it of the same quality ; the
pile becoming shorter or coarser in warm countries. So lono-, therefore, as
peculiar fabrics are made from Leicester wool, the breeders of Leicest'ers
need not fear the want of a steady, if not a high market for their wool ; and
it must always be in demand, since no other country can compete in raising
it to the same degree of perfection.
Fig. 445 represents the head of a Cheviot tup which gained the first
prize of his class at the Highland and Agricultural Society's Show at
Aberdeen in 1840, and was shown
by Messrs. Craig, Bighouse.Suther- '°' ^'
landshire. It will be observed that _^„..--,„-M^'^^^^^(^f^^
its face is longer than that of the "^
Leicester, muzzle not so fine, eye
not so full, ears set not so high and
handsomely upon the top of the
head, and there is a rugosity of the
skin across the bridge of the nose.
In the white face, and want of
horns, the Cheviot resembles the
Leicester. The wool is short, thick-
set, and of fine quality, fit for the
manufacture of inferior qualities of
broadcloths. The carcass is usual-
ly unequal, the fore-quarter being
lighter than the hind — narrow in frOnt, with the fore-legs set near, and a
want of depth and breadth in the counter. The flesh is fine-grained, often
well intermixed with fat, and is generally esteemed for the table. The dis-
position of the Cheviot is somewhat suspicious, with an inclination to rove ;
which disposition renders the breed rather unkindly to feed, at least at an
early age.
The Cheviots, as their name implies, had their origin in the Cheviot Hills,
in Northumberland. They occupy almost all the pastoral hills of the
south of Scotland, especially from the center of the country to the east-
ward. They are localized in some of the best parts of the Grampian moun-
tains, and are to be found as far north as the hills of Caithness and Suther-
land. They may, therefore, be regarded as a hardy race, and are well suit-
ed, on that account, for the middle green pastures of the mountainous parts
of our countiy.
The SoHth-Doions are little known in Scotland ; but what is known of
them is favorable to their character. Like the Cheviot, they are covered
with short, thick-set, fine wool, which is of a dusky brown color, and it also
affects the hair which covers the face and legs. They are a hornless breed.
In symmetry of body they are much superior to the Cheviot, bringing their
quarters, hke the Leicester, to an equahty. Their flesh is fine-grained,
and, as high-flavored mutton, is prefen-ed to that of the Cheviot in the Lon-
don market. They have also a gentler disposition, and are in consequence
better feeders. The only doubt with the South-Downs, on their introduc-
tion into Scotland, was their ability to withstand the damp climate of our
sub-alpine pastures. The experience of several years has proved that they
are capable of enduring any climate with the Cheviot; and this being the
(977) «9
450
THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
Fig. 446.
case, with their other superior qualities, they hid fair to rival and per-
haps ultimately to displace that breed. Hitherto, however, they have
only been tried in a few places. Mr. Hugh Watson has had them at
Keillor, in Forfarshire, for more than 20 years, and they have thriven
with him upon the pastures of the Sidlaw Hills. The Duke of Richmond
has them in Morayshire. Our small flocks are scattered through the
couutry.
Figs. 446 and 447 represent the heads of a Black-faced ram and ewe
The ram, fig. 446, was shown by Mr. Robert M'Turk, Hastlngs's-Hall, in
Dumfriesshire, at the Highland and Agricultural Society's Show at Ber-
wick-upon-Tweed in 1841,
where it obtained the first
prize of its class. As indica-
tive of the long period and
care with which the breed
has been cultivated, we have
only to look at the tapering
face, small muzzle, and full
eye, exhibited by the speci-
mens in the figures. The
Black-faced ram has always ^^fc^jj^^^HflfiBB^f ff^^Kffi'iilP ^\ M \)
an arched nose, expressive of ^"^■i^^^^"*.™«IB^™B^'a mumxmmkmlli^m \\\ 1 \.
boldness and courage. The
face and legs are covered
with black or mottled hair,
mostly the latter. The head
is horned ; and the horns are
considered a& picturesque an
object as is exhibited by any
animal of this country. The
wool is long and coarse, which \\i' ^!i
render it of small value as an
article of manufacture, and
being thin-set exposes the body to the inclemency of the weathei" It is
to assist the animal for this latter defect in the fleece that the filthy opera-
tion of smearing is resorted to. The carcass is well formed, carrying its
depth forward to the brisket better than the Cheviot ; but still the entire
body is narrow, owing to the flatness of the ribs, which gives too much
lightness to the whole carcass ; or want of substance, as it is commonly
called. The flesh is fine-grained, high flavored, greatly esteemed, and can
be fed sufliiciently fat on the turnips and pastures of the low country. The
breed is very hardy, frequenting the highest parts of our heath-clad moun-
tains, and in summer require little care from the shepherd.
As with cattle, the horns of sheep afford facilities for ascertaining the age
of the animal. In fig. 446, the age of the tup is distinctly marked, the Ist
year's growth being evidently the space from the point of the horn to the
letter a ; the 2d year is from a to h, the giowth of the dinmont being
stronger than that of the hogg ; the 3d year's growth is marked from h to
c; the 4th, from c to d, which great growth shows the vigorous state which
the animal had attained at that age ; and this is no doubt the most vigor-
ous period of the life of a sheep ; and the 5th year's growth is shown from
d to e. The respective ages of the ewe, fig. 447, and of the wether, may
be traced in like manner, but the horns not attaining the full develop-
ment in them as in the ram, the yearly marks cannot be discerned
(978)
THE HEAD OF A Df.ACK-FACED RAM.
THE POINTS OF SWINE. 45]
ivithout minute examination. As to this figure of the ewe it is evi-
dently that of a young one, probably a maiden ewe or gimmer, or at
most with the first lamb.
Plate XXVIII. exhibits a group
oifat tvethers of the 3 native breeds
we have been considering and illus-
trating ; but all the animals com-
posing the group are by no means
alike favorable specimens of their
respective breeds. The Black-faced
wether is a good specimen, and
many such are brought fat to the
Edinburgh market every winter.
They are fed in Forfar, Fife, and
Perth shires, on turnips in winter,
but the finest fat are those fed on
turnips in East-Lothian — that coun-
ty affording by far the best feeding
land for stock in Scotland. The
Cheviot is evidently not a wether, ^"^ "^^° ""^ * black-faced ewe.
being only a dinmont, and not pure bred ; and on both these accounts is not
a ripe specimen. The letter P is left on the rump to show the tar-mark of
the farm on which, or the name of the farmer by whom it had been bred.
The lightness of the fore-quarter, characteristic of this breed is, however,
very well shown in the figure. It is rare to meet with Leicester wethers
now-a-days, the dinmonts attaining a sufficient degree of fatness for all use-
ful purposes. The figure in the Plate is a dinmont, and not a favorable speci-
men, not being pure bred, and too small for the breed. The characteristic
distinctions of the three breeds ai'e, however, sufficiently marked in the
heads of the figures given in the Plate.
A desire seems to be spreading in this country for the naturalization of
the Alpaca from South America. It is the opinion of those who have seen
the Alpaca in its native country, that it would thrive w^ell on our highest
mountains, upon the coarsest fare that can be obtained — upon what, in
fact, is refused by even Black-faced sheep — and at the same time yield a
coat of fine wool, far finer and longer than any grown in this kingdom.
Could this opinion be established by experiment, the cultivation of the ani-
mal would be worth attempting on a large scale ; and no doubt suflScient
supplies would be obtained of it in a few years. As yet, the subject is only
under discussion.*
Swine. — There are many breeds of sivine existing in the country ; and
whatever denomination they may pass under, if they do not possess the
points exhibited in the adjoining fig. 448, and in the Plate, they may be pro-
nounced defective. Here the same rules apply, not only of symmetry, as we
have seen in fig. 431, but points of breeding. The head a is small, the face
tapering to the muzzle or snout i, which is short and fine, the ears set on
the crown of the head, being broad, thin, long, and so mobile as to indi-
cate quickness of perception. The value of the head, as an article of food,
is indicated by the enlargement of the muscle upon the cheek h. The
neck from a to i is full ; the back from b to c, broad ; the rump from c to
*A little work, named The Alpaca, by Mr. William Walton of Liverpool, published by Blackwood in 1844,
gives an interesting account of this animal, both historical and natural. The author seems to know the
habits of the animal ; considers that it would thrive to a profitable extent in this country ; and details the
particulars of a practicable plan by which a regular and sufficient supply of it. at a remunerative rate, might
be obtained.
(979)
452
THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
Fig. 448.
d full and round, and the roundness descends to the hams ; the ribs f are
round ; the space behind the slioulder at g filled up , and so is the flank
e ; the shanks k are small and short, and
finely tapered. A pig with these pro-
perties is always in a condition for use
from the state of a pig sucking milk,
through its progress of porkling and
shott till it attain the full size fur bacon
and hams. Such a breed never requires
feeding, and as it is always in condition,
it must only have time to grow to the
size wanted, when a little firming of the
flesh by corn is all that is required to
piepare it for slaughter.
The slouch-eared breed that pre-
vailed in the country is fast being supplanted by the one I have been de-
scribing ; because, wherever such a character of ear is seen, it is
universally accompanied with length of leg, length of nose, narrowness of
back, and dilatoriness in feeding. I believe the prick-ears, short snouts,
and full cheeks, may be traced to an improvement deiived from the Chinese
breed, which possess those points even to a deformity. The cross with our
old bony breeds has been the means of disseminating through the country
a race of beautiful, profitable, delicate-fleshed pigs.
THE BROOD-SOW.
THE HEAD OF A BOAR.
Fig. 449 represents the head of a boar Fig. 449.
belonging to the Duke of Buccleuch, and
the hrood-sow represented in the Plate,
is also from His Grace's stock. The
boar, though evidently full-grown and
larsfe, bears the same character of
pricked ear, tapering face, short nose,
and full cheeks, and the flesh of the
neck is seen to be fully able to support
the fullness of the head ; these pigs are,
moreover, strong-constitutioned, and cov-
ered with plenty of white hair and valua-
ble bristle. Their temjier is generally
docile, and the animals seldom wander far
from the steading, or engage in mis-
chievous pursuits.
Teeth. — The teeth are far more imperfect organs to the domesticated
animals than the bonis. The horns are the instruments of defence and of
attack ; and, in the situation in which those animals are placed, are seldom
put in rerjuisition, and the more seldom the better ; but the teeth are the
instruments by means of which their food is broken and masticated in
winter, and cropped and masticated in summer; and this being the case,
the condition of the animal mainly depends upon the state of soundness
in which the teeth may be preserved. There is one similar property be-
tween the horns and teeth of animals ; both furnish data by which the age
of the animal may be ascertained. You have already seen how the horns
are indicative of the age ; we shall now advert to the manner in which the
teeth may be examined for the same purpose.
Fig. 450 represents the left half of the head of an adult Jiorse, viewed
internally, and so figured as to show the origin of the fifth pair of nerves,
and the nervous branches which go to the teeth ; and for this reason the
figure may be consulted with equal advantage for a knowledge of the dis-
(980)
THE TEETH OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
453
tribution of the nervous system and of the teeth. The milk-te^th of the
horse consist of 12 incisors, 6 in each side of the head ; and of molars
16 in number, 8 on either side of the head — in all 28 teeth. The teeth
Fig. 450.
THE VERTICAL SECTION OF THE HEAD OF THE ADULT HORSE, SHOWING THE TEETH AND THE
NERVOUS SYSTEM IN CONNECTION VV'ITH THEM.
of the second dentition are 40 in number, of which 28 have replaced the
milk-teeth. Those between the incisors and molars, called the canine or
tusks, do not appear along with the teeth at an early age. Others
complete the arch by occupying the room made by the growth of the
jaws; these are new molars which come out of both jaws. The full set
consists of 12 incisors, 4 canines, and 24 molars — in all 40 in number. In
fig. 450, a are the incisors, b the canine or tusks, and c the molars.
" This is the order of coming out of the second or permanent dentition
of the horse," observes M. Rousseau. " The first permanent molar, which
is situate behind the last milk-molar, pi'esents itself before any of the milk-
teeth have fallen, and makes its appearance upon the maxillary arch from
the 11th to the 13th month after birth; it will be, by numerical number,
the 4th persistent molar, when all the milk-molars have fallen. The 5th
permanent molar, which is situate behind the preceding tooth, breaks the
edge of the socket from the 14th to the 20th month. During this time
the decaying teeth die from their roots, and wear down their crowns to
such a degree that the hollow which characterizes the surface of the in-
cisors at certain periods cannot be observed, so that the veterinarians call
them lost-mark. The central incisor or pincer is ordinarily of the 9th or
11th month ; the lesser incisor from the 11th to 13th month ; and the lat-
eral incisor or corner-tooth, from the 14th to the 20th month. Once these
teeth cease to have mark, they bear upon their surface a smooth trace,
brown and indelible, which diminishes the more that the teeth appi'oach
their fall. The first permanent molar replaces the first and second milk-
molars from 2 years to 2^ yeai's. The central incisor appears upon the
edge of the socket after the coming out of the 5th permanent molar, from
2^ to 3 years. The 2d permanent molar replaces the 3d milk-molar a
little after the same term, or 1 or 2 months of difference. The 3d perma-
nent molar replaces the 4th decaying molar at 3 years ; at this time also
appears the 6th and last molar. The lesser incisor from 31 to 4 years.
The canine or tusks appear from 4 to 4^ years. At last the second denti-
tion is ordinarily terminated by the lateral incisor or corner-tooth. It must
(981)
454
THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
not be tliouglit, however, that the coming out, as I have endeavored to in-
dicate as the most ordinary, is without vanation ; this would be to give to
Nature too regular a march. All teeth in general are the more devel-
oped that they belong to a large and robust subject."
Fig. 451 gives a similar representation of the dental system of the adult
Fig. 451.
THE VERTICAL SECTION' OF THE HEAD OF THE ADULT OX, SHOWING THE TEETH A.VD THK
NERVOUS SYSTEM IN CONNECTION WITH THEM.
OX, and of the ners-ous system connected with it, that the preceding figure
gives of those of the horse. The milk-teeth of the ox are, 8 incisors on the
lower jaw, and none on the upper, and 12 molars, 3 on each jaw. In the
adult ox are S incisors on the lower jaw, and none on the upper; and
there are 24 molars, 6 on each jaw. In the figure, a are the incisors, and
h the molars, and the same configuration exists in the sheep." " In the
second dentition, these teeth show themselves upon the edge of the socket
in the following order," says M. Rousseau : " The 4th permanent molar
comes out from the 4th to the 6th month after birth, and commences the
second dentition. The 1st or central replacing incisor from the loth to
the 22d month. The 5th or penult molar, from the 18th to the 22d month
The second replacing molar, as also the 2d incisor of this order, appeal
from the 28th to the 32d month. The 3d replacing molar, as also the 3d
incisor, come out very near at the same time, that is, from the 38th to the
48th month. The 6th, or last molar, from the 44th to the 52d month. At
length the 4th permanent incisor tooth terminates the 2d dentition, which
is ordinarily completed when the animal has not yet attained its 5th year."
Fig. 452 gives a section of the head of a wild boar, in which the dental
and nei-vous systems are distinctly delineated ; a are the superior incisors;
b the superior lateral incisor ; c the inferior incisors ; d the upper canine
or defence tusk ; e the inferior canine or defence tusk, the origin and form
of which may be easily traced ; andy are the molars. I have selected the
head of the wild boar for illustration, because the character of all the
teeth, and particularly that of the tusks, is more strongly developed than
in the domesticated boar. The tusks of the sow are comparatively short
and weak. The milk-teeth of the ordinary pig are 32 in number, namely,
12 incisors, 4 canines or tusks, and 16 molars half of which numbers are
(982)
THE TEETH OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
455
on each side of the head. The second dentition is only completed as soon as
as all the milk-teeth have fallen ; and these are not only replaced, but 3 other
molars on each jaw rise up, one after the other, until the whole dental arch
Fig. 410.
THE VERTICAL SECTION OF THE HEAD OF THE WILD BOAR, SHOWING THE TEETH AND THE
NERVOUS SYSTEM IN CONNECTION WITH THEM.
is completed, when the entire complement is 44 teeth, of which 22 are on
the uppei-, and 22 on the lower jaws, and they are divided thus : 12 in-
cisors, 4 tusks, and 28 molars. These teeth are composed of 2 substances,
the one bony, the other enameled. " The tusks are each inclosed in a
socket, filled with a substance analogous to the marrow of the long bones ;
it is most remarkable and most abundant in the inferior tusks. These
teeth are only provided with enamel upon the external face of the per-
manent tusks."*
In regard to the indications of age by means of the teeth, in the horse
the marks on the crowns of the front teeth on the lower jaw are almost
always obliterated, or at least cannot be depended on after 9 years of age.
After that period, the only means of judging is by the quantity of ma,tter
ground off the top of the teeth, and by the distance between the teeth ; the
older the horse gets, the wider the space between them becomes. In re-
gard to the grinding down of the teeth, however, you should know that
pasturage on sharp land, and support on hard meat, such as unbruised
corn and beans, will wear down teeth much faster than pasturage on soft
land and prepared food. The same remark applies to cows which have
been pastured on sharp or soft land, and been fed on straw and turnips,
or on boiled food, and it is only applicable to them ; for as to steers, their
age cannot be mistaken, from the growth and condition of the body. The
teeth of cows also stand wider as they advance in years.
A horse's mouth is easily opened for the purpose of examination, by in-
troducing a finger by the side of the mouth into the space between the in-
cisor and molar teeth, where, in short, the bit of the bridle lies, upon the
tongue, when the horse will play with his mouth, to get quit of the finger,
and show as much of the lower teeth as to satisfy your cui'iosity. Some
sulky horses require to have their lips held asunder ; and vicious ones
will even strike out with the fore-feet when their mouth is meddled with.
I had a cart-mare, the moment her mouth was attempted to be held for
examination, she would wheel round quickly, and kick with the hind-feet
at the person attempting it. A cow's mouth cannot be examined without
* Eousseau's Anatomie Compar§e du Systeme Dentaire. p. 205-230— a very complete and elegant work.
(983)
456 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
first taking hold of her nose, elevating her mouth, and drawing down her
under-lip. Some cows will not allow themselves to be taken by the nose,
and the thing can only be done in such a case by stratagem. Some, again,
have such a power in the nose by curling up the nostrils when held, that
its squeeze against the holder's fingers renders them soon powerless ; but
a steady pinch of the thumb nail against the septum of the nose will make
any cow give way, provided the jierson has strength to hold her firmly at
the first burst.
I am strongly tempted to give you an account of the physiological re-
marks of Mr. Walker on the breeding and crossing of the domesticated
animals, but find that even an epitome of his observations would occupy a
considerable space. I must, therefore, content myself by refeiring to his
very curious, instructive, and not less entertaining work.
41. CARTS AND CARTING.*
In the ordinary progress of the harvest, having gathered the corn together by
the horse-rake, the next step is to carry it to the barn or the stack-yard. This
leads us to the question of carts and wagons. The asserted saving in animal
power, by the employment of one-horse carts in exchange for the ordinary har-
vest-wagon, has now, for some years, been the subject of occasional discussion
among the farmers of England : the common result of which has been to con-
vince pretty generally the English farmer, that on most soils and in many situa-
tions, for the general purposes of Agriculture, there is a very material saving to
be accomplished in horse labor, by their employment in preference to wagons.
"I early felt convinced," said Mr. Mechi, in the course of some observations he
made in 1847, at a monthly meeting of the London Farmers' Club, " that it was
much easier to carry a load upon an implement which weighed 7 cwts., running
upon one pair of wheels, than upon one which weighed 22 to 24 cwts. running
on two pairs of wheels ; my powers of calculation were sufficient to convince me
at once that we had been committing a perfect barbarism in the matter of wag-
ons." And he alluded with advantage to a valuable paper by Mr. Hannam, on
the use of one-horse carts, which some years since appeared in an early volume
of the Journal of the Royal English Agricultural Society. In this very excellent
paper, Mr. Hannam truly states that the farmers of the counties of Cumberland
and Westmoreland have universally, and from time immemorial, used the one-
horse cart ; they have no other carriage for any kind of agricultural produce, and
never is the addition of another horse on any occasion seen. The practice, ap-
parently originating in economy, has long since spread into the neighboring
Scotch county of Dumfries, and we have the authority of Mr. Wilkie, the well-
[* For a chapter of 50 pages ou the philosophy and the application of Wheel Carriages, which
Mr. Stephens says he had himself at one time deemed uncalled-for, we venture to substitute ihia
one on Carts and Carting, by Cuthbert ^V. Johnson, F. R. 8 , as being more modem and better
adapted to common use. We find it in " Modem Agricultural Improvements, intended also as a
Supplement to the Fanner's Series of the Library of Useful Knowledge."
By adopting this course we not only present a paper ef more general utility on a subject of
very general interest, but it enables us to draw the whole work to a conclusion in this volume,
and thus present in two volumes, at a cost of S5, what would cost 825 if imported.
In reference to this subject of fami transportation, we have no doubt that great waste is com-
mitted in the United States in two ways : first, by want of a sufficient number of these and other
implements, and next, by the use of heavy, unwieldy wagons in the place of carte, in which the
horse may be said to carry a portion of the weight on his back, which in the wagon he must
draw, altogether. Bui we will not presume to go farther, lest we might seem to be anticipating
or otherwise taking the subject out of abler hands. Ed. Farm. Lib.]
(984)
CARTS AND CARTING. 457
known implement-maker of Addington, near Glasgow, for saying that it is all
but universal at the present moment throughout the West of Scotland." As re-
lates to the economy of the cart, it is evident that a considerable saving in the
expense for animal labor on a farm may be often accomplished by substituting
one-horse carts for wagons. "I had no other object in entering into this prac-
tice," adds Mr. Hannam, " than lessening my expenses by reducing the number
of my horses, and in this I have succeeded beyond my expectations. My farm
(at Burcott, in* Oxfordshire) of 370 acres, consisting chiefly of gravelly and fer-
ruginous sandy loams, was some years ago under very able management, with
a strength of 12 horses and 6 oxen ; and just previous to taking it into my own
culiivation, 16 horses had been employed by a very spirited cultivator. 1 have
gradually, by the joint operation of two-horse plows and single-horse carts, re-
duced my number to 8 horses. My system, notwithstanding, is such as some-
what increases niy aggregate amount of horse labor beyond that of the surround-
ing district ; certainly doing a great deal more carting work, although in a few
points of tillage it is transferred to the manual labor. For instance, I grow an-
nually about 35 acres of mangel and 20 of potatoes, which necessarily cause
much carriage, and, together with the other ridged crops, also a good deal of
horse-hoeing." The general saving of animal power has been thus stated in a
tabular form by Mr. Hannam, and 1 am always glad when I can avail myself of
such condensed statements, since it is general results which are commonly the
most practically valuable. Mr. Hannam calculates that the team labor per cent,
expended, with four horses, on a farm of 100 acres, is commonly thus appor-
tioned:
In plowing \
In horse-hoeins ( i_ .. rn
Indra-ging..: j about 50 per cent.
In Suffolk drill, &c )
In harrowinff ) t . •, -,
In rolling.... ^ about 12 per cent.
In carting about 38 per cent.
And that the saving capable of being effected is —
By two, and occasionally one-horse plows, and double-ridging plo'ws )
By forking couch grass C -27 per cent.
By pair-horse cat's-claw drag )
By one-horse six-feet heavy rollers, being 33 per cent, in the implement, and 10 or
1-2 per cent, on the general labor where heavy rolling is performed 1 per cent.
By single-horsecarts , 19 per cent!
Being equal to a total saving of ."fT per cent.
" Let me now answer the question," continues Mr. Hannam, "which will be
asked. In what manner is the saving by single carts of about one-fifth of the
usual proportion of horses eflfected ? By considering that to move a bulk from
one spot to another, in the way that field operations are carried on by a continu-
ous chain of loading at one end and discharging at the other, seldom less than
three carts are employed, and that in the usual practice of the Southern Coun-
ties one horse occupies the stand-cart or wagon, and three horses each of the
other two that are in motion ; the work thus going forward with seven horses.
If two horses in a cart are used, five will be the number engaged ; and if four,
the number will be nine. Now, I am prepared to show, not by any series of ex-
periments, but by the routine of my farm for the last ten years, that the same
amount of work, when at a moderate distance, may be performed by three
horses in separate carts ; and that it is only at the greatest distance in which
three three-horse carts are able to keep up the chain, that four may be required.
And these will keep the same number of (and from low-filling, somewhat fewer)
loaders engaged, and consequently accomplish the moving of an equal bulk. As
this may seem a little paradoxical, I will enter into the reasons which combine
to effect it. 1st. A horse thus harnessed draws more in proportion with equal
ease ; 2d. The misapplication of his strength in the constant draught of a heavy-
carriage is prevented ; 3d. He moves more briskly and freely, and turns, &c.,
with less loss of time, and when any check occurs, the loss is saved that takes
place by the hindrance of a large number ; and lastly, there is a certain con-
venience and ready manageableness which can be better felt than calculated or
described.
(985)
458 THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
" Practice and general opinion are agreed in assigning a greater power of
draught to a horse working singly than to any number harnessed together ; but
the amount of difference I have never proved by actual experiment. Mr. Cul-
ley, in his Report of the three English Border counties, gives an instance in
which the advantage is as three to four ; and another, m which, with a horse
of 16 hands, ^4 cwis. was the load, on the hilly* road from Hexham to jSew-
castle. I am in the regular practice of sending out to any distance, on a turn-
pike however hilly, 5 qrs. of wheat, which, with the cart, 8 cwts., seldom
amounts to less than 30 cwts. It is also considered, universally, that the nearer
a horse is to his load the easier will be the draught, but to what extent I have
never proved.
" The misapplication of power caused by a heavy carriage is often enormous,
there being sometimes, especially by wagons in harvest, double the weight of
timber moved, in eoing backward and forward, to that of produce brought home ;
for instance, a common harvest, except at a great distance from the homestead, sel-
dom exceeds one ton, and one ton more or less is the weight of a wagon : at any
rate, 1 to 1 is the common proportion of the carriage to the harvest load. It is ad-
mitted that there is no perceptible difference between the size of my neighbors'
loads and my own ; the weight of my harvest-cart I have stated is about 6| cwts. ;
therefore my proportion is 1 to 3 ; and under less favorable circumstances than
mine, it need never, with a similar carriage, be less than 1 to 2 ; and this goes
a very considerable way to explain why I am able to perform the same work
with half the strength, and without straining the powers of my horses. In the
dung-carts the case is not quite so strong in my favor, as there is not so large a
disproportion in their weight.
" It is certain that a horse can exert his powers with greater ease and effect
by himself than when incommoded by the diverse pulling of companions, and
also that a sluggish animal must draw his own share. In turning, one horse is
much more handy than a string ; and no comparison can be made between the
turning of a two and four-wheel carriage. I have never practiced trotting.
" The question," concludes Mr. Hannam, "is not, as is frequently supposed,
whether one horse single can draw more in proportion than any number har-
nessed together, which I believe is generally admitted ; it is not altogether
which will move the greatest weight ; but the question is, which will transport
m the most ready and economical manner the materials required to be passed
between the field and the homestead, or between one field and another. For in
the carrying operations of a farm, with the exception of drawing corn to market, a
certain bulk has to be transferred from one point to another, not by one effort,
but by a continuous succession of them. Practically speaking, the loading and
unloading have to be kept in constant activity by a chain of carriages passing
between them. What, then, is the best and most economical intermediate con-
veyance is not an easy matter for consideration. The best implement and best
moving power have to be ascertained ; and, among known methods, the selec-
tion ranges widely between the barrow or pack-saddle and the eight-horse
wagon. Our present consideration, however, is whether one-horse carts are
more ready and economical for the purpose than the methods now generally in
use."
The outlay of capital is certainly in favor of the substitution of carts for wag-
ons. Mr. Bowly, of Siddington, has given the following comparative calcula-
tion of the outlay required by the two systems, on 50 acres of arable land :
1 wagon jCSS
1 dung-cart 15
3 horses 60
Extra harness i!
Proportionate cost of light cart to 50 acres 3
Total £105
2 4-inch wheel one-horse carts £24
2 horses 40
Total ."£64
Balance in favor of carts 41
£105
" I had occasion to send my skeleton cnrt with 15 cwts. of hay up the steepest hill (Cuddesden) in this
part of the country, and directed n very intelligent laborer to go with it and report : his statement was,
that besides obeerving at a steep descent th»t the breeching was lichtened more than the back-chain, on
stopping on the ehai-pest ascent he found the breast-band tolerably slack, and that the horse drew the load
up this steep point (1 in 7) without difficulty; and he thought he might have managed a ton. "The
horse, however, had a knack of thtcaTting the road.' a method of easing the ascent horses are very ready
at in the North ; in a wagon they cannot do it. His opinion also was that four horses, with two tons on a
wagon, would have verj' light work at this part of the hill.
(986)
CARTS AND CARTING. 459
"In conclusion," says Mr. Bowly, " 1 may remark that the principle of one-
horse carts is quickness of motion ; therefore they must be loaded according to
the land to be passed over, so as not to reduce the pace of traveling ; and I can
assure those who are timid about them that they are much less liable to acci-
dents of every kind than wagons, and that however prejudiced the workman
may be against their first introduction, when he becomes acquainted with the
system he will prefer it.
" The descriptions of carts I make use of are, five common Scotch carts and
one skeleton cart ; those of the former, with narrow wheels, cost me 10 guineas
each ; and with the 4-inch wheels (which I recommend) £12, with harvest-
frame, &;c., complete. The skeleton with narrow wheels cost me £10 ; it will
carry more hay or straw than the others, its loads being in proportion of four
carts to three wagons ; it is more convenient for conveying poles, hurdles, &;c. ;
and one on a farm may be useful, but it will not answer in dung-carting, and its
advantages in harvesting are not sufficient to remunerate for the additional out-
lay of a double set."
The one-horse carts, then, we perceive, have been successfully tried, and pre-
ferred to wagons in the Northern Counties and in Oxfordshire. We have
equally satisfactory evidence of their employment on the stiff" clays of Glouces-
tershire and the Weald of Kent, and the deep soils of Huntingdonshire. " My
land," observes Mr. T. Baker, of Hardwicke Court, near Gloucester, " is a stiff
clay ; my carts are on six-inch wheels, and made to hold half the quantity that
my neighbors carry in theirs. My land is hilly ; my carts generally go with one
horse ; but up hill, when loaded, another is put on before, which comes down
the hill with the next returning cart. Thus, on level ground, with two carts
and two, or perhaps three horses, I take out the same quantity of dung that my
neighbors carry in their large carts with never less than three horses, and often
with four. All my carts have reins ; a boy walks and drives them when loaded,
but when returning empty he gets into the cart and trots back at the rate of
about five miles an hour, which of course saves about half the time in returning.
Here, again, I have a manifest advantage in using lighter and more active horses,
" Some lime ago I made the following trial. Two heaps of stone, of 32 tons
each, were landed from a barge : they were to be taken to the same place, about
a mile and a quarter off. A farmer began the first with two large carts and three
horses ; one cart was being loaded while the other was moving ; and the horses
were taken off and put on at every load. Finding that he could not do it in the
day, he gave over at the end of about six hours, and set to again the next morn-
ing ; this rest, of course, givinsr him an advantage, as you will see ; but, anxious
for their own credit, both he and his man made the very best use of their time.
Their Avork was completed at eleven loads, (which of course is nearly three tons
to each load, or one ton to each horse,) in nine hours and fifty minutes. I be-
gan the other heap with three small one-horse carts, and completed it in one
day, at twenty-one loads, (being nearly a ton and a half to each horse,) in six
hours and one minute ; which was a saving of about three hours and a quarter
on nine hours and fifty minutes, or rather more than one-third. In this I had
three decided advantages — first, the saving of time by trotting back ; secondly,
the rest that each of my horses got in his turn while his cart was being loaded ;
and thirdly, the ease with which my carts were loaded in consequence of being
lower."
" Having," remarks Mr. Jesse French, of Rolvenden, " pursued this plan of
carrying corn and hay for two years, and one of my neighbors having followed
my example last year, I draw the following conclusion from the observations I
have made: that in carrying bound corn, the one-horse cart system has several
advantages over that of wagons ; and in carrying loose corn or hay, though the
loader and he Avho throws it off may complain, and strong prejudices, the effect
of habit, may possess the minds of all the hands employed, there is, upon the
whole, no advantage. Three carts will generally be sufficient where the dis-
tance does not exceed half a mile, for one cart to be always loading ; and for
every additional half mile, one additional cart will be about sufficient ; but this
will depend in a great measure upon the road." It is true, as he very justly
adds, tbat " there certainly are various things which a farmer may have to carry,
for which one-horse carts are not adapted, as timber and hop-poles, which in
(987)
4G0
THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
Kent and Sussex are often carried a long distance. In the same district many
farmers hrinjj their hay from the marshes, a distance of from tliree to eisrht
miles. For tiiis purpose small carts are not so convenient ; and for carrying
hay, and particularly where it has to be carried a considerable distance, a small
cart may be eularjjed by this expedient. The draught-staples being generally
about a foot from the ends of the shafts, by attaching rings to their extreme ends
for the horse to draw by, the wheels will be thrown a foot farther behind the
horse ; consequently the fore-ladder may be fixed a foot forwarder on the shafts.
This will allow for the tail-ladder to lean farther back, so as the load may bal-
ance. By thus lengthening the load, and keeping it a good width, as much hay
may be loaded as a horse will be well able to draw."
"And it will be seen," remarks Mr. E. Loomes, of Whittlesea, near Peter-
borough, " from the following Table, (which I have laid down from a careful ob-
servation of the capabilities of one-horse carts and wagons,) that one horse in a
cart is capable of conveying much more than half what can be carried on a
wagon with two horses " :
One-horse Carts.
Wheat sheaves 172
Corn-cake, &c cwts. 25
Bones bush. 60
Two-horse Wagons.
"Wheat-sheaves 207
Corn, cake, &c cwts. 45
Bones bash. 100
In dung-carting, under ordinary circumstances, one-horse carts appear to have,
in ordinary circumstances, a decided advantage. Mr. Love has given the follow-
ing comparative Table of the economy of both one and hoo-horse carts, in the dif-
ferent distances supposed to be traveled ; and each boy driving is counted as the
fourth of a man tipping ; a man's wages is reckoned as 2s. per day, and the ex-
pense of each horse 3s. per day of nine hours :
Distance in furlongs
Time of traveling a revolution.
Number of horses
Number of carts
Men fillinK the carts
Time of filling
Men tipping and driving
Time of tipping
Total time to each revolution . .
Number of loads drawn
Number of yards drawn
Expense of horses
Expense of men
Total day's expenses
Expense of carting thirty yards
Saving by onehorse carts per acre.
3
15
3
3
2
10
H
3
30
54
54
s. d.
3
15
3
2
o
15
1
n
37i
29
43J
.-i. d.
9 0
6 0
15 0
10 2J
3
15
5
5
4
5
n
5
25
108
108
s. d.
15 0
11 6
3
15
5
3
4
n
H
7i
30
54
81
s. d.
15 0
10 6
25 6
9 5
7
35
9
9
4
5
n
5
45
108
108
s. d.
27 0
13 6
40 6
11 3
3 0
7
35
9
5
4
n
H
n
50
54
81
s. d.
27 0
11 6
38 6
14 3
Mr. John Dryden has described a plan for an improvement in single-horse
carts, by which the evils of a fixed balance of the load in a cart are avoided ;
and it is probable that the use of the Welsh drag in hilly countries would ma-
terially facilitate the general employment of one-horse carts.
"That the state of the road has a very material influence upcn the animal
power required to draw a given weight over it every person is well aware, but
few persons regard the difference between the labor of drawing a carriage over
a road in good condition and the same road when out of order. This has been,
however, experimentally determined, and we commend to every farmer and
every overseer the careful and steady consideration of the results thus obtained.
In these trials it was found that a light carriage with four wheels, weighing
with its load 1,000 lbs., required a force of traction as follows ":
On a turnpike-road, when hard and dry 30J lbs.
On the same road when dirty 39 ..
On a hard, compact loam 53 ..
On an ordinary by-road 106 ..
On a turnpike-road newly graveled 143 ..
On a loose, sandy road 204 . .
The care with which all drivers avoid the newly graveled portions of a road is
(988)
CARTS AND CARTING.
461
well known, yet few of even the best whips, I think, are aware of the enormous
diiference of pressure upon the collar shown by the previous Table to exist, when
the load is passing over a hard and dry turnpike-road, and the same road when
newly oraveled, composed of loose, sandy materials. The Farmers' Club, then,
we cannot but feel, arrived at a tolerably correct conclusion when they thus
save the preference to one-horse carts for the general purposes of the farm. The
farmer however, who resolves to make trial of these advantages, must be firm
and resolute, for, like every other alteration, it will hardly fail otherwise of be-
in^ met by a strong opposition from his servants. To this end a hint or two of
Mr Hannam'swill be useful ; he observes, " I market my corn, according to the
Northern practice, in the dung-cart ; it is not so convenient to unload sacks from
as a wa<Ton, but the load it carries, viz., 5 qrs. [40 bushels at 60 lbs. per bushe ,
2 400 Ibs.l of wheat, 6 qrs. of barley, and other grain in proportion, and in back
carria'-e half a wagon-load of ashes compensates for small inconveniences. The
only obiection that I have heard the carters make to the system m thus carrymg
out the corn is that they find themselves singular, and makmg but a bad figure
by the side of a wagon and team of horses. They should therefore be indulged
with a reserve of the best carts, kept well painted.^^and washed after being used
for manures, and with harness a little ornamented."
Of the many excellent carts prepared by various makers, we will only allude
to two, those of Mr. Crosskill, of Beverlev, and of Messrs. Stratton, ot Bristol.
THE ONE-HORSE CART OF CROSSKILL OF BEVERLEY.
«' Mr Crosskill's," said the Judges of the Shrewsbury meeting, " is a thor
ouehlv well made and cheap one-horse cart, having a particularly simple and
sale ti'ppinf^ contrivance. The especial reason for awarding to it a premium of
£2 was the introduction of a self-acting tail-board, which opens and shuts as the
bodv is tipped, or brought home, so that no time is lost by having to unship and
ship a tail-board, whether the contents of the cart have to be discharged at
once or at intervals. At the Newcastle meeting it obtained the prize of £5.
Of the cart of Messrs. Stratton, and of their other excellent implements ol a
similar kind, the Judges of the Bristol meeting thus reported : '' The show-yard
was rich in an assortment of carts and wagons. To Mr. Richard Slratton, ot
Bristol a premium of £10 was assigned for the extraordmary variety and good
workmanship of his immense collection ; more particularly for the mgenuity dis-
played in the construction of a cross-lock wagon, which facilitates its turning m
a verv small space, and permits the use of four large wheels of equal diameter.
A tip'ping-wagon also possessed much mechanical merit, but it is to be recom-
mended as better adapted to commercial than to agricultural use. Mr. btratton
produced an excellent specimen of the low-chested cart, obtained by cranking
down the axles, now in such general use by mercantile men and shippers, ihis
disposition, modified to suit farming purposes, well merits the attention oi ag-
riculturists, as it would greatly ease the toil of the laborer. Of Mr Hannam s
(of Burcot) unequaled one-horse harvest-cart, more need not be said tfiau tHat
(989)
i62
THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
it cannot be exhibited too often, and that it ought to be found on every farm
To Mr. Robert Law, of Shettleston, near Glasgow, a prize of £3 was awarded
for his Scotch one-horse tipping-cart with a spring-catch to retain it on the
THE CART OF MESSRS. STRATTON & CO., OF BRISTOL.
shafts. This simple little contrivance is much preferable to pins and cotters;
which are apt to shake out, or to be neglected in the fastening, by which the
load is not unfrequently let fall." At the Bristol meeting, two prizes wer
awarded to Mr. Stratton for his carts and wagons, and three at Southampton.
END OF THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
Tne Book of the Farm.
iriKIS[M*3MJl?^©. I)!iil5^ei^]llli=<]ll =
Plate SIX.
The Book oi' the Farm
'lJ'ln]lSlMigln]lJI^3@■ Kill^CSMJliyi^^
Plate XX
The Book of the Parm
lr[KIB[i©K][lKI©- !ji(]^^i5lXl]lj'?Jg,
Plate SSI
ii.ii.i
The Book of the Farm^ ©Bi^KlK ©ifH^Ea lllKI©aKl!Io
Plate SSII.
r.ookof the Farm. ©'u'd^iiSa g^JSO © J 'i!3 1 ©©JiiEK.
Fir. 3Sfi. Fig 339
Plate XXTV.
r:.
'-^
Boot of the Farm
Fig. 3+!
Plate XXV.
MANURES,
AMELIORATORS AND STLMULANTS :
MODES OF MANUFACTURE AND APPLICATION
BY JEAN BAPTISTE DUMAS.
TRANSLATED BY CAMPBELL MORFIT,
PRACTICAL AND ANALYTIC CHEMIST.
THE NUTRITION OF PLANTS.
BY JEAN BAPTISTE DUMAS.
TRANSLATED
BY CAMPBELL MORFIT AND BARNET PHILLIPS.
THE
ACTION OF SALT UPON VEGETATION;
AND ITS USE IN AGRICULTURE.
BY
M. BECQUEREL AND J. B. LAWES.
NEW-YORK :
GREELEY & McELRATH, TRIBUNE BUILDINGS.
1848.
PREFACE.
Having finished, in the last number of The Farmers' Library
Stephens's " Book of the Farm," we dedicate with pleasure the few
remaining pages of this volume of The Library to the following Tract
on " Manures, Ameliorators and Stimulants," and on the Action of
Salt as a Manure, translated expressly for this work.
The authors are all men of distinguished character as scientific investi-
gators, and have fortunately given their attention, in this case, to subjects
of great moment to Agriculture.
The Essay by Dumas will be seen to relate chiefly to the preparation
of certain Manures, of which cities supply the materials, and most particu-
larly to nightsoil.
Perhaps nothing could be referred to that would more forcibly illus-
trate the carelessness of agriculturists in matters that very nearly concern
them, than the neglect, in this country, of this, the most wasted of all fer-
tilizers, and the most concentrated and powerful, except the excrement
of birds and fowls, which contains more nitrogen. Such are the fertilizing
effects of this manure, says an English author of many Prize Essays, that
it has been assumed that the excrements of a man, when properly applied,
can be made to produce sufficient coin and roots for his own support.
Though this may be an exaggeration, a thousand experiments have
proved it to be exceedingly nourishing to vegetation, and, it is said, most
particularly to potatoes ! And yet, what immense quantities of it are
carried off and lost, especially from our large towns ! What a resource
would the piivies of the public buildings at Washington afford, if arrange-
ments for preparing their contents were provided according to the direc-
tions in this Treatise !
It has been said that nightsoil communicates an unpleasant flavor to
plants ; but this objection may be easily obviated by mixing it properly
with ashes, or lime, before being applied. In China, where Agriculture
is carried to the highest point of productiveness — from the denseness of
the population, and the labor being principally manual — nightsoil is the
only manure in use, both for the gardens and the fields.
The nightsoil of Paris .is exported to Flanders and the low countries,
whei-e, after being converted into liquid manure, it is extensively used —
being considered particularly convenient and valuable as a top-dressing
for grass-lands.
We know of but few chances that offer so promisingly of great profit
to the manufacturer and to neighboring cultivators, as establishments for
(1067)
IV PREFACE.
the preparation of poudrette, in many large cities where none such havo
been provided. It would seem to be supeifluous to dwell on the care
with which every provident fanner will husband a resource so efficient
and valuable. One might as well, it ought to be supposed, exhort a
sensible man not to take silver out of his pocket and throw it away !
In appending to the observations of Dumas the remarks of eminent
writers and practical agriculturists, on the use of Salt, we had in view to
fill with a kindred topic the little space which remained to us and at the
same time to show that a Farm is in truth but a Manufactory, and that
when so considered it ought to go far in dissipating that prejudice and
mistaken apprehension of antagonism, which pervade the agricultural
community, toward their best friends and customers, to wit : those who
(nearest to tJicir own farms) are the manvfacturers of their raw material*
and the consumers of their produce.
MANURES,
AMELIORATORS AWD STIMULANTS— MODES OF MANUFACTXJRE, &c.
BY JEAN BAPTISTE DUMAS.
Translated from the French for The Library, by Campbell Morfit, Practical and Analytic Chemist.
The term Manure, in its widest sense, extends to all substances, solid, liquid or
gaseous, which are applicable to the nutrition of plants or to the promotion of their
growth. Thus generally considered, manures are very diverse. In fact, every sub-
stance containing one or more elements of plants, wholly or partially susceptible
of assimilation, in the act of vegetation, may be ranked as a manure. Sooner or
later, the plants in contact with such substances will assimilate some of its ele-
ments— that is, either hydrogen, oxygen, carbon or nitrogen, or the water of combi-
nation, or even different calcareous, earthy or metallic salts which enter into the
composition of nearly all plants.
An ameliorator {amendment), on the other hand, is a substance designed for
the improvement of the physical constitution of the soil ; that is, to render it
permeable if too compact, and to impart body and consistence when too light
and sandy : indeed, to partially change or to modify its nature, if its constitution
is either deficient in nutritive power or prejudicial to vegetation. A combination
of these valued qualifications of both a manure and an ameliorator is met with
in a variety of matters.
Finally, the title of stimulant applies to those substances, solid or liquid,
which give an impulse to vegetation, either by imparting a more active energy
to the manure, or by stimulating the organs of the plant and thus promoting the
assimilation of the elements which constitute it. Sometimes, the stimulants
are of a nature totally or partially assimilative by the plant, but their more spe-
cial object is to augment the activity of manure, particularly those whose which
are nitrogenous. In a soil completely deprived of the latter, stimulants are in-
effective, and they impoverish the soil if care is not taken to recruit its strength
by fresh additions of azotized matters. Gypsum, lime, and common salt, in
proper proportions, are powerful stimulants.
Although the term Manure properly refers to every substance capable of
furnishing one or more of the elements of a plant, yet custom limits the applica-
tion of the name to those which furnish the nitrogen, alkaline and earthy phos-
phates, and other salts requisite for vegetation.
The carbon, hydrogen and oxygen exist abundantly in Nature, and a supreme
intelligence dispenses them, in suitable proportions, in the forms of air and water.
That which is most wanting and expensive to the agriculturist, as being the
most fruitful source of abundant crops, is nitrogenous matter. Since the recogni-
^'1069
DUMAS ON MANURES.
tion of this great truth, and since modern Chemistry has demonstrated the im-
portant agency of nitrogen, real manufactories of manures spring up and prosper,
and the offal, detritus and Glth which were formerly unavailable, and were even
tbe causes of the insalubrity of cities, are now rendered subservient to Agricul-
ture.
We divide the nitrogenous manures into two classes : the first comprises those
which are employed in their natural stale, and the second embraces such as
should undergo preliminary preparation.
Every nitrosenous substance, liquid or solid, whether from the animal, vegeta-
ble or mineral kingdom, when employed in its original stale and without previ-
ous preparation, constitutes a natural manure.
Among the animal manures are blood, muscular flesh, and the offal of the
carcass. All the substances, in their rousrh state, should be used immediately,
otherwise their rapid putrefaction will develop an infectious odor, and conse-
quently render their use impossible in the environs of large cities where they
are most abundant. We will see, however, in studying the prepared or man-
ufactured manures, in what manner they can be indefinitely preserved and re-
duced to a bulk convenient for transportation to a distance, and thus made more
uniform and constant in their action.
The herbaceous plants, turned under the soil in a green slate, form a natural
manure much used, especially in warm countries — for while furnishing nitrogen,
ihey maintain a humidity very favorable to vegetation.
Without recommending this practice, we will merely remark that in the south
of France and in Italy, certain plants, (such as the lupines, beans, and even maize)
are specially cultivated for this purpose. For moist and cold soils they should
be applied in a dry state ; and of great advantage in this respect is the employ-
ment of rye-stalks and damaged hay. Leaves of trees are also applicable, for
analysis has proved them to contain more nitrogen than other portions of
the tree ; and, moreover, they are not costly, being furnished in abundance and
gratuitously by neighboring forests.
The seeds and fruits of plants and trees, are likewise often employed as ma-
nure. In Italy, the lupin seeds are successfully used to manure the orange
and olive trees ; but care is always taken lo previously destroy their germinative
impulse by torrcfaction in a furnace : as the lupin seeds contain 4 per cent, of
nitrogen, their activity is readily comprehensible — as is, for like reasons, the case
with clover which is applicable under similar circumstances. So also, the
residual matter of malt, of pressed fruits, oleaginous seeds, or of olives, will
produce corresponding and frequently even more energetic effects, since, not-
withstanding their loss in weight by expression, they still retain nearly the
whole of their nitrogenous and albuminous matter, which constitutes their value
and richness as a manure. In fact, the marc of flax-seed, colza, Arachis
hypogca, Madia sativa, &c., contain the enormous quantity of 5 to 8 per cent, of
nitrogen, nearly equaling the proportion in dry animal matter.
Finally, among the natural manures of the vegetable kingdom must be classed
aquatic plants, growing either in fresh or salt water. The plants which are
gathered sreen from the marshes may be used in that state for the fertilization
of the soil, as it sufBces to merely turn them into the ground by plowing.
Sometimes, however, they are previously subjected to incipient fermentation
under water, but the resultant peat cannot be used without certain precautions,
for its acid reaction renders it hurtful to vegetation. To remedy this, and to
(1070)
NATURAL FERTILIZERS.
render it suitable for agricultural purposes, the free acid must be saturated with
lime — or as well by promoting putrefaction, which destroys these acids, or rather
saturates them, by the formation of ammonia.
In some localities they are merely burned, and the ashes spread upon the sur-
face of the fields ; but it must be remarked that this process destroys their
most fertilizing portion, viz., the ammonia or nitrogenous matters ; still, how-
ever, the residuum, by reason of its constituent salts, forms a stimulant of much
energy.
The marine plants, such as the fucus, sea-wreck, hair-weed, &c., where they
can be procured abundantly and cheaply, make a very advantageous manure, as
they contain, in addition to some nitrogen, a certain portion of salt which stimu-
lates their fertilizing power. In Normandy and Brittany they have been used
from time immemorial. Sometimes they are applied to the soil in their natural
state, and again sometimes in the form of litter. But another practice is to
make a compost of them, either by stratification with alternate layers of earth,
so as to produce a mould, or by admixture with other mucks. In this last pro-
cess there is evidently a partial loss of their properties, for the fermentation pro-
duced in the mass always eliminates nitrogen, which consequently escapes. As
the marine plants decompose with sufficient rapidity in the earth, this previous
disintegration, in most instances, is unnecessary.
In France, the use of the varech and fucus creates so extensive a cultivation
on the sea-board that a royal ordinance has restricted their time of harvest to
a limited period — between the full moon of March and that of April, during
which they have expanded their reproducing granules, and are not covered by
the spawn of fish.
The mineral kingdom also furnishes some substances suitable to agricultural
purposes. They, too, may be considered as natural manures, and though gener-
ally constituted of a certain portion of nitrogen, are, by reason of other proper-
ties, powerful stimulants and ameliorators. For example, the black or red pyri-
tous ashes from Picardy, much used in the Northern Departments, may be con-
sidered as an energetic stimulant manure.
These ashes, which also are the raw material from which copperas and alum
are manufactured, exist in numerous other localities as a black powder, frequent-
ly containing shells, vegetable debris, and bituminous wood, more or less decom-
posed. When heated slightly in a crucible, it inflames and undergoes a slow
combustion, which, after two weeks' continuance, partially changes its nature and
color, which latter, from the per-oxidation of the iron, becomes red.
According to Girardin and Bidard, they are to be found at the surface of the
soil, in the neighborhood of F or ges-les-Eaux.
These pyritous earths, after having been leached, are generally mixed with
one-fourth of their weight of calcined turf, and applied as a stimulant. They are
exactly similar to those from Picardy. According to the analyses of Girardin and
Bidard, their composition is as follows :
{Organic matter or
soluble humus 2-74
Sulphate of protoxide
and peroxides of iron 179
{Fine sand 38-92
Insoluble humus 49'83
Salphuretofiron
Peroxide of iron 672
Total 10000 100-00
(1071)
8 DUMAS ON MANURES.
The nitrogen of these ashes equals the considerable amount of 2-72 per cent.
The proportion found by Boussingauit and Payen in the Picardy ashes, did not
exceed 0-65 per cent. — hence, probably it is the humus which they contain that
gives them the property of a manure, while the stimulative influence is doubt-
less due to the presence of salts, especially those of iron. The warmth genera-
ted during the slow combustion of the sulphuret may also, and probably does,
have some influence promotive and accelerative of vegetation.
The mixed manures which are employed without previous preparation consist
of the offal of streets and excrements of animals.
Fecal matters and urine, either pure or diluted with water, are frequently ap-
plied in their natural states, merely by distribution on the surface of the soil.
This mode enables all parts of such manure to be used, but it is not without in-
convenience, for its great bulk renders the expense of transport heavy, and con-
sequently limits its use to the immediate vicmiiy of its production. As the
cities and towns produce more than is requisite for their vicinities, there is a con-
siderable loss when it is not used in its natural state.
There are these objections, however, to fresh fecal matter : they commu-
nicate their disagreeable odor to the plants, and emit a pestilential effluvia in the
act of being carried to and spread upon the field. A proper treatment previous
to their application to the soil, obviates all these disadvantages.
Human excrements constitute one of the best manures. They are employed
in a fresh state under the form and name of gadoue, or in a dry state as pou-
drette.
n China, Tuscany, Holland, Belgium, and many other countries, they are used
in a fresh state, being diluted with water and then dispensed throughout the sur-
face of the soil. In China they are kneaded with clay, and the dried mixture is
then pulverized or crushed. In Flanders, where they use them for the culture
of flax-seed, colza, poppy and tobacco, the farmers have reservoirs expressly for
the reception of fecal matters. In these vats they remain for several months, or
until transformed by fermentation into a viscid liquid matter. In this state they
constitute the Flemish manure. To improve it, the pulverized marc of pressed
seeds is frequently added, for the nitrogenous matter therein contained becoming
rapidly decomposed, contributes materially to the efficacy of the manure. The
addition has other advantages also in decreasing the fluidity of the excrements,
and by becoming thoroughly impregnated with it, in facilitating its application
and prolonging its beneficial effect. However, this effect is never beyond a year's
duration. 26^ gallons of Flemish manure equal about 550 lbs. of horse-dung. This
mode, prevalent in Belgium and Flanders, where Agriculture is brought to a full
development, and where great care is observed in the preservation and applica-
tion of all matters promotive of the fertility of the soil, is the one most to be
recommended.
The excrements being inclosed and free from exposure, are less subject to sud-
den changes of temperature and to fermentation, and consequently can be retained
unaltered and unimpaired in quality for a long time.
When the liquid manure is to be used, it is drawn portionwise from the reser-
voir, and then diluted with five or six times its weight of water, in order to modify
its energy and prevent injury to the plant. Thus prepared, it is spread upon
the fields when they are being sowed, and upon the meadows after having been
recently mowed. Sometimes it is dropped, undiluted, by ladles-full at the foot of
each plant, when its nature permits the application without too much manual
(1072)
THE EMPLOYMENT OF FiECES.
labor ; but in such instances care must be taken not to touch the stalks, lest
they might be injured.
In the environs of Lille, a cask of thirty-five and a half gallons of Flemish
manure, costs twenty-four cents, that is, six cents purchase money, six cents for
transportation, and twelve for labor in spreading it.
The excrements of birds or fowls form a manure much richer in nitrogen, and
consequently much more active than the Flemish manure. They contain, in fact,
8 and even 9 per cent, of nitrogen. They undoubtedly are the richest of mixed ma-
nures, and, moreover, are among the warmest and most alterable. In the North-
ern Departments of France, where they are much appreciated, one of them —
that most used — is pigeon's dung, $20 value of which will fertilize or manure
9,500 square yards of ground. This rich manure is especially used in the culture
of flax, tobacco, &c. It is only necessary to examine the analyses of guano, to
see and be convinced of the richness of the excrements of birds and their utility
in promoting vegetation. They contain, in fact, independent of accidental por-
tions of feathers and other debris, uric acid, ammonia, coagulated albumen and
phosphate of lime.
In Flanders and elsewhere, where pigeon-fanciers are numerous, they collect
the dung and engage it to farmers at stipulated rates. At the usual price of
$20, for the product of 6 or 700 pigeons it will cost $25 to $40 to manure about
three acres.
The excrements of other birds are less valuable than those of the pigeon.
Usually, these latter are employed in their natural state, and without any admix-
ture, being in this form specially fitted to assist the growth of the cereals in
humid and compact soils. They are, however, of nearly equal service in the
culture of clover ; but for this purpose they should be mixed with ashes. In
Flanders, 4,500 lbs, per three acres is the proportion for a good yield.
As has already been remarked, these manures owe their efficacy, m part, to the
urine with which they are impregnated ; and furthermore, it is well known that
this liquid, by the decomposition of urea, one of its principal constituents, can
furnish a notable quantity of carbonate of ammonia, the utility of which to veo'e-
tation has been well proved. Independent of the urine absorbed by the litter, a
portion which by a little management might be retained, runs off, and is lost.
In Switzerland, it is the custom to collect the urines in cisterns and therein re-
serve them for some time before spreading them. In Belgium, they are imbibed
by straw and then mixed with ordinary manure, and sometimes even with loam,
clay, sand or plaster. That manure known in commerce under the name of
" Urate,'''' is a mixture in equal proportions of urine and plaster. It is dried and
powdered, and kept free from moisture.
Whether it is more useful to employ fresh or slightly putrid urines as a ma-
nure, is a question which answers the prevalent custom in favor of the latter ;
but the practice in this, as in many other instances, may lead to error for, for it
is not based upon correct principles.
It is known, in fact, that carbonate of ammonia generated during the fermenta-
tion of urine is a very volatile salt, and that thus the more active and useful
principle is liable to be dissipated when the urine is too long kept. To form an
idea of the advantages which may be thus lost, remember that every 2i lbs. —
of ammonia which evaporates is equivalent to a loss of 150 lbs. of grain, and that
2\ lbs. of urine will produce 2\ lbs. of wheat.
In all these cases, in order to fix the ammonia, the urine must be mixed with
(1073)
10 MONTHLY JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE.
plaster, sulphate of iron, or mould. Sulphate of ammonia, a more fixed, but not
less efficacious salt than the carbonate, is thus formed.
The advice of some agriculturists to use the fresh urine, properly diluted witb
water, we rather hesitate to recommend.
There are many other substances besides bird's dung, which can without pre-
vious preparation be advantageously used in Agriculture. The excrements from
sheep-folds, ficc, are of this number, and this mode of manuring is simple and
economical, for there is a saving of both the waste and expense of transporta-
tion.
Dung or muck itself, as obtained in most places, may be considered as a mixed
unprepared manure, since all its preparation consists in receiving the excre-
ments upon straw and slacking it as fast as it becomes impregnated with fecal
matter.
The name of dung specially applies to the straw litter impregnated with the
urine and faeces of domestic animals. When a mixture of this kind is exposed
to air, and moistened occasionally with water, a very active fermentation ensues :
carbonic acid and ammonia, among other gaseous products, are disengaged, and
the straw itself becomes rotted and disintegrated. It is in this state that the
dung is used to manure the land. As to the juices, which serve for irrigation,
they hold in solution all the soluble matters of the manures, and owe their deep-
brown color to the presence of ulmate of ammonia. Being advantageously ser-
viceable, they should be carefully collected and preserved.
One circumstance worthy of note is, that the dung during fermentation can
lead to the formation of ammonia from the nitrogen of the air and hydrogen of
the water. The efficacy and value of manures, then, depend not only upon the
nature and relative proportions of the excrements and straw, their bases, but
also upon' the processes of their manufacture and modes of preservation and em-
ployment.
The dungs obtained from the excrements of herbivorous animals are not equal-
ly efficacious. Hog dung is much less valuable as a manure than that of the
cow and ox, which latter, in their turn, are surpassed in richness by those of the
horse and sheep.
Below are Girardin's comparative analyses of the excrements of the cow, horse,
and sheep :
Covo. Horse. Shtep.
Water 79-72 7836 68-34
Organic matters soluble in water 5-340 4-34 4-10
in alcohol 200 2-60 2-80
Woodyfibre 870 1216 16-26
Saline matters, viz., phosphates of lime and magnesia, t
carbonate of lime, chloride of sodium, silicate of >
potassa, silica 3 423 2-34 815
Total 100 00 100-00 lOOOO
Sheep manure is considered the most preferable of all other species. Being hard
and of a shape which prevents a ready admixture with the litter, it is slower to be
impregnated with the stable liquor, and consequently is less liable to rapid fer-
mentation. To favor the decomposition of the straw, therefore, it is necessary
to arrange it in layers, and to wet it frequently before using it.
It has been calculated that the excrements of a sheep produced in one night,
suffice to manure U square yards of surface, or, according to Boussingault, even
one and a third.
In comparing, for different species of animals, the weight of their faeces with
that of their food, we find, after Black's experiments, the following relations :
(1074)
CLASSIFICATION OF THE STRAWS. 11
From the ox 0-42 From the horse 0-42
Frdin ihe shi ep 0'40
Experience ha«, moreover, shown that an ordinary beef of 900 pounds produces,
annually* from fifty to sixty metrical quintals of manure. The same quantity is
obtained from a horse and a half, and from ten to lifteen sheep.
The nature of the litter used necessarily exercises a marked influence upon the
qualities of the manure. In fact, the different kinds of straw vary, those of the
leguminous from those of the cereals, not only in the proportions of their saline
contents, but also in their richness in nitrogen.
Sprengel makes the following classification of the straws, ranking each accord-
ing to its practical value. Annexed, also, is a Table of their relative proportions
of organic matters and saline substances :
Organic Solid Organic Solid
Substances. Substances. Sobstances. Substances.
1. Colza straw, 96-127 3 675 7. Pea straw, 95 029 4 971
2. Vet'jh .. 91899 5-101 8. Barley, .. 94-759 5244
3. Buckwheat, .. 96-t-79 3121 9. Wheat, .. 96-482 3-518
4. Bertns, .. 96-797 3-203 10. Rye. .. 37"i07 2-793
5. Lentil, .. 96 101 3-899 11. Corn, .. 96-015 3-985
6. Millet, .. 95-145 4 855 12. Oats, .. 94-266 5-7.34
The following analyses of Boussingault and Payen show the proportion of azote
in several straws.
Nitrogen per Dung per Nitrogen per Dung per
cent. Equivalent. ly, acr-9. cent. Equivalent 2l< acres
Pea Straw, 1-79 22-34 6-702 Oat straw 0-28 142-85 4-:'-855
Lentil .. 1-01 39-60 11880 Wheat (new) .. 0-24 166 66 49-998
Millet .. 0-78 51-28 15-384 Barley .. 0-23 173-90 52170
Wheat, (old) .. 0-49 81-60 24-990 Rye .. 0-17 335-29 70-587
The straw of the leguminous plants is, therefore, richer in nitrogen than that
of the cereals, and, moreover, contains larger proportions of potassa salts, and by
putrefaction gives more ulmic acid and disengages more ammonia.
The latter are preferable in the manufacture of manures. Cereal straws, poor
in nitrogen and alkaline salts, contain a large portion of silica and phosphate of
lime. Oat straw is richer in potassa than other cereal straws, and the soil con-
taining this alkali produces good oats. Magnesian earths are particularly ap-
plicable to the culture of buckwheat, the straw of which contains a remarkable
quantity of magnesia.
The mode of preserving the manure, during the interval between its removal
from the stable and application to the soil, has a decided influence upon its fer-
tilizing power. Its action depends upon a carefully managed fermentation, so
as to generate ammoniacal salts and other stimulant principles, and at the same
time prevent a partial volatilization of the ammonia by a too active evapora-
tion. To this end, therefore, it is requisite to stack the manure in broad heaps,
so that a too great hight of the pile may not cause a too high elevation of tem-
perature in the interior of the mass.
To prevent the escape of a part of the ammonia, the manure must be fre-
quently wetted with the juice which runs from the stables, which should be col-
lected and saved for the purpose. It can be pumped up from the reservoir, and
thus applied uniformly and regularly.
It is also necessary to protect the manure from the unequal washings by rains.
Some farmers prevent a too active fermentation of manure by stratefying it
with earth. It may also be mixed with peat or turf, as experience has shown
that a uniform compost of this kind makes an excellent manure.
Manures can be immediately used, fresh from the stable, and without being
previously fermented. Under this form they are called lonsr or straw manure.
(1075) ^ '^
12 DUMAS ON MANURES.
Those which have been for some time stacked have the name of short or fat
manure. Both the weight and volume of manures are decreased by fermenta-
tion. It has been ascertained that 100 volumes of fresh manure are reduced
In 81 days to 73 3 of its original bulk, with a loss ol 3fi-7
.. 254 .. 64-3 .. .. 35 7
.. 284 .. 62o .. .. 37-5
.. 395 .. 47-2 .. .. 34-8
Schattenman, the skillful director of the factories at Bouxwiller, has proposed
a simple and economical mode of effecting the fermentation of manures. It
consists in adding to saturated waters, or spreading upon the dung, either sul-
phate of iron or gypsum, the sulphuric acid of which, by forming a fixed salt with
ammonia, prevents the volatilization of the latter. With due precaution, a rich
manure of great power may after this manner be prepared in two or three
months.
As has already been remarked, the different manures vary in properties and
fertilizing power. The remarkable difference between the weight of an equal
volume of cow and horse dungs, for example, is shown as follows:
A cubic foot of fat manure of ihe ox weighs 57 1-5 lbs.
fresh .. .. .. 47 1-4 ..
fat .. horse .. 37 1-2 ..
fresh .. .. .. 29 1-2 ..
The better dung, and that which may be considered as normal, is from homed
beasts, and approximates in composition to the following analysis:
Water 75 ( Resinous and fatty matter.. I
(-Albumen )
Insoluble ( Starch
Mucus j Substances. ( Salts of lime and magnesia. I*
Soluble ! {;Y« ^ Vegeublefibre J 20
Substances < Mudlage or' gumV.V.'.". '.■.■.■.:■.
Kxtractive and sweet matters |
Salts potassa, soda, ammonia. 5 — 60
100
Boussingault gives the composition of a farm manure aged six months, and
which he calls normal, as follows :
Water 79-30
Oreanic substances 14-03 > on-70
Salts and earths 6-67 )
Total 100-00
Under the name of street dung is comprised the incongruous mixture of mire
and filth which is collected in cities by sweeping the streets. Its composition
is complex, and before being used it should undergo fermentation. During this
process large quantities of sulphuretted hydrogen gas are disengaged. Lime,
which is sometimes added to accelerate decomposition, is apt to cause a partial
loss of ammonia.
The mass should be left undisturbed for some time, so that the decomposition
may be thorough. If applied while fresh, it will ferment in the soil ; and thus,
by a too energetic action, will blast the roots of the plants.
The name of compost is given to a mixture more or less similar to street dung.
It is formed of alternate strata of manures of different compositions. In this way,
a pile of organic debris, the detritus of plants, residual animal matters, and waste
juices of dwellings and manufactories, may be manufactured into a profitable
manure ; but it too often happens that, in large cities, where these matters are
most abundant, the profit they would yield the farmer is lost by the neglect in
collecting and preserving them,
Jauffret, a Provincial farmer, has proposed the manufacture of manure by a
(1076)
COMPOSTS THE NITROGEN OF MANURES. 13
rapid and active fermentation of fern, broom-reeds, and organic residues. To
this end, the materials must be finely divided, — heaped up and moistened with
lye holding in solution some mineral substances, and putrefied organic matters.
The place of manufacture should be convenient to a pool, the water in which
can be made foul by additions of fecal matter, urine and sewer filth. Ashes
plaster and nitre, are necessary and advantageous additions.
By wetting the vegetable debris with this lye, a very active fermentation is
produced ; the confined air of the mass facilitates the reaction, and the tem
perature of the interior rises as high as 167° Fahrenheit.
But this manure is too expensive, for while 4,500 lbs. will cost $4 80, thai
amount of stable manure can be bought for $2 to $3. Nevertheless, by
following the method of Jaufi'ret, a sufficiently economical manure can be made
says Lucy, with the following ingredients. The cost of the compost and its ap-
plication per 11,960 square yards, will be as follows :
500 bundles of colza twigs $4 75 22 hogsheads of salt and crude saltpetre 1 14
500 .. .. fern 2 47 52i gallons of ashes 2 28
Small straw, damaged 3 42 52.i^ .. of charcoal dust 114
220 lbs. of plaster 3 4a Labor 3 04
105 gallons of fecal matter 1 14 Total ^
While leaving to agricultural experience the resolution of the problem in a
practical and economical point of view, we, on the other hand, cannot too strongly
reccommend this system of fabrication, which evidently reposes upon an excel-
lent basis.
When the importance of nitrogenous manures in the nutrition of plants becomea
fully known and recognized, all matters containing more or less of this element
will be turned to account, and everywhere will be erected real manufactories for
their proper preparation. Indeed, even now the preparation of manures commences
to form a true chemical art — the object of which is to furnish to the land, under
the best possible form, the supplement to that nourishment which the farmer
cannot supply to soil otherwise well cultivated, and from which it is desired to
draw the most advantageous results.
All parts of animals, being rich in nitrogen, form an excellent manure which
can be used on the spot in a fresh and unprepared state ; but to transport them
to a distance, or to preserve them, or to render their effect more constant and
uniform, it is requisite to subject them to a certain treatment that will, at the
same time, render them less communicative of a bad taste to plants. The
slaughter-houses, where sick horses are killed for their fat, possess advantages
for the preparation of manures from offal otherwise wasted.
To preserve the blood, indefinitely, it must be coagulated at a temperature of
212° Fahrenheit, either by a direct application of heat to a caldron containing it,
or, more preferably, by the intervention of steam. In the latter case, the blood can
be placed in a wooden vat. The coagulated portion is removed by a large skimmer,
then pressed until it ceases to yield any more liquid ; afterward it is dried either
in the open air or in a heated room. Thus dried and pulverized, it can be pack-
ed into casks for transportation and agricultural purposes ; and being much re-
duced in bulk forms a very rich manure, containing the large amount of 13 to 14
per cent, of nitrogen.
In the horse butcheries, after having boiled the carcasses in wooden vats or
steam tanks, they detach the flesh from the bones and dry it, first in the sun and
finally in a dry room, until it becomes friable and pulverulent. When coarse-
ly ground in a mill, this dried flesh makes an excellent manure which decom-
(1077)
14 DUMAS ON MANURES
poses much slower than fresh meat, and at the same time is of more durable fer-
tilizing power. Unfortunately, however, the use of this material in the manu-
facture of prussiate of potassa and nourishment of animals makes it too expen-
sive except for the most productive vegetables ; thus, for instance, it is exported
to the Colonies for the culture of the Cant- — fur its richness in nitrogen renders it
more economical for transportation than oiher kinds of manure.
Bones properly prepared constitute an excellent manure which is much used
in England. In France, where they are not so plenty, and command a high
price for the manufacture of bone-black, they also are used to a limited extent. —
Before being applied to the soil they must be freed of their grease by a long
boilins in water. The fat thus obtained pays the expense of its separation and
a small profit additional. The bone, after being boiled and dried, must be ground
to a coarse powder between channeled iron rollers propelled by steam or horse-
power. They are first passed through rolls with wide and coarse channels, and
finished between a pair with finer grooves and more closely set.
This manure (bone-dust) is so well appreciated in England that it commands
$3 to $3 50 per 185 lbs. ; and 1,850 to 7,400 lbs. are used per 2^ acres. Its slow
decomposition is a peculiar merit of this manure, as its effects are perceptible for
many consecutive years. While manures much richer in nitrogen during their
rapid decomposition generate fertilizing gaseous matter n)uch faster than it can
be assimilated, the bone-dust furnishes them gradually and produces in the end
more profitable results.
When the gelatine and glue have been extracted, or when the bones have for
a length of time been exposed to the irregularities of the atmosphere, their fertili-
zing power becomes impaired, and is less than that of new bones proporiionably
as the organic matter has decreased.
There are mills in various parts of the world for grinding boiled bones and
the refuse of the comb and button factories ; and the powder thus obtained, when
dried, consists, per 220 lbs., of
Combustible animal matter 43-86
Phosphate and carbonate of lime 56-14 — 100-00
This analysis approximates very nearly to the normal constitution of bone.
The animal matter of bones, doubtless, plays an important part in their applica-
tion to Agriculture ; but it would be false not to recognize the importance, and even
absolute necessity, of the phosphate of lime in the bones. The exportation of meat
or grain from a farm is equivalent to the exportation of earthy phosphates, because
the bony structure of animals is formed of it, and grain contains it in large quan-
tities. In order to revive lands, therefore, these phosphates must be restored to
it, for light soils naturally have but very little. Consequently, the most simple
method is to impregnate the soil with the urine or fecal matters of man, which
the consumption of the grain has produced, or with the bones of the animals
whose flesh has been exported or otherwise consumed.
The natural phosphate of lime would also make an excellent ameliorator, and
its application will doubtless be well worth the expense.
Among the economical means of restoring to the soil all the essential ingre-
dients that have been abstracted from it by vegetation. Chemistry enumerates am-
monia and the earthy phosphates, as of chief importance. Boussingault, who has
also tried the ammonia-magnesian phosphate, recommends its use, as espe-
cially advantageous in the culture of a variety of maize known as Mais quararx'
tain.
(1078)
MANUFACTURE OF POUDRETTE. 16
The most common and well-known manufactured manure is doubtless the
Poudrelte, which is prepared from the contents of privies, and contains the
earthy phosphates in connection with fecundant animal matters. An extensive
factory, established at the very gates of Paris, gives great value to fecal matters
by reducing them to a suitable condition for transportation to a distance. Thus
a large amount of material, which in other large cities is useless, becomes
transformed, by some skill, into a source of profitable revenue.
But it must be remarked, that the mode of preparing the poudrette pursued at
Montfaucon is very imperfect, as it not only incommodes the vicinity, but occa-
sions a loss of a great part of the gases most useful to vegetation. As the method
is still in prevalent use, we deem it necessary to give a more correct process.
It is briefly as follows :
The operation is conducted in six or seven perfectly tight large reservoirs,
placed in an elevated position and above the neighboring dwellings. These cis-
terns are arranged with coupling connections so that they may be united together
or disconnected at will. One of them, much more elevated than the rest, is also
of a proportionally greater capacity. This is the recipient for all the collected faeces
of the City of Paris, which is emptied in from casks specially appropriated for
its first reception. The reservoir is of irregular shape, being of 330 feet long, 150
to 175 wide, and 30 deep ; and it is in this vessel that the liquid is separated,
merely by decantation from the solid portion. It is drawn ofl" through a conduit,
and, passing through a wicker sieve, falls into one of the vessels beneath. There
should be five or six of these receiving vessels, and each of 50 to 80 square me-
tres capacity ; but having to contain less solid matter, they are not necessarily so
deep as the upper cistern. As has been remarked, these vats communicate with
each other, so that there may be a systematic deposition of the matters suspended
in the liquid running from the upper cistern. The thin juices then pass consecu-
tively through all the vats, and are again filtered through a fine loicker which
catches the solid particles, and allows the free egress of the liquid into a conduit
which connects with a sewer emptying into the Seine.
From this it will be readily seen that the lower cisterns are a long time being
filled with solid matter ; a year or more frequently elapses before one is full.
When it is so, after several days' repose it is freed of its liquid with a pump,
syphon, or by drawing off. Each vat is emptied in its turn, and again set for the
reception of thin juices which are constantly flowing from the large upper
cistern. This latter, when sufficiently full of solid matter, must, after the ex-
cess of liquid has been drawn off, be worked in the same manner as the lower
vessels.
The vats of Montfaucon are so badly arranged as to render it necessary, while
working the upper vat, to continue adding the nightsoil. Care, however, is
taken to immediately separate the more liquid portion and run it into the lower
vessel. The process will be more readily and uniformly conducted if there are
two reception reservoirs, so that while one is being worked the other can be filled.
The mode of operating and of managing the vats is very simple. When thf
matters have been sufficiently drained, open the gangways leading to the bot-
tom of the reservoirs, and then gradually lift out all the matter. The dung-
carts empty their contents upon a contiguous field, where it is dried in manner
as follows. The fecal matter is first spread uniformly over the whole extent of
the lot, and, after some hours, must be harrowed so as to present new surfaces
for evaporation, and thus hasten its desiccation. The harrowing is repeated
(1079)
16 DUMAS ON MANURES.
several times, and until the drying is complete; then the matter must be thrown
into piles, and after a proper repose, again spread out into thin layers and crushed
to powder. The gravel and other coarse impurities with which it may be con-
taminated are separated by a riddle or sieve. Thus prepared, the poudrette is
ready for use or exportation. In the mean time it is stacked in piles of two or
three cubic metres* bulk.
At Montfaucon they receive daily nearly 600 cubic metres of solid and liquid
matters, from which are prepared about 100 cubic metres of poudrette.
Of late years, a new art, based upon Jacquemart's experiments, has enabled
the useful transformation of the liquid portions previously wasted. A part of the
thin juices is thus made into sulphate of ammonia and other ammoniacal salts.
There is a factory constructed near this locality, but it consumes at most only
90 to 100 cubic metres of urine ; the remainder being thrown into the Seine. A
greater perfection of this art will doubtless enable the utilization of all the
ammonia and other salts which are contained in the refuse urine.
There is no doubt that, after having withdrawn the ammonia by lime, as is
done, the muddy residue will make an excellent manure for the irrigation of ar-
tificial meadows, as it contains all the requisite phosphates, much alkaline salt,
and even organic matters.
The poudrette prepared as we have directed sells at 80 cents per 26| gallons.
Of late years the manufacture has been carried on at the Forest of Bondy, M.
Mary having constructed a conduit of great diameter for the conveyance thereto
of the liquid previously separated from the poudrette vats. The transportation
and disinfecting of the solid matters, thus reduced to a fifth, offers comparatively
much greater facilities. The arrangement of the vats at Bondy is superior to
that at Montfaucon, in having two complete systems ; but the difference in levels
being less, much more manual labor is demanded. Another conduit conveys the
excess of thin juices into a town sewer emptying into the Seine. Thus, as at
Montfaucon, the urines will be lost, though they contain nitrogen enough to
make them three times as valuable to Agriculture as the poudrette. Future
skill will doubtless take advantage of this source of wealth, which is now
thrown into the river. They might already use two methods for the purpose.
One is indicated by the elevation of the vats at Bondy above the plain of St.
Denis, where the ihin liquors could be well employed for irrigating and greatly
fertilizing the surrounding plains. If it is necessary to dilute the urine with
water in order to modify its energy, the proximity of the canal whose level is
above that of the cisterns, renders this operation comparatively easy. The
quantity of urine thus disposable is, however, much greater than is needed for
a field even five times as large as that of St. Denis.
The other method of rendering the urines useful is to convert them into sul-
phate of ammonia. Since Chemistry has shown the feasibility of using this salt
for the fertilization of the earth, a number of experiments have been performed
on a large scale in many parts of Europe. In England its use has produced most
profitable effects, and in France, where the subject has been investigated, equally
favorable results were obtained. We will cite one essay of many, viz., that on
a large scale by Kuhlmann (of Lille) and Schattenmann.
Its large amount of nitrogen (21 per cent.) renders the sulphate of ammonia
one of the richest of azotized manures ; and hence there will be great economy
in transforming the urines of Bondy, Montfaucon and elsewhere into sulphate
* A metre U equal to 39-37100 EoglUh ioches.
(1080)
AMMONIACAL SALT AMMALIZED BLACK. 17
of ammonia by sulphuric acid. We will prove by figures that under present cir-
cumstances, and notwithstanding the interposition of sulphuric acid and the ex-
penses of preparation, that the sulphate of ammonia can be furnished at a
cheaper rate than most manures, with which it. can successfully compete even
at its present prices.
For example, let us compare the sulphate of ammonia with the poudrette of
Montfaucon. The pure salt now sells at $11 40 per 220 lbs., and it contains 21
per cent, of nitrogen. The poudrette sells for about 85 cents per 220 lbs., and
contains, according to Payen and Boussingault, but 1-6 per cent, of nitrogen.
Supposing, then, that the value of a manure is exactly proportional to the
quantity of nitrogen which it contains, it follows that 220 lbs. of sulphate of
ammonia will produce the same effect as 2,900 lbs. of poudrette, which amounts
to the same as saying that $11 40 of the first is equal to $11 40 of the latter.
It is true that the action of the poudrette is not limited to its nitrogen, for it con-
tains salts which are excellent ameliorators of moist soils. Moreover, its or-
ganic matters have the effect of modifying the properties of water or of the air
absorbed by the roots. But as the expense of transporting the sulphate is ten
times less, and as the substances which furnish the elements other than nitro-
gen may be had at a price much lower than that of poudrette, we may hope
economical and profitable results from the use of the sulphate of ammonia
combined with dung, turf and bone-dust. The price of the sulphate afore-
mentioned is that of the commercial article. If it were extensively used
for agricultural purposes, the price would be brought down to $7 60, and
lower.
Without dwelling upon the manufacture of sulphate of ammonia, we will
only remark that the urines received at Montfaucon would suffice to produce
4,400,000 lbs. of that salt, representing in nitrogen 57,200,000 lbs. of poudrette,
or even 220,000,000 lbs. of ordinary manure. It can be inferred from these fig-
ures, of what great import to Agriculture is the thorough solution of the ques-
tion of the availability of the sulphate of ammonia as a fertilizing agent, and how
invaluable would be the result, if long experience shall verify the success that
some have already attained in its use.
In what manner should the sulphate of ammonia be applied to the soil ? This
is a question yet unsolved. Some advise its use in solution of one or two
thousandths at least, but under this form it is not applicable in all localities ;
moreover it requires the expense of additional labor.
It is probable that as good results, with less expense, will follow by sowing it
either in a free state or mixed with earth or chalk, provided the time of its ap-
plication is favorable, so that the too active effect of the manure may not injure
vegetation. However, the experiments under this form have, so far, proved less
favorable and effective.
The great value of refuse bone-black (from sugar refineries) as a manure, and
its advantageous effects, are fully known and appreciated. Unfortunately, how-
ever, commerce furnishes a too limited quantity for agricultural purposes, and
consequently it has been proposed to form a substitute of similar properties by
commingling disinfected fecal matters with a cheap charcoal.
This new manure, called animalized black, is made with carbonized vegetable
mould and nightsoil, and thus a substance is produced which, in I'act, possesses
most of the properties of the animal-black from the refineries. Moreover, this
compost, by its absorbent power, retains the ammoniacal compounds as they are
(1081) 31
18 DUMAS ON MANURES.
generated, and yields them gradually and in uniform proportions to the growing
plant. It is this slow and regular production of ammonia which gives also to
the bone-black a fertilizing value so mucli greater than that indicated by the
Table of equivalents.
This effect of retarding decomposition is especially advantageous m the afore-
mentioned instance, for almost the sole inconvenience in the use of fecal mat-
ters as manure, in the usual manner, consists in their too sudden and rapid
action.
For this manufacture, a mould, as rich as possible in organic debris, should be
selected, so that by charring it may furnish a sufficient quantity of coal. It
should also be pulverulent, easily divisible, and not liable to become clotted
during charring, as will happen when it is too argillaceous.
It must be confessed, however, that even under the most favorable circum-
stances, the charred mould is far from comparable in absorbent properties to
animal charcoal, and perhaps in this respect the processes employed might ad-
mit of modification. Still, these plans yield a charred mould sufficiently cheap
for an extensive and profitable application. This plan seems to be the best sub-
stitute for the manufacture of poudrelte. Indeed, by the use of charred mould,
we obtain manure, rich in nitrogen, which retains and renders useful all the
animal parts of fecal matters, and, moreover, presents itself in a form convenient
for application.
This manure, which is sufficiently rich to be exported, can be made rapidly,
that is, in a month during summer, and in two months when the temperature is
low. Moreover, in its manufacture there is no disengagement of disagreeable
odors, as is the case with poudrette, which in its preparation requires a much
longer time, and loses a portion of its ammoniacal components.
As regards the value of the products of these two systems of fabrication, there
is but little difference, though the animalized black is generally the richer ; in fact,
we might impart to it 3 per cent, of nitrogen, an amount rarely contained in com-
mercial poudrette. It is true that Payen and Boussingault found in the pou-
drette of Belloni 4-4 per cent, of nitrogen, but that of Montfaucon contains at
most but 2-67 per cent. The medium dry poudrettes have but 2 and some only
1-6 per cent, of nitrogen.
It is true that by this mode of preparation and reduction of bulk, the pou-
drette contains the salts and the phosphates of a large quantity of fecal matter,
concentrated in a small bulk, with equal richness in nitrogen, and value greater
than that of animalized black, which also contains phosphates, but in a much
less proportion.
Nevertheless, I do not consider this a great disadvantage in the black, for by
a comparison of the analyses, it is seen that the ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus
is almost the same in fecal matters and in a great number of plants ; whence
it follows that the quantity of animalized black sufficient to furnish the nitrogen
requisite for a crop would also yield the amount of phosphorus which the crop
should contain. It is true also that the animalized black is not, in this respect,
a complete manure, for as its richness in nitrogen is greater than that of other
constituents useful to vegetation, it requires, like some other manures, to be as-
sisted by a complemental manure.
To facilitate such calculations, it would be useful to make Tables of equiva-
lents for the principal mineral substances which enter into the composition of
plants, similar to that which has been made for the most useful element, nitrogen.
(1088)
MODE OF OPERATION WITH FECAL MATTERS. 19
The definite quality of a manure should depend upon the rank that it would
have in each of these Tables.
Barronet & Co. make the animalized black by a process consisting of two steps :
first, the extraction of the fecal matters of privies, and then their transformation
into manure. Before the removal of the fecal matters from the wells, they are
disinfected, and for this purpose two equally good substances are employed : the
first is the residue from the manufacture of the proto-sulphate of iron, and may
generally be purchased at a low rate. Where there is a choice of residues, those
should be preferred which are the least acid and most rich in peroxide of iron,
and even sometimes in zinc. The mode of action of these salts is readily com-
prehensible.
Another substance used for this purpose is a solution of the preceding matter
united with an equal quantity of solution of common soap, which is thrown into
the trench. A metallic oleate is thus formed, and being of easier decomposition
by sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphydrate of ammonia than are the sulphates, the
soap and greasy matters are useful in this operation, for protecting the surface
of liquids with an oleaginous layer which opposes the diffusion of sulphuretted
hydrogen and sulphydrate of ammonia.
The fecal matters are drawn from the privies by dredging buckets attached to
an apparatus called a Machine Frederic. It occupies but little space, and can
be conveniently used in any of the houses, as it only requires an opening into
the cess-pool of about \\ by 1 foot for its entrance. For the convenience of
perfectly emptying, the privy wells should be concave at the bottom ; it hence
follows that the consistency of these matters is not very great. Without these
precautions it is necessary to finish their removal in the usual manner. The
matter drawn up in the dredges is immediately, and without an instant's ex-
posure, turned into casks, for the whole apparatus being inclosed with sheet
metal, the disengaged gas will be driven into the air through a small apart-
ment containing chloride of lime. By this arrangement, even when operating
during the day, there is scarcely any perceptible unpleasant odor, though
the material may not have been disinfected previous to its removal from the
privies.
These fecal matters transported to the factory, are there converted into ma-
nure and mixed with charred soil ; for the disinfection produced by the sulphate
of iron will not be permanent. They are consequently turned into vats and therein
treated by the shovelfuU with nearly their volume of charred soil. After thorough
incorporation of the whole, by stirring, the matter is left to deposit, and after
having collected about the center of the vat, where the bottom is most elevated,
the liquid which remains is run off' through gates. The bottom of the vat has a
slope of about two-hundredths of a metre.
This compost is spread out, under cover, upon an impermeable soil, and left to
dry in the air. To hasten the desiccation, new surfaces should be presented by
occasional stirring. When the drying is complete, add to the first mixture, a
second time, its volume of fecal matters, and operate as at first. Repeat this
process until the soil forms nearly a fourth of the resultant product ; this hap-
pens about the third mixing, generally, when the operation has been properly
conducted, and especially when the fecal matters employed contain a large pro-
portion of solid products.
This plan of working, during which there is but little disagreeable odor
emitted, requires about one month in summer and two in winter. The season
(1083)
20 DUMAS ON MANURES.
most favorable to the manufacture is spring, and il is then that the greatest pos-
sible number of emptyings should be made.
The charred soil was formerly prepared in pots, but Barronet has substituted
an economical furnace.
The soil as it comes from the furnace falls into a sheet-iron extinguisher,
wherein it cools, free from exposure to air. It is used as soon as cold in order to
obtain the full effect of its absorbent qualities, and should be powdered and sieved
as fine as possible. It is better if a little argillaceous, because the coal which it
contains is then more divided and absorbent. But if the proportion of clay is too
great, the mould becomes clotted.
The addition of a small quantity of carbonate of lime increases its durability
and makes it flow more readily. There must be but very little, for if much lime
is formed during healing, ammonia will be disengaged at the moment of mixing
the soil and fecal matters. It is well also to slightly moisten the soil before
carbonization, for the aqueous vapor generated by the heat carries off the air ex-
isting in the interstices of the soil of the upper apartment. In this way the car-
bonization is effected almost entirely apart from air, while, if the soil is too dry,
it nearly always happens that instead of carbonizing, il burns, although it has
only been at a dull red heat.
175 to 200 cubic feet oi soil can be carbonized during 24 hours, in a furnace
of 20 feet bight, and under these circumstances the whole expense, of 35^ cubic
feet of charred soil will be about 95 cents.
An establishment for a medium sized city, say of 20,000 inhabitants, will cost
$3,800 to $4,750, that is, for utensils, furnaces and every other requisite. Such
a factory will yield per annum 600 cubic metres of salable manure, which at 95
cents per 35 cubic feet, the usual price for manure of 3 per cent, nitrogen, equals
$5,700.
At the rate of 76 to 95 cents, the animalized black has the advantage over the
dung ; for while the 11,960 square yards of land require of the former but 70 to
80 cubic feet at the gross expense of $19 to $23 75, it needs 22,000 lbs. of ma-
nure, which cost $34 20, and are of more difficult transportation.
If the animalized black is not yet as perfect a manure as could be desired, it
is nevertheless one of the best means of wholly using the products of the privies,
and offers great advantages with respect to health and Agriculture.
It would be both politic and desirable for the different Municipalities to com-
pel the proprietors to construct their privy-wells perfectly water-tight, and of
cement within, so as to avoid infiltration and to protect them from rains. When
this measure shall have been generally employed, the vegetable richness of the
soil will be completely regenerated, for the immense quantity of manure which
it might receive would soon revive its fecundity. Agriculture and hygeine are
then equally interested in the success of this new manufacture.
The value of a manure can only be determined by agricultural experience ; but
the chemist can furnish useful data for the proper management of the experi-
ments. In fact, it is by chemical analysis that we ascertain the precise nature
and properties of materials, either organic or mineral, which a given harvest re-
moves from the ^oil that produces it, and if this determines the absence of
earthy phosphates, alkaline salts, potassa and sulphur, these must be restored
again before the land can recover its fertility. Chemical researches have also
proved that which is now an established fact, the active efficiency of ammonia
in manures, and that of nitrogenous matters generally.
(1084)
AMMONIACAL SALTS. 21
Manures should always contain ammonia or nitrogenous matters capable of
yielding it ; but as to the collected vegetable or animal offal which contain the
requisite nitrogenous matter, as well also in their ashes, the salts necessary for
vegetation, a question arises whether it is useful or dangerous to subject them
to a prolonged fermentation ? Is muck better than the litter which produces it ?
I have no hesitation, and I believe no farmer would have anV; in declaring
that dung is much more efficacious than the materials which furnish it would be
in their natural state. There are two causes contributing to this special efficacy.
The first is the formation of ammonia generated during the fermentation of the
muck and resulting from the reciprocal action of the hydrogen of the water and
the oxygen of the air. Consequently, the muck may be richer in nitrogen than
its components, if the fermentation %as been properly managed. The second
circumstance influencing the special activity of the muck is the presence of brown
acids, which evidently have a great affinity for the oxygen of the air contained
in the water, converting it into carbonic acid. If the water of the muck contains
ammoniacal salts formed by such acids, the action of the oxygen of the air will
create the presence of the carbonate of ammonia in the solution.
Now every one knows that it would be very different for a plant to absorb, by
its roots, aerated water containing carbonate of ammonia in solution, or water
deprived of air containing carbonic acid and carbonate of ammonia.
Such seems to me to be the part of the muck which gradually supplies the
water with very combustible materials, capable of attracting oxygen from the air,
and of transforming it into carbonic acid : and which contains, moreover, ammo-
nia, together with alkaline and earthy salts. If neither meat nor grain is ex-
ported, then it becomes the medium through which the ingredients of the soil,
abstracted during vegetation, are restored to it. Bone-dust, urines and the like,
however, are the most prolific sources of the earthy and alkaline salts and phos-
phates, and are the best manures for reviving land, exhausted by the removal of
grain and live-stock.
But theulmate of ammonia, as a source of carbonate, which has latterly been
too much neglected, is also a manure worthy the particular attention of farmers.
Its constant presence in muck is a matter for consideration, and indicates plainly
the utility of those previous fermentations of the components of muck, to which
lauffret has directed the attention of agriculturists.
Jacquemart, quoted above, has communicated to me the following remarks
upon ammoniacal salts as manure :
" In 1832 and 1833, I tried various plans of extracting ammoniacal salts from
substances which would furnish liberal proportions, with the view of ascertain-
ing whether salts, rich in nitrogen, if cheap and abundant, whould not be of
beneficial and profitable application to Agriculture."
" 1 found that 150 lbs. of poudrette are equivalent in nitrogen to 10 lbs. of crys-
talized sulphate of ammonia, and 53 per cent of the nitrogen exists as ready-
ormed carbonate of ammonia, and 47 per cent, is comprised in organic matters."
" This result, and the promptness of the action of poudrette upon vegetation,
lead to the idea that the carbonate of ammonia might be very favorable to its de-
velopment, and that to this salt should be attributed the energetic influence of the
poudrette and Flemish manure. In fact, when this manure is employed, all the
urea of the urines is transformed into carbonate of ammonia, and this salt is ia
greater proportion than all others."
" Circumstances did not permit me to continue these researches, and I only pro-
(1085)
22 DUMAS ON MANURES.
gressed far enough to prove thai the sub-carbonate ofammonia has a very bene-
ficial influence upon vegetation. My essays upon the applicability of ammonia-
cal salts to Agriculture, were limited to April, 1843. They had for their object,
1st. To determine the value of sub-carbonate of ammonia as a manure or stimu
lant, in comparison with the poudrette as the standard.
2d. The use of these matters in small bulk and in convenient form.
The poudrette was applied in the proportion of 25 bushels per acre. As
has been said, 150 lbs. represent, in nitrogen, 10 lbs of crystalized sulphate ofam-
monia ; 3,000 lbs., therefore, are equivalent to 200 lbs. of sulphate."
" The quantities of ammoniacal salts were proportioned so as to contain as
much nitrogen as the poudrette, and were, per 21 acres.
180 gallons sab-carbonate in solation, formed of 1 eqai^alent of acid.
2 .. of ammonia representing 200 lbs of sulphate.
.. Carbonate in solution, formed of 2 equivs. of acid and 2 equi%-3. ofammonia 200 lbs.
200 lbs. of sulphate in solution .. .. .. .. .. .. ..200 lbs.
" In order to the ready and easy transportation and distribution of the solutions
of ammoniacal carbonate, they should be heated with charcoal, or other porous
matters, in quantity sufficient to form a thoroughly impregnated mass. It will
be seen in the essays of October, 1843, that the solution of the carbonate can be
employed in a reduced volume of one-half, merely doubling the quantity of salt
then the bulk of the manure is reduced to that of poudrette."
" The sulphate ofammonia was used in two states :
1st. As solution in six times its weight of water, imbibed by dry calcareous
matter in powder.
2d. In the form of powder, and sown similarly as fine seed. To prevent the
formation of carbonate of ammonia, the calcareous matter must not be welted
with the solution of sulphate. In fact, a mixture of chalk or marl, and sulphate
ofammonia, when placed in a flask, emits an ammoniacal vapor, strong enough
to blue a reddened litmus paper. As this reaction, however, is very slow, good
effects may be expected from the use of a mixture in which the carbonate of am-
monia disengages gradually enough for its assimilation, by the plant, in a nascent
stale. The first crop derived no benefit, scarcely, but upon the second its good
effects were decidedly evident. Unfortunately, I was unable to repeat the experi-
ments in the third year.
" Finally, to approximate as nearly as possible the composition of poudrette, the
ammonia of which is partially carbonated and partially free, I made a mixed
solution of sulphate and carbonate ofammonia in the proportion of 68 lbs. of the
first, and 132 pounds of the latter per 2| acres. This solution was caused to be
imbibed by peat dust, and all the matters employed in this essay were sown on
the same day, April 29, 1843, simultaneously with the oats, and plowed in with
the grain."
" The land was newly cleared, limed and marled ground from which two crops
had been taken. Each essay occupied 274 yards of surface, and was separated
from the other by intervals of ten feet. The limits were enclosed by cords, the
harvest gathered with great care, and the products weighed."
THE CARBONATES AND SUB-CARBONATES
23
No. 1. Carbonate of ammonia and carbon (charcoal)
2. Sub-carbonate
3. Carbonate and peat.
4. Sub catbonate and peat.
5. Carbonate, sulphate and peat
6. Poudrette - • -
7. Sub-carbonate, salphate and peat.
8. Sulphate and calcareous matter
9. Sulphate in powder
10. Nothing
" From these experiments it follows : . , , , *
1st That the carbonate and sub-carbonate, combined with charcoal or peat,
<rive 94 per cent, of the product of poudrette, containing an equal quantity of ni-
troc^en corresponding to 202 lbs. of crystalized sulphate of ammonia per hectare :
2°d. That the degree of saturation of ammonia by carDonic acid has no
'"^ sTThat the sulphate by itself, and as a salt, furnishes no results :
4th That the mixture of carbonate and sulphate of ammonia gives 84 per
cent, of poudrette. This number is deduced almost exactly, a prwrt, from the
i:;Thrrc\ltr matter imbued with sulphate of ammonia gives 79
per cent that is to say, 8 per cent, more than nothing. This result so different
from what might have been hoped for, ought probably to be attributed to the
S composition of the sulphate, and to the short time (about four months) that
^,e plant was in the ground. The following experiments seem to show the pro-
priety of farther testing the matter. . »u„
These trials were made in October, 1843, upon a crop of wheat, and on the
same spot as the before-mentioned experiments.
Havinc^ already ascertained that the carbonate and sub-carbonate of ammo-
nia give ^similar results, the latter only was used in these experiments ; but m
order to reduce the volume of the mixture, the solution was made of double
'Th^Jstandard of comparison was, poudrette employed in the proportion of about
79 cubic feet, nearly 3 cubic yards, per n,960 square yards, and representmg, m
nitrogen, 227 lbs. of crystalized sulphate of ammonia. „ , ,^ .
• The ammoniacal salts were used in the proportion of 238 lbs. of sulphate of
ammonia; that is to say. they contain 5 per cent, of nitrogen more than the
poudrette. ,
" These essays were made in the same spots as the precedmg, and the same
numbers correspond with the same places: time (October) and other circum-
stances were likewise corresponding.
24
DUMAS ON MANURE?.
RESULTS OBTAINED WITH THK roLLOWING SUDSTANCES
No. 1. Snb-carbonale and peat
2. roufirettc
3. Sub-carbonate (pouci'iitrated) and peat
4. 510 sub-carbonate, 5-10 poudrelte and peat
5. Nothinur
6. Poiidi-ette
7. ^ sub carbonate (coiux'iitraied) j poudretle and peat.
8. Sulpbate and calcareous matter
9. Sul|phate in salt
10. Ninhinir
3 *
2,837
:i,:)50
3,1.50
3.350
2.393
:f.275
2.975
3,112
2.675
2,700
s ^ilil.
1.87.';
2.000
1,875
1.987
1,485
1,970
1,750
1.787
1,412
1,400
IVr il
94-5
100
94 5
100
73
100
88(?)
90
71
70
Sg3
in
g?2.
Per ct.
65
60
GO
CO
62
CO
57
57
53
.52
" It follows from these trials as from the preceding:
1st. That the sub-carbonate of ammonia gives 94 per cent, of the product of
the poudrette, as proved by trials Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 6. The 5 per cent. ex.
cess of nitrogen that was used produced no effect ; probably, because it only
served, from the length of the experiment (nine months) to compensate lor the
difference of fixity between the principles of the two substances.
2d. That No. 3 indicates that the concentrated carbonate (14| cubic feet
per 11,960 square yards) acts in the same manner as that which is weaker.
3d. That No. 4 apparently proves that a mixture of poudrette and peat in equal
proportions, imbued with sub-carbonate, has the same value as poudrette. No. 7
does not confirm this, but it allows the inference that there was some error in
the last experiments, for in those of April, Nos. 4 and 7 presented no anomaly.
4th. It is shown by No. 8 that calcareous matter moistened by sulphate of
ammonia yields 90 per cent, of the poudrette, while in the spring it only gave
79 per cent. This difference is doubtless attributable to the difference in time
between 9 and 4| months. It is difficult to say whether the calcareous matter
moistened with sulphate and sown in the spring united its action with that sown
in autumn ; for it was buried by the plowing which followed the crop of oats.
"It would have been interesting to have made an examination of the products
of a third crop, but circumstances did not permit.
5ih. The sulphate in salt, as in the preceding case, gave no result.
6lh. Finally, if we compare No. 4, in which turf imbued with sub-carbonate,
was sown in the spring, and no other manure used in autumn, with No. 10,
which received no manure, in either sqason we find the product is nearly the
same ; hence either the conclusion that the effect of the sub-carbonate of ammo-
nia was not perceptible after the first crop, or that this substance, being on the'
surface, was plowed in too deeply.
<' To conclude, therefore, it seems demonstrated by the experiments of the spring
and fall, that the carbonates of ammonia have evidently a very happy influence
upon the growth of cereals ; that the sulphate of ammonia, in a state of salt, is
without influence upon these plants, at least under the aforementioned circum-
stances. Perhaps better results might be obtained by sowing it in spring upon
the cereals, when they cover the soil ; that the sulphate of ammonia in solution
and absorbed by calcareous matter, produces very favorable effects, especially
when the growth of the plant is of some duration. Its action should be studied
during many consecutive crops.
" These facts, as is readily observed, are of great importance to Agriculture ;
for they prove the advantageous applicability of ammoniacal salts. In fact, it
results from the experiments that a quantity of sub-carbonate of ammonia equiva-
(1088)
SALINE MATTERS. 25
lent to 198 lbs. of sulphate of ammonia, gave per 11,960 square yards an excess
of product as follows :
Oats — 680 kilogrammes of grain, say 15-8 hectolitres, of 43 kils. at 6 francs 95
400 .. of straw, say 80 bundles, at lOf. per 100, net 8
Total 103" franca
" That a quantity of the sub-carbonate of ammonia equal to 108 kilogrammes
of sulphate of ammonia, gives in excess of products per hectare, as follows:
Wheat — 435 kils. of wheat, say 6 hects. of 73 kils. at 18 francs 108
430 kils. of straw, say 86 bundles at lOf. per 100, net 860
Total 116-60f.
Or, in English :
Oats — 1,496 lbs. of grain $19 oo
880 lbs. straw, say 80 bundles, at $2 per 100 1 60
Total $20 60
Wheat — 957 lbs. grain $21 60
946 lbs. straw, say 36 bundles at $2 per 100 1 72
Total $23 32
" In the provision market of Paris, where straw is generally of very high price,
the revenue would be increased $1 52 to $1 90 per 100 of straw, thus giving as
its gross overplus $26 60 to $27 74 per 11,960 square yards.
" From these sums must be deducted the expense of the sub-carbonate of am-
monia. But the ammoniacal salts are now so low in price, the sub-carbonate
being abundantly extracted from the refuse liquor of gas-works, that its net
benefits, the straw being valued as above, may be guarantied at |9 50 to $15 20
for the crop of oats, and $10 45 to $16 15 for the crop of wheat.
"In 1843 I studied the action o{ ammoniacal salts upon meadows, and of so-
lutions of carbonate and sulphate, with which I cultivated definite portions of
a lawn. I also sowed the sulphate in powder, so that two equal surfaces wa-
tered with solution, or dusted with powder, should receive the same quantity of
ammonia. After thirty-six hours, the wetted surfaces acquired a deep-green
tint, and exhibited a striking contrast with the rest of the sward. This effect
must be attributed to the salts, for the parts wetted with pure water did not ex-
hibit any change. After the first rain the experimeist with the sulphate in pow-
der resulted as favorably as the other.
•* This last result made me renounce the use of saline solutions, which to the
farmer presents many difficulties. I propose the employment only of sulphate
in powder to be sown like the seeds.
" I will remark that when the lawn was reaped and the grass had commenced
to re-sprout, it was impossible to observe any difference between the dusted and
watered plots, for the action of the salts had been limited to one crop.
"In the latter part of March, 1844, I sowed the meadows with sulphate of
ammonia in powder, at the rate of 90 to 100 kilogrammes per hectare, each ex-
periment occupying about one-third of a hectare. After the first rain the parts
thus treated were distinguishable from the remainder of the field by their deep-
green color ; and subsequently the grass grew luxuriantly, but circumstances did
not permit me to accurately estimate the results.
" In 1845, these experiments were repeated, and the plots fenced in. When
planting, I also measured off, adjoining these plots, others of equal dimensions,
that is, a third of a hectare each, and at the harvest compared the products of
(1089)
26 DUMAS ON MANURES.
the sulph-ammoniated parts with those which were cultivated without this
treatment :
lit Experiment. — 100 kilog* of sulphate per hectaret ) Excess of product with the sulphate.
Grass 3.746 kils. >
Good medium soil ..Huy '.',907 kils. ) 839 kilogrammes, or 29 per cent
Zd Experiment. — 100 kilog. of sulphate per hectare )
Hay 4.9.')fi kils. >
Very good soil Hay 3.892 kils. ) ...1,064 kilogrammes, or 30 per cent.
3d Experiment. — 100 kilo;?, of sulphate per hectare ^
Hay 3,970 kils. >
Strong soil Hay 3,450 kils. 3 520 kilogrammes, or 15 per cent
•' We will remark that the sulphate apparently has an action much greater pro-
portional to the quality of the soil, and its deficiency in strength and argillaceous
matter — provided, however, it is not loo light. It remains to be determined
whether, with a less quantity than 220 lbs. per 11,9(50 square yards, we would
not obtain as good results — whether a stronger proportion would not produce
even better effects — in fine, whether the influence of the salt extends beyond a
year, especially in argillaceous soils. If the latter is not the case it is probable
that the whole influence of the salt is exhausted by the first crop. These que-
ries, however, must be resolved by some future harvest."
The results of the above experiments, such as they are, are nevertheless not
without interest to Agriculture.
According to experiment No. 2, sulphate of ammonia costing $\0 26 per 220
lbs., the receipt equals the expense when the price of hay is $5 89 per 100 bun-
dles; and there is a gain of $3 42 to $5 70 per 11,960 square yards, when it
brings $7 60 to $8 36 per 100 bundles. Again, according to experiment No. 2,
where there is an equality between the outlay and return, the hay should be
worth S6 65 to $7 60 or $8 36— an advantage of $1 43 to $2 47 per 11,960 sq. yds.
Experiment No. 3 always gave a loss.
But whether a soil annually treated with amraoniacal salts will yield liberal
crops for consecutive years, or whether, on the contrary, its fertility is limited to
one season only, and requires renewal yearly by fresh additions, are questions
for future determination.
.* 2 lbs. 3 oz. 4-428 drachms avoirdupois. t 2 acres, 1 r. 35 p.— 11,960-4604 square yards.
NUTRITION OF PLANTS.
BY JEAN BAPTISTE DUMAS.
Translated from the French for The Library, by Campbell Morfit and Baknet Phillips.
Plants nourish themselves upon animal excretions, that is to say, upon water,
carbonic acid, and ammonia : all of which they receive through the medium of
the atmosphere. In a general sense, therefore, the study of the nutrition of
plants, IS, in fact, the examination of their relations to the atmosphere.
A plant, during a growth of some time, presents an evident accumulation of
matter in all its tissues ; it also acquires carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen,
together with earthy and mineral matters ; but of this more hereafter.
By limiting the examination to the principal phenomena, (discarding all the
accidental circumstances which may intervene,) we can readily, by some simple
but conclusive experiments, be convinced of the truth of the preceding results.
These leave no doubt, either as to the fixation of carbon, hydrogen, and nitro-
gen by the plants, or the mode in which it is effected during vegetation.
Boussingault proposes to demonstrate this by means of a large bell-glass, with
three tubulures. Adapted to the first is a washing apparatus filled with water,
for the removal of the dust suspended in the atmospheric air. In the principal
tubulure is a funnel, opening and closing at pleasure, through which to introduce
distilled water for the irrigation of the seeds and plants placed under the bell-
glass. These are contained in a capsule or saucer filled with calcined sand. —
The bell-glass rests upon, and is hermetically cemented to, an earthen pan, so as
to prevent the admission of air. The third tubulure communicates with a large
flask, by means of two U tubes and a washing apparatus, which retain the water
and carbonic acid.
The flask being filled with water, and the apparatus tightly closed, the dis-
placement of the air from the bell-glass is determined by opening the cock in the
lower part of the washing-flask. This operation can be repeated as often as de-
sired. By these precautions, it is seen that the plant or seeds under the bell-
glass receive definitely, as their whole nourishment, only water, air and carbonic
acid.
Now if peas be sown in this calcined sand, taking care to water them and fre-
quently renew their atmosphere, they germinate, develop their leaves, and what
is remarkable, flower and fructify. Nothing is easier than to estimate the amount
of matter lost or gained by the seed in developing itself; a simple comparative
analysis of the seed and of the crop suffices. Boussingault has determined by
analysis the nature of the elements and their proportions in both the seeds and
the crop. The following are his results :
(1091)
28 DUMAS ON THE NUTRITION OF PLANTS.
The peas contained :
Before Vegetation. After Vefietation.
Carbon 51'5 parts. 237-6 parts.
Hvdrogeu 5-9 .. 28-1 ..
Nitrof;en 4-6 .. 10-1 ..
Oxygen U^ . . }C^8-0 ..
Total lOG-0 443-8
Showing the fixation, during the process of vegetation, of
186-1 partsof Carbon 139-r) pans of Water
5-5 .. .. Nitrogen 6-7 . . .. Hydrogen.
These results prove in the most evident manner that peas, as well as many-
other plants, can pass through all their phases of vegetation even when nourished
only with water and air. The crop thus obtained is, however, very meager and
incomparably less than that yielded by manured soil.
The phenomenon which we are about to study is complex: in fact, a seed, a
plant, in certain periods of their growth, present modifications both in their vital
functions and in their relations to the atmosphere. To the amount of fixed
principles, already considerable, must be added another large portion, which is
dissipated after having been momentarily fixed. But if the result, apparently
simple, which I am about to give, is the final result of a complex theory, it does
not the less fully confirm the fixation of carbon, nitrogen and hydrogen in the
plants, besides that of a certain quantity of hydrogen and oxygen, which is fixed
as water, or in the proportions which constitute water.
It is not sufficient to have clearly proved that the fixation of the elements con-
stituting plants can be eff'ected by the sole intermediation of the air ; we should
investig-dte farther in order to clearly determine the principal sources of these
elements.
When we reflect upon the enormous quantity of carbon in continual fixation
by vegetation, the question naturally arises whether it really does not originate
wholly, or at least in part, from the decomposition of the carbonic acid in the
air. We know that the atmosphere contains, usually, 4-10,000ths of its volume,
or as well, 6-10,OOOths of its weight of carbonic acid ; an evident proof that this
quantity is sufficient.
A very simple calculation will determine this matter. Let us suppose, in fact,
that the atmosphere is compressed by a force which would give it the density of
water ; the column of air at this density, has a hight of about ten metres : in this
column of ten metres carbonic acid enters to the extent of four millimetres, and
by reducing the carbonic acid to carbon, it will be finally seen that the quantity
of carbonic acid in the atmosphere, is sufficient to form a stratum of carbon cov-
ering the surface of the whole earth to the thickness of nearly one-third of a
millimetre.
The amount of carbonic acid in the air is increased by the torrents emitted
from volcanoes, and the supply is constantly kept up by the large quantities emit-
ted during combustion in our fireplaces, by the respiration of animals, and also
their decomposition, and by the nocturnal respiration of plants. The quantity is
being constantly diminished by the diurnal respiration of plants. We may then
ask whether this actual state of the atmosphere has always existed, or if in re-
mote periods, it did not present an entirely difli'erent composition.
Ad. Brogniart, relying upon the precise information of Geology, has calcu-
lated the composition of air before the formation of the coal fields. France, as
a fair average of the coal lands of Europe, and perhaps of the whole world, was
taken as the standard. It contains 1-200 of coal land, forming a stratum of
(1092)
EXPERIM'tiiM'S 0.\ CARBONIC ACID, 29
twenty metres thickness, and is poorer in this respect than England and Belgi-
um, but much richer than a large majority of the other countries of the earth.
Estimating by France, we then find that a pro rata apportionment will give
to the whole surface of our globe a stratum of coal of a decimetre thickness ;
by changing the weights into carbonic acid, (for it is incontestable that coal has
Its origin from vegetable debris whose carbonic acid must necessarily have been
drawn from the atmosphere,) we then have the inference that the air before the
formation of the coal-fields must have contained at the very least from 4 to 5
per cent., a medium, and by a little exaggeration, perhaps as much as 8 to 10
per cent, of carbonic acid. Air charged with a like quantity of carbonic acid is
injurious to, if not destructive of the warm-blooded animals ; and, indeed, we
learn from geological fossils that in that epoch there were no animals of that
nature. Saussure's experiments have shown that vegetation thrives much bet-
ter in an atmosphere containing some hundredths of carbonic acid, and we know
also that the vegetation of remote periods was much more active than at present,
as is well evident in the singular development of fossil debris.
But supposing there were no animals, or at most but a few of them, whence
eomes this carbonic acid of the air, unless from numberless volcanoes now
extinct ?
What is the action of the carbonic acid, and what are the conditions requisite
for the regular accomplishment of the phenomenon now under study 1 We will
answer by the aid of some historical details. Bonnet first observed that green
leaves, when placed in aerated water and exposed to the sun's light, disengage
a gas which Priestly proved to be oxygen ; and Jennevier in his turn showed
that this oxygen proceeds from the carbonic acid held in solution by the water,
and associates this fact with the nutrition of plants. To efl'ect the decomposi-
tion of the carbonic acid, the green part of the plants must be exposed to the
solar light. A plant which is not struck by the light does not decompose car-
bonic acid ; on the contrary, in the presence of aerated water or air, it generates
it, as is unequivocally determined by the following two experiments :
Take a bell-glass containing an atmosphere of carbonic acid, in which
plants are also inclosed, and place it under an opaque vessel, and keep it thus
secluded from the light for several days. After this time, an examination of the
transvased gas shows that it is still unaltered carbonic acid. Again, take a
second bell-glass similar to the first, and inclose therein, as before, the green
parts of plants ; but this time expose it to the sun's light weakened by a gauze
screen or sheet of transparent paper. This precaution is necessary, for though
a plant thrives perfectly in the open air even under the direct action of the solar
rays, it is requisite, when operating under bell-glasses, to provide against the
concentration of light by the lenticles which their surfaces present, else the parts
of the plant opposite to the foci become torrefied and the plant perishes. With
proper precautions oxygen is obtained nearly pure. Hence the necessity of light
in this phenomenon. Without it there would be no action — no durable vegeta-
tion upon the surface of the earth.
Let us now examine under what forms the carbonic acid reaches the plant.
We can determine a current of air in a bulbed apparatus, with three tubulures,
by means ofaflacon d ecoulement. A bulbed apparatus, adapted to the first tu-
bulure, serves to wash the air which enters. To the third tubulure is adjusted
an U tube containing pumice-stone saturated with sulphuric acid, for the reten-
tion of the water. There must be also a second bulbed apparatus, containing a
(1093)
30 DUMAS ON THE NUTRITION OF PLANTS.
concentrated solution of potassa, for the absorption of carbonic acid. Following
this is an U tube again, filled with pumice-stone saturated with sulphuric acid,
to retain the little water which may pass over from the potassa solution. The
two apparati are accurately weighed before the experiment, and in order to
prevent the reentrance of moist air there should be a third U lube filled, as be-
fore, with viiriolized pumice-stone.
All the air which passes through this apparatus during exposure to the sun's
light is entirely deprived of carbonic acid, without any increase of weight ac-
cruing to the apparatus during the experiment. Thus we have evident proof
that plants draw carbonic acid directly from the atmosphere. We do not admit,
however, that this is the sole source, for it can be conveyed into the plant
through its roots, which imbibe it from the soil. The moisture of the soil which
is inabibed by the roots is also charged with carbonic acid. Moreover, the slow
combustion of the dung deposited around plants is also a continual source
of carbonic acid. The arrangement of the apparatus, before noted exemplifies
on a small scale, this phenomenon, as also ihe role of the carbonic acid. The
roots of the plant, inclosed in the balloon, being dipped into a vessel filled with
water charged with carbonic acid, absorptioh conveys this water to all parts of
the plant, and the carbonic acid, as soon as it reaches the leaves or green parts,
is decomposed by contact with the light. When the apparatus is to be arranged
for this experiment, the first bulbed tube must be filled with a concentrated so-
lution of caustic potassa, in order to arrest the carbonic acid proceeding from the
air Itself.
To sum up, plants have two sources of oxygen : 1st, the atmosphere, from
which they abstract it directly ; and, 2dly, the soil, from which they receive it
through their roots. They receive it also from dew, but it is the carbonic acid
of the air reaching them in an indirect way.
Light is necessary to the decomposition of carbonic acid, as will be proved by
a few words. If green twigs or branches are presented to the object-slass of a
camera, the light reflected by the green portions of the plant acts very feebly
upon an iodinized silver plate, as if all the chemical rays of the light absorbed
during the process of life in the plants, when reflected back by their green parts,
no longer exercise any chemical action.
Green leaves act nearly in the same manner as those black bodies which are
most capable of entirely absorbing the light. This is a matter worthy of deep
study, for at the moment the light strikes the leaves, the most mysterious actions
of Nature, and the most important to be revealed, are in some way accomplished,
while we have no authority for supposing that these actions are produced by any
of the methods now known either in Physics or Chemistry.
The decomposition of carbonic acid is eflfected by the influence of the sun's rays
and the green matter of plants ; but is this green matter endowed, in itself,
with this property, or does it require the cooperation of vegetable organisms?
The thorough experiments of Morren afi"ord a conclusive decision of these ques-
tions. The green matter, when in contact with the solar rays, acts always in the
same manner, whether it is or is not coupled with a vegetable organism.
Water sometimes holds in suspension a green matter formed by green animal-
cules. If this water is analyzed, under difl"erent meteorological circumstances,
it will be found that the ratio of oxygen in the gas given off during ebullition
varies from 16 to 60 per cent., or in ihc ratio of 1 to 4. After being some time
insulated it shows an excess of oxygen, and the animalcules assume an active life.
(1094)
THE ACTION OF CARBONIC ACID. 31
Under the influence of the sun's rays the green matter of the plants decom-
poses carbonic acid, and sets the oxygen at liberty ; but if light is wanting, then
the inverse phenomena occur.
The fish of a pond rapidly absorb the oxygen of the air held in solution by the
water, and if the green animalcules do not in turn replace this oxygen by the de-
composition of carbonic acid, the fish suffer, and gradually suffocate. If, on the
contrary, the sun shines, the animalcules quickly restore the oxygen to the air,
and the fish become active. These alternatives occur ceaselessly, and are pe-
culiarly remarkable for the strange rapidity with which the results become
manifest.
This experiment, besides assigning a role to the green matter, gives an exact
idea of the phenomena occurring in the atmosphere. In fact, in the atmosphere
the equilibrium is due to the same causes, but the variations are much more lim-
ited. The motion of the air is much more rapid, its mass enormous compared
with the causes which tend to modify it ; while in the water of the fish-ponds,
or preserves, the masses are small and the influential causes enormous.
Independently of the green animalcules which act in the same manner as
green plants, Morren has shown that there are those of a red color which pro-
duce the same effects. This discovery is of the greatest importance, for hereto-
fore this action has been, compulsorily, attributed to the green matter of plants,
although the foliage of certain vegetables and trees have a purple or nearly red
tint, even in their normal state. According to Morren's experiments, there are
a number of coloring matters which are capable of decomposing carbonic acid.
Those plants which are not green, the fruits which lose their green color in
acquiring the shades peculiar to their maturity, flowers, &c., do not decompose
carbonic acid. As soon as the green matter appears in a plant exposed to light,
the decomposition of carbonic acid commences. Is this green matter the instru-
ment or the product of the decomposition ? If it is the product, will it be trans-
formed by the successive repetitions which constantly renew themselves into the
various products developed by vegetation ? We would be disposed to think that
the green matter is an instrument, an agent ; that it is doubtless but little al-
tered, and that under its influence the other matters are produced and carried
from cell to cell by endusmose, even to the vessels which convey them to the
different organs of the plant.
There are, however, colorless plants which run through all phases of their ex-
istence without being colored. Fungi are of this class, and there are certain kinds
which grow in the darkest mines ; and hence, very naturally, their absence of color,
which, in preventing their action upon light, enables them to dispense with its
influence. We will remark, however, that the fungi of the mines are sunny
white, while those reared in the light are always diverse-tinted. But fungi are
always parasitical; they thrive upon living or dead animals or plants, and
always by means of organic matters which they contain already made.
The life of a fungus is every way comparable with that of animals ; their
nourishment is the same, and perhaps the analogy between these two beings,
apparently so very different, might be much farther traced.
Thus, for our benefit, the vegetable kingdom is particularly characterized by
those plants which possess the property of decomposing carbonic acid, and thus
it is that it enjoys the full extent of its purpose, and accomplishes its errand
upon the earth. The reproductive organs of plants are but a transition.
Fungi are too little known, in this respect, to claim our attention longer. It is
(1095)
32 DUMAS ON theInutrition of plants.
therefore only in the green parts of plants that the great apparatus exists which
may exercise a certain influence upon the constitution of the air, and which de-
serves to be classed among the great instruments which the physics of the world
should acknowledge.
Supposing that the plants had ceased the performance of their functions upon
the surface of the earth, calculation proves that the amount of oxygen of the at-
mosphere Avill suflTice for the respiration of the present existent animals for
thousands of years. Our knowledge of the nutrition of animals teaches us that
the disappearance of plants would on the contrary speedily produce their death
by inanition. Hence, from what has been said, the unavoidable conclusion that
the carbon of plants proceeds mainly from the decomposition of carbonic acid.
A last consideration compels us to make an important restriction. In citing
the beautiful experiments of Boussingault upon the complete development in a
close vessel of peas nourished by air, water, and carbonic acid, we remarked that
the harvest was very poor in comparison with that produced by manured grounds.
By manuring the soil, the conditions of growth are augmented, for the dungeon-
tains nitrogeneous matters ; it moreover surrounds the roots with an incessant
source of carbonic acid, which being carried up with the sap of the plant, is de-
composed by contact with the green matter of the leaves. The manure contains,
also, the mineral salts which are indispensable to the complete development of
plants, besides the soluble organic matters which, according to Saussure, in cer-
tain cases are equally necessary for the nutrition of plants.
As regards the decomposition of the water, we have to repeat all that has been
said relative to the decomposition of carbonic acid by plants, for the hydrogen
of plants is derived from water, and besides it fixes water in its natural state.
We have now the certain proof that many fungi disengage hydrogen naturally.
Edwards and Colin have shown that the stem of the Polygonum tinctorium,
when placed under water, disengages hydrogen. Payen has proved by the analy-
sis of the ligneous parts of vegetables, that the amount of hydrogen is always
slightly excessive of that of oxygen. Added to these, also are Boussingault's di-
rect experiments upon the growth of peas, clover, and wheat. Thus :
WHEAT.
Grains. After three months vegetation.
Carbon 46-6 88 100-0 grains have fixed carbon 41*4
Hydrogen 5*8 10-0 .. .. .. nitrogen 6-0
Nitrogen 3-5 3-7 .. .. .. (water) HC 41-8
Oxygen 44-1 81-0 .. .. .. (hydrogen) H 0-0
Total 100-0 183-2 183-2
CLOVER.
Grains. After three months vegetation.
Carbon 50-8 131-3 100-0 grains have fixed carbon 80-5
Hvdrogen 6-0 17-1 .. .. .. nitrogen 2-6
Nitrogen 7-2 9-8 ...... water 72-8
Oxygen 36-0 100-7 .. .. .. hydrogen 3-0
Total 100-0 258-9 258-9
In the wheat there was no fixation of hydrogen, but much of carbon and water ;
while in the clover, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and water were all assimilated.
If I have insisted upon the decomposition of water, as established by Boussin-
gault, it is because that incident in the life of plants — the fixation of the carbon
by the decomposition of the carbonic acid — thus becomes the grand theorem of
the general physics of the globe, which forms an equivalent to that other phe-
nomenon so well demonstrated by Lavoisier, the combustion of carbon and nitro-
gen which characterizes the life of animals.
(1096)
THE CARDO:,- OF PLANTS. 33
Plants decompose water and assiniilate its hydro2'cn ; they reduce carbonic
acid and appropriate its carbon — they decompose ammonia ; ihevare, in fact, the
reducing apparatus. Animals, on the contrary, burn the carbon and hydrogen,
and may be styled oxidizing apparatus.
This property in plants of securing the carbon of carbonic acid, and setting toe
oxygen at liberty, has no parallel in any chemical force. Chemistry at presently
incapable of imitating this phenomenon in the life of plants: Physics must some dav^*
afford an explanation. It sliould be tried whether a daguerreotype in regarding a
plant behaves as in the presence oi a black plate, if the reflected li9,ht is deprived
of its chemical rays. Plants certainly absorb a portion of ihe intensity of the sun's
rays, and as all these phenomena are colleagued ; if the animal produces heat
and electricity, the plants in their turn absorb heat and electricity.
It remains to be inquired how the nitrogen is introduced into plants. It roaches
them by two channels : 1st. Through the air. 2d. Through manures. It has
already been shown in the experiment upon the growth of peas in a close vessel,
that nitrogen is abstracted from the atmosphere. Clover as well as Jerusalem
artichokes cultivated under similar circumstances present a similar action. If,
however, the experiment is repeated upon the plants, this pluenomenon is not
evident ; for instance, the cereals do not abstract their nitrogen from the air, and
hence plants, in this respect, are divisible into two distinct groups:
1st. Those which abstract their oxygen from the atmosphere, namely, peas,
clover, and Jerusalem artichokes.
2d. Those which obtain it through manures, namely, the cereals, and the
oleaginous plants.
Though we know that the nitrogen of some plants is borrowed from the at- ^
mosphere.we cannot tell the condition or state in which it is assimilated ; it may ^
be supposed that it enters directly into their organs, some one of whicli have the
natural property of abstracting it from air. It can be conveyed thither by the
water, always aerated, which is imbibed by the roots. The leaves of the plant
may convert it into ammonia by means of the hydrogen of the water, which they
decompose. Finally, this fixed nitrogen, according to Saussure's experiments,
proceeds, certainly in part, from the traces of ammonia contained in the air. If
there are any doubts in this respect, doubts removable by experiment, there can
be none as to plants which receive their nitrogen through the medium of ma-
nures. Manures act by virtue of their urea, uric acid and animal matters, which,
by decomposition, are transformed into ammoniacal salts. A single experiment
readily proves this fact : Schattenmann (the director of the manufactory at Boux-
willer) observed that by watering a field with the solution of sulphate of ammo-
nia, obtained by treating horse-dung with sulphate of iron, he could readily dis-
tinguish the irrigated spots from those which were not watered, by the vis'or
of their vegetation. Letters traced with the liquid manure were visible at a
great distance during the whole term of vegetation. Hence, the evident im-
portance of its application to Agriculture. In some countries the explanation of
this theory has occasioned a profitable practice: for instance, in the Canton of f
Grisons the dung-liquor is treated with sulphate of iron ; the ammonia which is
generated decomposes the sulphate of iron, and forms sulphate of ammonia, which,
in this state, is potential and not volatile. Elsewhere, the urine or dung-liquor is
mixed with sulphate of lime, which is equally efficient in fixing the ammonia ;
but its application to the dried fceces is not efTectual, owing to the generation of
carbonate of ammonia, which is wholly volatile : consequently, the efforts to nea-
(1097) 33
34 DUMAS ON THE NUTRITION OF PLANTS.
tralize the ammoniacal odor in the stables by means of sulphate of lime, have
not been successful.
The researches of Payen and Boussingault have removed all doubt both as to
the effects of ammoniacal salts as a manure, and the thorough utility of animal
matter, or, more generally, nitrogeneous matter, in the dunging of the soils. They
, have recently shown that all true manures act by virtue of their nitrogen, and are
^efficient proportional to what they contain of this element, and they have given the
following Table, where they are ranked according to their equivalent value. —
The Table shows that 100 parts of farm manure can be replaced by 3 parts of
dry blood or animal residues, and by 25 parts of grape-cake :
Farm manure 100 Pi.;reonilnnf» 5
;?i':i wped 50 Liquid Flemish manure 000
Kosidiie of pressed oleaginous soc'ls .... 8 Poudrt-llo lOtoSS
Grape-rake 25 Dry blooil or dry flesh, feathers, wool.
Liquorfrom starch fac lories 600 and hnrn 3
Dung liquor 70 Animal black 40
We have too often alluded to the value of urine, in vegetation, to render it ne-
cessary aiiain to enforce upon the farnur the policy of carefully collecting the
dung juices of his barn yards.
We should, however, recollect that the preceding Table does not give a per-
fectly just idea, in this respect ; for we might be led to think that in the prepa-
ration of Flemish manure or animal black, none of the products of the juices are
lost. Consequently, though the poudretie presents a greater value, pound to
pound, it is not a thorough proof that this should be preferred in the great econo-
my of a country. In fact, during its preparation, a great portion of useful products
escape into and infect the atmosphere. The great advantages of liquid ma-
nure, with which we cannot be too familiar, may be summed up in a few
words :
1st. Man furnishes the air with carbonic acid and water, that the farmer may
always have a supply equal to the requirements of his crops.
2d. Man ejects urine and excrements, which constitute liquid manure, after a
previous fermentation, all the other products of his alimentation.
3d. Consequently, in the liquid manure and the atmosphere, the farmer has
all the matters requisite for the culture of those plants suitable to the nutrition
of man.
The excrements of animals, -which constitute the nourishment of the most
useful plants — such as the cereals — areas necessary to their sustenance as bread
and meat is to that of Man ; and hence the culpable neglect in allowmg the waste
of sewer juices in large cities. Among the efforts to diminish the miseries of
the poor classes, none can take precedence of that to lessen the cost of manures,
and as tending to this, the collection and preservation of the contents of privies
should be provided for by the authorities of all the cities and towns.
One more remark in conclusion of this subject. It is well known with what facil-
ity ammonia dissolves in water, v/hich will take up about 430 times its volume,
and it is also well known that hydrochloric acid is equally soluble. But let us
compare the operation of these two solutions. By heating hydrochloric acid of
a certain density, it boils at 244-4° Fahrenheit, without being altered ; and it is
impossible to separate it from its waters by physical means. At the temperataire
of 122° 10 140° Fahrenheit, water no longer retains a trace of ammonia ; indeed,
in vacuo, it loses all its gas at ordinary temperatures, and even evaporates sponta-
neously when exposed to air in open vessels.
(109SJ
AMMONIA AND VEGETATION. 35
This is a wise provision in the natural economy, for this property enables the
condensation of the ammonia by the rains, which convey it to the plants, that it
may be volatilized anew, and carried to those points where it will be seized
upon and rendered available. It is doubtless the final cause of the properties of
the aqueous solution of ammonia.
But, as these properties are necessary in'the designs of Creation, so that vegeta- '
tion may not be deprived of that ammonia which it requires ; so much the more '
is it important, as a personal consideration, for they are noxious in the latter re-
spect. It is precisely, this volatility of the ammonia resulting from the decom-
position of the animal detritus of a city, which prevents its restoration to the
neighboring soil, as might otherwise so well be done ; for it is the whole sum of
manure which the soil requires to reproduce the sum of organic matter requisite
for its nourishment. We should therefore direct our attention to the elucidation
of the mode in which the rejected nitrogenous products, which we regard as lost,
can be rendered available.
I
THE ACTION OF SALT ON VEGETATION;..
A>D ITS USE IN AGRICULTURE.
BY M. HKCaUEREL.
In the Memoir which I presented to the Royal Society of Agriculture in July,
1847, I treated of the state of vegetation in the saliferous soils under the influ-
ence of water, and laid it down as a principle, that salt and water, when added
gradually and in small portions to plants, promoted the growth and excellence
of fodder crops, especially in those soils naturally dry. My experience in this
respect is based upon observations and analyses made of the old royal salines of
the Levant and the surrounding countries. These experiments, it must be told,
however, are only the beginning of a series which t intend to undertake upon
the use of salt as an amendment [ameliorator ?] in Agriculture, commencing,
however, with the study of its action in the difl'erent phases, of the growth of
the cereal and fodder plants. To proceed systeniaiically, we must before passing
to the application, determine the principal physiological phenomena induced by
the salt during the course of vegetation, so that we may avoid or follow them,
accordingly as they are useful or prejudicial to its development.
Those who deny the salutary inlluence of salt upon vegetation, under certain
circumstances, are perhaps too much biased by the idea prevalent among the
ancients, that steiility is the inevitable consequence of its application. This
may be true in those countries which receive but little rain, and where the Sun
is intensely hot ; but the exception is not applicable to humid soils.
The hygroscopic state of the soil being an important element in determining
the question, by abstracting it we render it extremely complicated. On the other
hand, in sowing salt simultaneously with the seed, it has never been determined
how it acts or whether its mode of action is the same:
1st. In germination.
2d. During the development of vegetation, from the extremity of germmation
to budding, that is to say, while the plant sprouts.
3d. From the sprouting to the fructification.
4th. Finally, from the fructification to the entire cessation of vegetation, or
the death of the plant.
If this had been known sooner, the opinion of certain persons as to the action
of salt in vegetation would certainly have been modified, but as the question is
very complex, it was necessary to divide it, and study each proposition sepa-
rately.
From the experiments which 1 made as to the action of salt upon germination,
the following conclusions are to be drawn :
1st. Common salt, in certain proportions, retards and even partially destroys the
germination of rye grass and white mustard seeds.
2d. It completely destroys those of wheat and vetch.
3d. It impedes, in a measure, the germination and vegetation of many plants.
liioo;
THE ACTION OF SALT ON VEGETATION. 37
Thus it is seen that though the salt may not destroy germination, it neverthe-
less injuriously affects the young plants during vegetation, by inducing a cliange
in their embryo in the initiatory development of life.
Can we not interpret this injurious tendency of the salt in the very first act of
vegetable life ?
When a seed is subjected to the combined action of water and of heat, it
swells, and the starchy matter of the cotyledon passes into gum and sugar, as
food for the nutrition of the plantlet. These substances act the same part to
young plants that milk does in the nutrition of young animals. Now, as salt is,
in general, an antiseptic, being often used to prevent the putrefaction of animal
and organic matters, it naturally follows that if its presence will prevent those
transformations of the starchy matter of the seed only by which it can be ren-
dered alimentary of the plantlet, the plantlet must necessarily perish. Though
the destruction may not be complete, still the plant suffers during its vegetation
from the ill effects produced by the salt during its germination.
As regards the action of salt in the second phase of vegetation, it may be ad-
mitted, a priori, that it should not influence the development of vegetation, from
the completion of germination to the moment of blooming, in the same manner
as during germination ; since, in this case, the salt seems to oppose the decom-
position of starchy matter, and its transformation into gum and sugar ; while in
the other instance, as soon as germination is completed and respiration takes
place in the leaves, the salt is carried by water into the different tissues and or-
gans, and should then act only proportional to the quantity introduced, to hasten
or retard the phenomena and the different elaborations of the juices designed for
the nutrition and development of the plant. The salt, therefore, should not play
the same part in both eases. Numerous experiments have efi'ectually confirmed
this deduction drawn from facts previously noted.
The facts stated in my Memoir authorize the following conclusions :
1st. That salt in solution is prejudicial to germination, being alterative or de-
structive of the embryo according to the quantity employed. When the change
is very sensible, the development of the young plant is much less perfect than
without the action of salt.
2d. That germination is accomplished without the aid of salt, and that when
the plant has shot above ground, the application of salt and water even in large
doses, causes no alteration of the tissues, nor any disturbance of the veo-etation
not even to the budding. As to what are its effects then and afterward, is yet to
be determined by the result of some experiments now in progress. The plants
usually acquire more vigor than those growing in the natural way, provided the
proportions of salt are not excessive. The amount taken up by plants equals,
sometimes, eight per cent, of their weight when dried.
3d. That the influence of salt upon germination, even in presence of water,
may serve, to a certain extent, to explain the conflicting results, as to the action
of salt as an amendment [ameliorator ?], of experimenters who kept no record of
the time of salting.
4th. That when used as an amendment in soils destined for the culture of the
cereals, it should not be spread at the time of sowing, because it is hurtful to
germination. The better plan would be to apply it about the month of March,
when the earth is moist, and previous to the development of active vegetatiou.
In operating at this season, be careful that the winter rains do not carry the salt
too deeply into the soil, else it will lose its power of promoting vegetation in the
(1101)
38 THE ACTION OF SALT ON VEGETATION.
spring. The quantity of salt to be used depends upon the nature of the plant
under cultivation, as all plants are not equally benefited by its use.
Kuhlmann's experiments have proved that salt, when mixed with nitrogenous
manures, is a stimulant of vegetation. It will then be necessary to ascertain
whether, as to certain plants which require a substantial nourishment, salt un-
combined with these manures would not, by inducing a too vigorous growth, en-
ervate such plants.
5th. That the large quantity of salt required by the stalk of the cereals, under
the circumstances mentioned, may contribute to give them the qualities of fodder.
6th. That all these results determine nothing as to the product in grains,
which will only be known when the experiments are completed in the coming
year.
7th. That in moist meadows the salt should be sown at the time when vegeta-
tion develops. In dry meadows, rain must be waited for before applying the salt.
8th. That in soils with impermeable bottoms or clayey substrata, the applica-
tion of salt should not be often repeated, for the portion first added suffices for a
long time, and sometimes may even injure later germinations. If, on the con-
trary, the substrata are permeable, it is necessary to renew the salting at each
culture. Before taking a definite part in this respect, we should appeal to ex-
periment, the only sure and safe guide.
Salt remains in the soil a shorter or longer time, according as its substratum
is permeable or impermeable ; and as all plants do not accommodate themselves
in the same degree to the salt regime — the vetch, as an example — it is neces-
sary, in the rotation of crops, to plant therein the leguminous and other plants
whose growth would be retarded by the salt.
The end proposed in my Treatise is to point out the path to be followed in ex-
periments for the exact determination of the part acted by the salt, as an amend-
ment, either with or without the concurrence of nitrogenous, manures.
A FARM BUT A MANUFACTORY,
THE USE OF SALT.
It was not because we apprehend that Salt is likely ever to be used in our
country as a manure to an extent sufficient to make its value for that purpose
a question of general interest, that we have selected the following, but because
of the philosophical principles which it contains as connected with Agriculture.
But the reader can peruse and judge for himself, whether such dissertations are
not much more useful, though they may be dryer, for young men wanting to
provide for themselves a wider and more solid basis for improvement, in a better
knowledge of the principles of their profession, than is to be expected from a re-
lation of the mere details of practice followed in some case where an acre has
been made to yield a heavy crop of corn, or a bullock to yield a heavy crop of
tallow. Such, at least, is our view of the matter, and such our aims, without
any object or desire to deceive or be deceived.
From the London Agricultural Gazette.
THE VALUE OF SALT AS A MANURE.
In your Jooj-nal of April 8lh I read that Professor Dumas, who in conjunction with Mr. Milne
Bdwards, was engaged by the French Government to examine into the value of common salt as
(1102)
THE VALUE OF SALT AS A MANURE. 39
a manure, has recorded in the following terms thb conclusions arrived at from their inquiries on
the subject in England :
" I quit England with the conviction that the problem of the employment of salt in Agriculture
is chimerical We have been sent from county to county without result Here they send us
into the neighborhood of the salt-mines ; when we were there we were told that salt was not a
prophet in its own country. I am convinced that the most desirable mode of preparing a good
manure is by employing the phosphates and ammoniacal salts, rather than sea salt, however
cheap the latter." In my opinion the conclusion they have come to, viz., that salt is of very little
value as a manure, is perfectly correct. Opinions unsupported by facts or reasons are, however,
not worth much, and as I am aware that many practical agriculturists advocate the employment
of salt, I will endeavor to explain the grounds upon which I dissent from them. I am quite willing
to admit that numerous experiments have been recorded, wherein a beneficial eifect of salt upon
the crop was sufficiently evident The question with the French chemists, however, and that to
whicli the remarks I am about to make refer, has not reference to the special, or occasional, but
to the general applicability of salt as a manure, and to its importance as such in a national point
of view ; I shall not, therefore, quote any particular experiments of my own, but shall endeavor
to show : 1. That no substance can be nationally or universally useful as a manure, which is not
largely exported from the soil. 2 That salt exists to a very small extent in the exported pro-
duce of a farm ; and that it can never be substituted for those constituents which are largely ex-
ported, and in which most soils are more or less deficient. Considering a farm as a manufactory,
of which the imported manures represent the purchased raw material, and from which the ex-
ported products are corn and meat it is evident that the nature of the imports which it will
be necessary to provide must depend upon that of the exports. The amount of such ex-
ports must vary according to climate, .••oil and cultivation ; but assuming the extreme case of an
export of 50 bushels of corn from an acre of land one year, and 100 lbs. of live-weight of animal
the next, let us endeavor to estimate the loss to the land of several of its constituents by such
means, and especially that of salt. Fifty bushels of grain may be said to contain 50 to 60'lbs. of
mineral matter. In perfectly ripened grain it is doubtful whether either chlorine or sodium, the
two constituents of common salt, exists ; but the point of perfection in this respect is seldom at-
tained in our climate, and it is probable that it is owing to variations of this kind that the presence
and amount of salt in grain ashes are found to be uncertain The average quantity in such ashes
may, however, be said to be probably little more than 1 per cent, if even so much as that ; so that
50 bushels of grain would contain less than 1 lb. of salt. By direct experiment I find that a lean
sheep of 100 lbs. live-weight, yields about 8 to 10 lbs. of bone, 12 lbs. skin, and 5 lbs. blood ; the
flesh, fat and entrails. &c., comprising the remainder The bone contains no appreciable amount
of salt, while the total mineral matter of the other parts of the sheep amounts only to a few
ounces of which quantity a very small proportion must be estimated to be common salt. It is
evident, then, that the amount of salt exported from a farm in corn and meat is exceedingly
small ; but if we look at the loss of phosphoric acid and of nitrogen which the farm sustains under
the same system of sales or export, the case will be found to be very different.
Of the 50 or 60 lbs. of mineral matter contained in the 50 bushels of grain, about nine-tenths
would be salts of phosphoric acid, and the sheep weighing 100 lbs. alive would carry off 3 to 4
ibs. of phosphate of lime in its bones, besides a few ounces of phosphoric acid salts in its other
parts Again, the 50 bushels of grain may be said to contain 50 to 60 lbs. of nitrogen, and the
100 lbs live-weight of animal 4 lbs. of the same substance It is seen, then, that while the soil
would be exhausted in two years of 40 to 50 lbs. of salts of phosphoric acid, and of a still larger
quantity of nitrogen, the amount of salt removed in the same period, and by the same course,
would scarcely reach a pound. Some writers have said that farmers do not know their own in-
terests when they purchase the expensive foreign guano rather than the cheap salt of home re-
source, and employ the bones of distant countries instead of the sulphate of soda manufactured in
our own towns ; but no one who will carefully consider the statements given above can be at a
loss to under.stand why salt and sulphate of soda cannot be substituted for phosphates and ammo-
nia. It is worth consideration, also, that in many parts of England thousands of acres have been
brought from a ban-en waste into the highest state of fertility, by the importation, in some form or
other, of phosphates and ammonia, without any direct supply whatever of common salt.
The employment of salt as manure cannot, then, I think, be advocated as providing an im-
portant constituent of the ordinary exports of a farm, but only to be of limited necessity, and
applicable with economy to a small extent, or in special and occasional cases. It is considered
that when corn is used for corn crops the straw is brighter and the grain of finer quality ; but
perhaps no one will maintain that it would increase the number of bushels upon a corn-exhausted
soil ; and if this be the case, but a low rank can be claimed for it by the side of manures which
are known to enhance the produce of the land. I fully admit some beneficial influence upon the
elaborative actions in the juices of plants under the agency of common salt, but it is probable that
such an effect will generally be observed only in highly manured soils, where, under certain con-
ditions of season, vegetation would be too luxuriant ; and it maybe doubted, indeed, whether
even in these cases an equivalent supply of soluble saline matters, more essential as constituents
of the fixed products of the plants, might not with advantage substitute the salt.
On the other hand, however, the ready solubility of common salt itself, as well as that of com-
pounds which may result from its reactions on the contents of the soil, is a property which may
render it of real service in cases of over- luxuriance, arising from an otherwise too prominent sup-
ply of organic constituents to the plant. There are other instances than that afforded in salt, or
mineral substances being of apparently great use in the juices of plants, without seeming to con-
stitute portions of the fixed products of the plant; and we must be careful, therefore, not to deny
the importance of the presence in the soil of any substance, merely because it does not exist in
the exports of the farm ; but at the same time it should be borne in mind that unless a substance
be either sold off the farm or diminished in quantity by drainage or actual waste, the renewal of
a supply once provided can very seldom be needed.
(1103)
40 THE VALUE OF SALT AS A MANURE.
The solability of salt, already referred to, might be said to be a cause of its rapid exhaustion
from a soil by drainage, but such loss will be frequently compensated for by the incidental import
of salt for cattle, and by the small amount contained in artiticial food. Again, it may be urged
that a large proportion of farms export other articles beside corn and meat : but the same local
circumstances which lead to such a cause, generally at tlie same time afford sources of manure
not at the command of those circumstanced as our case supposes. Indeed, where town manures
are used, the amount of salt provided must always be considerable. The discrepancies in the
accounts that are published of the effects of salt as a manure need not lead us to doubt the cor-
rectness but only tLe completeness of the statement ; and if, as I have shown above, this substance
is not required m any material quantity as a constituent of the exports of a farm, and if it be also
true that when useful as an agent it is so only under particular circumstances of excess of some
substances supplied to the plant over others, the ditferences in result are what we should expect.
In illustration of this point I may observe that a few years ago some experiments were carried on
upon agricultural plants at the gardens of the Horticultural Society, at Chiswick, under the direc-
tion of Mr. Solly, and on comparing the results which he obtained by the application of various
substances to a garden soil (probably already in a slate of fertility far exceeding that which is
usual under a high condition of field-culture) with tliose obtained by the same substances upon
exhausted land on my farm at Rothamsled, I found that in many important instances the eHect
seemed to be very beneficial in the one case, and not at all so in the other. Such facts as these
plainly show us that upon soils where the essential elements of plants are wanting, no benefit
can be derived from the use of salt or any other substance which does not become a con.«tituent
of the produce. Where, however, in the growth of grain, all other essentials are provided, the
use of salt may be advantageous by giving a healthy tone to the vital actions of the plant, and
thereby improving the quality, and even to a small extent increasing the quantity of the produce
also.
The effect of salt is, however, much more marked upon the green produce of a farm than upon
com crops, and the large quantity of it which is found in some plants of the former kind might
well lead us to question whether it be not an essential element of such produce, as well as a use-
ful agent in the processes of vegetation in such cases. Mangel-wurzel, for instance, contains,
comparatively speaking, a large amount of salt, and the effect of its application is perhaps more
evident in the case of this plant than in that of any other. When, however, we bear in mind the
small amount of selective action which is exercised by the roots of plants upon the soluble con-
tents of the soil; that in the ash of the mangel-wurzel, as well as in that of all other green pro-
duce, we have the saline matter of the juices mixed with those of the parts formed from those
juices; and, farther, that this plant, more particularly when fresh gathered, and before fermenta-
tion to some degree has taken place in its fluid contents, is known to act as a purgative to animals
fed upon it, we cannot fail to admit the presence of a large amount of as yet unorganized matter,
and the probability also that some of it is extraneous and unnecessary to the growth of the plant ;
and in this latter supposition the existence of salt in the produce would show an ample resource
of it in the soil, rather than prove its importance to the plant. Reasons of this kind must not,
however, be taken as satisfactorily proving the non-essentialness of salt as a manure to those
plants wherein we usually find it, but they should be considered more as pointing out the direc
tion and the necessity of farther experiment on the subject, and especially so when we find in
the animal economy instances of a very analogous kind. Thus it is found that although the blood
of animals, which may be compared to the juice of vegetables, contains a large amount of common
salt, which cannot be supposed to be unessential to the healthy actions of the body, yet its pres-
ence appears doubtful in any of the resulting products of the processes of the animal. The ques-
tion, then, of the use and importance of salt to some few plants, and under certain particular cir-
cumstances, is still open to investigation, and should it be decided affirmatively, we should yet
have to determine whetlier or not it was necessary in such cases to employ it in any large quan-
tities, or even directly as a manure at all. For the reasons I have adduced, I cannot but fully
concur in the general opinion expressed by Professor Dumas, more especially as applicable to
the state of Agriculture in France at the present time, and I will venture to assume the following
positions: 1. That salt can never be a substitute for the constituents ammonia and phosphoric acid.
2. That no soils exporting com and meat can be restored to fertility without the application of
these two substances. 3. That much of the money now expended in purchusing salt for agri-
cultural purposes would be more profitably employed in procuring ammonia and phosphates.
4. That salt, although apparently essential in the animal economy, and perhaps in that of plants
also, is exported from a farm in such small quantities that many soils will, under an ordinary sys-
tem of cultivation, never require its direct application, and others will do so seldom, and to a
small extent only. J- B. LAWES. Rothamsted.
Library
N. C. State College
(1104)
INDEX
TO THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
Aberdeen, Lectureship on Agriculture in, i. 41.
Abortion of the ewe, indications of, ii. 169.
Absenteeism, causes and evils of, i. 53. .
Adulterations of Flour, ii. 30.
detection of, ii. 3U.
Agricultural Year, its divisions, i. 15.
Readings, i. 421.
Agriculture, difficalties of the first study of, i. 5.
want of schools for teaching, i. 9.
should be a part of education, i. 10.
Books on, their requisite characteristics.i.?.
errors of arrangement in existing,i.ll.
their proper arrangement, i. 12.
their incompetency, i. 13.
Connection with the physical sciences, i. 19
its present position as a Science, i. 19, 20.
methods of acquiring a knowledge of, i. 28.
love for, i. 34.
practical scientific institutions of, i. 35, 46.
Professorship of, at Edinburgh, 40.
Seminary of, at Templemoyle. i. 41.
in England, i. 201.
Agricultui-ists, American, their resources, i. 152.
Ague, effects of draining on,i. 375.
Air. effect of, on germination, ii. 177.
Allowances of contractors in England, i. 213.
Alpaca, the breeding of, ii. 451.
America, resources of her Farmers, i. 152.
Climate of, i. 226.
Hedges in, their advantages, i. 226-7.
expensiveness of them, i. 228.
Draining in, i. 303.
Drafting Sheep in, i. 404.
Horses of, i. 563.
Swine in, and their use, ii. 5, 219.
Farming Industry of, ii. 374.
Experiments in cultivation, ii. 379, 381.
see also United States.
Anatomy, value of to the farmer, i. 61.
Anemometer, the, i. 173.
Animals, geographical distribution,&c.,i. 77, 207
domestic, treatment of. i. 540.
breaking them in, ii. 97. _
experiments in feeding, ii. 342.
Ancrum, Mr., on feeding stock, ii. 342.
Annatto, coloring cheese with, ii. 316.
Ants, acid yielded by, i. 228.
Arbroath pavement, i. 132.
Artificial hatching of fowls, ii. 236.
Asphaltum pavement, advantages, i. 129.
Atmosphere, action of electricity, i. 180.
its usual electric state, i. 183.
Atmospheric phenomena, i. 163. — Importance
of observing, i. 163. — Instruments for, i. 166.
Aurora borealis, appearances of, i. 184.
Autumn, season of, ii. 362.
its characteristics, ii. 362-3.
farm-work of, ii. 363-4.
wheat, sowing of, ii. 416.
Ayr, scholars at, from the U. S., i. 34.
Ayrshire breed of cattle, ii. 446.
B
Bache, Prof., and the Girard College, i 44.
Bacon in the United States, ii. 8.
Baikie, description of, i. 102.
Bailiff, duties of the, i. 159.
Bailey, Mr., mould-board invented by, i. 254.
Baking household bread, ii. 31.
Bare-fallowing, objects, &c. of, ii. 346.
Barley, scientific classification, &c. of, il. 34.
Prof. Johnston on, ii. 34.
return yielded by, ii. 34.
crop in the United States, ii. 34.
quantity annually malted in Great Britain,
ii. 34.
chemical composition, and that of barley-
meal, ii. 35.
grinding and malting of, ii. 35.
its straw, ii. 41.
Sowing of, ii. 174.
comparative weight of Grain, Straw and
Roots, ii. 382.
Barn, plan of, i. 105.
Barometer, description and uses of, i. 166,
Tables connected with, i. 167.
Bathing sheep, time for, &c., ii. 406.
composition for, ii. 407.
stool for, ii. 407.
how performed, ii. 407.
Batts in horses, its causes and remedies, i. 566.
Beans, scientific classification of, ii. 38, 39.
uses, and chemical constitution, ii. 39.
their straw, ii. 43, 45.
reaping of, ii. 379.
carrying in and slacking, ii. 400, 401.
Bedfordshire plow, the, i. 404.
BelFs reaping-machine, described, ii. 384.
Black. James, his thorough drainage, i. 375.
Black-faced Sheep, ii. 430.
Bleeding Horses, i. 564.
Blistering Horses, i. 564.
Body-frame of the East-Lothian Plow, i. 258.
of the Lanarkshire or Wilkie's, i. 262.
' of the Mid-Lothian or Currie, i. 267.
Bogs, drainage of, i. 320. — Example of, in Ire-
land, i. 320.
Boiling-house for food of live-stock, i. 104.
Bondager, origin of the term, ii. 50.
Bone-dust, use of, for raising turnips, ii. 253.
Sowing-machine : its advantages, ii. 253-4.
how to secure from heating, ii. 256.
its chemical composition, ii. 256, 257.
compared with farm-yard dung : their effi-
cacy, ii. 257.
nature of its action in the soil, ii. 257-8.
Book of the Farm, construction of, i. 14. —
Its arrangement, i. 27. — Observations of the
American Editor on, i. 54, 74, 82, 98, 147.
II
INDEX.
Books, advantages of tuition by, to the youiitr
fanner, i. 7.
Agricultural, requisite characteristics, i. 9.
information contained in existing ones, i.lO
their general arrangement, i. 10.
their incompetency, i. 11.
Boswell, Mr., of Kingcausie, on raw and pre-
pared cattle-feed, i. 519.
on hammel.s and' byres, i. rjSl.
Botany and botanical physiology, connection of
with Agriculture, i. 20.
value of a knowledge of. to the farmer.!. 61
Bothy system, the, condemned, ii. 48.
Box-churn, ii. 324.
Brake-harrow, description of, ii. 142.
Branding irons for Sheep, ii. 296.
Braxy in sheep, kinds and treatment of, i. 477.
Breaking-in bridle bit, ii. 214.
domestic animals, ii. 97.
young draught horses, ii. 212.
young saddle-horses, ii. 359.
age for it, ii. 360.
Breeding live stock, points of, ii. 427.
in and-in, ii. 436.
Brick drains, how made, i. 382.
their durability, i. 382.
Bridle of the East Lothian Plow, i. 257.
of the Lanarkshire, i. 262, 265.
of the Mid-Lothian, i. 267.
Bridle bit for breaking-in draught colts, ii. 215.
"British Husbandry," arrangement of steading
propoised in, i. 125.
Broadcast sowing-machine, ii. 142.
Brodio, Mr., on feeding cattle, i. 515.
Bruising grain, various machines for, i. 559.
by hand, i. 559.
by power, i. 560.
Brushwood drains, how made ; not good, i. 382.
Buccleucb, the Duke of, his horses, i. 563.
Bucknell, Mr. on hatching Fowls, ii. 237.
Building stone dykes, ii. 253.
Bursting or marking iron for Sheep, ii. 296.
Bull calves and young bulls, management, ii. 103
ringing them. ii. 272, 298.
treatment of, while serving cows, ii. 273.
Bullock ring and holder, ii. 298.
Bushel measure, capacity of, ii. 55.
Bu.sh harrow, de.scription of, ii. 142.
Butter, making of, ii. 305.
various forms of churns, ii. 307, 323, 324.
making of, from sour cream, ii. 310.
from sweet cream, ii. 312.
from sweet milk, ii. 313.
preparation of for market, ii. 310-12.
.salting and curing of, ii. 311, 312.
its chemical composition, 319.
Byre, its position in the steading, size, &c. i. 99.
best floor for, i. 100.
variouii modes of fixing cattle in, i. 101.
window for, i. 105.
cleaning of, i. 498.
Cabbage, drawing and storing, i. 421.
best varieties for cultivation, i. 441.
the Cow, or Cesarean kale, i. 441.
the Turnip-stemmed, or Kohlrabi, i. 441.
tlie Drumhead, i. 441.
Caithness pavement, i. 132.
Calderwood peat-tile spade, i. 378.
Calves, description of house for, i. 103.
treatment of ii. 82.
extraction of from the mother, ii. 89.
first feeding, &c. after birth, ii. 91, 94, 100.
mode of castrating, and time for it, ii. 102.
disea.ses to which subject, ii. 104, 277.
weaning of, ii. 266.— Proper time, ii. 270.
Calving of cows, reckoning table for, ii. 104.
Canadian straw-cutter, description of, i. 549.
Caponizing fowls, ii. 239.
Carey's wood pavement, i. 130.
Carmichael, Mr. his 'drag log,' ii. 147.
Carpenter work of the steadmg, specificationek
&c. i. 121, 138, 148, 150.
Carrick bog, drainage of, i. 320.
Carrot, cultivation of, i. 442.
drawing and storing, i. 431.
Carrying corn, ii. 391.
^ cart for it, ii. 391.
Carse lands, mode of farming on, i. 66.
farms, modified steading for, i. 124.
of Gowrie, mode of draining in, i. 311.
Carts, liquid manure, ii. 67, 69.
less expensive, for America, ii. 69.
shed, form, size and position of, i. 114
the Corn, ropes, &c. for, ii. 392.
construction and principles of ii. 556.
as applied to American Farming, ib.
cohipared with wagons, ii. 557.
illustrations of different kinds, ii. 561-2.
interesting experiments with, ii. 558-560.
Caschrom, of the ancients, i. 253.
a plow now used in Skye, i. 253.
Castration of the calf, time, age, &c. for, ii. 102.
of the lamb, ii. 165.
of pigs, ii. 221.
Cattle, the first in New-England, i. 207.
in England and America, ii. 105.
Cattle, accommodation of on the steading, i. 99.
sheds for them. i. 89.
binders for, in the byre, i. 101.
court for, i. 104.
effect of spaying on, ii. 107.
hammels for feeding them, i. 108.
courts for the young, i. 109.
arrangements for watering, i. 112.
preparing the courts for, i. 495.
littering them, i. 495.
arrangement of on the steading, i. 496-7.
the milking and other treatment of, i. 498.
supplying them with food, i. 499, 500
Treatment of the Oxen, i. 500.
wisping and currying them, i. 501
fattening, in hammels, i. 501.
slicing their Turnips, i. 501.
treatment of the Calve.s, i. 502.
the servants' cows in England, i. 502.
cleaning their food, i. 503.
quantity of Turnips consumed by, i. 504.
carrying straw to them, i. 504.
dress of their attendant, i. 504.
regularity in attending to them, i. 505.
arrangement of time of attendant, i. 505,506
loss by irregularity in feeding, i. 508.
modes of fattening for exhibition, i. 508.
names given them at different ages, i. 509.
management of, for the Dairy, i. 510.
food given to Dairy Cows, i. 510.
turnip-slicers for them, i. 511.
cftectofdilTerentkitidsof foodonthem,i.515
Diseases to which subject, i. 522.
animals infesting them. i. 523.
Choking, and remedies for it, i. 523.
the Hoven. i. 524.
the Fardlebound, i. 525.
other diseases of, i. 525.
Driving and Slaughtering them, i. 525, 531.
precautions on letting them loose, i. 526.
requisites of their Drover, i. 526.
stripping them, i. 527.
rate of their traveling, i. 527.
their best state for the market, i. 527.
mode of judging of them, i. 528.
preparations for slaughtering, i. 531-2.
INDEX.
Ill
Cattle, various modes of slaughtering, i. 532.
modes of cuttini? up, i. 533, 534.
proportion of ofFal, &c. i. 537.
loss sustained by modes of Cooking, i. 537.
salting their carcasses, i. 537.
u.ses of the hide, hoofs, horns, &c. i. 538.
Feeding them on Turnips, i. 495.
times of, i. 502.
on Potatoes, i. 510. — On Oil-cake,i.511
on Linseed Oil, i. 516.
on Green Malt, i. 516.
on Linseed Meal and Barley, i. 516.
Experiments on the Cost of, i. 517.
comparison of, hammels, <5cc. i. 520.
treatment of in spring, ii. 266.
fattening of, ii. 267.
calculating their weight, ii. 268.
fallacy of these modes of calculation, ii. 269.
their distribution over the pasture, ii. 269-70
grazing them during summer, ii. 274.
sheds for slieltering them, ii. 276.
vv'atering-pool for them, ii. 275 6.
advantages of Pasturage and Hay, ii. 283.
Points to be cultivated by the breeder,ii.427
examples of the different Breeds :
the Short-Horn, ii. 442.
the Long-Horn, ii. 444.
the Hereford and West-Highland, ii. 445.
the Ayrshire, ii. 446.
Teeth of; their development, ii. 454.
indications of age, ii. 455.
Cattle-man, duties of, i. 504-6.
suitable dress for, i. 504.
necessity of his regularity, i. 505.
arrangement of his tiaie, i. 506.
loss through irregularity, i. 506.
• usual wages of, ii. 49.
Chaff-house, position, &c. on the steading, i. 89.
Charlbury subsoil-plow, description of, i. 412.
Cheese, making of ii. 314.
preparation of the Rennet, ii. 314.
breaking and straining the Curd, ii. 315.
■• machine for this purpose, ii. 315.
vat, the, ii. 316.
pressing of, machines for, ii. 316. 329, 330.
making of, from sweet milk, ii. 316.
Cream, ii. 321.
drying and coloring, ii. 316-17.
Insects infesting, ii. 321.
Cheese-press, the stone, ii. 329.
the Compound Lever, ii. 330.
Cheese-rack or turner, ii. 332.
Cheese-vat, description of ii. 315-16.
Chemical Constitution of Soils: see Soils.
Chemistry, connection of with Agriculture, i. 22
its importance overrated, i. 23.
value of an acquaintance with, to the
Farmer, i. 62.
Professor Law on, i. 25.
its true value, i. 25.
Cheviot breed of Sheep, ii. 449.
Cheyne, Captain, mixture of, for his horses, i.548
Chicken!?, management of ii. 226.
Childers, Mr., on feeding Sheep on Tumip9,i.457
Chine-felloD, a disease in cattle ; causes and
remedies, ii. 277.
Choosing the kind of farming, i. 68. — And a
Tutor for it, i. 69.
Churning of cream, ii. 309-10.
of sweet milk, ii. 313.
Churn, various forms of, ii. 322.
the barrel, ii. 322.
Wedgewood's table, ii. 323.
the box hand, ii. 324.
the Irish box, ii. 325.
the plunger, ii. 326.
the same, by power, ii. 327.
Churn, the oscillating, ii. 328.
comparison of the various kinds, ii. 307.
Cirencester Agricultural Institute, i. 25, 141.
Cistern for rain-water, i. 134.
Clas.iiification of corn-plants by the ear, grain
&c. ii. 25.
Clay soil, the pure ; characteristics, i. 214.
effect of sand on it, i. 215.
Clay -loam, i. 215.
Climates, great varieties of, i. 198.
general causes of these, i. 201.
local causes which modify, i. 203.
in Great Britain, i. 204.
as shown in the distribution of plants and
animals, i. 206.
recent change of, in Great Britain, i. 208.
causes of this, i. 209.
of the United States, i. 198.
Dr. Forry on, i. 198, 201.
Jefferson on the differences of, i. 203.
geographical distribution of, i. 200.
Closed-boiler steaming apparatus, i. 566.
Clouds, various forms of i. 175.
weather indicated by, i. 175.
prevalent forms of, in summer, ii. 246.
in autumn, ii. 362.
Coach-house, position, &c. on the steading, i. 98.
fireplace in, i. 98.
Collar for the plow-horse, various forms, i. 388.
Colman, Mr. observations of in Europe, i. 25.
on Chemistry and its application, i. 25.
Colors of Soils, i. 219.
Comparative Anatomy, valae of to Farmers, i. 61
Composts, preparation of, ii. 66, 185.
various substances used for, ii. 66-7.
Concrete, for steading floors, i. 129.
Conduits for drains, building of i. 326.
various forms of in drains, i. 341.
Constitution, importance of attention to, ii. 431.
Contracts for building steadings, i. 122.
Cooked food, advantages of to the horse, i. 546.
Com, quantity consumed by farm-horses, ii. 278.
advantages of, to young horses, ii. 279.
see Wheat, Oats, and the various Grains.
Corn-bam, position of, on the steading, i. 86.
size, form, &c., i. 86.
its floor, i. 87, 88.
its door, i. 87.
Corn-box for sheep, description of, i. 453,
another fonn of it, i. 476.
Corn-bruiser for horses, i. 559.
hand, i 559.
power, i. 560-1.
Corn-chest, best form of i. 90.
Corn-fodder, ii. 40.
Corn-markets, ii. 52.
stock and sample, ii. 52-53.
advantages and disadvautages.ii. 53,54
frauds perpetrated in, ii. 54.
measure used in, ii. 55-56.
laws relating to them, ii. 56.
Coronas round the Sun, i. 189.
weather indicated by, i. 189.
Corrosive sublimate, to prevent Dry Rot, i. 141.
Cost of materials, i. 146-7.
Coulter of the East Lothian plow, i. 256, 260.
of the Lanarkshire, i. 262.
of the Mid-Lothian, i. 267.
nature of its action on the soil, L 271.
Courts for Cattle, position of i. 109.
their size, &c., i. 109.
Coventry, Professor, i. 40.
Cow-cabbage, culture of i. 441.
Cow-house, its position, size, &c., i. 99.
its floor, i. 100.
mode of fixing cattle in, i. 101.
form and size of window, i. 105.
IV
INDEX.
Cow-pox, the, ii. 277.
Cows, treatment of in Winter, i. 496, 498.
feeding of. i. 499 ; ii. 84, 85.
treatment of while with calf, ii. 82.
■ to ascertain when in calf, ii. 83, 104.
diseases to which then euhject, ii. 84.
danger of slipping the calf, li. 86.
treatment of, to prevent this, ii. 87.
during parturition, ii. 89.
the udder, ii. 99.
reckoning table for calving time, ii. 104.
diseases after calving, i 105
their remedies, ii. 105.
effects of spaying on them, ii. 107.
Serving them with the Bull, ii. 107.
in Summer, disca.scs then, ii. 277.
causes afTecting their milk, ii. 317.
Gueuon's Treatise on, ii. 99, 100.
Cradle-scythe, description of, ii. 386.
Cream, churning of, ii. 310.
its chemical composition, ii. 318.
cheese, making of, ii. 321.
Creaming of milk, the, ii. 309.
Croall, Mr., his mode of feeding horses, i. 548.
Crops : see IV/ieat, Beans:, Pease, Oats, Rye.
Crossing live-stock, ii. 437.
Crosskill's clod-crushing roller, ii. 352.
Cross-plowing, objects. &c., ii. 111.
Cultivator: see Grnbbei-.
Cunningham's plow: see Mid-Lothian Ploic.
Curd of milk, composition of, ii. 319-20.
Curd-cutter, description of, ii. 316.
breaker, ii. 328.
Curl in potatoes, causes and prevention, ii. 203.
Currie Plow : see Mid- Lothian Flow.
Curtis, Mr., modes of feeding cattle, i. 516.
Cylinder straw-cutter, i. 551.
turnip-slicer, i. 475.
D
Dairy, general management of, i. 510.
operations in mixed husbandry, ii. 305.
Dairy-farm, general arrangements, i. 67.
modified steading for, i. 124.
grazing cattle on, ii. 305.
Dairy-maid, duties of, i. 162; ii. 308.
Dale's hybrid turnip, culture of, i. 437. — Its ori-
gin, i. 440.
Dalrymple, Mr., on the profit of draining, i. 376.
Damaged wheat, detecting, ii. 28.
Davy, Sir Humphrj-, his agri. chemistry, i. 23.
his theory of irrigation, ii. 74.
on fermentation of dung, ii. 191.
Deanston subsoil-plow ; its action, i. 408, 419.
Deep plowing, advantages of, i. 402.
Dew, theory of, and its iniiucnces, ii. 241.
De Rham on tanks, i. 153.
Dibbling, sowing wheat by, ii. 419.
Dick, Professor, i. 43.
Difficulties of the young farmer, 1. 5.
means of overcoming, i. 7.
Disk straw-cutter, i. 554.
Diseases of Sheep, i. 476 ; ii. 408.
of Cattle, i. 522.
of Horses, i. 568-69.
of Swine, ii. 12, 13.
of C;alves, and their treatment, ii. 104.
of Cows alter calving, ii. 105.
of Potatoes, ii. 203,
of Poultry, ii. 223.
Distribution of labor, i. 5, 17.
of plants, i. 206.
■ of animals over the earth, i. 200, 207.
Docking draught-colts, how done, ii. 217.
Doddering sheep, ii. 297.
Dog, the drover's, i. 481.
the shepherd's, training of, ii. 172.
Dog, varieties of the, ii. 173.
Double mould-board Plow, ii. 332. — A form of,
altered into a Scuffler, ii. 333.
Drafting sheep, &.C., i. 404.
Drag log, the, ii. 147, 353.
Draining, winter the season for, i. 74.
pastoral farms, importance of, i. 459
of the steading, i. 323.
Drains and draining, definition of, i. 302.
universal necessity for them, i. 306.
indications where -wanted, i. 306.
connection of Geology with i. 308.
importance of knowing principles, i. 309
Drains tor the farm-buildings, i. lie.
grating for them. i. 119.
for liquid manure, i. 120.
field, various kinds of, i. 310.
open ditches and gaw-cuts, i. 311.
old mode of, i. 311.
system introduced by Elkington, i. 312
subseiiuent modifications, i. 312.
various sources of water, i. 313.
plan of sheep-drains on a hill, i. 317.
the open drain in grass, i. 317.
the closed, i. 318.
application of Elkington's system to a
pool, i. 318.
and to bogs and marshes, i. 320.
example of this, i. 320.
mode practiced in Ireland, i. 320.
bog-draining, i. 320.
tools used in making, i. 321, 331.
description of Elkington's system, i.323,331
mode and cost of cutting, i. 324.
guage for them, i. 326.
building the conduits, i. 326.
filling-ap, and substances used, i. 327.
section of one, with well and bore, L 327.
principles on which founded, i. 331.
Thorough, i. 333.
objects sought to be attained, i. 333.
necessary depth, i. 333.
necessity of ducts in, i. 337.
tile-ducts, i. 338.
the main drains, i. 340.
regulation of the fall. i. 340.
position of the small drains, i. 341
their depth, i. 343, 352.— Ascertainingthia,
i. 344.
distance between the, i. 345, 368.
evils of too great a distance, i. 346.
position of, with the main drains, i. 347
proper direction of the run, i. 347.
mode of cutting, and the tools, i. 351.
filling in, i. 353. — Materials used for, i. 353. ,
stones for, i. 353. — Mode of preparing them,
i. 354.
Implements for fiUing-in, i. 354.
view of a stone-drain completed, i. 357. —
Its dimensions, i. 357.
time required for making a stone, 1. 358.
plan of a thorough-drained field, i. 372.
best period for executing draining, i. 373.
amelioration of the land by draining, 1.374.
its influence in improving health, i. 375.
examples of the profit of, i. 376.
Draining in America, i. 303.
in the Eastern States, i. 305.
letter on, from an Agricultural Inst., i. 306.
Drain, the flat stone, i. 377.
the peat tile, i. 377.
the clay land shoulder, i. 379.
the plug or wedge, i. 379.
the sod, i. 380.
by the mole-plow, j. 381.
with larch-tubes, i. 382.
with brushwood, i. 382.
INDEX.
Drain, brick, itsdurabilit.v. i. 382.
employment of the plow in cutting, i 3-^3
various plows lor thi.s ; McEwan's, i. 383.
Green's, and Pearson's, i. 383.
scientific principles in draining, i. 384,
Drain-guage, i. 326.
Drain-plows, various: see Drains.
Drain-tiles for main drains, i. 359.
necessity for the sole, i. 359.
size and form, i. 3(50.
number required per acre, i. 361.
junction of small and main ones, i. 362.
laying them down, i. 363.
plumb-level for, i. 365
mode of fixing and covering, i. 365
joining ^^•ith the main drains, i. 36(3.
the sub-main drain, position, &.c.,i.367.
size of for the small drains, i. 368.
the soles for, i. 368 —Putting them in,
i 368.
filling up. i 369.
view of a tile and sole drain, i, 371.
Drain-stone screen, or harp, i. 354
rake, beater, &,c., i. 355-6.
Draught of the plow, i 285.
Draught-Horses, breaking them in, ii 212.
shoeing, docking, &c., ii. 216.
points desirable to cultivate, ii. 439.
the Horse, ii. 439.
the Stallion, ii 440.
the Mare, ii. 441.
Drawing turnips, carrots, &c , i. 421.
Drill sowing-machines, ii. 153
Turnip, ii 258
Grubber, description of, ii. 334
Harrow, ii. 334
unsuiled to America, ii. 258-9.
Drilling, single, objects, <Scc., ii. 117.
double, ii. 121
Drive work, or it will drive you, i 17.
Driving and slaughtering cattle, i. 525. — Sheep,
i. 478. — Swine, ii 5, 6
Dryness of American soil, i. 226
Dry-rot in timber, prevention of i. 141.
Dry stone dykes, building of, ii. 353
their varieties in bight. &c . ii 353-4
openings and stiles in, ii. 357.
expedients to increase the hight,i.357.
Dock-mire pool, drainage of, i 318.
Ducks, management of, ii. 16, 233
gathering, &c., of their eggs, ii. 422, 424.
Dudgeon, Mr., on feeding pigs, ii. 12.
Dung, farm-yard, in the fields, ii 56.
position of the heaps, ii. 57.
removal from the cattle-courts, ii. 60.
laying down the heaps, ii. 60.
gpade, for cutting and lifting, ii. 61.
preparation of for potatoes, ii 180
proportion needed for them, ii. 194.
its distribution, ii. 195
turning the heaps, ii. 181
preparation offer turnips, ii. 183
necessity of its fermentation, ii. 191.
usual quantity on fallow land, ii. 349.
Dung-hawk or drag, ii. 193.
Dunghills and composts, management of, ii 180.
Dutch clinkers, pavements of, i 132.
plow, description of, i. 253
Dutchess Agricultural Institute, i 306 ; ii. 69.
Dykes, stone, building of, ii. 353.
openings for sheep in, ii. 357.
stiles in, ii 357.
means to increase the bight, ii. 357.
E
Earning for cheese-making, ii. 314.
East Lothian or Small's plow, i. 255.
East-Lothian drill sowing-machine, ii. 153.
Ei-ciileobioii. desi'iiplion ol ii 237
Edinburgh Uuiver.sity, agri chair in, i. 40.
Veterinary CollcLre of i. 43.
Education, agricultural, i. 9, 59.
E]gg, chr.nges while batching, ii 237.
Egg.s, treatment of, &c., ii. 422.
gathering them. ii. 422.
modes of keeping them, ii. 423.
composition, analyses of, &c , ii. 425-6.
trade in them, ii. 427
Egypt, artificial hatching of fowls in, ii. 236.
Electricity, relations of to Agriculture, i. 20.
value of a knowledge of, to farmers, i. 60
influence of on the weather, i. 180.
its sources, i 180, 181.
Electrometer and Electroscope, i. 183.
Elkington, Mr., new system of Draining, i. 312
— — application of his system, i 312, 318.
to bogs and marshes, i. 320.
detailed description of the system, i. 323.
principles on which founded, i 332.
its applicability to Scotland, i 333.
Engine-house, position of, i 89.
England, artificial treatment of stock in, ii. 105.
more disease thus induced, ii 105.
the Agriculture of i. 201.
Entomology, value of to the farmer, i 22.
Establishment of Scientific Institutions of PraC'
tical Agriculture, i 35, 46.
Ethrioscope, the, i. 205.
Evans. Mr, plug-drains of i. 380.
Evaporation as a source of electricity, i. 181.
Evils of not studying Agriculture, i. 49.
Ewe house, Burnett's, ii 170.
Ewes, Drafting of, in Autumn, ii. 403.
Tupping of ii. 404.
Bathing of, ii 406 8.
Ewes, lambing of, ii. 155.
accommodation for, when lambing, ii. 157.
their delivery, ii. 157, 158.
their subsequent treatment, ii. 160.
pasturing them, ii. 166.
difi'erences in the treatment of breeds, ii.l67
Diseases at lambing : Remedies, ii. 170.
after lambing, ii. 170.
advantages of shearing them last, ii. 294.
mode of milking them, ii. 295.
Experience, advantages of to the farmer, i. 6.
Experimental farms, their advantages, i. 55.
Factors, evils of ignorance of Agriculture, i, 52.
Facts, observation of, and its importance, i. 210.
— — kind of to be recorded, i. 211.
Failure of the Potato crop ; its causes, ii. 203.
Fallowing, objects of ii. 346.
bare, and soils requiring it, ii. 347,
nature of its action, ii. 351.
Fallow-land, weeding it, ii. 347.
manuring, ii. 348.
liming, ii. 349.
Fardlebound, a disease of cattle : remedies,i.525.
Farm, employments on, in winter, i. 74.
duties of various persons employed, i. 158
steward, duties of, i. 159.
plowman, i. 160.
shepherd, i. 247.
field-worker, i. 162.
dairy-maid, i. 162.
see also Farm Servants.
Farmer, the young, education suited to, i. 59.
Farm-house, form of, i. 153.
ground-plan of its kitchen, i. 154,
the cheese-room, &c. i. 156.;
its position relative to steading, i, 157.
Farming, different kinds of, i. 64.
VI
INDEX.
Farmiup, store, i. G4.
carse, or uraiii, i. 66.
in the iiei;,'liborhood of towns, i. 6C.
dairy, i. 07.
— mixed husbandry, i. 68.
choosing the kind of, i. fiP.
selecting a tutor for teaching, i. 69.
dealing with the details of, i. 71.
Farm- servants, wages of, ii. 46.
the plowman's wages, ii 46.
in b()lliie.«. ii. 47. 48.
the steward, ii. 49.
the shepherd and liedger, ii. 49.
the cattleman, ii. 49.
the field-worker, ii 51.
comparison of their condilion, ii. 51.
Farm-steading: see S/eading
Farm-steward, duties of, i. 159.
wages of, ii 49.
Farm-work, modes of describing, i. 15.
Farm-yard dung, for potatoes and tamips,
ii 180. See also Dung.
Farquharson, Dr. on hoar-frost, i 194.
Farrowing of sows, ii 217.
Fattening of sheep, etiect oa the wool, ii. 302.
Feathers of fowls, uses of, ii. 23.
how formed, ii 239.
Feering ridges, how done, i. 290.
for cross-plowing, ii 113.
for drilling, ii. 117.
Felleuberg, M. de, agricultural institation, i. 44.
Felting power of wool, ii 303.
Fermentation of farm -yard dung, ii. 181.
necessity for it, ii 190.
opinions relative to, ii 191.
Field-gates, construction of, ii 260.
their posts, ii. 260, 261.
modes of constructing, ii. 262.
iron, ii. 264.
wire, ii. 265
their pillars, and fastenings, ii. 265.
Field-work advantages of forwarding, ii. 108.
Field-workers, duties of, i. 162i
their wages, ii 50.
Finlayson's grubber, description of, ii. 207.
Fireplace in the coach-house, i. 98.
Flail, description of the, ii. 345.
Flat stone drain, how made, i. 377
Flax, pulling of, Jcc. ii. 365.
weeding of, ii. 365.
steeping and drying, ii. 366.
average value of the crop, ii 368.
botanical classilication. ii 371.
importation of the seed, ii. 372.
Fleeces, rolling, packing. &c. ii. 298.
average weight of.ii 304.
Floor of the com-bani, i 86, 88.
materials for, i. 88.
of the stables, i 93.
of the riding-horse stable, i. 98.
of the byres, i. 100.
Flottebeck, Flanders, ag. institution at, i. 49.
Flour, grinding wheat into, ii. 29.
how to judge of its quality, ii. 29.
various adulteratio.is, ii. 30.
mode of detecting these, ii. 30.
analyzing it, ii 31.
its chemical composition, ii. 31.
fermentation of it, ii. 32.
mixing potatoes with it, ii. 32.
Fly, the Hessian, i. 24.
Fly-wheels misapplied, i. 553.
true uses of, i. 554.
■ — the theory of, i. 554.
Foal, birth of, ii 279.
Fogs causes of, i 197.
Foot-rot, treatment of, L 477.
r'cri AA^\. iiicof-pity of, i. 6.
Korry. l)r. <iii t'limalc, ii. 209.
J'owIn ;n-c<inini()dation for, i. 115.
irealniiiifeof ilicm in winter, ii. l."", 19.
general neglect of, ii 13, 14.
various kinds on a farm, ii. 14.
Hens, treatment of. ii 14, 15.
Turkeys, ii. 15.
Gcepe, ii 15.
Ducks, ii 16.
Pigeons, ii. 16.
Prices in different countries, ii. 16.
modes of judging of them, ii. 17.
their houses, ii 17
daily treatment ii 19.
food for them, ii 20
breeding of, in winter, ii. 21.
cramming, ii. 22.
nses of their feathers, ii. 23.
Hatching of them, ii. 223.
season for it, ii 223.
by artificial heat, ii 236 7.
development of the egg, ii. 237.
Management of hens. ii. 224.
of turkeys, ii. 227.
of geese, ii. 230.
of ducks, ii. 233.
of pea-fowl, ii. 234.
of pigeons, ii. 234.
in towns, their treatment, ii. 235.
Diseases to which subject, ii. 235-6.
castrating them, ii. 239.
Frenchlaw, drainage at, i. 320
Frost, definition of, i. 195.
G
Gabell's subsoil plow, i. 412.
Gaits, setting up oats in, ii. 378.
Galactometer, description and uses of, ii. 318.
Garget in ewes, treatment of, ii. 169.
Gates of the steading, i. 120.
field, construction of, ii. 260.
their posts, ii. 261.
various kinds of, ii. 262.
iron, ii. 264.
wire, ii. 265.
pillars and fastenings, ii. 265.
Gaw-cuts, draining by, i. 311.
Geese, general treatment of, ii. 15.
management while hatching, ii. 230.
Geographical distribution of climate, i. 200.
of the Human Family, i. 200.
Geological relations of soils, i. 219.
Geology connected with Agriculture, L 20.
value of a knowledge of, i. 61.
Germination of seeds, ii. 177.
effects of water and air, ii. 177.
effects of plowing and sowing on, iL 178.
of wheat, process of, ii. 421.
Gimmers. lambing of, ii. 163.
drafting, for sale, ii. 403.
Glazing of the steading, i. 145, 151.
Gluten, Prof. Johnston on, i. 31.
Good and bad plowing and sowing, effects o(
on germinating seeds : see Germination.
Gore-farrow, mode of forming, i. 295.
Grain, steaming of, for horses, i. 558.
apparatus for bruising it, i. 559.
chemical constitution, ii. 41.
disposing of; the markets, ii. 52.
its sale by bulk or sample, ii. 53.
measures for it, ii 56.
laws relating to its sale, ii. 56.
comparative statements, ii. 179.
reaping of, ii. 373-388.
carrying in, stacking, &c. ii. 388-400.
see also Barley, Wheat, Oats, 4r<^-
INDEX.
VII
Granary, proper position of, i. 80.
plan and description of, i. 106.
form of window for, i. 107.
securing it from vermin, i. 117.
Grass for horses in summer, ii. 281.
land, or lea, plowing of, i. 74.
clearing of from stones, ii. 259.
summer management of, ii. 274.
• see also Pastures.
Grass-parks, season for letting, ii. 82.
Grass-seeds, sowing with spring wheat, ii. 132.
■ and by sowing-machine, ii. 134.
harrowing, ii. 142.
Grating for drains, i. 119.
Gravelly soils, definition of, i. 216.
loams, i. 216.
Grazing cattle, ii. 274.
Gray, Mr. on moor-band pan, i. 418.
Gray slates, not good for roofing, i. 144.
Green, Mr., drain-plow invented by, i. 383-
Green malt, feeding cattle on, i. 516.
Grieve, or steward, duties of, i. 159.
Grignon, agricultural institution at, i. 47.
Grinding wheat, processes of, ii. 29.
barley, ii. 35.
oats, ii. 37.
beans, ii. 39.
Ground plan of an existing steading, i. 83.
of a propo.sed steading, i. 85.
Grab, the oat : its ravages : prevention, ii. 151.
Grubber, Finlayson's, ii. 207.
Kirkwood's, ii. 209.
the common Drill, ii. 335.
Wilkie's ii. 335.
Guenon's Treatise on Milch Cows, ii. 99.
highly esteemed, ii. 99, 100.
H
Hail, phenomena attending, ii. 245.
Halos around the sun and moon, i. 185.
indications of weather from, i. 185.
Hammels for feeding live-stock, i. 108.
their position, size, &c., i. 108, 125.
their advantages over byres, i. 520-21.
Hams, curing of, ii. 11.
Hand draw-hoe for drains, i. 334.
Hand stubble-rake, the, ii. 388.
Haunam, Mr., on wheat, ii. 383.
Harness, position of, in the steading, i. 93.
of tlie plow-horse, i. 386.
its weight and cost. i. 387.
cleaning of, i. 564.
Harrow, various forms of, ii. 138.
the wooden, ii. 139.
the iron, ii. 141.
the grass-seed and iron-web, ii. 142.
the brake, ii. 142.
the drill or potato, ii. 210.
Harrowing sowed laud, ii. 132, 135.
advantages of in spring, ii. 112.
Harvest-bug, the, ii. 239.
Hatching of the various fowls, ii. 223.
season for it, ii. 223.
of Hens, ii. 225.
of Turkeys, ii. 227.
of Geese." ii. 230.
Ducks, ii. 233.
Pea-fowl, ii. 234.
Pigeons, ii. 234.
house for it, described, i. 115.
by artificial heat, ii. 236.
phenomena of its stages, ii. 237.
Hatherton, Lord, results of draining, i. 376.
Haulm, or straw, of the potato, ii. 66.
as manure, iL 66.
Hawthorn for hedges, i. 231.
Hay, for sheep in winter, i. 125.
Hny, cutting, for horses, ii. 278.
from diUerent grasses, ii. 336.
making, by manual labor, ii. 337
with lior.se labor, ii. 337.
thatching of the stacks, ii. 339.
calculating their weight, ii. 340-1.
average weight per acre, ii. 341.
chemical constitution, ii. 341.
value of the crop, ii. 342.
Implements in making, ii. 342-4.
Tedding-machine, ii. 342.
Rake, the hand, ii. 342-3.
the American horse, ii. 344.
Hay and Straw Cutters, forms of, i. 549.
the Canadian, i. 550.
the Cylinder, i. 551.
the Disk, i. 555.
Hay-house, position, size, &c., i. 90.
I Hay-knife, description of, ii. 278.
I Hay-racks, forms of, i. 91.
for the riding-horse, i. 96.
for sheep, i. 449.
Hay-rakes : see Hay.
Hay-stacks, building, &c. ii. 338.
thatching, ii. 339.
calculating their weight, ii. 341.
Health, beneficial effect of Draining on, i. 375,
Hedges in America, i. 226-7.
Mr. Downing on. i. 227.
the hawthorn for. i. 226.
the Osage Orange for, i. 228.
expensiveness of, i. 228.
Hedges, Thorn, planting, i. 226, 236.
proper season for, i. 227.
mode of making, i. 228.
Implements made use of, i. 230.
choo.sing the plants, i. 231.
marking out the line, i. 232.
bed for, i. 233.
preparation for planting, i. 234.
laying the plants, i. 234.
best weather for planting, i. 235.
dimensions of the ditch, \ 235.
view of a finished hedge-bank, i. 237.
obstacles to be encountered, i. 237.
water lodging in, i. 238.
bad effect of the scarsement, i. 240.
planting in shrubberies, i. 242.
planting in curves, i. 242.
turf fences to them, i. 242-3.
Hemp, steeping and drying, ii. 368.
natural history of, ii. 372.
clas.sification of, ii. 372.
Henderson, Mr., on Swine, ii. 222.
on preparing Flax, ii. 366.
Hens, management of, ii. 11, 12.
houses for them, ii. 17.
treatment while setting, ii. 17.
Hepburn, Mr., snow-harrow and plow of, ii.l71.
Hereford ox, the, ii. 445.
Hessian fly, the, i. 22.
Highland and Agl. Soc.proposed steadings of,
i. 125.
Hill-shepherd, qualifications of, ii. 168.
Hoar-frost, injurious effects of, i. 193.
Hoe, the hand, i. 364.
Hofwyl agricultural institution, i. 44.
Hogs : see Sicine.
Hog's lard, properties of, ii. 12.
Hohenheim agricultural institution, i. 48.
Hop, cultivation of ii. 369.
picking of ii. 370.
drying and packing, ii. 370.
uncertainty of the crop, ii. 370
duty on the, ii. 371.
amount of per acre, ii. 371.
scientific classification, ii. 373.
VIII
INDEX.
Hop, natural history of, ii. 373.
exports and imports of, ii. 373.
Hopetoun oat. tlie, ii. 148.
Horns of Cattle, ii. 446.
of Sheep, ii. 480.
Horse, tlie. in New-England, i. 207.
technicalities of, i. 546.
development of the teeth, ii. 453.
indications of its age, ii. 45\;-3.
Horses, Farm, accommodation of, i. 90.
treatment during winter, i. 539.
■ the stables, i. 99. 539.
day's feeding and work of, i. 539.
cleaning them, i. 542.
warm mash for them, i. 543.
allowance of oats, i. 543.
breeding;: tliem on the farm, i. 545.
treatment of the mares, i. 545.
the youn?r, i. 545.
names of different ages. i. 546.
cooked food for, i. 546.
danger of too nutritive food, i. 546.
. various mi.xtures for, i. 547.
regular allowance of food, i. 548.
superiority of prepared food, i. 548.
hay and straw cutters, i. 549.
steaming apparatus, i. 556.
corn-bruisers, i. 559.
choice of names for, i. 561.
Riding and Harnes.s. i. 97.
treatment in winter, i. 562.
before riding out, i. 563.
cleaning their harness, i. 564.
Diseases to which subject, i. 564.
Bleeding them, i. 564.
Blistering, i. 565.
Physicking, i. 565.
Fomentations, other remedies, i. 566.
Pulse of the horse, i. 5G6.
animals infesting, i. 566.
the Batt-s, i. 566.
Inflammation of the Bowels, i. 567.
Colds, i. ,567.
Grease,!. 567.
the Stagger,*?, i. 567.
Thrush and Corns, i. 568.
Broken Wind, i. .568.
Saddle-Galls and Crib-biting, i. 568.
AVindsucking. i. 569.
Dust-ball and Worms, i. 569.
Specks in the eye, i. 569.
uses of its Offals, i. 569.
Grazing them in Summer, ii 274.
Feeding them then, ii 281.
Diseases, and Insects infesting, i. 566 ;
ii. 283-4.
Breaking in. ii. 212, 359.
age for this, ii. 360.
Points to be cultivated, li. 430, 439.
Horse, Draught, points of ii. 439.
the Stallion, ii. 440.
the Man;, ii 441.
Horse-cloths, the, i. 98.
Horse chesnut, feeding sheep on the, ii. 297
Horse- hot, ii. 284.
Horse-hoe, Wilkie's. description of, ii. 335.
Horse-louse, description of, i. 566.
Horse-ponds, position and size of, i 136.
Household bread, baking of, ii. 31.
Hovcn, a di.sease in cattle, cure of, i. 524.
Howden. Mr , on the profit of Draining, i. 376.
experiments by, on feeding Cattle, i. 518.
on the Potato, li. 205.
Hurdles for sheep on turnips, i. 466-7.
implements for making, i. 467-8.
setting them up, i. 443, 469.
Husbandry, Mixed, in the United States i. 68.
Hydrography, value of a knowledge of, i. 61.
Hygrometer, description of, i. 171.
Ice. properties of i. 196.
evaporation from it, i. 196.
its cooling powers, i. 196
Imperial bushel, standard capacity of, ii. 55.
Implement-house, position, ic, of, i. 90,
Implements of the fanner, i. 18.
importance of, i. 18.
deficient varieties of i. 12, 18.
Importations of cattle, i 207.
Industry in America, ii 374.
Insects infesting Horses, i. 566 ; ii. 284.
Cheese, ii. 321.
Institutions of Practical Agriculture, i 25,35, 46
Ireland, Agricultural Schools in, i. 25, 42.
Dr Kane on her Resources, i. 191.
Irish box-churn, ii. 325.
Iron, its use on farms, i. 97.
Iron field gates, examples of, ii. 263.
Iron web-harrow, ii 142.
Irrigation, begun during winter, i. 75.
theory of its effects, ii. 73.
Isometrical views of steading.?, i. 82, 83.
Italian rye-grass, peculiarities of, i. 22.
J
Jacob, Mr., on the Moeglin Agl. Inst., i. 46.
Jefferson on differences of climate, i 203, 209.
Joint-fellon, a disease in cattle, ii 277.
causes and treatment, ii. 277.
Johnston, Prof, on Gluten, ii. 31.
on Barley, ii. 34.
K
Kane, Dr., on the Resources of Ireland, i, 191.
Kelso, effect of Draining on its health, i. 375.
Kildrumraie oat, the, ii US.
Kirkwood's grubber, ii. 209.
Kyan's process to prevent dry-rot, i. 142.
L
Labor, variety of on a farm, i. 5.
distribution of, i. 5.
Laboring population of the United StateB, ii 45.
Laing, Mr., on subsoil plowing, i 413.
Lamb, extraction of from the mother, ii. 158.
treatment of after birth, ii. 166.
bringing up by hand, ii. 163.
castrating of ii. 165.
diseases when young, ii. 169.
weaning of ii. 295.
marking and buisting, ii. 296.
instruments for these, ii. 296.
Lambing ewes, ii. 155.
Lanibing-park, proposed, ii. 167.
Lanarkshire or Wilkie's plow, i 255.
detailed description of i. 262.
Landowners, evils of their ignorance of Agri-
culture, i. 49.
Land-rollers, various forms of ii 146.
Lantern (or the stable, i 544.
Larch-tube drains, i. 382.
Lame, Ireland, Agricultural School at, i. 25, 42.
Law, Professor, on Chemistry, i. 25.
Law of the corn-market, ii. 56.
Lawns, pasturing sheep on, ii. 266.
Lawtown turnip, i. 437
its origin, i. 440.
Lead-work of the steading, i. 143. 149, 151.
Lea-ground, plowing of i. 394. — Modes of plow-
ing, in different soils, i. 395.
Le Couteur, Colonel, on wheat, ii. 25.
Leicester breed of Sheep, ii. 447.
Lever cheese-press, ii. 330.
INDEX.
IX
Lever turnip slicer for sheep, i. 470.
Lifting^ potatoes, time for, ii. 409.
by the plow. ii. 410.
by Law-son's brander, ii. 411.
by the graip, ii. 41'2.
Lime, preservation of, i. 137.
preparation of, for the land, i 137 ; ii. 349.
quantity for various soils, ii- 350.
nature of its action, ii. 351.
Liming of land, ii. 349.
Lind's anemometer, i. 173.
Liudley, Professor, on'the Potato, ii. 212.
Linseed, feeding cattle on, i. 516 ; ii. 372.
imported into Great Britain, ii. 372.
expressing the oil, ii. 372.
Liqaid-manure drain, i. 120, 152.^
tank, its position, &c. i. 120 ; ii. 63.
farms where tanks are wanted, ii. 64.
expense of the tanks, ii. 65.
application of, ii 65.
best cart for, ii. 68.
cistern and pump for, ii. 69. 70.
Littering cattle, i. 495.
Littering of sows, ii. 217.
Little, Mr., on the hill-shepherd, ii. 168.
Live-stock, treatment of i. 13.
importance of attention to, i. 75.
accommodation for, i. 79.
their proper position, i. 80.
providing winter food for. i. 421.
Points of, to be cultivated, ii. 427.
symmetry or shape of ii. 428.
robustness of constitution, ii. 431.
early maturity, ii. 432.
selection of parents, ii. 433.
breeding in-and-in, ii. 436.
Crossing, ii. 437.
examples of Horses, ii. 439.
Cattle, ii. 442.
Svrine, ii. 451.
see also Cattle, Horses, Sheep, &c.
Loam, definition of the term, i. 213.
clay, i 215.
sandy and gravelly, i. 216.
London Veterinary College, i. 43.
Long- Horn breed of cattle, ii. 444.
Loose box in the stable, i. 96.
its importance, i. 96.
Loudon, Mr., steading arrangement of, i. 125.
Low, Professor, i. 41.
his arrangement of steading, i. 125.
theory of irrigation, ii. 73.
M
M'Ewan, Mr., his drain-plow, i. 383.
Mackey breed of hog.s, ii. 8.
Machines, reaping, ii. 385.
Madden, Dr., on the germination of seeds,ii. 177.
on the nitrate of soda as manure, ii. 189.
on the fermentation of dung, ii. 191.
comparison of manures by, ii. 206.
Magnetism, value of a knowledge of, i. 60.
Malting of barlej-, ii. 34.
Man, his susceptibility to social pleasures, i. 77.
Mangel-wurzel, drawing and storing of, i. 431.
Mangers for cows, form, &c., i. 100.
supplying with food, i. 100.
Manures, farm-yard, ii. 180.
compost, ii. 184.
artificial and compound, ii. 186-7.
li.st of these, prices, &c., ii. 190.
comparison of various, ii. 206.
bone-dust, ii. 353.
liquid, i. 152-3.
Mann's reaping-machine, ii. 384.
Mares, treatment of i. 545.
management while in foal, ii. 279.
Mares, treatment after parturition, ii. 280.
covering, by the stallion, ii. 280.
points to be cultivated, ii. 441.
Market, the Cattle, i 527.
the Sheep, i. 482.
the Corn, ii. 52.
the Stock, ii. 52.
Sample, ii. 53.
comparison of, ii. 53-4.
frauds in, ii. 54.
laws relating to, ii. 56.
Marketing, winter the season for, i. 76.
Marking sheep, and the instruments, i. 479.
Marshall, Mr., on the influence of winds, ii. 247
Marshes, drainage of i. 320.
Mashes for farm-horses, i. 543.
Ma.son-work of the steading, i. 148, 150.
Mathematics, value of to the farmer, i. 60.
Measures for grain, ii. 55, 56.
Mechanics, importance of a knowledge of, i. 60
application of to Agriculture, i. 18.
Melvin. Mr., on subsoil-plowing, i. 413.
on trenching, i. 416.
Merino .sheep, history of ii. 304.
difficulty of fattening them, ii. 302.
Meteorology, value of a knowledge of i. 61.
Meteorological tables, use of i. 152.
Mice, prevention of the ravages of, i. 117.
Mid-Lothian or Currie plow, i. 255. — Detailed
description of i. 267.
Migrations of animals, i. 208.
Milk, churning of ii. 307.
yield and quality of ii. 317.
its constituents, ii. 317-18.
various kinds, composition of ii. 318-19.
coagulation of, for cheese-making, ii. 314.
various preparations for the table, ii. 320.
Milk-house, situation, &c. i. 155.
its furnishings, ii. 306.
the vessels, and materials, ii. 306.
necessity of cleanliness in, ii. 307.
Milking the cow. modes of ii. 94.
vessels for it, ii. 95, 96.
Milking-pail, best form of ii. 308.
Mists, phenomena attending, i. 197.
Mixed farming, i. 68.
in the United States, i. 68.
Moeglin Agricultural Institution, i. 45.
Moisture in laud considered, i. 303.
Mole-plow, description of i 381
formation of drains by, i. 381.
Moon, effects of its changes, i. 191.
Moor-band pan, destroying, i. 418.
chemical composition of, i. 420.
cause of its injurious effects, i. 420.
Mortar-cart, the Swedish, i 137.
Mould-board of the plow, i. 254.
of the East-Lothian plow, i. 256.
;- Lanarkshire or Wilkie's, i 262.
Mid-Lothian or Currie, i. 267.
nature of its action, i. 274.
scientific principles of i. 278.
formation of i. 278
mode of analyzing it, i. 278.
characters of the various, i. 280.
mode of constructing, i. 282.
Slight's new, i 281.
pattern for it, i 284.
building the block for, i 284.
Mountain snow-plow, ii 171
Movable sheds for sheep, i. 456.
Mucilage of linseed, ii. 372.
Mud-hoe, ii. 63.
Mudie, Mr. Characteristics of Winter by, i. 77.
on Spring, ii. 76.
on Summer, ii 240.
Mutton, modes of cutting np, i. 487.
INDEX.
N
Napier, Lord, on the lambing of ewes, ii 167.
Net for confinine sheep, i 444.
tools used in settinfj up, i. 444.
New-Jcrsoy schol.irs at Ayr. i. 34.
New-Knpland. lirst cattle in, i. 207
New- York, therniometrieal observations at, for
25 years, i. 209-10.
wheat in, ii. 2.'5.
Nitrate of soda as manure, ii. 189.
o
Oats, sowing and culture of, ii. 148.
varieties of, ii 36, 148.
sowing broadcast, ii. 150.
drill-sowing, ii. 150.
diseases to which subject, ii. 151.
average crop of: its value, ii. 37.
weight of straw, grain, &c ii. 42, 382.
daily allowance to farm horses, i. 543-4.
quantity consumed, ii 278.
advantage of, to young horses, ii 279.
grinding, into meal. ii. 37.
natural history of, ii 36.
classification of. ii. 36.
chemical constitution, ii. 37.
Crop of in the United States, ii. 38.
Observing and recording facts, i. 210.
method to be pursued, 1. 211.
Ohio, wheat in, i. 25.
Oilcake, manufacturing, ii. 372.
feeding cattle on. i. 511 ; ii. 372.
machine for breaking, i 514.
advantages, for calving-cows, ii. 85.
for sheep on turnips, i 452.
box for, i. 453.
Open ditches, draining by, i. 311.
Osage Orange for hedges, i. 226.
Oxen : see Cattle, SfC.
Ox-louse, description of, i. 522.
P
Packing -woal, ii. 300.
Painting the steading, i. 146, 151.
Parasitic animals infesting cattle, i. 522.
Paring-plow, description of, ii. 124.
Parsnips, drawing. iScc. i. 421.
best varieties, i 441.
Pastoral farming, i. 65.
Pastoral districts of the U. S. i. 65.
Pastoral farms, steading for, i. 123.
importance of shelter, i. 459.
breeds of sheep for, i. 458 9.
drainage of, i. 459.
management of sheep on, i. 459-60.
stells for, forms of, i. 461-3.
■ erection of sheep-cots, i. 463.
Hill. i. 464.— Stells for, i 465, 466.
Pasturage for cattle, ii. 274
Pasturing anc' soiling, comparison o ii. 283.
Peafowl, treatment of. ii. 23, 234.
Pearson, Mr , drain plow by, i. 383.
Pea crop in the United States, ii. 41.
Pease, botanical clas.sification of, ii. 40.
average crop, ii 40.
chemical composition, ii. 40.
uses to which applied, ii. 41.
their straw, or haulm, ii. 42.
reaping and stocking of, ii. 379.
carrying in and stacking, ii. 400-1.
Peat tile drain, how made, i. 377.
Pennock'e improvement on the English sowing-
machine, i. 31.
revolving rake, ii. 344.
Pennsylvania, wheat in, ii. 25.
Pet lambs, rearing, ii. 163.
Physical scienceB, importance to Agricaltare,i.l9
Physicking horses, i. 565.
Physioloiry of l)Iant8, value of knowledge of, i. 20
Picking hofis. ii. 370.
Pickling seed-wheat, objects of, ii 126.
Pigeons, management of, ii. 16, 234.
-^ — houses for them, i. 117 ; ii. 18.
Pigs, management of, ii. 219, 221.
Pig-.sties. dimensions, &c. i. 114.
I Pitting Potatoes, ii 413.
forms of pit, ii. 413-14. ;
' the conical, ii. 413. '
■ the prismatic, or long, ii. 413.
, ventilation of these, ii. 414.
I Planting Potatoes, ii. 192
Plants, geographical distribution of, i. 206.
1 their respiration, i. 180.
! Plaster-work of the steading, i. 145.
■ specifications, i. 149. 151.
Plow, the : its uses, i 245.
expense of, i. 249.
; advantages of iron and wooden, i. 249.
I defects of its working, i 249.
I remedies for this, i 250.
I proper tempering of the iron, i. 251.
I its early history, i. 253.
] the ca.«chrom. a primitive form of, i. 253.
rude kind still in use, i 253.
; its gradual improvement, i. 253.
first introduction of Small's, i 253.
view of its land-side, i. 254.
general description of, i. 255.
its general characteri.'Jtics, i. 256.
the East-Lothian, i. 255-6.
the Lanarkshire, i. 255, 262.
its peculiarities, i. 262.
the Mid-Lothian, i. 255.
detailed description of this, i. 267.
its general action, i. 271. .
action of the coulter, L 271. '
the share, i. 273.
the mould-board, i 274.
principles and formation of this, i. 279.
its degrees of draught, i. 285.
Ransome's Bedfordshire, i. 404.
the Two-furrow, i. 405.
the Mole, for cutting drains, i. 381.
various others for drain-cutting, i. 382.
the Double Mould-board, ii. 332.
the scuffling or cleaning, ii. 333.
Smith's sub«)il, i. 408, 418.
other subsoil, i. 412.
Yoking the horses to, i. 386.
' ^^ harness for it, i. 386-7.
ordinary weight and cost, i. 387.
working with two horses, i. 388.
guidance of the horses, i. 389.
swing-trees for two horses, i. 390.
calculating their strength. &c. i. 390-1.
making the swing-trees of iron, i. 391.
swing-trees for three horses, i. 391.
and for four, i. 393. 394.
slowness of its improvement, i. 402.
disadvantages of wheeled, i. 402-403.
various makers of in England, i. 405.
application to lifting potatoes, ii 410-11.
Plowing, winter the season when done, i. 74.
contrasted effects of good and bad, ii. 178.
Hidges. modes of, i. 289, 396
various breadths of, i 289.
feering. or striking them, i. 290.
gathering up from the flat, i. 292.
casting, yoking or coupling, i. 294.
the gore-furrow, i. 295.
two-ont-andtwo-in, i. 297.
inbreaks, i. 298.
twice gatheringup. i. 299.
cleaving with and without gore-farrow4.300
INDEX.
XI
Plowing, Cross, i. 301.
Angle, how done, i. 301.
Rib, i. 301-2.
Stubble and lea ground, i. 394.
order in w^hich done, i. 395.
ways of, and soil, i. 395.
head-ridges, i. 396.
characteristics of correct, i. 397.
examples of bad, i. 399.
weight of earth turned over, i. 400.
time occupied by, i 400.
Table of time lost in turning, i. 401.
advantage of long ridges, i. 401.
proper length on steep ground, i. 401
chemical changes forwarded by, i. 402.
Deep, advantages of, i. 402.
Shallow, when admissible, i. 402.
Trench and Subsoil, i. 408.
Mr. Smith's plow for, i. 408, 418.
necessity of previous drainage, 1. 410.
other forms of plows, i. 411.
advantage derivable from, i. 412.
general remarks, i. 419.
— — Cross, its objects, &;c.ii. 111.
for barley-seed, ii. 174.
for autumn wheat, ii. 416.
Plowing-matches, advantage of, i. 406.
ordinary way of conducting, i. 406.
errors in judging, i. 406.
Plowman, duties of, i. 160.
best education for, i. 398.
wages and allowances of, ii. 46.
Plug-drains, description of, i. 378.
section of, i. 379.
Plumber- work of the steading, i. 143.
measurement and cost, i. 149, 151.
Plumb-level for the drain-cutter, i. 365.
Plunger-churn, ii. 326.
Pneumatics, value of, i. 60.
Poles for hops, ii. 369.
Politics detrimental to the farmer, i. 9.
Pond, the horse, position. &c. i 136.
. for sheep-washing, ii. 287.
Pork, pickling of, ii. 10.
fattening, ii. 8.
see also Swine.
Posts of field-gates, ii. 260.
Potato, the, mixing with wheat flour, ii. 32.
as food for Cattle and Pigs, i. 510, 511 ; ii. 6.
Potatoes, preparing dung for, ii. 180, 183.
planting of, ii. 192.
plowing, harrowing, &c. for, ii. 192.
dunging, planting, and plowing in, ii. 194.
width of the drills, ii. 199.
best varieties of, ii. 199, 200.
effects of soil on, ii 199-200.
various modes of cultivating, ii. 201.
harrowing after planting, ii. 202.
Diseases to which subject, ii. 203.
the curl, ii. 203.
the taint, ii. 203.
natural history of the plant, ii. 205.
classification of, ii. 206.
introduction into Great Britain, ii. 206.
damage done by rooks, ii. 206.
Failure, Prof. Lindley on, ii. 312.
Lifting and Pitting them, ii. 409.
by the Plow, ii. 410.
: by the graip, ii. 412.
storing of, ii. 412.
forms of Pits for, ii. 413-14.
the conical pit, ii. 413.
the prismatic or long, ii. 413.
necessary precautions against heating,ii.414
comparison with Wheat, ii. 414.
Cobbett's assertion, ii. 414.
No. persons supported by an acre of, ii. 415.
Potatoes, Analyses of. ii. 415.
changes of, by boiling, ii. 4 1.").
Starch and Tapioca, manufacture of, ii. 41-1.
average value of the crop, ii. 410.
Potato brander, or raiser, ii. 411.
Potato-graip, ii. 412.
Potato or drill harrow, the, ii. 210.
Potato haulm, or straw, for manure, ii. 65.
Potato oat. peculiarities, ii. 148.
Potato-raiser, the, ii. 411.
Potato-store, position, &c. i. 117.
Poultry on the steading, i. 115.
management of in winter, ii 13.
general neglect of, ii. 14.'
kinds kept on the farm, ii. 14.
Hens, ii. 14.
Turkeys and Geese, ii. 15.
Ducks and Pigeons, ii. 16.
Prices of, ii. 16.
how to judge of, ii 17.
their Houses, ii. 17, 18.
daily treatment, ii. 19, 22.
food" for them, ii. 19, 22.
breeding them in winter, ii. 21.
remarks on cramming, ii. 22,
uses of their feathers, ii. 23.
Diseases of, ii. 24, 223, 235.
Indigestion, ii. 223-4.
Shell-less Eg;gs, ii. 324.
Egg-bound, ii. 224.
Remedies, ii. 224.
Caponizing, ii. 239.
Hatching them, ii. 223, 236.
of Hens, ii. 224-7.
of Turkeys, ii. 227.
of Geese, ii. 230.
of Ducks, ii. 233.
of Pea-fowl and Pigeons, ii. 234.
treatment in towns, ii. 236.
Castrating of ii. 239.
Poults, management of, ii. 229.
Practical Agriculture, teaching, i. 35, 46.
Practical Husbandry, learning, i. 28.
necessity of attention, i. 29
commence in youth, i. 34.
Presser-roller, objects of, ii. 136.
described, ii. 146.
Produce, transporting, by steam, i. 67.
Profit from draining, i. 375.
Pulling flax and hemp, ii. 365.
Pulse of the horse, i. 566.
Pulse crops : see Beans, Pease, ^c.
Punching-nippers, for marking Iambs, ii. 236.
mode of using, ii. 296.
Pupilage, time for commencing, i. 70.
first employments, i. 71.
Q
duadrangular steading, origin of, i. 125.
Cluarter-ill, a disease of cattle, ii. 277.
treatment of, ii. 277.
R
Rain, appearances of, i. 186.
causes of its fall, i. 186.
Tables of quantities, &c. i. ] 87.
connection of, with winds, i. 190.
effect of the phases of the Moon, i. 191.
foreign matters brought down by, i. 191.
Rain-water, cistern for, i. 134.
Rain-guage, description of, i 174.
mode of using, i. 174.
Rake, the hand hay, ii 343.
the American horse, ii. 344.
the stubble, ii 388.
Pennock's revolving horse, ii. 344.
Rams, separate feeding of, i. 452.
XII
INDEX.
Rams, serving the ewes by, ii. 404.
Kansome, Messrs., plow improvements, i. 403,
their F F or Bedfordshire plow, i. 403.
Rape, feeding sheep on. i. 455.
Raus, prevention of their ravages, i. 117.
Readings, agricultural, i. 4i!l.
Reaping of grain, importance, ice. ii. 373.
proper ripeness of the crop. ii. 375.
Mr. Hannam's experiments, ii. 38i-3.
superintendence of Uie reapers, ii. 376.
mode of cutting with the scythe, ii. 376.
arrangement with the workers, ii. 377.
Gaits, formation of, ii 378
Rye, Beans, and Pease, ii. 379.
and Mowing contrasted, ii. 379.
greater cheapness of Mowing, ii 379.
other advantages, ii. 3S0.
proportion of straw, grain and roots, ii. 381.
Reaping machines : ii. 364-6.
Smith's, ii. 334.
Bells, ii. 384.
Mann's, ii. 384-5.
compared with hand-reaping, ii. 385.
Reaping-sickles, forms of, ii. 385 6.
Reaping-scythes, ii. 386.
Rennet for cheese-making, ii. 314.
Rennie, Prof., on Irrigation, ii. 73. — The proper
tlieorj-, ii. 74.
Repainng fences, ii. 259.
Respiration of plants, effect on the air, i. 181.
Ribbing, plow for, i. 302.
mode of executing, ii 125.
Ricks, hay, building of, ii. 338.
Ridges, modes of plowing, i. 289.
different breadths of. i. 289.
mode of feering. i. 290.
gathering-up (rom the flat, i 292.
casting, yoking or coupling, i. 294.
the gore-furrow, i. 295.
two-out-and-two-in, i. 297.
inbreaks, i. 298.
twice gathering-up, 299.
cleaving with and without gore-furrow,
i. 300.
cross-plowing, i. 301.
angle-plowing, i. 301.
rib-plowing, i. 302.
Ring for the t nil, ii 297.
the fixing of it. ii. 298.
River-water, peculiarities of. i. 135.
Roberton, Mr., preparing stones for drains,
i. 354.
on the relative expenses of drainage, i.383.
Robustness of constitution: see Live block.
Roller corn-bruiser, i. 561.
Roller, Crosskill's clod-crushing, ii. 352.
common, forms, and materials for, ii 146
Rolling after sowing, ii. 132.
grass-fields, ii 259.
Rolling, storing and packing fleeces, ii. 298.
Roosting- places for fowls, L 115.
Ropes, rein, ii 391.
for the cart, ii 392.
Roping for stacks, varieties of, ii. 396-399.
Rot in sheep, i. 477 ; ii 408.
alleged cure ot by salt, i. 453
Rotherham plow, i. 253-
Roville agricultural institution, L 47.
Rusky, or seed-basket, ii 128
Rye, botanical classification of. ii. 38.
chemical composition of, ii. 38.
its straw, ii 42.
manure for, ii 39.
reaping of, ii 379.
Rye crop of the United States, ii. 38.
Rye-grass, cultivation for seed, ii 336.
Italian, peculiarities of, i. 22.
Saddle-horses, treatment of, i. 562
breaking-in, ii 359.
proper age, ii. 360 ^
Salt for the rot in sheep, i. 453.
mode of purifying, ii. 312
Salting butter, ii 311.
Sample grain-market, ii. 52 — AdTaotag;eB and
disadvantages, ii 52-3.
Sandy soils, definition of, i 215.
loams, i 216
Scab in sheep, treatment of, i 457.
Scarscment on hedge-bank, i. 240.
Scarifier or grubber, ii 207.
Finlayson's ii. 207.
Kirk wood's, ii. 209.
the common Drill, ii. 324.
'Wilkie's. i. 335.
Schools, Agricultural, i. 25. 41, 42.
Sciences, the Physical, and Agricnlture, i. 15.
value of, to the farmer, i. 59.
Scoop, the bog-drain, i. 322.
the earth drain, i. 352.
Scot. Mr., on larch tube, draining i. 382.
Scotland, Agricultural Society of, i. 25.
Scott, Mr , on feeding horses, i. 548.
Scuffling-plow, ii 333.
Scythe, the patent, for hay, ii. 282.
cutting grain with the, ii. 376.
advantages over the sickle, iL 379.
variou.s forms of, ii. 376. 386.
Seasotis, fall of rain in the, i. 189.
the Agricultural, i. 15, 16.
Sea-ware for manure, ii 66.
its composition, ii. 67.
way in which applied, ii. 67.
Sea-water, freezing of. i. 196.
Seed-wheat, preparation for sowing, ii. 126.
choosing, ii. 28.
marks of good, ii. 28.
preparation for autumn-sowing.ii.418.
saving effected by dibbling. &c..ii.4 19.
process of germination in, ii. 421.
Seed-basket, the English, ii. 128.
Seeds, germination of. ii. 177.
necessity of water and air, ii. 177-8.
■ effects of good and bad plowing, ii. 178.
effects of good and bad sowing, ii. 178.
Selection of parents in breeding live-stock
ii. 433.
Selles, Marcel de, on the Migration of Animals,
i. 208.
Shallow plowing, when admissible, i. 402.
Share of the East Lothian plow, i. 256, 259.
of the Lanarkshire, i. 262, 264.
of the Mid-Lothian, i. 267, 269.
nature of its action, i. 273.
Shearing sheep, ii. 289.
Shed for carts, form. <5cc i. 114.
Sheep. providinL' winter food for, i. 421.
cost of feeding on turnips, i. 436.
Tumip-slicers for, i. 470, 472, 475.
Diseases in Winter, i. 476.
in Summer, ii. 297.
in Autumn, ii. 408.
Purging, i. 476.
Parasites, i. 476.
Scab, i. 477.
Foot-rot, i. 477.
Wildfire, i. 477.
Braxy. i. 477.
Scald-head. ii. 297.
Rot, ii. 408.
Pining, ii. 409
Feeding, on turnips, i. 442
on rape, i 455.
the ewes in lamb, i. 454.
INDEX.
XIII
Sheep, Hurdles for confining, i. 443.
Nets, and setting them up, i. 444.
precaution to be observed, i. 446.
selection for putting on turnips, i. 447.
explanation of names given them, i. 448.
strav^ or hay rack lor, i. 449.
turnip-trougli for, i. 450.
mode of arranging,&c. on turnip-field,i.451.
separate feeding of the tups, i. 452.
oil-cake or grain-box for, i. 453, 476.
alleged benefit of salt, i. 453.
shelter for, while on turnips, i. 455.
movable sheds for. i. 456-7.
fixed sheds at the steading, i. 457.
advantages of these modes, i. 457.
breeds for different localities i. 458.
on pastoral and hill farms, i. 460.
various forms of Stells for, i. 461,463, 465.
Driving and Slaughtering, i. 478.
best time for driving, i. 478.
way of marking, i. 479.
proper length of day's journey, &c. i. 480.
qualifications of the drover, i. 481.
Marketing them, i. 482.
rules of the market, i. 482.
deposition of fat on, i. 483.
judging of tlieir condition, i. 484.
Slaughtering them, i. 486.
modes of cutting up, i. 48
merits of the various parts, i. 488.
characteristics of the flesh, i. 489.
best age for killing, i. 489-90.
kinds preferred at different markets, i. 490.
shipping them to cities, i. 490.
superiority of steam convejance for, i. 491.
Meat and Otfal, quantity of, i. 492.
loss sustained in cooking, i. 492.
curing into Hams, i. 492.
preparation of the Suet, i. 493.
— ^ uses of its parts, i. 493. -.'
constitution of its skin, i. 494
Grazing of, ii. 274.
Feeding them in Summer, ii. 285.
Washing them, ii. 287.
pool for it, ii. 287-8.
Shearing them, ii. 289-93.
appearance of, when new-clipped, ii. 294.
Weaning the Lamb. ii. 295.
Marking and buisting them, ii. 296.
Management of, in Autunir, ii. 403.
Drafting ewes, &c. for sale, ii. 403-404.
Tupping of the ewes. ii. 404.
Total number of. in Great Britain, ii. 304.
the Merino breed, ii. 304.
Points to be cultivated, ii. 447.
examples of these, ii. 448.
the Leicester, ii. 448.
the Cheviot, ii. 449.
the South-Down, ii. 449.
the Black-faced, ii. 450.
Sheep-cots, disadvantages of, i. 463.
Sheep-farms: see Pastoral Farms.
Sheep-flakes, making of, i. 466.
Sheep-hurdles, making, i. 443, 467.
setting up. i. 468.
Sheep-nets, working of, i. 470.
Shelter, importance of, i. 243, 458.
■ advantage of, in grazing, ii. 276.
Shepherd, duties of the, i. 161.
his general qualifications, ii. 168.
ordinary wages and allowances, ii, 49.
duties in the lambing-season, ii. 155.
the skillful and the unskillful, ii. 155.
number of ewes he can attend, ii. 167.
the Hill, qualifications of, ii 168.
Shepherd's crook, uses of, ii. 164.
Shepherd's dog, training, &c. ii. 172.
Shepherd's dog, varieties of. ii. 173.
instruction of, ii. 174.
ShirrefF, Mr. on the Potato failure, ii. 204.
Shoeing draught colts, ii. 216.
Shoulder-drain, the, i. 378.
Shovel, the ditcher's, i 231.
the broad-mouthed, i. 321.
the lime or frying-pan, i. 356.
Sickle, forms of, ii. 385-6.
Sinclair, Sir John, breeding stock in histime,i.65
Skinner breed of hogs, the, ii. 9.
Slating of the steading, i. 143.
specifications of, cost, &c. i. 151.
Slaughtering cattle, i. 486.
sheep, i. 532.
Slight. Mr., his new mould-board, i. 284.
Slinking or slipping the calf, ii. 86.
its causes, ii. 86.
prevention of it, ii. 87.
Small's, or East-Lothian plow, i. 253-256.
Smith. Mr., his subsoil plow, i 408, 418.
his reaping-machine, ii. 384.
Smith-work of the steading, i 149, 151.
Smithy, advantage of, on the steading, i. 121.
Snow, nature of, i 192.
its various forms, i. 192.
storms during spring, ii. 76.
Snow-harrow and plow, ii. 171.
Sock of plows : see Share.
Sod-draining, i. 380.
tools used for. i. 380. .
Soiling and pasturing cattle, ii. 283.
Soils and subsoils, i 213.
importance of an acquaintance with, i. 213
Characters of the different, i. 214-216.
the pure clay, i. 214.
the sandy clay, i 215.
the clay -loam, i. 215.
the pare sand, i 21.5.
the gravelly, i 216
sandy and gravelly loams, i. 216.
Definition of, i. 217.
effects of the subsoil on the soil, i. 217.
Terms applied to them, i. 218.
their colors, i. 219.
geological relations, i. 220, 221.
agencies by which produced, i. 220.
causes preventing accumulation, i. 221.
scientific definition of, i. 222.
mechanical analysis of. i. 223.
Stones in, their purposes, i 223.
Chemical constituents, i 224.
Liebig's analyses of, i. 225.
Sole-shoe of Small's plow, i 260.
of the Lanarkshire, i. 265.
of the Mid-Lothian, i. 269
South-Down sheep, ii. 449.
Sow, farrowing, ii. 217.
sty for her, ii 218.
necessity of attending in parturition, ii. 219.
food for her after it, ii. 220.
Diseases of; treatment, ii. 221.
number to be kept on the farm, ii. 222.
Insects infesting, ii. 13.
Sowing spring-wheat and grass-seeds, ii. 125.
of oats. ii. 148.
of barley seed, ii. 174.
by drill, i 150.
by hand, how done, i. 130.
effects of good and bad on seed, i. 179.
of Turnips, manyel-wurzel. &c. ii. 252.
Sowing-sheet and basket, ii. 129.
Sowing-machine for grass-seeds, ii. 134.
for grain, ii 142.
in tiie United States, i. 31.
Pennock's improved, i. 31.
SovvTi and natural grasses compared, ii. 336.
XIV
INDEX.
Spade, the narrow drain, i. 352.
the done, ii. 61.
Spaying, effect of, ii. 107.
Spottiswoode. improvement of by draining,].;
Spirit-level, nses of, i. 362.
Sprinp and Winter: contrasted, ii. 76.
the weather dorine. ii. 77-8.
farm operations of, ii. 79.
Spring wheat, eielection of, ii. 137.
sowing with grass seeds, ii. 125.
preparing tlie land for. ii. 126.
preparation of the seed, ii 126.
Spring-water, impurities of, i. 135.
Springs, origin of, i. 313.
on a uniform surface, i. 313.
on a varied ditto, i. 314.
appearances of soil, explained, i. 307.
Stable-forks, i 5-13.
lantern, i. .')44.
Stables for workhorses, i. 90.
proper flooring for, i 93.
roofing and ventilating, i. 95.
for riding-horses, i. 96.
the windows, i 10.5.
should be dry. i 98.
Stacks, thatchins of, ii. 393.
roping, modes of, ii. 394.
Covering in wet weather, ii. 399.
Stack-yard, position, &c. i. 80.
arrangement of, L 116.
Stacking grain, ii. 389.
staihels for. i 116.
stools for, ii 390.
building the stacks, ii. 390.
Stallion and the mare, ii. 280.
points to be cultivated, ii. 440.
Stalls for the work-horses, i. 94, 199.
■ ■ for cows, i. 99.
Starch, manufacture of, ii. 33.
Stathel for stacks, ii. 116.
Steading, description of, i. 78.
best situation for, i. 78.
should be complete, i. 79.
causes of defects, i. 81.
description of the.=e, L 82.
ground-plan of, i. 83.
a propo.sed. i. 84.
advantages compared, i. 85.
importance of draining, i. 118.
modifications of, i. 121.
beet mode of contrasting, i. 122.
for pastoral farms, i. 123.
a carse farm, i. 124.
a dairy farm, i. 124.
origin of the quadrangular, i. 125.
specifications connected with, i. 126.
diggine its foundations, i. 128.
the walls, i. 127.
the doors, comers. &c. i. 127.
onlside walls, and stairs, i. 129.
the floors, i. 129.
supply of water, i. 134.
building-stone for, i. 136.
its wood-work, i 138.
kinds of wood employed, i. 140.
the plumber-work, i. 143.
slating, i. 143.
plastering, i. 145.
• glazing, i. 146.
painting, i. 146.
measurements and prices, i. 148-152.
Steam, facility of transportation by, i. 67.
Steam-engine, position, Sec. of, i. 89.
Steaming apparatus for turnips, &c. L 555.
Steeping flax. ii. 366.
6tell8,varioae forms of, for sbeep-farms,L461,'
with hav-racks, i. 465.
Stephens, Geo , on irrigated meadows. L 71-75.
Stephenson, Mr., on feeding cattle i. 519.
Steward, duties of, i. 159.
wages of ii. 49.
Stock frrain market, ii. 52
advantages and disad%-antage8 of. ii. 53.
Stone for the steading, i. 136.
.Stone cheese-press, ii. 329.
Stone-ducts in drains, i 337
Stone-dykes, building of, ii. 353.
openings in, ii 357.
Stones, removing them from fields, ii. 259.
Stools for stacks, making, i. 116 ; it 390
Store for tnmips, i. 111.
for potatoes, i. 117.
Store-farming: see Pastoral Farms.
Storing potatoes, ii 412.
turnips, cabbage, &c. i. 421, 429.
of wool, i. 299.
Siathaven, fattening calves in, ii. 105.
Straw, composition of Wheat, ii. 41.
Barley, ii 42.
Oat and Rye, ii. 42.
Pease and Beans, ii. 42.
composition of. ii 43.
inattention usually paid to, ii. 43-4.
imjKirtance of its right management, iL 44.
its value, ii 44.
quantity of different crops, ii. 45.
Straw-barn, position of i. 80.
Straw-cutter, forms of. i. 549.
the Canadian, i. 550.
the Cylinder, i. 551.
the Disk, i 555.
Straw-racks, forms of. i 110.
iron, i. 111.
for sheep, i. 449.
Straw-ropes, twisting, ii. 401-2.
Implements for, ii. 402.
Street manure, ii. 207.
and stable dung, ii. 207.
Stubble ground, plowing, i. 394.
different ways of, i. 395.
Stubble-rake, the hand", ii. 388.
Student, hints to, i. 9, 10, 17, 18, 22, 74, 77. 191.
Sty for swine, i. 114.
for the brood-sow, ii. 218.
Subsoil, definition of, i. 217.
■ effect on the soil, i 217.
see also SoUg,
Subsoil-plowing, its objects, i. 408.
Smith's plow for it. i. 408, 418.
not always good, i. 410.
when injurious, i 410.
other plows for it, i. 412.
proposed modification, 412.
advantages from, i. 412.
compared with trenching, i. 416.
general remarks, i. 419.
Summer, characteristics of. ii. 240
phenomena of, ii. 240-1.
state of the weather, ii. 255-6.
farm-work during, ii. 248.
Summer-fallowing, ii. 346.
soils requiring, ii. 347.
nature of its action, ii. 351.
Surface-draining, i. 315.
Suters for plug-draining, i. 379.
Swedish mortar-cart, i. 137.
Swedish turnips, sowing, Ac. ii. 251.
Swine, driving and slaughtering, ii. 5.
treatment of the pigs, ii. 6-7.
cooked v» raw food for, ii. 6. i
best food for, ii. 6.
times to be fed, ii. 7.
names at different ages, ii. 7-8.
judging of their condition, ii. 8.
INDEX.
XV
Swine, troughs for them, ii. 9, 10.
Slaughtering-, ii. 10.
cutting up, ii. 11.
loss of flesh in cooking, ii. 11.
digesting their flesh, ii. 11.
pickling, ii. 11.
curing the hams, ii. 11.
composition of the Fat, ii. 12.
uses of do., ii. 12.
the skin, bristles, &c. ii. 12.
experiments in feeding, ii. 12.
Diseases of, ii 12.
Insects infesting, ii 12, 13.
points to be cultivated, ii 431, 452.
examples of this, ii. 452.
in America, ii. 5, 8.
Mac key breed of, ii. 8.
the Skinner breed, ii. 9.
American treatment of, ii. 219.
their usefulness ii. 219.
food for, ii. 219.
Swing-trees for the plow, i 390.
for two horses, i. 390.
for three, i. 391.
for four, i. 393, 394.
Symmetry of live-stock, ii. 428.
Sympiesometer, its uses, i. 168.
Taint in potatoes, ii. 203.
Tank for liquid manure, i. 119.
cost, &c. of, i. 119. 152 ; ii. 65.
farms where required, ii. 64.
maiyire, De Rham on, i. 153.
Tar manufacture, i. 142.
importation of, i. 142.
Tartarian oat, ii. 148.
Teddingmachines described, ii. 337.
the English, ii. 342.
Teeth of domesticated animals, ii. 452.
indications of age from, ii. 453.
of the Horse, ii. 453.
in the Ox, ii. 454.
in the Wild Boar, ii. 454.
Templemoyle, Agricul. Seminary at, i. 41.
Ten-hour system of labor, i 541.
Thaer, Von, his School at Moeglin, i. 46.
Thatching hay-stacks, ii. 339.
corn-stacks, ii. 394-9.
Thermometer, the, i. 168.
history and uses of. i. 169.
the self-registering, i. 169.
Thermometrical observations, i. 209.
Thorn-hedges, planting of, i 226.
season for, i 227.
how made, i. 228.
implements used for, i. 228-30.
choosing the plants, i. 230.
planting in the shrubberies, &c. i.2H.
turffences to, i. 242-3.
see also Hedges.
Thorough-draining, objects, &c. i. 322.
depths of drains, i. 333.
necessity of ducts, i. 337.
the main drains, i. 339.
the small drains, i. 342, 343, 352.
distance between drains, i. 345, 367.
the run of the drains, i. 347
cutting them, i. 351
tools used for, i 351.
filling them in, i. 353.
materials used for. i. 353-4.
preparation of stones for, i. 353.
a stone-drain, dimensions. &c. i. 357-8.
the sub-main drains, i. 367.
a tile and sole drain, i. 371.
plan of a tliorough-d rained iield, i.372.
Tliorough-draining, the tiles for, i. 359.
Elxaniples of profit of, i 375.
the flat stone drain, i. 377.
the peat-tile, i 377.
the clay-land shoulder, i 378.
the plug or wedge, i. 379.
the sod drain, i 380.
by the mole plow, i. 381.
with larch-tubes, i. 382.
with brushwood, i. 382.
durability of brick, i. 382,
cutting, with the plow, i. 383.
Principles on which necessary, i.384.
Threshing, by the hand flail, ii 345.
Threshing-machine, i. 80.
position, &c. of i. 80.
Throw-crook, ii. 395.
description of, ii. 402.
Thunder-storms, ii. 242.
their prevalence in Summer, ii. 252.
Tile-draining, i. 359.
the ducts, i. 338.
the main drains, i. 339.
the small drains, i 342, 352.
the main-drain tiles, i. 359.
necessity for the sole, i 359.
size and form of tiles, i. 360.
number on an acre, i 361.
junction of the tiles, i. 362.
laying them down, i 363.
fixing and covering i. 365.
size of the tiles, i 368.
soles for small drains, i. 368.
laying these down, i. 368.
filling the drains, i. 369.
view of a tile drain completed, 1. 371.
see Draining, Thorough Drain-
ing, SfC.
Tiling of roofs, i. 134.
Timber, preserving from dry-rot, i. 141.
proper season for felling, ii. 76.
Training and working the shepherd dog, ii. 172.
Transplanting, sowing wheat by, ii. 419.
Transporting produce by steam, i. 67.
Treatment of domestic animals, i. 540.
Trees for hedges in America, i. 227.
Trenching with the spade, i. 408.
early use of the spade, i. 408
substitution of the plow, i. 408.
Trenching, objects, &c. i. 414.
with the spade, i. 414.
expense of it, i. 415.
with the plow, i. 415.
effects on the soil, i. 416.
compared with subsoil-plowing, i. 416.
advantage derived from, i. 419.
Troughs for pigs, ii. 9, 10.
■ turnip, for cattle, i. 110.
water, i. 111.
Trowel, for laying tile-soles, i. 364
Tups, separate feeding of, i. 452.
serving the ewes by, ii. 404.
Turkeys, management in winter, ii. 15.
management while hatching, ii. 227.
treatment of the young, ii. 227.
Turnips, preparing dung for, ii. 183.
sowing of ii. 250-2.
preparation of the ground for, ii. 250.
plowing, dunging, &c. ii. 250-1.
best varieties of, ii. 251.
drill and broadcast sowing of, ii. 252.
raising them by bone-dust, ii. 253.
store for. i. Ill
position of the store, i. 111.
proportions to be eaten, i. 423.
stripping the ground of, i. 424.
carting them, i. 427-8.
XVI
INDEX.
Turnips, pulling, toppine: au<\ tailing, i. 425.
best weather Cor renioving, i. 428.
the triangular store, i. 4.30.
tilling and coveripig it, i. 430.
other ways of storing, i. 430.
Varieties of. i. 432.
the White Globe, i. 432.
the Yellow, i. 433.
the Swedish, i. 434.
remarkable Crops, i. 434.
superiority of the Swedish, i. 43.5.
specific gravity of the different kinds, i. 436
nutritive matter of, i. 436.
ordinary prices per acre, i. 436.
hybrid varieties, i. 437.
protection of during snow, i. 437.
illustrations of badly formed, i. 438.
Number of roots per acre, i. 439.
examples of heavy crops, i. 440.
their History, i. 4-io.
• introduction and cultivation, i. 440.
feeding sheep on, in winter, i. 440.
best form of picker, i. 442.
Trough, for sheep-feeding, i. 450.
Slicers, i. 470. 473. 475.
Feeding Cattle on, i. 495.
wire- basket for, i. 499.
slicing and cleaning, i. 503.
apparatus for steaming, i 556.
Turnip-drill, history of. ii 258.
Turnip-picker, i. 45o.
Turnip slicers for sheep, i 470, 473, 475.
for Cattle, i. 511.
Turnip stemmed cabbage, i. 441.
Turnip-troughs for Cattle, 1. 110.
for Sheep, i. 450.
Turn-wrest snow-plow, ii 171.
Tutors, agricultural, i 40: see Ag. Scliools.
Two furrow plow, i. 405.
Twisters of straw-ropes, ii. 402.
u
Udder of the cow, ii. 98.
structure of, ii. 98-9.
— - Diseases of, in Summer, ii. 277.
United States, mountain ranges of, i. 65.
grazing districts of, i. 65.
mixed farming in, i. 68.
iron on farms in, i. 97.
climate of, i. 198-9.
Grain produce of, ii. 25, 34. 38, 41.
Laboring population of, ii. 45.
—' Applicability of the Book of the
Faum to: see Book of the Farm,
Observaliotis of Am. Ed.
Upper-barn, plan, &c. i. 106.
V
Vapor, quantities of, in the air, i. 187.
Vegetation as a source of electricity, i. 180.
Ventilators for the stable, i. 95.
Vermin, preserving barn-floors from, i. 88.
Veterinary Colleges, i. 43.
• the London, i. 43.
the Edinburgh, i. 43.
Von Thaer, M. agricultural institution of, i. 45.
w
Waddell, Mr. construction of floors bv, i. 129.
Wages of farm-servants, ii. 45.
of the plowman, ii. 46.
when living in bothies, ii. 47-8
of the steward and shepherd, ii. 49.
of the hedger. ii. 49.
of the cattle-man, ii. 49.
of the field-worker, ii 50.
Walton, Mr. on breeding the Alpaca, ii. 451.
Walker, Mr. experiments in feeding cattle, i.517
on feeding pigs, ii. 12.
Warnes, Mr. mode of feeding cattle, i. 516.
Washing sheep, ii. 286-7.
Water, supply of. for the farm, i. 132.
causes and cure of its hardness, i. 135.
supplying cattle with, i. 112.
great expansion, when freezing, i. 196.
agency of, in forming soils, i. 219.
preventing its lodgment, i. 238.
sources of supei-fluous, i. 313.
efl^ect on germination, ii. 178.
Water-furrowing, ii. 136.
Watering-pots for stock, ii. 275.
mode of constructing, tec. ii. 275, 358.
Water-meadows, management of in winter, i.71
Weaning calves, ii. 266, 270.
Weather, instruments for indicating, i. 165-174
the Barometer, i 166.
Sympiesometer, i. 168.
Thermometer, i. 1 68.
Hygrometer, i. 171.
Weathercock, i. 172.
Anemometer, i. 173.
Rain-guage, i. 174.
indications from the Clouds, i. 175-80.
agency of electricity, i. 180.
indications of from the Aurora Borealis
i. 185.
other atmospheric phenomena, i. 185.
in \Vinter, general uncertainty of, i. 76.
in Spring, ii. 76.
in Summer, ii. 240.
in Autumn, ii. 363.
Wedge •r plug draining, i. 378. *
Wedgewood's table-churn, ii. 323.
Weighing wool. ii. 300.
Weight of fat oxen, rules, ii. 267.
fallacy of these rules, ii. 269.
Wells, Dr. his theory of dew, ii. 242.
W'ells. sinking of, on the farm, i. 132.
W'est Highland ox, ii. 445.
Wheat, spring, sowing of, ii. 125.
classification by the ear, ii. 26.
by the grain, ii 27.
judging of quality, color, &c. ii. 28.
kinds for various purposes, ii. 28-9.
the best for seed, ii. 28.
detection of dama.ged, ii. 28-30.
preserving in granaries, ii. 28.
grinding of, ii. 29.
flour and bran, ii. 29.
chemical composition, ii. 31.
microscopic structure, ii. 32.
nutritive matter in, ii. 33.
manufacture of Starch from, ii. 33.
Straw of, ii. 41.
Varieties of, ii. 137.
Cutting, i. 17 ; ii. 382.
Prof. Johnston on the Gluten of, i. 31.
proper ripeness for cutting, ii. 382.
Cutting of, ii. 373.
Carrying in and Stacking, ii. 388.
Weight of Grain. Straw, Ice. ii. 382.
Autumn, sowing of, ii. 416.
plowing, (See. the land, ii. 416-17.
various modes of this, ii. 417.
thorough-draining for it, ii. 418.
preparation of the seed, ii. 418.
sowing by dibbling, <5cc. ii. 419.
and by transplanting, ii. 419.
expense, and saving of seed, ii. 420.
the process of germination, ii. 421.
W^heeled plow, the, i. 404.
"^Vheeled turnip-slicer, for sheep, i. 473.
Wildfire, a di.sease in sheep, i. 477.
treatment of, i. 477
IKDEX.
XVI.
Wilkie's drill-grubber and harrow, ii. 335.
horse-hoe, ii. 336.
plow, i. 2r.5, 262.
"Wilson, Dr. on Drainage, i. 375.
Windows for stables, i. 105.
for byres, i. 105.
for the granary, i. 107.
Winds, relation of to rain, i. 190.
influence on weather in Summer, ii. 246.
Winsboro',Grov.,and the cattle of N.Eng'd.i 207
Winter, farm operations in, i. 74.
importance of these, i 74.
uncertainty of weather in, i. 76.
arrangement of field-work, i 301.
wheat, sowing, &c. ii 416.
Wire field-gates, ii. 265.
turnip-basket, i 499.
Womb of the cow, the, ii. 84.
Wood, Kyanizing, i. 141.
^'ood floor for the corn-barn, 1. 87.
r— advantages of, i. 87.
preserving it from vermin, i. 88
Wood-paving, advantages of, i. 130.
various kinds, i. 130.
comparative expense, i. 131.
Wood-work of the steading, i 138.
measurement and cost, i.l38, 148,15 J
Wool, washing, ii. 298.
clipping, ii. 298
storing, weighing. &c. ii. 298.
qualities of, ii. 301.
effects of fattening on its qusility, ii. 302.
chemical analysis of, ii. 303.
microscopic examination, ii. 303.
causes of its felting, ii. 303-4.
Wool-room, plan and description of, i. 106-7
Wool-shears, ii. 289.
Working the shepherd's dog, ii. 172.
Y
Year, agricultural, divisions of, i. 15.
Yeast for baking, ii. 31.
Yoking horses to the plow, i. 386.
the young draught-cojt, ii. 215.
to the cart, ii 216
Youatt, Mr., observations on wool, ii. 303
Zinc, employment for roofing, i. 143.
Zones of the earth, the. i. 201.
Zoology, value of a study of, i. 61.
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